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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume
+9, by Various, Edited by Rossiter Johnson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 9
+
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Rossiter Johnson
+
+Release Date: August 17, 2008  [eBook #26337]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS
+HISTORIANS, VOLUME 9***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 26337-h.htm or 26337-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/3/3/26337/26337-h/26337-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/3/3/26337/26337-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS HISTORIANS
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+A COMPREHENSIVE AND READABLE ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY. EMPHASIZING
+THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS. AND PRESENTING THESE AS COMPLETE NARRATIVES
+IN THE MASTER-WORDS OF THE MOST EMINENT HISTORIANS
+
+NON-SECTARIAN            NON-PARTISAN            NON-SECTIONAL
+
+ON THE PLAN EVOLVED FROM A CONSENSUS OF OPINIONS GATHERED FROM THE MOST
+DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS OF AMERICA AND EUROPE. INCLUDING BRIEF
+INTRODUCTIONS BY SPECIALISTS TO CONNECT AND EXPLAIN THE CELEBRATED
+NARRATIVES. ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY. WITH THOROUGH INDICES,
+BIBLIOGRAPHIES, CHRONOLOGIES, AND COURSES OF READING
+
+EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
+
+ROSSITER JOHNSON, LL.D.
+
+ASSOCIATE EDITORS
+
+CHARLES F. HORNE, Ph.D. JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
+
+With a staff of specialists
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry VIII, during the festivities at Guines--"The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold"--in courtly dance with one of the French Queen's
+ladies-in-waiting
+
+Painting by Adolph Menzel]
+
+
+
+The National Alumni
+
+Copyright, 1905,
+by The National Alumni
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+
+                                                             PAGE
+_An Outline Narrative of the Great Events_,                  xiii
+  CHARLES F. HORNE
+
+_Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany (A.D. 1517)_,         1
+  JULIUS KOESTLIN
+  JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+_Negro Slavery in America_
+_Its Introduction by Law (A.D. 1517)_,                         36
+   SIR ARTHUR HELPS
+
+_First Circumnavigation of the Globe (A.D. 1519)_
+_Magellan Reaches the Ladrones and Philippines_,               41
+  JOAN BAUTISTA
+  ANTONIO PIGAFETTA
+
+_The Field of the Cloth of Gold (A.D. 1520)_,                  59
+  J. S. BREWER
+
+_Cortés Captures the City of Mexico (A.D. 1521)_,              72
+  WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+_Liberation of Sweden (A.D. 1523)_,                            79
+  ERIC GUSTAVE GEIJER
+
+_The Peasants' War in Germany (A.D. 1524)_,                    93
+  J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNÉ
+
+_France Loses Italy (A.D. 1525)_
+_Battle of Pavia_,                                            111
+  WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+_Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops (A.D. 1527)_,            124
+  BENVENUTO CELLINI
+  T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+
+_Great Religious Movement in England_
+_Fall of Wolsey (A.D. 1529)_,                                 137
+  JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+_Pizarro Conquers Peru (A.D. 1532)_,                          156
+  HERNANDO PIZARRO
+  WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+_Calvin is Driven from Paris (A.D. 1533)_
+_He Makes Geneva the Stronghold of Protestantism_,            176
+  A. M. FAIRBAIRN
+  JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+_England Breaks with the Roman Church (A.D. 1534)_
+_Destruction of Monasteries_,                                 203
+  JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+_Cartier Explores Canada (A.D. 1534)_,                        236
+  H. H. MILES
+
+_Mendoza Settles Buenos Aires (A.D. 1535)_,                   254
+  ROBERT SOUTHEY
+
+_Founding of the Jesuits (A.D. 1540)_,                        261
+  ISAAC TAYLOR
+
+_De Soto Discovers the Mississippi (A.D. 1541)_,              277
+  JOHN S. C. ABBOTT
+
+_Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus (A.D. 1543)_,          285
+  SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL
+
+_Council of Trent and the Counter-reformation (A.D. 1545)_    293
+  ADOLPHUS W. WARD
+
+_Protestant Struggle against Charles V_
+_The Smalkaldic War (A.D. 1546)_,                             313
+  EDWARD ARMSTRONG
+
+_Introduction of Christianity into Japan (A.D. 1549)_,        325
+  JOHN H. GUBBINS
+
+_Collapse of the Power of Charles V (A.D. 1552)_
+_France Seizes German Bishoprics_,                            337
+  LADY C. C. JACKSON
+
+_The Religious Peace of Augsburg (A.D. 1555)_
+_Abdication of Charles V_                                     348
+  WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+_Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India (A.D. 1556)_,    366
+  J. TALBOYS WHEELER
+
+_Universal Chronology (A.D. 1517-1557)_                       385
+  JOHN RUDD
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+_Henry VIII during the festivities at Guines_--"_The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold_"--_in courtly dance with one of
+the French Queen's ladies-in-waiting_ (_page 63_),        Frontispiece
+  Painting by Adolph Menzel.
+
+_Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the Estates_,     79
+  Painting by L. Hersent.
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE NARRATIVE
+
+TRACING BRIEFLY THE CAUSES, CONNECTIONS, AND CONSEQUENCES OF
+
+THE GREAT EVENTS
+
+(THE REFORMATION: REIGN OF CHARLES V)
+
+CHARLES F. HORNE
+
+
+Our modern world begins with the Protestant Reformation. The term itself
+is objected to by Catholics, who claim that there was little real
+reform. But the importance of the event, whether we call it reform or
+revolution, is undenied. Previous to 1517 the nations of Europe had
+formed a single spiritual family under the acknowledged leadership of
+the Pope. The extent of the Holy Father's authority might be disputed,
+especially when he interfered in affairs of state. Kings had fought
+against his troops on the field of battle. But in spiritual matters he
+was still supreme, and when reformers like Huss and Savonarola refused
+him obedience on questions of doctrine, the very men who had been
+fighting papal soldiers were shocked by this heretical wickedness. The
+heretics were burned and the wars resumed. When Alexander Borgia sat
+upon the papal throne for eleven years, there were even philosophers who
+drew from his very wickedness an argument for the divine nature of his
+office. It must be indeed divine, said they, since despite such
+pollution as his, it had survived and retained its influence.
+
+Some modern critics have even gone so far as to assert that for at least
+two generations before the Reformation the great majority of the
+educated classes had ceased to care whether the Christian religion were
+true or not. The Renaissance had so awakened their interest in the
+affairs of this world, its artistic beauties and intellectual advance,
+that they gave no thought to the beyond. But we approach controversial
+matters scarce within our scope. Suffice it to say that the Reformation
+brought religion once more into intensest prominence in all men's eyes,
+and that a large portion of the civilized world broke away from the
+domination of the Pope. Men insisted on judging for themselves in
+spiritual matters. Only after three centuries of strife was the
+privilege granted them. Only within the past century has thought been
+made everywhere free--at least from direct physical coercion. The last
+execution by the Spanish Inquisition was in 1826, and the institution
+was formally abolished in 1835.
+
+The era of open warfare and actual bodily torture between various sects
+all calling themselves Christian, thus extended over three centuries.
+These may be divided into four periods. The first is one of fierce
+dispute but little actual warfare, during which the revolt spread over
+Europe with Germany as its centre. An agreement between the contestants
+was still hoped for; the break was not recognized as final until 1555,
+when, by the Peace of Augsburg, the two German factions definitely
+agreed to separate and to refrain from interference with each other. Or
+perhaps it would be better to end the first period with 1556, when the
+mighty Emperor, Charles V, resigned all his authority, giving Germany to
+his brother, Ferdinand, who maintained peace there, while Spain passed
+to Charles' son, Philip II, most resolute and fanatic of Catholics.
+
+The second period began in 1558, when the Protestant queen, Elizabeth,
+ascended the throne of England. She and Philip of Spain became the
+champions of their respective faiths; the strife extended over Europe,
+and soon developed into bitter war. This spread from land to land, and
+finally returned to Germany as the awful Thirty Years' War.
+
+Then came the third period, during which the religious question was less
+prominent; but Catholic sovereigns like Louis XIV of France and James II
+of England still hoped by persecutions to force their subjects to
+reaccept the ancient faith. These aims were only abandoned with the
+downfall of Louis' military power before the armies of Marlborough and
+Eugene, early in the eighteenth century.
+
+During the final hundred years the stubborn contest was confined to the
+lands still Catholic, in which intellect, under such leaders as
+Voltaire, struggled with the superstition and prejudice of the masses,
+and demanded everywhere the freedom it at last attained.
+
+For the present we need look only to the first of these periods, that in
+which Germany holds the centre of the view.[1] It is an odd coincidence
+that at the outbreak of the Reformation all the chief states of Europe
+were ruled by sovereigns of unusual ability, but each one of them a man
+who obviously thought more of his ambitions, his pleasures, and his
+political plans than of his religion. Moreover, each of these rulers
+came to the throne before he was of age, and thus lacked the salutary
+training of a subordinate position; while, on the other hand, each of
+them, through varying causes, wielded a power much greater than that of
+any of his recent predecessors.
+
+
+RULERS OF EUROPE IN 1517
+
+Henry VIII of England was the first of these young despots to assume
+authority. Nine years older than the century, he became king in 1509 at
+the age of eighteen. His father, Henry VII, had, as we have seen,
+snatched power from an exhausted aristocracy. He had been what men
+sneeringly called a "tradesman" king, caring little for the show and
+splendor of his office, but using it to amass enormous sums of money by
+means not over-scrupulous. Young Henry VIII, handsome, dashing, and
+debonair, at once repudiated his father's policy, executed the ministers
+who had directed it, and was hailed as a liberator by his delighted
+people. They quite overlooked the fact that he neglected to restore the
+ill-gotten funds, and soon used them in establishing a far more vigorous
+tyranny than his father would have dared. Much is forgiven a youthful
+king if he be but brave and jovial and hearty in his manner. His
+blunders, his excesses of fury, are put down to his inexperience.
+Nations are ever yearning for a hero-ruler.
+
+In France a monarch of twenty years, Francis I, ascended the throne in
+1515, five years older then than the century. Henry of England had
+descended from a family of simple Welsh gentlemen, far indeed at one
+time from the crown; Francis I was also of a new line of kings, only a
+distant cousin of the childless Louis XII, whom he succeeded. "That
+great boy of Angoulême will ruin all," groaned Louis on his death-bed.
+Ruin the prosperity of France, he meant, for Louis had been a good and
+thoughtful king, cherishing his land and enabling it to rise to the
+height of wealth and power, justified by its natural resources and the
+ingenuity of its people.
+
+Francis, the "great boy," even more than his rival Henry, proved bent on
+being a hero. Like Maximilian of Germany, he sought to be known as the
+flower of knighthood. To win his ambition he also was possessed of youth
+and wealth, a gallant bearing, and a devoted people. He had intellect,
+too, and a love of art. He became the great patron of the later
+Renaissance. The famous artist Da Vinci died at his court, in his arms,
+legend says. Artists, literary men, flocked to his service. Paris became
+the intellectual centre of Europe. France snatched from Italy the
+supremacy of thought, of genius.
+
+Alas for the fickleness of untried youth! Henry seemed to promise his
+country freedom and he gave it tyranny. Francis promised his people
+glory--that is, honor and splendor. In the end he brought them shame and
+suffering. Charles V of Germany, youngest of this mighty trio, seemed by
+his wisdom to promise his subjects at least protection; and his reign
+produced anarchy.
+
+Charles, unlike his rivals, was almost born into power. His father died
+in the lad's babyhood; his mother went insane. His two grandfathers were
+the two mightiest potentates of Europe, Ferdinand the Wise of Spain, and
+Maximilian, head of the great Hapsburg house and Emperor of Germany.
+Neither had any nearer heir than little Charles. His father's position
+as ruler of the Netherlands was given him as a child, so that he was
+really a Fleming by education, a silent, thoughtful, secretive youth,
+far different from the jovial Henry or the brilliant Francis, but
+ambitious as either and more conscientious perhaps, a dangerous rival in
+the race for fame.
+
+Ferdinand died in 1515, and Charles became King of Spain, with all that
+the title included of power over the Mediterranean and Southern Italy,
+and all the vast new world of America. Charles was then fifteen, just
+the age of the century, nine years younger than Henry, five years
+younger than Francis. Amid the tumult of the opening Reformation in
+1519, the aged Maximilian also died, departed not unwillingly, one
+fancies, from an age whose intricacies had grown too many for his simple
+soul. The young King of Spain thus became lord of all the vast Hapsburg
+possessions of Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands and so on.
+
+He sought to be elected Emperor of Germany also, but here the matter was
+less easy. Already his rule extended over more of Europe than any
+sovereign had held since Charlemagne, and Europe took alarm. Henry and
+Francis both thrust in, each of them suggesting to the German electorial
+princes that he had claims of his own, and would make an emperor far
+more suitable than Charles. Henry polished up his German ancestry;
+Francis recalled that Germans and Frenchmen were both Franks, had been
+one mighty race under Charlemagne, and surely might become so once
+again--under his leadership, of course.
+
+The matter was really decided by a fourth party. The Turks had once more
+become a serious menace to Europe. During the brief reign of Sultan
+Selim the Ferocious (1512-1520) they crushed Persia and conquered Syria
+and Egypt. They seized the caliph, spiritual ruler of the Mahometan
+faith, and declared themselves heads of the Mahometan world. Triumphant
+over Asia, they were turning upon Europe with renewed energy. Hungary
+was at its last expiring gasp. Selim's death in 1520 did not stop the
+invaders, for his son Solyman, a youth of twenty-five, soon proved
+himself a fourth giant, fitted to be ranked with the three young rulers
+of the West. He also was a seeker after glory. History calls him the
+"magnificent," and holds him greatest among the Turkish rulers. It was
+certainly under him that the Turks advanced farthest into Europe, if
+that is to be established as the chief measure of Mahometan greatness.
+In 1526 Solyman utterly crushed the Hungarians at Mohacs. In 1529 he
+besieged Vienna; and though he failed to capture the Hapsburg capital,
+yet at a still later period he exacted from the German Emperor
+Ferdinand a money tribute. His fleets swept the Mediterranean.
+
+This increasing menace of the Turks was much considered by the German
+electors. At first they refused to add to the power of either of the
+three monarchs who so assiduously courted them. They chose instead the
+ablest of their own number, Frederick the Wise, Duke of Saxony. But
+Frederick proved his wisdom by refusing the task of steering Germany
+through the troublous seas ahead. He insisted on their electing some
+ruler strong enough to command obedience, and to gather all Europe
+against the Turks. So as Charles was after all a German, and of the
+Hapsburg race which had so long ruled them, they named him Emperor. He
+was Charles I of Spain, but Charles V of Germany. His rule extended over
+a wider realm than any monarch has since held.
+
+This success of their younger rival was very differently received by
+Henry and by Francis. The English King accepted the rebuff
+good-naturedly; perhaps he had never felt any real hope of success. But
+Francis was enraged. It was the first check he had met in a career of
+spectacular success. He invited Henry to their celebrated meeting at the
+Field of the Cloth of Gold[2] to plan an alliance and revenge. Henry
+came, but the silent Charles had already managed to enlist his interests
+by quieter ways; while Francis, by his ostentation and splendor,
+offended the bluff Englishman. So Henry kept out of the quarrel; but to
+Charles and Francis it became the main business of their lives. Their
+reigns thereafter are the story of one long strife between them, rising
+to such bitterness that at one time they passed the lie and challenged
+each other to personal combat, over which there was much bustling and
+bluster, but no result.
+
+To get a full view of this Europe of young men, that beheld the
+Reformation, we must note one other ruler farther north. Ever since the
+union of Colmar in 1397, Sweden had been more or less bound to Denmark,
+the strongest of the northern kingdoms. By the year 1520 the Danish
+monarch Christian had reduced the Swedes to a state of most cruel
+vassalage and misery. Only one young noble, Gustavus Vasa, a lad of
+twenty-three, still held out, and by adventures wild as those of Robin
+Hood evaded his enemies and at last roused his countrymen to one more
+revolt. It was successful, and in 1523 Gustavus, by the unanimous
+election of the Swedes, became the first of a new line of monarchs.[3]
+He proved as able as a king as he had been daring as an adventurer, and
+his long reign laid the foundation of Sweden's greatness in the
+following century. He early accepted the reformed religion, and thus it
+spread through the Far North almost without a check.
+
+
+THE REFORMATION
+
+The Reformation began in Germany in 1517, when the Saxon monk
+Luther--himself then only thirty-four years a sojourner upon our
+planet--protested against the Church's sale of indulgences. He was not
+alone in his protest, but only stood forth as the mouthpiece of many
+earnest men. His prince, that Frederick the Wise who afterward refused
+to be emperor, upheld him. Maximilian, dying in the early days of the
+dispute, had kind words of regard for the hero-monk. Even the Pope, Leo
+X, treated the matter amicably at first. He also was still in early
+life, having been made pope at thirty-six, an age quite as juvenile for
+the leadership of the spiritual world as that of the various temporal
+monarchs for theirs. Leo, being a member of the famous Medici family,
+was apparently more interested in art than in religion. He wanted to
+rebuild the gorgeous cathedral of St. Peter, and he did not want to
+quarrel with Germany. So also Charles V, desiring to be emperor, could
+scarce antagonize Frederick of Saxony, who could and did secure him his
+ambition.
+
+Thus in its earliest days Luther's revolt was handled very gently, and
+it spread with speed. Then Charles, secure upon his throne and gravely
+Catholic, resolved on firmer methods of stamping out the heresy. He
+summoned Luther to that famous interview at Worms (1521), where the
+reformer, threatened with outlawry and all the terror of the empire's
+power, refused to unsay his preaching, crying out in agony: "Here I
+stand! I can no other! God help me! Amen!"
+
+Charles in his shrewd, silent way saw that the matter was not to be
+settled so easily as he had hoped. Already half Germany was on
+Luther's side. Several leading nobles accompanied him as he left the
+Emperor's presence. Charles wanted their help against the Turks. So
+there was more temporizing. Then came war with Francis no tune this for
+quarrelling with obstinate Teutonic princes and their obstinate
+_protege_.
+
+The peasants of Germany did Luther's cause more harm than Charles had
+done. These ignorant and bitterly oppressed unfortunates, constituting
+everywhere, remember, the vast majority of the human race, heard
+impassioned preachings of reform, revolt. To them Rome seemed not the
+oppressor, but their immediate lords; and, thinking they were obeying
+Luther's behest, they rose in arms. Some of the more violent reformers
+joined them. Luther preached against the uprising, but it was not to be
+checked. Terrible were the excesses of the mobs of brutal peasantry, and
+all the upper classes of the land were forced in self-defence to turn
+against them and crush them. Many a noble who had once thought well of
+the reform, abandoned it in fear and horror at its consequences.[4]
+
+Meanwhile the war with France became more serious. The claims of both
+Charles and Francis to Italian lands made that unlucky country the
+theatre of their battles. Francis, with his compact domain and readily
+gathered resources, proved at first more than a match for the scattered
+forces and insecure authority of the Emperor. Never had the French
+monarch's fame stood higher than when in 1525, with an army made
+confident by repeated victories, he besieged Pavia. The city was the
+last important stronghold of Charles in Italy; it was reduced almost to
+surrender.
+
+Then came a fatal blunder. Francis confused the old ways with the new.
+The German generals had been hopeless of raising the siege, the imperial
+armies were on the point of disbanding, but as a last resort their
+leaders advanced and defied the enemy to fight on equal terms. Instead
+of laughing at the proposal as any modern leader would, Francis, in face
+of the protest of all his generals, accepted and in true chivalrous
+fashion fought the wholly unnecessary battle of Pavia. His forces were
+completely defeated, he himself made prisoner. "All is lost," he wrote
+home to France, "but honor." Even that too was lost, had he but
+known. Charles, unchivalrous, determined to make the most of his
+good-luck, and, for the release of his royal prisoner, demanded such
+terms as would make France little more than a subject state.[5]
+
+King Francis refused, threatened heroic suicide to save his country; but
+he wearied of captivity at last and descended to his rival's level. It
+was the tragic turning-point of the French monarch's life, the not
+wholly untragic turning-point of larger destinies, ancient chivalry
+being admitted unsuccessful and wholly out of date. The two monarchs
+dickered over the terms of release. Charles abated somewhat of his
+demands, and Francis was made free, having sworn to a treaty which he
+never meant to keep. He repudiated it on various pleas, and having thus
+sacrificed honor to regain something of all it had lost him, recommenced
+the strife with Charles on more equal terms.
+
+The Pope, not the Leo of earlier years, but Clement VII, another Medici,
+absolved Francis from his treaty oath. This benevolence can scarce be
+ascribed to religious grounds, for Charles was assuredly a better
+Catholic than Francis. But as a temporal ruler Clement feared to have in
+Italy a neighbor so powerful and unchecked as the Emperor was becoming.
+Charles had his revenge. A German army of "Lutheran heretics" marched
+into Italy swearing to hang the Pope to the dome of St. Peter's. They
+stormed Rome, sacked it with such cruelty as rivalled the barbarian
+plunderings of over a thousand years before; and if they did not hang
+Clement, it was only because his castle of St. Angelo proved too strong
+for their assaults. The marvellous art treasures which had been slowly
+garnered in Rome since the days of Nicholas V, were almost wholly
+destroyed.[6] Charles hastened to disclaim responsibility for this
+direct assault upon the head of his Church; but he did not relinquish
+any of the advantages it gave. He and the Pope arranged an alliance and
+the Imperial army turned from Rome against Florence, where Pope
+Clement's family, the Medici, had recently been expelled as rulers. The
+siege and capture of Florence (1529) mark almost the last fluttering of
+real independence in Italy. From that time the country remained in the
+grasp of the Hapsburgs or their heirs and allies. Petty tyrants, minions
+of Austria or Spain, ruled over the various cities. Their intellectual
+supremacy passed over to France. Only within the last half-century has a
+brighter day redawned for Italy, has she ceased to be what she was so
+long called, "the battle-ground" of other nations.
+
+Meanwhile since neither Pope nor Emperor had found time to offer any
+vigorous opposition to the German Reformation, it had grown unchecked.
+In its inception it had unquestionably been a pure and noble movement:
+but as the "protesting" princes moved further in the matter, it dawned
+on them that the suppression of the Roman Church meant the suppression
+of all the bishoprics and abbeys, to which at least half the lands of
+the empire belonged. Such an opportunity for plunder, and such easy
+plunder, had never been before. Luther and the other preachers urged
+that the church property should be used to erect schools and support
+Protestant divines; but only a small fraction of it was ever surrendered
+by the princes for these purposes. The Reformation had ceased to be a
+purely religious movement.
+
+In no country was this new aspect of the revolt so marked as in England.
+There Henry VIII had grown ever more secure in his power by holding
+aloof from the jangling that weakened Charles and Francis. He had sunk
+into a tyrant and a voluptuary. Yet England herself, profiting by almost
+half a century of peace, was progressing rapidly in culture. She was no
+longer behind her neighbors. The Renaissance movement can scarce be said
+to have begun in England before 1500, yet by 1516 her famous chancellor,
+Sir Thomas More, was writing histories and philosophies. In 1522 the
+King himself sighed for literary fame and gave opportunity for many
+future satirists by writing a Latin book against the Lutherans. The Pope
+conferred upon his royal champion a title, "Defender of the Faith."
+
+As Henry, however, devoted himself more and more to pleasure, the real
+power in England passed into the hands of his great minister Cardinal
+Wolsey, who had risen from humble station to be for a time the most
+influential man in Europe.[7] He even aspired to be pope, with what
+seemed assured chances of success. But destiny willed otherwise. Henry
+chanced to fall in love with a lady who insisted on his marrying her. To
+do this he had to secure from the Pope a divorce from his former Queen,
+who chanced to be an aunt of the Emperor Charles. What was poor Pope
+Clement to do? Offend Charles who was just helping him crush the
+Florentines, or refuse his "Defender of the Faith"? Real reason for the
+divorce there was none. Clement temporized: and Wolsey with one eye on
+his own future, helped him.
+
+The result was tempestuous. Wolsey was hurried to his tragic downfall.
+Henry took matters in his own hands and had his own English bishops
+divorce him. England joined the ranks of the nations denying the
+authority of Rome. Sir Thomas More and other nobles who refused to
+follow Henry's bidding were beheaded. Thomas Cromwell, a new minister,
+abler perhaps than even Wolsey, and risen from a yet lower sphere of
+life, directed England's counsel. By one act after another the break
+with Rome was made complete. A thousand monasteries were suppressed and
+their wealth added to the crown. Cromwell earned his name, "the hammer
+of the monks." In 1534 was passed the final "Act of Supremacy,"
+declaring that the King of England and he alone was head of the English
+Church.[8]
+
+In France, too, was heresy beginning to appear. The young scholar, Jean
+Calvin, wrote so vigorously against Rome that he was driven to flee from
+Paris, though King Francis was himself suspected of favoring the free
+thought of the reformers. Calvin, after many vicissitudes, settled in
+Geneva and built up there a religious republic, that became intolerant
+on its own account, and burned heretics who departed from its heresy.
+But at least Geneva was in earnest. Calvinism spread fast over France;
+it began crowding Lutheranism from parts of Germany. Geneva became the
+"Protestant Rome," the centre of the opposition from which ministers
+went forth to preach the faith.[9]
+
+Science also began to raise its head against the ancient Church. The
+Polish astronomer Copernicus had long since conceived his idea that the
+earth was not the centre of the universe. He even pointed out the
+proofs of his theory to a few brother-scientists; but the Church taught
+otherwise, so Copernicus kept silent till, on his death-bed, he let his
+doctrines be published in a book. Then he passed away, bequeathing to
+posterity the wonderful foundation upon which modern science has so
+built as to make impossible many of the over-literal teachings of the
+mediæval Church.[10]
+
+
+THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
+
+Nothing but a miracle, it seemed, could save the falling cause of Rome,
+and there have been men to assert that a miracle occurred. The order of
+the Jesuits was founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola.[11] His followers
+with intense fanaticism and self-abnegation devoted themselves
+absolutely to upholding the ancient faith, to trampling out heresy
+wherever it appeared. They sent out missionaries too, to the New World,
+to Asia, Africa, and even distant Japan. As Catholicism lost ground in
+Europe it extended over other continents.[12]
+
+Partly at least under Jesuit influence began the great
+"Counter-reformation," as it is called, the reform within the Church
+itself. Even the most faithful Catholics had admitted the need of this.
+Charles V had long urged the calling of a general council, and one
+finally assembled in 1545 at Trent. It even tried to win the Lutherans
+back peaceably into the fold, and, though this hope was soon abandoned,
+a very marked reform was established within the Church. This Council of
+Trent held sessions extending over nearly twenty years, and when its
+labors were completed the entire body of laws and doctrines of the Roman
+Catholic Church were fully established and defined.[13]
+
+The refusal of the Protestants to join the Council of Trent brought
+matters to a crisis. It placed them definitely outside the pale of the
+Church, and Charles V could no longer find excuse in his not
+over-troublous conscience, to avoid taking measures against them. They
+themselves realized this, and formed a league for mutual support, the
+Smalkald League; but it was never very harmonious. Thought, made
+suddenly free, could not be expected to run all in the same channel. The
+Protestants had divided into Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, and a
+dozen minor sects, some of which opposed one another more bitterly than
+they did the Catholics. Toleration was as yet a thing unknown.[14]
+
+The state of affairs was thus one peculiarly fitted for the genius of
+Charles, who managed so to divide the members of the league that only
+one of them, the Elector of Saxony, successor to Frederick the Wise, met
+the Emperor's forces in battle. He was easily overthrown. The league
+dissolved, and Charles, supported by his Spanish forces, was undisputed
+master of Germany. He used his power mildly, insisting indeed on the
+Protestants returning to the Church, but promising them many of the
+reforms they demanded.
+
+This was the moment of Charles' greatest power (1547). His ancient
+rivals Henry and Francis both died in this year, the one sunk in sensual
+sloth, the other in shame and gloom and savage cruelty. In his hatred of
+Charles, Francis had even in his latter years allied himself with
+Solyman the Magnificent, and encouraged the Turks in their assault on
+Germany. Henry's crown fell to a child, Edward VI; that of Francis, to
+his son, another Henry, the second of France, a young man apparently
+immersed in sports and pleasures. The Turks had been defeated by
+Charles' fleets in the Mediterranean. The Council of Trent, at first
+refractory, seemed yielding to his wishes. Spain, where at one time he
+had faced a violent revolt against his absolutism, was now wholly
+submissive. Germany seemed equally overcome. The Emperor was at the
+summit of his ambitions. Europe lay at his feet.
+
+In 1552, with the suddenness of an earthquake, the Protestant princes of
+Germany burst into a carefully planned revolt.[15] Maurice, another
+member of the Saxon house, was their leader. Charles, caught unprepared,
+had to flee from Germany, crossing the Alps in a litter, while he
+groaned with gout. Henry of France, in alliance with the rebels,
+proclaimed himself "Defender of the Liberties of Germany," and invading
+the land, began seizing what cities and strong places he could. The
+princes, amazed at their own complete success, sent Henry word that
+their liberties were now fully secured, and he might desist. But he
+concluded to keep what he had won. So began the series of aggressions by
+which France gradually advanced her frontier to the Rhine.
+
+Charles returned with an army the next year, and made peace with his
+Germans, that he might turn all his fury against Henry, who had thus
+assumed his father's unforgotten quarrel. A mighty German army laid
+siege to Henry's most valuable bit of spoils, the strong city of Metz.
+But the young French nobles, under Francis, Duke of Guise, a new, great
+general who had risen to the help of France, threw themselves gallantly
+into the fortress for its defence. Cold, hunger, and pestilence wasted
+the imperial troops until--one can scarce say they raised the siege,
+they disappeared, those who did not die had slunk away in fear before
+the grisly death. Charles accepted his fate with bitter calm, commenting
+that he saw Fortune was indeed a woman, she deserted an aged emperor for
+a young king.
+
+The Emperor's life had failed. He had not the heart to begin his plots
+again. In 1555 he consented to the Peace of Augsburg,[16] which granted
+complete liberty of faith to the German princes, and so ended the first
+period of the Reformation. Religion, in this celebrated treaty, was
+still regarded as a matter in which only monarchs were to be considered.
+By a peculiar obliquity of vision, the princes denied to their subjects
+the very thing they demanded for themselves. Each ruler was allowed to
+establish what creed he chose within his own domains, and then to compel
+his subjects to accept it.
+
+The following year (1556) Charles with solemn ceremony resigned all his
+kingdoms--Austria and the Empire to his brother, Spain to his son the
+celebrated Philip II. Charles himself retired to a Spanish monastery,
+where two years later he died. He had found life a vanity, indeed.
+
+
+THE OTHER CONTINENTS
+
+Of the world of Asia during this time it scarce seems necessary to
+speak. The Tartars or Mongols, driven back from the borders of the
+Turkish empire, invaded India and there founded the Mongol or Mogul
+empire which Akbar pushed to its greatest extent.[17] These Moguls
+remained emperors of India until its conquest by the English, over two
+centuries later. Even to our own days their title has come down as a
+symbol of power, "the Great Mogul."
+
+Portuguese adventurers continued and expanded the trade with Asia, which
+Vasco da Gama had opened. The Spaniards also sought a share in it, and
+Jesuit missionaries preached the Christian faith. Magellan, a Portuguese
+but sailing in the service of Spain, was the first to fulfil the vision
+of Columbus and find the Indies by sailing westward.[18] He crossed the
+entire Atlantic and Pacific oceans, discovered the Philippine Islands,
+and was slain there by the natives. One of his ships completed the first
+circumnavigation of the globe.
+
+Look also to Spain's achievements in America, a new continent, but one
+already vastly important because of the broad empires Spaniards were
+winning there, the enormous wealth that was beginning to pour into the
+mother-country. Settlement had begun immediately on the discovery. Rich
+mines were opened and the Indians forced to work in them as slaves. As
+the unhappy aborigines perished by thousands under the unaccustomed
+toil, negroes were brought from Africa to supply their places, were
+driven like wild beasts to the labor.[19] The New World became more like
+a hell than like the paradise for which Isabella and Columbus planned.
+Cortés conquered Mexico,[20] rich with gold beyond all that Europe had
+even dreamed. Pizarro found in Peru[21] a civilization whose remarkable
+advance we are only lately beginning to realize. And he annihilated
+it--for gold. Lima was founded, and Buenos Aires, to be twice destroyed
+by Indians and yet become the metropolis of South America.[22] Even here
+extended the rivalry of the great European monarchs, Charles and
+Francis. Cartier, in the service of the latter, refused to acknowledge
+the claims of Spain to America, and exploring the St. Lawrence planned
+for France a colonial empire to match that of her enemy.[23] De Leon
+discovered Florida, and died while seeking there to emulate the
+successes of Cortés. De Soto discovered the Mississippi[24] and he also
+perished, lured on in the same knight-errant search for another golden
+empire to conquer. Who, having read the lives of such adventurers as
+these, shall ridicule the wildest extravagance in all the romances of
+chivalry? Wonderland grew real around these men. They achieved
+impossibilities. The maddest imaginings of the poets, the most fantastic
+tales of knightly wanderings and successes, seem slight beside the
+exploits of these daring, dauntless, heartless cavaliers of Spain.
+
+
+[FOR THE NEXT SECTION OF THIS GENERAL SURVEY SEE VOLUME X]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See _Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany_, page 1.
+
+[2] See _The Field of the Cloth of Gold_, page 59.
+
+[3] See _Liberation of Sweden_, page 79.
+
+[4] See The Peasants' War in Germany, page 93.
+
+[5] See _France Loses Italy_, page 111.
+
+[6] See _Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops_, page 124.
+
+[7] See _Great Religious Movement in England_, page 137.
+
+[8] See _England Breaks with the Roman Church_, page 203.
+
+[9] See _Calvin is Driven from Paris_, page 176.
+
+[10] See _Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus_, page 285.
+
+[11] See _Founding of the Jesuits_, page 261.
+
+[12] See _Introduction of Christianity into Japan_, page 325.
+
+[13] See _Council of Trent_, page 293.
+
+[14] See _Protestant Struggle against Charles V_, page 313.
+
+[15] See _Collapse of the Power of Charles V_, page 337.
+
+[16] See _The Religious Peace of Augsburg_, page 348.
+
+[17] See _Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India_, page 366.
+
+[18] See _First Circumnavigation of the Globe_, page 41.
+
+[19] See _Negro Slavery in America_, page 36.
+
+[20] See _Cortés Captures the City of Mexico_, page 72.
+
+[21] See _Pizarro Conquers Peru_, page 156.
+
+[22] See _Mendoza Settles Buenos Aires_, page 254.
+
+[23] See _Cartier Explores Canada_, page 236.
+
+[24] See _De Soto Discovers the Mississippi_, page 277.
+
+
+
+
+LUTHER BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY
+
+A.D. 1517
+
+JULIUS KOESTLIN    JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+     It has seldom happened that the story of one man was
+     essentially the history of a great movement and of an epoch
+     in human progress. In the case of Luther, a large part of
+     the world regards his name as a historic epitome. The monk
+     whose "words were half-battles," and whom Carlyle chose for
+     his hero-priest, was chief among the reformers, and in the
+     general view stands for the Reformation itself.
+
+     But recognition of Luther's dominating position and
+     representative character should not leave us blind to other
+     factors in the religious revolution which was also an
+     evolution, the achievement not of one man, but of advancing
+     generations with many leaders. Luther had great helpers in
+     his own time and great successors. He also had great
+     predecessors. The Reformation was the religious development
+     of the Renaissance; it had been heralded by Wycliffe, Huss,
+     and Savonarola, and there were many minor prophets of a
+     reformed church before the great German was born.
+
+     Luther's Reformation was a revolt against the power and
+     abuses of the Roman Catholic Church. It was directed against
+     certain doctrines as well as certain practices, and
+     especially against evils in the spiritual and temporal
+     government of the Church.
+
+     All the reformers aimed at freeing themselves from
+     oppressive rule at Rome, and endeavored to establish a purer
+     faith. The appeal to private judgment as against
+     unquestioning belief was a natural result of the revival of
+     learning as well as of spiritual quickening.
+
+     Before Luther's time, however, such revolts against church
+     authority had been quickly suppressed. It is also true that
+     many abuses had been done away by reformation within the
+     Church itself; and that, indeed, was what Luther at first
+     intended. His movement became "too powerful to be put down,
+     and its leaders soon passed beyond the point at which they
+     were willing to reform the Church from within. Finding that
+     the Church would not respond as quickly and as fully to
+     their demands as they wished, they left the Church and
+     attacked it from without." In Germany the administration of
+     the Church had long caused discontent. Through Martin Luther
+     this feeling found powerful utterance, and in him the demand
+     for reforms became irresistibly urgent.
+
+     Luther, the son of a poor miner, was born at Eisleben,
+     Saxony, November 10, 1483. He became an Augustinian monk,
+     in 1507 was consecrated a priest, and the next year was made
+     professor of philosophy in the University of Wittenberg. In
+     1511 he visited Rome, and on his return to Wittenberg was
+     made doctor of theology. He had already become known through
+     the power and independence of his preaching. Although he
+     went to Rome "an insane papist," as he said, and while he
+     was still intensely devoted to the Church and its leaders,
+     he made known his belief in what became the fundamental
+     doctrines of Protestantism, exclusive authority of the
+     Bible--implying the right of private judgment--and
+     justification by faith.
+
+     The immediate occasion of Luther's first great protest was
+     the sale of indulgences by the Dominican monk John Tetzel.
+     From early times the church authorities had granted
+     indulgences or remissions of penances imposed on persons
+     guilty of mortal sins, the condition being true penitence.
+     At length the Church began to accept money, not in lieu of
+     penitence, but of the customary penances which usually
+     accompanied it. Before 1517 Luther had given warnings
+     against the abuse of indulgences, without blaming the
+     administration of the Church. But when in that year Tetzel
+     approached the borders of Saxony selling indulgences in the
+     name of the Pope, Leo X, who wanted money for the building
+     of St. Peter's Church in Rome, Luther, with many of the
+     better minds of Germany, was greatly offended by the
+     vender's methods. Against the course of Tetzel Luther took a
+     firm stand, and when the reformer posted his theses
+     (summarized by Koestlin) on the church door at Wittenberg
+     the first great movement of the Reformation in the sixteenth
+     century was inaugurated.
+
+     In accordance with the impartial plan of the present work
+     regarding the treatment of controverted matters, it is here
+     sought to satisfy the historic sense, which includes the
+     sense of justice, by giving a presentation of each view of
+     the story--the Protestant by Koestlin, the Catholic by Jean
+     M. V. Audin, whose _Life of Luther_ has been called the
+     "tribunal" before which the great reformer must be summoned
+     for his answer.
+
+
+JULIUS KOESTLIN
+
+Luther longed now to make known to theologians and ecclesiastics
+generally his thoughts about indulgences, his own principles, his own
+opinions and doubts, to excite public discussion on the subject, and to
+awake and maintain the fray. This he did by the ninety-five Latin theses
+or propositions which he posted on the doors of the Castle Church at
+Wittenberg on October 31, 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day and of the
+anniversary of the consecration of the church.
+
+These theses were intended as a challenge for disputation. Such public
+disputations were then very common at the universities and among
+theologians, and they were meant to serve as means not only of
+exercising learned thought, but of elucidating the truth. Luther headed
+his theses as follows:
+
+"_Disputation to Explain the Virtue of Indulgences._--In charity, and in
+the endeavor to bring the truth to light, a disputation on the following
+propositions will be held at Wittenberg, presided over by the Reverend
+Father Martin Luther. Those who are unable to attend personally may
+discuss the question with us by letter. In the name of our Lord Jesus
+Christ. Amen."
+
+It was in accordance with the general custom of that time that, on the
+occasion of a high festival, particular acts and announcements, and
+likewise disputations at a university, were arranged, and the doors of a
+collegiate church were used for posting such notices.
+
+The contents of these theses show that their author really had such a
+disputation in view. He was resolved to defend with all his might
+certain fundamental truths to which he firmly adhered. Some points he
+considered still within the region of dispute; it was his wish and
+object to make these clear to himself by arguing about them with others.
+
+Recognizing the connection between the system of indulgences and the
+view of penance entertained by the Church, he starts with considering
+the nature of true Christian repentance; but he would have this
+understood in the sense and spirit taught by Christ and the Scriptures.
+He begins with the thesis: "Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when he
+says repent, desires that the whole life of the believer should be one
+of repentance." He means, as the subsequent theses express it, that true
+inward repentance, that sorrow for sin and hatred of one's own sinful
+self, from which must proceed good works and mortification of the sinful
+flesh. The pope could only remit his sin to the penitent so far as to
+declare that God had forgiven it.
+
+Thus then the theses expressly declare that God forgives no man his sin
+without making him submit himself in humility to the priest who
+represents him, and that he recognizes the punishments enjoined by the
+Church in her outward sacrament of penance. But Luther's leading
+principles are consistently opposed to the customary announcements of
+indulgences by the Church. The pope, he holds, can only grant
+indulgences for what the pope and the law of the Church have imposed;
+nay, the pope himself means absolution from these obligations only, when
+he promises absolution from all punishment. And it is only the living
+against whom those punishments are directed which the Church's
+discipline of penance enjoins; nothing, according to her own laws, can
+be imposed upon those in another world.
+
+Further on Luther declares: "When true repentance is awakened in a man,
+full absolution from punishment and sin comes to him without any letters
+of indulgence." At the same time he says that such a man would willingly
+undergo self-imposed chastisement, nay, he would even seek and love it.
+
+Still, it is not the indulgences themselves, if understood in the right
+sense, that he wishes to be attacked, but the loose babble of those who
+sold them. Blessed, he says, be he who protests against this, but cursed
+be he who speaks against the truth of apostolic indulgences. He finds it
+difficult, however, to praise these to the people, and at the same time
+to teach them the true repentance of the heart. He would have them even
+taught that a Christian would do better by giving money to the poor than
+by spending it in buying indulgences, and that he who allows a poor man
+near him to starve draws down on himself, not indulgences, but the wrath
+of God. In sharp and scornful language he denounces the iniquitous
+trader in indulgences, and gives the Pope credit for the same abhorrence
+for the traffic that he felt himself. Christians must be told, he says,
+that, if the Pope only knew of it, he would rather see St. Peter's
+Church in ashes than have it built with the flesh and bones of his
+sheep.
+
+Agreeably with what the preceding theses had said about the true
+penitent's earnestness and willingness to suffer, and the temptation
+offered to a mere carnal sense of security, Luther concludes as follows:
+"Away therefore with all those prophets who say to Christ's people
+'Peace, peace!' when there is no peace, but welcome to all those who bid
+them seek the Cross of Christ, not the cross which bears the papal arms.
+Christians must be admonished to follow Christ their Master through
+torture, death, and hell, and thus through much tribulation, rather
+than, by a carnal feeling of false security, hope to enter the kingdom
+of heaven."
+
+The Catholics objected to this doctrine of salvation advanced by Luther
+that, by trusting to God's free mercy, and by undervaluing good works,
+it led to moral indolence. But, on the contrary, it was to the very
+unbending moral earnestness of a Christian conscience, which, indignant
+at the temptations offered to moral frivolity, to a deceitful feeling of
+ease in respect to sin and guilt, and to a contempt of the fruits of
+true morality, rebelled against the false value attached to this
+indulgence money, that these theses, the germ, so to speak, of the
+Reformation, owed their origin and prosecution. With the same
+earnestness he now for the first time publicly attacked the
+ecclesiastical power of the papacy, in so far namely as, in his
+conviction, it invaded the territory reserved to himself by the heavenly
+Lord and Judge. This was what the Pope and his theologians and
+ecclesiastics could least of all endure.
+
+On the same day that these theses were published, Luther sent a copy of
+them with a letter to the archbishop Albert, his "revered and gracious
+lord and shepherd in Christ." After a humble introduction, he begged him
+most earnestly to prevent the scandalizing and iniquitous harangues with
+which his agents hawked about their indulgences, and reminded him that
+he would have to give an account of the souls intrusted to his episcopal
+care.
+
+The next day he addressed himself to the people from the pulpit in a
+sermon he had to preach on the festival of All Saints. After exhorting
+them to seek their salvation in God and Christ alone, and to let the
+consecration by the Church become a real consecration of the heart, he
+went on to tell them plainly, with regard to indulgences, that he could
+only absolve from duties imposed by the Church, and that they dare not
+rely on him for more, nor delay on his account the duties of true
+repentance.
+
+Theologians before Luther, and with far more acuteness and penetration
+than he showed in his theses, had already assailed the whole system of
+indulgences. And, in regard to any idea on Luther's part of the effects
+of his theses extending widely in Germany, it may be noticed that not
+only were they composed in Latin, but that they dealt largely with
+scholastic expressions and ideas, which a layman would find it difficult
+to understand.
+
+Nevertheless the theses created a sensation which far surpassed Luther's
+expectations. In fourteen days, as he tells us, they ran through the
+whole of Germany, and were immediately translated and circulated in
+German. They found, indeed, the soil already prepared for them, through
+the indignation long since and generally aroused by the shameless doings
+they attacked; though till then nobody, as Luther expresses it, had
+liked to bell the cat, nobody had dared to expose himself to the
+blasphemous clamor of the indulgence-mongers and the monks who were in
+league with them, still less to the threatened charge of heresy. On the
+other hand, the very impunity with which this traffic in indulgences had
+been maintained throughout German Christendom had served to increase
+from day to day the audacity of its promoters.
+
+The task that Luther had now undertaken lay heavy upon his soul. He was
+sincerely anxious, while fighting for the truth, to remain at peace with
+his Church, and to serve her by the struggle. Pope Leo, on the contrary,
+as was consistent with his whole character, treated the matter at first
+very lightly, and, when it threatened to become dangerous, thought only
+how, by means of his papal power, to make the restless German monk
+harmless.
+
+Two expressions of his in these early days of the contest are recorded.
+"Brother Martin," he said, "is a man of a very fine genius, and this
+outbreak the mere squabble of envious monks;" and again, "It is a
+drunken German who has written the theses; he will think differently
+about them when sober." Three months after the theses had appeared, he
+ordered the vicar-general of the Augustinians to "quiet down the man,"
+hoping still to extinguish easily the flame. The next step was to
+institute a tribunal for heretics at Rome for Luther's trial; what its
+judgment would be was patent from the fact that the single theologian of
+learning among the judges was Sylvester Prierias. Before this tribunal
+Luther was cited on August 7th; within sixty days he was to appear there
+at Rome. Friend and foe could well feel certain that they would look in
+vain for his return.
+
+Papal influence, meanwhile, had been brought to bear on the elector
+Frederick[25] to induce him not to take the part of Luther, and the
+chief agent chosen for working on the Elector and the emperor Maximilian
+was the papal legate, Cardinal Thomas Vio of Gaeta, called Cajetan, who
+had made his appearance in Germany. The University of Wittenberg, on the
+other hand, interposed on behalf of their member, whose theology was
+popular there, and whose biblical lectures attracted crowds of
+enthusiastic hearers. He had just been joined at Wittenberg by his
+fellow-professor Philip Melanchthon, then only twenty-one years old, but
+already in the first rank of Greek scholars, and the bond of friendship
+was now formed which lasted through their lives. The university claimed
+that Luther should at least be tried in Germany. Luther expressed the
+same wish through Spalatin[26] to his sovereign.
+
+The Pope meanwhile had passed from his previous state of haughty
+complacency to one of violent haste. Already, on August 23d, thus long
+before the sixty days had expired, he demanded the Elector to deliver up
+this "child of the devil," who boasted of his protection, to the legate,
+to bring away with him. This is clearly shown by two private briefs from
+the Pope, of August 23d and 25th, the one addressed to the legate, the
+other to the head of all the Augustinian convents in Saxony, as
+distinguished from the vicar of those congregations, Staupitz, who
+already was looked on with suspicion at Rome. These briefs instructed
+both men to hasten the arrest of the heretic; his adherents were to be
+secured with him, and every place where he was tolerated laid under the
+interdict.
+
+In the summer of 1518 a diet was held at Augsburg at which the papal
+legate attended. The Pope was anxious to obtain its consent to the
+imposition of a heavy tax throughout the empire, to be applied
+ostensibly for the war against the Turks, but alleged to be wanted in
+reality for entirely other objects. The demand for a tax, however, was
+received with the utmost disfavor both by the diet and the empire; and a
+long-cherished bitterness of feeling now found expression. An anonymous
+pamphlet was circulated, from the pen of one Fischer, a prebendary of
+Wuerzburg, which bluntly declared that the avaricious lords of Rome only
+wished to cheat the "drunken Germans," and that the real Turks were to
+be looked for in Italy. This pamphlet reached Wittenberg and fell into
+the hands of Luther, whom now for the first time we hear denouncing
+"Roman cunning," though he only charged the Pope himself with allowing
+his grasping Florentine relations to deceive him.
+
+The diet seized the opportunity offered by this demand for a tax, to
+bring up a whole list of old grievances; the large sums drawn from
+German benefices by the Pope under the name of annates, or extorted
+under other pretexts; the illegal usurpation of ecclesiastical patronage
+in Germany; the constant infringement of concordats, and so on. The
+demand itself was refused; and in addition to this, an address was
+presented to the diet from the bishop and clergy of Liège, inveighing
+against the lying, thieving, avaricious conduct of the Romish minions,
+in such sharp and violent tones that Luther, on reading it afterward
+when printed, thought it only a hoax, and not really an episcopal
+remonstrance.
+
+This was reason enough why Cajetan, to avoid increasing the excitement,
+should not attempt to lay hands on the Wittenberg opponent of
+indulgences. The elector Frederick, from whose hands Cajetan would have
+to demand Luther, was one of the most powerful and personally respected
+princes of the empire, and his influence was especially important in
+view of the election of a new emperor. This Prince went now in person to
+Cajetan on Luther's behalf, and Cajetan promised him, at the very time
+that the brief was on its way to him from Rome, that he would hear
+Luther at Augsburg, treat him with fatherly kindness, and let him depart
+in safety.
+
+Luther accordingly was sent to Augsburg. It was an anxious time for
+himself and his friends when he had to leave for that distant place,
+where the Elector, with all his care, could not employ any physical
+means for his protection, and to stand accused as a heretic before that
+papal legate who, from his own theological principles, was bound to
+condemn him. "My thoughts on the way," said Luther afterward, "were now
+I must die; and I often lamented the disgrace I should be to my dear
+parents."
+
+He went thither in humble garb and manner. He made his way on foot till
+within a short distance of Augsburg, when illness and weakness overcame
+him, and he was forced to proceed by carriage. Another younger monk of
+Wittenberg accompanied him, his pupil Leonard Baier. At Nuremberg he was
+joined by his friend Link, who held an appointment there as preacher.
+From him he borrowed a monk's frock, his own being too bad for Augsburg.
+He arrived here on October 7th.
+
+The surroundings he now entered, and the proceedings impending over him,
+were wholly novel and unaccustomed. But he met with men who received him
+with kindness and consideration; several of them were gentlemen of
+Augsburg favorable to him, especially the respected patrician, Dr.
+Conrad Peutinger, and two counsellors of the Elector. They advised him
+to behave with prudence, and to observe carefully all the necessary
+forms to which as yet he was a stranger.
+
+Luther at once announced his arrival to Cajetan, who was anxious to
+receive him without delay. His friends, however, kept him back until
+they had obtained a written safe-conduct from the Emperor, who was then
+hunting in the environs. In the mean time a distinguished friend of
+Cajetan, one Urbanus of Serralonga, tried to persuade him, in a flippant
+and, as Luther thought, a downright Italian manner, to come forward and
+simply pronounce six letters--"_Revoco_" ("I retract"). Urbanus asked
+him with a smile if he thought his sovereign would risk his country for
+his sake. "God forbid!" answered Luther. "Where then do you mean to take
+refuge?" he went on to ask him. "Under heaven," was Luther's reply.
+
+On October 11th Luther received the letter of safe-conduct, and the next
+day he appeared before Cajetan. Humbly, as he had been advised, he
+prostrated himself before the representative of the Pope, who received
+him graciously and bade him rise.
+
+The Cardinal addressed him civilly and with a courtesy Luther was not
+accustomed to meet with from his opponents; but he immediately demanded
+him, in the name and by command of the Pope, to retract his errors, and
+promise in future to abstain from them and from everything that might
+disturb the peace of the Church. He pointed out, in particular, two
+errors in his theses; namely, that the Church's treasure of indulgences
+did not consist of the merits of Christ, and that faith on the part of
+the recipient was necessary for the efficacy of the sacrament. With
+respect to the second point, the religious principles upon which Luther
+based his doctrine were altogether strange and unintelligible to the
+scholastic standpoint of Cajetan; mere tittering and laughter followed
+Luther's observations, and he was required to retract this thesis
+unconditionally. The first point settled the question of papal
+authority. The Cardinal-legate could not believe that Luther would
+venture to resist a papal bull, and thought he had probably not read it.
+He read him a vigorous lecture of his own on the paramount authority of
+the pope over council, Church, and Scripture. As to any argument,
+however, about the theses to be retracted, Cajetan refused from the
+first to engage in it, and undoubtedly he went further in that direction
+than he originally desired or intended. His sole wish was, as he said,
+to give fatherly correction, and with fatherly friendliness to arrange
+the matter. But in reality, says Luther, it was a blunt, naked,
+unyielding display of power. Luther could only beg from him further time
+for consideration.
+
+Luther's friends at Augsburg, and Staupitz, who had just arrived there,
+now attempted to divert the course of these proceedings, to collect
+other decisions of importance bearing on the subject, and to give him
+the opportunity of a public vindication. Accompanied therefore by
+several jurists friendly to his cause, and by a notary and Staupitz, he
+laid before the legate next day a short and formal statement of defence.
+He could not retract unless convicted of error, and to all that he had
+said he must hold as being Catholic truth. Nevertheless he was only
+human, and therefore fallible, and he was willing to submit to a
+legitimate decision of the Church. He offered, at the same time,
+publicly to justify his theses, and he was ready to hear the judgment of
+the learned doctors of Basel, Freiburg, Louvain, and even Paris upon
+them. Cajetan with a smile dismissed Luther and his proposals, but
+consented to receive a more detailed reply in writing to the principal
+points discussed the previous day.
+
+On the morrow, October 14th, Luther brought his reply to the legate. But
+in this document also he insisted clearly and resolutely from the
+commencement on those very principles which his opponents regarded as
+destructive of all ecclesiastical authority and of the foundations of
+Christian belief. Still he entreated Cajetan to intercede with Leo X,
+that the latter might not harshly thrust out into darkness his soul,
+which was seeking for the light. But he repeated that he could do
+nothing against his conscience: one must obey God rather than man, and
+he had the fullest confidence that he had Scripture on his side.
+Cajetan, to whom he delivered this reply in person, once more tried to
+persuade him. They fell into a lively and vehement argument; but Cajetan
+cut it short with the exclamation, "Revoke." In the event of Luther not
+revoking or submitting to judgment at Rome, he threatened him and all
+his friends with excommunication, and whatever place he might go to with
+an interdict; he had a mandate from the Pope to that effect already in
+his hands. He then dismissed him with the words, "Revoke, or do not come
+again into my presence." Nevertheless he spoke in quite a friendly
+manner after this to Staupitz, urging him to try his best to convert
+Luther, whom he wished well. Luther, however, wrote the same day to his
+friend Spalatin, who was with the Elector, and to his friends at
+Wittenberg, telling them he had refused to yield. Luther added further
+that an appeal would be drawn up for him in the form best fitted to the
+occasion. He further hinted to his Wittenberg friends at the possibility
+of his having to go elsewhere in exile; indeed, his friends already
+thought of taking him to Paris, where the university still rejected the
+doctrine of papal absolutism. He concluded this letter by saying that he
+refused to become a heretic by denying that which had made him a
+Christian; sooner than do that, he would be burned, exiled, or cursed.
+The appeal, of which Luther here spoke, was "from the Pope ill-informed
+to the same when better informed." On October 16th he submitted it,
+formally prepared, to a public notary.
+
+Luther even addressed, on October 17th, a letter to Cajetan, conceding
+to him the utmost he thought possible. Moved, as he said, by the
+persuasions of his dear father Staupitz and his brother Link, he offered
+to let the whole question of indulgences rest, if only that which drove
+him to this tragedy were put a stop to; he confessed also to having been
+too violent and disrespectful in dispute. In after-years he said to his
+friends, when referring to this concession, that God had never allowed
+him to sink deeper than when he had yielded so much. The next day,
+however, he gave notice of his appeal to the legate, and told him he did
+not wish longer to waste his time in Augsburg. To this letter he
+received no answer.
+
+Luther waited, however, till the 20th. He and his Augsburg patrons began
+to suspect whether measures had not already been taken to detain him.
+They therefore had a small gate in the city wall opened in the night,
+and sent with him an escort well acquainted with the road. Thus he
+hastened away, as he himself described it, on a hard-trotting hack, in a
+simple monk's frock, with only knee-breeches, without boots or spurs,
+and unarmed. On the first day he rode eight miles, as far as the little
+town of Monheim. As he entered in the evening an inn and dismounted in
+the stable, he was unable to stand from fatigue and fell down instantly
+among the straw. He travelled thus on horseback to Wittenberg, where he
+arrived, well and joyful, on the anniversary of his ninety-five theses.
+He had heard on the way of the Pope's brief to Cajetan, but he refused
+to think it could be genuine. His appeal, meanwhile, was delivered to
+the Cardinal at Augsburg, who had it posted by his notary on the doors
+of the cathedral.
+
+Without waiting for an answer direct from Rome, Luther now abandoned all
+thoughts of success with Leo X. On November 28th he formally and
+solemnly appealed from the Pope to a general Christian council. By so
+doing he anticipated the sentence of excommunication which he was daily
+expecting. With Rome he had broken forever, unless she were to surrender
+her claims and acquisitions of more than a thousand years.
+
+After once the first restraints of awe were removed with which Luther
+had regarded the papacy, behind and beyond the matter of the
+indulgences, and he had learned to know the papal representative at
+Augsburg, and made a stand against his demands and menaces, and escaped
+from his dangerous clutches, he enjoyed for the first time the fearless
+consciousness of freedom. He took a wider survey around him, and saw
+plainly the deep corruption and ungodliness of the powers arrayed
+against him. His mind was impelled forward with more energy as his
+spirit for the fight was stirred within him. Even the prospect that he
+might have to fly, and the uncertainty whither his flight could be, did
+not daunt or deter him.
+
+He was really prepared for exile or flight at any moment. At Wittenberg
+his friends were alarmed by rumors of designs on the part of the Pope
+against his life and liberty, and insisted on his being placed in
+safety. Flight to France was continually talked of; had he not followed
+in his appeal a precedent set by the University of Paris? We certainly
+cannot see how he could safely have been conveyed thither, or where,
+indeed, any other and safer place could have been found for him. Some
+urged that the Elector himself should take him into custody and keep him
+in a place of safety, and then write to the legate that he held him
+securely in confinement and was in future responsible for him. Luther
+proposed this to Spalatin, and added: "I leave the decision of this
+matter to your discretion; I am in the hands of God and of my friends."
+The Elector himself, anxious also in this respect, arranged early in
+December a confidential interview between Luther and Spalatin at the
+castle of Lichtenberg. He also, as Luther reported to Staupitz, wished
+that Luther had some other place to be in, but he advised him against
+going away so hastily to France. His own wish and counsel, however, he
+refrained as yet from making known. Luther declared that at all events,
+if a ban of excommunication were to come from Rome, he would not remain
+longer at Wittenberg. On this point also the Prince kept secret his
+resolve.
+
+At Rome the bull of excommunication was published as early as June 16th.
+It had been considered very carefully in the papal consistory. The
+jurists there were of opinion that Luther should be cited once more, but
+their views did not prevail. The bull begins with the words, "Arise, O
+Lord, and avenge thy cause." It proceeds to invoke St. Peter, St. Paul,
+the whole body of the saints, and the Church. A wild boar had broken
+into the vineyard of the Lord, a wild beast was there seeking to devour,
+etc. Of the heresy against which it was directed, the Pope, as he
+states, had additional reason to complain, since the Germans, among whom
+it had broken out, had always been regarded by him with such tender
+affection: he gives them to understand that they owed the empire to the
+Roman Church. Forty-one propositions from Luther's writings are then
+rejected and condemned as heretical, or at least scandalous and
+corrupting, and his works collectively are sentenced to be burned. As to
+Luther himself, the Pope calls God to witness that he has neglected no
+means of fatherly love to bring him into the right way. Even now he is
+ready to follow toward him the example of divine mercy which wills not
+the death of a sinner, but that he should be converted and live; and so
+once more he calls upon him to repent, in which case he will receive him
+graciously like the prodigal son. Sixty days are given him to recant.
+But if he and his adherents will not repent, they are to be regarded as
+obstinate heretics and withered branches of the vine of Christ, and must
+be punished according to law. No doubt the punishment of burning was
+meant; the bull in fact expressly condemns the proposition of Luther
+which denounces the burning of heretics. All this was called then at
+Rome, and has been called even latterly by the papal party, "the tone
+rather of fatherly sorrow than of penal severity."
+
+The emperor Charles V, before leaving the Netherlands on his journey to
+Aix-la-Chapelle to be crowned (1520),[27] had already been induced to
+take his first step against Luther. He had consented to the execution of
+the sentence in the bull condemning Luther's works to be burned, and had
+issued orders to that effect throughout the Netherlands. They were
+burned in public at Louvain, Cologne, and Mainz. At Cologne this was
+done while he was staying there. It was in this town that the two
+legates approached the elector Frederick with the demand to have the
+same done in his territory, and to execute due punishment on the heretic
+himself, or at least to keep him close prisoner or to deliver him over
+to the Pope. Frederick, however, refused, saying that Luther must first
+be heard by impartial judges. Erasmus also, who was then staying at
+Cologne, expressed himself to the same effect, in an opinion obtained
+from him by Frederick through Spalatin. At an interview with the
+Elector he said to him: "Luther has committed two great faults: he has
+touched the Pope on his crown and the monks on their bellies." The
+burning of Luther's books at Mainz was effected without hinderance, and
+the legates in triumph proceeded to carry out their mission elsewhere.
+
+Luther, however, lost no time in following up their execution of the
+bull with his reply. On December 10th he posted a public announcement
+that the next morning, at nine o'clock, the anti-Christian decretals,
+that is, the papal law-books, would be burned, and he invited all the
+Wittenberg students to attend. He chose for this purpose a spot in front
+of the Elster gate, to the east of the town, near the Augustinian
+convent. A multitude poured forth to the scene. With Luther appeared a
+number of other doctors and masters, and among them Melanchthon and
+Carlstadt. After one of the masters of art had built up a pile, Luther
+laid the decretals upon it, and the former applied the fire. Luther then
+threw the papal bull into the flames, with the words, "Because thou hast
+vexed the Holy One of the Lord,[28] let the everlasting fire consume
+thee." While Luther with the other teachers returned to the town, some
+hundreds of students remained upon the scene and sang a _Te Deum_, and a
+Dirge for the decretals. After the ten o'clock meal, some of the young
+students, grotesquely attired, drove through the town in a large
+carriage, with a banner, emblazoned with a bull, four yards in length,
+amid the blowing of brass trumpets and other absurdities. They collected
+from all quarters a mass of scholastic and papal writings, and hastened
+with them and the bull to the pile, which their companions had meanwhile
+kept alight. Another _Te Deum_ was then sung, with a requiem, and the
+hymn, "_O du armer Judas_."
+
+Luther at his lecture the next day told his hearers with great
+earnestness and emotion what he had done. The papal chair, he said,
+would yet have to be burned. Unless with all their hearts they abjured
+the kingdom of the pope, they could not obtain salvation.
+
+By this bold act, Luther consummated his final rupture with the papal
+system, which for centuries had dominated the Christian world and had
+identified itself with Christianity. The news of it must also have made
+the fire which his words had kindled throughout Germany blaze out in all
+its violence. He saw now, as he wrote to Staupitz, a storm raging, such
+as only the last day could allay, so fiercely were passions aroused on
+both sides. Germany was then, in fact, in a state of excitement and
+tension more critical than at any other period of her history.
+
+The announcement of the retractation required from Luther by the bull
+was to have been sent to Rome within one hundred twenty days. Luther had
+given his answer. The Pope declared that the time of grace had expired;
+and on January 3d Leo X finally pronounced the ban against Luther and
+his followers, and an interdict on the places where they were harbored.
+
+Never did the most momentous issue in the fortunes of the German nation
+and church rest so entirely with one man as they did now with the
+Emperor. Everything depended on this whether he, as head of the empire,
+should take the great work in hand, or should fling his authority and
+might into the opposite scale. Charles had been welcomed in Germany as
+one whose youthful heart seemed likely to respond to the newly awakened
+life and aspirations, as the son of an old German princely family, who
+by his election as emperor had won a triumph over the foreign king
+Francis, supported though the latter was by the Pope. Rumor now alleged
+that he was in the hands of the Mendicant friars; the Franciscan Glapio
+was his confessor and influential adviser, the very man who had
+instigated the burning of Luther's works.
+
+He was, however, by no means so dependent on those about him as might
+have been supposed. His counsellors, in the general interests of his
+government, pursued an independent line of policy, and Charles himself,
+even in these his youthful days, knew to assert his independence as a
+monarch and display his cleverness as a statesman. He saw the prudence
+of cultivating friendship and contracting if possible an alliance with
+the Pope. The pressure desirable for this purpose could now be supplied
+by means of the very danger with which the papacy was threatened by the
+great German heresy, and against which Rome so sorely needed the aid of
+a temporal power. At the same time, Charles was far too astute to allow
+his regard for the Pope, and his desire for the unity of the Church, to
+entangle his policy in measures for which his own power was inadequate,
+or by which his authority might be shaken and possibly destroyed.
+Strengthened as was his monarchical power in Spain, in Germany he found
+it hemmed in and fettered by the estates of the empire and the whole
+contexture of political relations.
+
+Such were the main points of view which determined for Charles V his
+conduct toward Luther and his cause. Luther thus was at least a passive
+sharer in the game of high policy, ecclesiastical and temporal, now
+being played, and had to pursue his own course accordingly.
+
+The imperial court was quickly enough acquainted with the state of
+feeling in Germany. The Emperor showed himself prudent at this juncture,
+and accessible to opinions differing from his own, however small cause
+his proclamations gave to the friends of Luther to hope for any positive
+act of favor on his part.
+
+While Charles was on his way up the Rhine to hold, at the beginning of
+the new year, a diet at Worms, the elector Frederick approached him with
+the request that Luther should at least be heard before the Emperor took
+any proceedings against him. The Emperor informed him in reply that he
+might bring Luther for this purpose to Worms, promising that the monk
+should not be molested.
+
+The Emperor, on March 6th, issued a citation to Luther, summoning him to
+Worms to give "information concerning his doctrines and books." An
+imperial herald was sent to conduct him. In the event of his disobeying
+the citation, or refusing to retract, the estates declared their consent
+to treat him as an open heretic. Luther, therefore, had to renounce at
+once all hope of having the truth touching his articles of faith tested
+fairly at Worms by the standard of God's word in Scripture. Spalatin
+indicated to him the points on which he would in any case be expected to
+make a public recantation.
+
+Luther formed his resolve at once on the two points required of him. He
+determined to obey the summons to the diet, and, if there unconvicted of
+error, to refuse the recantation demanded. The Emperor's citation was
+delivered to him on March 26th by the imperial herald, Kaspar Sturm, who
+was to accompany him to Worms. Within twenty-one days after its receipt,
+Luther was to appear before the Emperor; he was due therefore at Worms
+on April 16th at the latest.
+
+On April 2d, the Tuesday after Easter, he set out on his way to Worms.
+His friend Amsdorf and the Pomeranian nobleman Peter Swaven, who was
+then studying at Wittenberg, accompanied him. He took with him also,
+according to the rules of the order, a brother of the order, John
+Pezensteiner. The Wittenberg magistracy provided carriages and horses.
+
+The way led past Leipzig, through Thuringia from Naumburg to Eisenach,
+southward past Berka, Hersfeld, Gruenberg, Friedberg, Frankfort, and
+Oppenheim. The herald rode on before in his coat-of-arms, and announced
+the man whose word had everywhere so mightily stirred the minds of
+people, and for whose future behavior and fate friend and foe were alike
+anxious. Everywhere people collected to catch a glimpse of him. On April
+6th he was very solemnly received at Erfurt. The large majority of the
+university there were by this time full of enthusiasm for his cause.
+
+Meanwhile at Worms disquietude and suspense prevailed on both sides.
+Hutten[29] from the castle of Ebernburg sent threatening and angry
+letters to the papal legates, who became really anxious lest a blow
+might be struck from that quarter. Some anxious friends of Luther's were
+afraid that, according to papal law, the safe-conduct would not be
+observed in the case of a condemned heretic. Spalatin himself sent from
+Worms a second warning to Luther after he had left Frankfort, intimating
+that he would suffer the fate of Huss.
+
+But Luther continued on his way. To Spalatin he replied, though Huss
+were burned, yet the truth was not burned; he would go to Worms though
+there were as many devils there as there were tiles on the roofs of the
+houses.
+
+On April 16th, at ten o'clock in the morning, Luther entered Worms. He
+sat in an open carriage with his three companions from Wittenberg,
+clothed in his monk's habit. He was accompanied by a large number of men
+on horseback, some of whom, like Jonas, had joined him earlier in his
+journey; others, like some gentlemen belonging to the Elector's court,
+had ridden out from Worms to receive him. The imperial herald rode on
+before. The watchman blew a horn from the tower of the cathedral on
+seeing the procession approach the gate. Thousands streamed hither to
+see Luther. The gentlemen of the court escorted him into the house of
+the Knights of St. John, where he lodged with two counsellors of the
+Elector. As he stepped from his carriage he said, "God will be with me."
+Aleander, writing to Rome, said that he looked around with the eyes of a
+demon. Crowds of distinguished men, ecclesiastics and laymen, who were
+anxious to know him personally, flocked daily to see him.
+
+On the evening of the following day he had to appear before the diet,
+which was assembled in the Bishop's palace, the residence of the
+Emperor, not far from where Luther was lodging. He was conducted thither
+by side streets, it being impossible to get through the crowds assembled
+in the main thoroughfare to see him. On his way into the hall where the
+diet was assembled, tradition tells us how the famous warrior, George
+von Frundsberg, clapped him on the shoulder and said: "My poor monk! my
+poor monk! thou art on thy way to make such a stand as I and many of my
+knights have never done in our toughest battles. If thou art sure of the
+justice of thy cause, then forward in the name of God, and be of good
+courage--God will not forsake thee." The Elector had given Luther as his
+advocate the lawyer Jerome Schurf, his Wittenberg colleague and friend.
+
+When at length, after waiting two hours, Luther was admitted to the
+diet, Eck, the official of the Archbishop of Treves, put to him simply,
+in the name of the Emperor, two questions, whether he acknowledged the
+books--pointing to them on a bench beside him--to be his own, and next,
+whether he would retract their contents or persist in them. Schurf here
+exclaimed, "Let the titles of the books be named." Eck then read them
+out. Among them there were some merely edifying writings, such as _A
+Commentary on the Lord's Prayer_, which had never been made the subject
+of complaint.
+
+Luther was not prepared for this proceeding, and possibly the first
+sight of the august assembly made him nervous. He answered in a low
+voice, and as if frightened, that the books were his, but that since the
+question as to their contents concerned the highest of all things, the
+Word of God and the salvation of souls, he must beware of giving a rash
+answer, and must therefore humbly entreat further time for
+consideration. After a short deliberation the Emperor instructed Eck to
+reply that he would, out of his clemency, grant him a respite till the
+next day.
+
+So Luther had again, on April 18th, a Thursday, to appear before the
+diet. Again he had to wait two hours till six o'clock. He stood there in
+the hall among the dense crowd, talking unconstrained and cheerfully
+with the ambassador of the diet, Peutinger, his patron at Augsburg.
+After he was called in, Eck began by reproaching him for having wanted
+time for consideration. He then put the second question to him in a form
+more befitting and more conformable with the wishes of the members of
+the diet: "Wilt thou defend _all_ the books acknowledged by thee to be
+thine, or recant some part?" Luther now answered with firmness and
+modesty, in a well-considered speech. He divided his works into three
+classes. In some of them he had set forth simple evangelical truths,
+professed alike by friend and foe. Those he could on no account retract.
+In others he had attacked corrupt laws and doctrines of the papacy,
+which no one could deny had miserably vexed and martyred the consciences
+of Christians, and had tyrannically devoured the property of the German
+nation: if he were to retract these books, he would make himself a cloak
+for wickedness and tyranny.
+
+In the third class of his books he had written against individuals who
+endeavored to shield that tyranny and to subvert godly doctrine. Against
+these he freely confessed that he had been more violent than was
+befitting. Yet even these writings it was impossible for him to retract
+without lending a hand to tyranny and godlessness. But in defence of his
+books he could only say in the words of the Lord Jesus Christ: "If I
+have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil; but if well, why smitest
+thou me?" If anyone could do so, let him produce his evidence and
+confute him from the sacred writings, the Old Testament and the Gospel,
+and he would be the first to throw his books into the fire. And now, as
+in the course of his speech he had sounded a new challenge to the
+papacy, so he concluded by an earnest warning to Emperor and empire,
+lest, by endeavoring to promote peace by a condemnation of the divine
+Word, they might rather bring a dreadful deluge of evils, and thus give
+an unhappy and inauspicious beginning to the reign of the noble young
+Emperor. He said not these things as if the great personages who heard
+him stood in any need of his admonitions, but because it was a duty that
+he owed to his native Germany, and he could not neglect to discharge it.
+
+Luther, like Eck, spoke in Latin, and then, by desire, repeated his
+speech with equal firmness in German. Schurf, who was standing by his
+side, declared afterward with pride, "how Martin had made this answer
+with such bravery and modest candor, with eyes upraised to heaven, that
+he and everyone were astonished."
+
+The princes held a short consultation after this harangue. Then Eck,
+commissioned by the Emperor, sharply reproved him for having spoken
+impertinently and not really answered the question put to him. He
+rejected his demand that evidence from Scripture might be brought
+against him by declaring that his heresies had already been condemned by
+the Church, and in particular by the Council of Constance, and such
+judgments must suffice if anything were to be held settled in
+Christianity. He promised him, however, if he would retract the
+offensive articles, that his other writings should be fairly dealt with,
+and finally demanded a plain answer "without horns" to the question
+whether he intended to adhere to all he had written or would retract any
+part of it?
+
+To this Luther replied he would give an answer "with neither horns nor
+teeth." Unless he were refuted by proofs from Scripture, or by evident
+reason, his conscience bound him to adhere to the Word of God which he
+had quoted in his defence. Popes and councils, as was clear, had often
+erred and contradicted themselves. He could not, therefore, and he would
+not, retreat anything, for it was neither safe nor honest to act against
+one's conscience.
+
+Eck exchanged only a few more words with him in reply to his assertion
+that councils had erred. "You cannot prove that," said Eck. "I will
+pledge myself to do it," was Luther's answer. Pressed and threatened by
+his enemy, he concluded with the famous words: "Here I stand, I can do
+no otherwise. God help me. Amen."
+
+The Emperor reluctantly broke up the diet at about eight o'clock in the
+evening. Darkness had meanwhile come on; the hall was lighted with
+torches, and the audience were in a state of general excitement and
+agitation. Luther was led out; whereupon an uproar arose among the
+Germans, who thought that he had been taken prisoner. As he stood among
+the heated crowd, Duke Erich of Brunswick sent him a silver tankard of
+Eimbeck beer, after having first drunk of it himself.
+
+On reaching his lodging, "Luther," to use the words of a Nuremberger
+present there, "stretched out his hands, and with a joyful countenance
+exclaimed, 'I am through! I am through!'" Spalatin says: "He entered the
+lodging so courageous, comforted, and joyful in the Lord that he said
+before others and myself, 'if he had a thousand heads, he would rather
+have them all cut off than make one recantation.'" He relates also how
+the elector Frederick, before his supper, sent for him from Luther's
+dwelling, took him into his room and expressed to him his astonishment
+and delight at Luther's speech. "How excellently did Father Martin speak
+both in Latin and German before the Emperor and the orders! He was bold
+enough, if not too much so." The Emperor, on the contrary, had been so
+little impressed by Luther's personality, and had understood so little
+of it, that he fancied the writings ascribed to him must have been
+written by someone else. Many of his Spaniards had pursued Luther, as he
+left the diet, with hisses and shouts of scorn.
+
+Luther, by refusing thus point-blank to retract, effectually destroyed
+whatever hopes of mediation or reconciliation had been entertained by
+the milder and more moderate adherents of the Church who still wished
+for reform. Nor was any union possible with those who, while looking to
+a truly representative council as the best safeguard against the tyranny
+of a pope, were anxious also to obtain at such a council a secure and
+final settlement of all questions of Christian faith and morals. It was
+these very councils about which Eck purposely called on Luther for a
+declaration; and Luther's words on this point might well have been
+considered by the Elector as "too bold."
+
+Luther remained faithful to himself. True it was that he had often
+formerly spoken of yielding in mere externals, and of the duty of living
+in love and harmony, and respecting the weaknesses of others; and his
+conduct during the elaboration of his own church system will show us how
+well he knew to accommodate himself to the time, and, where perfection
+was impossible, to be content with what was imperfect. But the question
+here was not about externals, or whether a given proceeding were
+judicious or not for the attainment of an object admittedly good. It was
+a question of confessing or denying the truth--the highest and holiest
+truths, as he expressed it--relating to God and the salvation of man. In
+this matter his conscience was bound.
+
+And the trial thus offered for his endurance was not yet over. On the
+morning of the 19th the Emperor sent word to the estates that he would
+now send Luther back in safety to Wittenberg, but treat him as a
+heretic. The majority insisted on attempting further negotiations with
+him through a committee specially appointed. These were conducted
+accordingly by the Elector of Treves. The friendliness and the visible
+interest in his cause with which Luther now was urged were more
+calculated to move him than Eck's behavior at the diet. He himself bore
+witness afterward how the Archbishop had shown himself more than
+gracious to him and would willingly have arranged matters peaceably.
+Instead of being urged simply to retract all his propositions condemned
+by the Pope, or his writings directed against the papacy, he was
+referred in particular to those articles in which he rejected the
+decisions of the Council of Constance. He was desired to submit in
+confidence to a verdict of the Emperor and the empire when his books
+should be submitted to judges beyond suspicion. After that he should at
+least accept the decision of a future council, unfettered by any
+acknowledgment of the previous sentence of the Pope.
+
+So freely and independently of the Pope did this committee of the German
+Diet, including several bishops and Duke George of Saxony, proceed in
+negotiating with a papal heretic. But everything was shipwrecked on
+Luther's firm reservation that the decision must not be contrary to the
+Word of God; and on that question his conscience would not allow him to
+renounce the right of judging for himself. After two days'
+negotiations, he thus, on April 25th, according to Spalatin, declared
+himself to the Archbishop: "Most gracious Lord, I cannot yield; it must
+happen with me as God wills," and continued: "I beg of your grace that
+you will obtain for me the gracious permission of his imperial majesty
+that I may go home again, for I have now been here for ten days and
+nothing yet has been effected." Three hours later the Emperor sent word
+to Luther that he might return to the place he came from, and should be
+given a safe-conduct for twenty-one days, but would not be allowed to
+preach on the way.
+
+Free residence, however, and protection at Wittenberg, in case Luther
+were condemned by the empire, was more than even Frederick the Wise
+would be able to assure him. But he had already laid his plan for the
+emergency. Spalatin refers to it in these words: "Now was my most
+gracious Lord somewhat disheartened; he was certainly fond of Dr.
+Martin, and was also most unwilling to act against the Word of God or to
+bring upon himself the displeasure of the Emperor. Accordingly, he
+devised means how to get Dr. Martin out of the way for a time, until
+matters might be quietly settled, and caused Luther also to be informed,
+the evening before he left Worms, of his scheme for getting him out of
+the way. At this Dr. Martin, out of deference to his Elector, was
+submissively content, though certainly, then and at all times, he would
+much rather have gone courageously to the attack."
+
+The very next morning, Friday, the 26th, Luther departed. The imperial
+herald went behind him, so as not to attract notice. They took the usual
+road to Eisenach. At Friedberg Luther dismissed the herald, giving him a
+letter to the Emperor and the estates, in which he defended his conduct
+at Worms, and his refusal to trust in the decision of men, by saying
+that when God's Word and things eternal were at stake, one's trust and
+dependence should be placed, not on one man or many men, but on God
+alone. At Hersfeld, where Abbot Crato, in spite of the ban, received him
+with all marks of honor, and again at Eisenach, he preached,
+notwithstanding the Emperor's prohibition, not daring to let the Word of
+God be bound.
+
+From Eisenach, while Swaven, Schurf, and several other of his companions
+went straight on, he struck southward, together with Amsdorf and
+Brother Pezensteiner, in order to go and see his relations at Moehra.
+Here, after spending the night at the house of his uncle Heinz, he
+preached the next morning, Saturday, May 4th. Then, accompanied by some
+of his relations, he took the road through Schweina, past the castle of
+Altenstein, and then across the back of the Thuringian Forest to
+Waltershausen and Gotha. Toward evening, when near Altenstein, he bade
+leave of his relations. About half an hour farther on, at a spot where
+the road enters the wooded heights, and, ascending between hills along a
+brook, leads to an old chapel, which even then was in ruins and has now
+quite disappeared, armed horsemen attacked the carriage, ordered it to
+stop with threats and curses, pulled Luther out of it, and then hurried
+him away at full speed. Pezensteiner had run away as soon as he saw them
+approach. Amsdorf and the coachman were allowed to pass on; the former
+was in the secret, and pretended to be terrified, to avoid any suspicion
+on the part of his companion.
+
+The Wartburg[30] lay to the north, about eight miles distant, and had
+been the starting-point of the horsemen, as it now was their goal; but
+precaution made them ride first in an eastern direction with Luther. The
+coachman afterward related how Luther in the haste of the flight dropped
+a gray hat he had worn. And now Luther was given a horse to ride. The
+night was dark, and at about eleven o'clock they arrived at the stately
+castle, situated above Eisenach. Here he was to be kept as a
+knight-prisoner. The secret was kept as strictly as possible toward
+friend and foe. For many weeks afterward even Frederick's brother John
+had no idea of it. Among his friends and followers the terrible news had
+spread, immediately upon his capture, that he had been made away with by
+his enemies.
+
+At Worms, however, while the Pope was concluding an alliance with
+Charles against France, the papal legate Aleander, by commission of the
+Emperor, prepared the edict against Luther on the 8th of May. It was
+not, however, until the 25th, after Frederick the Elector of the
+Palatinate and a great part of the other members of the diet had already
+left, that it was deemed advisable to have it communicated to the rest
+of the estates; nevertheless it was antedated the 8th, and issued "by
+the unanimous advice of the electors and estates." It pronounced upon
+Luther, applying the customary strong expressions of papal bulls, the
+ban and reban; no one was to receive him any longer, or feed him, etc.,
+but wherever he was found he was to be seized and handed over to the
+Emperor.
+
+
+JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+The Reformation was a revolution, and they who rebelled against the
+authority of the Church were revolutionists. However slightly you look
+into the constitution of the Church, you will be convinced that the
+Reformation possessed the character of an insurrection. What is the
+meaning of this fine word, Reformation? Amelioration, doubtless. Well,
+then, with history before us, it is easy to show that it was only a
+prostration of the human mind. Glutted with the wealth of which it
+robbed the Catholics, and the blood which it shed, it gives us, instead
+of the harmony and Christian love of which it deprived our ancestors,
+nothing but dissensions, resentments, and discords. No, the Reformation
+was not an era of happiness and peace; it was only established by
+confusion and anarchy. Do you feel your heart beat at the mention of
+justice and truth? Acknowledge, then, what it is impossible to deny,
+that Luther must not be compared with the apostles. The apostles came
+teaching in the name of Jesus Christ their master, and the Catholics are
+entitled to ask us from whom Luther had his mission. We cannot prove
+that he had a mission direct or indirect. Luther perverted Christianity;
+he withdrew himself criminally from the communion in which regeneration
+alone was possible.
+
+It has been said that all Christendom demanded a reformation--who
+disputes it? But long before the time of Luther the papacy had listened
+to the complaints of the faithful. The Council of Lateran had been
+convened to put an end to the scandals which afflicted the Church. The
+papacy labored to restore the discipline of the early ages, in
+proportion as Europe, freed from the yoke of brute force, became
+politically organized and advanced with slow but sure step to
+civilization. Was it not at that time that the source of all religious
+truth was made accessible to scientific study, since, by means of the
+watchful protection of the papacy, the holy Scriptures were translated
+into every language? The New Testament of Erasmus, dedicated to Leo X,
+had preceded the quarrel about indulgences.
+
+A reformer should take care that, in his zeal to get rid of manifest
+abuses, he does not at the same time shake the faith and its wholesome
+institutions to the foundation. When the reformers violently separated
+themselves from the Church of Rome, they thought it necessary to reject
+every doctrine taught by her. Luther, that spirit of evil, who scattered
+gold with dirt, declared war against the institutions without which the
+Church could not exist; he destroyed unity. Who does not remember that
+exclamation of Melanchthon, "We have committed many errors, and have
+made good of evil without any necessity for it"?
+
+In justification of the brutal rupture of Germany with Rome, the
+scandals of the clergy are alleged. But if at the period of the
+Reformation there were priests and monks in Germany whose conduct was
+the cause of regret to Christians, their number was not larger than it
+had been previously. When Luther appeared, there was in Germany a great
+number of Catholic prelates whose piety the reformers themselves have
+not hesitated to admire.
+
+What pains they take to deceive us! In books of every size they teach
+us, even at the present day, that the beast, the man of sin, the
+creature of Babylon, are the names which God has given in his Scriptures
+to the pope and the papacy! Can it be imagined that Christ, who died for
+our sins, and saved us by his blood, would have suffered that for ten or
+twelve centuries his church should be guided by such an abominable
+wretch? that he would have allowed millions of his creatures to walk in
+the shadow of death? and that so many generations should have had no
+other pastor but Antichrist?
+
+Luther mistook the genius of Christianity in introducing a new principle
+into the world--the immediate authority of the Bible as the sole
+criterion of the truth. If tradition is to be rejected, it follows that
+the Bible cannot be authoritatively explained by acquired knowledge; in
+a word, human interpretation based upon its comprehensions of the Greek
+and Hebrew languages. So, by this theory, the palladium of orthodoxy is
+to be found in a knowledge of foreign tongues, and living authority is
+replaced by a dead letter; a slavery a thousand times more oppressive
+than the yoke of tradition. Has any dogmatist succeeded in drawing up a
+confession of faith by means of the Bible which could not be attacked by
+means of reason? This formula, that the Bible must be the "_unicum
+principium theologiæ_," is the source of contradictory doctrines in
+Protestant theology; hence this question arises: "What Protestant
+theology is there in which there are not errors more or less?" It was
+the Bible that inspired all the neologists of the sixteenth century; the
+Bible that they made use of to persecute and condemn themselves as
+heretics. When Luther maintained that the Bible contains the enunciation
+of all the truths of which a knowledge is necessary to salvation, and
+that no doctrine which is not distinctly laid down in the Bible can be
+regarded as an article of faith, he did not imagine that the time was at
+hand when everybody, from this very volume, would form a confession for
+himself, and reject all others which contradicted his individual creed.
+This necessity for inquiry so occupies the minds of men at the present
+day that the principal articles of the original creed are rejected by
+those who call themselves the disciples of Jesus.
+
+But what are we to understand by the Bible? The question was a difficult
+one to solve even at the beginning of the Reformation, when Luther, in
+his preface to the translation of the Bible, laid down a difference
+between the canonical books by preferring the gospel of St. John to the
+three other evangelists; by depreciating the Epistle of St. James as an
+epistle of straw, that contained nothing of the Gospel in it, and which
+an apostle could not have written, since it attributes to works a merit
+which they did not possess. It was in the Bible that Luther discovered
+these two great truths of salvation, which he revealed to the world at
+the beginning of his apostleship--_the slavery of man's will, and the
+impeccability of the believer_.
+
+It is said in Exodus, chapter ix, that God hardened the heart of
+Pharaoh. It was questioned whether these words were to be construed
+literally. This Erasmus rightly denied, and it roused the doctor's
+wrath. Luther, in his reply, furiously attacks the fools who, calling
+reason to their aid, dare call for an account from God why he condemns
+or predestines to damnation innocent beings before they have even seen
+the light. Truly, Luther, in the eyes of all God's creatures, must
+appear a prodigy of daring when he ventures to maintain that no one can
+reach heaven unless he adopts the slavery of the human will. And it is
+not merely by the spirit of disputation, but by settled conviction, that
+he defends this most odious of all ideas. He lived and died teaching
+that horrible doctrine, which the most illustrious of his
+disciples--among others, Melanchthon and Matthew Albert of
+Reutlingen--condemned. "How rich is the Christian!" repeated Luther;
+"even though he wished it, he cannot forfeit heaven by any stain;
+believe, then, and be assured of your salvation: God in eternity cannot
+escape you. Believe, and you shall be saved: repentance, confession,
+satisfaction, good works, all these are useless for salvation; it is
+sufficient to have faith."
+
+Is not this a fearful error--a desolating doctrine? If you demonstrate
+to Luther its danger or absurdity, he replies that you blaspheme the
+Spirit of light. Neither attempt to prove to him that he is mistaken; he
+will tell you that you offend God. No, no, my brother, you will never
+convince me that the Holy Spirit is confined to Wittenberg any more than
+to your person.
+
+Not content with maledictions, Luther then turns himself to prophecy; he
+announces that his doctrine, which proceeds from heaven, will gain, one
+by one, all the kingdoms of the world. He says of Zwingli's explanation
+of the eucharist, "I am not afraid of this fanatical interpretation
+lasting long." On the other hand Zwingli predicted that the Swiss creed
+would be handed down from generation to generation, crossing the Elbe
+and the Rhine. Prophet against prophet, if success be the test of truth,
+Luther will inevitably have to yield in this point.
+
+The Reformation, which at first was entirely a religious phenomenon,
+soon assumed a political character; it could not fail to do so. When
+people began to exclaim, like Luther, on the house-tops: "The Emperor
+Charles V ought not to be supported longer; let him and the Pope be
+knocked on the head;" that "he is an excited madman, a bloodhound, who
+must be killed with pikes and clubs," how could civil society continue
+subject to authority? It was natural that the monk's virulent writings
+against the bishops' spiritual power should be reduced by the subjects
+of the ecclesiastical superiors into a political theory. When he
+proclaimed that the yoke of priests and monks must be shaken off, we
+might expect that this wild appeal would be directed against the tithes
+which the people paid to the prelates and the abbots. The Saxon's
+doctrine being based wholly on the holy Scriptures, the peasant
+considered himself authorized in virtue of their text to break violently
+with his lord; hence that long war between the cottage and the castle.
+This it was that made Erasmus write sorrowfully to Luther: "You see that
+we are now reaping the fruits of what you sowed. You will not
+acknowledge the rebels; but they acknowledge you, and they know only too
+well that many of your disciples, who clothed themselves in the mantle
+of the Gospel, have been the instigators of this bloody rebellion. In
+your pamphlet against the peasants, you in vain endeavor to justify
+yourself. It is you who have raised the storm by your publications
+against the monks and the prelates, and you say that you fight for
+gospel liberty, and against the tyranny of the great! From the moment
+that you began your tragedy I foresaw the end of it."
+
+That civil war, in which Germany had to mourn the loss of more than a
+hundred thousand of her children, was the consequence of Luther's
+preaching. It is fortunate that, through the efforts of a Catholic
+prince, Duke George of Saxony, it was speedily brought to an end. Had it
+lasted but a few years longer, of all the ancient monuments with which
+Germany was filled, not a single vestige would have remained. Karlstadt
+might then have sat upon their ruins, and sung, with his Bible in his
+hand, the downfall of the images. The iconoclast's theories, all drawn
+from the Word of God, held their ground in spite of Luther, and dealt a
+fatal blow to the arts.
+
+When a gorgeous worship requires magnificent temples, imposing
+ceremonies, and striking solemnities; when religion presents to the eye
+sensible images as objects of public veneration; when earth and heaven
+are peopled with supernatural beings, to whom imagination can lend a
+sensible form--then it is that the arts, encouraged and ennobled, reach
+the zenith of their splendor and perfection. The architect, raised to
+honors and fortune, conceives the plans of those basilicas and
+cathedrals whose aspect strikes us with religious awe, and whose richly
+adorned walls are ornamented with the finest efforts of art. Those
+temples and altars are decorated with marbles and precious metals, which
+sculpture has fashioned into the similitude of angels, saints, and the
+images of illustrious men. The choirs, the jubes, the chapels, and
+sacristies are hung with pictures on all sides. Here Jesus expires on
+the cross; there he is transfigured on Mount Tabor. Art, the friend of
+imagination, which delights only in heaven, finds there the most sublime
+creations--a St. John, a Cecilia, above all a Mary, that patroness of
+tender hearts, that virgin model to all mothers, that mediatrix of
+graces, placed between man and his God, that august and amiable being,
+of whom no other religion presents either the resemblance or the model.
+During the solemnities, the most costly stuffs, precious stones, and
+embroidery cover the altars, vessels, priests, and even the very walls
+of the sanctuary. Music completes the charm by the most exquisite
+strains, by the harmony of the choir. These powerful incentives are
+repeated in a hundred different places; the metropolises, parishes, the
+numerous religious houses, the simple oratories, sparkle with emulation
+to captivate all the powers of the religious and devout mind. Thus a
+taste for the arts becomes general by means of so potent a lever, and
+artists increase in number and rivalry. Under this influence the
+celebrated schools of Italy and Flanders flourished; and the finest
+works which now remain to us testify the splendid encouragement which
+the Catholic religion lavished upon them.
+
+After this natural progress of events, it cannot be doubted that the
+Reformation has been unfavorable to the fine arts, and has very much
+restrained the exercise of them. It has severed the bonds which united
+them to religion, which sanctified them, and secured for them a place in
+the veneration of the people. The Protestant worship tends to disenchant
+the material imagination; it makes fine churches and statues and
+paintings unnecessary; it renders them unpopular, and takes from them
+one of their most active springs.
+
+The peasants' war was soon succeeded by the spoliation of the
+monasteries; "an invasion of the most sacred of all rights, more
+important, in certain respects, than liberty itself--property." From
+that time not a day passed without Luther preaching up the robbery of
+the religious houses. To excite the greed of the princes whom he wished
+to secure to his views, he loved to direct their attention to the
+treasures which the abbeys, cloisters, sacristies, and sanctuaries
+contained. "Take them," he said; "all these are your own--all belong to
+you." Luther was convinced that to the value of the golden remonstrances
+which shone on the Catholic altars he was indebted for more than one
+conversion. In a moment of humor he said: "The gentry and princes are
+the best Lutherans; they willingly accept both monasteries and chapters,
+and appropriate their treasures."
+
+The Landgrave of Hesse, to obtain authority for giving his arm to two
+lawful wives, took care to make the wealth of the monasteries glitter in
+the eyes of the Church of Wittenberg, so that as the price of their
+permission he was willing to give it to the Saxon ministers. The plunder
+of church property, preached by Luther, will be the eternal condemnation
+of the Protestants. Though Naboth's vineyard may serve as a bait or
+reward for apostasy, it cannot justify crime.
+
+A laureate of the Institute of France has discovered grounds for
+palliating this blow to property. He congratulates the princes who
+embraced the Reformation for having, by means of the ecclesiastical
+property, filled their coffers, paid their debts, applied the
+confiscated wealth to useful establishments, clubs, universities,
+hospitals, orphanages, retreats, and rewards for the old servants of the
+state. But Luther himself took care, on more than one occasion, to
+denounce the avarice of the princes who, when once masters of the
+monastic property, employed its revenues for the support of mistresses
+and packs of hounds. We remember the eloquent complaints which he
+uttered in his old age against these carnal men, who left the Protestant
+clergy in destitution, and did not even pay the schoolmasters their
+salaries. He mourned them, but it was too late. Sometimes the
+chastisement of heaven fell, even in this life, on the spoiler; and
+Luther has mentioned instances of several of those iron hands, who,
+after having enriched themselves by the plunder of a monastery, church,
+or abbey, fell into abject poverty. Besides, we will admit that Luther
+never thought of consoling the plundered monks by asserting, like
+Charles Villers, that "one of the finest effects of these terrible
+commotions which unsettle all properties, the fruits of social
+institutions, is to substitute for them greatness of mind, virtues, and
+talents, the fruits of nature exclusively."
+
+If the triumph of the peasants in the fields of Thuringia might have
+been an irreparable misfortune to Germany and to Christianity, we cannot
+deny that Luther's appeal to the secular arm, to suppress the rebellion,
+may have thoroughly altered the character of the first Reformation. Till
+then it had been established by preaching; but from the moment of that
+bloody episode it required the civil authority to move it. The sword,
+therefore, took the place of the Word; and to perpetuate itself the
+Reformation was bound to exaggerate the theory of passive obedience. One
+of the distinguished historians of Heidelberg, Carl Hagen, has recently
+favored us with some portions of the political code in which
+Protestantism commands subjects to be obedient to the civil power, even
+when it commands them to commit sin.
+
+Thus the democratic element, first developed by the Reformation, was
+effaced to become absorbed in the despotic. It was no longer the people,
+but the prince, who chose or rejected the Protestant minister. When the
+Landgrave of Hesse consulted Melanchthon, in 1525, as to the line he
+should pursue in the appointment of a pastor, the doctor told him that
+he had the right to interfere in the election of the ministers, and
+that, if he surmounted the struggles in which the Word of God had
+involved him, he ought not to commit that sacred Word but to such
+preacher as seemed best to him; in other terms, observes the historian,
+to him whom the civil power thinks competent. And Martin Bucer contrived
+to extend Melanchthon's theory by constituting the civil power supreme
+judge of religious orthodoxy, by conferring on it the right of ultimate
+decision in questions of heresy, and of punishing, if necessary by fire
+and sword innovators, who are a thousand times more culpable, he says,
+than the robber or murderer, who only steal the material bread and slay
+the body, while the heretic steals the bread of life and kills the soul.
+
+Intolerance then entered into the councils of the Reformation. It was no
+longer with the peasants that Luther declared war. Whoever did not
+believe in his doctrines was denounced as a rebel; in the Saxon's eyes,
+the peasant was only an enemy to be despised; the real Satan was
+Karlstadt, Zwingli, and Krautwald.
+
+His disciples were no longer satisfied with plundering the
+monasteries--they desired to live in ease; they must have servants, a
+fine house, a well-supplied table, and plenty of money. The struggle
+then was no longer with piety and knowledge, but with power and
+influence. Every city and town had its own Lutheran pope. At Nuremberg,
+Osiander was a regular pacha. Those who among the Protestants endeavored
+to reprove his scandalous ostentation were abused and maligned. When he
+ascended the pulpit, his fingers were adorned with diamonds which
+dazzled the eyes of his hearers.
+
+The religious disputes which disturbed men's minds in Germany retarded,
+rather than advanced, the march of intellect. Blind people who fought
+furiously with each other could not find the road to truth. These
+quarrels were only another disease of the human mind. Although printing
+served to disseminate the principles of the reformers, the sudden
+progress of Lutheranism, and the zeal with which it was embraced, prove
+that reason and reflection had no part in their development.
+
+Villers has drawn a brilliant sketch of the influence which the
+Reformation exercised over biblical criticism. "It may be said that
+criticism of the Scripture text was unknown previous to the time of
+Luther; and if by this is meant that captious, whimsical, and shuffling
+criticism which DeWette has so justly condemned--certainly so. But that
+which relates to languages, antiquities, the knowledge of times, places,
+authors--in a word, hermeneutics--was known and practised in our schools
+before the Reformation, as is proved by the works of Cajetan and
+Sadoletus, and a multitude of learned men whom Leo X had encouraged and
+rewarded. We have seen besides, in the history of the Reformation, what
+that vain science has produced. It was by means of his critical
+researches that, from the time of Luther, Karlstadt found such a meaning
+of '_Semen immolare Moloch_,' as made his disciples shrug their
+shoulders; that Muenzer preached community of goods and wives; that
+Melanchthon taught that the dogma of the Trinity deprives our mind of
+all liberty; that at a later period Ammon asserted that the
+resurrection of the dead could not be deduced from the New Testament;
+Veter, that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses; that the history of
+the Jews to the time of the Judges is only a popular tradition;
+Bretschneider, that the Psalms cannot be looked upon as inspired;
+Augusti, that the true doctrine of Jesus Christ has not been preserved
+intact in the New Testament; and Geisse, that not one of the four
+gospels was written by the evangelist whose name it bears.
+
+"Since the days of Semler, Germany presents a singular spectacle: every
+ten years, or nearly so, its theological literature undergoes a complete
+revolution. What was admired during the one decennial period is rejected
+in the next, and the image which they adored is burned to make way for
+new divinities; the dogmas which were held in honor fall into discredit;
+the classical treatise of morality is banished among the old books out
+of date; criticism overturns criticism; and the commentary of yesterday
+ridicules that of the previous day."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, was Luther's friend and
+protector.
+
+[26] Georg Spalatin, a friend and fellow-reformer of Luther's, was in
+the diplomatic service of Elector Frederick.
+
+[27] Charles, the grandson of Maximilian I, Emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, succeeded him 1519. At the time of his coronation Charles was
+but twenty years old. He was also King of Spain.--ED.
+
+[28] It is obvious that he refers to Christ, who is spoken of in
+Scripture as the Holy One of God (St. Mark i. 24; Acts ii. 27), not, as
+ignorance and malice have suggested, to himself.
+
+[29] Ulrich von Hutten was a friend and supporter of Luther.
+
+[30] In 1521-1522 Frederick the Wise gave Luther asylum in the Wartburg,
+where for ten months the reformer remained in disguise as "Junker
+Georg." His room, with its furniture, is still preserved.
+
+
+
+
+NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA
+
+ITS INTRODUCTION BY LAW
+
+A.D. 1517
+
+SIR ARTHUR HELPS
+
+     In 1442 the first negro slaves were imported into Europe.
+     They were taken from Africa to Portugal in ships of Prince
+     Henry, the "Navigator." From that time there was little
+     traffic in negroes until after the discovery of America.
+     Then there was great destruction of American Indians by war,
+     disease, and killing work, and the importation of negroes
+     into Spanish America was begun in order to fill the void in
+     the labor market.
+
+     Influenced by the spirit of Bartolome de las Casas, a
+     Spanish monk, celebrated as the defender of the Indians
+     against his own countrymen who conquered them, the monarchs
+     of Spain prohibited Indian slavery. "It is a very
+     significant fact that the great 'Protector of the Indians,'
+     Las Casas, should, however innocently, have been concerned
+     with the first large grant of licenses to import negroes
+     into the West India Islands."
+
+     We first hear of the introduction of negro slaves in those
+     islands through the instructions given in 1501 to Nicolas de
+     Ovando, who in the following year succeeded Columbus as
+     governor. During the nine years of his governorship negro
+     slavery in the Spanish possessions of the New World was
+     greatly extended. A few years later, as shown by Helps,
+     official license gave it a legal sanction. Helps' account
+     begins with an abstract of Las Casas' memorials to the King
+     of Spain looking to a remedy for the bad government of the
+     West Indies.
+
+
+The outline of Las Casas' scheme was as follows: The King was to give to
+every laborer willing to emigrate to Española his living during the
+journey from his place of abode to Seville, at the rate of half a real a
+day throughout the journey, for great and small, child and parent. At
+Seville the emigrants were to be lodged in the Casa de la Contratacion
+(the India House), and were to have from eleven to thirteen maravedis a
+day. From thence they were to have a free passage to Española, and to be
+provided with food for a year. And if the climate "should try them so
+much" that at the expiration of this year they should not be able to
+work for themselves, the King was to continue to maintain them; but
+this extra maintenance was to be put down to the account of the
+emigrants, as a loan which they were to repay. The King was to give them
+lands--his own lands--furnish them with ploughshares and spades, and
+provide medicines for them. Lastly, whatever rights and profits accrued
+from their holdings were to become hereditary. This was certainly a most
+liberal plan of emigration. And, in addition, there were other
+privileges held out as inducements to these laborers.
+
+In connection with the above scheme, Las Casas, unfortunately for his
+reputation in after-ages, added another provision, namely, that each
+Spanish resident in the island should have license to import a dozen
+negro slaves.
+
+The origin of this suggestion was, as he informs us, that the colonists
+had told him that, if license were given them to import a dozen negro
+slaves each, they, the colonists, would then set free the Indians. And
+so, recollecting that statement of the colonists, he added this
+provision. Las Casas, writing his history in his old age, thus frankly
+owns his error: "This advice, that license should be given to bring
+negro slaves to these lands, the _clerigo_ Casas first gave, not
+considering the injustice with which the Portuguese take them and make
+them slaves; which advice, after he had apprehended the nature of the
+thing, he would not have given for all he had in the world. For he
+always held that they had been made slaves unjustly and tyrannically;
+for the same reason holds good of them as of the Indians." The above
+confession is delicately and truthfully worded--"not considering"; he
+does not say, not being aware of; but though it was a matter known to
+him, his moral sense was not watchful, as it were, about it. We must be
+careful not to press the admissions of a generous mind too far, or to
+exaggerate the importance of the suggestion of Las Casas.
+
+It would be quite erroneous to look upon this suggestion as being the
+introduction of negro slavery. From the earliest times of the discovery
+of America, negroes had been sent there. But what is of more
+significance, and what it is strange that Las Casas was not aware of, or
+did not mention, the Hieronymite Fathers[31] had also come to the
+conclusion that negroes must be introduced into the West Indies.
+Writing in January, 1518, when the fathers could not have known what was
+passing in Spain in relation to this subject, they recommended licenses
+to be given to the inhabitants of Española, or to other persons, to
+bring negroes there. From the tenor of their letter it appears that they
+had before recommended the same thing. Zuazo, the judge of residencia,
+and the legal colleague of Las Casas, wrote to the same effect. He,
+however, suggested that the negroes should be placed in settlements and
+married. Fray Bernardino de Manzanedo, the Hieronymite father, sent over
+to counteract Las Casas, gave the same advice as his brethren about the
+introduction of negroes. He added a proviso, which does not appear in
+their letter--perhaps it did exist in one of the earlier ones--that
+there should be as many women as men sent over, or more.
+
+The suggestion of Las Casas was approved of by the Chancellor; and,
+indeed, it is probable there was hardly a man of that time who would
+have seen further than the excellent clerigo did. Las Casas was asked
+what number of negroes would suffice? He replied that he did not know;
+upon which a letter was sent to the officers of the India House at
+Seville to ascertain the fit number in their opinion. They said that
+four thousand at present would suffice, being one thousand for each of
+the islands, Española, Porto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. Somebody now
+suggested to the Governor, De Bresa, a Fleming of much influence and a
+member of the council, that he should ask for this license to be given
+to him. De Bresa accordingly asked the King for it, who granted his
+request; and the Fleming sold this license to certain Genoese merchants
+for twenty-five thousand ducats, having obtained from the King a pledge
+that for eight years he should give no other license of this kind.
+
+The consequence of this monopoly enjoyed by the Genoese merchants was
+that negroes were sold at a great price, of which there are frequent
+complaints. Both Las Casas and Pasamonte--rarely found in
+accord--suggested to the King that it would be better to pay the
+twenty-five thousand ducats and resume the license, or to abridge its
+term. Figueroa, writing to the Emperor from Santo Domingo in July, 1500,
+says: "Negroes are very much in request; none have come for about a
+year. It would have been better to have given De Bresa the customs
+duties--_i.e._, the duties that had been usually paid on the importation
+of slaves--than to have placed a prohibition." I have scarcely a doubt
+that the immediate effect of the measure adopted in consequence of the
+clerigo's suggestion was greatly to check that importation of negro
+slaves which otherwise, had the license been general, would have been
+very abundant.
+
+Before quitting this part of the subject, something must be said for Las
+Casas which he does not allege for himself. This suggestion of his about
+the negroes was not an isolated one. Had all his suggestions been
+carried out, and the Indians thereby been preserved, as I firmly believe
+they might have been, these negroes might have remained a very
+insignificant number in the general population. By the destruction of
+Indians a void in the laborious part of the community was being
+constantly created, which had to be filled up by the labor of negroes.
+The negroes could bear the labor in the mines much better than the
+Indians; and any man who perceived that a race, of whose Christian
+virtues and capabilities he thought highly, were fading away by reason
+of being subjected to labor which their natures were incompetent to
+endure, and which they were most unjustly condemned to, might prefer the
+misery of the smaller number of another race treated with equal
+injustice, but more capable of enduring it. I do not say that Las Casas
+considered all these things; but, at any rate, in estimating his
+conduct, we must recollect that we look at the matter centuries after it
+occurred, and see all the extent of the evil arising from circumstances
+which no man could then be expected to foresee, and which were
+inconsistent with the rest of the clerigo's plans for the preservation
+of the Indians.
+
+I suspect that the wisest among us would very likely have erred with
+him; and I am not sure that, taking all his plans together, and taking
+for granted, as he did then, that his influence at court was to last,
+his suggestion about the negroes was an impolitic one.
+
+One more piece of advice Las Casas gave at this time, which, if it had
+been adopted, would have been most serviceable. He proposed that forts
+for mercantile purposes, containing about thirty persons, should be
+erected at intervals along the coast of the _terra firma_, to traffic
+with merchandise of Spain for gold, silver, and precious stones; and in
+each of these ports ecclesiastics were to be placed, to undertake the
+superintendence of spiritual matters. In this scheme may be seen an
+anticipation of subsequent plans for commercial intercourse with Africa.
+And, indeed, one is constantly reminded by the proceedings in those
+times of what has occurred much later and under the auspices of other
+nations.
+
+Of all these suggestions, some of them certainly excellent, the only
+questionable one was at once adopted. Such is the irony of life. If we
+may imagine superior beings looking on at the affairs of men, and
+bearing some unperceived part of the great contest in the world, this
+was a thing to have gladdened all the hosts of hell.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Spanish monks, followers of St. Jerome (Hieronymus).
+
+
+
+
+FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE
+
+MAGELLAN REACHES THE LADRONES AND PHILIPPINES
+
+A.D. 1519
+
+JOAN BAUTISTA    ANTONIO PIGAFETTA[32]
+
+     Ferdinand Magellan, whose name in Portuguese was Fernao de
+     Magalhaes, was born in Portugal about 1480. After serving
+     with the Portuguese in the East Indies, 1505-1512, and in
+     Morocco, 1514, where during an action he was lamed for life,
+     he became disaffected toward his country, and in 1517
+     renounced his allegiance and turned to Spain in hope of
+     better reward for his services. In conjunction with a
+     fellow-countryman, Ruy Faleiro, a geographer and astronomer,
+     he offered to find for Spain the Moluccas, in the Malay
+     Archipelago, and to prove that they were within the Spanish
+     and not the Portuguese lines of demarcation. The acceptance
+     of this proposal by the Emperor, Charles V, who was also
+     King of Spain, gave Magellan the opportunity, which he so
+     well improved, to immortalize his name in the annals of
+     maritime discovery.
+
+     While the specific object of the expedition failed on
+     account of the leader's death, his performance made him
+     worthy, as some historians think, to be considered "the most
+     undaunted and in many respects the most extraordinary man
+     that ever traversed an unknown sea."
+
+     A squadron of five ships with two hundred sixty-five men was
+     fitted out by the Emperor, and the two friends were named as
+     joint commanders, but Faleiro was afterward detached from
+     the expedition, leaving full command to Magellan, who sailed
+     from San Lucar, Spain, September 20, 1519, first touching at
+     Madeira.
+
+     Magellan passed through the straits that bear his name and
+     so penetrated to the Pacific, that ocean being first so
+     called by him. He was the first European to reach it from
+     the Atlantic. Magellan was killed by natives in the
+     Philippines, April 27, 1521; but his ships continued their
+     course. One by one they were lost from the expedition,
+     except the Victoria, on which was Pigafetta, who wrote for
+     Charles V an account of the voyage. The Victoria returned to
+     Spain in September, 1522, completing the first
+     circumnavigation of the earth. Bautista was pilot and
+     afterward captain of the Trinidad, one of the lost vessels.
+
+     In 1898 the Philippines and Guam, one of the Ladrones, were
+     acquired by the United States as a result of the
+     Spanish-American War.
+
+
+
+JOAN BAUTISTA
+
+Magellan steered to the southwest to make the island of Teneriffe, and
+they reached the said island on the day of St. Michael, which was
+September 29th. Thence he made his course to fetch the Cape Verd
+Islands, and they passed between the islands and the cape without
+sighting either the one or the other. Having to make for Brazil, and as
+soon as they sighted the other coast of Brazil, he steered to the
+southeast along the coast of Cape Frio, which is in 23° south latitude;
+and from this cape he steered to the west, a matter of thirty leagues,
+to make the Rio Janeiro, which is in the same latitude as Cape Frio, and
+they entered the said river on the day of St. Lucy, which was December
+13th, in which place they took in wood, and they remained there until
+the first octave of Christmas, which was December 26th of the same year.
+
+They sailed from this Rio de Janeiro on December 26th, and navigated
+along the coast to make Cape of St. Mary, which is only 35°; as soon as
+they sighted it, they made their course west-northwest, thinking they
+would find a passage for their voyage, and they found that they had got
+into a great river of fresh water, to which they gave the name of River
+St. Christopher, and it is in 34°, and they remained in it till February
+2, 1520.
+
+He sailed from this river of St. Christopher on the 2d of the said month
+of February; they navigated along the said coast, and farther on to the
+south they discovered a point, which is in the same river more to the
+south, to which they gave the name of Point St. Anthony; it is in 36°;
+hence they ran to the southwest a matter of twenty-five leagues, and
+made another cape, which they named Cape St. Apelonia, which is in 36°;
+thence they navigated to the west-southwest to some shoals, which they
+named Shoals of the Currents, which are in 39°; and thence they
+navigated out to the sea, and lost sight of land for a matter of two or
+three days, when they again made for the land, and they came to a bay,
+which they entered, and ran within it the whole day, thinking that there
+was an outlet for Molucca; and when night came they found that it was
+quite closed up, and in the same night they again stood out by the way
+which they had come in. This bay is in 34°; they named it the island of
+St. Matthew. They navigated from this island of St. Matthew along the
+coast until they reached another bay, where they caught many sea-wolves
+and birds; to this they gave the name of Bay of Labors; it is in 37°;
+here they came near losing the flag-ship in a storm. Thence they
+navigated along the said coast, and arrived on the last day of March of
+the year 1520 at the port of St. Julian, which is in 49°. Here they
+wintered, and found the day a little more or less than seven hours.
+
+In this port three of the ships rose up against the captain-major, their
+captains saying that they intended to take him to Castile in arrest, as
+he was taking them all to destruction. Here, through the exertions of
+the said captain-major, and the assistance and favor of the foreigners
+whom he carried with him, the captain-major went to the said three ships
+which were already mentioned, and there the captain of one of them was
+killed, who was the treasurer of the whole fleet, and named Luis de
+Mendoza; he was killed in his own ship by stabs with a dagger by the
+chief constable of the fleet, who was sent to do this by Ferdinand
+Magellan in a boat with certain men. The said three ships having thus
+been recovered, five days later Ferdinand Magellan ordered Gaspar de
+Quexixada to be decapitated and quartered; he was captain of one of the
+ships and was one of those who had mutinied.
+
+In this port they refitted the ship. Here the captain-major made Alvaro
+de Mesquita, a Portuguese, a captain of one of the ships the captain of
+which had been killed. There sailed from this port on August 24th four
+ships, for the smallest of the ships had been already lost; he had sent
+it to reconnoitre, and the weather had been heavy and had cast it
+ashore, where all the crew had been recovered along with the
+merchandise, artillery, and fittings of the ship. They remained in this
+port, in which they wintered, five months and twenty-four days, and they
+were 70° less ten minutes to the southward.
+
+They sailed on August 24th of the said year from this port of St.
+Julian, and navigated a matter of twenty leagues along the coast, and so
+they entered a river which was called Santa Cruz, which is in 50°, where
+they took in goods and as much as they could obtain. The crew of the
+lost ship were already distributed among the other ships, for they had
+returned by land to where Ferdinand Magellan was, and they continued
+collecting goods which had remained there during August and up to
+September 18th, and there they took in water and much fish which they
+caught in this river; and in the other, where they wintered, there were
+people like savages, and the men are from nine to ten spans in height,
+very well made; they have not got houses, they only go about from one
+place to another with their flocks, and eat meat nearly raw. They are
+all of them archers, and kill many animals with arrows, and with the
+skins they make clothes, that is to say, they make the skins very
+supple, and fashion them after the shape of the body, as well as they
+can, then they cover themselves with them, and fasten them by a belt
+round the waist. When they do not wish to be clothed from the waist
+upward, they let that half fall which is above the waist, and the
+garment remains hanging down from the belt which they have girt around
+them.
+
+They wear shoes which cover them four inches above the ankle, full of
+straw inside to keep their feet warm. They do not possess any iron, nor
+any other ingenuity of weapons, only they make the points of their
+arrows with flints, and so also the knives with which they cut, and the
+adze and awls with which they cut and stitch their shoes and clothes.
+They are very agile people and do no harm, and thus follow their flocks;
+wherever night finds them, there they sleep; they carry their wives
+along with them, with all the chattels they possess. The women are very
+small and carry heavy burdens on their backs. They wear shoes and
+clothes just like the men. Of these men they obtained three or four and
+brought them in the ships, and they all died except one, who went to
+Castile in a ship which went thither.
+
+They sailed from this river of Santa Cruz on October 18th: they
+continued navigating along the coast until the 21st day of the same
+month, October, when they discovered a cape, to which they gave the name
+of Cape of the Virgins, because they sighted it on the day of the eleven
+thousand virgins; it is in 52°, a little more or less, and from this
+cape, a matter of two or three leagues' distance, we found ourselves at
+the mouth of a strait. We sailed along the said coast within that
+strait, which they had reached the mouth of: they entered in it a little
+and anchored. Ferdinand Magellan sent to discover what there was
+farther in, and they found three channels; that is to say, two more in a
+southerly direction, and one traversing the country in the direction of
+Molucca, but at that time this was not yet known, only the three mouths
+were seen.
+
+The boats went thither, and brought back word, and they set sail and
+anchored at these mouths of the channels, and Ferdinand Magellan sent
+two ships to learn what there was within, and these ships went; one
+returned to the captain-major, and the other, of which Alvaro de
+Mesquita was captain, entered into one of the bays which was to the
+south, and did not return any more. Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that it
+did not come back, set sail, and the next day he did not choose to make
+for the bays, and went to the south and took another which runs
+northwest and southeast and a quarter west and east. He left letters in
+the place from which he sailed, so that, if the other ship returned, it
+might make the course which he left prescribed.
+
+After this they entered into the channel, which at some places had a
+width of three leagues, and two, and one, and in some places half a
+league, and he went through it as long as it was daylight, and anchored
+when it was night: and he sent the boats, and the ships went after the
+boats, and they brought news that there was an outlet, for they already
+saw the great sea on the other side; on which account Ferdinand Magellan
+ordered artillery to be fired for rejoicing; and before they set forth
+from this strait they found two islands, the first one larger, and the
+other, nearer toward the outlet, is the smaller one; and they went out
+between these islands and the coast on the southern side, as it was
+deeper than on the other side.
+
+This strait is a hundred leagues in length to the outlet; that outlet
+and the entrance are in 52° latitude. They made a stay in this strait
+from October 21st to November 26th, which makes thirty-six days of the
+said year of 1520, and as soon as they went out from the strait to the
+sea they made their course, for the most part, to west-northwest, when
+they found that their needles varied to the northwest almost one-half;
+and after they had navigated thus for many days they found an island in
+a little more or less than 18° or 19°, and also another, which was in
+from 13° to 14°, and this in south latitude; they are uninhabited.
+
+They ran on until they reached the line, when Ferdinand Magellan said
+that now they were in the neighborhood of Molucca, and that he would go
+in a northerly direction as far as 10° or 12°, and they reached to as
+far as 13° north, and in this latitude they navigated to the west and a
+quarter southwest a matter of a hundred leagues, where on March 6, 1521,
+they fetched two islands inhabited by many people of little truth; and
+they did not take precautions against them until they saw that they were
+taking away the skiff of the flag-ship, and they cut the rope with which
+it was made fast, and took it ashore without their being able to prevent
+it. They gave this island the name of Thieves' Island (_dos Ladroes_).
+
+Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that the skiff was lost, set sail, it being
+already night, tacking about until the next day; as soon as it was
+morning they anchored at the place where they had seen the skiff carried
+to, and he ordered two boats to be got ready with a matter of fifty or
+sixty men, and he went ashore in person and burned the whole village,
+and they killed seven or eight persons, between men and women, and
+recovered the skiff, and returned to the ships; and while they were
+there they saw forty or fifty _paraos_ come from the same land, and
+which brought much refreshments.
+
+Ferdinand Magellan would not make any further stay, and at once set
+sail, and ordered the course to be steered west and a quarter southwest,
+and so they made land, which is in barely 11°. This land is an island,
+but he would not touch at this one, and they went to touch at another
+farther on which appeared first. Ferdinand Magellan sent a boat ashore
+to observe the nature of the island; when the boat reached land, they
+saw, from the ships, paraos come out from behind the point; then they
+called back their boat. The people of the paraos, seeing that the boat
+was returning to the ships, turned back the paraos, and the boat reached
+the ships, which at once set sail for another island very near to this
+island, which is 10°, and they gave it the name of the Island of Good
+Signs, because they observed some gold in it.
+
+While they were thus anchored at this island there came to them two
+paraos, and brought them fowls and cocoanuts, and told them they had
+already seen there other men like them, from which they presumed that
+these might be Lequios or Mogores, a nation of people who have this
+name, or Chiis; and thence they set sail, and navigated farther on among
+many islands, to which they gave the name of Valley without Peril, and
+also St. Lazarus; and they ran on to another island twenty leagues from
+that from which they sailed, which is in 10°, and came to anchor at
+another island, which is named Macangor, which is in 9°; and in this
+island they were very well received, and they placed a cross in it. This
+King conducted them thence a matter of thirty leagues to another island,
+named Cabo, which is in 10°, and in this island Ferdinand Magellan did
+what he pleased with the consent of the country, and in one day eight
+hundred people became Christian, on which account Ferdinand Magellan
+desired that the other kings, neighbors to this one, should become
+subject to this one, who had become Christian; and these did not choose
+to yield to such obedience. Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that, got ready
+one night with his boats, and burned the villages of those who would not
+yield the said obedience; and a matter of ten or twelve days after this
+was done he sent to a village about half a league from that which he had
+burned, which is named Matam, and which is also an island, and ordered
+them to send him at once three goats, three pigs, three loads of rice,
+and three loads of millet for provisions for the ship. They replied
+that, of each article which he sent to ask them three of, they would
+send him by twos, and if he was satisfied with this they would at once
+comply; if not, it might be as he pleased, but that they would not give
+it. Because they did not choose to grant what he demanded of them,
+Ferdinand Magellan ordered three boats to be equipped with a matter of
+fifty or sixty men, and went against the said place, which was on April
+28th in the morning; there they found many people, who might well be as
+many as three thousand or four thousand men, who fought with such will
+that the said Ferdinand Magellan was killed there, with six of his men,
+in the year 1521.
+
+When Ferdinand Magellan was dead the Christians got back to the ships,
+where they thought fit to make two captains and governors whom they
+should obey; and, having done this, they took counsel (and decided)
+that the captains should go ashore where the people had turned
+Christians, to ask for pilots to take them to Borneo, and this was on
+May 1st of the said year. When the two captains went, being agreed upon
+what had been said, the same people of the country who had become
+Christians armed themselves against them, and killed the two captains
+and twenty-six gentlemen; and the other people who remained got back to
+the boats and returned to the ships, and, finding themselves again
+without captains, they agreed, inasmuch as the principal persons were
+killed, that one Joan Lopez, who was the chief treasurer, should be
+captain-major of the fleet, and the chief constable of the fleet should
+be captain of one of the ships. He was named Gonzalo Vas Despinosa.
+
+Having done this, they set sail, and ran about twenty-five leagues with
+three ships, which they still possessed; they then mustered, and found
+that they were altogether one hundred eight men in all these three
+ships, and many of them were wounded and sick, on which account they did
+not venture to navigate the three ships and thought it would be well to
+burn one of them--the one that should be most suitable for that
+purpose--and to take into the two ships those that remained: this they
+did out at sea, out of sight of any land. While they did this many
+paraos came to speak to them, and navigating among the islands, for in
+that neighborhood there are a great many. They did not understand one
+another, for they had no interpreter, for he had been killed with
+Ferdinand Magellan. Sailing farther on among islets, they came to anchor
+at an island which is named Carpyam, where there is gold enough, and
+this island is in fully 8°.
+
+While at anchor in this port of Carpyam they had speech with the
+inhabitants of the island, and made peace with them, and Carvalho, who
+was captain-major, gave them the boat of the ship which had been burned:
+this island has three islets in the offing. Here they took in
+refreshments, and sailed farther on to the west-southwest, and fell in
+with another island, which is named Caram, and is in 11°; from this they
+went on farther to west-southwest, and fell in with a large island, and
+ran along the coast of this island to the northeast, and reached as far
+as 9°, where they went ashore one day, with the boats equipped to seek
+for provisions, for in the ships there was now not more than eight days'
+food. On reaching shore the inhabitants would not suffer them to land,
+and shot at them with arrows of cane hardened in fire, so that they
+returned to the ships.
+
+Seeing this, they agreed to go to another island, where they had had
+some dealings, to see if they could get some provisions. Then they met
+with a contrary wind, and, going about in the direction in which they
+wished to go, they anchored, and while at anchor they saw people on
+shore hailing them to go thither; they went there with the boats, and as
+they were speaking to those people by signs, for they did not understand
+each other otherwise, a man-at-arms, named Joan de Campos, told them to
+let him go on shore, since there were no provisions in the ships, and it
+might be that they would obtain some means of getting provisions, and
+that, if the people killed him, they would not lose much with him, for
+God would take thought of his soul; and also if he found provisions, and
+if they did not kill him, he would find means for bringing them to the
+ships: and they thought well of this. So he went on shore, and as soon
+as he reached it the inhabitants received him and took him into the
+interior the distance of a league, and when he was in the village all
+the people came to see him, and they gave him food and entertained him
+well, especially when they saw that he ate pigs' flesh, because in this
+island they had dealings with the Moors of Borneo, and because the
+country people were greedy they made them neither eat pigs nor bring
+them up in the country. The country is called Dyguacam and is in 9°.
+
+The said Christian, seeing that he was favored and well treated by the
+inhabitants, gave them to understand by his signs that they should carry
+provisions to the ships, which would be well paid for. In the country
+there was nothing except rice not pounded. Then the people set to
+pounding rice all the night, and when it was morning they took the rice
+and the said Christian and came to the ships, where they did them great
+honor, and took in the rice and paid them, and they returned on shore.
+This man being already set on shore, inhabitants of another village a
+little farther on came to the ships and told them they would give them
+much provisions for their money; and as soon as the said man whom they
+had sent arrived, they set sail and went to anchor at the village of
+those who had come to call them, which was named Vay Palay Cucar a
+Canbam, where Carvalho made peace with the King of the country, and they
+settled the price of rice, and they gave them two measures of rice,
+which weighed one hundred fourteen pounds, for three fathoms of linen
+stuff of Britanny; they took there as much rice as they wanted, and
+goats and pigs; and while they were at this place there came a Moor, who
+had been in the village of Dyguacam, which belongs to the Moors of
+Borneo, as had been said above, and after that he went to his country.
+
+While they were at anchor at this village of Dyguacam, there came to
+them a parao in which there was a negro named Bastiam, who asked for a
+flag and a passport for the Governor of Dyguacam, and they gave him all
+this and other things for a present. They asked the said Bastiam, who
+spoke Portuguese sufficiently well, since he had been in Molucca, where
+he had become a Christian, if he would go with them and show them
+Borneo; he said he would be very willing, and when the departure arrived
+he hid himself, and, seeing that he did not come, they set sail from
+this port of Dyguacam on July 21st to seek for Borneo. As they set sail
+there came to them a parao, which was coming to the port of Dyguacam,
+and they took it, and in it they took three Moors, who said they were
+pilots and that they would take them to Borneo.
+
+Having got these Moors, they steered along this island to the southwest,
+and fell in with two islands at its extremity, and passed between them;
+that on the north side is named Bolyna, and that on the south Bamdym.
+Sailing to the west-southwest a matter of fourteen leagues, they fell in
+with a white bottom, which was a shoal below the water; and the black
+men they carried with them told them to draw near to the coast of the
+island, as it was deeper there, and that was more in the direction of
+Borneo, for from that neighborhood the island of Borneo could already be
+sighted. This same day they reached and anchored at some islands, to
+which they gave the name of islets of St. Paul, which was a matter of
+two and a half or three leagues from the great island of Borneo, and
+they were in about 7° at the south side of these islands. In the island
+of Borneo there is an exceedingly big mountain to which they gave the
+name of Mount St. Paul; and from thence they navigated along the coast
+of Borneo to the southwest, between an island and the island of Borneo
+itself; and they went forward on the same course and reached the
+neighborhood of Borneo, and the Moors they had with them told them that
+there was no Borneo, and the wind did not suffer them to arrive thither,
+as it was contrary. They anchored at an island which is there, and which
+may be eight leagues from Borneo.
+
+Close to this island is another which has many Myrobalans, and the next
+day they set sail for the other island, which is nearer to the port of
+Borneo; and going along thus they saw so many shoals that they anchored
+and sent the boats ashore in Borneo, and they took the aforesaid Moorish
+pilots on shore, and there went a Christian with them; and the boats
+went to set them on land, from whence they had to go to the city of
+Borneo, which was three leagues off, and there they were taken before
+the Shahbender of Borneo, and he asked what people they were, and for
+what they came in the ships; and they were presented to the King of
+Borneo with the Christian. As soon as the boats had set the said men on
+shore, they sounded, in order to see if the ships should come in closer;
+and during this they saw three junks which were coming from the port of
+Borneo--from the said city--out to sea, and as soon as they saw the
+ships they returned inshore; continuing to sound, they found the channel
+by which the port is entered; then they set sail, and entered this
+channel, and being within the channel they anchored, and would not go
+farther in until they received a message from the shore, which arrived
+next day with two paraos: these carried certain swivel guns of metal,
+and a hundred men in each parao, and they brought goats and fowls and
+two cows, and figs and other fruit, and told them to enter farther in
+opposite the islands which were near there, which was the true berth;
+and from this position to the city there might be three or four leagues.
+While thus at anchor they established peace, and settled that they
+should trade in what there was in the country, especially wax, to which
+they answered that they would be willing to sell all that there was in
+the country for their money. This port of Borneo is in 8°.
+
+For the answer thus received from the King they sent him a present by
+Gonzalo Mendes Despinosa, captain of the ship Victoria, and the King
+accepted the present, and gave to all of them China stuffs; and when
+there had passed twenty or twenty-three days that they were there
+trading with the people on the island, and had got five men on shore in
+the city itself, there came to anchor at the bar, close to them, five
+junks, at the hour of vespers, and they remained there that evening and
+the night until next day in the morning, when they saw coming from the
+city two hundred paraos, some under sail, others rowing. Seeing in this
+manner the five junks and the paraos, it seemed to them that there might
+be treachery, and they set sail for the junks, and as soon as the crews
+of the junks saw them under sail, they also set sail and made off where
+the wind best served them; and they overhauled one of the junks with
+boats, and took it with twenty-seven men; and the ships went and
+anchored abreast off the Island of the Myrobalans, with the junk made
+fast to the poop of the flag-ship, and the paraos returned to the shore,
+and when night came there came a squall from the west in which the said
+junk went to the bottom alongside the flag-ship, without being able to
+receive any assistance from it whatever.
+
+Next day, in the morning, they saw a sail, and went to it and took it.
+This was a great junk in which the son of the King of Lucam came as
+captain, and had with him ninety men; and as soon as they took them they
+sent some of them to the King of Borneo; and they sent him word by these
+men to send the Christians whom they had got there, who were seven men,
+and they would give him all the people they had taken in the junk; on
+which account the King sent two men of seven whom he had got there in a
+parao, and they again sent him word to send the five men who still
+remained, and they would send all the people they had got from the junk.
+They waited two days for the answer, and there came no message; and they
+took thirty men from the junk, and sent them to the King of Borneo, and
+set sail with fourteen men of those they had taken and three women; and
+they steered along the coast of the said island to the northeast,
+returning backward, and they again passed between the islands and the
+great island of Borneo, where the flag-ship grounded on a point of the
+island, and so remained more than four hours, and the tide turned and
+it got off, by which it was seen clearly that the tide was of
+twenty-four hours.
+
+While making the aforesaid course the wind shifted to northeast, and
+they stood out to sea, and they saw a sail coming, and the ships
+anchored and the boats went to it and took it. It was a small junk and
+carried nothing but cocoanuts; and they took in water and wood, and set
+sail along the coast of the island to the northeast, until they reached
+the extremity of the said island, and met with another small island,
+where they overhauled the ships, and they gave it the name of Port St.
+Mary of August, and it is in fully 7°.
+
+As soon as they had taken these precautions they set sail and steered to
+the southwest until they sighted the island, which is called Fagajam,
+and this is a course of thirty-eight to forty leagues; and as soon as
+they sighted this island they steered to the southwest, and again made
+an island which is called Seloque, and they had information that there
+were many pearls there; and when they had already sighted the island the
+wind shifted to a head wind, and they could not fetch it by the course
+they were sailing, and it seemed to them that it might be in 6°. This
+same night they arrived at the island of Quipe, and ran along it to the
+southeast, and passed between it and another island called Tamgym; and
+always running along the coast of the said island, and going thus, they
+fell in with a parao laden with sago leaves (which is of a tree which is
+named _cajare_), which the people of that country eat as bread. The
+parao carried twenty-one men, and the chief of them had been in Molucca,
+in the house of Francisco Semrryn; this was in 5°, a little more or
+less. The inhabitants of this land came to see the ships, and so they
+had speech of one another, and an old man of these people said he would
+conduct them to Molucca.
+
+In this manner, having fixed a time with the old man, an agreement was
+made with him, and they gave him a certain price for this; and when the
+next day came, and they were to depart, the old man intended to escape,
+and they understood it, and took him and others who were with him, and
+who also said that they knew pilots' work, and they set sail; and as
+soon as the inhabitants saw them go, they fitted out to go after them;
+and of the paraos, there did not reach the ships more than two, and
+these reached so near that they shot arrows into the ships, and the wind
+was fresh and they could not come up with them. At midnight of that day
+they sighted some islands, and they steered more toward them; and next
+day they saw land, which was an island; and at night following that day
+they found themselves very close to it, and when night fell the wind
+calmed and the currents drew them very much inshore; there the old pilot
+cast himself into the sea and betook himself to land.
+
+Sailing thus forward, after one of the pilots had fled, they sighted
+another island and arrived close to it, and another Moorish pilot said
+that Molucca was still farther on; and navigating thus, the next day in
+the morning they sighted three high mountains, which belonged to a
+nation of people whom they called Salabos; and then they saw a small
+island and they anchored to take in some water, because they feared that
+in Molucca they would not be allowed to take it in; and they omitted
+doing so because the Moorish pilot told them that there were some four
+hundred in that island, and that they were all very bad, and might do
+them some injury, as they were men of little faith; and that he would
+give them no such advice as to go to that island; and also because
+Molucca, which they were seeking, was now near, and that its kings were
+good men, who gave a good reception to all sorts of men in their
+country; and while still in this neighborhood they saw the islands
+themselves of Molucca, and for rejoicing they fired all the artillery,
+and they arrived at the island on November 8, 1521, so that they spent
+from Spain to Molucca two years and two months.
+
+As soon as they arrived at the island of Tydor, which is in 30', the
+King thereof did them great honor, which could not be exceeded. There
+they treated with the King for their cargo, and the King engaged to give
+them whatever there was in the country for their money, and they settled
+to give for the bahar of cloves fourteen ells of yellow cloth of
+seventy-seven tem, which are worth in Castile a ducat the ell; of red
+cloth of the same kind ten ells; they also gave thirty ells of Britanny
+linen cloth, and for each of these quantities they received a bahar of
+cloves; likewise for thirty knives, eight bahars. Having thus settled
+all the above mentioned prices, the inhabitants of the country gave them
+information that farther on, in another island near, there was a
+Portuguese man. This island might be two leagues distant, and it was
+named Targatell. This man was the chief person of Molucca; there we now
+have got a fortress. They then wrote letters to the said Portuguese to
+come and speak with them, to which he answered that he did not dare,
+because the King of the country forbade it; that if they obtained
+permission from the King he would come at once. This permission they
+soon got, and the Portuguese came to speak with them.
+
+They gave him an account of the prices which they had settled, at which
+he was amazed, and said on that account the King had ordered him not to
+come, as they did not know the truth about the prices of the country;
+and while they were thus taking in cargo there arrived the King of
+Baraham, which is near there, and said that he wished to be a vassal of
+the King of Castile, and also that he had got four hundred bahars of
+cloves, and that he had sold them to the King of Portugal, and that they
+had bought it, but that he had not yet delivered it; and if they wished
+for it, he would give it all to them; to which the captains answered
+that if he brought it to them, and came with it, they would buy it, but
+not otherwise. The King, seeing that they did not wish to take the
+cloves, asked them for a flag and a letter of safe-conduct, which they
+gave him, signed by the captains of the ships.
+
+While they were thus waiting for the cargo, it seemed to them, from the
+delay in delivery, that the King was preparing some treachery against
+them, and the greater part of the ships' crews made an uproar and told
+the captains to go, as the delays which the King made were for nothing
+else than treachery: as it seemed to them all that it might be so, they
+were abandoning everything and were intending to depart; and being about
+to unfurl the sails, the King, who had made the agreement with them,
+came to the flag-ship and asked the captain why he wanted to go, because
+that which he had agreed upon with him he intended to fulfil it as had
+been settled. The captain replied that the ships' crews said they should
+go and not remain any longer, as it was only treachery that was being
+prepared against them. To this the King answered that it was not so, and
+on that account he at once sent for his _Koran_, upon which he wished
+to make oath that nothing should be done to them. They at once brought
+him his _Koran_, and upon it he made oath, and told them to rest at ease
+with that. At this the crews were set at rest, and he promised them that
+he would give them their cargo by December 15, 1521, which he fulfilled
+within the said time, without being wanting in anything.
+
+When the two ships were already laden and about to unfurl their sails,
+the flag-ship sprung a large leak, and, the King of the country learning
+this, he sent them twenty-five divers to stop the leak, which they were
+unable to do. They settled that the other ship should depart, and that
+this one should again discharge all its cargo and unload it; and as they
+could not stop the leak, the King promised that they, the people of the
+country, should give them all that they might be in need of. This was
+done, and they discharged the cargo of the flag-ship; and when the said
+ship was repaired, they took in her cargo, and decided on making for the
+country of the Antilles, and the course from Molucca to it was two
+thousand leagues, a little more or less. The other ship, which set sail
+first, left on December of the said year, and went out to sea for the
+Timor, and made its course behind Java, two thousand fifty-five leagues,
+to the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+
+ANTONIO PIGAFETTA
+
+In order to double the Cape of Good Hope, we went as far as 42° south
+latitude, and we remained off that cape for nine weeks, with the sails
+struck, on account of the western and northwestern gales, which beat
+against our bows with fierce squalls. The Cape of Good Hope is in 34°
+30' south latitude, sixteen hundred leagues distant from Cape of
+Molucca, and it is the largest and most dangerous cape in the world.
+
+Some of our men, and among them the sick, would have liked to land at a
+place belonging to the Portuguese called Mozambique, both because the
+ship made much water and because of the great cold which we suffered;
+and much more because we had nothing but rice-water for food and drink,
+all the meat of which we had made provision having putrefied, for the
+want of salt had not permitted us to salt it. But the greater number of
+us, prizing honor more than life itself, decided on attempting at any
+risk to return to Spain.
+
+At length, by the aid of God, on the 6th of May, we passed the terrible
+cape, but we were obliged to approach it within only five leagues'
+distance, or else we should never have passed it. We then sailed toward
+the northwest for two whole months without ever taking rest; and in this
+short time we lost twenty-one men, between Christians and Indians. We
+made then a curious observation on throwing them into the sea; that was
+that the Christian remained with the face turned to the sky, and the
+Indians with the face turned to the sea. If God had not granted us
+favorable weather, we should all have perished of hunger.
+
+Constrained by extreme necessity, we decided on touching at the Cape
+Verd island named St. James. Knowing that we were in an enemy's country
+and among suspicious persons, on sending the boat ashore to get
+provision of victuals, we charged the seamen to say to the Portuguese
+that we had sprung our foremast under the equinoctial line--although
+this misfortune had happened at the Cape of Good Hope--and that our ship
+was alone, because while we tried to repair it our captain-general had
+gone with the other two ships to Spain. With these good words, and
+giving our merchandise in exchange, we obtained two boat-loads of rice.
+
+In order to see whether we had kept an exact account of the days, we
+charged those who went ashore to ask what day of the week it was, and
+they were told by the Portuguese inhabitants of the island that it was
+Thursday, which was a great cause of wondering to us, since with us it
+was only Wednesday. We could not persuade ourselves that we were
+mistaken; and I was more surprised than the others, since, having always
+been in good health, I had every day, without intermission, written down
+the day that was current. But we were afterward advised that there was
+no error on our part, since, as we had always sailed toward the west,
+following the course of the sun, and had returned to the same place, we
+must have gained twenty-four hours, as it is clear to anyone who
+reflects upon it.
+
+The boat, having returned for rice a second time to the shore, was
+detained with thirteen men who were in it. As we saw that, and, from the
+movement in certain caravels, suspected that they might wish to capture
+us and our ship, we at once set sail. We afterward learned, some time
+after our return, that our boat and men had been arrested, because one
+of our men had discovered the deception and said that the
+captain-general was dead, and that our ship was the only one remaining
+of Magellan's fleet.
+
+At last, when it pleased heaven, on Saturday, September 6, 1522, we
+entered the Bay of San Lucar; and of sixty men who composed our crew
+when we left Molucca, we were reduced to only eighteen, and these for
+the most part sick. Of the others, some died of hunger, some had run
+away at the island of Timor, and some had been condemned to death for
+their crimes.
+
+From the day when we left this Bay of San Lucar until our return
+thither, we reckoned that we had run more than fourteen thousand four
+hundred sixty leagues, and we had completed going round the earth from
+east to west.
+
+Monday, September 8th, we cast anchor near the mole of Seville, and
+discharged all the artillery.
+
+Tuesday we all went in shirts and barefoot, with a taper in our hands,
+to visit the shrine of Santa Maria de Antigua.
+
+Then leaving Seville, I went to Valladolid, where I presented to his
+sacred majesty Don Carlos neither gold nor silver, but things more
+precious in the eyes of so great a sovereign. I presented to him, among
+other things, a book written by my hand of all the things that occurred
+day by day in our voyage. I departed thence as I was best able and went
+to Portugal, and related to King John the things which I had seen.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[32] Translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley.
+
+
+
+
+THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD
+
+A.D. 1520
+
+J. S. BREWER
+
+     From the magnificence of the preparations made for the
+     famous meeting described in the following pages, the plain
+     on which it took place, between Guines and Ardres, France,
+     received the name of the "Field of the Cloth of Gold."
+
+     The meeting of the two kings, Henry VIII of England and
+     Francis I of France, was brought about by circumstances
+     connected with the rivalry between Francis and the emperor
+     Charles V. The enmity of the two latter and their repeated
+     wars form a principal subject of European history during
+     many years.
+
+     Francis came to the throne in 1515, and the first four years
+     of his reign were marked by brilliant successes, which
+     brought him fame as a ruler and a warrior. But in 1519 he
+     was an unsuccessful candidate for the imperial dignity, and
+     Charles, being preferred before him, became emperor of the
+     Holy Roman Empire.
+
+     Great was the mortification of Francis and he soon after
+     declared war against his rival. Both sought the alliance of
+     Henry VIII, and in hopes of securing his friendship, and
+     thereby preventing a union of the Emperor and the English
+     King against himself, Francis arranged the meeting so
+     brilliantly pictured by Brewer. But Francis, by overdoing
+     this gorgeous reception, gave offence to Henry, whom he
+     seemed to eclipse in magnificence. Meanwhile Charles,
+     anticipating the interview, had visited Henry in England,
+     and by his more politic address he secured the favor both of
+     the English monarch and his great minister, Cardinal Wolsey.
+
+
+Situated in a flat and uninviting plain--poor and barren, as the
+uncultivated border-land of the two kingdoms--Guines and its castle
+offered little attraction, and if possible less accommodation, to the
+gay throng now to be gathered within its walls. Its weedy moat and
+dismantled battlements, "its keep too ruinous to mend," defied the
+efforts of carpenters and bricklayers, as the English commissioners
+pathetically complained; and could not by any artifice or contrivance be
+made to assume the appearance of a formidable, or even a respectable,
+fortress to friend or enemy. But on the castle green, within the limits
+of a few weeks, and in the face of great difficulties, the English
+artists of that day contrived a summer palace, more like a vision of
+romance, the creation of some fairy dream--if the accounts of
+eye-witnesses of all classes may be trusted--than the dull, every-day
+reality of clay-born bricks and mortar.
+
+No "palace of art" in these beclouded climates of the West ever so truly
+deserved its name. As if the imagination of the age, pent up in wretched
+alleys and narrow dwelling-houses, had resolved for once to throw off
+its ordinary trammels and recompense itself for its long restraint, it
+prepared to realize those visions of enchanted bowers and ancient
+pageantry on which it had fed so long in the fictions and romances of
+the Middle Ages. I have thought it worth while to notice so much of the
+details as will enable the reader to form some slight conception for
+himself of this scene of enchantment which the genius of the age had
+contrived for its own amusement.
+
+The palace was an exact square of three hundred twenty-eight feet. It
+was pierced on every side with oriel windows and clear-stories curiously
+glazed, the mullions and posts of which were overlaid with gold. An
+embattled gate, ornamented on both sides with statues representing men
+in various attitudes of war, and flanked by an embattled tower, guarded
+the entrance. From this gate to the entrance of the palace arose in long
+ascent a sloping dais or half pace, along which were grouped "images of
+sore and terrible countenances," in armor of argentine or bright metal.
+At the entrance, under an embowed landing-place, facing the great doors,
+stood "antique" (classical) figures girt with olive branches. The
+passages, the roofs of the galleries from place to place and from
+chamber to chamber, were ceiled and covered with white silk, fluted and
+embowed with silken hanging of divers colors and braided cloths, "which
+showed like bullions of fine burnished gold." The roofs of the chambers
+were studded with roses, set in lozenges, and diapered on a ground of
+fine gold. Panels enriched with antique carving and gilt bosses covered
+the spaces between the windows; while along all the corridors and from
+every window hung tapestry of silk and gold, embroidered with figures.
+Chairs covered with cushions of turkey-work, cloths of estate, of
+various shapes and sizes, overlaid with golden tissue and rich
+embroidery, ornamented the state apartments. The square on every side
+was decorated with equal richness, and blazed with the same profusion of
+glass, gold, and ornamental hangings; and "every quarter of it, even the
+least, was a habitation fit for a prince," says Fleuranges, who had
+examined it with the critical eye of a rival and a Frenchman.
+
+To the palace was attached a spacious chapel, still more sumptuously
+adorned. Its altars were hung with cloth of gold tissue embroidered with
+pearls; cloth of gold covered the walls and desks. Basins, censers,
+cruets, and other vessels, of the same precious materials, lent their
+lustre to its services. On the high altar, shaded by a magnificent
+canopy of immense proportions, stood enormous candlesticks and other
+ornaments of gold. Twelve golden images of the apostles, as large as
+children of four years old, astonished the eyes of the spectator. The
+copes and vestments of the officiating clergy were cloth of tissue
+powdered with red roses, brought from the looms of Florence, and woven
+in one piece, thickly studded with gold and jewelry. No less profusion
+might be seen in the two closets left apart for the King and the Queen.
+Images and sacred vessels of solid gold, in gold cloth, cumbrous with
+pearls and precious stones, attested the rank, the magnificence, and
+devotion of the occupants. The ceilings of these closets were gilded and
+painted; the hangings were of tapestry embroidered with fretwork of
+pearls and gems. The chapel was served by thirty-five priests and a
+proportionate number of singing-boys.
+
+From the palace a secret gallery led into a private apartment in Guines
+castle, along which the royal visitors could pass and repass at
+pleasure.
+
+The King was attended by squires of the body, sewers, gentlemen-ushers,
+grooms and pages of the chamber, for all of whom suitable accommodation
+had to be provided. The lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the lord
+treasurer of the household, the comptroller, with their numerous staffs,
+had to be lodged in apartments adapted to their rank and services. As it
+was one great object of the interview to entertain all comers with
+masques and banquetings of the most sumptuous kind, the mere rank and
+file of inferior officers and servants formed a colony of themselves.
+The bakehouse, pantry, cellar, buttery, kitchen, larder, accatry, were
+amply provided with ovens, ranges, and culinary requirements, to say
+nothing of the stables, the troops of grooms, farriers, saddlers,
+stirrup-makers, furbishers, and footmen. Upward of two hundred
+attendants were employed in and about the kitchen alone.
+
+Outside the palace gate, on the greensward, stood a quiet fountain, of
+antique workmanship, with a statue of Bacchus "birlyng the wine." Three
+runlets, fed by secret conduits hid beneath the earth, spouted claret,
+hypocras, and water into as many silver cups, to quench the thirst of
+all comers. On the opposite side was a pillar wreathed in gold, and
+supported by four gilt lions; and on the top stood an image of blind
+Cupid, armed with bow and arrows. The gate itself, built in massive
+style, was pierced with loop-holes. Its windows and recesses were filled
+with images of Hercules, Alexander, and other ancient worthies, richly
+gilt and painted. In long array, in the plain beyond, twenty-eight
+hundred tents stretched their white canvas before the eyes of the
+spectator, gay with the pennons, badges, and devices of the various
+occupants; while miscellaneous followers, in tens of thousands,
+attracted by profit or the novelty of the scene, camped on the grass and
+filled the surrounding slopes, in spite of the severity of
+provost-marshal and reiterated threats of mutilation and chastisement.
+Multitudes from the French frontiers, or the populous cities of
+Flanders, indifferent to the political significance of the scene,
+swarmed from their dingy homes to gaze on kings, queens, knights, and
+ladies dressed in their utmost splendor. Beggars, itinerant minstrels,
+venders of provisions and small luxuries, mixed with wagoners,
+ploughmen, laborers, and the motley troop of camp-followers, crowded
+round, or stretched themselves beneath the summer's sun on bundles of
+straw and grass, in drunken idleness. No better lodging awaited many a
+gay knight and lady who had travelled far to be present at the
+spectacle, and were obliged to content themselves with such open-air
+accommodation. Backward and forward surged the excited and unwieldy
+crowd, as every hour brought its fresh contingent of curiosity or
+criticism in the shape of some new-comer conspicuous for his fantastic
+bearing or the quaint fashion of his armor. Each new candidate for the
+love and honor of the ladies, for popular applause, or less noble
+objects, was greeted with shouts and acclamations as he succeeded in
+distinguishing himself from the throng by the strangeness or splendor of
+his appointments. Christendom had never witnessed such a scene. The
+fantastic usages of the courts of Love and Beauty were revived once
+more. The Mediæval Age had gathered up its departing energies for this
+last display of its favorite pastime--henceforth to be consigned,
+without regret, to "the mouldered lodges of the past."
+
+At the time that Henry set sail for Calais, Francis started from
+Montreuil for Ardres. It was a meagre old town, long since in ruins, the
+fosses and castle of which had been hastily repaired. He was attended on
+his route by a vast and motley multitude. No less than ten thousand of
+this poor vagrant crew were compelled to turn back, by a proclamation
+ordering that no person, without special permission, should approach
+within two leagues of the King's train, "on pain of the halter." As the
+French had proposed that both parties should lodge in tents erected on
+the field, they had prepared numerous pavilions, fitted up with halls,
+galleries, and chambers, ornamented within and without with gold and
+silver tissue. Amid golden balls and quaint devices glittering in the
+sun, rose a gilt figure of St. Michael, conspicuous for his blue mantle
+powdered with golden _fleurs-de-lis_, and crowning a royal pavilion, of
+vast dimensions, supported by a single mast. In his right hand he held a
+dart, in his left a shield emblazoned with the arms of France. Inside,
+the roof of the pavilion represented the canopy of heaven, ornamented
+with stars and figures of the zodiac. The lodgings of the Queen, of the
+Duchess of Alençon, the King's favorite sister, and of other ladies and
+princes of the blood were covered with cloth of gold. The rest of the
+tents, to the number of three hundred or four hundred, emblazoned with
+the arms of the owners, were pitched on the banks of a small river
+outside the city walls. A large house in the town, built for the
+occasion, served as a place of reception for royal visitors.
+
+From June 4, 1520, when Henry first entered Guines, the festivities
+continued with unabated splendor for twenty days. They were opened by a
+visit of Wolsey to the French King, and gave the Cardinal an opportunity
+for displaying his love of magnificence, not unaptly reckoned by poets
+and philosophers as the nearest virtue to magnanimity. A hundred
+archers of the guard, followed by fifty gentlemen of his household,
+clothed in crimson velvet with chains of gold, bareheaded, bonnet in
+hand, and mounted on magnificent horses richly caparisoned, led the way.
+After them came fifty gentlemen ushers, also bareheaded, carrying gold
+maces with knobs as big as a man's head; next a cross-bearer in scarlet,
+supporting a crucifix adorned with precious stones. Then four lackeys
+followed, with gilt bâtons and pole-axes, in paletots of crimson velvet,
+their bonnets in hand adorned with plumes, their coats ornamented before
+and behind with the Cardinal's badge in goldsmith's work. Lastly came
+the Legate himself, mounted on a barded mule trapped in crimson velvet,
+with gold front-stalls, studs, buckles, and stirrups. Over a chimere of
+figured crimson velvet he wore a fine linen rochet. Bishops and other
+ecclesiastics succeeded, and the whole procession was brought up by
+fifty archers of the King's guard, their bows bent, their quivers at
+their sides, their jackets of red cloth adorned with a gold rose before
+and behind.
+
+In this state the procession approached the town of Ardres. Arrived at
+the King's lodgings Wolsey dismounted, amid the roar of artillery and
+the sound of drums, trumpets, fifes, and other instruments of music. He
+was received by the King of France, bonnet in hand, with the greatest
+demonstrations of affection. The visit was returned next day by the
+French. These ceremonies were preliminary to the meeting of the two
+sovereigns on Thursday, June 7th. On that day, the King of England,
+apparelled in cloth of silver damask, thickly ribbed with cloth of gold,
+and mounted on a charger arrayed in the most dazzling trappings overlaid
+with fine gold and curiously wrought in mosaic, advanced toward the
+valley of Ardres. No man, from personal inclinations or personal
+qualities, was better calculated to sustain his part in a brilliant
+ceremonial such as then struck the eyes of the spectators. An admirable
+horseman, tall and muscular, slightly inclined to corpulence, with a red
+beard and ruddy countenance, Henry VIII was at this time, by the
+admission of his rivals, the most comely and commanding prince of his
+age. Closely attending on the King was Sir Henry Guilford, the master of
+the horse, leading a spare charger, not less splendidly arrayed in
+trappings of fine gold wrought in ciphers, with headstall, reins, and
+saddle of the same material. Nine henchmen followed in cloth of tissue,
+the harness of their horses covered with gold scales. In front rode the
+old Marquis of Dorset, bearing the sword of estate before the King;
+behind came the Cardinal, the Dukes of Buckingham and Suffolk, with the
+Earl of Shrewsbury and others.
+
+A shot fired from the castle of Guines, and responded to by a shot from
+the castle of Ardre, gave warning that the two princes were ready to set
+forward. As Henry advanced toward the valley with all his company in
+military array, the French King might be descried on the opposite hill
+with his dazzling company, in dress, deportment, and the splendor of his
+retinue not less glorious or conspicuous than his rival. Over a short
+cassock of gold frieze he wore a mantle of cloth of gold covered with
+jewels. The front and the sleeves were studded with diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and large loose-hanging pearls; on his head he wore a velvet
+bonnet adorned with plumes and precious stones. Far in advance rode the
+provost-marshal with his archers to clear the ground. Then followed the
+marshals of the army in cloth of gold, their orders about their necks,
+mounted on horses covered with gold trappings; next the grand master,
+the princes of the blood, and the King of Navarre. After them came the
+Swiss guard on foot, in new liveries, with their drums, flutes,
+trumpets, clarions, and hautboys; then the gentlemen of the household;
+and immediately preceding the King was the grand constable, Bourbon,
+bearing the sword naked, and the _grand ecuyer_, with the sword of
+France, powdered with gold fleurs-de-lis.
+
+As the two companies approached each other, there was a momentary pause.
+The French watched with some jealousy the close array of the English
+footmen, who, stretched in a long line on the King's left, marched step
+for step with all the solemn gravity of their nation, as if they were
+rather preparing for battle than pastime, while, on the other side, the
+superior numbers of the French awakened the national jealousy of the
+Englishmen. "Sir, ye be my king and sovereign," broke in the lord
+Abergavenny in breathless haste; "wherefore, above all I am bound to
+show you truth, and not to let [stop] for none. I have been in the
+French party, and they may be more in number; double so many as ye be."
+Then spoke up the Earl of Shrewsbury, "Sire, whatever my lord of
+Abergavenny sayeth, I myself have been there, and the Frenchmen be more
+in fear of you and your subjects than your subjects be of them.
+Wherefore," said the Earl, "if I were worthy to give counsel, your grace
+should march forward." "So we intend, my lord," replied the King. "On
+afore, my masters!" shouted the officers of arms; and the whole company
+halted, face foremost, close by the valley of Ardres.
+
+A minute's pause--a breathless silence, followed by a slight stir on
+both sides. Then from the dense array of cloth of gold, silver, and
+jewelry, of white plumes and waving pennons, amid the acclamations of
+myriads of spectators on the surrounding hills, and the shrill burst of
+pipes, trumpets, and clarions, two horsemen were seen to emerge, and, in
+the sight of both nations, slowly descend into the valley from opposite
+sides. These were the two sovereigns. As they approached nearer they
+spurred their horses to a gallop; then, uncovering, embraced each other
+on horseback, and, after dismounting, embraced again. While the two
+sovereigns proceeded arm in arm to a rich pavilion--which no one else
+was allowed to enter, except Wolsey on one side and the Admiral of
+France on the other--the officers on both sides, intermingling their
+ranks, made good cheer, and toasted each other in broken French and
+English, "Bons amys, French and English!"
+
+Friday and Saturday were occupied in preparing the field for the
+tournament. The lists, nine hundred feet in length and three hundred
+twenty feet broad, were pitched on a rising ground in the territory of
+Guines, about half way between Guines and Ardres. Galleries hung with
+tapestry surrounded the enclosure, and on the right side, in the place
+of honor, were two glazed chambers for the two Queens. A deep foss
+served to keep off the crowd. The entrances were guarded by twelve
+French and twelve English archers; and at the foot of the lists, under a
+triumphal arch, stood the _perron_, or tree of nobility, from which the
+shields of the two Kings were suspended on a higher line than those of
+the other challengers and answerers. The perron for Henry VIII was
+formed of a hawthorn; and for Francis I a raspberry (_framboisier_), in
+supposed allusion to his name. Cloth of gold served for the trunk and
+dried leaves; the foliage was of green silk; the flowers and fruits of
+silver and Venetian gold. Under the tree, which measured in compass not
+less than one hundred twenty-nine feet, the heralds took their stand on
+an artificial mound, surrounded by railings of green damask.
+
+On Sunday, while the French King dined at Guines with the Queen of
+England, the English King dined with the French Queen and the Duchess of
+Alençon at Ardres. On arriving at the Queen's lodgings, Henry was
+received by Louis of Savoy and a bevy of ladies magnificently dressed.
+Passing slowly through their ranks, in leisurely admiration of their
+charms, he reached the apartment where the Queen attended his coming. As
+he made his reverence to the Queen, she rose from her chair of state to
+meet him. Kneeling with one knee on the ground, his bonnet in his hand,
+he first kissed the Queen, next Madame, then the Duchess of Alençon, and
+finally all the princesses and ladies of the company. This done, dinner
+was announced. At the third service, Mountjoy's herald entered with a
+great golden goblet, crying in the name of the King of England, "Largess
+to the most high, mighty, and excellent prince, Henry, King of England,
+etc. Largess, largess!" The banquet ended at five in the evening, when
+the King took his leave. To display his skill before the ladies, he set
+spurs to his horse, making it bound and curvet "as valiantly as any man
+could do."
+
+The jousts commenced on Monday, the 11th. The rules adopted to secure
+fair play and guard against accidents may be read by those curious in
+such matters in the original black-letter _Ordonnance_, printed at the
+time.
+
+On the first day the Kings of England and France, with their aids, held
+the lists against all comers; and, with the exception of Wednesday, when
+the wind was too high, the jousts continued without interruption
+throughout the week. On Sunday, the two Kings exchanged hospitality as
+before. On this occasion, Francis, dropping all reserve, visited the
+King of England before eight in the morning, attended by four companions
+only, and, entering his apartment without ceremony, embraced him as he
+was seated at breakfast. The jousts were concluded in the following
+week, with a solemn mass sung by the Cardinal in a chapel erected on the
+field. The arrangements observed on this occasion, not less elaborate
+than those by which the feats of arms were regulated, may be read in the
+same volume as the _Ordonnance_. Here, as in the ceremonial of the
+lists, the spirit of chivalry reigned triumphant. When the Cardinal of
+Bourbon, according to the usages of the time, presented the Gospel to
+the French King to kiss, Francis, declining, commanded it to be offered
+to the King of England, who was too well bred to accept the honor. When
+the _Pax_ was presented at the _Agnus Dei_, the two sovereigns repeated
+the same mannerly breeding. The two Queens were equally ceremonious.
+After a polite altercation of some minutes, when neither would decide
+who should be the first to kiss the _Pax_, woman-like they kissed each
+other instead. A sermon in Latin, enlarging on the blessings of peace,
+was delivered by Pace at the close of the service; and a salamander was
+sent up in the air in the direction of Guines, to the astonishment and
+terror of the beholders. The whole was concluded with a banquet, at
+which the royal ladies, too polite to eat, spent their time in
+conversation; but the legates, cardinals, and prelates dined, drank, and
+ate _sans fiction_ in another room by themselves.
+
+On Sunday, June 24th, the Kings met in the lists to interchange gifts
+and bid each other farewell. Henry and his court left for Calais;
+Francis returned to Abbeville.
+
+The two Kings parted on the best of terms, as the world thought, and
+with mutual feelings of regret. Yet Henry had already arranged to meet
+the Emperor at Gravelines, there settle the terms of a new convention,
+to the disadvantage of the French King. The imperial envoy, the Marquis
+d'Arschot, arrived at Calais on July 4th, and was received by the Duke
+of Buckingham. On the 5th the King visited Gravelines, and returned with
+the Emperor to Calais three days after. The interview, graced by the
+presence of Charles, his brother Ferdinand, Herman, the Archbishop of
+Cologne, and the Lord Chièvres, though less splendid, was more cordial
+than the interview with the French King, and was meant for business.
+
+Frugal and reserved, the Emperor contrived, by his simple and
+unostentatious habits, to render himself more agreeable to his English
+guests than even Francis had been able to do with all his profuse and
+expensive civilities. Not, as some may condemn us, in consequence of
+our national fickleness; nor, as others may excuse us, because
+Englishmen preferred the plainer manners of the German or the Fleming;
+but because in the interview with Francis, in spite of appearances,
+there was no real cordiality. A tournament, in fact, was the least
+eligible method of promoting friendly feeling; it was more likely to
+engender unpleasant disputes and jealousies. To enforce the rules laid
+down for preserving order and fair play among the combatants was not an
+easy or a popular task. National rivalry was apt to break out, and it
+was hard for the judges to escape the imputation of partiality. Nor did
+the English, it must be admitted, return from the field in much good
+humor. With a feeling of complacency engendered by their insular
+position and their long isolation from the Continent, they had been wont
+to consider themselves as far superior to the French in all exercises of
+strength and agility. The French knights had shown themselves fully
+equal to their English opponents; the French King was not inferior in
+personal courage and activity to his English rival. Then rumors, such as
+spring up like the dragon's teeth in vast and motley multitudes,
+evidently fanned and fostered by Flemish emissaries, continually
+represented the French as engaged in contriving some act of treachery
+against the English King and nation. Among the nobles, also, the Dukes
+of Suffolk and Buckingham, the lord Abergavenny, and others were glad of
+any pretext for maligning a pageant of which Wolsey had the prime
+direction.
+
+Francis still hovered on the frontier in the fruitless hope of being
+invited to take part in this interview with the Emperor. The day before
+Charles left Ghent, the Lady Vendôme and the Duchess her daughter-in-law
+contrived to have business in that town, but their artifice was not
+successful. Francis was obliged to content himself with the assurance
+that the visage and countenance of his English ally appeared "not to be
+so replenished with joy" as at the valley of Ardres, and that he had
+given proofs of undiminished affection by riding a courser that Francis
+had given him. With an impressiveness intended to be candid, he told Sir
+Richard Wingfield, who had succeeded as English resident at the French
+court, that "if the King Catholic were a prince of like faith unto the
+King his brother [Henry], and that he might perceive from Wolsey that
+his coming thither [to Calais] might be the cause of any good conclusion
+between them" (that is, between himself and the Emperor), "he would not
+fail to come in post, and not to have looked for rank and place to him
+belonging, but would have put him into the King's chamber as one of the
+number of the same." But neither his extreme humility nor his flattering
+proposal that Henry and himself, "the chief pillars of Christendom,"
+should handle the Pope, whom Francis knew "to be at some season the
+fearfulest creature of the world, and at some other to be as brave," nor
+the schemes and blandishments of the ladies, availed. He chafed under
+disappointment; still more at his ill-success in counteracting the
+growing intimacy of Henry and the Emperor. He had exhausted, to little
+purpose, "that liberal and unsuspicious confidence" which too credulous
+historians are apt to think characterized his proceedings at the Field
+of the Cloth of Gold, to the disadvantage of his less attractive and
+engaging contemporary. He could neither prevent the meetings of his two
+rivals nor penetrate their secrets. He was utterly foiled, yet dared not
+show his resentment. While the Pope and the Spaniards, unable to
+penetrate beneath the surface or read the signs of the times, were
+puzzled and scandalized at the Emperor's condescension, the world looked
+on with astonishment, as well it might, to see the two monarchs of the
+West thus anxiously soliciting the Cardinal's good graces. What could
+there be in the son of a butcher to command such deference?
+
+Of the projects discussed at this interview we are not precisely
+informed. The English version, intended for the meridian of the French
+court, and to lull the suspicions of Francis, is the only account we
+possess. If any credit be due to a statement prepared under such
+circumstances and calculated to alienate the French King irrecoverably
+from the Emperor, we are to believe that the imperial ambassadors had
+already proposed to Henry to break off his matrimonial engagement with
+France, and transfer the hand of the princess Mary to the Emperor. As an
+inducement for the King to coincide in this arrangement, the Emperor
+undertook to make war on France by sea and land, and not desist until
+Henry "had recovered his right and title in the same." The King,
+according to the same document, rejected such a treacherous overture
+with the utmost horror, vehemently protesting against its immorality and
+perfidiousness. That such a proposal was made, though probably not by
+Chièvres, to whom it is attributed--that it was accepted by England, but
+with none of the indignation described in the document--is clear beyond
+dispute. Long before any interruption had occurred in the amicable
+relations between the two countries, before even the landing of Charles
+at Canterbury, or in the interview in the valley of Ardres, it had been
+secretly proposed that the French engagement should be set aside, and
+the hand of Mary be transferred to the Emperor. The King's horror at
+this act of faithlessness--if it had any existence beyond the paper on
+which it was written--must have been tardy and gratuitous, seeing that
+the chief purpose of the meeting at Calais was to settle the basis of
+this matrimonial alliance, and obtain the solemn ratification of the
+Emperor.
+
+
+
+
+CORTÉS CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO
+
+A.D. 1521
+
+WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+     Spain had already begun to conquer and colonize the New
+     World when in 1519 Hernando Cortés, with about 700 men,
+     landed in Mexico, having previously served in Española
+     (Haiti) and Cuba. He was born in Medellin, Estremadura,
+     Spain, in 1485, and was therefore now about thirty-four
+     years of age. To make the retreat of his force impossible,
+     he destroyed his ships and marched into the interior and
+     established himself in the capital city, Tenochtitlan, on
+     the site of the present city of Mexico.
+
+     Cortés found Southern Mexico under the rule of the Aztecs
+     (more correctly Aztecas), a partly civilized and powerful
+     branch of Nahuatl Indians of Central Mexico. They had formed
+     a confederacy with other tribes, and now maintained a
+     formidable empire in the Mexican valley plateau. Their
+     emperor was Montezuma II, who sent messengers to remonstrate
+     against the advance of Cortés. The Spaniard continued his
+     march, entered the city, and soon made Montezuma his
+     prisoner, holding him as a hostage. In June, 1520, the
+     Spaniards were besieged in the city; during a parley
+     Montezuma was killed; on the night of the 30th the
+     Spaniards, while trying to leave the city, lost half their
+     men in a severe fight, and only after another battle (July
+     7th) escaped into Tlascala.
+
+     Reorganizing his force, strengthened by Indian allies and by
+     ships which he built on the lakes, Cortés, in May, 1521,
+     began the siege of Mexico, as historians call the Aztec
+     capital. Guatemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, made a
+     desperate defence, and before its capture the city was
+     almost destroyed. On August 12th the Spaniards made a strong
+     assault, which so weakened the defenders that the following
+     day was to be the last of the once flourishing empire.
+     Cortés' chief lieutenants were Pedro de Alvarado, Gonzalo de
+     Sandoval, and Olid, famous Spanish soldiers.
+
+     After taking the capital city, Cortes, being empowered by
+     Guatemotzin, conquered the whole of Mexico, which was called
+     New Spain, and in 1523 he was appointed governor.
+
+
+On the morning of August 13, 1521, the Spanish commander again mustered
+his forces, having decided to follow up the blow of the preceding day
+before the enemy should have time to rally, and at once to put an end to
+the war. He had arranged with Alvarado, on the evening previous, to
+occupy the market-place of Tlatelolco; and the discharge of an arquebuse
+was to be the signal for a simultaneous assault. Sandoval was to hold
+the northern causeway, and, with the fleet, to watch the movements of
+the Indian Emperor and to intercept the flight to the mainland, which
+Cortés knew he meditated. To allow him to effect this would be to leave
+a formidable enemy in his own neighborhood, who might at any time kindle
+the flame of insurrection throughout the country. He ordered Sandoval,
+however, to do no harm to the royal person, and not to fire on the enemy
+at all except in self-defence.
+
+It was the day of St. Hippolytus--from this circumstance selected as the
+patron saint of modern Mexico--that Cortés led his warlike array for the
+last time across the black and blasted environs which lay around the
+Indian capital. On entering the Aztec precincts he paused, willing to
+afford its wretched inmates one more chance of escape before striking
+the fatal blow. He obtained an interview with some of the principal
+chiefs, and expostulated with them on the conduct of their Prince. "He
+surely will not," said the general, "see you all perish, when he can
+easily save you." He then urged them to prevail on Guatemotzin to hold a
+conference with him, repeating the assurances of his personal safety.
+
+The messengers went on their mission, and soon returned with the
+Cihuacoatl at their head, a magistrate of high authority among the
+Mexicans. He said, with a melancholy air, in which his own
+disappointment was visible, that "Guatemotzin was ready to die where he
+was, but would hold no interview with the Spanish commander"; adding in
+a tone of resignation, "It is for you to work your pleasure." "Go,
+then," replied the stern conqueror, "and prepare your countrymen for
+death. Their hour is come."
+
+He still postponed the assault for several hours. But the impatience of
+his troops at this delay was heightened by the rumor that Guatemotzin
+and his nobles were preparing to escape with their effects in the
+periaguas and canoes which were moored on the margin of the lake.
+Convinced of the fruitlessness and impolicy of further procrastination,
+Cortés made his final dispositions for the attack, and took his own
+station on an azotea which commanded the theatre of operations.
+
+When the assailants came into the presence of the enemy, they found them
+huddled together in the utmost confusion, all ages and both sexes, in
+masses so dense that they nearly forced one another over the brink of
+the causeways into the water below. Some had climbed on the terraces,
+others feebly supported themselves against the walls of the buildings.
+Their squalid and tattered garments gave a wildness to their appearance
+which still further heightened the ferocity of their expression, as they
+glared on their enemy with eyes in which hate was mingled with despair.
+When the Spaniards had approached within bow-shot, the Aztecs let off a
+flight of impotent missiles, showing to the last the resolute spirit,
+though they had lost the strength, of their better days. The fatal
+signal was then given by the discharge of an arquebuse--speedily
+followed by peals of heavy ordnance, the rattle of fire-arms, and the
+hellish shouts of the confederates as they sprang upon their victims.
+
+It is unnecessary to stain the page with a repetition of the horrors of
+the preceding day. Some of the wretched Aztecs threw themselves into the
+water and were picked up by the canoes. Others sank and were suffocated
+in the canals. The number of these became so great that a bridge was
+made of their dead bodies, over which the assailants could climb to the
+opposite banks. Others again, especially the women, begged for mercy,
+which, as the chroniclers assure us, was everywhere granted by the
+Spaniards, and, contrary to the instructions and entreaties of Cortés,
+everywhere refused by the confederates.
+
+While this work of butchery was going on, numbers were observed pushing
+off in the barks that lined the shore, and making the best of their way
+across the lake. They were constantly intercepted by the brigantines,
+which broke the flimsy array of boats, sending off their volleys to the
+right and left as the crews of the latter hotly assailed them. The
+battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. Many of the Indian
+vessels were shattered and overturned. Some few, however, under cover of
+smoke, which rolled darkly over the waters, succeeded in clearing
+themselves of the turmoil, and were fast nearing the opposite shore.
+Sandoval had particularly charged his captains to keep an eye on the
+movements of any vessel in which it was at all probable that Guatemotzin
+might be concealed. At this crisis, three or four of the largest
+periaguas were seen skimming over the water and making their way rapidly
+across the lake. A captain, named Garci Holguin, who had command of one
+of the best sailors in the fleet, instantly gave them chase. The wind
+was favorable, and every moment he gained on the fugitives, who pulled
+their oars with a vigor that despair alone could have given. But it was
+in vain; and after a short race, Holguin, coming alongside of one of the
+periaguas, which, whether from its appearance or from information he had
+received, he conjectured might bear the Indian Emperor, ordered his men
+to level their cross-bows at the boat. But, before they could discharge
+them a cry arose from those in it that their lord was on board. At the
+same moment a young warrior, armed with buckler and _maquahuitl_, rose
+up, as if to beat off the assailants. But, as the Spanish captain
+ordered his men not to shoot, he dropped his weapons and exclaimed: "I
+am Guatemotzin. Lead me to Malintzin;[33] I am his prisoner, but let no
+harm come to my wife and my followers."
+
+Holguin assured him that his wishes should be respected, and assisted
+him to get on board the brigantine, followed by his wife and attendants.
+These were twenty in number, consisting of Coanaco, the deposed Lord of
+Tlacopan, the Lord of Tlacopan, and several other caciques and
+dignitaries, whose rank, probably, had secured them some exemption from
+the general calamities of the siege. When the captives were seated on
+the deck of the vessel Holguin requested the Aztec Prince to put an end
+to the combat by commanding his people in the other canoes to surrender.
+But with a dejected air he replied: "It is not necessary. They will
+fight no longer when they see their Prince is taken." He spoke the
+truth. The news of Guatemotzin's capture spread rapidly through the
+fleet and on shore, where the Mexicans were still engaged in conflict
+with their enemies. It ceased, however, at once. They made no further
+resistance; and those on the water quickly followed the brigantines,
+which conveyed their captive monarch to land. It seemed as if the fight
+had been maintained thus long the better to divert the enemy's attention
+and cover their master's retreat.
+
+Meanwhile, Sandoval, on receiving tidings of the capture, brought his
+own brigantine alongside of Holguin's and demanded the royal prisoner to
+be surrendered to him. But the captain claimed him as his prize. A
+dispute arose between the parties, each anxious to have the glory of the
+deed, and perhaps the privilege of commemorating it on his escutcheon.
+The controversy continued so long that it reached the ears of Cortés,
+who, in his station on the azotea, had learned with no little
+satisfaction the capture of his enemy. He instantly sent orders to his
+wrangling officers to bring Guatemotzin before him, that he might adjust
+the difference between them. He charged them, at the same time, to treat
+their prisoner with respect. He then made preparations for the
+interview, caused the terrace to be carpeted with crimson cloth and
+matting, and a table to be spread with provisions, of which the unhappy
+Aztecs stood so much in need. His lovely Indian mistress, Doña Marina,
+was present to act as interpreter. She stood by his side through all the
+troubled scenes of the conquest, and she was there now to witness its
+triumphant termination.
+
+Guatemotzin, on landing, was escorted by a company of infantry to the
+presence of the Spanish commander. He mounted the azotea with a calm and
+steady step, and was easily to be distinguished from his attendant
+nobles, though his full, dark eye was no longer lighted up with its
+accustomed fire, and his features wore an expression of passive
+resignation, that told little of the fierce and fiery spirit that burned
+within. His head was large, his limbs well proportioned, his complexion
+fairer than that of his bronze-colored nation, and his whole deportment
+singularly mild and engaging.
+
+Cortés came forward with a dignified and studied courtesy to receive
+him. The Aztec monarch probably knew the person of his conqueror, for he
+first broke silence by saying: "I have done all that I could to defend
+myself and my people. I am now reduced to this state. You will deal with
+me, Malintzin, as you list." Then, laying his hand on the hilt of a
+poniard stuck in the General's belt, he added with vehemence, "Better
+despatch me with this, and rid me of life at once." Cortés was filled
+with admiration at the proud bearing of the young barbarian, showing in
+his reverses a spirit worthy of an ancient Roman. "Fear not," he
+replied; "you shall be treated with all honor. You have defended your
+capital like a brave warrior. A Spaniard knows how to respect valor even
+in an enemy." He then inquired of him where he had left the Princess his
+wife; and, being informed that she still remained under protection of a
+Spanish guard on board the brigantine, the General sent to have her
+escorted to his presence.
+
+She was the youngest daughter of Montezuma, and was hardly yet on the
+verge of womanhood. On the accession of her cousin Guatemotzin to the
+throne, she had been wedded to him as his lawful wife. She is celebrated
+by her contemporaries for her personal charms; and the beautiful
+Princess Tecuichpo is still commemorated by the Spaniards, since from
+her by a subsequent marriage are descended some of the illustrious
+families of their own nation. She was kindly received by Cortés, who
+showed her the respectful attentions suited to her rank. Her birth, no
+doubt, gave her an additional interest in his eyes, and he may have felt
+some touch of compunction as he gazed on the daughter of the unfortunate
+Montezuma. He invited his royal captives to partake of the refreshments
+which their exhausted condition rendered so necessary. Meanwhile the
+Spanish commander made his dispositions for the night, ordering Sandoval
+to escort the prisoners to Cojohuacan, whither he proposed himself
+immediately to follow. The other captains, Olid and Alvarado, were to
+draw off their forces to their respective quarters.
+
+It was impossible for them to continue in the capital, where the
+poisonous effluvia from the unburied carcasses loaded the air with
+infection. A small guard only was stationed to keep order in the wasted
+suburbs. It was the hour of vespers when Guatemotzin surrendered, and
+the siege might be considered as then concluded. The evening set in
+dark, and the rain began to fall before the several parties had
+evacuated the city.
+
+During the night a tremendous tempest, such as the Spaniards had rarely
+witnessed, and such as is known only within the tropics, burst over the
+Mexican valley. The thunder, reverberating from the rocky amphitheatre
+of hills, bellowed over the waste of waters, and shook the _teocallis_
+and crazy tenements of Tenochtitlan--the few that yet survived--to their
+foundations. The lightning seemed to cleave asunder the vault of heaven,
+as its vivid flashes wrapped the whole scene in a ghastly glare for a
+moment, to be again swallowed up in darkness. The war of elements was in
+unison with the fortunes of the ruined city. It seemed as if the deities
+of Anahuac,[34] scared from their ancient bodies, were borne along
+shrieking and howling in the blast, as they abandoned the fallen capital
+to its fate.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] A name given by the Indians to Cortés.
+
+[34] The low water-bordered coastal region of Mexico. The name is now
+applied to a part of the table-land near the city of Mexico.--ED.
+
+
+
+
+LIBERATION OF SWEDEN
+
+A.D. 1523
+
+ERIC GUSTAVE GEIJER[35]
+
+     Gustavus Vasa, son of Eric Johanson, and hence called
+     Gustavus Ericson, was descended from the house of Vasa, and
+     before the beginning of his long reign (1523-1560) as king
+     of Sweden had served his country against the Danes, who were
+     the controlling power in the union with Sweden and Norway.
+     In a battle fought at the Brennkirk, July 22, 1518,
+     Gustavus, then twenty-two years old, bore the Swedish
+     banner. This battle resulted in the defeat of Christian II
+     of Denmark. Gustavus was given as a hostage to Christian
+     during his interview with the Swedish administrator, and the
+     Dane treacherously carried the young patriot off to Denmark.
+     In the following year he escaped in the disguise of a
+     peasant.
+
+     Sweden was conquered by Christian in 1520, and in the same
+     year, having taken Stockholm, he ordered there the massacre
+     of the nobility, known as the "Blood-bath." Ninety of the
+     leading men of Sweden, including the father of Gustavus,
+     were put to death. This outrage provoked an uprising, in
+     which the province of Dalecarlia bore the leading part, and
+     its people followed Gustavus in a movement for independence.
+     He soon gathered an army of his adherents, called
+     "Dalesmen"--men of the dales--strong enough to meet the
+     enemy.
+
+     Gustavus Vasa is not only famed as the deliverer of Sweden,
+     but also as the promoter of popular education in his
+     country, and for the support which he gave to the
+     Reformation, he himself having early embraced the doctrines
+     of Luther.
+
+     The heroic aspects of this Scandinavian patriot and King
+     have alike endeared his memory to his own people and made
+     his fame to endure in the world annals of mankind. His last
+     appearance and address before the estates of his kingdom, in
+     the closing year of his life, have been finely commemorated
+     in art, with a commingling of power and pathos, the aged
+     monarch taking leave of his people and his throne. "He took
+     his place in the hall of assemblage, accompanied by all his
+     sons. The King having saluted the estates, they listened for
+     the last time to the accents of that eloquence so well liked
+     by the people."
+
+
+[Illustration: Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the
+Estates
+
+Painting by L. Hersent]
+
+The most influential yeomen of all the parishes in the eastern and
+western dales elected Gustavus to be "lord and chieftain over them and
+the commons of the realm of Sweden." Some scholars who had arrived from
+Westeras brought with them new accounts of the tyranny of Christian.
+Gustavus placed them amid a ring of peasants to tell their story and
+answer the questions of the crowd. Old men represented it as a
+comfortable sign for the people, that as often as Gustavus discoursed to
+them the north wind always blew, "which was an old token to them that
+God would grant them good success." Sixteen active peasants were
+appointed to be his bodyguard; and two hundred more youths who joined
+him were called his foot-goers. The chronicles reckon his reign from
+this small beginning; while the Danes and their abettors in Stockholm
+long continued to speak of him and his party as a band of robbers in the
+woods.
+
+Thus the Dalesmen swore fidelity to Gustavus--the inhabitants, namely,
+of the upper parishes on both arms of the Dal-elf, where a numerous
+people, living amid wild yet grand natural scenery and hardened by
+privations, is still known by that name. Gustavus came to the Kopparberg
+with several hundred men in the early part of February, 1521, there took
+prisoner his enemy Christopher Olson, the powerful warden of the mines,
+made himself master of the money collected for the crown dues, and of
+the wares of the Danish traders on the spot, distributed both the money
+and goods among his men--who made their first standard from the silk
+stuffs there taken--and then returned to the Dales. Not long afterward,
+on a Sunday, when the people of the Kopparberg were at church, Gustavus
+again appeared at the head of fifteen hundred Dalesmen. He spoke to the
+people after divine service, and now the miners likewise swore fidelity
+to his cause. Thereupon the commonalty of the mining districts and the
+Dalesmen wrote to the commons of Helsingland, requesting that the
+Helsingers might bear themselves like true Swedish men against the
+overbearing violence and tyranny of the Danes. Those cruelties which
+King Christian had already exercised on the best in the land, they said,
+would soon reach every man's door and fill all the houses of Sweden with
+the tears and shrieks of widows and orphans; if they would take up arms
+and show themselves to be stout-hearted men, there was now good hope for
+victory and triumph under a praiseworthy captain, the lord Gustavus
+Ericson, whom God had preserved "as a drop of the knightly blood of
+Sweden"; wherefore they begged them to give their help for the sake of
+the brotherly league by which, since early times, the commonalty of both
+countries had been united.
+
+Ten years afterward, the Dalecarlians recall the fact that they had
+received a friendly answer to the request which their accredited
+messengers had preferred on that occasion, and that their neighbors the
+Helsingers had promised to stand by them as one man, "whatever evils
+might befall them from the oppression of foreign or native masters."
+When Gustavus had begun the siege of Stockholm, every third man of the
+Helsingers in fact marched thither to strengthen his army. Yet at first
+they hesitated to embrace the cause, although Gustavus himself went
+among them, and spoke to the assembled people from the barrow on the
+royal domain of Norrala. Thence he proceeded to Gestricland, where
+fugitives from Stockholm had already prepared men's minds. The burghers
+of Gefle, and commissioners from several parishes, swore fidelity to him
+in the name of the whole province. Here the rumor reached him that the
+Dalecarlians had already suffered a defeat; he hastened back, and soon
+received an account of the first victory of his followers.
+
+Letters of the magistracy of Stockholm, which were sent over the whole
+kingdom, warned the people to avoid all participation in the revolt.
+Relief was supplicated from the King; additions were made to the
+fortifications of the capital, sloops and barks were equipped, in order,
+as it was said, to deprive "Gustavus Ericson and his company of
+malefactors of all opportunity of quitting the country," but really to
+keep the approaches on the side of the sea open, which were obstructed
+by the fishers and peasants of the islets, who had begun to take arms
+for Gustavus. Special admonitory letters were despatched to Helsingland
+and Dalecarlia, signed by Gustavus Trolle, his father Eric Trolle, and
+Canute Bennetson (Sparre) of Engsoe, styling themselves the council of
+the realm of Sweden, by which, however, say the chronicles, the royal
+cause was rather damaged than strengthened. "For when the Dalesmen and
+miners heard the letter, they said it was manifest to them that the
+council at this time was but small and thin, since it consisted of only
+three men, and these of little weight." Gustavus Trolle, the Danish
+bishops, Canute Bennetson, above named, and Henry of Mellen, the King's
+lieutenant at Westeras--where they had recently been assembled with
+commissioners from the magistracy of Stockholm by Bishop Otho--now
+marched with six thousand men of horse and foot toward the Dal River,
+and encamped at the ferry of Brunback. On the other side the
+Dalecarlians guarded this frontier of their country, under the command
+of Peter Swenson of Viderboda, a powerful miner, whom Gustavus had
+appointed their captain in his absence. When those in the Danish camp
+observed how the Dalesmen shot their arrows across the stream, Bishop
+Beldenacke is said to have inquired of the Swedish lords present--to use
+the words of the chronicles--"how great a force the tract above the Long
+Wood (the forest on the boundary between Westmanland and Dalecarlia)
+could furnish at the utmost?" Answer was made to him, full twenty
+thousand men. Yet further he asked where so many mouths might obtain
+sustenance? To this it was replied that the people were not used to
+dainty meats; they drunk for the most part nothing but water, and, if
+need were, could be satisfied with bark-bread. Then Beldenacke declared:
+"Men who eat wood and drink water the devil himself could not overcome,
+much less anyone else. Brethren, let us leave this place!" The story
+makes the Danes hereupon prepare for breaking up their encampment.
+However this may be, it is certain that Peter Swenson, with the
+Dalesmen, crossed the Dal secretly, by a circuit, at Utsund's Ferry,
+surprised the camp, and put the foe to rout.
+
+Gustavus had himself dealt with the inhabitants of Helsingland and
+Gestricland, in order to insure himself against leaving foes in the
+rear, and, after his return to the Dales, he prepared for an expedition
+into the lower country. He assembled his troops at Hedemora, and sought
+to inure them to habits of order and obedience by military exercises.
+The dale peasant had no fire-arms and knew little of discipline; his
+weapons were the axe, the bow, the pike, and the sling, the latter
+sometimes throwing pieces of red-hot iron. Gustavus instructed his men
+to fashion their arrows in a more effective shape, and increased the
+length of the spear by four or five feet, with a view to repel the
+attacks of cavalry. He caused monetary tokens to be struck--an expedient
+which seems to have been not uncommon in Sweden, since, from a remote
+period, even leather money is mentioned. The coins now struck at
+Hedemora were of copper, with a small admixture of silver, similar to
+those introduced by the King, and called "Christian's klippings;" on one
+side was the impress of an armed man; on the other, arrows laid
+crosswise, with three crowns.
+
+Gustavus broke from his quarters, and marched across the Long Wood into
+Westmanland. His course lay through districts which bore traces yet
+fresh of the enemy's passage. The peasantry rose as he advanced. On St.
+George's Day, April 23d, he mustered his army at the church of
+Romfertuna. The number is stated by the chronicles at from fifteen to
+twenty thousand men, yet on the correctness of this little reliance can
+be placed, even if we did not absolutely class this account with those
+which compare the multitude of Dalesmen in the fight of Brunneback to
+the sands of the sea-shore and the leaves of the forest, and their
+arrows to the hail of the storm-cloud. The liberation of Sweden by
+Gustavus Vasa is a history written by the people, and they counted
+neither themselves nor their foes. The army was now divided under two
+generals, Lawrence Olaveson and Lawrence Ericson, both practised
+warriors. Gustavus next issued his declaration of war against Christian,
+and marched to Westeras. He expected here to be met by the peasants of
+the western mining district from Lindesberg and Nora, who had already
+taken the oath of fidelity to him through his deputies; but instead of
+this he was informed that Peter Ugla, one of those intrusted with the
+performance of this duty, had allowed himself to be surprised at Koping,
+and cut to pieces with his whole force. On the other hand, tidings
+arrived that the peasants on Wermd Isle had revolted, slain a band of
+Christian's men in the church itself, and made themselves masters of two
+of his ships. The letters conveying the news, and magnifying the
+advantages gained, Gustavus caused to be read aloud to his followers.
+
+Theodore Slagheck, exercising power with barbarous cruelty and outrage,
+had himself taken the command of the castle of Westeras. He caused all
+the fences of the neighborhood to be broken down, in order to be able to
+use his cavalry without impediment against the insurgent peasants, who,
+on April 29th, approached the town. Both horsemen and foot, with
+field-pieces, marched against them; and Gustavus, who had interdicted
+his men from engaging in a contest with the enemy, intending to defer
+the attack till the following day, was still at Balundsas, half a mile
+from the town, when news reached him that his young soldiers were
+already at blows with their adversaries, and he hastened to their
+assistance. The Dalecarlians opposed their long pikes to the onset of
+the cavalry with such effect that, more than four hundred horses having
+perished in the assault, they were driven back on the infantry, who were
+posted in their rear, and compelled to flee along with them, while
+Lawrence Ericson pushed into the town by a circuitous road and possessed
+himself of the enemy's artillery in the market-place. When the garrison
+of the castle observed this, they set fire to the houses by shooting
+their combustibles, and burned the greatest part of the town. The miners
+and peasants dispersed to extinguish the flames or to plunder, bartered
+with one another the goods of the traders in the booths, possessed
+themselves of the stock of wine in the cathedral and the council-house,
+seated themselves round the vats, drank and sang. The Danes, reënforced
+from the castle, rallied anew, and the victory would undoubtedly have
+been changed into an overthrow had not Gustavus sent Lawrence Olaveson,
+with the followers he had kept about him, again into the town, where,
+after a renewal of the conflict, the foe was put to an utter rout. Many
+cast away their arms, and threw themselves, between fire and sword, into
+the waters. Gustavus caused all the stores of spirituous liquors to be
+destroyed, and beat in the wine casks with his own hand.
+
+The fight of Westeras, from its influence on public opinion, acquired
+greater importance than of itself it would have possessed. Little was
+gained by the conquest of the town, so long as the castle held out; and
+how unserviceable a force of peasants was for a siege, Gustavus was
+often subsequently to experience. Wherever the tidings of his victory
+came, the people revolted, and he was already enabled to divide his
+power, and to invest the castles of several provinces. Siege was
+accordingly laid to Stegborg, Nykoping, and Orebro. A division of the
+Vermelanders, with the peasants of Rekarne, in Sudermania, was employed
+in beleaguering the castle of Westeras; of whose exploits, however,
+nothing else is told than that they shot the councillor Canute Bennetson
+(Sparre), to whom Slagheck transferred the command, so that he tumbled
+in his wolfskin coat from the wall into the stream. Howbeit, another
+detachment reduced Horningsholm in Sudermania; Christian's governors in
+Vermeland and Dalsland were slain; the people of the former province,
+under the command of their justiciary, prepared for an attack upon the
+councillor Thure Jonson, the King's lieutenant in West-Gothland, and,
+crossing Lake Vener, entered that district.
+
+In Dalsland, fifteen hundred men took up arms; several thousand peasants
+from Nerike marched across the Tiwed with the same object. Gustavus had
+been obliged to grant a furlough to his Dalesmen about seed-time; and to
+supply their place he caused the people of several districts of Upland
+to be summoned to assemble in the forest of Rymningen, at
+Oeresundsbro; from which point his two captains essayed an attack upon
+the Archbishop of Upsala. It was St. Eric's Day (May 18th), and a great
+confluence of people was present at the fair. An assault was expected;
+for a deputation of four priests and two burgesses, sent from Upsala to
+the forest, had received from the leaders the answer that it must be
+Swedes, not outlandish men, who should bear the shrine of holy Eric, and
+that they would come to take their part in the festival. Bennet Bjugg
+(Barley), the Archbishop's bailiff, to show his contempt of such foes,
+caused a banquet to be set out in the open space between the larger and
+smaller episcopal manor houses of that day, where, before the eyes of
+the people, he made himself and his fellows merry till late in the night
+with drinking, dancing, and singing. Roused from a late sleep by an
+assault on the gates of the fortified house, and finding it beset by the
+enemy, they attempted to escape by a concealed passage, which then
+connected the Bishop's house with the cathedral. But the peasants set
+fire to this passage, which was of wood, and shot fire arrows at the
+roof of the episcopal residence, in which the flames soon burst forth.
+The building was laid in ashes, and next day the females of the
+household, with some burghers of Upsala, crept out of its cellars, in
+which they had taken refuge. Great part of the garrison perished. The
+bailiff escaped with a wound from an arrow, of which he died after
+rejoining his master at Stockholm.
+
+This prelate, Archbishop Gustavus Trolle, had lately returned from a
+journey to Helsingland, undertaken in order to retain this part of his
+diocese in its allegiance to the King. Shortly afterward he received, by
+a messenger from Gustavus, who had himself come to Upsala at
+Whitsuntide, a letter exhorting him to embrace the cause of his country,
+to which his chapter had been persuaded to annex a memorial to the same
+effect. The Archbishop detained the messenger, saying that he would
+carry the answer himself. He broke up immediately with five hundred
+German horse and three thousand foot of the garrison of Stockholm, and
+had come within half a mile of Upsala before Gustavus received
+intelligence of his approach. This the latter did not at first credit,
+but remained, expecting an answer to his overture of negotiation, until,
+about six in the morning, being on horseback upon the sand-hill near
+Upsala, the spot where he afterward built a royal castle, he saw the
+Archbishop marching across the King's Mead (Kungsang) toward the town.
+Gustavus had but two hundred of his so-called foot-goers and a small
+number of horse with him, for the peasants had returned to their homes.
+He made a hasty retreat, but was overtaken by Trolle's horsemen at the
+Ford of Laby. Here a young Finnish noble, who was next to him, in the
+confusion rode down his horse in the midst of the stream; and he would
+have been lost had not the rest of his followers turned upon the enemy
+with such effect as to make them desist from the pursuit.
+
+Gustavus now betook himself to the forest of Rymningen, raised the
+peasantry of the adjoining districts, and sent out young men under his
+best captains to surprise the Archbishop on his return. The remains of
+cattle slaughtered on the road betrayed the ambush to the prelate, who
+drew off in another direction. He was nevertheless overtaken and
+attacked, escaping the spear of Lawrence Olaveson only by bending
+downward on his horse, so that the weapon pierced his neighbor; and he
+brought back to Stockholm hardly a sixth part of his army. Gustavus
+followed close after with his collected force, and encamped under the
+Brunkeberg. Four gibbets on this eminence, stocked with corpses of
+Swedish inhabitants, attested the character of the government in the
+capital.
+
+Thus began, at the midsummer of 1521, the siege of Stockholm, which was
+to last full two years, amid difficulties little thought of nowadays,
+after the lapse of ages; and the admiration which men so willingly
+render to the exertions in the cause of freedom have deprived events of
+their original colors. The path of Gustavus was not in general one of
+glittering feats, although his life is in itself one grand achievement.
+What he accomplished was the effect of strong endurance and great
+sagacity; and though he wanted not for intrepidity, it was of a kind
+before which the mere warrior must vail his crest. All the remaining
+movements of the war of liberation consist in sieges of the various
+castles and fortresses of the country, undertaken as opportunity
+offered, with levies of the peasantry, whose detachments relieved each
+other, though sometimes neglecting this duty when pressed by the cares
+or necessities of their own families. Hence the object of these
+investments, which was to deprive the besieged of provisions, could only
+be imperfectly attained, and there were many fortified mansions of which
+the proprietors adhered to the Danish party, as that of Wik in Upland,
+which remained blockaded throughout the whole year. These difficulties
+were the most formidable where, as at Stockholm, access was open by the
+sea, of which Severin Norby, with the Danish squadron, was master. The
+scantiness of the means of attack may be discovered from the
+circumstance that sixty German spearmen, whom Clement Rensel, a burgher
+of Stockholm, himself a narrator of these events, brought from Dantzic
+in July for the service of Gustavus, were regarded as a reënforcement of
+the highest importance. "At this time," says the chronicle, "Lord
+Gustave enjoyed not much repose or many pleasant days, when he kept his
+people in so many campaigns and investments, since he bore for them all
+great anxiety, fear, and peril, how he might lend them help in their
+need, so that they might not be surprised through heedlessness and
+laches. So likewise his pain was not small when he had but little in his
+money chest, and it was grievous to give this answer when the folk cried
+for stipend. Therefore he stayed not many days in the same place, but
+travelled day and night between the camps."
+
+In the month of August he arrived at Stegeborg, which was now besieged
+by his general, Arwid the West-Goth, who had recently repulsed with
+great bravery Severin Norby's attempt to relieve the castle, and had
+even begun to take homage for Gustavus from the people of his province,
+although in this he experienced difficulties. The East-Goths declared
+that they had been so chastised for their attack on the Bishop's castle
+at Linkoping the preceding year that they no longer dared to provoke
+either King Christian or Bishop Hans Brask. The personal presence of
+Gustavus decided the waverers, and even the Bishop received him as a
+friend, because he would otherwise have stood in danger of a hostile
+visitation. Gustavus now convoked a diet of barons at Vadstena, which
+was attended by seventy Swedish gentlemen of noble family and by many
+other persons of all classes in Gothland. These made him a tender of the
+crown, which he refused to accept. On August 24th, therefore, they swore
+fealty and obedience to him as administrator of the kingdom--"in like
+manner," add the chronicles, "as had formerly been done in Upland";
+whence they seem to have assumed that he had already been acknowledged
+as such in Upper Sweden, here called Upland, as we often find it in the
+chronicles of the Middle Age. This was the first public declaration of
+the nobility in favor of Gustavus and his cause; although the greatest
+barons in this division of the kingdom, such as Nils Boson (Grip),
+Holger Carlson (Gere), and Thure Jenson (Roos) in West-Gothland, all
+three councillors of state, were still in arms for Christian. That the
+first-named nobleman joined the party of Gustavus before the end of the
+year we know from his letter of thanks for a fief of which he received
+the investure. Both the latter were proclaimed in 1523 to be enemies of
+the realm, as also was the archbishop Gustavus Trolle. He had repaired
+to Denmark two years before, in order to obtain, by his personal
+instances with the King, the often-promised relief for the besieged
+garrison of Stockholm, but was received with coldness and reproaches.
+
+After the baronial diet of Vadstena, the Gothlanders acknowledged the
+authority of the administrator, and, the Danes having been driven out
+West-Gothland and Smaland, the seat of the war was removed to Finland.
+By the commencement of the next year the principal castles of the
+interior had fallen into the hands of Gustavus, and some, as those of
+Westeras and Orebo, were razed to the ground by the now exasperated
+peasantry. Stockholm and Kalmar, as well as Abo in Finland, yet stood
+out, and by help of reënforcement which they received at the beginning
+of 1522, through the Danish admiral Severin Norby, the enemy were again
+able to resume the offensive. By sallies from the beleaguered capital on
+April 7th, 8th, and 13th, the camp of Gustavus was set on fire and
+destroyed, and for a whole month afterward no Swedish force was seen
+before the walls of Stockholm. The besiegers of Abo were likewise driven
+off, and the chief adherents of Gustavus, being obliged to flee from
+Finland, Arvid, Bishop of Abo, with many noble persons of both sexes,
+perished at sea.
+
+Christian himself by new cruelties added to the detestation with which
+he was regarded in Sweden. The wives and children, of the most
+distinguished among the barons beheaded in Stockholm, had been conveyed
+to Denmark, and among them the mother and two sisters of Gustavus, whom
+the King, in spite of the entreaties of his consort, threw into a
+dungeon. Here they died, either by violence, as Gustavus himself
+complains in a letter of 1522 concerning the cruel oppression of King
+Christian, directed to the Pope, the Emperor, and all Christian princes,
+or, as others assert, of the plague. An order had also been recently
+issued by the King to commanders in Sweden to put to death all the
+Swedes of distinction who had fallen into their hands. The chronicles
+say that Severin Norby had received this order so early as the summer of
+1521, but, instead of complying with it, permitted the escape of many
+noblemen, who afterward did homage to Gustavus at Vadstena, in order, as
+he expressed it, that they might rather guard their necks like warriors
+than be slaughtered like chickens. But in Abo a new massacre was
+perpetrated at the beginning of the next year by Lord Thomas, the
+royalist commander there, who afterward, in an attempt to relieve
+Stockholm, fell, with all his ships, into the hands of Gustavus, and was
+hanged upon an oak in Tynnels Island.
+
+After Severin Norby had relieved the capital, the secretary, master
+Gotschalk Ericson, wrote thence to Christian that there were but eighty
+of the burghers, for the most part Germans, who could be counted on for
+the King's service, but of footmen and gunners in the castle there were
+now eight hundred fifty men, well furnished with all; the peasants were,
+indeed, weary of the war, but were still more fearful of the King's
+vengeance, and put faith in no assurances, whence the country could only
+be reduced to obedience by violent methods; if a sufficient force were
+sent, East-Gothland, Sodermanland, and Upland would submit to the King,
+and his grace could then punish the Dalecarlians and Helsingers, who
+first stirred up these troubles.
+
+The governor of the castle of Stockholm informs the King, in a report on
+military occurrences of the winter, "that his men had compelled him to
+consent to an increase of pay on account of the successes they had
+gained; that he had expelled from the town, or imprisoned, the suspected
+Swedish burghers; that the peasants would rather be hanged on their own
+hearths than longer endure the burden of war; that Gustavus, who had in
+vain tempted his fidelity, had already sent his plate and the chief part
+of his own movable property to a priest in Helsingland; he (the
+governor) also transmitted an inventory of the goods of the decapitated
+nobles."
+
+But by the end of one month Gustavus, who in this letter is styled "a
+forest thief and robber," had again filled three camps around Stockholm
+with Dalesmen and Norrlanders; and when, pursuant to a convention with
+Lubeck, he received thence in the month of June an auxiliary force of
+ten ships, a number that was afterward augmented, he was enabled to
+dispense with the greatest portion of his peasants, and retained about
+him only those who were young and unmarried. The assistance of the
+Lubeckers, it was true, was given only by halves, and from selfish
+motives; they did not forget their profit on the arms, purchased Swedish
+iron and copper for klippings, with which worthless coins they came
+well provided, and exacted a dear price for their men, ships, and
+military stores, refusing even, it is said, to supply Gustavus with two
+pieces of cannon at a decisive moment, although upon the proffered
+security of two of the royal castles.
+
+This occurred on occasion of a second, and this time unsuccessful,
+attempt made by Norby to relieve Stockholm; in which he was only saved
+from ruin by the refusal of the admiral of Lubeck to attack. Meanwhile
+Gustavus, despite the losses which he sustained by sallies, pushed his
+three camps by degrees close to the town, then covering little more than
+the island still contains, the town properly so called. At length, after
+Kingsholm, Langholm, Sodermalm, Waldemar's Island, now the Zoölogical
+Gardens, had been connected by block-houses and chains, the place was
+invested on all sides. Yet it held out through the winter, until the
+news of Christian's fate, joined to the pangs of hunger, deprived the
+garrison of all spirit for further resistance.
+
+He did not dare to trust either his subjects or his soldiers, collected
+twenty ships, in which he embarked the public records, with the treasure
+and crown jewels, his consort and child, and his adviser Sigbert, who
+was concealed in his chest. Deserting his kingdom, he sailed away in the
+face of the whole population of Copenhagen, April 20, 1523.
+
+Thus ended the reign of Christian II, a king in whom one knows not which
+rivets the attention, the multiplied undertakings he commenced and
+abandoned in a career so often stained with blood, his audacity, his
+feebleness, or that misery of many years by which he was to expiate a
+short and ill-used tenure of power. There are men who, like the storm
+birds before the tempest, appear in history as foretokens of the
+approaching outburst of great convulsions. Of such a nature was
+Christian, who, tossed hither and thither between all the various
+currents of his time without central consistence, awakened alternately
+the fear or pity of the beholders.
+
+Frederick I, who was chosen to succeed him in Denmark, wrote to the
+estates of Sweden, demanding that in accordance with the stipulations of
+the Union of Kalmar he might also be acknowledged king in Sweden. They
+replied "that they had elected Gustavus Ericson to be Sweden's king."
+That event came to pass at the Diet of Strengess, June 7, 1523. Thus was
+the union dissolved, after enduring one hundred twenty-six years. Norway
+wavered at this critical moment. The inhabitants of the southern portion
+declared, when the Swedes under Thure Jenson (Roos) and Lawrence
+Siggeson (Sparre) had penetrated into their country as far as Opslo,
+that they would unite with Sweden if they might rely upon its support.
+Bohusland was subdued, Bleking likewise on another side, and Gustavus
+sought, both by negotiation and arms, to enforce the old claims of
+Sweden to Scania and Halland. The town of Kalmar was taken on May 27th,
+and the castle on July 7th. Stockholm having surrendered on June 20th,
+on condition of the free departure of the garrison with their property
+and arms, and of every other person who adhered to the cause of
+Christian, Gustavus made his public entry on Midsummer's Eve; before the
+end of the year Finland also was reduced to obedience. The kingdom was
+freed from foreign enemies, but internal foes still remained; and Lubeck
+was an ally whose demands made it more troublesome than it would have
+been as an enemy.
+
+A town wasted in the civil war had been the scene of the election of
+Gustavus Vasa to the throne. In the capital, when he made his public
+entry, one-half of the houses were empty, and of population scarcely a
+fourth part remained. To fill up the gap, he issued an invitation to the
+burghers in other towns to settle there, a summons which he was obliged
+twelve years afterward to renew, "seeing that Stockholm had not yet
+revived from the days of King Christian." The spectacle which here met
+his eyes was a type of the condition of the whole kingdom, and never was
+it said of any sovereign with more justice that the throne to which he
+had been elevated was more difficult to preserve than to win.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35] Translated by J. H. Turner, M.A.
+
+
+
+
+THE PEASANTS' WAR IN GERMANY
+
+A.D. 1524
+
+J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNE
+
+     The Peasants' War was the most widespread and most bloody of
+     the mediæval forerunners of the French Revolution. Like the
+     rebellion of the Jacquerie and many another ferocious,
+     desperate outburst of the downtrodden common folk, it
+     foretold a day of vengeance to come. These early uprisings
+     were all hopeless from their start, because the untrained
+     and naked bodies of the people, however numerous, could not
+     possibly hold an open battlefield against skilled and armed
+     men of war. Each revolt terminated in the butchery of the
+     unhappy rebels.
+
+     The Peasants' War has acquired special notoriety because of
+     its connection with the Reformation. The people rose in the
+     name of religion, and, as their ignorance and ferocity led
+     them into hideous excesses of revenge upon their oppressors,
+     the new religion was blamed for all the evil thus done in
+     its name. This revolt, because of the fear and disgust it
+     roused, became the most severe set-back Protestantism
+     received in all its struggle with the more ancient and
+     conservative Church.
+
+     The following account of the outbreak and its consequences
+     is by a standard Protestant historian, president of the
+     College of Geneva, a student who can see justice on both
+     sides of the great controversy.
+
+
+A political ferment, very different from that produced by the Gospel,
+had long been at work in the empire. The people, bowed down by civil and
+ecclesiastical oppression, bound in many countries to the seigniorial
+estates, and transferred from hand to hand along with them, threatened
+to rise with fury and at last to break their chains. This agitation had
+showed itself long before the Reformation by many symptoms, and even
+then the religious element was blended with the political; in the
+sixteenth century it was impossible to separate these two principles, so
+closely associated in the existence of nations. In Holland, at the close
+of the preceding century, the peasants had revolted, placing on their
+banners, by way of arms, a loaf and a cheese, the two great blessings of
+these poor people. The "Alliance of the Shoes" had shown itself in the
+neighborhood of Spires in 1502. In 1513 it appeared again in Breisgau,
+being encouraged by the priests. In 1514 Wuertemberg had seen the
+"League of Poor Conrad," whose aim was to maintain by rebellion "the
+right of God." In 1515 Carinthia and Hungary had been the theatres of
+terrible agitations. These seditions had been quenched in torrents of
+blood, but no relief had been accorded to the people. A political
+reform, therefore, was not less necessary than a religious reform. The
+people were entitled to this; but we must acknowledge that they were not
+ripe for its enjoyment.
+
+Since the commencement of the Reformation, these popular disturbances
+had not been renewed; men's minds were occupied by other thoughts.
+Luther, whose piercing glance had discerned the condition of the people,
+had already from the summit of the Wartburg addressed them in serious
+exhortations calculated to restrain their agitated minds:
+
+"Rebellion," he had said, "never produces the amelioration we desire,
+and God condemns it. What is it to rebel, if it be not to avenge one's
+self? The devil is striving to excite to revolt those who embrace the
+Gospel, in order to cover it with opprobrium; but those who have rightly
+understood my doctrine do not revolt."
+
+Everything gave cause to fear that the popular agitation could not be
+restrained much longer. The government that Frederick of Saxony had
+taken such pains to form, and which possessed the confidence of the
+nation, was dissolved. The Emperor, whose energy might have been an
+efficient substitute for the influence of this national administration,
+was absent; the princes whose union had always constituted the strength
+of Germany were divided; and the new declaration of Charles V against
+Luther, by removing every hope of future harmony, deprived the reformer
+of part of the moral influence by which in 1522 he had succeeded in
+calming the storm. The chief barriers that hitherto had confined the
+torrent being broken, nothing could any longer restrain its fury.
+
+It was not the religious movement that gave birth to political
+agitations; but in many places it was carried away by their impetuous
+waves. Perhaps we should even go further, and acknowledge that the
+movement communicated to the people by the Reformation gave fresh
+strength to the discontent fermenting in the nation. The violence of
+Luther's writings, the intrepidity of his actions and language, the
+harsh truths that he spoke, not only to the Pope and prelates, but also
+to the princes themselves, must all have contributed to inflame minds
+that were already in a state of excitement. Accordingly, Erasmus did not
+fail to tell him, "We are now reaping the fruits that you have sown."
+And further, the cheering truths of the Gospel, at last brought to
+light, stirred all hearts and filled them with anticipation and hope.
+But many unregenerated souls were not prepared by repentance for the
+faith and liberty of Christians. They were very willing to throw off the
+papal yoke, but they would not take up the yoke of Christ. And hence,
+when princes devoted to the cause of Rome endeavored in their wrath to
+stifle the Reformation, real Christians patiently endured these cruel
+persecutions; but the multitude resisted and broke out, and, seeing
+their desires checked in one direction, gave vent to them in another.
+"Why," said they, "should slavery be perpetuated in the state while the
+Church invites all men to a glorious liberty? Why should governments
+rule only by force, when the Gospel preaches nothing but gentleness?"
+Unhappily, at a time when the religious reform was received with equal
+joy both by princes and people, the political reform, on the contrary,
+had the most powerful part of the nation against it; and while the
+former had the Gospel for its rule and support, the latter had soon no
+other principles than violence and despotism. Accordingly, while the one
+was confined within the bounds of truth, the other rapidly, like an
+impetuous torrent, overstepped all limits of justice. But to shut one's
+eyes against the indirect influence of the Reformation on the troubles
+that broke out in the empire would betoken partiality. A fire had been
+kindled in Germany by religious discussions from which it was impossible
+to prevent a few sparks escaping, which were calculated to inflame the
+passions of the people.
+
+The claims of a few fanatics to divine inspiration increased the evil.
+While the Reformation had continually appealed from the pretended
+authority of the Church to the real authority of the holy Scriptures,
+these enthusiasts not only rejected the authority of the Church, but of
+the Scriptures also; they spoke only of an inner word, of an internal
+revelation from God; and, overlooking the natural corruption of their
+hearts, they gave way to all the intoxication of spiritual pride, and
+fancied they were saints.
+
+"To them the holy Scriptures were but a dead letter," said Luther, "and
+they all began to cry, 'The Spirit! the Spirit!' But most assuredly I
+will not follow where their spirit leads them. May God of his mercy
+preserve me from a church in which there are none but saints. I desire
+to dwell with the humble, the feeble, the sick, who know and feel their
+sins, and who groan and cry continually to God from the bottom of their
+hearts to obtain his consolation and support." These words of Luther
+have great depth of meaning, and point out the change that was taking
+place in his views as to the nature of the Church. They indicate at the
+same time how contrary were the religious opinions of the rebels to
+those of the Reformation.
+
+The most notorious of these enthusiasts was Thomas Munzer; he was not
+devoid of talent, had read his Bible, was zealous, and might have done
+good if he had been able to collect his agitated thoughts and find peace
+of heart. But as he did not know himself, and was wanting in true
+humility, he was possessed with a desire of reforming the world, and
+forgot, as all enthusiasts do, that the reformation should begin with
+himself. Some mystical writings that he had read in his youth had given
+a false direction to his mind. He first appeared at Zwickau, quitted
+Wittenberg after Luther's return, dissatisfied with the inferior part he
+was playing, and became pastor of the small town of Alstadt in
+Thuringia. He could not long remain quiet, and accused the reformers of
+founding, by their adherence to the letter, a new popery, and of forming
+churches which were not pure and holy.
+
+"Luther," said he, "has delivered men's consciences from the yoke of the
+Pope, but he has left them in a carnal liberty, and not led them in
+spirit toward God."
+
+He considered himself as called of God to remedy this great evil. The
+revelations of the Spirit were in his eyes the means by which his reform
+was to be effected. "He who possesses this spirit," said he, "possesses
+the true faith, although he should never see the Scriptures in his life.
+Heathens and Turks are better fitted to receive it than many Christians
+who style us enthusiasts." It was Luther whom he here had in view. "To
+receive this Spirit we must mortify the flesh," said he at another time,
+"wear tattered clothing, let the beard grow, be of sad countenance, keep
+silence, retire into desert places, and supplicate God to give us a sign
+of his favor. Then God will come and speak with us, as formerly he spoke
+with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. If he were not to do so, he would not
+deserve our attention. I have received from God the commission to gather
+together his elect into a holy and eternal alliance."
+
+The agitation and ferment which were at work in men's minds were but too
+favorable to the dissemination of these enthusiastic ideas. Man loves
+the marvellous and whatever flatters his pride. Munzer, having persuaded
+a part of his flock to adopt his views, abolished ecclesiastical singing
+and all other ceremonies. He maintained that obedience to princes, "void
+of understanding," was at once to serve God and Belial. Then, marching
+out at the head of his parishioners to a chapel in the vicinity of
+Alstadt, whither pilgrims from all quarters were accustomed to resort,
+he pulled it down. After the exploit, being compelled to leave that
+neighborhood, he wandered about Germany, and went as far as Switzerland,
+carrying with him, and communicating to all who would listen to him, the
+plan of a general revolution. Everywhere he found men's minds prepared;
+he threw gunpowder on the burning coals, and the explosion forthwith
+took place.
+
+Luther, who had rejected the warlike enterprises of Sickengen, could not
+be led away by the tumultuous movements of the peasantry. He wrote to
+the Elector: "It causes me especial joy that these enthusiasts
+themselves boast, to all who are willing to listen to them, that they do
+not belong to us. The Spirit urges them on, say they; and I reply, it is
+an evil spirit, for he bears no other fruit than the pillage of convents
+and churches; the greatest highway robbers upon earth might do as much."
+
+At the same time, Luther, who desired that others should enjoy the
+liberty he claimed for himself, dissuaded the Prince from all measures
+of severity: "Let them preach what they please, and against whom they
+please," said he; "for it is the Word of God that must march in front
+of the battle and fight against them. If their spirit be the true
+spirit, he will not fear our severity; if ours is the true one, he will
+not fear their violence. Let us leave the spirits to struggle and
+contend with one another. Perhaps some persons may be led astray; there
+is no battle without wounds; but he who fighteth faithfully shall be
+crowned. Nevertheless, if they desire to take up the sword, let your
+highness forbid it, and order them to quit the country."
+
+The insurrection began in the Black Forest, and near the sources of the
+Danube, so frequently the theatre of popular commotions. On the 19th of
+July, 1524, some Thurgovian peasants rose against the Abbot of
+Reichenau, who would not accord them an evangelical preacher. Ere long
+thousands were collected round the small town of Tengen to liberate an
+ecclesiastic who was there imprisoned. The revolt spread with
+inconceivable rapidity from Swabia as far as the Rhenish provinces,
+Franconia, Thuringia, and Saxony. In the month of January, 1525, all
+these countries were in a state of rebellion.
+
+About the end of this month the peasants published a declaration in
+twelve articles, in which they claimed the liberty of choosing their own
+pastors; the abolition of small tithes, of slavery, and of fines on
+inheritance; the right to hunt, fish, and cut wood, etc. Each demand was
+backed by a passage from holy writ, and they said in conclusion, "If we
+are deceived, let Luther correct us by Scripture."
+
+The opinions of the Wittenberg divines were consulted. Luther and
+Melanchthon delivered theirs separately, and they both gave evidence of
+the difference of their characters. Melanchthon, who thought every kind
+of disturbance a crime, oversteps the limits of his usual gentleness,
+and cannot find language strong enough to express his indignation. The
+peasants are criminals against whom he invokes all laws human and
+divine. If friendly negotiation is unavailing, the magistrates should
+hunt them down as if they were robbers and assassins. "And yet," adds
+he--and we require at least one feature to remind us of
+Melanchthon--"let them take pity on the orphans when having recourse to
+the penalty of death!"
+
+Luther's opinion of the revolt was the same as Melanchthon's, but he had
+a heart that beat for the miseries of the people. On this occasion he
+manifested a dignified impartiality, and spoke the truth frankly to both
+parties. He first addressed the princes, and more especially the
+bishops:
+
+"It is you," said he, "who are the cause of this revolt; it is your
+clamors against the Gospel, your guilty oppressions of the poor, that
+have driven the people to despair. It is not the peasants, my dear
+lords, that rise up against you--it is God himself who opposes your
+madness. The peasants are but the instruments he employs to humble you.
+Do not imagine you can escape the punishment he is preparing for you.
+Even should you have succeeded in destroying all these peasants, God is
+able from the very stones to raise up others to chastise your pride. If
+I desired revenge, I might laugh in my sleeve, and look on while the
+peasants were carrying on their work, or even increase their fury; but
+may God preserve me from such thoughts! My dear lords, put away your
+indignation, treat those poor peasants as a man of sense treats people
+who are drunk or insane. Quiet these commotions by mildness, lest a
+conflagration should arise and burn all Germany. Among these twelve
+articles there are certain demands which are just and equitable."
+
+This prologue was calculated to conciliate the peasants' confidence in
+Luther, and to make them listen patiently to the truths he had to tell
+them. He represented to them that the greater number of their demands
+were well founded, but that to revolt was to act like heathens; that the
+duty of a Christian is to be patient, not to fight; that if they
+persisted in revolting against the Gospel in the name of the Gospel, he
+should look upon them as more dangerous enemies than the Pope. "The Pope
+and the Emperor," continued he, "combined against me; but the more they
+blustered, the more did the Gospel gain ground. And why was this?
+Because I have never drawn the sword or called for vengeance; because I
+never had recourse to tumult or insurrection: I relied wholly on God,
+and placed everything in his almighty hands. Christians fight not with
+swords or arquebuses, but with sufferings and with the Cross. Christ,
+their captain, handled not the sword. He was hung upon a tree."
+
+But to no purpose did Luther employ this Christian language. The people
+were too much excited by the fanatical speeches of the leaders of the
+insurrection to listen, as of old, to the words of the reformer. "He is
+playing the hypocrite," said they; "he flatters the nobles. He has
+declared war against the Pope, and yet wishes us to submit to our
+oppressors."
+
+The revolt, instead of dying away, became more formidable. At Weinsberg,
+Count Louis of Helfenstein and the seventy men under his orders were
+condemned to death by the rebels. A body of peasants drew up with their
+pikes lowered, while others drove the count and his soldiers against
+this wall of steel. The wife of the wretched Helfenstein, a natural
+daughter of the emperor Maximilian, holding an infant two years old in
+her arms, knelt before them, and with loud cries begged for her
+husband's life, and vainly endeavored to arrest this march of murder; a
+boy, who had been in the count's service and had joined the rebels,
+capered gayly before him, and played the dead march upon his fife, as if
+he had been leading his victims in a dance. All perished; the child was
+wounded in its mother's arms, and she herself thrown upon a dung-cart
+and thus conveyed to Heilbronn.
+
+At the news of these cruelties, a cry of horror was heard from the
+friends of the Reformation, and Luther's feeling heart underwent a
+terrible conflict. On the one hand the peasants, ridiculing his advice,
+pretended to receive revelations from heaven, made an impious use of the
+threatenings of the Old Testament, proclaimed an equality of rank and a
+community of goods, defended their cause with fire and sword, and
+indulged in barbarous atrocities. On the other hand, the enemies of the
+Reformation asked the reformer, with a malicious sneer, if he did not
+know that it was easier to kindle a fire than to extinguish it. Shocked
+at these excesses, alarmed at the thought that they might check the
+progress of the Gospel, Luther hesitated no longer, no longer
+temporized; he inveighed against the insurgents with all the energy of
+his character, and perhaps overstepped the just bounds within which he
+should have contained himself.
+
+"The peasants," said he, "commit three horrible sins against God and
+man, and thus deserve the death of body and soul. First, they revolt
+against their magistrates, to whom they have sworn fidelity; next, they
+rob and plunder convents and castles; and lastly, they veil their crimes
+with the cloak of the Gospel. If you do not put a mad dog to death, you
+will perish, and all the country with you. Whoever is killed fighting
+for the magistrates will be a true martyr, if he has fought with a good
+conscience." Luther then gives a powerful description of the guilty
+violence of the peasants who force peaceful and simple men to join their
+alliance and thus drag them to the same condemnation. He then adds: "For
+this reason, my dear lords, help, save, deliver, have pity on these poor
+people. Let everyone strike, pierce, and kill who is able. If thou
+diest, thou canst not meet a happier death; for thou diest in the
+service of God, and to save thy neighbor from hell."
+
+Neither gentleness nor violence could arrest the popular torrent. The
+church-bells were no longer rung for divine service; whenever their deep
+and prolonged sounds were heard in the fields, it was the tocsin, and
+all ran to arms. The people of the Black Forest had rallied round John
+Muller of Bulgenbach. With an imposing aspect, covered with a red cloak
+and wearing a red cap, this leader boldly advanced from village to
+village followed by the peasantry. Behind him, on a wagon decorated with
+ribands and branches of trees, was raised the tricolor flag--black, red,
+and white--the signal of revolt. A herald dressed in the same colors
+read the twelve articles, and invited the people to join in the
+rebellion. Whoever refused was banished from the community.
+
+Ere long this march, which at first was peaceful, became more
+disquieting. "We must compel the lords to submit to our alliance,"
+exclaimed they. And to induce them to do so, they plundered the
+granaries, emptied the cellars, drew the seigniorial fish-ponds,
+demolished the castles of the nobles who resisted, and burned the
+convents. Opposition had inflamed the passions of these rude men;
+equality no longer satisfied them; they thirsted for blood, and swore to
+put to death every man who wore a spur.
+
+At the approach of the peasants, the cities that were unable to resist
+them opened their gates and joined them. In whatever place they entered,
+they pulled down the images and broke the crucifixes; armed women
+paraded the streets and threatened the monks. If they were defeated in
+one quarter, they assembled in another, and braved the most formidable
+forces. A committee of peasants was established at Heilbrunn. The counts
+of Lowenstein were taken prisoners, dressed in a smock-frock, and then,
+a white staff having been placed in their hands, they were compelled to
+swear to the twelve articles. "Brother George, and thou, brother
+Albert," said a tinker of Ohringen to the counts of Hohenlohe who had
+gone to their camp, "swear to conduct yourselves as our brethren, for
+you also are now peasants; you are no longer lords." Equality of rank,
+the dream of many democrats, was established in aristocratic Germany.
+
+Many nobles, some through fear, others from ambition, then joined the
+insurgents. The famous Goetz von Berlichingen, finding his vassals
+refuse to obey him, desired to flee to the Elector of Saxony; but his
+wife, who was lying-in, wishing to keep him near her, concealed the
+Elector's answer. Goetz, being closely pursued, was compelled to put
+himself at the head of the rebel army. On the 7th of May the peasants
+entered Wuerzburg, where the citizens received them with acclamations.
+The forces of the princes and knights of Swabia and Franconia, which had
+assembled in this city, evacuated it, and retired in confusion to the
+citadel, the last bulwark of the nobility.
+
+But the movement had already extended to other parts of Germany. Spires,
+the Palatinate, Alsace, and Hesse accepted the twelve articles, and the
+peasants threatened Bavaria, Westphalia, the Tyrol, Saxony, and
+Lorraine. The Margrave of Baden, having rejected the articles, was
+compelled to flee. The coadjutor of Fulda acceded to them with a smile.
+The smaller towns said they had no lances with which to oppose the
+insurgents. Mentz, Treves, and Frankfort obtained the liberties they had
+claimed.
+
+An immense revolution was preparing in all the empire. The
+ecclesiastical and secular privileges, that bore so heavily on the
+peasants, were to be suppressed; the possessions of the clergy were to
+be secularized, to indemnify the princes and provide for the wants of
+the empire; taxes were to be abolished, with the exception of a tribute
+payable every ten years; the imperial power was to subsist alone, as
+being recognized by the New Testament; all the other princes were to
+cease to reign; sixty-four free tribunals were to be established, in
+which men of all classes should have a seat; all ranks were to return to
+their primitive condition; the clergy were to be henceforward merely the
+pastors of the churches; princes and knights were to be simply the
+defenders of the weak; uniformity in weights and measures was to be
+introduced, and only one kind of money was to be coined throughout the
+empire.
+
+Meanwhile the princes had shaken off their first lethargy, and George
+von Truchsess, commander-in-chief of the imperial army, was advancing on
+the side of the Lake of Constance. On the 2d of May he defeated the
+peasants at Beblingen; then marched on the town of Weinsberg, where the
+unhappy Count of Helfenstein had perished, burned and razed it to the
+ground, giving orders that the ruins should be left as an eternal
+monument of the treason of its inhabitants. At Fairfeld he united with
+the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Treves, and all three moved
+toward Franconia.
+
+The Frauenburg, the citadel of Wuerzburg, held out for the princes, and
+the main army of the peasants still lay before its walls. As soon as
+they heard of the Truchsess' march, they resolved on an assault, and at
+nine o'clock at night on the 15th of May the trumpets sounded, the
+tricolor flag was unfurled, and the peasants rushed to the attack with
+horrible shouts. Sebastian von Rotenhan, one of the warmest partisans of
+the Reformation, was governor of the castle. He had put the fortress in
+a formidable state of defence, and, having exhorted the garrison to
+repel the assault with courage, the soldiers, holding up three fingers,
+had all sworn to do so. A most terrible conflict took place. To the
+vigor and despair of the insurgents, the fortress replied from its walls
+and towers by petards, showers of sulphur and boiling pitch and the
+discharges of artillery. The peasants, thus struck by their unseen
+enemies, were staggered for a moment; but in an instant their fury grew
+more violent. The struggle was prolonged as the night advanced. The
+fortress, lit up by a thousand battle-fires, appeared in the darkness
+like a towering giant, who, vomiting flames, struggled alone amid the
+roar of thunder, for the salvation of the empire against the ferocious
+valor of these furious hordes. Two hours after midnight the peasants
+withdrew, having failed in all their efforts.
+
+They now tried to enter into negotiations, either with the garrison or
+with Truchsess, who was advancing at the head of his army. But this was
+going out of their path; violence and victory alone could save them.
+After some little hesitation they resolved to march against the imperial
+forces, but the cavalry and artillery made terrible havoc in their
+ranks. At Koenigshofen, and afterward at Engelstadt, those unfortunate
+creatures were totally defeated. The princes, the nobles, and bishops,
+abusing their victory, indulged in the most unprecedented cruelties. The
+prisoners were hanged on the trees by the wayside. The Bishop of
+Wuerzburg, who had run away, now returned, traversed his diocese
+accompanied by executioners, and watered it alike with the blood of the
+rebels and of the peaceful friends of the Word of God. Goetz von
+Berlichingen was sentenced to imprisonment for life. The margrave
+Casimir of Anspach put out the eyes of eighty-five insurgents who had
+sworn that their eyes should never look upon that Prince again; and he
+cast this troop of blinded individuals upon the world, to wander up and
+down, holding each other by the hand, groping along, tottering, and
+begging their bread. The wretched boy who had played the dead-march on
+his fife at the murder of Helfenstein, was chained to a post, a fire was
+kindled around him, and the knights looked on, laughing at his horrible
+contortions.
+
+Public worship was now everywhere restored in its ancient forms. The
+most flourishing and populous districts of the empire exhibited to those
+who travelled through them nothing but heaps of dead bodies and smoking
+ruins. Fifty thousand men had perished, and the people lost nearly
+everywhere the little liberty they had hitherto enjoyed. Such was the
+horrible termination of this revolt in the south of Germany.
+
+But the evil was not confined to the south and west of Germany. Munzer,
+after having traversed a part of Switzerland, Alsace, and Swabia, had
+again directed his steps toward Saxony. A few citizens of Muelhausen, in
+Thuringia, had invited him to their city and elected him their pastor.
+The town council having resisted, Munzer deposed it and nominated
+another, consisting of his friends, with himself at their head. Full of
+contempt for that Christ, "sweet as honey," whom Luther preached, and
+being resolved to employ the most energetic measures, he exclaimed,
+"Like Joshua, we must put all the Canaanites to the sword." He
+established a community of goods and pillaged the convents. "Munzer,"
+wrote Luther to Ansdorff on the 11th of April, 1525, "Munzer is not only
+pastor, but king and emperor of Muelhausen." The poor no longer worked;
+if anyone needed corn or cloth, he went and demanded it of some rich
+man; if the latter refused, the poor man took it by force; if the owner
+resisted, he was hanged. As Muelhausen was an independent city, Munzer
+was able to exercise his power for nearly a year without opposition. The
+revolt in the south of Germany led him to imagine that it was time to
+extend his new kingdom. He had a number of heavy guns cast in the
+Franciscan convent, and endeavored to raise the peasantry and miners of
+Mansfeld. "How long will you sleep?" said he to them in a fanatical
+proclamation: "Arise and fight the battle of the Lord! The time is come.
+France, Germany, and Italy are moving. On, on, on! (_Dran, Dran, Dran!_)
+Heed not the groans of the impious ones. They will implore you like
+children, but be pitiless. _Dran, Dran, Dran!_ The fire is burning: let
+your sword be ever warm with blood. _Dran, Dran, Dran!_ Work while it is
+yet day." The letter was signed, "Munzer, servant of God against the
+wicked."
+
+The country people, thirsting for plunder, flocked round his standard.
+Throughout all the districts of Mansfeld, of Stolberg, and Schwarzburg
+in Hesse, and the duchy of Brunswick the peasantry rose in insurrection.
+The convents of Michelstein, Ilsenburg, Walkenfied, Rossleben, and many
+others in the neighborhood of the Hartz, or in the plains of Thuringia,
+were devastated. At Reinhardsbrunn, which Luther had visited, the tombs
+of the ancient landgraves were profaned and the library destroyed.
+
+Terror spread far and wide. Even at Wittenberg some anxiety was felt.
+Those doctors, who had feared neither the Emperor nor the Pope, trembled
+in the presence of a madman. They were always on the watch for news;
+every step of the rebels was counted. "We are here in great danger,"
+said Melanchthon. "If Munzer succeeds, it is all over with us, unless
+Christ should rescue us. Munzer advances with a worse than Scythian
+cruelty, and it is impossible to repeat his dreadful threats."
+
+The pious Elector had long hesitated what he should do. Munzer had
+exhorted him and all the princes to be converted, because, said he,
+their hour was come; and he had signed these letters: "Munzer, armed
+with the sword of Gudeon." Frederick would have desired to reclaim these
+misguided men by gentle measures. On the 14th of April, when he was
+dangerously ill, he had written to his brother John: "We may have given
+these wretched people more than one cause for insurrection. Alas! the
+poor are oppressed in many ways by their spiritual and temporal lords."
+And when his attention was directed to the humiliation, the revolutions,
+the dangers to which he would expose himself unless he promptly stifled
+the rebellion, he replied: "Hitherto I have been a mighty elector,
+having chariots and horses in abundance; if it be God's pleasure to take
+them from me now, I will go on foot."
+
+The youthful Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, was the first of the princes
+who took up arms. His knights and soldiers swore to live and die with
+him. After pacifying his own states, he directed his march toward
+Saxony. On their side, Duke John, the Elector's brother, Duke George of
+Saxony, and Duke Henry of Brunswick advanced and united their troops
+with those of Hesse. The peasants, terrified at the sight of this army,
+fled to a small hill, where, without any discipline, without arms, and
+for the most part without courage, they formed a rampart with their
+wagons. Munzer had not even prepared ammunition for his large guns. No
+succors appeared; the rebels were hemmed in by the army; they lost all
+confidence. The princes, taking pity on them, offered them propositions
+which they appeared willing to accept. Upon this Munzer had recourse to
+the most powerful lever that enthusiasm can put in motion. "To-day we
+shall behold the arm of the Lord," said he, "and all our enemies shall
+be destroyed." At this moment a rainbow appeared over their heads; the
+fanatical host, who carried a rainbow on their flags, beheld in it a
+sure prognostic of the divine protection. Munzer took advantage of it:
+"Fear nothing," said he to the citizens and peasants: "I will catch all
+their balls in my sleeve." At the same time he cruelly put to death a
+young gentleman, Maternus von Geholfen, an envoy from the princes, in
+order to deprive the insurgents of all hope of pardon.
+
+The Landgrave, having assembled his horsemen, said to them: "I well know
+that we princes are often in fault, for we are but men; but God commands
+all men to honor the powers that be. Let us save our wives and children
+from the fury of these murderers. The Lord will give us the victory, for
+he has said, 'Whosoever resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of
+God.'" Philip then gave the signal of attack. It was the 15th of May,
+1525. The army was put in motion; but the peasant host stood immovable,
+singing the hymn, "Come, Holy Ghost," and waiting for heaven to declare
+in their favor. The artillery soon broke down their rude rampart,
+carrying dismay and death into the midst of the insurgents. Their
+fanaticism and courage at once forsook them; they were seized with a
+panic-terror, and ran away in disorder. Five thousand perished in the
+flight.
+
+After the battle the princes and their victorious troops entered
+Frankenhausen. A soldier who had gone into a loft in the house where he
+was quartered, found a man in bed. "Who art thou?" said he; "art thou
+one of the rebels?" Then, observing a pocket-book, he took it up, and
+found several letters addressed to Thomas Munzer, "Art thou Munzer?"
+demanded the trooper. The sick man answered, "No." But as the soldier
+uttered dreadful threats, Munzer, for it was really he, confessed who he
+was. "Thou art my prisoner," said the horseman. When Munzer was taken
+before Duke George and the Landgrave, he persevered in saying that he
+was right to chastise the princes, since they opposed the Gospel.
+"Wretched man!" replied they, "think of all those of whose death you
+have been the cause." But he answered, smiling in the midst of his
+anguish, "They would have it so!" He took the sacrament, and was
+beheaded at the same time with Pfeiffer, his lieutenant. Mulhausen was
+taken, and the peasants were loaded with chains.
+
+A nobleman having observed among the crowd of prisoners a peasant of
+favorable appearance, went up and said to him: "Well, my man, which
+government do you like best--that of the peasants or of the princes?"
+The poor fellow made answer with a deep sigh, "Ah, my lord, no knife
+cuts so deep as the rule of the peasant over his fellows."
+
+The remnants of the insurrection were quenched in blood; Duke George, in
+particular, acted with the greatest severity. In the states of the
+Elector, there were neither executions nor punishment. The Word of God,
+preached in all its purity, had shown its power to restrain the
+tumultuous passions of the people.
+
+From the very beginning, indeed, Luther had not ceased to struggle
+against the rebellion, which was, in his opinion, the forerunner of the
+Judgment-day. Advice, prayers, and even irony had not been spared. At
+the end of the articles drawn up at Erfurth by the rebels he had
+subjoined, as a supplementary article: "_Item._ The following article
+has been omitted. Henceforward the honorable council shall have no
+power; it shall do nothing; it shall sit like an idol or a log of wood;
+the commonalty shall chew its food, and it shall govern with its hands
+and feet tied; henceforth the wagon shall guide the horses, the horses
+shall hold the reins, and we shall go on admirably, in conformity with
+the glorious system set forth in these articles."
+
+Luther did not confine himself to writing. While the disturbance was
+still at its height, he quitted Wittenberg and went through some of the
+districts where the agitation was greatest. He preached, he labored to
+soften his hearers' hearts, and his hand, to which God had given power,
+turned aside, quieted, and brought back the impetuous and overflowing
+torrents into their natural channels.
+
+In every quarter the doctors of the Reformation exerted a similar
+influence. At Halle, Brentz had revived the drooping spirits of the
+citizens by the promise of God's Word, and four thousand peasants had
+fled before six hundred citizens. At Ichterhausen, a mob of peasants
+having assembled with an intent to demolish several castles and put
+their lords to death, Frederick Myconius went out to them alone, and
+such was the power of his words that they immediately abandoned their
+design.
+
+Such was the part taken by the reformers and the Reformation in the
+midst of this revolt; they contended against it with all their might,
+with the sword of the Word, and boldly maintained those principles which
+alone, in every age, can preserve order and subjection among the
+nations. Accordingly, Luther asserted that, if the power of sound
+doctrine had not checked the fury of the people, the revolt would have
+extended its ravages far more widely, and have overthrown both church
+and state. If the reformers thus contended against sedition, it was not
+without receiving grievous wounds. That moral agony which Luther had
+first suffered, in his cell at Erfurth, became still more serious after
+the insurrection of the peasants. No great change takes place among men
+without suffering on the part of those who are its instruments. The
+birth of Christianity was effected by the agony of the Cross; but He who
+hung upon that cross addressed these words to each of his disciples,
+"Are ye able to drink of the cup that I shall drink of, and to be
+baptized with the same baptism that I am baptized with?"
+
+On the side of the princes, it was continually repeated that Luther and
+his doctrine were the cause of the revolt, and, however absurd this idea
+may be, the reformer could not see it so generally entertained without
+experiencing the deepest grief. On the side of the people, Munzer and
+all the leaders of the insurrection represented him as a vile hypocrite,
+a flatterer of the great, and these calumnies easily obtained belief.
+The violence with which Luther had declared against the rebels had
+displeased even moderate men. The friends of Rome exulted; all were
+against him, and he bore the heavy anger of his times. But his greatest
+affliction was to behold the work of heaven thus dragged in the mire and
+classed with the most fanatical projects. Here he felt was his
+Gethsemane: he saw the bitter cup that was presented to him; and,
+foreboding that he would be forsaken by all, he exclaimed: "Soon,
+perhaps, I shall also be able to say, 'All ye shall be offended because
+of me this night.'"
+
+Yet in the midst of this deep bitterness he preserved his faith: "He who
+has given me power to trample the enemy under foot," said he, "when he
+rose up against me like a cruel dragon or a furious lion, will not
+permit this enemy to crush me, now that he appears before me with the
+treacherous glance of the basilisk. I groan as I contemplate those
+calamities. Often have I asked myself whether it would not have been
+better to have allowed the papacy to go on quietly, rather than witness
+the occurrence of so many troubles and seditions in the world. But no!
+it is better to have snatched a few souls from the jaws of the devil
+than to have left them all between his murderous fangs."
+
+Now terminated the revolution in Luther's mind that had begun at the
+period of his return from the Wartburg. The inner life no longer
+satisfied him: the Church and her institutions now became most important
+in his eyes. The boldness with which he had thrown down everything was
+checked at the sight of still more sweeping destructions; he felt it his
+duty to preserve, govern, and build up; and from the midst of the
+blood-stained ruins with which the peasant war had covered all Germany,
+the edifice of the new Church began slowly to arise.
+
+These disturbances left a lasting and deep impression on men's minds.
+The nations had been struck with dismay. The masses, who had sought in
+the Reformation nothing but political reform, withdrew from it of their
+own accord, when they saw it offered them spiritual liberty only.
+Luther's opposition to the peasants was his renunciation of the
+ephemeral favor of the people. A seeming tranquillity was soon
+established, and the noise of enthusiasm and sedition was followed in
+all Germany by a silence inspired by terror.
+
+Thus the popular passions, the cause of revolution, the interests of a
+radical equality, were quelled in the empire; but the Reformation did
+not yield. These two movements, which many have confounded with each
+other, were clearly marked out by the difference of their results. The
+insurrection was from below; the Reformation, from above. A few horsemen
+and cannon were sufficient to put down the one; but the other never
+ceased to rise in strength and vigor, in despite of the reiterated
+assaults of the empire and the Church.
+
+
+
+
+FRANCE LOSES ITALY
+
+BATTLE OF PAVIA
+
+A.D. 1525
+
+WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+     Close upon the election of Charles V as emperor of the Holy
+     Roman Empire came the first of a series of wars between that
+     sovereign and Francis I, King of France, who had been
+     Charles's rival for the imperial crown. The Emperor was at
+     this time, 1521, favored by Henry VIII of England, and a
+     secret treaty with Charles was finally concluded by Pope Leo
+     X, who from the first had hesitated between the two young
+     rivals, and who had already treated with Francis. The papal
+     support proved the foundation of future power for Charles in
+     Italy. The Pope and the Emperor agreed to unite their forces
+     for expulsion of the French from their seat in the duchy of
+     Milan.
+
+     In 1521 hostilities broke out in Navarre and in the
+     Netherlands, and finally in the Milanese, where the people
+     were tired of French government. The various allies drove
+     the French completely out of Italy, and Charles invaded
+     France, but was there repulsed. King Francis, elated by this
+     last success, determined upon another invasion of the
+     Milanese. He went in person to Italy, leaving his mother as
+     regent in France. With largely superior forces, he drove the
+     imperialists before him.
+
+     Instead, however, of pursuing the enemy, whom he might have
+     overtaken at an untenable position, Francis, against the
+     almost unanimous advice of his generals, laid siege to the
+     strongly fortified city of Pavia, only to meet before it the
+     crushing defeat which for centuries settled the fate of
+     Italy. Pavia was held by a strong imperialist force under
+     Lannoy.
+
+
+Francis prosecuted the siege with obstinacy equal to the rashness with
+which he had undertaken it. During three months everything known to the
+engineers of that age, or that could be effected by the valor of his
+troops, was attempted, in order to reduce the place; while Lannoy and
+Pescara, unable to obstruct his operations, were obliged to remain in
+such an ignominious state of inaction that a pasquinade was published at
+Rome offering a reward to any person who could find the imperial army,
+lost in the month of October in the mountains between France and
+Lombardy, and which had not been heard of since that time.
+
+Leyva, well acquainted with the difficulties under which his countrymen
+labored, and the impossibility of their facing, in the field, such a
+powerful army as formed the siege of Pavia, placed his only hopes of
+safety in his own vigilance and valor. The efforts of both were
+extraordinary, and in proportion to the importance of the place with the
+defence of which he was intrusted. He interrupted the approaches of the
+French by frequent and furious sallies. Behind the breaches made by
+their artillery he erected new works, which appeared to be scarcely
+inferior in strength to the original fortifications. He repulsed the
+besiegers in all their assaults, and by his own example brought not only
+the garrison, but the inhabitants, to bear the most severe fatigues, and
+to encounter the greatest dangers, without murmuring. The rigor of the
+season conspired with his endeavors in retarding the progress of the
+French. Francis, attempting to become master of the town by diverting
+the course of the Tessino, which is its chief defence on one side, a
+sudden inundation of the river destroyed, in one day, the labor of many
+weeks, and swept away all the mounds which his army had raised with
+infinite toil as well as at great expense.
+
+Notwithstanding the slow progress of the besiegers, and the glory which
+Leyva acquired by his gallant defence, it was not doubted but that the
+town would at last be obliged to surrender. Pope Clement, who already
+considered the French arms as superior in Italy, became impatient to
+disengage himself from his connections with the Emperor, of whose
+designs he was extremely jealous, and to enter into terms of friendship
+with Francis. As Clement's timid and cautious temper rendered him
+incapable of following the bold plan which Leo had formed of delivering
+Italy from the yoke of both the rivals, he returned to the more obvious
+and practicable scheme of employing the power of the one to balance and
+to restrain that of the other.
+
+For this reason he did not dissemble his satisfaction at seeing the
+French King recover Milan, as he hoped that the dread of such a neighbor
+would be some check upon the Emperor's ambition, which no power in Italy
+was now able to control. He labored hard to bring about a peace that
+would secure Francis in the possession of his new conquests; and as
+Charles, who was always inflexible in the prosecution of his schemes,
+rejected the proposition with disdain, and with bitter exclamations
+against the Pope, by whose persuasions, while Cardinal di Medici, he had
+been induced to invade the Milanese, Clement immediately concluded a
+treaty of neutrality with the King of France, in which the republic of
+Florence was included.
+
+Francis having, by this transaction, deprived the Emperor of his two
+most powerful allies, and at the same time having secured a passage for
+his own troops through their territories, formed a scheme of attacking
+the kingdom of Naples, hoping either to overrun that country, which was
+left altogether without defence, or that at least such an unexpected
+invasion would oblige the viceroy to recall part of the imperial army
+out of the Milanese. For this purpose he ordered six thousand men to
+march under the command of John Stuart, Duke of Albany. But Pescara,
+foreseeing that the effect of this diversion would depend entirely upon
+the operations of the armies in the Milanese, persuaded Lannoy to
+disregard Albany's motions, and to bend his whole force against the King
+himself; so that Francis not only weakened his army very unseasonably by
+this great detachment, but incurred the reproach of engaging too rashly
+in chimerical and extravagant projects.
+
+By this time the garrison of Pavia was reduced to extremity; their
+ammunition and provisions began to fail; the Germans, of whom it was
+chiefly composed, having received no pay for seven months, threatened to
+deliver the town into the enemy's hands, and could hardly be restrained
+from mutiny by all Leyva's address and authority. The imperial generals,
+who were no strangers to his situation, saw the necessity of marching
+without loss of time to his relief. This they had now in their power.
+Twelve thousand Germans, whom the zeal and activity of Bourbon taught to
+move with unusual rapidity, had entered Lombardy under his command, and
+rendered the imperial army nearly equal to that of the French, greatly
+diminished by the absence of the body under Albany, as well as by the
+fatigues of the siege and the rigor of the season.
+
+But the more their troops increased in number, the more sensibly did
+the imperialists feel the distress arising from want of money. Far from
+having funds for paying a powerful army, they had scarcely what was
+sufficient for defraying the charges of conducting their artillery and
+of carrying their ammunition and provisions. The abilities of the
+generals, however, supplied every defect. By their own example, as well
+as by magnificent promises in name of the Emperor, they prevailed on the
+troops of all the different nations which composed their army to take
+the field without pay; they engaged to lead them directly toward the
+enemy, and flattered them with the certain prospect of victory, which
+would at once enrich them with such royal spoils as would be an ample
+reward for all their services. The soldiers, sensible that, by quitting
+the army, they would forfeit the great arrears due to them, and eager to
+get possession of the promised treasures, demanded a battle with all the
+impatience of adventurers who fight only for plunder.
+
+The imperial generals, without suffering the ardor of their troops to
+cool, advanced immediately toward the French camp. On the first
+intelligence of their approach, Francis called a council of war to
+deliberate what course he ought to take. All his officers of greatest
+experience were unanimous in advising him to retire, and to decline a
+battle with an enemy who courted it from despair. The imperialists, they
+observed, would either be obliged in a few weeks to disband an army
+which they were unable to pay, and which they kept together only by the
+hope of plunder, or the soldiers, enraged at the nonperformance of the
+promises to which they had trusted, would rise in some furious mutiny,
+which would allow their generals to think of nothing but their own
+safety; that meanwhile he might encamp in some strong post, and, waiting
+in safety the arrival of fresh troops from France and Switzerland, might
+before the end of spring take possession of all the Milanese without
+danger or bloodshed. But in opposition to them, Bonnivet, whose destiny
+it was to give counsels fatal to France during the whole campaign,
+represented the ignominy that it would reflect on their sovereign if he
+should abandon a siege which he had prosecuted so long, or turn his back
+before an enemy to whom he was still superior in number, and insisted on
+the necessity of fighting the imperialists rather than relinquish an
+undertaking on the success of which the King's future fame depended.
+Unfortunately, Francis' notions of honor were delicate to an excess that
+bordered on what was romantic. Having often said that he would take
+Pavia or perish in the attempt, he thought himself bound not to depart
+from that resolution; and, rather than expose himself to the slightest
+imputation, he chose to forego all the advantages which were the certain
+consequences of a retreat, and determined to wait for the imperialists
+before the walls of Pavia.
+
+The imperial generals found the French so strongly intrenched that,
+notwithstanding the powerful motives which urged them on, they hesitated
+long before they ventured to attack them; but at last the necessities of
+the besieged and the murmurs of their own soldiers obliged them to put
+everything to hazard. Never did armies engage with greater ardor or with
+a higher opinion of the importance of the battle which they were going
+to fight; never were troops more strongly animated with emulation,
+national antipathy, mutual resentment, and all the passions which
+inspire obstinate bravery. On the one hand, a gallant young monarch,
+seconded by a generous nobility and followed by subjects to whose
+natural impetuosity indignation at the opposition which they had
+encountered added new force, contended for victory and honor. On the
+other side, troops more completely disciplined, and conducted by
+generals of greater abilities, fought from necessity, with courage
+heightened by despair. The imperialists, however, were unable to resist
+the first efforts of the French valor, and their firmest battalions
+began to give way. But the fortune of the day was quickly changed. The
+Swiss in the service of France, unmindful of the reputation of their
+country for fidelity and martial glory, abandoned their post in a
+cowardly manner. Leyva, with his garrison, sallied out and attacked the
+rear of the French, during the heat of the action, with such fury as
+threw it into confusion; and Pescara, falling on their cavalry with the
+imperial horse, among whom he had prudently intermingled a considerable
+number of Spanish foot armed with the heavy muskets then in use, broke
+this formidable body by an unusual method of attack, against which they
+were wholly unprovided. The rout became universal; and resistance ceased
+in almost every part but where the King was in person, who fought now,
+not for fame or victory, but for safety. Though wounded in several
+places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed under him, Francis
+defended himself on foot with a heroic courage.
+
+Many of his bravest officers, gathering round him, and endeavoring to
+save his life at the expense of their own, fell at his feet. Among these
+was Bonnivet, the author of this great calamity, who alone died
+unlamented. The King, exhausted with fatigue, and scarcely capable of
+further resistance, was left almost alone, exposed to the fury of some
+Spanish soldiers, strangers to his rank and enraged at his obstinacy. At
+that moment came up Pomperant, a French gentleman, who had entered
+together with Bourbon into the Emperor's service, and, placing himself
+by the side of the monarch against whom he had rebelled, assisted in
+protecting him from the violence of the soldiers, at the same time
+beseeching him to surrender to Bourbon, who was not far distant.
+Imminent as the danger was which now surrounded Francis, he rejected
+with indignation the thoughts of an action which would have afforded
+such matter of triumph to his traitorous subject, and calling for
+Lannoy, who happened likewise to be near at hand, gave up his sword to
+him; which he, kneeling to kiss the King's hand, received with profound
+respect; and taking his own sword from his side, presented it to him,
+saying that it did not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in
+the presence of one of the Emperor's subjects.
+
+Ten thousand men fell on this day, one of the most fatal France had ever
+seen. Among these were many noblemen of the highest distinction, who
+chose rather to perish than to turn their backs with dishonor. Not a few
+were taken prisoners, of whom the most illustrious was Henry d'Albret,
+the unfortunate King of Navarre. A small body of the rear-guard made its
+escape under the command of the Duke of Alençon; the feeble garrison of
+Milan, on the first news of the defeat, retired, without being pursued,
+by another road; and, in two weeks after the battle, not a Frenchman
+remained in Italy.
+
+Lannoy, though he treated Francis with all the outward marks of honor
+due to his rank and character, guarded him with the utmost attention. He
+was solicitous, not only to prevent any possibility of his escaping,
+but afraid that his own troops might seize his person and detain it as
+the best security for the payment of their arrears. In order to provide
+against both these dangers, he conducted Francis, the day after the
+battle, to the strong castle of Pizzichitone, near Cremona, committing
+him to the custody of Don Ferdinand Alarcon, general of the Spanish
+infantry, an officer of great bravery and of strict honor, but
+remarkable for that severe and scrupulous vigilance which such a trust
+required.
+
+Francis, who formed a judgment of the Emperor's dispositions by his own,
+was extremely desirous that Charles should be informed of his situation,
+fondly hoping that from his generosity or sympathy he should obtain
+speedy relief. The imperial generals were no less impatient to give
+their sovereign an early account of the decisive victory which they had
+gained, and to receive his instructions with regard to their future
+conduct. As the most certain and expeditious method of conveying
+intelligence to Spain at that season of the year was by land, Francis
+gave the _commendador_ Pennalosa, who was charged with Lannoy's
+despatches, a passport to travel through France.
+
+Charles received the account of this signal and unexpected success that
+had crowned his arms with a moderation which, if it had been real, would
+have done him more honor than the greatest victory. Without uttering one
+word expressive of exultation or of intemperate joy, he retired
+immediately into his chapel, and, having spent an hour in offering up
+his thanksgivings to heaven, returned to the presence-chamber, which by
+that time was filled with grandees and foreign ambassadors assembled in
+order to congratulate him. He accepted of their compliments with a
+modest deportment; he lamented the misfortune of the captive King, as a
+striking example of the sad reverse of fortune to which the most
+powerful monarchs are subject; he forbade any public rejoicings, as
+indecent in a war carried on among Christians, reserving them until he
+should obtain a victory equally illustrious over the infidels; and
+seemed to take pleasure, in the advantage which he had gained, only as
+it would prove the occasion of restoring peace to Christendom.
+
+Charles, however, had already begun to form schemes in his own mind
+which little suited such external appearances. Ambition, not
+generosity, was the ruling passion in his mind; and the victory at Pavia
+opened such new and unbounded prospects of gratifying it as allured him
+with irresistible force. But it being no easy matter to execute the vast
+designs which he meditated, he thought it necessary, while proper
+measures were taking for that purpose, to affect the greatest
+moderation, hoping under that veil to conceal his real intentions from
+the other princes of Europe.
+
+Meanwhile France was filled with consternation. The King himself had
+early transmitted an account of the rout at Pavia in a letter to his
+mother, delivered by Pennalosa, which contained only these words:
+"Madam, all is lost except our honor." The officers who made their
+escape, when they arrived from Italy, brought such a melancholy detail
+of particulars as made all ranks of men sensibly feel the greatness and
+extent of the calamity. France, without its sovereign, without money in
+her treasury, without an army and without generals to command it, and
+encompassed on all sides by a victorious and active enemy, seemed to be
+on the very brink of destruction. But on that occasion the great
+abilities of Louise, the regent, saved the kingdom which the violence of
+her passions had more than once exposed to the greatest danger. Instead
+of giving herself up to such lamentations as were natural to a woman so
+remarkable for her maternal tenderness, she discovered all the foresight
+and exerted all the activity of a consummate politician. She assembled
+the nobles at Lyons, and animated them, by her example no less than by
+her words, with such zeal in defence of their country as its present
+situation required. She collected the remains of the army which had
+served in Italy, ransomed the prisoners, paid the arrears, and put them
+in a condition to take the field. She levied new troops, provided for
+the security of the frontiers, and raised sums sufficient for defraying
+these extraordinary expenses. Her chief care, however, was to appease
+the resentment or to gain the friendship of the King of England; and
+from that quarter the first ray of comfort broke in upon the French.
+
+Though Henry, in entering into alliances with Charles or Francis, seldom
+followed any regular or concerted plan of policy, but was influenced
+chiefly by the caprice of temporary passions, such occurrences often
+happened as recalled his attention toward that equal balance of power
+which it was necessary to keep between the two contending potentates,
+the preservation of which he always boasted to be his peculiar office.
+He had expected that his union with the Emperor might afford him an
+opportunity of recovering some part of those territories in France which
+had belonged to his ancestors, and for the sake of such an acquisition
+he did not scruple to give his assistance toward raising Charles to a
+considerable preëminence above Francis. He had never dreamed, however,
+of any event so decisive and so fatal as the victory at Pavia, which
+seemed not only to have broken, but to have annihilated, the power of
+one of the rivals; so that the prospect of the sudden and entire
+revolution which this would occasion in the political system filled him
+with the most disquieting apprehensions. He saw all Europe in danger of
+being overrun by an ambitious prince, to whose power there now remained
+no counterpoise; and though he himself might at first be admitted, in
+quality of an ally, to some share in the spoils of the captive monarch,
+it was easy to discern that with regard to the manner of making the
+partition, as well as his security for keeping possession of what should
+be allotted him, he must absolutely depend upon the will of a
+confederate, to whose forces his own bore no proportion.
+
+He was sensible that if Charles were permitted to add any considerable
+part of France to the vast dominions of which he was already master, his
+neighborhood would be much more formidable to England than that of the
+ancient French kings; while at the same time the proper balance on the
+Continent, to which England owed both its safety and importance, would
+be entirely lost. Concern for the situation of the unhappy monarch
+coöperated with these political considerations; his gallant behavior in
+the battle of Pavia had excited a high degree of admiration, which never
+fails of augmenting sympathy; and Henry, naturally susceptible of
+generous sentiments, was fond of appearing as the deliverer of a
+vanquished enemy from a state of captivity. The passions of the English
+minister seconded the inclinations of the monarch. Wolsey, who had not
+forgotten the disappointment of his hopes in two successive conclaves,
+which he imputed chiefly to the Emperor, thought this a proper
+opportunity of taking revenge; and, Louise courting the friendship of
+England with such flattering submissions as were no less agreeable to
+the King than to the Cardinal, Henry gave her secret assurances that he
+would not lend his aid toward oppressing France in its present helpless
+state, and obliged her to promise that she would not consent to
+dismember the kingdom even in order to procure her son's liberty.
+
+During these transactions, Charles, whose pretensions to moderation and
+disinterestedness were soon forgotten, deliberated, with the utmost
+solicitude, how he might derive the greatest advantages from the
+misfortunes of his adversary. Some of his counsellors advised him to
+treat Francis with the magnanimity that became a victorious prince, and,
+instead of taking advantage of his situation to impose rigorous
+conditions, to dismiss him on such equal terms as would bind him forever
+to his interest by the ties of gratitude and affection, more forcible as
+well as more permanent than any which could be formed by extorted oaths
+and involuntary stipulations.
+
+Such an exertion of generosity is not, perhaps, to be expected in the
+conduct of political affairs, and it was far too refined for that prince
+to whom it was proposed. The more obvious but less splendid scheme, of
+endeavoring to make the utmost of Francis' calamity, had a greater
+number in the council to recommend it, and suited better with the
+Emperor's genius. But though Charles adopted this plan, he seems not to
+have executed it in the most proper manner. Instead of making one great
+effort to penetrate into France with all the forces of Spain and the Low
+Countries; instead of crushing the Italian states before they recovered
+from the consternation which the success of his arms had occasioned, he
+had recourse to the artifices of intrigue and negotiation. This
+proceeded partly from necessity, partly from the natural disposition of
+his mind. The situation of his finances at that time rendered it
+extremely difficult to carry on any extraordinary armament; and he
+himself, having never appeared at the head of his armies, the command of
+which he had hitherto committed to his generals, was averse to bold and
+martial counsels, and trusted more to the arts with which he was
+acquainted. He laid, besides, too much stress upon the victory of
+Pavia, as if by that event the strength of France had been annihilated,
+its resources exhausted, and the kingdom itself, no less than the person
+of its monarch, had been subjected to his power.
+
+Full of this opinion, he determined to set the highest price upon
+Francis' freedom; and, having ordered the Count de Roeux to visit the
+captive King in his name, he instructed him to propose the following
+articles as the conditions on which he would grant him his liberty: That
+he should restore Burgundy to the Emperor, from whose ancestors it had
+been unjustly wrested; that he should surrender Provence and Dauphiné,
+that they might be erected into an independent kingdom for the constable
+Bourbon; that he should make full satisfaction to the King of England
+for all his claims, and finally renounce the pretensions of France to
+Naples, Milan, or any other territory in Italy. When Francis, who had
+hitherto flattered himself that he should be treated by the Emperor with
+the generosity becoming one great prince toward another, heard these
+rigorous conditions, he was so transported with indignation that,
+drawing his dagger hastily, he cried out, "'Twere better that a king
+should die thus." Alarcon, alarmed at his vehemence, laid hold on his
+hand; but though he soon recovered greater composure, he still declared
+in the most solemn manner that he would rather remain a prisoner during
+life than purchase liberty by such ignominious concessions.
+
+The chief obstacle that stood in the way of Francis' liberty was the
+Emperor's continuing to insist so peremptorily on the restitution of
+Burgundy as a preliminary to that event. Francis often declared that he
+would never consent to dismember his kingdom; and that, even if he
+should so far forget the duties of a monarch as to come to such a
+resolution, the fundamental laws of the nation would prevent its taking
+effect. On his part he was willing to make an absolute cession to the
+Emperor of all his pretensions in Italy and the Low Countries; he
+promised to restore to Bourbon all his lands which had been confiscated;
+he renewed his proposal of marrying the Emperor's sister, the
+queen-dowager of Portugal; and engaged to pay a great sum by way of
+ransom for his own person.
+
+But all mutual esteem and confidence between the two monarchs were now
+entirely lost; there appeared, on the one hand, a rapacious ambition,
+laboring to avail itself of every favorable circumstance; on the other,
+suspicion and resentment, standing perpetually on their guard; so that
+the prospect of bringing their negotiations to an issure seemed to be
+far distant. The Duchess of Alençon, the French King's sister, whom
+Charles permitted to visit her brother in his confinement, employed all
+her address in order to procure his liberty on more reasonable terms.
+Henry of England interposed his good offices to the same purpose; but
+both with so little success that Francis, in despair, took suddenly the
+resolution of resigning his crown, with all its rights and prerogatives,
+to his son, the Dauphin, determining rather to end his days in prison
+than to purchase his freedom by concessions unworthy of a king. The deed
+for this purpose he signed with legal formality in Madrid, empowering
+his sister to carry it into France, that it might be registered in all
+the parliaments of the kingdom; and, at the same time, intimating his
+intention to the Emperor, he desired him to name the place of his
+confinement, and to assign him a proper number of attendants during the
+remainder of his days.
+
+This resolution of the French King had great effect; Charles began to be
+sensible that, by pushing rigor to excess, he might defeat his own
+measures; and instead of the vast advantages which he hoped to draw from
+ransoming a powerful monarch, he might at last find in his hands a
+prince without dominions or revenues. About the same time one of the
+King of Navarre's domestics happened, by an extraordinary exertion of
+fidelity, courage, and address, to procure his master an opportunity of
+escaping from the prison in which he had been confined ever since the
+battle of Pavia. This convinced the Emperor that the most vigilant
+attention of his officers might be eluded by the ingenuity or boldness
+of Francis or his attendants, and one unlucky hour might deprive him of
+all the advantages which he had been so solicitous to obtain. By these
+considerations he was induced to abate somewhat of his former demands.
+On the other hand, Francis' impatience under confinement daily
+increased; and having received certain intelligence of a powerful league
+forming against his rival in Italy, he grew more compliant with regard
+to his concessions, trusting that, if he could once obtain his liberty,
+he would soon be in a condition to resume whatever he had yielded.
+
+Such being the views and sentiments of the two monarchs, the treaty
+which procured Francis his liberty was signed at Madrid on January 14,
+1526.
+
+
+
+
+SACK OF ROME BY THE IMPERIAL TROOPS
+
+A.D. 1527
+
+BENVENUTO CELLINI    T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+
+     Charles, Duc de Bourbon, known as the Constable de Bourbon,
+     became famous in the wars of the emperor Charles V with
+     Francis I, King of France. The vast estates of both branches
+     of the Bourbon family were united in the possession of the
+     Constable, making him a person of importance independently
+     of his military career. He was born in 1490, and was made
+     Constable of France for his services at the battle of
+     Melegnano (1515), in which Francis gained a brilliant
+     victory over the Swiss.
+
+     The attempt of powerful enemies to undermine Bourbon in the
+     favor of the King led to the threatened loss of the
+     Constable's dignities and lands, and provoked him to
+     renounce the French service. After making a secret treaty
+     with Charles V and with his ally, Henry VIII of England,
+     Bourbon led a force of German mercenaries into Lombardy,
+     where in 1523 he joined Charles' Spanish army, and next year
+     aided in driving the French from Italy. Invading France, he
+     marched under the Emperor's orders to Marseilles and laid
+     siege to the city, but failed to take it.
+
+     Bourbon contributed materially to the Emperor's great
+     victory at Pavia, and was rewarded by being made Duke of
+     Milan and commander in Northern Italy. But although Charles
+     thus honored Bourbon he did not trust him, and was not
+     really desirous of advancing a person of such great resource
+     and consequence. In the peace between Spain and France in
+     1526 Bourbon's great interests were neglected.
+     Notwithstanding these things, when Charles V wished to
+     punish Pope Clement VII, who had joined a league against
+     him, Bourbon, with George of Frundsberg, led an army of
+     Spanish and German mercenaries to Rome.
+
+     The description of the sack which followed, written by
+     Benvenuto Cellini, the celebrated Italian artist, shows him
+     as an effective participant in the defence. This account of
+     a combatant is of course only fragmentary, and is
+     supplemented by Trollope's critical narrative.
+
+
+BENVENUTO CELLINI
+
+The whole world was now in warfare. Pope Clement had sent to get some
+troops from Giovanni de' Medici, and when they came they made such
+disturbances in Rome that it was ill living in open shops.[36] On this
+account I retired to a good snug house behind the Banchi, where I
+worked for all the friends I had acquired. Since I produced few things
+of much importance at that period, I need not waste time in talking
+about them. I took much pleasure in music and amusements of the kind.
+
+On the death of Giovanni de' Medici in Lombardy, the Pope, at the advice
+of Messer Jacopo Salviati, dismissed the five bands he had engaged; and
+when the Constable of Bourbon knew there were no troops in Rome, he
+pushed his army with the utmost energy up to the city. The whole of Rome
+upon this flew to arms. I happened to be intimate with Alessandro, the
+son of Piero del Bene, who, at the time when the Colonnesi entered Rome,
+had requested me to guard his palace.[37] On this more serious occasion,
+therefore, he prayed me to enlist fifty comrades for the protection of
+the said house, appointing me their captain, as I had been when the
+Colonnesi came. So I selected fifty young men of the highest courage,
+and we took up quarters in his palace, with good pay and excellent
+appointments.
+
+Bourbon's army had now arrived before the walls of Rome, and Alessandro
+begged me to go with him to reconnoitre. So we went with one of the
+stoutest fellows in our company; and on the way a youth called Cecchino
+della Casa joined himself to us. On reaching the walls by the Campo
+Santo, we could see that famous army, which was making every effort to
+enter the town. Upon the ramparts where we took our station, several
+young men were lying, killed by the besiegers; the battle raged there
+desperately, and there was the densest fog imaginable. I turned to
+Alessandro and said: "Let us go home as soon as we can, for there is
+nothing to be done here; you see the enemies are mounting, and our men
+are in flight." Alessandro, in a panic, cried, "Would God that we had
+never come here!" and turned in maddest haste to fly. I took him up
+somewhat sharply with these words: "Since you have brought me here, I
+must perform some action worthy of a man"; and, directing my arquebuse
+where I saw the thickest and most serried troop of fighting men, I aimed
+exactly at one whom I remarked to be higher than the rest: the fog
+prevented me from being certain whether he was on horseback or on foot.
+Then I turned to Alessandro and Cecchino, and bade them discharge their
+arquebuses, showing them how to avoid being hit by the besiegers. When
+we had fired two rounds apiece I crept cautiously up to the wall, and,
+observing among the enemy a most extraordinary confusion, I discovered
+afterward that one of our shots had killed the Constable of Bourbon;
+and, from what I subsequently learned, he was the man whom I had first
+noticed above the heads of the rest.[38]
+
+Quitting our position on the ramparts, we crossed the Campo Santo, and
+entered the city by St. Peter's; then, coming out exactly at the Church
+of Santo Agnolo, we got with the greatest difficulty to the great gate
+of the castle; for the generals, Renzo di Ceri and Orazio Baglioni, were
+wounding and slaughtering everybody who abandoned the defence of the
+walls.[39]
+
+By the time we had reached the great gate, part of the foemen had
+already entered Rome, and we had them in our rear. The castellan had
+ordered the portcullis to be lowered, in order to do which they cleared
+a little space, and this enabled us four to get inside. On the instant
+that I entered, the captain Palone de' Medici claimed me as being of the
+papal household and forced me to abandon Alessandro, which I had to do
+much against my will. I ascended to the keep, and at the same instant
+Pope Clement came in through the corridors into the castle; he had
+refused to leave the palace of St. Peter earlier, being unable to
+believe that his enemies would effect their entrance into Rome.[40]
+
+Having got into the castle in this way, I attached myself to certain
+pieces of artillery, which were under the command of a bombardier called
+Giuliano Fiorentino. Leaning there against the battlements, the unhappy
+man could see his poor house being sacked, and his wife and children
+outraged; fearing to strike his own folk, he dared not discharge the
+cannon, and, flinging the burning fuse upon the ground, he wept as
+though his heart would break, and tore his cheeks with both his
+hands.[41]
+
+Some of the other bombardiers were behaving in like manner; seeing
+which, I took one of the matches, and got the assistance of a few men
+who were not overcome by their emotions. I aimed some swivels and
+falconets at points where I saw it would be useful, and killed with them
+a good number of the enemy. Had it not been for this, the troops who
+poured into Rome that morning and were marching straight upon the castle
+might possibly have entered it with ease, because the artillery was
+doing them no damage. I went on firing under the eyes of several
+cardinals and lords, who kept blessing me and giving me the heartiest
+encouragement. In my enthusiasm I strove to achieve the impossible; let
+it suffice that it was I who saved the castle that morning, and brought
+the other bombardiers back to their duty.[42] I worked hard the whole of
+that day, and when the evening came--while the army was marching into
+Rome through Trastevere--Pope Clement appointed a great Roman nobleman
+named Antonio Santacroce to be a captain of all the gunners. The first
+thing this man did was to come to me, and, having greeted me with the
+utmost kindness, he stationed me with five fine pieces of artillery on
+the highest point of the castle, to which the name of the "Angel"
+specially belongs.
+
+This circular eminence goes round the castle and surveys both Prati and
+the town of Rome. The captain put under my orders enough men to help in
+managing my guns, and, having seen me paid in advance, he gave me
+rations of bread and a little wine, and begged me to go forward as I had
+begun. I was perhaps more inclined by nature to the profession of arms
+than to the one I had adopted, and I took such pleasure in its duties
+that I discharged them better than those of my own art.
+
+Night came, the enemy had entered Rome, and we who were in the
+castle--especially myself, who have always taken pleasure in
+extraordinary sights--stayed gazing on the indescribable scene of tumult
+and conflagration in the streets below. People who were anywhere else
+but where we were could not have formed the least imagination of what it
+was.
+
+
+T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+
+The combined force of Bourbon and Frundsberg was in all respects more
+like a rabble-rout of brigands and bandits than an army, and was
+assuredly such as must, even in those days, have been felt to be a
+disgrace to any sovereign permitting them to call themselves his
+soldiers. Their pay was, as was often the case with the troops of
+Charles V, hopelessly in arrear, and discipline was of course
+proportionably weak among them. Indeed, it seemed every now and then on
+the point of coming to an end altogether. The two generals had the
+greatest difficulty in preventing their army from becoming an entirely
+anarchical and disorganized mob of freebooters as dangerous to its
+masters as to everybody else. Of course food, raiment, and shelter were
+the first absolute essentials for keeping this dangerous mass of armed
+men in any degree of order and organization, and in fact the present
+march of Frundsberg and Bourbon had the obtaining of these necessaries
+for its principal and true object.
+
+The progress southward of this bandit army unchecked by any opposing
+force--for Giovanni delle Bande Nere had lost his life in the attempt to
+prevent them from passing the Po; and after the death of that great
+captain, the army of the league did not muster courage to attack or
+impede the invaders in any way--filled the cities exposed to their
+inroad with terror and dismay. They had passed like a destroying locust
+swarm over Bologna and Imola, and crossing the Apennines, which separate
+Umbria from Tuscany, had descended into the valley of the Arno not far
+from Arezzo. Florence and Rome both trembled. On which would the storm
+burst? That was the all-absorbing question.
+
+Pope Clement, with his usual avarice-blinded imbecility, had,
+immediately on concluding a treaty with the Neapolitan viceroy,
+discharged all his troops except a bodyguard of about six hundred men.
+Florence was nearly in as defenceless a position. She had, says Varchi,
+"two great armies on her territory; one that under Bourbon, which came
+as an enemy to sack and plunder her; and the other, that of a league,
+which came as a friend to protect her, but sacked and plundered her none
+the less." It was, however, probably the presence of this army, little
+as it had hitherto done to impede the progress of the enemy, which
+decided Bourbon eventually to determine on marching toward Rome.
+
+It seems doubtful how far they were, in so doing, executing the orders
+or carrying out the wishes of the Emperor. Clement, though he had played
+the traitor to Charles, as he did to everyone else, and had been at war
+with him recently, had now entered into a treaty with the Emperor's
+viceroy. And apart from this there was a degree of odium and scandal
+attaching to the sight of the "most Catholic" Emperor sending a Lutheran
+army in his pay to attack the head of the Church, and ravage the
+venerated capital of Christendom, which so decorous a sovereign as
+Charles would hardly have liked to incur. Still, it may be assumed that
+if the Emperor wished his army kept together, and provided no sums for
+the purpose, he was not unwilling that they should live by plunder. And
+perhaps his real intention was to extort from Rome the means of paying
+his troops by the mere exhibition of the danger arising from their
+propinquity while they remained unpaid. Upon the whole we are warranted
+in supposing that Bourbon and Frundsberg would hardly have ventured on
+the course they took if they had not had reason to believe that it would
+not much displease their master. And Charles was exactly the sort of
+man who would like to have the profit of an evil deed without the loss
+of reputation arising from the commission of it, and who would consider
+himself best served by agents who could commit a profitable atrocity
+without being guilty of the annoying want of tact of waiting for his
+direct orders to commit it.
+
+For the especial business in hand, it was impossible, moreover, to have
+had two more fitting agents than Bourbon and Frundsberg. It was not
+every knightly general in those days who would have accepted the task,
+even with direct orders, of marching to the sack of Rome, and the open
+defiance of its sacred ruler. A Florentine or a Neapolitan soldier might
+have had small scruple in doing so; and a Roman baron--a Colonna or an
+Orsini--none at all. But there would have been found few men of such
+mark as Bourbon, in either France or Spain, willing to undertake the
+enterprise he was now engaged in. The unfortunate Constable, however,
+was a disgraced and desperate man. He was disgraced in the face of
+Europe by unknightly breach of fealty to his sovereign, despite the
+intensity of the provocation which had driven him to that step. For all
+the sanctions which held European society together, in the universal
+bondage which alone then constituted social order, were involved in
+maintaining the superstition that so branded him. And he was a desperate
+man in his fortunes; for though no name in all Europe was at that day as
+great a military power at the head of a host as that of Bourbon, and
+though the miserable bearer of it had so shortly before been one of the
+wealthiest and largest territorial nobles of France, yet the Constable
+had now his sword for his fortune as barely as the rawest lad in the
+rabble-rout that followed him, sent out from some landless tower of an
+impoverished knight, in half-starved Galicia or poverty-stricken
+Navarre, to carve his way in the world.
+
+Even among those whose ranks he had joined, Bourbon was a disgraced and
+ruined man beyond redemption. Although his well-known military capacity
+had easily induced Charles to welcome and make use of him, he must have
+felt that the step he had taken in breaking his allegiance and
+abandoning his country had rendered him an outcast and almost a pariah
+in the estimation of the chivalry of Europe. The feeling he had awakened
+against himself throughout Christendom is strikingly illustrated by an
+anecdote recorded of his reception at Madrid. When, shortly after
+winning the battle of Pavia, Bourbon went thither to meet Charles, and
+the Marquis of Villane was requested to lodge the victorious general in
+his palace, the haughty Spaniard told the Emperor that his house and all
+that he possessed were at his sovereign's disposition, but that he
+should assuredly burn it down as soon as Bourbon was out of it; since,
+having been sullied by the presence of a renegade, it could no longer be
+a fitting residence for a man of honor.
+
+So low had Bourbon fallen! Every man's hand was raised against him, and
+his hand was against every man. And it is easy to conceive what must
+have been his tone of mind and feeling, as he led on his mutinous
+robber-rout to Rome, while men of all parties looked on in
+panic-stricken horror. Thus Bourbon led his unpaid and mutinous hordes
+to a deed which, none knew better than he, would shock and scandalize
+all Europe, as a man who, having fallen already so low as to have lost
+all self-respect, cares not in his reckless despair to what depth he
+plunges.
+
+As for Frundsberg, he was a mere soldier of fortune, whose world was his
+camp, whose opinions and feelings had been formed in quite another
+school from those of his fellow-general; whose code of honor and of
+morals was an entirely different one, and whose conscience was not only
+perfectly at rest respecting the business he was bound on, but approved
+of it as a good and meritorious work for the advancement of true
+religion. He carried round his neck a halter of golden tissue, we are
+told, with which he loudly boasted that he would hang the Pope as soon
+as he got to Rome; and had others of crimson silk at his saddle-bow,
+which he said were destined for the cardinals!
+
+Too late Clement became aware of the imminence and magnitude of the
+danger that threatened him and the capital of Christendom. He besought
+the Neapolitan viceroy, who had already signed a treaty with him, as has
+been seen, to exert himself and use his authority to arrest the
+southward march of Bourbon's army. And it is remarkable that this
+representative of the Emperor in the government of Naples did, as it
+would seem, endeavor earnestly to avert the coming avalanche from the
+Eternal City. But, while the Emperor's viceroy used all his authority
+and endeavors to arrest the advance of the Emperor's army, the Emperor's
+generals advanced and sacked Rome in spite of him. Which of them most
+really acted according to the secret wishes of that profound dissembler,
+and most false and crafty monarch, it is impossible to know. It may have
+been that Bourbon himself had no power to stay the plundering,
+bandit-like march of his hungry and unpaid troops. And the facts
+recorded of the state of discipline of the army are perfectly consistent
+with such a supposition.
+
+The Viceroy sent a messenger to Bourbon, while he was yet in Bologna,
+informing him of the treaty signed with Clement, and desiring him
+therefore to come no farther southward. Bourbon, bent, as Varchi says,
+on deceiving both the Pope and the Viceroy, replied that, if the Pope
+would send him two hundred thousand florins for distribution to the
+army, he would stay his march. But, while this answer was carried back
+to Rome, the tumultuous host continued its fearfully menacing advance;
+and the alarm in Rome was rapidly growing to desperate terror. At the
+Pope's earnest request, the Viceroy, "who knew well," says Varchi, "that
+his holiness had not a farthing," himself took post and rode hard for
+Florence with letters from Clement, hoping to obtain the money there.
+
+The departure of the Viceroy in person, and the breathless haste of his
+ride to Florence, speak vividly of this Spanish officer's personal
+anxiety respecting the dreadful fate which threatened Rome. But the
+Florentines do not seem to have been equally impressed with the
+necessity of losing no time in making an effort to avert the calamity
+from a rival city. It was after "much talking," we are told, that they
+at last consented to advance a hundred fifty thousand florins, eighty
+thousand in cash down, and the remainder by the end of October. It was
+now April; and Bourbon had by this time crossed the Apennines, and was
+with his army on the western slopes of the mountains, not far from the
+celebrated monastery of Lavernia. Thither the Viceroy hurried with all
+speed, accompanied by only two servants and a trumpeter; and having
+"with much difficulty," says Varchi, come to speech with the general,
+proffered him the eighty thousand florins. Upon which he was set upon by
+the tumultuous troops, and "narrowly escaped being torn in pieces by
+them." In endeavoring to get away from them and make his way back to
+Florence, he fell into the hands of certain peasants near Camaldoli, and
+was here again in danger of his life, and was wounded in the head. He
+was, however, rescued by a monk of Vallombrosa, and by him conducted to
+the neighboring little town of Poppi in the Casentino, or upper valley
+of the Arno, whence he made his way to Siena, and so back to Rome, with
+no pleasant tidings of what might be expected from Bourbon and his
+brigand army.
+
+The Vallombrosan monk, who thus bestead the Viceroy at his need, was, as
+Varchi records, rewarded by the bishopric of Muro, in the kingdom of
+Naples, which, adds the historian, "he still holds."
+
+The fate of Rome was no longer doubtful. Clement, who by his pennywise
+parsimony had left himself defenceless, made a feeble and wholly vain
+attempt to put the city in a state of defence. The corrupt and cowardly
+citizens could not have opposed any valid resistance to the ruffian
+hordes who were slowly but surely, like an advancing conflagration,
+coming upon them, even if they had been willing to do their best. But
+the trembling Pope's appeal to them to defend the walls fell on the ears
+of as sorely trembling men, each thinking only of the possible chances
+of saving his own individual person. Yet it seems clear that means of
+defence might have been found had not the Pope been thus paralyzed by
+terror.
+
+Clement, however, was as one fascinated. Martin du Bellay tells us that
+he himself, then in Italy as ambassador from Francis I, hurried to Rome,
+and warned the Pope of his danger in abundant time for him to have
+prepared for the protection of the city by the troops he had at his
+disposal. But no persuasion availed to induce Clement to take any step
+for that purpose. Neither would he seek safety by flight, nor permit his
+unfortunate subjects to do so. John da Casale, ambassador of Henry VIII
+at Venice, writes thence to Wolsey on May 16th--the fatal tidings of the
+sack of the city having just reached Venice--as follows:
+"He"--Clement--"refused to quit the city for some safer place. He even
+forbade by edict that anyone should carry anything out of the gates on
+pain of death, though many were anxious to depart and carry their
+fortunes elsewhere." Meantime Florence, for her own protection, had
+hastily induced Francesco Maria, Duke of Urbino, to place himself at the
+head of the remaining forces of the Italian league, and to take up a
+position at Incisa, a small town in the Upper Valdarno, about twenty
+miles from the city, on the road to Arezzo. Thus the torrent was turned
+off from the capital of the commonwealth. Probably as soon as the
+invading army once found itself to the south of Florence, that wealthy
+city was in no immediate danger. Rome was metal more attractive to the
+invaders, even had there not been an army between them and Florence.
+
+And now it became frightfully clear that the doom of the Eternal City
+was at hand. On came the strangely heterogeneous rout of lawless
+soldiery, leaving behind them a trail of burned and ruined cities,
+devastated fields, and populations plague-stricken from the
+contamination engendered by the multitude of their unburied dead.
+
+On May 5th Bourbon arrived beneath the walls of Rome. During the last
+few days the unhappy Pope had endeavored to arm what men he could get
+together under Renzo di Ceri and one Horatius--not Cocles,
+unhappily--but Baglioni. "Rome contained within her walls," says Ranke,
+"some thirty thousand inhabitants capable of bearing arms. Many of these
+men had seen service. They wore swords by their sides, which they had
+used freely in their broils among each other, and then boasted of their
+exploits. But to oppose the enemy, who brought with him certain
+destruction, five hundred men were the utmost that could be mustered
+within the city. At the first onset the Pope and his forces were
+overthrown." On the evening of May 6th the city was stormed and given
+over to the unbridled cupidity and brutality of the soldiers, who during
+many a long day of want and hardship had been looking forward to the
+hour that was to repay them amply for all past sufferings by the
+boundless gratification of every sense, and every caprice of lawless
+passion. Bourbon himself had fallen in the first moments of the attack,
+as he was leading his men to scale the walls, and any small influence
+that he might have exerted in moderating the excesses of the conquerors
+was thus at an end.
+
+It does not fall within the scope of the present narrative to attempt
+any detailed account of the days and scenes that followed. They have
+been described by many writers; and the reader who bears in mind what
+Rome was--her vileness, her cowardice, her imbecility, her wealth, her
+arts, her monuments, her memories, her helpless population of religious
+communities of both sexes, and the sacred character of her high places
+and splendors, which served to give an additional zest to the violence
+of triumphant heretics--he that bears in mind all these things may
+safely give the reign to his imagination without any fear of
+overcharging the picture. Frundsberg had been wont to boast that if ever
+he reached Rome he would hang the Pope. He never did reach it, having
+been carried off by a fit of apoplexy while striving to quell a mutiny
+among his troops shortly after leaving Bologna on his southward march.
+But the threat is sufficiently indicative of the spirit that animated
+his army, to show that Clement owed his personal safety only to the
+strength of the castle of St. Angelo, in which he sought refuge.
+
+The sensation produced throughout Europe by the dreadful misfortune
+which had fallen on the Eternal City was immense. John da Casale, in the
+letter cited above, says that it would have been better for Rome to have
+been taken by the Turks, when they were in Hungary, as the infidels
+would have perpetrated less odious outrages and less horrible sacrilege.
+Clerk, Bishop of Bath, writes to Wolsey from Paris on May 28th
+following: "Please it, your Grace, after my most humble recommendation,
+to understand that about the fifteenth of this moneth, by letters sent
+from Venyce, it was spoken, that the Duke of Burbon with the armye
+imperyall by vyolence shold enter Rome as the 6th of this moneth; and
+that in the same entree the said Duke should be slayne; and that the
+Pope had savyd Himself with the Cardynalls in Castell Angell; whiche
+tydinges bycause they ware not written unto Venyce, but upon relation of
+a souldier, that came from Rome to Viterbe, and bycause ther cam hither
+no maner of confirmation thereof unto this day, thay war not belevyd.
+This day ther is come letters from Venyce confyrming the same tydinges
+to be true. They write also that they have sackyd and spoylyd the town,
+and slayne to the nombre of 45,000, _non parcentes nec etati nec sexui
+nec ordini_; amongst other that they have murdyrd a marveillous sorte of
+fryars, and agaynst pristes and churchis they have behavyd thymselfes
+as it doth become Murranys and Lutherans to do."
+
+How deeply Wolsey himself was moved by the news is seen by a letter from
+him to Henry VIII, written on June 2d following. He forwards to the King
+the letters "nowe arryved, as wel out of Fraunce as out of Italy,
+confirming the piteous and lamentable spoiles, pilages, with most cruel
+murdres, committed by the Emperialls in the citie of Rome, _non
+parcentes sacris, etati, sexui, aut relioni_; and the extreme daungier
+that the Poopes Holines and Cardinalles, who fled into the Castel Angel,
+wer in, if by meane of the armye of the liege, they should not be
+shortly socoured and releved. Which, sire, is matier that must nedes
+commove and stire the hartes of al good christen princes and people to
+helpe and put their handes with effecte to reformacion thereof, and the
+repressing of such tirannous demenour."
+
+Even Charles himself affected at least to mourn the success of his own
+army. Nowhere did this terrible Italian misfortune fail to awaken
+sympathy and compassion save in a rival Italian city. Florence heard the
+tidings, says Varchi, with the utmost delight. The same historian
+expresses his own opinion, that the sack of Rome was at once the most
+cruel and the most merited chastisement ever inflicted by heaven. And
+another Florentine writer piously accounts for the failure of all means
+adopted to avert the calamity, by supposing that it was God's eternal
+purpose then and thus to chastise the crimes of the Roman prelates--a
+theory, it may occur to some minds, somewhat damaged by the unfortunate
+fact that the greater part of the miseries suffered in those awful days
+were inflicted on the unhappy flocks of those purple shepherds.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[36] These troops entered Rome in October, 1526. They were disbanded in
+March, 1527.
+
+[37] Cellini here refers to the attack made upon Rome by the great
+Ghibelline house of Colonna, led by their chief captain, Pompeo, in
+September, 1526. They took possession of the city and drove Clement into
+the castle of St. Angelo, where they forced him to agree to terms
+favoring the Imperial cause. It was customary for Roman gentlemen to
+hire bravoes for the defence of their palaces when any extraordinary
+disturbance was expected, as, for example, upon the vacation of the
+papal chair.
+
+[38] All historians of the sack of Rome agree in saying that Bourbon was
+shot dead while placing ladders against the outworks near the shop
+Cellini mentions. But the honor of firing the arquebuse which brought
+him down cannot be assigned to anyone in particular. Very different
+stories were current on the subject.
+
+[39] Renzo di Ceri was a captain of adventurers, who had conquered
+Urbino for the Pope in 1515, and afterward fought for the French in the
+Italian wars. Orazio Baglioni, of the semiprincely Perugian family, was
+a distinguished _condottiere_. He subsequently obtained the captaincy of
+the Bande Nere, and died fighting near Naples in 1528. Orazio murdered
+several of his cousins in order to acquire the lordship of Perugia. His
+brother Malatesta undertook to defend Florence in the siege of 1530, and
+sold the city by treason to Clement.
+
+[40] Giovio, in his _Life of the Cardinal Prospero Colonna_, relates how
+he accompanied Clement in his flight from the Vatican to the castle.
+While passing some open portions of the gallery, he threw his violet
+mantle and cap of a monseigneur over the white stole of the Pontiff, for
+fear he might be shot at by the soldiers in the streets below.
+
+[41] The short autobiography of Raffaello da Montelupo, a man in many
+respects resembling Cellini, confirms this part of our author's
+narrative. It is one of the most interesting pieces of evidence
+regarding what went on inside the castle during the sack of Rome.
+Montelupo was also a gunner and commanded two pieces.
+
+[42] This is an instance of Cellini's exaggeration. He did more than
+yeoman's service, no doubt, but we cannot believe that, without him, the
+castle would have been taken.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND
+
+FALL OF WOLSEY
+
+A.D. 1529
+
+JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+     The "New Learning" which had been slowly spreading from
+     Italy over all Europe, did not markedly affect England until
+     the sixteenth century. There the long Wars of the Roses had
+     not only gone nigh to exterminating the old nobility, but
+     had so distracted men's minds from more peaceful pursuits
+     that little note was taken of the intellectual movement
+     abroad. Under Henry VII and Henry VIII all this changed.
+     These Tudor monarchs were indeed tyrants over England, but
+     they brought her peace--and time for thought. Under the
+     leadership of the celebrated Dutch scholar Erasmus, and the
+     almost equally renowned Englishmen, Sir Thomas More and Dean
+     Colet, the land awakened about 1500 to a new life of study
+     and of culture, whose principles spread rapidly among the
+     upper classes.
+
+     When news of Luther's religious revolt reached England, the
+     leaders of the New Learning were at first inclined to favor
+     his ideas. But the two movements, one scholarly and calm,
+     the other impassioned and intense, soon parted company, as
+     Green shows in his justly famous account.
+
+     The true ruler of England at the time was the "great
+     cardinal," Wolsey, whose brain long enabled him to play upon
+     King Henry as a toreador does upon a bull, guiding at will
+     the frenzied rushes of the mighty brute. In 1521, the period
+     when the following account begins, Wolsey was fifty years
+     old. He had risen from being the studious son of a grazier
+     and wool merchant to be a dean of the Church under Henry
+     VII, and a bishop, cardinal and lord chancellor, of England
+     under Henry VIII. His ambition to be pope was thwarted by
+     the emperor Charles V, but he was "cardinal legate," having
+     control of the Catholic Church throughout England; and it
+     was said of him that in all European affairs he was "seven
+     times more powerful than the Pope."
+
+
+In England Luther's protest seemed at first to find no echo. King Henry
+VIII was, both on political and on religious grounds, firm on the papal
+side. England and Rome were drawn to a close alliance by the identity of
+their political position. Each was hard pressed between the same great
+powers; Rome had to hold its own between the masters of Southern and the
+masters of Northern Italy, as England had to hold her own between the
+rulers of France and of the Netherlands. From the outset of his reign to
+the actual break with Clement VII the policy of Henry is always at one
+with that of the papacy. Nor were the King's religious tendencies
+hostile to it. He was a trained theologian and proud of his theological
+knowledge, but to the end his convictions remained firmly on the side of
+the doctrines which Luther denied. In 1521, therefore, he entered the
+lists against Luther with an "Assertion of the Seven Sacraments," for
+which he was rewarded by Leo with the title of "Defender of the Faith."
+The insolent abuse of the reformer's answer called More and Fisher into
+the field.
+
+The influence of the "New Learning" was now strong at the English court.
+Colet and Grocyn were among its foremost preachers; Linacre was Henry's
+physician; More was a privy councillor; Pace was one of the secretaries
+of state; Tunstall was master of the rolls. And as yet the New Learning,
+though scared by Luther's intemperate language, had steadily backed him
+in his struggle. Erasmus pleaded for him with the Emperor. Ulrich von
+Hutten attacked the friars in satires and invectives as violent as his
+own. But the temper of the Renaissance was even more antagonistic to the
+temper of Luther than that of Rome itself.
+
+From the golden dream of a new age wrought peaceably and purely by the
+slow progress of intelligence, the growth of letters, the development of
+human virtue, the reformer of Wittenberg turned away with horror. He had
+little or no sympathy with the new cult. He despised reason as heartily
+as any papal dogmatist could despise it. He hated the very thought of
+toleration or comprehension. He had been driven by a moral and
+intellectual compulsion to declare the Roman system a false one, but it
+was only to replace it by another system of doctrine just as elaborate
+and claiming precisely the same infallibility. To degrade human nature
+was to attack the very base of the New Learning; and his attack on it
+called the foremost of its teachers to the field. But Erasmus no sooner
+advanced to its defence than Luther declared man to be utterly enslaved
+by original sin and incapable, through any efforts of his own, of
+discovering truth or of arriving, at goodness.
+
+Such a doctrine not only annihilated the piety and wisdom of the classic
+past, from which the New Learning had drawn its larger views of life and
+of the world; it trampled in the dust reason itself, the very instrument
+by which More and Erasmus hoped to regenerate both knowledge and
+religion. To More especially, with his keener perception of its future
+effect, this sudden revival of a purely theological and dogmatic spirit,
+severing Christendom into warring camps and ruining all hopes of union
+and tolerance, was especially hateful. The temper which hitherto had
+seemed so "endearing, gentle, and happy," suddenly gave way. His reply
+to Luther's attack upon the King sank to the level of the work it
+answered; and though that of Bishop Fisher was calmer and more
+argumentative, the divorce of the New Learning from the Reformation
+seemed complete.
+
+But if the world of scholars and thinkers stood aloof from the new
+movement it found a warmer welcome in the larger world where men are
+stirred rather by emotion than by thought. There was an England of which
+even More and Colet knew little, in which Luther's words kindled a fire
+that was never to die. As a great social and political movement
+Lollardry had ceased to exist, and little remained of the directly
+religious impulse given by Wycliffe beyond a vague restlessness and
+discontent with the system of the Church. But weak and fitful as was the
+life of Lollardry the prosecutions whose records lie scattered over the
+bishops' registers failed wholly to kill it. We see groups meeting here
+and there to read "in a great book of heresy all one night certain
+chapters of the Evangelists in English," while transcripts of Wycliffe's
+tracts passed from hand to hand.
+
+The smouldering embers needed but a breath to fan them into flame, and
+the breath came from William Tyndale. Born among the Cotswolds when
+Bosworth Field gave England to the Tudors, Tyndale passed from Oxford to
+Cambridge to feel the full impulse given by the appearance there of the
+New Testament of Erasmus. From that moment one thought was at his heart.
+He "perceived by experience how that it was impossible to establish the
+lay people in any truth except the Scripture were plainly laid before
+their eyes in their mother tongue."
+
+"If God spare my life," he said to a learned controversialist, "ere many
+years I will cause a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the
+Scripture than thou dost." But he was a man of forty before his dream
+became fact. Drawn from his retirement in Gloucestershire by the news of
+Luther's protest at Wittenberg, he found shelter for a year with a
+London alderman, Humfrey Monmouth. "He studied most part of the day at
+his book," said his host afterward, "and would eat but sodden meat by
+his good-will and drink but small single beer." The book at which he
+studied was the Bible. But it was soon needful to quit England if his
+purpose was to hold. "I understood at the last not only that there was
+no room in my lord of London's palace to translate the New Testament,
+but also that there was no place to do it in all England."
+
+From Hamburg, where he took refuge in 1524, he probably soon found his
+way to the little town which had suddenly become the sacred city of the
+Reformation. Students of all nations were flocking there with an
+enthusiasm which resembled that of the crusades. "As they came in sight
+of the town," a contemporary tells us, "they returned thanks to God with
+clasped hands, for from Wittenberg, as heretofore from Jerusalem, the
+light of evangelical truth had spread to the utmost parts of the earth."
+
+Such a visit could only fire Tyndale to face the "poverty, exile, bitter
+absence from friends, hunger and thirst and cold, great dangers, and
+innumerable other hard and sharp fightings," which the work he had set
+himself was to bring with it. In 1525 his version of the New Testament
+was completed, and means were furnished by English merchants for
+printing it at Cologne. But Tyndale had soon to fly with his sheets to
+Worms, a city whose Lutheran tendencies made it a safer refuge, and it
+was from Worms that six thousand copies of the New Testament were sent
+in 1526 to English shores. The King was keenly opposed to a book which
+he looked on as made "at the solicitation and instance of Luther"; and
+even the men of the New Learning from whom it might have hoped for
+welcome were estranged from it by its Lutheran origin. We can only
+fairly judge their action by viewing it in the light of the time. What
+Warham and More saw over sea might well have turned them from a
+movement which seemed breaking down the very foundations of religion
+and society. Not only was the fabric of the Church rent asunder and the
+centre of Christian unity denounced as "Babylon," but the reform itself
+seemed passing into anarchy.
+
+Luther was steadily moving onward from the denial of one Catholic dogma
+to that of another; and what Luther still clung to, his followers were
+ready to fling away. Carlstadt was denouncing the reformer of Wittenberg
+as fiercely as Luther himself had denounced the Pope, and meanwhile the
+religious excitement was kindling wild dreams of social revolution, and
+men stood aghast at the horrors of a peasant war which broke out in
+Southern Germany. It was not therefore as a mere translation of the
+Bible that Tyndale's work reached England. It came as a part of the
+Lutheran movement, and it bore the Lutheran stamp in its version of
+ecclesiastical words. "Church" became "congregation," "priest" was
+changed into "elder." It came too in company with Luther's bitter
+invectives and reprints of the tracts of Wycliffe, which the German
+traders of the Steelyard were importing in large numbers. We can hardly
+wonder that More denounced the book as heretical, or that Warham ordered
+it to be given up by all who possessed it.
+
+Wolsey took little heed of religious matters, but his policy was one of
+political adhesion to Rome, and he presided over a solemn penance to
+which some Steelyard men submitted in St. Paul's. "With six-and-thirty
+abbots, mitred priors, and bishops, and he in his whole pomp mitred,"
+the Cardinal looked on while "great baskets full of books were
+commanded; after the great fire was made before the Rood of Northen (the
+crucifix by the great north door of the cathedral), thus to be burned,
+and those heretics to go thrice about the fire and to cast in their
+fagots."
+
+But scenes and denunciations such as these were vain in the presence of
+an enthusiasm which grew every hour. "Englishmen," says a scholar of the
+time, "were so eager for the Gospel as to affirm that they would buy a
+New Testament even if they had to give a hundred thousand pieces of
+money for it." Bibles and pamphlets were smuggled over to England and
+circulated among the poorer and trading classes through the agency of an
+association of "Christian Brethren," consisting principally of London
+tradesmen and citizens, but whose missionaries spread over the country
+at large. They found their way at once to the universities, where the
+intellectual impulse given by the New Learning was quickening religious
+speculation.
+
+Cambridge had already won a name for heresy; Barnes, one of its foremost
+scholars, had to carry his fagot before Wolsey at St. Paul's; two other
+Cambridge teachers, Bilney and Latimer, were already known as
+"Lutherans." The Cambridge scholars whom Wolsey introduced into Cardinal
+College, which he was founding, spread the contagion through Oxford. A
+group of "brethren" was formed in Cardinal College for the secret
+reading and discussion of the Epistles; and this soon included the more
+intelligent and learned scholars of the university. It was in vain that
+Clark, the centre of this group, strove to dissuade fresh members from
+joining it by warnings of the impending dangers. "I fell down on my
+knees at his feet," says one of them, Anthony Dalaber, "and with tears
+and sighs besought him that for the tender mercy of God he should not
+refuse me, saying that I trusted verily that he who had begun this on me
+would not forsake me, but would give me grace to continue therein to the
+end. When he heard me say so, he came to me, took me in his arms, and
+kissed me, saying, 'The Lord God Almighty grant you so to do, and from
+henceforth ever take me for your father, and I will take you for my son
+in Christ.'"
+
+In 1528 the excitement which followed on this rapid diffusion of
+Tyndale's works forced Wolsey to more vigorous action; many of the
+Oxford Brethren were thrown into prison and their books seized. But in
+spite of the panic of the Protestants, some of whom fled over sea,
+little severity was really exercised. Henry's chief anxiety, indeed, was
+lest in the outburst against heresy the interest of the New Learning
+should suffer harm. This was remarkably shown in the protection he
+extended to one who was destined to eclipse even the fame of Colet as a
+popular preacher. Hugh Latimer was the son of a Leicestershire yeoman,
+whose armor the boy had buckled on in the days of Henry VII, ere he set
+out to meet the Cornish insurgents at Blackheath Field. Latimer has
+himself described the soldierly training of his youth.
+
+"My father was delighted to teach me to shoot with the bow. He taught
+me how to draw, how to lay my body to the bow, not to draw with strength
+of arm as other nations do, but with the strength of the body."
+
+At fourteen he was at Cambridge, flinging himself into the New Learning
+which was winning its way there with a zeal that at last told on his
+physical strength. The ardor of his mental efforts left its mark on him
+in ailments and enfeebled health from which, vigorous as he was, his
+frame never wholly freed itself. But he was destined to be known, not as
+a scholar, but as a preacher. In his addresses from the pulpit the
+sturdy good-sense of the man shook off the pedantry of the schools as
+well as the subtlety of the theologian. He had little turn for
+speculation, and in the religious changes of the day we find him
+constantly lagging behind his brother-reformers. But he had the moral
+earnestness of a Jewish prophet, and his denunciations of wrong had a
+prophetic directness and fire. "Have pity on your soul," he cried to
+Henry, "and think that the day is even at hand when you shall give an
+account of your office, and of the blood that hath been shed by your
+sword."
+
+His irony was yet more telling than his invective. "I would ask you a
+strange question," he said once at Paul's Cross to a ring of bishops;
+"who is the most diligent prelate in all England, that passeth all the
+rest in doing of his office? I will tell you. It is the Devil! Of all
+the pack of them that have cure, the Devil shall go for my money; for he
+ordereth his business. Therefore, you unpreaching prelates, learn of the
+Devil to be diligent in your office. If you will not learn of God, for
+shame learn of the Devil." But Latimer was far from limiting himself to
+invective. His homely humor breaks in with story and apologue; his
+earnestness is always tempered with good-sense; his plain and simple
+style quickens with a shrewd mother-wit. He talks to his hearers as a
+man talks to his friends, telling stories such as we have given of his
+own life at home, or chatting about the changes and chances of the day
+with a transparent simplicity and truth that raise even his chat into
+grandeur. His theme is always the actual world about him, and in his
+simple lessons of loyalty, of industry, of pity for the poor, he touches
+upon almost every subject from the plough to the throne. No such
+preaching had been heard in England before his day, and with the growth
+of his fame grew the danger of persecution. There were moments when,
+bold as he was, Latimer's heart failed him. "If I had not trust that God
+will help me," he wrote once, "I think the ocean sea would have divided
+my lord of London and me by this day."
+
+A citation for heresy at last brought the danger home. "I intend," he
+wrote with his peculiar medley of humor and pathos, to "make merry with
+my parishioners this Christmas, for all the sorrow, lest perchance I may
+never return to them again." But he was saved throughout by the steady
+protection of the court. Wolsey upheld him against the threats of the
+Bishop of Ely; Henry made him his own chaplain; and the King's
+interposition at this critical moment forced Latimer's judges to content
+themselves with a few vague words of submission.
+
+What really sheltered the reforming movement was Wolsey's indifference
+to all but political matters. In spite of the foundation of Cardinal
+College in which he was now engaged, and of the suppression of some
+lesser monasteries for its endowment, the men of the New Learning looked
+on him as really devoid of any interest in the revival of letters or in
+their hopes of a general enlightenment. He took hardly more heed of the
+new Lutheranism. His mind had no religious turn, and the quarrel of
+faiths was with him simply one factor in the political game which he was
+carrying on and which at this moment became more complex and absorbing
+than ever. The victory of Pavia had ruined that system of balance which
+Henry VII, and, in his earlier days, Henry VIII, had striven to
+preserve. But the ruin had not been to England's profit, but to the
+profit of its ally. While the Emperor stood supreme in Europe, Henry had
+won nothing from the war, and it was plain that Charles meant him to win
+nothing. He set aside all projects of a joint invasion; he broke his
+pledge to wed Mary Tudor and married a princess of Portugal; he pressed
+for a peace with France which would give him Burgundy. It was time for
+Henry and his minister to change their course. They resolved to withdraw
+from all active part in the rivalry of the two powers.
+
+In June, 1525, a treaty was secretly concluded with France. But Henry
+remained on fair terms with the Emperor; and though England joined the
+Holy League for the deliverance of Italy from the Spaniards which was
+formed between France, the Pope, and the lesser Italian states on the
+release of Francis in the spring of 1526 by virtue of a treaty which he
+at once repudiated, she took no part in the lingering war which went on
+across the Alps. Charles was too prudent to resent Henry's alliance with
+his foes, and from this moment the country remained virtually at peace.
+No longer spurred by the interest of great events, the King ceased to
+take a busy part in foreign politics, and gave himself to hunting and
+sport. Among the fairest and gayest ladies of his court stood Anne
+Boleyn. She was sprung of a merchant family which had but lately risen
+to distinction through two great marriages, that of her grandfather with
+the heiress of the earls of Ormond, and that of her father, Sir Thomas
+Boleyn, with a sister of the Duke of Norfolk.
+
+It was probably through his kinship with the Duke, who was now lord
+treasurer and high in the King's confidence, that Boleyn was employed
+throughout Henry's reign in state business, and his diplomatic abilities
+had secured his appointment as envoy both to France and to the Emperor.
+His son, George Boleyn, a man of culture and a poet, was among the group
+of young courtiers in whose society Henry took most pleasure. Anne was
+his youngest daughter; born in 1507, she was still but a girl of sixteen
+when the outbreak of war drew her from a stay in France to the English
+court. Her beauty was small, but her bright eyes, her flowing hair, her
+gayety and wit soon won favor with the King, and only a month after her
+return in 1522 the grant of honors to her father marked her influence
+over Henry.
+
+Fresh gifts in the following years showed that the favor continued; but
+in 1524 a new color was given to this intimacy by a resolve on the
+King's part to break his marriage with the Queen. Catharine had now
+reached middle age; her personal charms had departed. The death of every
+child save Mary may have woke scruples as to the lawfulness of a
+marriage on which a curse seemed to rest; the need of a male heir for
+public security may have deepened this impression. But whatever were the
+grounds of his action we find Henry from this moment pressing the Roman
+see to grant him a divorce.
+
+It is probable that the matter was already mooted in 1525, a year which
+saw new proof of Anne's influence in the elevation of Sir Thomas Boleyn
+to the baronage as Lord Rochford. It is certain that it was the object
+of secret negotiation with the Pope in 1526. No sovereign stood higher
+in the favor of Rome than Henry, whose alliance had ever been ready in
+its distress and who was even now prompt with aid in money. But
+Clement's consent to his wish meant a break with the Emperor,
+Catharine's nephew; and the exhaustion of France, the weakness of the
+league in which the lesser Italian states strove to maintain their
+independence against Charles after the battle of Pavia, left the Pope at
+the Emperor's mercy. While the English envoy was mooting the question of
+divorce in 1526 the surprise of Rome by an imperial force brought home
+to Clement his utter helplessness.
+
+It is hard to discover what part Wolsey had as yet taken in the matter,
+or whether as in other cases Henry had till now been acting alone,
+though the Cardinal himself tells us that on Catharine's first discovery
+of the intrigue she attributed the proposal of divorce to "my
+procurement and setting forth." But from this point his intervention is
+clear. As legate he took cognizance of all matrimonial causes, and in
+May, 1527, a collusive action was brought in his court against Henry for
+cohabiting with his brother's wife. The King appeared by proctor; but
+the suit was suddenly dropped. Secret as were the proceedings, they had
+now reached Catharine's ear; and as she refused to admit the facts on
+which Henry rested his case her appeal would have carried the matter to
+the tribunal of the Pope, and Clement's decision could hardly be a
+favorable one.
+
+The Pope was now in fact a prisoner in the Emperor's hands. At the very
+moment of the suit Rome was stormed and sacked by the army of the Duke
+of Bourbon. "If the Pope's holiness fortune either to be slain or
+taken," Wolsey wrote to the King when the news of this event reached
+England, "it shall not a little hinder your grace's affairs." But it was
+needful for the Cardinal to find some expedient to carry out the King's
+will, for the group around Anne were using her skilfully for their
+purposes. A great party had now gathered to her support. Her uncle, the
+Duke of Norfolk, an able and ambitious man, counted on her rise to set
+him at the head of the council board; the brilliant group of young
+courtiers to which her brother belonged saw in her success their own
+elevation; and the Duke of Suffolk with the bulk of the nobles hoped
+through her means to bring about the ruin of the statesman before whom
+they trembled.
+
+What most served their plans was the growth of Henry's passion. "If it
+please you," the King wrote at this time to Anne Boleyn, "to do the
+office of a true, loyal mistress, and give yourself body and heart to
+me, who have been and mean to be your loyal servant, I promise you not
+only the name but that I shall make you my sole mistress, remove all
+others from my affection, and serve you only." What stirred Henry's
+wrath most was Catharine's "stiff and obstinate" refusal to bow to his
+will. Wolsey's advice that "your Grace should handle her both gently and
+doulcely" only goaded Henry's impatience. He lent an ear to the rivals
+who charged his minister with slackness in the cause, and danger drove
+the Cardinal to a bolder and yet more unscrupulous device.
+
+The entire subjection of Italy to the Emperor was drawing closer the
+French alliance, and a new treaty had been concluded in April. But this
+had hardly been signed when the sack of Rome and the danger of the Pope
+called for bolder measures. Wolsey was despatched on a solemn embassy to
+Francis to promise an English subsidy on the despatch of a French army
+across the Alps. But he aimed at turning the Pope's situation to the
+profit of the divorce. Clement was virtually a prisoner in the castle of
+St. Angelo; and as it was impossible for him to fulfil freely the
+function of a Pope, Wolsey proposed, in conjunction with Francis, to
+call a meeting of the college of cardinals at Avignon which should
+exercise the papal powers till Clement's liberation. As Wolsey was to
+preside over this assembly, it would be easy to win from it a favorable
+answer to Henry's request.
+
+But Clement had no mind to surrender his power, and secret orders from
+the Pope prevented the Italian cardinals from attending such an
+assembly. Nor was Wolsey more fortunate in another plan for bringing
+about the same end by inducing Clement to delegate to him his full
+powers westward of the Alps. Henry's trust in him was fast waning before
+these failures and the steady pressure of his rivals at court, and the
+coldness of the King on his return in September was an omen of his
+minister's fall. Henry was in fact resolved to take his own course; and
+while Wolsey sought from the Pope a commission enabling him to try the
+case in his legatine court and pronounce the marriage null and void by
+sentence of law, Henry had determined at the suggestion of the Boleyns
+and apparently of Thomas Cranmer, a Cambridge scholar who was serving as
+their chaplain, to seek, without Wolsey's knowledge, from Clement either
+his approval of a divorce or, if a divorce could not be obtained, a
+dispensation to remarry without any divorce at all.
+
+For some months his envoys could find no admission to the Pope; and
+though in December Clement succeeded in escaping to Orvieto and drew
+some courage from the entry of the French army into Italy, his temper
+was still too timid to venture on any decided course. He refused the
+dispensation altogether. Wolsey's proposal for leaving the matter to a
+legatine court found better favor; but when the commission reached
+England it was found to be "of no effect or authority." What Henry
+wanted was not merely a divorce but the express sanction of the Pope to
+his divorce, and this Clement steadily evaded. A fresh embassy, with
+Wolsey's favorite and secretary, Stephen Gardiner, at its head, reached
+Orvieto in March, 1528, to find, in spite of Gardiner's threats, hardly
+better success; but Clement at last consented to a legatine commission
+for the trial of the case in England. In this commission Cardinal
+Campeggio, who was looked upon as a partisan of the English King, was
+joined with Wolsey.
+
+Great as the concession seemed, this gleam of success failed to hide
+from the minister the dangers which gathered round him. The great nobles
+whom he had practically shut out from the King's counsels were longing
+for his fall. The Boleyns and the young courtiers looked on him as cool
+in Anne's cause. He was hated alike by men of the old doctrine and men
+of the new. The clergy had never forgotten his extortions, the monks saw
+him suppressing small monasteries. The foundation of Cardinal College
+failed to reconcile to him the scholars of the New Learning; their poet,
+Skelton, was among his bitterest assailants.
+
+The Protestants, goaded by the persecution of this very year, hated him
+with a deadly hatred. His French alliances, his declaration of war with
+the Emperor, hindered the trade with Flanders and secured the hostility
+of the merchant class. The country at large, galled with murrain and
+famine and panic-struck by an outbreak of the sweating sickness which
+carried off two thousand in London alone, laid all its suffering at the
+door of the Cardinal. And now that Henry's mood itself became uncertain
+Wolsey knew his hour was come. Were the marriage once made, he told the
+French ambassador, and a male heir born to the realm, he would withdraw
+from state affairs and serve God for the rest of his life. But the
+divorce had still to be brought about ere marriage could be made or heir
+be born. Henry indeed had seized on the grant of a commission as if the
+matter were at an end. Anne Boleyn was installed in the royal palace and
+honored with the state of a wife. The new legate, Campeggio, held the
+bishopric of Salisbury, and had been asked for as judge from the belief
+that he would favor the King's cause. But he bore secret instructions
+from the Pope to bring about if possible a reconciliation between Henry
+and the Queen, and in no case to pronounce sentence without reference to
+Rome. The slowness of his journey presaged ill; he did not reach England
+till the end of September, and a month was wasted in vain efforts to
+bring Henry to a reconciliation or Catharine to retirement into a
+monastery.
+
+A new difficulty disclosed itself in the supposed existence of a brief
+issued by Pope Julius and now in the possession of the Emperor, which
+overruled all the objections to the earlier dispensation on which Henry
+relied. The hearing of the cause was delayed through the winter, while
+new embassies strove to induce Clement to declare this brief also
+invalid. Not only was such a demand glaringly unjust, but the progress
+of the imperial arms brought vividly home to the Pope its injustice. The
+danger which he feared was not merely a danger to his temporal domain in
+Italy--it was a danger to the papacy itself. It was in vain that new
+embassies threatened Clement with the loss of his spiritual power over
+England. To break with the Emperor was to risk the loss of his spiritual
+power over a far larger world.
+
+Charles had already consented to the suspension of the judgment of his
+diet at Worms, a consent which gave security to the new Protestantism in
+North Germany. If he burned heretics in the Netherlands, he employed
+them in his armies. Lutheran soldiers had played their part in the sack
+of Rome. Lutheranism had spread from North Germany along the Rhine, it
+was now pushing fast into the hereditary possessions of the Austrian
+house, it had all but mastered the Low Countries. France itself was
+mined with heresy; and were Charles once to give way, the whole
+Continent would be lost to Rome.
+
+Amid difficulties such as these the papal court saw no course open save
+one of delay. But the long delay told fatally for Wolsey's fortunes.
+Even Clement blamed him for having hindered Henry from judging the
+matter in his own realm and marrying on the sentence of his own courts,
+and the Boleyns naturally looked upon his policy as dictated by hatred
+to Anne. Norfolk and the great peers took courage from the bitter tone
+of the girl; and Henry himself charged the Cardinal with a failure in
+fulfilling the promises he had made him. King and minister still clung
+indeed passionately to their hopes from Rome. But in 1529 Charles met
+their pressure with a pressure of his own; and the progress of his arms
+decided Clement to avoke the cause to Rome. Wolsey could only hope to
+anticipate this decision by pushing the trial hastily forward, and at
+the end of May the two legates opened their court in the great hall of
+the Blackfriars.
+
+King and Queen were cited to appear before them when the court again met
+on June 18th. Henry briefly announced his resolve to live no longer in
+mortal sin. The Queen offered an appeal to Clement, and on the refusal
+of the legates to admit it flung herself at Henry's feet. "Sire," said
+Catharine, "I beseech you to pity me, a woman and a stranger, without an
+assured friend and without an indifferent counsellor. I take God to
+witness that I have always been to you a true and loyal wife, that I
+have made it my constant duty to seek your pleasure, that I have loved
+all whom you loved, whether I have reason or not, whether they are
+friends to me or foes. I have been your wife for years; I have brought
+you many children. God knows that when I came to your bed I was a
+virgin, and I put it to your own conscience to say whether it was not
+so. If there be any offence which can be alleged against me I consent to
+depart with infamy; if not, then I pray you to do me justice."
+
+The piteous appeal was wasted on a king who was already entertaining
+Anne Boleyn with royal state in his own palace; the trial proceeded, and
+on July 23d the court assembled to pronounce sentence. Henry's hopes
+were at their highest when they were suddenly dashed to the ground. At
+the opening of the proceedings Campeggio rose to declare the court
+adjourned to the following October. The adjournment was a mere evasion.
+The pressure of the imperialists had at last forced Clement to summon
+the cause to his own tribunal at Rome, and the jurisdiction of the
+legates was at an end.
+
+"Now see I," cried the Duke of Suffolk as he dashed his hand on the
+table, "that the old saw is true, that there was never legate or
+cardinal that did good to England!" The Duke only echoed his master's
+wrath. Through the twenty years of his reign Henry had known nothing of
+opposition to his will. His imperious temper had chafed at the weary
+negotiations, the subterfuges and perfidies of the Pope. Though the
+commission was his own device, his pride must have been sorely galled by
+the summons to the legates' court. The warmest adherents of the older
+faith revolted against the degradation of the Crown. "It was the
+strangest and newest sight and device," says Cavendish, "that ever we
+read or heard of in any history or chronicle in any region that a king
+and queen should be convented and constrained by process compellatory to
+appear in any court as common persons, within their own realm and
+dominion, to abide the judgment and decree of their own subjects, having
+the royal diadem and prerogative thereof."
+
+Even this degradation had been borne in vain. Foreign and papal tribunal
+as that of the legates really was, it lay within Henry's kingdom and had
+the air of an English court. But the citation to Rome was a summons to
+the King to plead in a court without his realm. Wolsey had himself
+warned Clement of the hopelessness of expecting Henry to submit to such
+humiliation as this. "If the King be cited to appear in person or by
+proxy and his prerogative be interfered with, none of his subjects will
+tolerate the insult. To cite the King to Rome, to threaten him with
+excommunication, is no more tolerable than to deprive him of his royal
+dignity. If he were to appear in Italy it would be at the head of a
+formidable army." But Clement had been deaf to the warning, and the case
+had been avoked out of the realm.
+
+Henry's wrath fell at once on Wolsey. Whatever furtherance or hinderance
+the Cardinal had given to his remarriage, it was Wolsey who had
+dissuaded him from acting, at the first, independently; from conducting
+the cause in his own courts and acting on the sentence of his own
+judges. Whether to secure the succession by a more indisputable decision
+or to preserve uninjured the prerogatives of the papal see, it was
+Wolsey who had counselled him to seek a divorce from Rome and promised
+him success in his suit. And in this counsel Wolsey stood alone. Even
+Clement had urged the King to carry out his original purpose when it was
+too late. All that the Pope sought was to be freed from the necessity of
+meddling in the matter at all. It was Wolsey who had forced papal
+intervention on him, as he had forced it on Henry, and the failure of
+his plans was fatal to him. From the close of the legatine court Henry
+would see him no more, and his favorite, Stephen Gardiner, who had
+become chief secretary of state, succeeded him in the King's confidence.
+
+If Wolsey still remained minister for a while, it was because the thread
+of the complex foreign negotiations which he was conducting could not be
+roughly broken. Here too, however, failure awaited him. His diplomacy
+sought to bring fresh pressure on the Pope and to provide a fresh check
+on the Emperor by a closer alliance with France. But Francis was anxious
+to recover his children who had remained as hostages for his return; he
+was weary of the long struggle, and hopeless of aid from his Italian
+allies. At this crisis of his fate therefore Wolsey saw himself deceived
+and outwitted by the conclusion of peace between France and the Emperor
+in a new treaty at Cambray. Not only was his French policy no longer
+possible, but a reconciliation with Charles was absolutely needful, and
+such a reconciliation could only be brought about by Wolsey's fall. In
+October, on the very day that the Cardinal took his place with a haughty
+countenance and all his former pomp in the court of chancery an
+indictment was preferred against him by the King's attorney for
+receiving bulls from Rome in violation of the Statute of Provisors.
+
+A few days later he was deprived of the seals. Wolsey was prostrated by
+the blow. In a series of abject appeals he offered to give up everything
+that he possessed if the King would but cease from his displeasure. "His
+face," wrote the French ambassador, "is dwindled to half its natural
+size. In truth his misery is such that his enemies, Englishmen as they
+are, cannot help pitying him." For the moment Henry seemed contented
+with his disgrace. A thousand boats full of Londoners covered the Thames
+to see the Cardinal's barge pass to the Tower, but he was permitted to
+retire to Esher.
+
+Although judgment of forfeiture and imprisonment was given against him
+in the king's bench at the close of October, in the following February
+he received a pardon on surrender of his vast possessions to the crown
+and was permitted to withdraw to his diocese of York, the one dignity he
+had been suffered to retain.
+
+Not less significant was the attitude of the New Learning. On Wolsey's
+fall the seals had been offered to Warham, and it was probably at his
+counsel that they were finally given to Sir Thomas More. The
+Chancellor's dream, if we may judge it from the acts of his brief
+ministry, seems to have been that of carrying out the religious
+reformation which had been demanded by Colet and Erasmus while checking
+the spirit of revolt against the unity of the Church. His severities
+against the Protestants, exaggerated as they have been by polemic
+rancor, remain the one stain on a memory that knows no other. But it was
+only by a rigid severance of the cause of reform from what seemed to him
+the cause of revolution that More could hope for a successful issue to
+the projects of reform which the council laid before parliament.
+
+The "Petition of the Commons" sounded like an echo of Colet's famous
+address to the convocation. It attributed the growth of heresy not more
+to "frantic and seditious books published in the English tongue contrary
+to the very true Catholic and Christian faith" than to "the extreme and
+uncharitable behavior of divers ordinaries." It remonstrated against the
+legislation of the clergy in convocation without the King's assent or
+that of his subjects, the oppressive procedure of the church courts, the
+abuses of ecclesiastical patronage, and the excessive number of holy
+days. Henry referred the petition to the bishops, but they could devise
+no means of redress, and the ministry persisted in pushing through the
+houses their bills for ecclesiastical reform. The importance of the new
+measures lay really in the action of parliament. They were an explicit
+announcement that church reform was now to be undertaken, not by the
+clergy, but by the people at large. On the other hand it was clear that
+it would be carried out in a spirit of loyalty to the Church. The
+commons forced from Bishop Fisher an apology for words which were taken
+as a doubt thrown on their orthodoxy.
+
+Henry forbade the circulation of Tyndale's translation of the Bible as
+executed in a Protestant spirit. The reforming measures, however, were
+pushed resolutely on. Though the questions of convocation and the
+bishops' courts were adjourned for further consideration, the fees of
+the courts were curtailed, the clergy restricted from lay employments,
+pluralities restrained, and residence enforced. In spite of a dogged
+opposition from the bishops the bills received the assent of the House
+of Lords, "to the great rejoicing of lay people, and the great
+displeasure of spiritual persons."
+
+Not less characteristic of the New Learning was the intellectual
+pressure it strove to bring to bear on the wavering Pope. Cranmer was
+still active in the cause of Anne Boleyn; he had just published a book
+in favor of the divorce; and he now urged on the ministry an appeal to
+the learned opinion of Christendom by calling for the judgment of the
+chief universities of Europe. His counsel was adopted; but Norfolk
+trusted to coarser means of attaining his end. Like most of the English
+nobles and the whole of the merchant class, his sympathies were with the
+house of Burgundy. He looked upon Wolsey as the real hinderance to the
+divorce through the French policy which had driven Charles into a
+hostile attitude; and he counted on the Cardinal's fall to bring about a
+renewal of friendship with the Emperor and to insure his support.
+
+The father of Anne Boleyn, now created Earl of Wiltshire, was sent in
+1530 on this errand to the imperial court. But Charles remained firm to
+Catharine's cause, and Clement would do nothing in defiance of the
+Emperor. Nor was the appeal to the learned world more successful. In
+France the profuse bribery of the English agents would have failed with
+the University of Paris but for the interference of Francis himself,
+eager to regain Henry's good-will by this office of friendship. As
+shameless an exercise of the King's own authority was needed to wring an
+approval of his cause from Oxford and Cambridge. In Germany the very
+Protestants, then in the fervor of their moral revival and hoping little
+from a proclaimed opponent of Luther, were dead against the King. So far
+as could be seen from Cranmer's test every learned man in Christendom,
+but for bribery and threats, would have condemned the royal cause.
+
+Henry was embittered by failures which he attributed to the unskilful
+diplomacy of his new counsellors; and it was rumored that he had been
+heard to regret the loss of the more dexterous statesman whom they had
+overthrown. Wolsey, who since the beginning of the year had remained at
+York, though busy in appearance with the duties of his see, was hoping
+more and more as the months passed by for his recall. But the jealousy
+of his political enemies was roused by the King's regrets, and the
+pitiless hand of Norfolk was seen in the quick and deadly blow which he
+dealt at his fallen rival.
+
+On November 4th, the eve of his installation feast, the Cardinal was
+arrested on a charge of high treason and conducted by the lieutenant of
+the Tower toward London. Already broken by his enormous labors, by
+internal disease, and the sense of his fall, Wolsey accepted the arrest
+as a sentence of death. An attack of dysentery forced him to rest at the
+Abbey of Leicester, and as he reached the gate he said feebly to the
+brethren who met him, "I am come to lay my bones among you."
+
+On his death-bed his thoughts still clung to the Prince whom he had
+served. "Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the King,"
+murmured the dying man, "he would not have given me over in my gray
+hairs. But this is my due reward for my pains and study, not regarding
+my service to God, but only my duty to my Prince."
+
+
+
+
+PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU
+
+A.D. 1532
+
+HERNANDO PIZARRO    WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+     Before Europeans visited Peru, a highly developed
+     civilization existed there under the native Indian empire of
+     the Incas, as the chiefs were called who ruled from the
+     thirteenth to the sixteenth century. These sovereigns
+     constituted a hereditary aristocratic order, and had long
+     been the masters of prodigious wealth taken from the gold
+     and silver mines of the country. It was the rich treasure
+     which they expected to find there that first led the
+     Spaniards to look for conquests in that quarter of the
+     world.
+
+     When the "South Sea," as the Spaniards called the Pacific
+     Ocean, had been discovered by Balboa, and the first
+     conquests on the mainland secured, another Spanish soldier,
+     Francisco Pizarro, who had accompanied Balboa, settled in
+     the new city of Panama. While living there in repose, he
+     longed to perform further and greater services for the
+     Spanish sovereign. He therefore obtained permission from the
+     colonial governor to explore the Pacific coast toward the
+     south. After an unsuccessful voyage in 1524-1526, he set out
+     again in the latter year, and sailed for Peru, reaching that
+     country through many hardships, the surmounting of which
+     places him fairly among the great discoverers.
+
+     Having collected much information concerning the empire of
+     the Incas, Pizarro went to Spain and received authority to
+     conquer Peru. Returning to Panama, he sailed from there in
+     December, 1531, with three ships, one hundred eighty-three
+     men, and thirty-seven horses. He first landed at the island
+     of Puna, where he was joined by Hernando de Soto, and then,
+     crossing to Tumbez, marched inland and reached Cajamarca,
+     the city of the Incas, in November, 1532.
+
+     The circumstantial account of what followed, written by
+     Hernando Pizarro, half-brother and companion of Francisco,
+     is fitly supplemented by the narrative of Prescott, whose
+     story of the last of the Incas is so widely known.
+
+
+HERNANDO PIZARRO
+
+_To the Magnificent Lords, the Judges of the Royal Audience of his
+Majesty, who reside in the city of Santo Domingo._
+
+MAGNIFICENT LORDS: I arrived in this port of Yaguana on my way to Spain,
+by order of the governor Francisco Pizarro, to inform his majesty of
+what has happened in that government of Peru, to give an account of the
+country and of its present condition; and, as I believe that those who
+come to this city give your worships inconsistent accounts, it has
+seemed well to me to write a summary of what has taken place, that you
+may be informed of the truth.
+
+The Governor, in the name of his majesty, founded a town near the
+sea-coast, which was called San Miguel. It is twenty-five leagues from
+that point of Tumbez. Having left citizens there, and assigned the
+Indians in the district to them, he set out, with sixty horse and ninety
+foot, in search of the town of Cajamarca, at which place he was informed
+that Atahualpa then was brother of him who is now lord of that land.
+Between the two brothers there had been a very fierce war, and this
+Atahualpa had conquered the land as far as he then was, which, from the
+point whence he started, was a hundred fifty leagues. After seven or
+eight marches, a captain of Atahualpa came to the Governor and said that
+his lord had heard of his arrival and rejoiced greatly at it, having a
+strong desire to see the Christians; and when he had been two days with
+the Governor he said that he wished to go forward and tell the news to
+his lord, and that another would soon be on the road with a present as a
+token of peace.
+
+The Governor continued his march until he came to a town called La
+Ramada. Up to that point all the land was flat, while all beyond was
+very rugged and obstructed by very difficult passes. When he saw that
+the messenger from Atahualpa did not return, he wished to obtain
+intelligence from some Indians who had come from Cajamarca; so they were
+tortured, and they then said that they had heard that Atahualpa was
+waiting for the Governor in the mountains to give him battle. The
+Governor then ordered the troops to advance, leaving the rear-guard in
+the plain. The rest ascended, and the road was so bad that, in truth, if
+they had been waiting for us, either in this pass or in another that we
+came to on the road to Cajamarca, they could very easily have stopped
+us; for, even by exerting all our skill, we could not have taken our
+horses by the roads; and neither horse nor foot can cross those
+mountains except by the roads. The distance across them to Cajamarca is
+full twenty leagues. When we were half-way, messengers arrived from
+Atahualpa and brought provisions to the Governor. They said that
+Atahualpa was waiting for him at Cajamarca, wishing to be his friend;
+and that he wished the Governor to know that his captains had taken his
+brother prisoner, that they would reach Cajamarca within two days, and
+that all the territory of his father now belonged to him. The Governor
+sent back to say that he rejoiced greatly at this news, and that, if
+there was any lord who refused to submit, he would give assistance and
+subjugate him. Two days afterward the Governor came in sight of
+Cajamarca, and he met Indians with food. He put the troops in order and
+marched to the town. Atahualpa was not there, but was encamped on the
+plain, at a distance of a league, with all his people in tents. When the
+Governor saw that Atahualpa did not come, he sent a captain, with
+fifteen horsemen, to speak to Atahualpa, saying that he would not assign
+quarters to the Christians until he knew where it was the pleasure of
+Atahualpa that they should lodge, and he desired him to come that they
+might be friends. Just then I went to speak to the Governor, touching
+the orders in case the Indians made a night attack. He told me that he
+had sent men to seek an interview with Atahualpa. I told him that, out
+of the sixty cavalry we had, there might be some men who were not
+dexterous on horseback, and some unsound horses, and that it seemed a
+mistake to pick out fifteen of the best; for, if Atahualpa should attack
+them, their numbers were insufficient for defence, and any reverse might
+lead to a great disaster. He therefore ordered me to follow with other
+twenty horsemen, and to act according to circumstances.
+
+When I arrived I found the other horsemen near the camp of Atahualpa,
+and that their officer had gone to speak with him. I left my men there
+also, and advanced with two horsemen to the lodging of Atahualpa, and
+the captain announced my approach and who I was. I then told Atahualpa
+that the Governor had sent me to visit him and to ask him to come, that
+they might be friends. He replied that a cacique of the town of San
+Miguel had sent to tell him that we were bad people and not good for
+war, and that he himself had killed some of us, both men and horses. I
+answered that those people of San Miguel were like women, and that one
+horse was enough for the whole of them; that, when he saw us fight, he
+would know what we were like; that the Governor had a great regard for
+him; that if he had any enemy he had only to say so, and that the
+Governor would send to conquer him. He said that, four marches from that
+spot, there were some very rebellious Indians who would not submit to
+him, and that the Christians might go there to help his troops. I said
+that the Governor would send ten horsemen, who would suffice for the
+whole country, and that his Indians were unnecessary, except to search
+for those who concealed themselves. He smiled like a man who did not
+think so much of us. The captain told me that, until I came, he had not
+been able to get him to speak, but that one of his chiefs had answered
+for him, while he always kept his head down. He was seated in all the
+majesty of command, surrounded by all his women, and with many chiefs
+near him. Before coming to his presence there was another group of
+chiefs, each standing according to his rank. At sunset I said that I
+wished to go, and asked him to tell me what to say to the Governor. He
+replied that he would come to see him on the following morning, that he
+would lodge in three great chambers in the court-yard, and that the
+centre one should be set apart for himself.
+
+That night a good lookout was kept. In the morning he sent messengers to
+put off his visit until the afternoon; and these messengers, in
+conversing with some Indian girls in the service of the Christians, who
+were their relations, told them to run away because Atahualpa was coming
+that afternoon to attack the Christians and kill them. Among the
+messengers there came that captain who had already met the Governor on
+the road. He told the Governor that his lord Atahualpa said that, as the
+Christians had come armed to his camp, he also would come armed. The
+Governor replied that he might come as he liked. Atahualpa set out from
+his camp at noon, and when he came to a place which was about half a
+quarter of a league from Cajamarca he stopped until late in the
+afternoon. There he pitched his tents, and formed his men in three
+divisions. The whole road was full of men, and they had not yet left off
+marching out of the camp.
+
+The Governor had ordered his troops to be distributed in the three
+halls which were in the open court-yard, in form of a triangle; and he
+ordered them to be mounted and armed until the intentions of Atahualpa
+were known. Having pitched his tents, Atahualpa sent a messenger to the
+Governor to say that as it was now late he wished to sleep where he was,
+and that he would come in the morning. The Governor sent back to beg him
+to come at once, because he was waiting for supper, and that he should
+not sup until Atahualpa should come. The messengers came back to ask the
+Governor to send a Christian to Atahualpa, that he intended to come at
+once, and that he would come unarmed. The Governor sent a Christian, and
+presently Atahualpa moved, leaving the armed men behind him. He took
+with him about five or six thousand Indians without arms, except that,
+under their shirts, they had small darts and slings with stones.
+
+He came in a litter, and before him went three or four hundred Indians
+in liveries, cleaning the straws from the road and singing. Then came
+Atahualpa in the midst of his chiefs and principal men, the greatest
+among them being also borne on men's shoulders. When they entered the
+open space, twelve or fifteen Indians went up to the little fortress
+that was there and occupied it, taking possession with a banner fixed on
+a lance. When Atahualpa had advanced to the centre of an open space, he
+stopped, and a Dominican friar, who was with the Governor, came forward
+to tell him, on the part of the Governor, that he waited for him in his
+lodging, and that he was sent to speak with him. The friar then told
+Atahualpa that he was a priest, and that he was sent there to teach the
+things of the faith if they should desire to be Christians. He showed
+Atahualpa a book which he carried in his hands, and told him that that
+book contained the things of God. Atahualpa asked for the book, and
+threw it on the ground, saying: "I will not leave this place until you
+have restored all that you have taken in my land. I know well who you
+are and what you have come for." Then he rose up in his litter and
+addressed his men, and there were murmurs among them and calls to those
+who were armed. The friar went to the Governor and reported what was
+being done and that no time was to be lost. The Governor sent to me; and
+I had arranged with the captain of the artillery that, when a sign was
+given, he should discharge his pieces, and that, on hearing the reports,
+all the troops should come forth at once. This was done, and as the
+Indians were unarmed they were defeated without danger to any Christian.
+Those who carried the litter and the chiefs who surrounded Atahualpa
+were all killed, falling round him. The Governor came out and seized
+Atahualpa, and in protecting him he received a knife-cut from a
+Christian in the hand. The troops continued the pursuit as far as the
+place where the armed Indians were stationed, who made no resistance
+whatever, because it was now night. All were brought into the town where
+the Governor was quartered.
+
+Next morning the Governor ordered us to go to the camp of Atahualpa,
+where we found forty thousand castellanos and four or five thousand
+marcos of silver. The camp was as full of people as if none were
+wanting. All the people were assembled, and the Governor desired them to
+go to their homes, and told them that he had not come to do them harm;
+that what he had done was by reason of the pride of Atahualpa, and that
+he himself ordered it. On asking Atahualpa why he had thrown away the
+book and shown so much pride, he answered that his captain, who had been
+sent to speak with the Governor, had told him that the Christians were
+not warriors, that the horses were unsaddled at night, and that with two
+hundred Indians he could defeat them all. He added that this captain and
+the chief of San Miguel had deceived him. The Governor then inquired
+concerning his brother the Cuzco, and he answered that he would arrive
+next day, that he was being brought as a prisoner, and that his captain
+remained with the troops in the town of Cuzco. It afterward turned out
+that in all this he had spoken the truth, except that he had sent orders
+for his brother to be killed, lest the Governor should restore him to
+his lordship. The Governor said that he had not come to make war on the
+Indians, but that our lord the Emperor, who was lord of the whole world,
+had ordered him to come that he might see the land, and let Atahualpa
+know the things of our faith, in case he should wish to become a
+Christian. The Governor also told him that that land and all other lands
+belonged to the Emperor, and that he must acknowledge him as his lord.
+He replied that he was content, and, observing that the Christians had
+collected some gold, Atahualpa said to the Governor that they need not
+take such care of it, as if there was so little; for that he could give
+them ten thousand plates, and that he could fill the room in which he
+was up to a white line, which was the height of a man and a half from
+the floor. The room was seventeen or eighteen feet wide and thirty-five
+feet long. He said that he could do this in two months.
+
+Two months passed away and the gold did not arrive, but the Governor
+received tidings that every day parties of men were advancing against
+him. In order both to ascertain the truth of these reports, and to hurry
+the arrival of the gold, the Governor ordered me to set out with twenty
+horsemen and ten or twelve foot-soldiers for a place called Guamachuco,
+which is twenty leagues from Cajamarca. This was the place where it was
+reported that armed men were collecting together. I advanced to that
+town, and found a quantity of gold and silver, which I sent thence to
+Cajamarca. Some Indians, who were tortured, told us that the captains
+and armed men were at a place six leagues from Guamachuco; and, though I
+had no instructions from the Governor to advance beyond that point, I
+resolved to push forward with fourteen horsemen and nine foot-soldiers,
+in order that the Indians might not take heart at the notion that we had
+retreated. The rest of my party were sent to guard the gold, because
+their horses were lame. Next morning I arrived at that town, and did not
+find any armed men there, and it turned out that the Indians had told
+lies, perhaps to frighten us and induce us to return.
+
+At this village I received permission from the Governor to go to a
+mosque of which we had intelligence, which was a hundred leagues away on
+the sea-coast, in a town called Pachacamac. It took us twenty-two days
+to reach it. The road over the mountains is a thing worth seeing,
+because, though the ground is so rugged, such beautiful roads could not
+in truth be found throughout Christendom. The greater part of them is
+paved. There is a bridge of stone or wood over every stream. We found
+bridges of network over a very large and powerful river, which we
+crossed twice, which was a marvellous thing to see. The horses crossed
+over by them. At each passage they have two bridges, the one by which
+the common people go over, and the other for the lords of the land and
+their captains. The approaches are always kept closed, with Indians to
+guard them. These Indians exact transit dues from all passengers. The
+chiefs and people of the mountains are more intelligent than those of
+the coast. The country is populous. There are mines in many parts of it.
+It is a cold climate, it snows, and there is much rain. There are no
+swamps. Fuel is scarce. Atahualpa has placed governors in all the
+principal towns, and his predecessors had also appointed governors. In
+all these towns there were houses of imprisoned women, with guards at
+the doors, and these women preserve their virginity. If any Indian has
+any connection with them his punishment is death. Of these houses, some
+are for the worship of the sun, others for that of old Cuzco, the father
+of Atahualpa. Their sacrifices consist of sheep and _chica_, which they
+pour out on the ground. They have another house of women in each of the
+principal towns, also guarded. These women are assembled by the chiefs
+of the neighboring districts, and when the lord of the land passes by
+they select the best to present to him, and when they are taken others
+are chosen to fill up their places. These women also have the duty of
+making chica for the soldiers when they pass that way. They took Indian
+girls out of these houses and presented them to us. All the surrounding
+chiefs come to these towns on the roads to perform service when the army
+passes. They have stores of fuel and maize and of all other necessaries.
+They count by certain knots on cords, and so record what each chief has
+brought. When they had to bring us loads of fuel, maize, chica, or meat,
+they took off knots or made them on some other part; so that those who
+have charge of the stores keep an exact account. In all these towns they
+received us with great festivities, dancing, and rejoicing.
+
+When we arrived on the plain of the sea-coast we met with a people who
+were less civilized, but the country was populous. They also have houses
+of women, and all the other arrangements as in the towns of the
+mountains. They never wished to speak to us of the mosque, for there was
+an order that all who should speak to us of it should be put to death.
+But as we had intelligence that it was on the coast, we followed the
+high road until we came to it. The road is very wide, with an earthen
+wall on either side, and houses for resting at intervals, which were
+prepared to receive the Cuzco when he travelled that way. There are very
+large villages, the houses of the Indians being built of canes, and
+those of the chiefs are of earth with roofs of branches of trees; for in
+that land it never rains. From the city of San Miguel to this mosque the
+distance is one hundred sixty or one hundred eighty leagues, the road
+passing near the sea-shore through a very populous country. The road,
+with a wall on each side, traverses the whole of this country; and,
+neither in that part nor in the part farther on, of which we had notice
+for two hundred leagues, does it ever rain.
+
+They live by irrigation, for the rainfall is so great in the mountains
+that many rivers flow from them, so that throughout the land there is
+not three leagues without a river. The distance from the sea to the
+mountains is in some parts ten leagues, in others twelve. It is not
+cold. Throughout the whole of this coast-land, and beyond it, tribute is
+not paid to Cuzco, but to the mosque. The bishop of it was in Cajamarca
+with the Governor. He had ordered another room of gold, such as
+Atahualpa had ordered, and the Governor ordered me to go on this
+business, and to hurry those who were collecting it. When I arrived at
+the mosque I asked for the gold, and they denied it to me, saying that
+they had none. I made some search, but could not find it. The
+neighboring chiefs came to see me, and brought presents, and in the
+mosque there was found some gold-dust, which was left behind when the
+rest was concealed. Altogether I collected eighty-five thousand
+castellanos and three thousand marcos of silver.
+
+This town of the mosque is very large, and contains grand edifices and
+courts. Outside, there is another great space surrounded by a wall, with
+a door opening on the mosque. In this space there are the houses of the
+women, who, they say, are the women of the devil. Here, also, are the
+storerooms, where the stores of gold are kept. There is no one in the
+place where these women are kept. Their sacrifices are the same as those
+to the sun, which I have already described. Before entering the first
+court of the mosque, a man must fast for twenty days; before ascending
+to the court above, he must fast for a year. In this upper court the
+bishop used to be. When messengers of the chiefs, who had fasted for a
+year, went up to pray to God that he would give them a good harvest,
+they found the bishop seated, with his head covered. There are other
+Indians whom they call pages of the sun. When these messengers of the
+chief delivered their messages to the bishop, the pages of the devil
+went into a chamber, where they said that he speaks to them; and that
+devil said that he was enraged with the chiefs, with the sacrifices they
+had to offer, and with the presents they wished to bring. I believe that
+they do not speak with the devil, but that these his servants deceive
+the chiefs. For I took pains to investigate the matter, and an old page,
+who was one of the chief and most confidential servants of their god,
+told a chief, who repeated it to me, that the devil said they were not
+to fear the horses, as they could do no harm. I caused the page to be
+tortured, and he was so stubborn in his evil creed that I could never
+gather anything from him, but that they really held their devil to be a
+god. This mosque is so feared by all the Indians that they believe that,
+if any of those servants of the devil asked them for anything and they
+refused it, they would presently die. It would seem that the Indians do
+not worship this devil from any feelings of devotion, but from fear. For
+the chiefs told me that, up to that time, they had served that mosque
+because they feared it, but that now they had no fear but of us; and
+that, therefore, they wished to serve us. The cave in which the devil
+was placed was very dark, so that one could not enter it without a
+light, and within it was very dirty. I made all the caciques, who came
+to see me, enter the place, that they might lose their fear; and, for
+want of a preacher, I made my sermon, explaining to them the errors in
+which they lived.
+
+In this town I learned that the principal captain of Atahualpa was at a
+distance of twenty leagues from us, in a town called Jauja. I sent to
+tell him to come and see me, and he replied that I should take the road
+to Cajamarca, and that he would take another road and meet me. The
+Governor, on hearing that the captain was for peace and that he was
+ready to come with me, wrote to me to tell me to return; and he sent
+three Christians to Cuzco, which is fifty leagues beyond Jauja, to take
+possession and to see the country. I returned by the road of Cajamarca,
+and by another road, where the captain of Atahualpa was to join me. But
+he had not started; and I learned from certain chiefs that he had not
+moved, and that he had taken me in. So I went back to the place where he
+was, and the road was very rugged, and so obstructed with snow that it
+cost us much labor to get there. Having reached the royal road, and come
+to a place called Bombon, I met a captain of Atahualpa with five
+thousand armed Indians whom Atahualpa had sent on pretence of conquering
+a rebel chief; but, as it afterward appeared, they were assembled to
+kill the Christians. Here we found five hundred thousand pesos of gold
+that they were taking to Cajamarca. This captain told me that the
+captain-general remained in Jauja, that he knew of our approach, and was
+much afraid. I sent a messenger to him to tell him to remain where he
+was and to fear nothing. I also found a negro here who had gone with the
+Christians to Cuzco, and he told me that these fears were feigned; for
+that the captain-general had many well-armed men with him, that he
+counted them by his knots in presence of the Christians, and that they
+numbered thirty-five thousand Indians. So we went to Jauja, and, when we
+were half a league from the town, and found that the captain did not
+come out to receive us, a chief of Atahualpa, whom I had with me and
+whom I had treated well, advised me to advance in order of battle,
+because he believed that the captain intended to fight. We went up a
+small hill overlooking Jauja, and saw a large black mass in the plaza,
+which appeared to be something that had been burned. I asked what it
+was, and they told me it was a crowd of Indians. The plaza is large, and
+has a length of a quarter of a league. As no one came to receive us on
+reaching the town, our people advanced in the expectation of having to
+fight the Indians. But, at the entrance of the square, some principal
+men came out to meet us with offers of peace, and told us that the
+captain was not there, as he had gone to reduce certain chiefs to
+submission. It would seem that he had gone out of fear, with some of his
+troops, and had crossed a river near the town by a bridge of network. I
+sent to tell him to come to me peaceably or else the Christians would
+destroy him. Next morning the people came who were in the square. They
+were Indian servants, and it is true that they numbered over a hundred
+thousand souls. We remained here five days, and during all that time
+they did nothing but dance and sing and hold great drinking-feasts. The
+captain did not wish to come with me, but when he saw that I was
+determined to make him he came of his own accord. I left the chief who
+came with me as captain there. This town of Jauja is very fine and
+picturesque, with very good level approaches, and it has an excellent
+river-bank. In all my travels I did not see a better site for a
+Christian settlement, and I believe that the Governor intends to form
+one there, though some think that it would be more convenient to select
+a position near the sea, and are, therefore, of an opposite opinion. All
+the country, from Jauja to Cajamarca, by the road we returned, is like
+that of which I have already given a description.
+
+After returning to Cajamarca and reporting my proceedings to the
+Governor, he ordered me to go to Spain and to give an account to his
+majesty of this and other things which appertain to his service. I took,
+from the heap of gold, one hundred thousand castellanos for his majesty,
+being the amount of his fifth. The day after I left Cajamarca, the
+Christians, who had gone to Cuzco, returned, and brought one million
+five hundred thousand of gold. After I arrived at Panama, another ship
+came in, with some knights. They say that a distribution of the gold was
+made; and that the share of his majesty, besides the one hundred
+thousand pesos and the five thousand marcos of silver that I bring, was
+another one hundred sixty-five thousand castellanos and seven thousand
+or eight thousand marcos of silver; while to all those of us who had
+gone, a further share of gold was sent.
+
+After my departure, according to what the Governor writes to me, it
+became known that Atahualpa had assembled troops to make war on the
+Christians, and justice was done upon him. The Governor made his
+brother, who was an enemy, lord in his place. Molina comes to this city,
+and from him your worships may learn anything else that you may desire
+to know. The shares of the troops were, to the horsemen nine thousand
+castellanos, to the Governor six thousand, to me three thousand. The
+Governor has derived no other profit from that land, nor has there been
+deceit or fraud in the account. I say this to your worships because, if
+any other statement is made, this is the truth. May our lord long guard
+and prosper the magnificent persons of your worships.
+
+Done in this city, November, 1533. At the service of your worships,
+
+HERNANDO PIZARRO.
+
+
+WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+The clouds of the evening had passed away, and the sun rose bright on
+the following morning, the most remarkable epoch in the annals of Peru.
+It was Saturday, November 16, 1532. The loud cry of the trumpet called
+the Spaniards to arms with the first streak of dawn; and Pizarro,
+briefly acquainting them with the plan of the assault, made the
+necessary dispositions.
+
+The plaza was defended on its three sides by low ranges of buildings,
+consisting of spacious halls with wide doors or vomitories opening into
+the square. In these halls he stationed his cavalry in two divisions,
+one under his brother Hernando, the other under De Soto. The infantry he
+placed in another of the buildings, reserving twenty chosen men to act
+with himself as occasion might require. Pedro de Candia, with a few
+soldiers and the artillery, comprehending under this imposing name two
+small pieces of ordnance called falconets, he established in the
+fortress. All received orders to wait at their posts till the arrival of
+the Inca. After his entrance into the great square, they were still to
+remain under cover, withdrawn from observation, till the signal was
+given by the discharge of a gun, when they were to cry their war-cries,
+to rush out in a body from their covert, and, putting the Peruvians to
+the sword, bear off the person of the Inca. The arrangements of the
+immense halls, opening on a level with the plaza, seemed to be contrived
+on purpose for a _coup de théâtre_. Pizarro particularly inculcated
+order and implicit obedience, that in the hurry of the moment there
+should be no confusion. Everything depended on their acting with
+concert, coolness, and celerity.
+
+The chief next saw that their arms were in good order, and that the
+breastplates of their horses were garnished with bells, to add by their
+noise to the consternation of the Indians. Refreshments were also
+liberally provided, that the troops should be in condition for the
+conflict. These arrangements being completed, mass was performed with
+great solemnity by the ecclesiastics who attended the expedition; the
+God of battles was invoked to spread his shield over the soldiers who
+were fighting to extend the empire of the cross; and all joined with
+enthusiasm in the chant, "_Exsurge, Domine_" ("Rise, O Lord! and judge
+thine own cause"). One might have supposed them a company of martyrs
+about to lay down their lives in defence of their faith, instead of a
+licentious band of adventurers, meditating one of the most atrocious
+acts of perfidy on the record of history; yet, whatever were the vices
+of the Castilian cavalier, hypocrisy was not among the number. He felt
+that he was battling for the Cross, and under this conviction, exalted
+as it was at such a moment as this into the predominant impulse, he was
+blind to the baser motives which mingled with the enterprise. With
+feelings thus kindled to a flame of religious ardor, the soldiers of
+Pizarro looked forward with renovated spirits to the coming conflict;
+and the chieftain saw with satisfaction that in the hour of trial his
+men would be true to their leader and themselves.
+
+It was late in the day before any movement was visible in the Peruvian
+camp, where much preparation was making to approach the Christian
+quarters with due state and ceremony. A message was received from
+Atahualpa, informing the Spanish commander that he should come with his
+warriors fully armed, in the same manner as the Spaniards had come to
+his quarters the night preceding. This was not an agreeable intimation
+to Pizarro, though he had no reason, probably, to expect the contrary.
+But to object might imply distrust, or perhaps disclose, in some
+measure, his own designs. He expressed his satisfaction, therefore, at
+the intelligence, assuring the Inca that, come as he would, he would be
+received by him as a friend and brother.
+
+It was noon before the Indian procession was on its march, when it was
+seen occupying the great causeway for a long extent. In front came a
+large body of attendants, whose office seemed to be to sweep away every
+particle of rubbish from the road. High above the crowd appeared the
+Inca, borne on the shoulders of his principal nobles, while others of
+the same rank marched by the sides of his litter, displaying such a
+dazzling show of ornaments on their persons that, in the language of one
+of the conquerors, "they blazed like the sun." But the greater part of
+the Inca's forces mustered along the fields that lined the road, and
+were spread over the broad meadows as far as the eye could reach.
+
+When the royal procession had arrived within half a mile of the city, it
+came to a halt; and Pizarro saw, with surprise, that Atahualpa was
+preparing to pitch his tents as if to encamp there. A messenger soon
+after arrived, informing the Spaniards that the Inca would occupy his
+present station the ensuing night and enter the city on the following
+morning.
+
+This intelligence greatly disturbed Pizarro, who had shared in the
+general impatience of his men at the tardy movements of the Peruvians.
+The troops had been under arms since daylight, the cavalry mounted, and
+the infantry at their post, waiting in silence the coming of the Inca. A
+profound stillness reigned throughout the town, broken only at intervals
+by the cry of the sentinel from the summit of the fortress, as he
+proclaimed the movements of the Indian army. Nothing, Pizarro well knew,
+was so trying to the soldiers as prolonged suspense in a critical
+situation like the present; and he feared lest his ardor might
+evaporate, and be succeeded by that nervous feeling natural to the
+bravest soul at such a crisis, and which, if not fear, is near akin to
+it. He returned an answer, therefore, to Atahualpa, deprecating his
+change of purpose, and adding that he had provided everything for his
+entertainment, and expected him that night to sup with him.
+
+This message turned the Inca from his purpose; and, striking his tents
+again, he resumed his march, first advising the general that he should
+leave the greater part of his warriors behind, and enter the place with
+only a few of them, and without arms, as he preferred to pass the night
+at Cajamarca. At the same time he ordered accommodations to be provided
+for himself and his retinue in one of the large stone buildings, called,
+from a serpent sculptured on the walls, the "House of the Serpent". No
+tidings could have been more grateful to the Spaniards. It seemed as if
+the Indian monarch was eager to rush into the snare that had been spread
+for him! The fanatical cavalier could not fail to discern in it the
+immediate finger of Providence.
+
+It is difficult to account for this wavering conduct of Atahualpa, so
+different from the bold and decided character which history ascribes to
+him. There is no doubt that he made his visit to the white men in
+perfect good faith, though Pizarro was probably right in conjecturing
+that this amiable disposition stood on a very precarious footing. There
+is as little reason to suppose that he distrusted the sincerity of the
+strangers, or he would not thus unnecessarily have proposed to visit
+them unarmed. His original purpose of coming with all his force was
+doubtless to display his royal state, and perhaps, also, to show greater
+respect for the Spaniards; but when he consented to accept their
+hospitality and pass the night in their quarters, he was willing to
+dispense with a great part of his armed soldiery, and visit them in a
+manner that implied entire confidence in their good faith. He was too
+absolute in his own empire easily to suspect; and he probably could not
+comprehend the audacity with which a few men, like those now assembled
+in Cajamarca, meditated an assault on a powerful monarch in the midst of
+his victorious army. He did not know the character of the Spaniard.
+
+It was not long before sunset when the van of the royal procession
+entered the gates of the city. First came some hundreds of the menials,
+employed to clear the path from every obstacle, and singing songs of
+triumph as they came, "which, in our ears," says one of the conquerors,
+"sounded like the songs of hell!" Then followed other bodies of
+different ranks and dressed in different liveries. Some wore a showy
+stuff, checkered white and red, like the squares of a chess-board.
+Others were clad in pure white, bearing hammers or maces of silver or
+copper; and the guards, together with those in immediate attendance on
+the Prince, were distinguished by a rich azure livery, and a profusion
+of gay ornaments, while the large pendants attached to the ears
+indicated the Peruvian noble.
+
+Elevated high above his vassals came the Inca Atahualpa, borne on a
+sedan or open litter, on which was a sort of throne made of massive gold
+of inestimable value. The palanquin was lined with the richly colored
+plumes of tropical birds, and studded with shining plates of gold and
+silver. The monarch's attire was much richer than on the preceding
+evening. Round his neck was suspended a collar of emeralds of uncommon
+size and brilliancy. His short hair was decorated with golden ornaments,
+and the imperial _borla_ encircled his temples. The bearing of the Inca
+was sedate and dignified; and from his lofty station he looked down on
+the multitudes below with an air of composure, like one accustomed to
+command.
+
+As the leading lines of the procession entered the great square--larger,
+says an old chronicler, than any square in Spain--they opened to the
+right and left for the royal retinue to pass. Everything was conducted
+with admirable order. The monarch was permitted to traverse the plaza in
+silence, and not a Spaniard was to be seen. When some five or six
+thousand of his people had entered the place, Atahualpa halted, and,
+turning round with an inquiring look, demanded, "Where are the
+strangers?"
+
+At this moment Fray Vicente de Valverde, a Dominican friar, Pizarro's
+chaplain, and afterward Bishop of Cuzco, came forward with his breviary,
+or, as other accounts say, a Bible, in one hand and a crucifix in the
+other, and, approaching the Inca, told him that he came by order of his
+commander to expound to him the doctrines of the true faith, for which
+purpose the Spaniards had come from a great distance to his country. The
+friar then explained, as clearly as he could, the mysterious doctrine of
+the Trinity, and, ascending high in his account, began with the creation
+of man, thence passed to his fall, to his subsequent redemption by Jesus
+Christ, to the Crucifixion, and the Ascension, when the Saviour left the
+apostle Peter as his vicegerent upon earth.
+
+This power had been transmitted to the successors of the apostle, good
+and wise men, who, under the title of popes, held authority over all
+powers and potentates on earth. One of the last of these popes had
+commissioned the Spanish Emperor, the most mighty monarch in the world,
+to conquer and convert the natives in this western hemisphere; and his
+general, Francisco Pizarro, had now come to execute this important
+mission. The friar concluded with beseeching the Peruvian monarch to
+receive him kindly, to abjure the errors of his own faith and embrace
+that of the Christians now proffered to him, the only one by which he
+could hope for salvation; and, furthermore, to acknowledge himself a
+tributary of the emperor Charles, who, in that event, would aid and
+protect him as his loyal vassal.
+
+Whether Atahualpa possessed himself of every link in the curious chain
+of argument by which the monk connected Pizarro with St. Peter, may be
+doubted. It is certain, however, that he must have had very incorrect
+notions of the Trinity if, as Garcilasso states, the interpreter,
+Felipillo, explained it by saying that "the Christians believed in three
+gods and one God, and that made four." But there is no doubt he
+perfectly comprehended that the drift of the discourse was to persuade
+him to resign his sceptre and acknowledge the supremacy of another.
+
+The eyes of the Indian monarch flashed fire and his dark brow grew
+darker as he replied: "I will be no man's tributary! I am greater than
+any prince upon earth. Your Emperor may be a great prince; I do not
+doubt it when I see that he has sent his subjects so far across the
+waters; and I am willing to hold him as a brother. As for the Pope of
+whom you speak, he must be crazy to talk of giving away countries which
+do not belong to him. For my faith," he continued, "I will not change
+it. Your own God, as you say, was put to death by the very men whom he
+created. But mine," he concluded, pointing to his deity--then, alas!
+sinking in glory behind the mountains--"my God still lives in the
+heavens and looks down on his children."
+
+He then demanded of Valverde by what authority he had said these things.
+The friar pointed to the book which he held as his authority. Atahualpa,
+taking it, turned over the pages a moment; then, as the insult he had
+received probably flashed across his mind, he threw it down with
+vehemence and exclaimed: "Tell your comrades that they shall give me an
+account of their doings in my land. I will not go from here till they
+have made me full satisfaction for all the wrongs they have committed."
+
+The friar, greatly scandalized by the indignity offered to the sacred
+volume, stayed only to pick it up, and, hastening to Pizarro, informed
+him of what had been done, exclaiming at the same time: "Do you not see
+that, while we stand here wasting our breath in talking with this dog,
+full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with Indians? Set on at
+once! I absolve you." Pizarro saw that the hour had come. He waved a
+white scarf in the air, the appointed signal. The fatal gun was fired
+from the fortress. Then, springing into the square, the Spanish captain
+and his followers shouted the old war-cry of "St. Iago and at them!"
+
+It was answered by the battle-cry of every Spaniard in the city, as,
+rushing from the avenues of the great halls in which they were
+concealed, they poured into the plaza, horse and foot, each in his own
+dark column, and threw themselves into the midst of the Indian crowd.
+The latter, taken by surprise, stunned by the report of artillery and
+muskets, the echoes of which reverberated like thunder from the
+surrounding buildings, and blinded by the smoke which rolled in
+sulphurous volumes along the square, were seized with a panic. They knew
+not whither to fly for refuge from the coming ruin. Nobles and
+commoners, all were trampled down under the fierce charge of the
+cavalry, who dealt their blows right and left without sparing; while
+their swords, flashing through the thick gloom, carried dismay into the
+hearts of the wretched natives, who now, for the first time, saw the
+horse and his rider in all their terrors.
+
+They made no resistance, as, indeed, they had no weapons with which to
+make it. Every avenue to escape was closed, for the entrance to the
+square was choked up with the dead bodies of men who had perished in
+vain efforts to fly; and such was the agony of the survivors under the
+terrible pressure of their assailants that a large body of Indians, by
+their convulsive struggles, burst through the wall of stone and dried
+clay which formed part of the boundary of the plaza! It fell, leaving an
+opening of more than a hundred paces, through which multitudes now found
+their way into the country, still hotly pursued by the cavalry, who,
+leaping the fallen rubbish, hung on the rear of the fugitives, striking
+them down in all directions.
+
+Meanwhile the fight, or rather massacre, continued hot around the Inca,
+whose person was the great object of the assault. His faithful nobles,
+rallying about him, threw themselves in the way of the assailants, and
+strove, by tearing them from their saddles, or, at least, by offering
+their own bosoms as a mark for their vengeance, to shield their beloved
+master. It is said by some authorities that they carried weapons
+concealed under their clothes. If so, it availed them little, as it is
+not pretended that they used them. But the most timid animal will defend
+itself when at bay. That they did not so in the present instance is
+proof that they had no weapons to use. Yet they still continued to force
+back the cavaliers, clinging to their horses with dying grasp, and, as
+one was cut down, another taking the place of his fallen comrade with a
+loyalty truly affecting.
+
+The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects
+falling round him without hardly comprehending his situation. The litter
+on which he rode heaved to and fro as the mighty press swayed backward
+and forward; and he gazed on the overwhelming ruin, like some forlorn
+mariner, who, tossed about in his bark by the furious elements, sees the
+lightning's flash and hears the thunder bursting around him, with the
+consciousness that he can do nothing to avert his fate. At length, weary
+with the work of destruction, the Spaniards, as the shades of evening
+grew deeper, felt afraid that the royal prize might, after all, elude
+them; and some of the cavaliers made a desperate effort to end the
+affray at once by taking Atahualpa's life. But Pizarro, who was nearest
+his person, called out with stentorian voice, "Let no one who values his
+life strike at the Inca"; and, stretching out his arm to shield him,
+received a wound on the hand from one of his own men--the only wound
+received by a Spaniard in the action.
+
+The struggle now became fiercer than ever round the royal litter. It
+reeled more and more, and at length, several of the nobles who supported
+it having been slain, it was overturned, and the Indian prince would
+have come with violence to the ground, had not his fall been broken by
+the efforts of Pizarro and some other of the cavaliers, who caught him
+in their arms. The imperial borla was instantly snatched from his
+temples by a soldier named Estete, and the unhappy monarch, strongly
+secured, was removed to a neighboring building, where he was carefully
+guarded.
+
+All attempt at resistance now ceased. The fate of the Inca soon spread
+over town and country. The charm which might have held the Peruvians
+together was dissolved. Every man thought only of his own safety. Even
+the soldiery encamped on the adjacent fields took alarm, and, learning
+the fatal tidings, were seen flying in every direction before their
+pursuers, who, in the heat of triumph, showed no touch of mercy. At
+length night, more pitiful than man, threw her friendly mantle over the
+fugitives, and the scattered troops of Pizarro rallied once more to the
+sound of the trumpet in the bloody square of Cajamarca.
+
+
+
+
+CALVIN IS DRIVEN FROM PARIS
+
+HE MAKES GENEVA THE STRONGHOLD OF PROTESTANTISM
+
+A.D. 1533
+
+A. M. FAIRBAIRN
+
+JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+     Among what may be called the second generation of Protestant
+     reformers, the great leader was John Calvin. By his
+     writings, and by his directive and administrative work, he
+     exerted a strong influence upon the reformed churches in his
+     own day and upon the theology and polity of later times. He
+     was born in France in 1509, and while still in early
+     manhood, having become familiar with classical learning,
+     with law, and especially with theology, he ardently embraced
+     the Protestant faith and began to preach the reformed
+     doctrines.
+
+     Calvin spent some time in Paris, then a centre of the "New
+     Learning" and of religious ferment, and there he felt the
+     effects of raging persecution. The publication of his great
+     work, the _Institutes of the Christian Religion_, marked an
+     epoch in the history of Protestantism. Though differing on
+     certain points from the teachings of Luther, it was a
+     powerful exposition of the Protestant faith as Calvin
+     understood it, severely logical in form, and especially
+     distinguished by its stern doctrines relating to divine
+     sovereignty.
+
+     When in 1536 Calvin went to live in Geneva, it was already a
+     Protestant city. He became virtually its ruler and made it a
+     kind of theocracy, or rather a "religious republic," which
+     he administered with vigorous laws enforced with the
+     greatest strictness. Zealous Protestants from many countries
+     gathered at Geneva, and from there the influence of Calvin,
+     somewhat modified by that of his Swiss predecessor Zwingli,
+     spread rapidly into France, England, Scotland, and Germany.
+     At the time of Calvin's death (1564) there were three types
+     of Protestantism established in the world--his own, and
+     those of Luther and Zwingli. In Great Britain, and afterward
+     in America, the Calvinistic type came to play a most
+     important part in religious and national development.
+
+     Two estimates of Calvin, the first from a Protestant point
+     of view, the second that of a Roman Catholic writer, are
+     here presented.
+
+
+A. M. FAIRBAIRN
+
+In 1528 Calvin's father, perhaps illuminated by the disputes in his
+cathedral chapter, discovered that the law was a surer road to wealth
+and honor than the church, and decided that his son should leave
+theology for jurisprudence. The son, nothing loath, obeyed, and left
+Paris for Orleans, possibly, as he descended the steps of the Collège de
+Montaigu, brushing shoulders with a Spanish freshman named Ignatius
+Loyola. In Orleans Calvin studied law under Pierre de l'Estoile, who is
+described as _jurisconsultorum Gallorum facile princeps_, and as
+eclipsing in classical knowledge Reuchlin, Aleander, and Erasmus; and
+Greek under Wolmar, in whose house he met for the first time Theodore
+Beza, then a boy about ten years of age.
+
+After a year in Orleans he went to Bourges, attracted by the fame of the
+Italian jurist Alciati, whose ungainliness of body and speech and vanity
+of mind his students loved to satirize and even by occasional rebellion
+to chasten. In 1531 Gérard Calvin died and his son, in 1532, published
+his first work, a commentary on Seneca's _de Clementia_. His purpose has
+been construed by the light of his late career; and some have seen in
+the book a veiled defence of the Huguenot martyrs, others a cryptic
+censure of Francis I, and yet others a prophetic dissociation of himself
+from Stoicism. But there is no mystery in the matter; the work is that
+of a scholar who has no special interest in either theology or the
+Bible. This may be statistically illustrated: Calvin cites twenty-two
+Greek authors and fifty-five Latin, the quotations being most abundant
+and from many books; but in his whole treatise there are only three
+Biblical texts expressly cited, and those from the Vulgate.
+
+The man is cultivated and learned, writes elegant Latin, is a good judge
+of Latinity, criticises like any modern the mind and style, the
+knowledge and philosophy, the manner, the purpose, and the ethical ideas
+of Seneca; but the passion for religion has not as yet penetrated as it
+did later into his very bones. Erasmus is in Calvin's eyes the ornament
+of letters, though his large edition of Seneca is not all it ought to
+have been; but even Erasmus could not at twenty-three have produced a
+work so finished in its scholarship, so real in its learning, or so wide
+in its outlook.
+
+The events of the next few months are obscure, but we know enough to see
+how forces, internal and external, were working toward change. In the
+second half of 1532 and the earlier half of 1533 Calvin was in Orleans,
+studying, teaching, practising the law, and acting in the university as
+proctor for the Picard nation; then he went to Noyon, and in October he
+was once more in Paris. The capital was agitated; Francis was absent,
+and his sister, Margaret of Navarre, held her court there, favoring the
+new doctrines, encouraging the preachers, the chief among them being her
+own almoner, Gérard Roussel.
+
+Two letters of Calvin to Francis Daniel belong to this date and place;
+and in them we find a changed note. One speaks of "the troublous times,"
+and the other narrates two events: first, it describes a play "pungent
+with gall and vinegar," which the students had performed in the College
+of Navarre to satirize the Queen; and secondly, the action of certain
+factious theologians who had prohibited Margaret's _Mirror of a Sinful
+Soul_. She had complained to the King, and he had intervened. The matter
+came before the university, and Nicolas Cop, the rector, had spoken
+strongly against the arrogant doctors and in defence of the Queen,
+"mother of all the virtues and of all good learning." Le Clerc, a parish
+priest, the author of the mischief, defended his performance as a task
+to which he had been formally appointed, praising the King, the Queen as
+woman and as author, contrasting her book with "such an obscene
+production" as _Pantagruel_, and finally saying that the book had been
+published without the approval of the faculty and was set aside only as
+"liable to suspicion."
+
+Two or three days later, on November 1, 1533, came the famous rectorial
+address which Calvin wrote, and Cop revised and delivered, and which
+shows how far the humanist had travelled since April 4, 1532, the date
+of the _de Clementia_. He is now alive to the religious question, though
+he has not carried it to its logical and practical conclusion. Two fresh
+influences have evidently come into his life, the New Testament of
+Erasmus and certain sermons by Luther. The exordium of the address
+reproduces, almost literally, some sentences from Erasmus' _Paraclesis_,
+including those which unfold his idea of the _philosophia Christiana_;
+while the body of it repeats Luther's exposition of the beatitudes and
+his distinction between law and gospel, with the involved doctrines of
+grace and faith. Yet "_Ave gratia plena_" is retained in the exordium;
+and at the end the peace-makers are praised, who follow the example of
+Christ and contend not with the sword, but with the word of truth.
+
+This address enables us to seize Calvin in the very act and article of
+change; he has come under a double influence. Erasmus has compelled him
+to compare the ideal of Christ with the church of his own day; and
+Luther has given him a notion of grace which has convinced his reason
+and taken possession of his imagination. He has thus ceased to be a
+humanist and a papist, but has not yet become a reformer. And a reformer
+was precisely what his conscience, his country, and his reason compelled
+him to become. Francis was flagrantly immoral, but a fanatic in
+religion; and mercy was not a virtue congenial to either church or
+state. Calvin had seen the Protestants from within; he knew their
+honesty, their honor, the purity of their motives, and the integrity of
+their lives; and he judged, as a jurist would, that a man who had all
+the virtues of citizenship ought not to be oppressed and treated as
+unfit for civil office or even as a criminal by the state. This is no
+conjecture, for it is confirmed by the testimony he bears to the
+influence exercised over him by the martyred Étienne de la Forge. He
+thus saw that a changed mind meant a changed religion, and a changed
+religion a change of abode. Cop had to flee from Paris, and so had
+Calvin.
+
+In the May of 1534 he went to Noyon, laid down his offices, was
+imprisoned, liberated, and while there he seems to have finally
+renounced Catholicism. But he feared the forces of disorder which lurked
+in Protestantism, and which seemed embodied in the Anabaptists. Hence at
+Orleans he composed a treatise against one of their favorite beliefs,
+the sleep of the soul between death and judgment. Conscious personal
+being was in itself too precious, and in the sight of God too sacred, to
+be allowed to suffer even a temporary lapse. But to serve the cause he
+loved was impossible with the stake waiting for him, its fires scorching
+his face, and kindly friends endangered by his presence. And so, in the
+winter of 1534, he retired from France and settled at Basel.
+
+Now a city where Protestantism reigned, where learning flourished, and
+where men so unlike as Erasmus and Farel--the fervid preacher of
+reform--could do their work unhindered, was certain to make a deep
+impression on a fugitive harassed and expatriated on account of
+religion; and the impression it made can be read in the _Christianæ
+Religionis Institutio_, and especially in the prefatory _Letter to
+Francis I_. The _Institutio_ is Calvin's positive interpretation of the
+Christian religion: the _Letter_ is learned, eloquent, elegant,
+dignified, the address of a subject to his sovereign, yet of a subject
+who knows that his place in the state is as legal, though not as
+authoritative, as the sovereign's. It throbs with a noble indignation
+against injustice, and with a noble enthusiasm for freedom and truth. It
+is one of the great epistles of the world, a splendid apology for the
+oppressed and arraignment of the oppressors. It does not implore
+toleration as a concession, but claims freedom as a right.
+
+Its author is a young man of but twenty-six, yet he speaks with the
+gravity of age. He tells the King that his first duty is to be just;
+that to punish unheard is but to inflict violence and perpetrate fraud.
+Those for whom he speaks are, though simple and godly men, yet charged
+with crimes that, were they true, ought to condemn them to a thousand
+fires and gibbets. These charges the King is bound to investigate, for
+he is a minister of God, and if he fails to serve the God whose minister
+he is, then he is a robber and no king.
+
+Then he asks, "Who are our accusers?" and he turns on the priests like a
+new Erasmus, who does not, like the old, delight in satire for its own
+sake or in a literature which scourges men by holding up the mirror to
+vice, but who feels the sublimity of virtue so deeply that witticisms at
+the expense of vice are abhorrent to him. He takes up the charges in
+detail: it is said that the doctrine is new, doubtful, and uncertain,
+unconfirmed by miracles, opposed to the fathers and ancient custom,
+schismatical and productive of schism, and that its fruits are sects,
+seditions, license. On no point is he so emphatic as the repudiation of
+the personal charges: the people he pleads for have never raised their
+voice in faction or sought to subvert law and order; they fear God
+sincerely and worship him in truth, praying even in exile for the royal
+person and house.
+
+The book which this address to the King introduces is a sketch or
+programme of reform in religion. The first edition of the _Institutio_
+is distinguished from all later editions by the emphasis it lays, not on
+dogma, but on morals, on worship, and on polity. Calvin conceives the
+Gospel as a new law which ought to be embodied in a new life, individual
+and social. What came later to be known as Calvinism may be stated in an
+occasional sentence or implied in a paragraph, but it is not the
+substance or determinative idea of the book. The problem discussed has
+been set by the studies and the experience of the author; he has read
+the New Testament as a humanist learned in the law, and he has been
+startled by the contrast between its ideal and the reality which
+confronts him. And he proceeds in a thoroughly juridical fashion, just
+as Tertullian before him, and as Grotius and Selden after him. Without a
+document he can decide nothing; he needs a written law or actual custom;
+and his book falls into divisions which these suggest.
+
+Hence his first chapter is concerned with duty or conduct as prescribed
+by the Ten Commandments; his second with faith as contained in the
+apostolic symbol; his third with prayer as fixed by the words of Christ;
+his fourth with the sacrament as given in the Scriptures; his fifth with
+the false sacraments as defined by tradition and enforced by Catholic
+custom; and his sixth with Christian liberty or the relation of the
+ecclesiastical and civil authorities. But though the book is, as
+compared with what it became later, limited in scope and contents--the
+last edition which left the author's hand in 1559 had grown from a work
+in six chapters to one in four books and eighty chapters--yet its
+constructive power, its critical force, its large outlook impress the
+student. We have here none of Luther's scholasticism, or of
+Melanchthon's deft manipulation of incompatible elements; but we have
+the first thoughts on religion of a mind trained by ancient literature
+to the criticism of life.
+
+The _Institutio_ bears the date "_Mense Martio; Anno_ 1536"; but Calvin,
+without waiting till his book was on the market, made a hurried journey
+to Ferrara, whose Duchess, Renée, a daughter of Louis XII, stood in
+active sympathy with the reformers. The reasons for this brief visit are
+very obscure; but it may have been undertaken in the hope of mitigating,
+by the help of Renée, the severity of the persecutions in France. On his
+return Calvin ventured, tradition says, to Noyon, probably for the sake
+of family affairs; but he certainly reached Paris; and, while in the
+second half of July making his way into Germany, he arrived at Geneva.
+An old friend, possibly Louis du Tillet, discovered him, and told Farel;
+and Farel, in sore straits for a helper, besought him, and indeed in the
+name of the Almighty commanded him, to stay. Calvin was reluctant, for
+he was reserved and shy, and conceived his vocation to be the scholar's
+rather than the preacher's; but the entreaties of Farel, half tearful,
+half minatory, prevailed. And thus Calvin's connection with Geneva
+began.
+
+Calvin's life from this point onward falls into three parts: his first
+stay in Geneva from July, 1536, to March, 1538; his residence in
+Strasburg from September, 1538, to September, 1541; and his second stay
+in Geneva from the last date till his death, May 27, 1564. In the first
+period, he, in company with Farel, made an attempt to organize the
+church and reform the mind and manners of Geneva, and failed; his exile,
+formally voted by the council, was the penalty of his failure. In the
+second period he was professor of theology and French preacher at
+Strasburg, a trusted divine and adviser, a delegate to the Protestant
+churches of Germany, which he learned to know better, making the
+acquaintance of Melanchthon, and becoming more appreciative of Luther.
+
+At Strasburg some of his best literary work was done--his _Letter to
+Cardinal Sadoleto_ (in its way his most perfect production), his
+_Commentary on the Romans_, a _Treatise on the Lord's Supper_, the
+second Latin and the first French edition of his _Institutio_. In the
+third period he introduced and completed his legislation at Geneva,
+taught, preached, and published there, watched the churches everywhere,
+and conducted the most extensive correspondence of his day. In these
+twenty-eight years he did a work which changed the face of Christendom.
+
+We come then to Calvin's legislative achievements as his main title to
+name and fame. But two points must here be noted. In the first place,
+while his theology was less original and effective than his legislation
+or polity, yet he so construed the former as to make the latter its
+logical and indeed inevitable outcome. The polity was a deduction from
+the theology, which may be defined as a science of the divine will as a
+moral will, aiming at the complete moralization of man, whether as a
+unit or as a society. The two were thus so organically connected that
+each lent strength to the other, the system to the church and the church
+to the system, while other and more potently reasonable theologies
+either died or lived a feeble and struggling life.
+
+Secondly, the legislation was made possible and practicable by Geneva,
+probably the only place in Europe where it could have been enacted and
+enforced. We have learned enough concerning Genevan history and
+institutions to understand why this should have been the case. The city
+was small, free, homogeneous, distinguished by a strong local
+patriotism, a stalwart communal life. In obedience to these instincts it
+had just emancipated itself from the ecclesiastical Prince and its
+ancient religious system; and the change thus accomplished was, though
+disguised in a religious habit, yet essentially political. For the
+council which abolished the bishop had made itself heir to his faculties
+and functions; it could only dismiss him as civil lord by dismissing him
+as the ecclesiastical head of Geneva, and in so doing it assumed the
+right to succeed as well as to supersede him in both capacities.
+
+This, however, involved a notable inversion of old ideas; before the
+change the ecclesiastical authority had been civil, but because of the
+change the civil authority became ecclesiastical. If theocracy means the
+rule of the church or the sovereignty of the clergy in the state, then
+the ancient constitution of Geneva was theocratic; if democracy means
+the sovereignty of the people in church as well as in state, then the
+change had made it democratic. And it was just after the change had been
+effected that Calvin's connection with the city began.
+
+Its chief pastor had persuaded him to stay as a colleague, and the
+council appointed him professor and preacher. He was young, exactly
+twenty-seven years of age, full of high ideals, but inexperienced,
+unacquainted with men, without any knowledge of Geneva and the state of
+things there. He could therefore make no terms, could only stay to do
+his duty. What that duty was soon became apparent. Geneva had not become
+any more moral in character because it had changed its mind in religion.
+It had two months before Calvin's arrival sworn to live according to the
+holy evangelical law and Word of God; but it did not seem to understand
+its own oath. And the man whom his intellectual sincerity and moral
+integrity had driven out of Catholicism could not hold office in any
+church which made light of conviction and conduct; and so he at once set
+himself to organize a church that should be efficaciously moral.
+
+He built on the ancient Genevan idea, that the city is a church; only he
+wished to make the church to be primary and real. The theocracy, which
+had been construed as the reign of the clergy, he would interpret as
+ideal and realize as a reign of God. The citizens, who had assumed
+control of their own spiritual destinies and ecclesiastical affairs, he
+wanted to instruct in their responsibilities and discipline into
+obedience. And he would do it in the way of a jurist who believes in the
+harmony of law and custom; he would by positive enactments train the
+city, which conceived itself to be a church, to be and behave as if it
+were indeed a church, living according to the gospel which it had sworn
+to obey.
+
+Thus a confession of faith was drawn up which the people were to adopt
+as their own, and so attain clarity and concordance of mind concerning
+God and his Word; and a catechism was composed which was to be made the
+basis of religious instruction in both the school and the family, for
+the citizen as well as the child. Worship was to be carefully regulated,
+psalm-books prepared, psalm-singing cultivated; the preacher was to
+interpret the Word, and the pastor to supervise the flock.
+
+The Lord's Supper was to be celebrated monthly, but only those who were
+morally fit or worthy were to be allowed to communicate. The church, in
+order that it might fulfil its functions and guard the holy table, must
+have the right of excommunication. It was not enough that a man should
+be a citizen or a councillor to be admitted to the Lord's Supper; his
+mind must be Christian and his conduct Christlike. Without faith the
+rite was profaned, the presence of Christ was not realized. Moreover,
+since matrimonial cases were many and infelicity sprang both from
+differences of faith and impurity of conduct, a board, composed partly
+of magistrates and partly of ministers, was to be appointed to deal with
+them; and it was to have the power to exclude from the church those who
+either did not believe its doctrines or did not obey its commandments.
+
+These were drastic proposals to be made to a city which had just
+dismissed its bishop, attained political freedom, and proclaimed a
+reformation of religion; and Calvin was not the man to leave them
+inoperative. A card-player was pilloried; a tire-woman, a mother, and
+two bridesmaids were arrested because they had adorned the bride too
+gayly; an adulterer was driven with the partner of his guilt through the
+streets by the common hangman, and then banished. These things taxed the
+temper of the city sorely; it was not unfamiliar with legislation of the
+kind, but it had not been accustomed to see it enforced. Hence, men who
+came to be known as "libertines," though they were both patriotic and
+moral and only craved freedom, rose and said: "This is an intolerable
+tyranny; we will not allow any man to be lord over our consciences." And
+about the same time Calvin's orthodoxy was challenged. Two Anabaptists
+arrived and demanded liberty to prophesy; and Peter Caroli charged him
+with heresy as to the Trinity. He would not use the Athanasian creed;
+and he defended himself by reasons that the scholar who knows its
+history will respect. The end soon came. When he heard that he had been
+sentenced to banishment he said, "If I had served men this would have
+been a poor reward, but I have served Him who never fails to perform
+what he has promised."
+
+In 1541 Geneva recalled Calvin, and he obeyed as one who goes to fulfil
+an imperative but unwelcome duty. There is nothing more pathetic in the
+literature of the period than his hesitancies and fears. He tells Farel
+that he would rather die a hundred times than again take up that cross
+"_in qua millies quotidie pereundum esset_." And he writes to Viret that
+it were better to perish once for all than "_in illa carnificina iterum
+torqueri_." But he loved Geneva, and it was in evil case. Rome was
+plotting to reclaim it; Savoy was watching her opportunity, the patriots
+feared to go forward, and even the timid dared not go back. So the
+necessities of the city, divided between its factions and its foes,
+constituted an appeal which Calvin could not resist; but he did not
+yield unconditionally. He went back as the legislator who was to frame
+laws for its church; and he so adapted them to the civil constitution
+and the constitution to them, that he raised the little city of Geneva
+to be the Protestant Rome.
+
+The _Ordonnances ecclésiastiques_ may be described as Calvin's programme
+of Genevan reform, or his method for applying to the local and external
+church the government which our Lord had instituted and the Apostles had
+realized. These ordinances expressed his historical sense and gratified
+his religious temper, while adapting the church to the city, so that the
+city might become a better church. To explain in detail how he proposed
+to do this is impossible within our limits; and we shall therefore
+confine ourselves to the most important of the factors he created, the
+ministry.
+
+The ministerial ideal embodied in these ecclesiastical ordinances may be
+said to have had certain indirect but international results; it
+compelled Calvin to develop his system of education; it supplied the
+reformed church, especially in France, with the men which it needed to
+fight its battles and to form the iron in its blood; it presented the
+reformed church everywhere with an intellectual and educational ideal,
+which must be realized if its work was to be done; and it created the
+modern preacher, defining the sphere of his activity and setting up for
+his imitation a noble and lofty example.
+
+Calvin soon found that the reformed faith could live in a democratic
+city only by an enlightened pulpit speaking to enlightened citizens, and
+that an educated ministry was helpless without an educated people. His
+method for creating both entitles him to rank among the foremost makers
+of modern education. As a humanist he believed in the classical
+languages and literatures--there is a tradition which says that he read
+through Cicero once a year--and so "he built his system on the solid
+rock of Græco-Roman antiquity." Yet he did not neglect religion; he so
+trained the boys of Geneva through his catechism that each was said to
+be able to give a reason for his faith "like a doctor of the Sorbonne."
+He believed in the unity of knowledge and the community of learning,
+placing the magistrate and the minister, the citizen and the pastor, in
+the hands of the same teacher, and binding the school and the university
+together. The boy learned in the one and the man studied in the other,
+but the school was the way to the university, the university was the
+goal of the school.
+
+In nothing does the pedagogic genius of Calvin more appear than in his
+fine jealousy as to the character and competence whether of masters or
+professors, and in his unwearied quest after qualified men. His letters
+teem with references to the men in various lands and many universities
+whom he was seeking to bring to Geneva. The first rector, Antoine
+Saunier, was a notable man; and he never rested till he had secured his
+dear old teacher, Mathurin Cordier. Castellio was a schoolmaster;
+Theodore Beza was head of college and academy, or school and university,
+together; and Calvin himself was a professor of theology. The success of
+the college was great; the success of the academy was greater. Men came
+from all quarters--English, Italians, Spanish, Germans, Russians,
+ministers, jurists, old men, young men, all with the passion to learn in
+their blood--to jostle each other among the thousand hearers who met to
+listen to the great reformer. But France was the main feeder of the
+academy; Frenchmen filled its chairs, occupied its benches, learned in
+it the courage to live and the will to die. From Geneva books poured
+into France; and the French church was ever appealing for ministers, yet
+never appealed in vain.
+
+Within eleven years, 1555-1566--Calvin died in 1564--it is known that
+Geneva sent one hundred sixty-one pastors into France; how many more may
+have gone unrecorded we cannot tell. And they were learned men,
+strenuous, fearless, praised by a French bishop as modest, grave,
+saintly, with the name of Jesus Christ ever on their lips. Charles IX
+implored the magistrates of Geneva to stop the supply and withdraw the
+men already sent; but the magistrates replied that the preachers had
+been sent not by them, but by their ministers, who believed that the
+sovereign duty of all princes and kings was to do homage to Him who had
+given to them their dominion. It was small wonder that the Venetian
+Suriano should describe Geneva as "the mine whence came the ore of
+heresy"; or that the Protestants should gather courage as they heard the
+men from Geneva sing psalms in the face of torture and death.
+
+It was indeed a very different France which the eyes of the dying Calvin
+saw from that which the young man had seen thirty years before.
+Religious hate was even more bitter and vindictive; war had come and
+made persecution more ferocious; but the Huguenots had grown numerous,
+potent, respected, feared, and disputed with Catholicism the supremacy
+of the kingdom. And Calvin had done it, not by arms nor by threats, nor
+by encouragement of sedition or insurrection--to such action he was ever
+resolutely opposed--but by the agency of the men whom he formed in
+Geneva, and by their persuasive speech. The reformed minister was
+essentially a preacher, intellectual, exegetical, argumentative,
+seriously concerned with the subjects that most appealed to the
+serious-minded.
+
+Modern oratory may be said to begin with him, and indeed to be his
+creation. He helped to make the vernacular tongues of Western Europe
+literary. He accustomed the people to hear the gravest and most sacred
+themes discussed in the language which they knew; and the themes
+ennobled the language, the language was never allowed to degrade the
+themes. And there was no tongue and no people that he influenced more
+than the French. Calvin made Bossuet and Massillon possible; as a
+preacher he found his successor in Bourdaloue; and a literary critic who
+does not love him has expressed a doubt as to whether Pascal could be
+more eloquent or was so profound. And the ideal then realized in Geneva
+exercised an influence far beyond France. It extended into Holland,
+which in the strength of the reformed faith resisted Charles V and his
+son, achieved independence, and created the freest and best educated
+state on the continent of Europe.
+
+John Knox breathed for a while the atmosphere of Geneva, was subdued
+into the likeness of the man who had made it, and when he went home he
+copied its education and tried to repeat its reformation. English
+reformers, fleeing from martyrdom, found a refuge within its hospitable
+walls, and, returning to England, attempted to establish a Genevan
+discipline, and failed, but succeeded in forming the Puritan character.
+If the author of the _Ordonnances ecclésiastiques_ accomplished, whether
+directly or indirectly, so much, we need not hesitate to term him a
+notable friend to civilization.
+
+
+JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+When the sword of the law fell upon one of his followers, the voice of
+Luther was magnificent; it exclaimed, in the ears of emperors, kings,
+and dukes, "You have shed the blood of the just," and then the Saxon, in
+honor of the martyr, extemporized a hymn which was chanted in the very
+face of the civil power:
+
+    "In the Low Countries, at Brussels,
+    The Lord his greatness hath displayed,
+    In the death of two of his loved children
+    On whom grand gifts he had bestowed."
+
+Calvin had not the courage to imitate Luther. He has told us that he
+wanted courage; he again repeats it: he says that he, a plebeian,
+trifling as a man, and having but little learning, has nothing in him
+which could deserve celebrity. And yet he essayed a timid protest in
+favor of certain Huguenots who had been burned on the public square.
+"The work," says Prince Masson, "of a double-faced writer, a Catholic in
+his writings and a Lutheran in his bedchamber."
+
+This is his first book. It is entitled _de Clementia_ (or _Treatise on
+Clemency_), and is a paraphrase of some Latin writer of the decline.
+Moreover, this is the first time that a commentator is ignorant of the
+life of him whose work he publishes. Calvin has confounded the two
+Senecas, the father and the son; the rhetorician and the philosopher, of
+both of whom he makes but one literary personage, living the very
+patriarchal life of more than one hundred fifteen years.
+
+We must pardon Varillas for having, with sufficient acrimony, brought
+into relief this mistake of the biographer of Seneca the philosopher,
+and not, like the historians of the Reformation, become vexed at the
+proud tone of the French historian. Had the fault been committed by a
+Catholic, where is the Protestant who would not have done the same thing
+as Varillas?
+
+The literary work which Calvin, in the shape of a commentary, has
+interwoven with the treatise of Seneca is a production not unworthy a
+literator of the revival; it is an amplification, which one would have
+supposed to have been written in the cell of a Benedictine monk, so
+numerous are the citations, so great is the display of erudition, so
+replete is it with the names, Greek and Latin, of poets, historians,
+moralists, rhetoricians, philosophers, and philologists.
+
+Calvin is a coquettish student, who loves to parade his reading and his
+memory. His work is a gallery, open to all the modern and ancient
+glories of literature, whom the commentator calls to his aid, often for
+the elucidation of a doubtful passage. The young rhetorician glorifies
+his country, and when upon his march he encounters some historic name,
+by which his idea can be illustrated, he hastens to proclaim it, with
+all its titles to admiration. He there salutes Budé in magnificent
+terms: "Budé, the glory and pillar of human learning, thanks to whom,
+at this day, France can claim the palm of erudition." The portrait
+which he draws of Seneca is the production of a practised pen: "Seneca,
+whose pure and polished phrase savors, in some sort, of his age; his
+diction florid and elegant; his style, without labor or restraint, moves
+on, free and unembarrassed." It may be seen that the student had the
+honor to study under Mathurin Cordier and to attend the lectures of
+Alciati; but, after all, his book is but a defective allegory; for what
+reader could have divined that the writer designed to represent Francis
+I, under the name of Nero, as addressed by the Cordovan? The treatise
+could produce no sensation, and, like the work of Seneca, must be
+shipwrecked in that sea of the passions which, at the two epochs, raged
+around both writers.
+
+Calvin experienced much trouble in having his Latin commentary printed;
+he was in need of funds, and the revenues of his benefice of Pont
+l'Evêque were insufficient to defray the expense of printing. How could
+he apply to the Mommor family? Moreover, he was in dread that his book
+should prove a failure and thereby injure his budding reputation. All
+these alarms of a maiden author are set forth in various letters which
+he addressed on this subject to the dear friends of his bosom.
+
+"Behold my books of Seneca concerning clemency, printed at my own
+expense and labor! They must now be sold, in order that I may again
+obtain the money which I have expended. I must also watch that my
+reputation does not suffer. You will oblige me, then, by informing me
+how the work has been received, whether with favor or indifference." The
+whole anxiety of the poor author is to lose nothing by the enterprise;
+his purse is empty; it needs replenishing; and he urges the professors
+to give circulation to the treatise; he solicits one of his friends at
+Bourges, a member of the university, to bring it forward in his
+lectures; and appeals to the aid of Daniel, to whom he sent a hundred
+copies. Papire Masson was mistaken: the commentary on clemency did not
+first appear, as he supposes, under the title of _Lucius Calvinus, civis
+Romanus_, but under that of _Calvinus_, a name ever after retained by
+the reformer.
+
+This treatise introduced Calvin to the notice of the learned world:
+Bucer, Capito, Padius, sent congratulations to the writer; Calvin, in
+September, 1532, had sent a copy of his work to Bucer, who was then at
+Strasburg. The person commissioned to present it was a poor young man,
+suspected of Anabaptism, and a refugee from France. Calvin's letter of
+recommendation is replete with tender compassion for the miseries of the
+sinner. "My dear Bucer," he writes, "you will not be deaf to my
+entreaties, you will not disregard my tears; I implore you, to come to
+the aid of the proscribed, be a father to the orphan."
+
+This was sending the sick man to a sad physician. Bucer, by turns
+Catholic, Lutheran, Anabaptist, Zwinglian! Besides, why this proselytism
+of a moral _curé_? The exile was Anabaptist by the same title as Calvin
+was predestinarian, in virtue of a text of Scripture: "Go; whoever shall
+believe and be baptized will be saved." The Anabaptist believed in the
+inefficacy of baptism without faith manifested by an external act; but
+is not Calvin, at this very hour, as much to be pitied as the
+Anabaptist? He also doubted, searched, and interrogated his Bible, and
+imagined that he had caught the meaning of a letter which no
+intelligence before him had been able to seize. And what was this truth,
+the conquest of which infused such fear into his soul that, before he
+could announce it to the world, he sold his charge of Pont l'Evêque and
+even his paternal inheritance?
+
+In the year 1531 John Calvin presented himself before Simon Legendre and
+Peter le Roy, royal notaries at Paris, to invest his brothers with
+powers of attorney to sell what had been left him by his father and
+mother.
+
+"To all to whom these present letters shall come; John de la Barre,
+Chevalier Count d'Estampes, Governor of Paris and chief of the judicial
+tribunal of said city, greeting: We make known that before Simon
+Legendre and Peter le Roy, notaries of our lord the King, at Paris, came
+in person Master John Calvin, licentiate at law, and Anthony Cauvin, his
+brother, clerk, living at Paris, and sons of Gérard Cauvin--while yet
+alive, secretary of M. the Bishop of Noyon--and of Jeanne le Franc, his
+wife; who jointly and severally make, name, ordain, appoint, and
+establish as their general agent and special attorney Master Charles
+Cauvin, their brother, to whom bearing these present letters they grant,
+and by these presents do give, full power and right to sell, concede,
+and alienate, to whatever person or persons the two undivided thirds
+belonging to the aforesaid constituents, coming to them in proper right
+of succession by the demise of the aforesaid deceased Jeanne le Franc,
+their mother; also the fourth undivided part of a piece of meadow,
+containing fourteen acres or thereabouts, situated in the territory of
+Noyon, and pertaining on one part to the wood of Chastelain; on another,
+to the monks and sisters of the Hôtel-Dieu of St. John, at Noyon; on
+another, to the nuns and abbess of the French convent, the Abbey aux
+Bois, and to the chapter of the church of Notre Dame, of the said city,
+and running up to the highway passing from Noyon to Genury; to make sale
+and alienation of the same, for such price and at such costs as the
+aforesaid Master Charles Cauvin, their brother, shall judge for the
+better; to collect the money and give security, with lien upon all their
+future possessions.
+
+"Done, and passed, on Wednesday, the fifteenth day of February, in the
+year 1531."
+
+Some short time after this, Calvin resigned his charge of the Chapel de
+la Gesine to Anthony de la Marlière, _Mediante pretio conventionis_, for
+the sum agreed on, says the act of transfer, and also surrendered his
+benefice of Pont l'Evêque for a similar consideration.
+
+The storm was gathering. Calvin wished to expose to its fury some other
+head than his own, and chose that of Nicolas Cop, rector of the
+Sorbonne, at Paris. Cop was a German of Basel, who was captivated with
+the student because of his ready speech, his airs of virtue, his
+scriptural knowledge, his railleries against the monks, and his ridicule
+of the university. As to the rest, he was a man of a dull, heavy mind,
+understood nothing of theological subjects, and would have been much
+better placed in a refectory than in a learned body; at table than in
+the professor's chair. Cop had to pronounce his usual discourse on All
+Saints' Day, in presence of the Sorbonne and the university. He had
+recourse to Calvin, who set to work and "built him up a discourse," says
+Beza--"an oration quite different from those which were customary." The
+Sorbonne and university did not assist at the discourse, but only some
+Franciscans, who appeared to be scandalized at certain propositions of
+the orator, and among others at one concerning justification by faith
+alone in Christ--an old error, which, for many ages, has been trailed
+along in all the writings of heretics; often dead and resuscitated--and
+which Calvin, in Cop's discourse, dressed out in tinsel in order to give
+it some appearance of novelty. But our Franciscans had sight and hearing
+equally as good; they detected the heresy easily, and denounced to the
+parliament the evil-sounding propositions, which they had taken pains to
+note down in writing. Cop was greatly embarrassed by his new glory; he
+had not expected so much fame. He, however, held up well and convoked
+the university at the Mathurins. The university assembled in a body in
+order to judge the cause. The rector there commenced a discourse, drawn
+up by Calvin, in which he formally denied having preached the
+propositions denounced, with the exception of one only, precisely the
+worst, that concerning justification. Imagine the tumult which the
+orator excited! Scarcely could he make himself heard, and ask mercy. The
+old Sorbonnists shuddered on their benches. The unfortunate Cop would
+have been seized had he not made his escape, to return no more.
+
+The student kept himself concealed at the Collège du Forbet, which was
+already surrounded by a body of archers headed by John Morin. Calvin was
+warned of their approach. "He escaped through a window, concealed
+himself in the suburb St. Victor, at the house of a vine-dresser,
+changed his clothes, assumed the long gown of the vine-dresser, and,
+placing a wallet of white linen and a rake on his shoulders, he took the
+road to Noyon." A canon of that city, who was on his way to Paris, met
+the _curé_ of Pont l'Evêque and recognized him.
+
+"Where are you going, Master John," he demanded, "in this fine
+disguise?"
+
+"Where God shall please," answered Calvin, who then began to explain the
+motive and reasons of his disguise. "And would you not do better to
+return to Noyon and to God?" asked the canon, looking at him sadly.
+Calvin was a moment silent, then, taking the priest's hand--"Thank you,"
+said he, "but it is too late."
+
+During this colloquy the lieutenant was searching Calvin's papers, and
+secured those which might have compromised the friends of the fugitive.
+
+Calvin found a refuge with the Queen of Navarre, who was fortunate
+enough to reconcile her _protégé_ with the court and the university. The
+person whom she employed to effect this was an adroit man who had
+succeeded in deceiving the government. Francis I based his glory upon
+the patronage and encouragement which he accorded to learning, and
+Calvin, as a man of letters, merited consideration. The King needed some
+forgiveness for serious political faults, and, with reason, he believed
+that the humanists would redeem his character before the people. He was
+at once the protector and the slave of the _literati_.
+
+At that period the little court of Nérac was the asylum of writers, who,
+like Desperriers, there prepared their _Cymbalum Mundi_; of gallant
+ladies, who composed love-tales, of which they were often the heroines
+themselves; of poets, who extemporized odes after Beza's model; of
+clerics and other gentry of the Church, who entertained packs of
+hunting-dogs, and courtesans; of Italian play-actors, who, in the
+Queen's theatre, presented comedies taken from the New Testament, in
+which Jesus was made to utter horrible things against monks and nuns; or
+of princes, who, like the Queen's husband, scarcely knew how to read,
+and yet discoursed, like doctors, about doctrine and discipline.
+
+It was against Roussel, the confessor of Margaret, that Calvin, at a
+later date, composed his _Adversus Nicodemitas_. At Nérac he found Le
+Fevre d'Etaples, who had fled the wrath of the Sorbonne, and who
+"regarded the young man with a benignant eye, predicting that he was to
+become the author of the restoration of the Church in France." Le Fevre
+recalls to our mind that priest about whom Mathesius tells us, who said
+to Luther, when sick: "My child, you will not die; God has great designs
+in your regard." As to the rest, James le Fevre d'Etaples was a
+sufficiently charitable and honest man. He died a Catholic, and very
+probably without ever having prophesied in the terms mentioned by Beza.
+
+It does not appear that Margaret enjoined the law of silence upon her
+guest of Noyon, for we find him disseminating his errors in Saintonge,
+where many laborers flocked to hear him and abandoned Catholicism to
+embrace the Reformation. It was while on one of his excursions that the
+missionary encountered Louis du Tillet, clerk of the Parliament of
+Paris and secretary of Du Tillet, Bishop of Meaux. Louis possessed a
+beautiful dwelling at Claix, a sort of Thebais, retired and pleasant,
+where Calvin commenced his most serious work, _Institutes of the
+Christian Religion_. The time he could spare from this literary
+occupation he devoted to preaching in the neighboring cities, and
+especially at Angoulême. A vine, beneath which he loved to recline and
+muse, may still be seen; it was for a long time called "Calvin's vine."
+He was still living on the last bounties of a church which he had
+renounced, and which he called "a stepmother and a prostitute"; and on
+the presents of a queen gallant, whose morals and piety he lauded,
+continuing to assist at the Catholic service, and composing Latin
+orations, which were delivered out of the assembly of the synod, at the
+temple of St. Peter. He left the court of Margaret and reappeared at
+Orleans.
+
+The Reformation in France, as in Germany, wherever it showed itself,
+produced, on all sides, disorder and trouble. In place of a uniform
+symbol, it brought contradictory confessions, which gave rise to
+interminable disputes. In Germany the Lutheran word caused a thousand
+sects to spring up--each of which wished to establish a Christian
+republic on the ruins of Catholicism. Carlstadt, Schwenkfield,
+Oecolampadius, Zwingli, Munzer, Boskold, begotten by Luther, had
+denied their father, and taught heterogeneous dogmas, of which every one
+passed for the production of the Holy Ghost. Luther, who no longer
+concealed himself beneath a monk's robe, but borrowed the ducal sword,
+drove before him all these rebel angels, and, at the gate of Wittenberg,
+stationed an executioner to prohibit their entrance; driven back into
+the provinces, the dissenters appealed to open force. Germany was then
+inundated with the blood of her noble intelligences, who had been born
+for her glory.
+
+Munzer died on the scaffold, and the Anabaptists marched to punishment,
+denying and cursing the Saxon who did violence to their faith.
+Everything was perishing--painting, sculpture, poesy, letters. The
+Reformation imitated Nero, and sang its triumphs amid ruins and blood.
+
+In France it was destined soon to excite similar tempests. It had
+already troubled the Church. It no longer, as before, sheltered itself
+beneath the shades of night to propagate its doctrines. It erected, by
+the side of the Catholic pulpit, another pulpit, from which its dogmas
+were defended by its disciples; it led its partisans at court, among the
+clergy, in the universities and in the parliaments. Calvin's book, _de
+Clementia_, gained him a large number of proselytes: his disciples had
+an austere air, downcast eyes, pale faces, emaciated cheeks--all the
+signs of labor and sufferings. They mingled little with the world,
+avoided female conversation, the court, and shows; the Bible was their
+book of predilection; they spoke, like the Saviour, in apologues. They
+were termed Christians of the primitive Church. To resemble these, they
+only needed the very essence of Christianity; namely, faith, hope, and
+charity.
+
+To be convinced that their symbol was as diversified as their faces, it
+was only necessary to hear them speak; some taught the sleep of the
+soul, after this life, till the day of the last judgment; others, the
+necessity of a second baptism. Among them there were Lutherans, who
+believed in the real presence, and Zwinglians, who rejected it; apostles
+of free-will, and defenders of fatalism; Melanchthonians, who admitted
+an ecclesiastical hierarchy; Carlstadians, who maintained that every
+Christian is a priest; realists, chained to the letter; idealists, who
+bent the letter to the thought; rationalists, who rejected every
+mystery; mystics, who lost themselves in the clouds; and
+Antitrinitarians, who, like Servetus, admitted but two persons in God.
+These doctors all carried with them the same book--the Bible.
+
+Servetus,[43] a Spanish physician, had left his own country, and
+established himself, in 1531, at Hagenau, where he had published
+different treatises against the Trinity. He had disputed at Basel with
+Oecolampadius, some time before this renegade from the Lutheran faith
+"was strangled by the devil," if we are to believe the account given by
+Doctor Martin Luther. Servetus boasted that he triumphed over the
+theologian. Having left Basel in 1532, and crossed the Rhine, he came
+to hurl a solemn defiance at Calvin; the gauntlet was taken up by the
+_curé_ of Pont l'Evêque, the place of combat indicated, the day for the
+tournament named, but at the appointed hour "the heart of this unhappy
+wretch failed," says Beza, "who having agreed to dispute, did not dare
+appear." Calvin, on his part--in his refutations of the errors of
+Servetus, published in 1554--boasts of having in vain offered the
+Spanish physician remedies suitable to cure his malady. Servetus
+pretends that his adversary was laying snares for him, which he had the
+good-fortune to avoid. At a later period he forgot his part, and came to
+throw himself into the ambuscade of his enemy.
+
+The parliaments redoubled their severity: Calvin was narrowly watched,
+his liberty might be compromised, and even his life put in peril. He
+resolved to abandon France, either from fear or spite--if we are to
+credit an ecclesiastical historian--not being able to forgive Francis I
+for the preference manifested by this Prince toward a relation of the
+Constable, "of moderate circumstances," who was promoted to a benefice,
+for which the author of the _Commentary on Seneca_ had condescended to
+make solicitation. The testimony of the historian is weighty. Soulier
+knows neither hatred, passion, nor anger; he seeks after the truth, and
+he believes that he has found it in the recital which we are about to
+peruse.
+
+"We, the undersigned--Louis Charreton, counsellor of the King, dean of
+the presidents of the parliaments of Paris, son of the late Andrew
+Charreton, who was first Baron of Champagne, and counsellor to the high
+chamber of the Parliament of Paris; Madam Antoinette Charreton, widow of
+Noel Renouard, former master in the chamber of the courts of Paris, and
+daughter of the late Hugh Charreton, Lord of Montauzon; and John
+Charreton, Sieur de la Terrière; all three cousins, and grandchildren of
+Hugh Charreton--certify that we have frequently heard from our fathers
+that the aforesaid Sieur Hugh Charreton had several times told them that
+under the reign of Francis I, while the court was at Fontainebleau,
+Calvin, who had a benefice at Noyon, came there and took lodgings in the
+hotel where the aforesaid Sieur Charreton was lodging, who,
+understanding that Calvin was a man of letters and of great erudition,
+and being very fond of the society of learned men, informed him that he
+would be delighted to have some interviews with him; to this Calvin the
+more willingly consented under the belief that the aforesaid Sieur de
+Charreton might be able to assist him in the affair which had brought
+him to Fontainebleau; that after several interviews the aforesaid Sieur
+de Charreton demanded from Calvin the object of his journey, to which he
+answered that he had come to solicit a priory from the King, for which
+there was but one rival, who was a relative of the Constable.
+
+"The Sieur de Charreton asked him if he thought this nothing. He replied
+that he was aware of the high consideration enjoyed by the Constable,
+but he also knew that the King, in disposing of benefices, was wont to
+choose the most proper persons, and that the relative of the Constable
+was of very poor capacity. To which the aforesaid Sieur de Charreton
+rejoined that this was no obstacle, since no great capacity was needed
+to hold a simple benefice; whereupon Calvin exclaimed and cried out that
+if such wrong was done him he would find means to make them speak of him
+for five hundred years; and the aforesaid Sieur de Charreton having
+urged him strongly to tell him how he would do this, Calvin conducted
+him to his room and showed him the commencement of his _Institutes_; and
+after having read a portion of them, Calvin demanded his opinion; he
+answered _that it was poison well put in sugar_, and advised him not to
+continue a work which was only a false interpretation of the Scriptures
+and of everything which the holy fathers had written; and as he
+perceived that Calvin remained firm in his wicked purpose, he gave
+notice thereof to the Constable, who declared that Calvin was a fool and
+should soon be brought to his senses. But two days after, the benefice
+having been bestowed on the relative of the Constable, Calvin departed
+and began to propagate his sect, which, being very convenient, was
+embraced by many persons, some through libertinism, others from weakness
+of mind.
+
+"That some time after, the Constable was going to his government of
+Languedoc, and passed through Lyons, where the aforesaid Sieur de
+Charreton paid him a visit, and was asked if he did not belong to the
+sect of Calvin, with whom he had lodged. He answered that he would be
+very sorry to embrace a religion the father and founder of which he had
+seen born.
+
+"In testimony whereof we have given our signatures, at Paris, this 20th
+of September, 1682.
+
+"Signed: Charreton, President; A. Charreton, Widow Renouard; and
+Charreton de la Terrière."
+
+After having published his _Psychopannychia_, in 1534, at Orleans,
+Calvin left that city. He felt a desire to visit Basel, at that time the
+Athens of Switzerland, a city of renown, so long the abode of Erasmus,
+famous for its _literati_, its celebrated printers, and its theologians
+amorous of novelties; where Froben had published his fine edition of the
+works of St. Jerome; where Holbein had painted his picture of Christ
+ready for the sepulchre, where Capito taught Hebrew, and Oecolampadius
+commented on the Psalms.
+
+He set out from Orleans in company with his friend Du Tillet; near Metz
+their domestic robbed them and fled with their sacks and valises, and
+they were forced to seek Strasburg on foot, nearly destitute of
+clothing, and with but ten crowns in their pockets. Calvin spent some
+time in Strasburg, studying the different transformations which the
+reformed gospel had undergone during the brief space of fifteen years.
+He entered into intimate relations with some of the most celebrated
+representatives of Protestantism. Anyone else, who had arrived there
+free from prejudices against Catholicism, would have found salutary
+instruction in the ceaseless agitations of that city, which knew not
+where to poise itself in order to find repose, and which, since 1521,
+had become Lutheran, Anabaptist, Zwinglian, and, at that very moment,
+was dreaming of a new transfiguration, to be accomplished by the aid of
+Bucer, one of its new guests.
+
+At Basel, Calvin found Simon Grynæus and Erasmus. Calvin could not
+neglect this opportunity of visiting the Batavian philologist, whose
+fame was European. After a short interview they separated. Bucer, who
+had assisted at the meeting, was solicitous to know the opinion of the
+caustic old man. "Master," said he, "what think you of the new-comer?"
+Erasmus smiled, without answering. Bucer insisted. "I behold," said the
+author of the _Colloquies_, "a great pest, which is springing up in the
+Church, against the Church."
+
+On the next day Du Tillet, clerk of the Parliament of Paris, arrived at
+Basel and, by dint of tears and entreaties, brought with him his
+brother Louis, who repented, made his abjuration, and was shortly after
+elected archdeacon, a dignity disputed with him by Renaudie, who was to
+be used by the Reformation for the execution of the plot of Amboise.
+
+The _Psychopannychia_, the first controversial work of Calvin, is a
+pamphlet directed against the sect of Anabaptists, whom the bloody day
+of Frankenhausen had conquered, but not subdued. The spirit of Munzer
+lived again in his disciples, who were parading their mystic reveries
+through Holland, Flanders, and France. Luther had essayed his powers
+against Munzer, imagining that by his fiery language, his Pindaric
+wrath, his flames and thunders, he would soon overwhelm the chief of the
+miners, as he had defeated, it is said, those theological dwarfs who
+were unable to stand before him. From the summit of the mountain he had
+appeared to Munzer in the midst of lightnings, but those lightnings did
+not alarm his adversary, who was bold enough to face him with unquailing
+eye.
+
+Munzer also possessed a fiery tongue, which he used with admirable
+skill, to inflame and arouse the peasants; this time victory remained
+with the man of the sledge-hammer. And Luther, who wished to terminate
+the affair at any cost, was reduced, as is well known, to avail himself
+of the sword of one of his electors. The wrecks which escaped from the
+funeral obsequies of Thuringia took refuge in a new land. France
+received and listened to the prophets of Anabaptism.
+
+These Anabaptists maintained seducing doctrines. They dreamed of a sort
+of Jerusalem, very different from the Jewish Jerusalem; a Jerusalem
+quite spiritual, without swords, soldiers, or civil magistracy: the true
+city of the elect. Their speech was infected with Pelagianism and
+Arianism; on several points of dogma they agreed with Catholics--on
+predestination, for example, and on the merit of works. Some of them
+taught the sleep of the soul till the day of judgment. It was against
+these "sleepers" that Calvin determined to measure himself.
+
+The _Commentary on Seneca_ is a philological work, a book of the
+revival, a rhetorical declamation, in which Calvin is evidently aspiring
+to a place among the humanists, and making his court, in sufficiently
+fine Latin, to all the Ciceronians of the age: this was bringing himself
+forward with skill and tact. The Latin language was the idiom of the
+Church, of the convents, colleges, universities, and parliaments. The
+_Psychopannychia_ is a religious pamphlet, and now Calvin must expect a
+rival in the first pamphleteer of Germany, Luther himself. It is certain
+that Calvin was acquainted with the writings of the Saxon monk against
+Eck, Tetzel, Prierias, Latomus, and the Sorbonnists. He must be praised
+for not having dreamed of entering the lists against a spirit of such a
+temper as his rival. Had he desired, after Luther's manner, to deal in
+caricature, he would certainly have failed. Sallies, play upon words,
+and conceits did not suit a mind like his, whose forte was finesse. By
+nature sober, he could not, like the Saxon monk, fertilize his brain in
+enormous pots of beer; moreover, beer was not as yet in use beyond the
+Rhine.
+
+Nor had he at his service those German smoking-houses, where, of an
+evening, among the companions of gay science, his weary mind might have
+revived its energies. In France the monks did not resort to taverns.
+Calvin was, therefore, everything he was destined to become: an adroit,
+biting disputant, ready at retort, but without warmth or enthusiasm. He
+loves to bear testimony in his own behalf, that "he did not indulge his
+wrath, except modestly; that he always made it a rule to set aside
+outrageous or biting expressions; that he almost always moderated his
+style, which was better adapted to instruct than to drive forcibly, in
+such sort, however, that it may ever attract those who would not be
+led." One must see that, with such humor and style, Calvin might have
+died forgotten, in some little benefice of Swabia, and that he was never
+formed for raising storms, but only for using them.
+
+At this epoch the grand agitator of society was first, society itself,
+and then Luther, that great pamphleteer, "whose books are quite full of
+demons," who drove humanity into the paths of a revolution, for which
+all the elements had been prepared years before. Luther had sown the
+wind, Calvin came to reap the whirlwind. Not that the latter does not
+sometimes rise even to wrath, but it is a wrath which savors of labor
+and which he pursues as a rhymester would a rebellious epithet. Besides,
+he is good enough to repent for it, as if this wrath burned the face
+over which it glowed. "I have presented some things," he murmurs, "a
+little sharply, even roughly said, which, peradventure, may offend the
+delicate ears of some. But, as I am aware there are some good persons
+who have conceived such affection for this dream of the sleep of souls,
+I would not have them offended with me." Where Calvin is concerned we
+must not allow our admiration to be too easily awaked; we must note that
+he is speaking of an Anabaptist, that is, of a soul which has thrown off
+the "papism." But let a Catholic appear--a priest unknown to fame, who,
+as editor, shall have reprinted a new edition of the work of Henry VIII,
+"_Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_"--for instance, Gabriel de Sacconay,
+precentor of Lyons, and you shall then behold Calvin, under the form of
+a dithyrambic or congratulatory epistle, without the least regard for
+delicate ears, throw into the face of the Catholic the most filthy
+expressions of offence.
+
+Calvin has himself given a correct estimate of the value of his
+_Psychopannychia_, and of his treatise against the Anabaptists, which
+one of his historians desires to have reprinted in our time, purged of
+all its bitterness of style. He was right in saying, "I have reproved
+the foolish curiosity of those who were debating these questions, which,
+in fact, are but vexations of mind."
+
+One day this question, about the sleep of souls--one that in the ancient
+Church had long since been examined, by Metito--was presented to Luther,
+who disposed of it in few words. "These," said he, "are picked
+nutshells."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[43] Michael Servetus was a controversialist in matters of philosophy
+and religion. For many years he was the object of attack by the
+different orthodox schools on account of his heretical speeches and
+writings. In 1553 he published a work which led to his arrest by order
+of the inquisitor-general at Lyons. Servetus escaped, but was again
+taken, at the instance of Calvin, and was burned at Geneva, October 27,
+1553.--ED.
+
+
+
+
+ENGLAND BREAKS WITH THE ROMAN CHURCH
+
+DESTRUCTION OF THE MONASTERIES
+
+A.D. 1534
+
+JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+     Following the fall of Wolsey, Sir Thomas More became lord
+     chancellor of England, but the real power of Wolsey passed
+     to another and perhaps even more able minister, Thomas
+     Cromwell. Henry VIII needed always some strong, able, crafty
+     guide to show him a path through the intricacies of European
+     politics, and enable him at the same time to follow the
+     savage dictates of his passion and his whims.
+
+     Such a helper he found now in Cromwell. Few men have ever
+     been so daring or so ruthless as this great statesman. He
+     helped Henry in all his evil schemes, though Green and other
+     critics as well have thought to discern a larger, wiser
+     policy in the impenetrable mind of the subtle minister. As
+     secretary of state he drove England at his own pace through
+     the vast religious changes of the period. For the ruin he
+     brought upon Catholicism, and more especially for his
+     destruction of the thousand monasteries that dotted England,
+     he has been called the "hammer of the monks." Of even lower
+     birth than Wolsey, and rising to almost equal power,
+     Cromwell began life as a son of a blacksmith.
+
+     He wandered over Europe and especially Italy as a soldier,
+     merchant, and general adventurer of the lower and wilder
+     type. He became Wolsey's right-hand man, and held loyally by
+     his chief even after the latter's overthrow.
+
+     It had been Henry's passion for Anne Boleyn, and the
+     resulting necessity for divorce from his wife Catherine,
+     that caused Wolsey's fall. On the same passion did Cromwell
+     build his rise. He secretly urged the King to break with
+     Rome entirely and declare himself sole head of the English
+     Church. Thus he could divorce himself. Henry first tried a
+     last negotiation with the Pope; that failing, he turned to
+     his new adviser.
+
+
+Cromwell was again ready with his suggestion that the King should
+disavow the papal jurisdiction, declare himself head of the Church
+within its realm, and obtain a divorce from his own ecclesiastical
+courts. But the new minister looked on the divorce as simply the prelude
+to a series of changes which he was bent upon accomplishing. In all his
+checkered life, that had left its deepest stamp on him in Italy. Not
+only in the rapidity and ruthlessness of his designs, but in their
+larger scope, their admirable combination, the Italian statecraft
+entered with Cromwell into English politics. He is in fact the first
+English minister in whom we can trace through the whole period of his
+rule the steady working out of a great and definite aim, that of raising
+the King to absolute authority on the ruins of every rival power within
+his realm.
+
+It was not that Cromwell was a mere slave of tyranny. Whether we may
+trust the tale that carries him in his youth to Florence or not, his
+statesmanship was closely modelled on the ideal of the Florentine
+thinker whose book was constantly in his hand. Even as a servant of
+Wolsey he startled the future Cardinal, Reginald Pole, by bidding him
+take for his manual in politics the _Prince_ of Machiavelli. Machiavelli
+hoped to find in Cæsar Borgia or in the later Lorenzo de' Medici a
+tyrant who, after crushing all rival tyrannies, might unite and
+regenerate Italy; and, terrible and ruthless as his policy was, the
+final aim of Cromwell seems to have been that of Machiavelli, an aim of
+securing enlightenment and order for England by the concentration of all
+authority in the Crown.
+
+The first step toward such an end was the freeing the monarchy from its
+spiritual obedience to Rome. What the first of the Tudors had done for
+the political independence of the kingdom, the second was to do for its
+ecclesiastical independence. Henry VII had freed England from the
+interference of France or the house of Burgundy; and in the question of
+the divorce Cromwell saw the means of bringing Henry VIII to free it
+from the interference of the papacy. In such an effort resistance could
+be looked for only from the clergy. But their resistance was what
+Cromwell desired. The last check on royal absolutism which had survived
+the Wars of the Roses lay in the wealth, the independent synods and
+jurisdiction, and the religious claims of the Church; and for the
+success of the new policy it was necessary to reduce the great
+ecclesiastical body to a mere department of the state in which all
+authority should flow from the sovereign alone, his will be the only
+law, his decision the only test of truth.
+
+Such a change, however, was hardly to be wrought without a struggle;
+and the question of national independence in all ecclesiastical matters
+furnished ground on which the Crown could conduct this struggle to the
+best advantage. The secretary's first blow showed how unscrupulously the
+struggle was to be waged. A year had passed since Wolsey had been
+convicted of a breach of the Statute of Provisors. The pedantry of the
+judges declared the whole nation to have been formally involved in the
+same charge by its acceptance of his authority. The legal absurdity was
+now redressed by a general pardon, but from this pardon the clergy found
+themselves omitted. In the spring of 1531 a convocation was assembled to
+be told that forgiveness could be bought at no less a price than the
+payment of a fine amounting to a million of our present money, and the
+acknowledgment of the King as "the chief protector, the only and supreme
+lord, and head of the Church and clergy of England."
+
+Unjust as was the first demand, they at once submitted to it; against
+the second they struggled hard. But their appeals to Henry and Cromwell
+met only with demands for instant obedience. A compromise was at last
+arrived at by the insertion of a qualifying phrase, "So far as the law
+of Christ will allow"; and with this addition the words were again
+submitted by Warham to the convocation. There was a general silence.
+"Whoever is silent seems to consent," said the Archbishop. "Then are we
+all silent," replied a voice from among the crowd.
+
+There is no ground for thinking that the "headship of the Church" which
+Henry claimed in this submission was more than a warning addressed to
+the independent spirit of the clergy, or that it bore as yet the meaning
+which was afterward attached to it. It certainly implied no independence
+of Rome, for negotiations were still being carried on with the papal
+court. But it told Clement plainly that in any strife that might come
+between himself and Henry the clergy were in the King's hand, and that
+he must look for no aid from them in any struggle with the Crown. The
+warning was backed by an address to the Pope from the lords and some of
+the commons who assembled after a fresh prorogation of the houses in the
+spring.
+
+"The cause of his majesty," the peers were made to say, "is the cause of
+each of ourselves." They laid before the Pope what they represented as
+the judgment of the universities in favor of the divorce; but they
+faced boldly the event of its rejection. "Our condition," they ended,
+"will not be wholly irremediable. Extreme remedies are ever harsh of
+application; but he that is sick will by all means be rid of his
+distemper." In the summer the banishment of Catherine from the King's
+palace to a house at Ampthill showed the firmness of Henry's resolve.
+Each of these acts was no doubt intended to tell on the Pope's decision,
+for Henry still clung to the hope of extorting from Clement a favorable
+answer; and at the close of the year a fresh embassy, with Gardiner, now
+Bishop of Winchester, at its head, was despatched to the papal court.
+But the embassy failed like its predecessors, and at the opening of 1532
+Cromwell was free to take more decisive steps in the course on which he
+had entered.
+
+What the nature of his policy was to be, had already been detected by
+eyes as keen as his own. More had seen in Wolsey's fall an opening for
+the realization of those schemes of religious and even of political
+reform on which the scholars of the New Learning had long been brooding.
+The substitution of the lords of the council for the autocratic rule of
+the cardinal-minister, the break-up of the great mass of powers which
+had been gathered into a single hand, the summons of a parliament, the
+ecclesiastical reforms which it at once sanctioned, were measures which
+promised a more legal and constitutional system of government. The
+question of the divorce presented to More no serious difficulty.
+Untenable as Henry's claim seemed to the new Chancellor, his faith in
+the omnipotence of parliament would have enabled him to submit to any
+statute which named a new spouse as queen and her children as heirs to
+the crown. But as Cromwell's policy unfolded itself he saw that more
+than this was impending.
+
+The Catholic instinct of his mind, the dread of a rent Christendom and
+of the wars and bigotry that must come of its rending, united with
+More's theological convictions to resist any spiritual severance of
+England from the papacy. His love for freedom, his revolt against the
+growing autocracy of the Crown, the very height and grandeur of his own
+spiritual convictions, all bent him to withstand a system which would
+concentrate in the king the whole power of church as of state, would
+leave him without the one check that remained on his despotism, and
+make him arbiter of the religious faith of his subjects. The later
+revolt of the Puritans against the king-worship which Cromwell
+established proved the justice of the provision which forced More in the
+spring of 1532 to resign the post of chancellor.
+
+But the revolution from which he shrank was an inevitable one. Till now
+every Englishman had practically owned a double life and a double
+allegiance. As citizen of a temporal state his life was bounded by
+English shores, and his loyalty due exclusively to his English King. But
+as citizen of the state spiritual, he belonged not to England, but to
+Christendom. The law which governed him was not a national law, but a
+law that embraced every European nation, and the ordinary course of
+judicial appeals in ecclesiastical cases proved to him that the
+sovereignty in all matters of conscience or religion lay, not at
+Westminster, but at Rome.
+
+Such a distinction could scarcely fail to bring embarrassment with it as
+the sense of national life and national pride waxed stronger; and from
+the reign of the Edwards the problem of reconciling the spiritual and
+temporal relations of the realm grew daily more difficult. Parliament
+had hardly risen into life when it became the organ of the national
+jealousy, whether of any papal jurisdiction without the realm or of the
+separate life and separate jurisdiction of the clergy within it. The
+movement was long arrested by religious reaction and civil war. But the
+fresh sense of national greatness which sprang from the policy of Henry
+VIII, the fresh sense of national unity as the monarchy gathered all
+power into its single hand, would have itself revived the contest even
+without the spur of the divorce.
+
+What the question of the divorce really did was to stimulate the
+movement by bringing into clearer view the wreck of the great Christian
+commonwealth of which England had till now formed a part, and the
+impossibility of any real exercise of a spiritual sovereignty over it by
+the weakened papacy, as well as by outraging the national pride through
+the summons of the King to a foreign bar and the submission of English
+interests to the will of a foreign emperor.
+
+With such a spur as this the movement, which More dreaded, moved forward
+as quickly as Cromwell desired. The time had come when England was to
+claim for herself the fulness of power, ecclesiastical as well as
+temporal, within her bounds; and, in the concentration of all authority
+within the hands of the sovereign which was the political characteristic
+of the time, to claim this power for the nation was to claim it for the
+king. The import of that headship of the Church which Henry had assumed
+in the preceding year was brought fully out in one of the propositions
+laid before the convocation of 1532.
+
+"The King's majesty," runs this memorable clause, "hath as well the care
+of the souls of his subjects as their bodies; and may by the law of God
+by his parliament make laws touching and concerning as well the one as
+the other." The principle embodied in these words was carried out in a
+series of decisive measures. Under strong pressure the convocation was
+brought to pray that the power of independent legislation till now
+exercised by the church should come to an end, and to promise "that from
+henceforth we shall forbear to enact, promulge, or put into execution
+any such constitutions and ordinances so by us to be made in time
+coming, unless your highness by your royal assent shall license us to
+make, promulge, and execute them, and the same so made be approved by
+your highness' authority."
+
+Rome was dealt with in the same unsparing fashion. The parliament
+forbade by statute any further appeals to the papal court; and on a
+petition from the clergy in convocation the houses granted power to the
+King to suspend the payments of first-fruits, or the year's revenue
+which each bishop paid to Rome on his election to a see. All judicial,
+all financial connection with the papacy was broken by these two
+measures. The last, indeed, was as yet but a menace which Henry might
+use in his negotiations with Clement. The hope which had been
+entertained of aid from Charles was now abandoned; and the overthrow of
+Norfolk and his policy of alliance with the Empire was seen at the
+midsummer of 1532 in the conclusion of a league with France. Cromwell
+had fallen back on Wolsey's system; and the divorce was now to be looked
+for from the united pressure of the French and English kings on the
+papal court.
+
+But the pressure was as unsuccessful as before. In November Clement
+threatened the King with excommunication if he did not restore Catherine
+to her place as queen and abstain from all intercourse with Anne Boleyn
+till the case was tried. But Henry still refused to submit to the
+judgment of any court outside his realm; and the Pope, ready as he was
+with evasion and delay, dared not alienate Charles by consenting to a
+trial within it. The lavish pledges which Francis had given in an
+interview during the preceding summer may have aided to spur the King to
+a decisive step which closed the long debate. At the opening of 1533
+Henry was privately married to Anne Boleyn. The match, however, was
+carefully kept secret while the papal sanction was being gained for the
+appointment of Cranmer to the see of Canterbury, which had become vacant
+by Archbishop Warham's death in the preceding year. But Cranmer's
+consecration at the close of March was the signal for more open action,
+and Cromwell's policy was at last brought fairly into play.
+
+The new primate at once laid the question of the King's marriage before
+the two houses of convocation, and both voted that the license of Pope
+Julius had been beyond the papal powers and that the marriage which it
+authorized was void. In May the King's suit was brought before the
+Archbishop in his court at Dunstable; his judgment annulled the marriage
+with Catherine as void from the beginning, and pronounced the marriage
+with Anne Boleyn, which her pregnancy had forced Henry to reveal, a
+lawful marriage. A week later the hand of Cranmer placed upon Anne's
+brow the crown which she had coveted so long.
+
+"There was much murmuring" at measures such as these. Many thought "that
+the Bishop of Rome would curse all Englishmen, and that the Emperor and
+he would destroy all the people." Fears of the overthrow of religion
+told on the clergy; the merchants dreaded an interruption of the trade
+with Flanders, Italy, and Spain. But Charles, though still loyal to his
+aunt's cause, had no mind to incur risks for her; and Clement, though he
+annulled Cranmer's proceedings, hesitated as yet to take sterner action.
+Henry, on the other hand, conscious that the die was thrown, moved
+rapidly forward in the path that Cromwell had opened. The Pope's
+reversal of the primate's judgment was answered by an appeal to a
+general council. The decision of the cardinals to whom the case was
+referred in the spring of 1534, a decision which asserted the
+lawfulness of Catherine's marriage, was met by the enforcement of the
+long-suspended statute forbidding the payment of first-fruits to the
+Pope.
+
+Though the King was still firm in his resistance to Lutheran opinions,
+and at this moment endeavored to prevent by statute the importation of
+Lutheran books, the less scrupulous hand of his minister was seen
+already striving to find a counterpoise to the hostility of the Emperor
+in an alliance with the Lutheran princes of North Germany. Cromwell was
+now fast rising to a power which rivalled Wolsey's. His elevation to the
+post of lord privy seal placed him on a level with the great nobles of
+the council board; and Norfolk, constant in his hopes of reconciliation
+with Charles and the papacy, saw his plans set aside for the wider and
+more daring projects of "the black-smith's son." Cromwell still clung to
+the political engine whose powers he had turned to the service of the
+Crown. The parliament which had been summoned at Wolsey's fall met
+steadily year after year; and measure after measure had shown its
+accordance with the royal will in the strife with Rome.
+
+It was now called to deal a final blow. Step by step the ground had been
+cleared for the great statute by which the new character of the English
+Church was defined in the session of 1534. By the Act of Supremacy
+authority in all matters ecclesiastical was vested solely in the Crown.
+The courts spiritual became as thoroughly the king's courts as the
+temporal courts at Westminster. The statute ordered that the King "shall
+be taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the
+Church of England, and shall have and enjoy, annexed and united to the
+imperial crown of this realm, as well the title and state thereof as all
+the honors, jurisdictions, authorities, immunities, profits, and
+commodities to the said dignity belonging, with full power to visit,
+repress, redress, reform, and amend all such errors, heresies, abuses,
+contempts, and enormities which by any manner of spiritual authority or
+jurisdiction might or may lawfully be reformed."
+
+The full import of the Act of Supremacy was only seen in the following
+year. At the opening of 1535 Henry formally took the title of "on earth
+Supreme Head of the Church of England," and some months later Cromwell
+was raised to the post of vicar-general, or vicegerent of the King in
+all matters ecclesiastical. His title, like his office, recalled the
+system of Wolsey. It was not only as legate, but in later years as
+vicar-general, of the Pope, that Wolsey had brought all spiritual causes
+in England to an English court. The supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction
+in the realm passed into the hands of a minister who as chancellor
+already exercised its supreme civil jurisdiction. The papal power had
+therefore long seemed transferred to the crown before the legislative
+measures which followed the divorce actually transferred it.
+
+It was in fact the system of Catholicism itself that trained men to look
+without surprise on the concentration of all spiritual and secular
+authority in Cromwell. Successor to Wolsey as keeper of the great seal,
+it seemed natural enough that Cromwell should succeed him also as
+vicar-general of the Church, and that the union of the two powers should
+be restored in the hands of a minister of the King. But the mere fact
+that these powers were united in the hands, not of a priest, but of a
+layman, showed the new drift of the royal policy. The Church was no
+longer to be brought indirectly under the royal power; in the policy of
+Cromwell it was to be openly laid prostrate at the foot of the throne.
+
+And this policy his position enabled him to carry out with a terrible
+thoroughness. One great step toward its realization had already been
+taken in the statute which annihilated the free legislative powers of
+the convocations of the clergy. Another followed in an act which, under
+the pretext of restoring the free election of bishops, turned every
+prelate into a nominee of the King. The election of bishops by the
+chapters of their cathedral churches had long become formal, and their
+appointment had since the time of the Edwards been practically made by
+the papacy on the nomination of the crown. The privilege of free
+election was now with bitter irony restored to the chapters, but they
+were compelled on pain of præmunire to choose whatever candidate was
+recommended by the king. This strange expedient has lasted till the
+present time, though its character has wholly changed with the
+development of constitutional rule.
+
+The nomination of bishops has ever since the accession of the Georges
+passed from the king in person to the minister, who represents the will
+of the people. Practically, therefore, an English prelate, alone among
+all the prelates of the world, is now raised to his episcopal throne by
+the same popular election which raised Ambrose to his episcopal chair at
+Milan. But at the moment of the change Cromwell's measure reduced the
+English bishops to absolute dependence on the crown. Their dependence
+would have been complete had his policy been thoroughly carried out, and
+the royal power of deposition put in force, as well as that of
+appointment. As it was, Henry could warn the Archbishop of Dublin that,
+if he persevered in his "proud folly, we be able to remove you again and
+to put another man of more virtue and honesty in your place." By the
+more ardent partisans of the Reformation this dependence of the bishops
+on the crown was fully recognized. On the death of Henry VIII Cranmer
+took out a new commission from Edward for the exercise of his office.
+Latimer, when the royal policy clashed with his belief, felt bound to
+resign the see of Worcester. If the power of deposition was quietly
+abandoned by Elizabeth, the abandonment was due, not so much to any
+deference for the religious instincts of the nation as to the fact that
+the steady servility of the bishops rendered its exercise unnecessary.
+
+A second step in Cromwell's policy followed hard on this enslavement of
+the episcopate. Master of convocation, absolute master of the bishops,
+Henry had become master of the monastic orders through the right of
+visitation over them, which had been transferred by the Act of Supremacy
+from the papacy to the crown. The monks were soon to know what this
+right of visitation implied in the hands of the vicar-general. As an
+outlet for religious enthusiasm, monasticism was practically dead. The
+friar, now that his fervor of devotion and his intellectual energy had
+passed away, had sunk into a mere beggar. The monks had become mere
+landowners. Most of the religious houses were anxious only to enlarge
+their revenues and to diminish the number of those who shared them.
+
+In the general carelessness which prevailed as to the spiritual objects
+of their trust, in the wasteful management of their estates, in the
+indolence and self-indulgence which for the most part characterized
+them, the monastic establishments simply exhibited the faults of all
+corporate bodies that have outlived the work which they were created to
+perform. They were no more unpopular, however, than such corporate
+bodies generally are. The Lollard cry for their suppression had died
+away. In the north, where some of the greatest abbeys were situated, the
+monks were on good terms with the country gentry, and their houses
+served as schools for their children; nor is there any sign of a
+different feeling elsewhere.
+
+But they had drawn on themselves at once the hatred of the New Learning
+and of the monarchy. In the early days of the revival of letters, popes
+and bishops had joined with princes and scholars in welcoming the
+diffusion of culture and the hopes of religious reform. But, though an
+abbot or a prior here or there might be found among the supporters of
+the movement, the monastic orders as a whole repelled it with unswerving
+obstinacy. The quarrel only became more bitter as years went on. The
+keen sarcasms of Erasmus, the insolent buffoonery of Hutten, were
+lavished on the "lovers of darkness" and of the cloister.
+
+In England Colet and More echoed with greater reserve the scorn and
+invective of their friends. The monarchy had other causes for its hate.
+In Cromwell's system there was no room for either the virtues or the
+vices of monasticism, for its indolence and superstition, or for its
+independence of the throne. The bold stand which the monastic orders had
+made against benevolences had never been forgiven, while the revenues of
+their foundations offered spoil vast enough to fill the royal treasury
+and secure a host of friends for the new reforms. Two royal
+commissioners, therefore, were despatched on a general visitation of the
+religious houses, and their reports formed a "Black Book" which was laid
+before parliament in 1536.
+
+It was acknowledged that about a third of the houses, including the bulk
+of the larger abbeys, were fairly and decently conducted. The rest were
+charged with drunkenness, with simony, and with the foulest and most
+revolting crimes. The character of the visitors, the sweeping nature of
+their report, and the long debate which followed on its reception leave
+little doubt that these charges were grossly exaggerated. But the want
+of any effective discipline which had resulted from their exemption from
+all but papal supervision told fatally against monastic morality even in
+abbeys like St. Albans; and the acknowledgment of Warham, as well as a
+partial measure of suppression begun by Wolsey, goes some way to prove
+that, in the smaller houses at least, indolence had passed into crime.
+
+A cry of "down with them" broke from the commons as the report was read.
+The country, however, was still far from desiring the utter downfall of
+the monastic system, and a long and bitter debate was followed by a
+compromise which suppressed all houses whose income fell below two
+hundred pounds a year. Of the thousand religious houses which then
+existed in England, nearly four hundred were dissolved under this act
+and their revenues granted to the crown.
+
+The secular clergy alone remained; and injunction after injunction from
+the vicar-general taught rector and vicar that they must learn to regard
+themselves as mere mouth-pieces of the royal will. The Church was
+gagged. With the instinct of genius, Cromwell discerned the part which
+the pulpit, as the one means which then existed of speaking to the
+people at large, was to play in the religious and political struggle
+that was at hand; and he resolved to turn it to the profit of the
+monarchy.
+
+The restriction of the right of preaching to priests who received
+licenses from the Crown silenced every voice of opposition. Even to
+those who received these licenses theological controversy was forbidden;
+and a high-handed process of "tuning the pulpits," by express directions
+as to the subject and tenor of each special discourse, made the
+preachers at every crisis mere means of diffusing the royal will. As a
+first step in this process every bishop, abbot, and parish priest was
+required by the new vicar-general to preach against the usurpation of
+the papacy, and to proclaim the King as supreme head of the Church on
+earth. The very topics of the sermon were carefully prescribed; the
+bishops were held responsible for the compliance of the clergy with
+these orders; and the sheriffs were held responsible for the obedience
+of the bishops.
+
+While the great revolution which struck down the Church was in progress,
+England looked silently on. In all the earlier ecclesiastical changes,
+in the contest over the papal jurisdiction and papal exactions, in the
+reform of the church courts, even in the curtailment of the legislative
+independence of the clergy, the nation as a whole had gone with the
+King. But from the enslavement of the priesthood, from the gagging of
+the pulpits, from the suppression of the monasteries, the bulk of the
+nation stood aloof. There were few voices, indeed, of protest. As the
+royal policy disclosed itself, as the monarchy trampled under foot the
+tradition and reverence of ages gone by, as its figure rose bare and
+terrible out of the wreck of old institutions, England simply held her
+breath.
+
+It is only through the stray depositions of royal spies that we catch a
+glimpse of the wrath and hate which lay seething under this silence of
+the people. For the silence was a silence of terror. Before Cromwell's
+rise, and after his fall from power, the reign of Henry VIII witnessed
+no more than the common tyranny and bloodshed of the time. But the years
+of Cromwell's administration form the one period in our history which
+deserves the name that men have given to the rule of Robespierre. It was
+the English "Terror." It was by terror that Cromwell mastered the King.
+Cranmer could plead for him at a later time with Henry as "one whose
+surety was only by your majesty, who loved your majesty, as I ever
+thought, no less than God." But the attitude of Cromwell toward the King
+was something more than that of absolute dependence and unquestioning
+devotion.
+
+He was "so vigilant to preserve your majesty from all treasons," adds
+the primate, "that few could be so secretly conceived but he detected
+the same from the beginning." Henry, like every Tudor, was fearless of
+open danger, but tremulously sensitive to the lightest breath of hidden
+disloyalty; and it was on this dread that Cromwell based the fabric of
+his power. He was hardly secretary before spies were scattered broadcast
+over the land. Secret denunciations poured into the open ear of the
+minister. The air was thick with tales of plots and conspiracies; and
+with the detection and suppression of each, Cromwell tightened his hold
+on the King.
+
+As it was by terror that he mastered the King, so it was by terror that
+he mastered the people. Men felt in England, to use the figure by which
+Erasmus paints the time, "as if a scorpion lay sleeping under every
+stone." The confessional had no secrets for Cromwell. Men's talk with
+their closest friends found its way to his ear. "Words idly spoken," the
+murmurs of a petulant abbot, the ravings of a moon-struck nun, were, as
+the nobles cried passionately at his fall, "tortured into treason." The
+only chance of safety lay in silence.
+
+"Friends who used to write and send me presents," Erasmus tells us, "now
+send neither letter nor gifts, nor receive any from anyone, and this
+through fear." But even the refuge of silence was closed by a law more
+infamous than any that has ever blotted the statute-book of England. Not
+only was thought made treason, but men were forced to reveal their
+thoughts on pain of their very silence being punished with the penalties
+of treason. All trust in the older bulwarks of liberty was destroyed by
+a policy as daring as it was unscrupulous. The noblest institutions were
+degraded into instruments of terror. Though Wolsey had strained the law
+to the utmost, he had made no open attack on the freedom of justice. If
+he shrank from assembling parliaments, it was from his sense that they
+were the bulwarks of liberty.
+
+But under Cromwell the coercion of juries and the management of judges
+rendered the courts mere mouth-pieces of the royal will; and where even
+this shadow of justice proved an obstacle to bloodshed, parliament was
+brought into play to pass bill after bill of attainder. "He shall be
+judged by the bloody laws he has himself made," was the cry of the
+council at the moment of his fall, and by a singular retribution the
+crowning injustice which he sought to introduce even into the practice
+of attainder, the condemnation of a man without hearing his defence, was
+only practised on himself.
+
+But, ruthless as was the "Terror" of Cromwell, it was of a nobler type
+than the Terror of France. He never struck uselessly or capriciously, or
+stooped to the meaner victims of the guillotine. His blows were
+effective just because he chose his victims from among the noblest and
+the best. If he struck at the Church, it was through the Carthusians,
+the holiest and the most renowned of English churchmen. If he struck at
+the baronage, it was through Lady Salisbury, in whose veins flowed the
+blood of kings. If he struck at the New Learning, it was through the
+murder of Sir Thomas More. But no personal vindictiveness mingled with
+his crime.
+
+In temper, indeed, so far as we can judge from the few stories which
+lingered among his friends, he was a generous, kindly hearted man, with
+pleasant and winning manners which atoned for a certain awkwardness of
+person, and with a constancy of friendship which won him a host of
+devoted adherents. But no touch either of love or hate swayed him from
+his course. The student of Machiavelli had not studied the _Prince_ in
+vain. He had reduced bloodshed to a system. Fragments of his papers
+still show us with what a business-like brevity he ticked off human
+lives among the casual "remembrances" of the day.
+
+"Item, the Abbot of Reading to be sent down to be tried and executed at
+Reading." "Item, to know the King's pleasure touching Master More."
+"Item, when Master Fisher shall go to his execution, and the other." It
+is indeed this utter absence of all passion, of all personal feeling,
+that makes the figure of Cromwell the most terrible in our history. He
+has an absolute faith in the end he is pursuing, and he simply hews his
+way to it as a woodman hews his way through the forest, axe in hand.
+
+The choice of his first victim showed the ruthless precision with which
+Cromwell was to strike. In the general opinion of Europe, the foremost
+Englishman of the time was Sir Thomas More. As the policy of the divorce
+ended in an open rupture with Rome, he had withdrawn silently from the
+ministry, but his silent disapproval of the new policy was more telling
+than the opposition of obscurer foes. To Cromwell there must have been
+something specially galling in More's attitude of reserve. The religious
+reforms of the New Learning were being rapidly carried out, but it was
+plain that the man who represented the very life of the New Learning
+believed that the sacrifice of liberty and justice was too dear a price
+to pay even for religious reform.
+
+In the actual changes which the divorce brought about, there was nothing
+to move More to active or open opposition. Though he looked on the
+divorce and remarriage as without religious warrant, he found no
+difficulty in accepting an act of succession passed in 1534 which
+declared the marriage of Anne Boleyn valid, annulled the title of
+Catherine's child, Mary, and declared the children of Anne the only
+lawful heirs to the crown. His faith in the power of parliament over all
+civil matters was too complete to admit a doubt of its competence to
+regulate the succession to the throne. But by the same act an oath
+recognizing the succession as then arranged was ordered to be taken by
+all persons; and this oath contained an acknowledgment that the
+marriage with Catherine was against Scripture, and invalid from the
+beginning.
+
+Henry had long known More's belief on this point; and the summons to
+take this oath was simply a summons to death. More was at his house at
+Chelsea when the summons called him to Lambeth, to the house where he
+had bandied fun with Warham and Erasmus or bent over the easel of
+Holbein. For a moment there may have been some passing impulse to yield.
+But it was soon over. Triumphant in all else, the monarchy was to find
+its power stop short at the conscience of man. The great battle of
+spiritual freedom, the battle of the Protestant against Mary, of the
+Catholic against Elizabeth, of the Puritan against Charles, of the
+Independent against the Presbyterian, began at the moment when More
+refused to bend or to deny his convictions at a king's bidding.
+
+"I thank the Lord," More said with a sudden start as the boat dropped
+silently down the river from his garden steps in the early morning, "I
+thank the Lord that the field is won." At Lambeth, Cranmer and his
+fellow-commissioners tendered to him the new oath of allegiance; but, as
+they expected, it was refused. They bade him walk in the garden, that he
+might reconsider his reply. The day was hot, and More seated himself in
+a window from which he could look down into the crowded court. Even in
+the presence of death, the quick sympathy of his nature could enjoy the
+humor and life of the throng below.
+
+"I saw," he said afterward, "Master Latimer very merry in the court, for
+he laughed and took one or twain by the neck so handsomely that if they
+had been women I should have weened that he waxed wanton." The crowd
+below was chiefly of priests, rectors, and vicars, pressing to take the
+oath that More found harder than death. He bore them no grudge for it.
+When he heard the voice of one who was known to have boggled hard at the
+oath, a little while before, calling loudly and ostentatiously for
+drink, he only noted him with his peculiar humor. "He drank," More
+supposed, "either from dryness or from gladness," or "to show _quod ille
+notus erat Pontifici_."
+
+He was called in again at last, but only repeated his refusal. It was in
+vain that Cranmer plied him with distinctions which perplexed even the
+subtle wit of the ex-chancellor; More remained unshaken and passed to
+the Tower. He was followed there by Bishop Fisher of Rochester, the most
+aged and venerable of the English prelates, who was charged with
+countenancing treason by listening to the prophecies of a religious
+fanatic called the "Nun of Kent." But for the moment even Cromwell
+shrank from their blood. They remained prisoners, while a new and more
+terrible engine was devised to crush out the silent but widespread
+opposition to the religious changes.
+
+By a statute passed at the close of 1534 a new treason was created in
+the denial of the King's titles; and in the opening of 1535 Henry
+assumed, as we have seen, the title of "on earth supreme head of the
+Church of England." The measure was at once followed up by a blow at
+victims hardly less venerable than More. In the general relaxation of
+the religious life, the charity and devotion of the brethren of the
+Charter-house had won the reverence even of those who condemned
+monasticism. After a stubborn resistance they had acknowledged the royal
+supremacy and taken the oath of submission prescribed by the act. But,
+by an infamous construction of the statute which made the denial of the
+supremacy treason, the refusal of satisfactory answers to official
+questions, as to a conscientious belief in it, was held to be equivalent
+to open denial.
+
+The aim of the new measure was well known, and the brethren prepared to
+die. In the agony of waiting, enthusiasm brought its imaginative
+consolations; "when the host was lifted up, there came as it were a
+whisper of air which breathed upon our faces as we knelt; and there came
+a sweet, soft sound of music." They had not long, however, to wait, for
+their refusal to answer was the signal for their doom. Three of the
+brethren went to the gallows; the rest were flung into Newgate, chained
+to posts in a noisome dungeon, where, "tied and not able to stir," they
+were left to perish of jail fever and starvation. In a fortnight five
+were dead and the rest at the point of death, "almost despatched,"
+Cromwell's envoy wrote to him, "by the hand of God, of which,
+considering their behavior, I am not sorry."
+
+Their death was soon followed by that of More. The interval of
+imprisonment had failed to break his resolution, and the new statute
+sufficed to bring him to the block. With Fisher he was convicted of
+denying the King's title as only supreme head of the Church. The old
+bishop approached the scaffold with a book of the New Testament in his
+hand. He opened it at a venture ere he knelt, and read, "This is life
+eternal to know thee, the only true God." In July More followed his
+fellow-prisoners to the block. On the eve of the fatal blow he moved his
+beard carefully from the reach of the doomsman's axe. "Pity that should
+be cut," he was heard to mutter with a touch of the old sad irony, "that
+has never committed treason."
+
+Cromwell had at last reached his aim. England lay panic-stricken at the
+feet of the "low-born knave," as the nobles called him, who represented
+the omnipotence of the crown. Like Wolsey he concentrated in his hands
+the whole administration of the state; he was at once foreign minister
+and home minister, and vicar-general of the Church, the creator of a new
+fleet, the organizer of armies, the president of the terrible star
+chamber. His Italian indifference to the mere show of power stood out in
+strong contrast with the pomp of the Cardinal. Cromwell's personal
+habits were simple and unostentatious; if he clutched at money, it was
+to feed the army of spies whom he maintained at his own expense, and
+whose work he surveyed with a ceaseless vigilance. For his activity was
+boundless.
+
+More than fifty volumes remain of the gigantic mass of his
+correspondence. Thousands of letters from "poor bedesmen," from outraged
+wives and wronged laborers and persecuted heretics, flowed in to the
+all-powerful minister, whose system of personal government turned him
+into the universal court of appeal. But powerful as he was, and mighty
+as was the work which he had accomplished, he knew that harder blows had
+to be struck before his position was secure.
+
+The new changes, above all the irritation which had been caused by the
+outrages with which the dissolution of the monasteries was accompanied,
+gave point to the mutinous temper that prevailed throughout the country;
+for the revolution in agriculture was still going on, and evictions
+furnished embittered outcasts to swell the ranks of any rising. Nor did
+it seem as though revolt, if it once broke out, would want leaders to
+head it. The nobles, who had writhed under the rule of the Cardinal,
+writhed yet more bitterly under the rule of one whom they looked upon
+not only as Wolsey's tool, but as a low-born upstart. "The world will
+never mend," Lord Hussey had been heard to say, "till we fight for it."
+
+"Knaves rule about the King!" cried Lord Exeter; "I trust some day to
+give them a buffet!" At this moment, too, the hopes of political
+reaction were stirred by the fate of one whom the friends of the old
+order looked upon as the source of all their troubles. In the spring of
+1536, while the dissolution of the monasteries was marking the triumph
+of the new policy, Anne Boleyn was suddenly charged with adultery and
+sent to the Tower. A few days later she was tried, condemned, and
+brought to the block. The Queen's ruin was everywhere taken as an omen
+of ruin to the cause which had become identified with her own, and the
+old nobility mustered courage to face the minister who held them at his
+feet.
+
+They found their opportunity in the discontent of the North, where the
+monasteries had been popular, and where the rougher mood of the people
+turned easily to resistance. In the autumn of 1536 a rising broke out in
+Lincolnshire, and this was hardly quelled when all Yorkshire rose in
+arms. From every parish the farmers marched with the parish priest at
+their head upon York, and the surrender of this city determined the
+waverers. In a few days Skipton castle, where the Earl of Cumberland
+held out with a handful of men, was the only spot north of the Humber
+which remained true to the King. Durham rose at the call of the chiefs
+of the house of Neville, Lords Westmoreland and Latimer. Though the Earl
+of Northumberland feigned sickness, the Percies joined the revolt. Lord
+Dacre, the chief of the Yorkshire nobles, surrendered Pomfret, and was
+acknowledged as their chief by the insurgents.
+
+The whole nobility of the North were now enlisted in the "Pilgrimage of
+Grace," as the rising called itself, and thirty thousand "tall men and
+well horsed" moved on the Don demanding the reversal of the royal
+policy, a reunion with Rome, the restoration of Catherine's daughter,
+Mary, to her rights as heiress of the crown, redress for the wrongs done
+to the Church, and above all the driving away of base-born councillors,
+or, in other words, the fall of Cromwell. Though their advance was
+checked by negotiation, the organization of the revolt went steadily on
+throughout the winter, and a parliament of the North, which gathered at
+Pomfret, formally adopted the demands of the insurgents. Only six
+thousand men under Norfolk barred their way southward, and the Midland
+counties were known to be disaffected.
+
+But Cromwell remained undaunted by the peril. He suffered, indeed,
+Norfolk to negotiate; and allowed Henry under pressure from his council
+to promise pardon and a free parliament at York, a pledge which Norfolk
+and Dacre alike construed into an acceptance of the demands made by the
+insurgents. Their leaders at once flung aside the badge of the "Five
+Wounds" which they had worn, with a cry, "We will wear no badge but that
+of our lord the King," and nobles and farmers dispersed to their homes
+in triumph. But the towns of the North were no sooner garrisoned and
+Norfolk's army in the heart of Yorkshire than the veil was flung aside.
+A few isolated outbreaks in the spring of 1537 gave a pretext for the
+withdrawal of every concession.
+
+The arrest of the leaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace was followed by
+ruthless severities. The country was covered with gibbets. Whole
+districts were given up to military execution. But it was on the leaders
+of the rising that Cromwell's hand fell heaviest. He seized his
+opportunity for dealing at the northern nobles a fatal blow. "Cromwell,"
+one of the chief among them broke fiercely out as he stood at the
+council board, "it is thou that art the very special and chief cause of
+all this rebellion and wickedness, and dost daily travail to bring us to
+our ends and strike off our heads. I trust that ere thou die, though
+thou wouldst procure all the noblest heads within the realm to be
+stricken off, yet there shall one head remain that shall strike off thy
+head."
+
+But the warning was unheeded. Lord Darcy, who stood first among the
+nobles of Yorkshire, and Lord Hussey, who stood first among the nobles
+of Lincolnshire, went alike to the block. The Abbot of Barlings, who had
+ridden into Lincoln with his canons in full armor, swung with his
+brother-abbots of Whalley, Woburn, and Sawley from the gallows. The
+abbots of Fountains and of Jervaulx were hanged at Tyburn side by side
+with the representative of the great line of Percy. Lady Bulmer was
+burned at the stake. Sir Robert Constable was hanged in chains before
+the gate of Hull.
+
+The defeat of the northern revolt showed the immense force which the
+monarchy had gained. Even among the rebels themselves not a voice had
+threatened Henry's throne. It was not at the King that they aimed these
+blows, but at the "low-born knaves" who stood about the King. At this
+moment, too, Henry's position was strengthened by the birth of an heir.
+On the death of Anne Boleyn he had married Jane Seymour, the daughter of
+a Wiltshire knight; and in 1537 this Queen died in giving birth to a
+boy, the future Edward VI. The triumph of the Crown at home was doubled
+by its triumph in the great dependency which had so long held the
+English authority at bay across St. George's Channel.
+
+With England and Ireland alike at his feet, Cromwell could venture on a
+last and crowning change. He could claim for the monarchy the right of
+dictating at its pleasure the form of faith and doctrine to be taught
+throughout the land. Henry had remained true to the standpoint of the
+New Learning; and the sympathies of Cromwell were mainly with those of
+his master. They had no wish for any violent break with the
+ecclesiastical forms of the past. They desired religious reform rather
+than religious revolution, a simplification of doctrine rather than any
+radical change in it, the purification of worship rather than the
+introduction of any wholly new ritual. Their theology remained, as they
+believed, a Catholic theology, but a theology cleared of the
+superstitious growths which obscured the true Catholicism of the early
+Church.
+
+In a word, their dream was the dream of Erasmus and Colet. The spirit of
+Erasmus was seen in the articles of religion which were laid before
+convocation in 1536; in the acknowledgment of justification by faith, a
+doctrine for which the founders of the New Learning, such as Contarini
+and Pole, were struggling at Rome itself; in the condemnation of
+purgatory, of pardons, and of masses for the dead, as it was seen in the
+admission of prayers for the dead and in the retention of the ceremonies
+of the Church without material change.
+
+A series of royal injunctions which followed carried out the same policy
+of reform. Pilgrimages were suppressed; the excessive number of holy
+days was curtailed; the worship of images and relics was discouraged in
+words which seemed almost copied from the protest of Erasmus. His appeal
+for a translation of the Bible which weavers might repeat at their
+shuttle and ploughmen sing at their plough received at last a reply. At
+the outset of the ministry of Norfolk and More, the King had promised an
+English version of the Scriptures, while prohibiting the circulation of
+Tyndale's Lutheran translation. The work, however, lagged in the hands
+of the bishops; and as a preliminary measure the Creed, the Lord's
+Prayer, and the Ten Commandments were now rendered into English, and
+ordered to be taught by every schoolmaster and father of a family to his
+children and pupils. But the bishops' version still hung on hand; till,
+in despair of its appearance, a friend of Archbishop Cranmer, Miles
+Coverdale, was employed to correct and revise the translation of
+Tyndale; and the Bible which he edited was published in 1538 under the
+avowed patronage of Henry himself.
+
+But the force of events was already carrying England far from the
+standpoint of Erasmus or More. The dream of the New Learning was to be
+wrought out through the progress of education and piety. In the policy
+of Cromwell, reform was to be brought about by the brute force of the
+monarchy. The story of the royal supremacy was graven even on the
+title-page of the new Bible. It is Henry on his throne who gives the
+sacred volume to Cranmer, ere Cranmer and Cromwell can distribute it to
+the throng of priests and laymen below. Hitherto men had looked on
+religious truth as a gift from the Church. They were now to look on it
+as a gift from the King. The very gratitude of Englishmen for fresh
+spiritual enlightenment was to tell to the profit of the royal power. No
+conception could be further from that of the New Learning, from the plea
+for intellectual freedom which runs through the life of Erasmus, or the
+craving for political liberty which gives nobleness to the speculations
+of More. Nor was it possible for Henry himself to avoid drifting from
+the standpoint he had chosen. He had written against Luther; he had
+persisted in opposing Lutheran doctrine; he had passed new laws to
+hinder the circulation of Lutheran books in his realm. But influences
+from without as from within drove him nearer to Lutheranism. If the
+encouragement of Francis had done somewhat to bring about his final
+breach with the papacy, he soon found little will in the French King to
+follow him in any course of separation from Rome; and the French
+alliance threatened to become useless as a shelter against the wrath of
+the Emperor.
+
+Charles was goaded into action by the bill annulling Mary's right of
+succession; and in 1535 he proposed to unite his house with that of
+Francis by close intermarriage, and to sanction Mary's marriage with a
+son of the French King if Francis would join in an attack on England.
+Whether such a proposal was serious or no, Henry had to dread attack
+from Charles himself and to look for new allies against it. He was
+driven to offer his alliance to the Lutheran princes of North Germany,
+who dreaded like himself the power of the Emperor, and who were now
+gathering in the League of Smalkald.
+
+But the German princes made agreement as to doctrine a condition of
+their alliance; and their pressure was backed by Henry's partisans among
+the clergy at home. In Cromwell's scheme for mastering the priesthood it
+had been needful to place men on whom the King could rely at their head.
+Cranmer became primate, Latimer became Bishop of Worcester, Shaxton and
+Barlow were raised to the sees of Salisbury and St. David's, Hilsey to
+that of Rochester, Goodrich to that of Ely, Fox to that of Hereford. But
+it was hard to find men among the clergy who paused at Henry's
+theological resting-place; and of these prelates all except Latimer were
+known to sympathize with Lutheranism, though Cranmer lagged far behind
+his fellows in their zeal for reform.
+
+The influence of these men, as well as of an attempt to comply at least
+partly with the demand of the German princes, left its stamp on the
+articles of 1536. For the principle of Catholicism, of a universal form
+of faith overspreading all temporal dominions, the Lutheran states had
+substituted the principle of territorial religion, of the right of each
+sovereign or people to determine the form of belief which should be held
+within their bounds. The severance from Rome had already brought Henry
+to this principle, and the Act of Supremacy was its emphatic assertion.
+
+In England, too, as in North Germany, the repudiation of the papal
+authority as a ground of faith, of the voice of the Pope as a
+declaration of truth, had driven men to find such a ground and
+declaration in the Bible; and the articles expressly based the faith of
+the Church of England on the Bible and the three creeds. With such
+fundamental principles of agreement it was possible to borrow from the
+Augsburg Confession five of the ten articles which Henry laid before the
+convocation. If penance was still retained as a sacrament, baptism and
+the Lord's Supper were alone maintained to be sacraments with it; the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, which Henry stubbornly maintained,
+differed so little from the doctrine maintained by Luther that the words
+of Lutheran formularies were borrowed to explain it; confession was
+admitted by the Lutheran churches as well as by the English. The
+veneration of saints and the doctrine of prayer to them, though still
+retained, were so modified as to present little difficulty even to a
+Lutheran.
+
+However disguised in form, the doctrinal advance made in the articles of
+1536 was an immense one; and a vehement opposition might have been
+looked for from those of the bishops like Gardiner, who, while they
+agreed with Henry's policy of establishing a national church, remained
+opposed to any change in faith. But the articles had been drawn up by
+Henry's own hand, and all whisper of opposition was hushed. Bishops,
+abbots, clergy, not only subscribed to them, but carried out with
+implicit obedience the injunctions which put their doctrine roughly into
+practice; and the failure of the Pilgrimage of Grace in the following
+autumn ended all thought of resistance among the laity.
+
+But Cromwell found a different reception for his reforms when he turned
+to extend them to the sister-island. The religious aspect of Ireland was
+hardly less chaotic than its political aspect had been. Ever since
+Strongbow's landing, there had been no one Irish church, simply because
+there had been no one Irish nation. There was not the slightest
+difference in doctrine or discipline between the Church without the pale
+and the Church within it. But within the pale the clergy were
+exclusively of English blood and speech, and without it they were
+exclusively of Irish. Irishmen were shut out by law from abbeys and
+churches within the English boundary; and the ill-will of the natives
+shut out Englishmen from churches and abbeys outside it.
+
+As to the religious state of the country, it was much on a level with
+its political condition. Feuds and misrule told fatally on
+ecclesiastical discipline. The bishops were political officers, or hard
+fighters, like the chiefs around them; their sees were neglected, their
+cathedrals abandoned to decay. Through whole dioceses the churches lay
+in ruins and without priests. The only preaching done in the country was
+done by the begging friars, and the results of the friars' preaching
+were small. "If the King do not provide a remedy," it was said in 1525,
+"there will be no more Christentie than in the middle of Turkey."
+
+Unfortunately the remedy which Henry provided was worse than the
+disease. Politically Ireland was one with England, and the great
+revolution which was severing the one country from the papacy extended
+itself naturally to the other. The results of it indeed at first seemed
+small enough. The supremacy, a question which had convulsed England,
+passed over into Ireland to meet its only obstacle in a general
+indifference. Everybody was ready to accept it without a thought of the
+consequences. The bishops and clergy within the pale bent to the King's
+will as easily as their fellows in England, and their example was
+followed by at least four prelates of dioceses without the pale.
+
+The native chieftains made no more scruple than the lords of the council
+in renouncing obedience to the Bishop of Rome, and in acknowledging
+Henry as the "supreme head of the Church of England and Ireland under
+Christ." There was none of the resistance to the dissolution of the
+abbeys which had been witnessed on the other side of the channel, and
+the greedy chieftains showed themselves perfectly willing to share the
+plunder of the Church.
+
+But the results of the measure were fatal to the little culture and
+religion which even the past centuries of disorder had spared. Such as
+they were, the religious houses were the only schools that Ireland
+contained. The system of vicars, so general in England, was rare in
+Ireland; churches in the patronage of the abbeys were for the most part
+served by the religious themselves, and the dissolution of their houses
+suspended public worship over large districts of the country. The
+friars, hitherto the only preachers, and who continued to labor and
+teach in spite of the efforts of the government, were thrown necessarily
+into a position of antagonism to the English rule.
+
+Had the ecclesiastical changes which were forced on the country ended
+here, however, in the end little harm would have been done. But in
+England the breach with Rome, the destruction of the monastic orders,
+and the establishment of the supremacy had aroused in a portion of the
+people itself a desire for theological change which Henry shared and was
+cautiously satisfying. In Ireland the spirit of the Reformation never
+existed among the people at all. They accepted the legislative measures
+passed in the English Parliament without any dream of theological
+consequences, or of any change in the doctrine or ceremonies of the
+Church. Not a single voice demanded the abolition of pilgrimages or the
+destruction of images or the reform of public worship.
+
+The mission of Archbishop Browne in 1535 "for the plucking down of idols
+and extinguishing of idolatry" was a first step in the long effort of
+the English government to force a new faith on a people who to a man
+clung passionately to their old religion. Browne's attempts at "tuning
+the pulpits" were met by a sullen and significant opposition. "Neither
+by gentle exhortation," the Archbishop wrote to Cromwell, "nor by
+evangelical instruction, neither by oath of them solemnly taken nor yet
+by threats of sharp correction, may I persuade or induce any, whether
+religious or secular, since my coming over once to preach the Word of
+God, nor the just title of our illustrious Prince."
+
+Even the acceptance of the supremacy, which had been so quietly
+effected, was brought into question when its results became clear. The
+bishops abstained from compliance with the order to erase the Pope's
+name out of their mass-books. The pulpits remained steadily silent. When
+Browne ordered the destruction of the images and relics in his own
+cathedral, he had to report that the prior and canons "find them so
+sweet for their gain that they heed not my words."
+
+Cromwell, however, was resolute for a religious uniformity between the
+two islands, and the primate borrowed some of his patron's vigor.
+Recalcitrant priests were thrown into prison, images were plucked down
+from the rood-loft, and the most venerable of Irish relics, the staff
+of St. Patrick, was burned in the market-place. But he found no support
+in his vigor save from across the channel. The Irish council looked
+coldly on; even the Lord Deputy still knelt to say prayers before an
+image at Trim. A sullen, dogged opposition baffled Cromwell's efforts,
+and their only result was to unite all Ireland against the Crown.
+
+But Cromwell found it easier to deal with Irish inaction than with the
+feverish activity which his reforms stirred in England itself. It was
+impossible to strike blow after blow at the Church without rousing wild
+hopes in the party who sympathized with the work which Luther was doing
+oversea. Few as these "Lutherans" or "Protestants" still were in
+numbers, their new hopes made them a formidable force; and in the school
+of persecution they had learned a violence which delighted in outrages
+on the faith which had so long trampled them under foot. At the very
+outset of Cromwell's changes, four Suffolk youths broke into a church at
+Dovercourt, tore down a wonder-working crucifix, and burned it in the
+fields.
+
+The suppression of the lesser monasteries was the signal for a new
+outburst of ribald insult to the old religion. The roughness, insolence,
+and extortion of the commissioners sent to effect it drove the whole
+monastic body to despair. Their servants rode along the road with copes
+for doublets or tunicles for saddle-cloths, and scattered panic among
+the larger houses which were left. Some sold their jewels and relics to
+provide for the evil day they saw approaching. Some begged of their own
+will for dissolution. It was worse when fresh ordinances of the
+vicar-general ordered the removal of objects of superstitious
+veneration. Their removal, bitter enough to those whose religion twined
+itself around the image or the relic which was taken away, was
+embittered yet more by the insults with which it was accompanied.
+
+A miraculous rood at Boxley, which bowed its head and stirred its eyes,
+was paraded from market to market and exhibited as a juggle before the
+court. Images of the Virgin were stripped of their costly vestments and
+sent to be publicly burned at London. Latimer forwarded to the capital
+the figure of Our Lady, which he had thrust out of his cathedral church
+at Worcester with rough words of scorn: "She with her old sister of
+Walsingham, her younger sister of Ipswich, and their two other sisters
+of Doncaster and Penrice, would make a jolly muster at Smithfield."
+Fresh orders were given to fling all relics from their reliquaries, and
+to level every shrine with the ground. In 1538 the bones of St. Thomas
+of Canterbury were torn from the stately shrine which had been the glory
+of his metropolitan church, and his name was erased from the
+service-books as that of a traitor.
+
+The introduction of the English Bible into churches gave a new opening
+for the zeal of the Protestants. In spite of royal injunctions that it
+should be read decently and without comment, the young zealots of the
+party prided themselves on shouting it out to a circle of excited
+hearers during the service of mass, and accompanied their reading with
+violent expositions. Protestant maidens took the new English primer to
+church with them and studied it ostentatiously during matins. Insult
+passed into open violence when the bishops' courts were invaded and
+broken up by Protestant mobs; and law and public opinion were outraged
+at once when priests who favored the new doctrines began openly to bring
+home wives to their vicarages.
+
+A fiery outburst of popular discussion compensated for the silence of
+the pulpits. The new Scriptures, in Henry's bitter words of complaint,
+were "disputed, rhymed, sung, and jangled in every tavern and alehouse."
+The articles which dictated the belief of the English Church roused a
+furious controversy. Above all, the sacrament of the mass, the centre of
+the Catholic system of faith and worship, and which still remained
+sacred to the bulk of Englishmen, was attacked with a scurrility and
+profaneness which pass belief. The doctrine of transubstantiation, which
+was as yet recognized by law, was held up in scorn in ballads and
+mystery plays. In one church a Protestant lawyer raised a dog in his
+hands when the priest elevated the host. The most sacred words of the
+old worship, the words of consecration, "_Hoc est corpus_," were
+travestied into a nickname for jugglery as "Hocus-pocus."
+
+It was by this attack on the mass, even more than by the other outrages,
+that the temper both of Henry and the nation was stirred to a deep
+resentment. With the Protestants Henry had no sympathy whatever. He was
+a man of the New Learning; he was proud of his orthodoxy and of his
+title of "Defender of the Faith." And above all he shared to the utmost
+his people's love of order, their clinging to the past, their hatred of
+extravagance and excess. The first sign of reaction was seen in the
+parliament of 1539. Never had the houses shown so little care for
+political liberty. The monarchy seemed to free itself from all
+parliamentary restrictions whatever when a formal statute gave the
+King's proclamations the force of parliamentary laws.
+
+Nor did the Church find favor with them. No word of the old opposition
+was heard when a bill was introduced granting to the King the greater
+monasteries which had been saved in 1536. More than six hundred
+religious houses fell at a blow, and so great was the spoil that the
+King promised never again to call on his people for subsidies. But the
+houses were equally at one in withstanding the new innovations of
+religion, and an act for "abolishing diversity of opinions in certain
+articles concerning Christian religion" passed with general assent. On
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, which was reasserted by the first of
+six articles to which the act owes its usual name, there was no
+difference of feeling or belief between the men of the New Learning and
+the older Catholics. But the road to a further instalment of even
+moderate reform seemed closed by the five other articles which
+sanctioned communion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monastic
+vows, private masses, and auricular confession.
+
+A more terrible feature of the reaction was the revival of persecution.
+Burning was denounced as the penalty for a denial of transubstantiation;
+on a second offence it became the penalty for an infraction of the other
+five doctrines. A refusal to confess or to attend mass was made felony.
+It was in vain that Cranmer, with the five bishops who partially
+sympathized with the Protestants, struggled against the bill in the
+lords: the commons were "all of one opinion," and Henry himself acted as
+spokesman on the side of the articles. In London alone five hundred
+Protestants were indicted under the new act. Latimer and Shaxton were
+imprisoned, and the former forced into a resignation of his see. Cranmer
+himself was only saved by Henry's personal favor. But the first burst
+of triumph was no sooner spent than the hand of Cromwell made itself
+felt. Though his opinions remained those of the New Learning and
+differed little from the general sentiment which found itself
+represented in the act, he leaned instinctively to the one party which
+did not long for his fall. His wish was to restrain the Protestant
+excesses, but he had no mind to ruin the Protestants. In a little time
+therefore the bishops were quietly released. The London indictments were
+quashed. The magistrates were checked in their enforcement of the law,
+while a general pardon cleared the prisons of the heretics who had been
+arrested under its provisions.
+
+A few months after the enactment of the Six Articles we find from a
+Protestant letter that persecution had wholly ceased, "the Word is
+powerfully preached and books of every kind may safely be exposed for
+sale." Never indeed had Cromwell shown such greatness as in his last
+struggle against fate. "Beknaved" by the King, whose confidence in him
+waned as he discerned the full meaning of the religious changes which
+Cromwell had brought about, met too by a growing opposition in the
+council as his favor declined, the temper of the man remained
+indomitable as ever. He stood absolutely alone. Wolsey, hated as he had
+been by the nobles, had been supported by the Church; but churchmen
+hated Cromwell with an even fiercer hate than the nobles themselves. His
+only friends were the Protestants, and their friendship was more fatal
+than the hatred of his foes. But he showed no signs of fear or of
+halting in the course he had entered on. So long as Henry supported him,
+however reluctant his support might be, he was more than a match for his
+foes.
+
+He was strong enough to expel his chief opponent, Bishop Gardiner of
+Winchester, from the royal council. He met the hostility of the nobles
+with a threat which marked his power. "If the lords would handle him so,
+he would give them such a breakfast as never was made in England, and
+that the proudest of them should know."
+
+He soon gave a terrible earnest of the way in which he could fulfil his
+threat. The opposition to his system gathered, above all, round two
+houses which represented what yet lingered of the Yorkist tradition, the
+Courtenays and the Poles. Courtenay, the Marquis of Exeter, was of royal
+blood, a grandson through his mother of Edward IV. He was known to have
+bitterly denounced the "knaves that ruled about the King"; and his
+threats to "give them some day a buffet" were formidable in the mouth of
+one whose influence in the western counties was supreme.
+
+Margaret, the Countess of Salisbury, a daughter of the Duke of Clarence
+by the heiress of the Earl of Warwick, and a niece of Edward IV, had
+married Sir Richard Pole, and became mother of Lord Montacute as of Sir
+Geoffry and Reginald Pole. The temper of her house might be guessed from
+the conduct of the younger of the three brothers. After refusing the
+highest favors from Henry as the price of his approval of the divorce,
+Reginald Pole had taken refuge at Rome, where he had bitterly attacked
+the King in a book, _The Unity of the Church_.
+
+"There may be found ways enough in Italy," Cromwell wrote to him in
+significant words, "to rid a treacherous subject. When Justice can take
+no place by process of law at home, sometimes she may be enforced to
+take new means abroad." But he had left hostages in Henry's hands. "Pity
+that the folly of one witless fool," Cromwell wrote ominously, "should
+be the ruin of so great a family. Let him follow ambition as fast as he
+can, those that little have offended (saving that he is of their kin),
+were it not for the great mercy and benignity of the Prince, should and
+might feel what it is to have such a traitor as their kinsman." The
+"great mercy and benignity of the Prince" was no longer to shelter them.
+
+In 1538 the Pope, Paul III, published a bull of excommunication and
+deposition against Henry, and Pole pressed the Emperor vigorously,
+though ineffectually, to carry the bull into execution. His efforts only
+brought about, as Cromwell had threatened, the ruin of his house. His
+brother, Lord Montacute, and the Marquis of Exeter, with other friends
+of the two great families, were arrested on a charge of treason and
+executed in the opening of 1539, while the Countess of Salisbury was
+attainted in parliament and sent to the Tower.
+
+Almost as terrible an act of bloodshed closed the year. The abbots of
+Glastonbury, Reading, and Colchester, men who had sat as mitred abbots
+among the lords, were charged with a denial of the King's supremacy and
+hanged as traitors. But Cromwell relied for success on more than
+terror. His single will forced on a scheme of foreign policy whose aim
+was to bind England to the cause of the Reformation while it bound Henry
+helplessly to his minister. The daring boast which his enemies laid
+afterward to Cromwell's charge, whether uttered or not, is but the
+expression of his system--"In brief time he would bring things to such a
+pass that the King with all his power should not be able to hinder him."
+
+His plans rested, like the plan which proved fatal to Wolsey, on a fresh
+marriage of his master; Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, had died in
+childbirth; and in the opening of 1540 Cromwell replaced her by a German
+consort, Anne of Cleves, a sister-in-law of the Lutheran Elector of
+Saxony. He dared even to resist Henry's caprice when the King revolted
+on their first interview from the coarse features and unwieldy form of
+his new bride. For the moment Cromwell had brought matters "to such a
+pass" that it was impossible to recoil from the marriage, and the
+minister's elevation to the earldom of Essex seemed to proclaim his
+success.
+
+The marriage of Anne of Cleves, however, was but the first step in a
+policy which, had it been carried out as he designed it, would have
+anticipated the triumphs of Richelieu. Charles and the house of Austria
+could alone bring about a Catholic reaction strong enough to arrest and
+roll back the Reformation; and Cromwell was no sooner united with the
+princes of North Germany than he sought to league them with France for
+the overthrow of the Emperor.
+
+Had he succeeded, the whole face of Europe would have been changed,
+Southern Germany would have been secured for Protestantism, and the
+Thirty Years' War averted. But he failed as men fail who stand ahead of
+their age. The German princes shrank from a contest with the Emperor,
+France from a struggle which would be fatal to Catholicism; and Henry,
+left alone to bear the resentment of the house of Austria and chained to
+a wife he loathed, turned savagely on his minister.
+
+In June the long struggle came to an end. The nobles sprang on Cromwell
+with a fierceness that told of their long-hoarded hate. Taunts and
+execrations burst from the Lords at the council table as the Duke of
+Norfolk, who had been intrusted with the minister's arrest, tore the
+ensign of the garter from his neck. At the charge of treason Cromwell
+flung his cap on the ground with a passionate cry of despair. "This,
+then," he exclaimed, "is my guerdon for the services I have done! On
+your consciences, I ask you, am I a traitor?" Then, with a sudden sense
+that all was over, he bade his foes make quick work, and not leave him
+to languish in prison.
+
+Quick work was made. A few days after his arrest he was attainted in
+parliament, and at the close of July a burst of popular applause hailed
+his death on the scaffold.
+
+
+
+
+CARTIER EXPLORES CANADA
+
+FRENCH ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION
+
+A.D. 1534
+
+H. H. MILES
+
+
+     Early in the sixteenth century, when France, after the
+     Hundred Years' War with England, had begun to be a notable
+     European power, the nation, under the young and brilliant
+     Francis I, took up the project of prosecuting New World
+     discovery and obtaining a firm footing on the mainland of
+     America. The French King's attention had been directed to
+     the enterprise by his grand admiral, Philip de Chabot, who
+     seems to have been interested in the hardy mariner and
+     skilled navigator, Jacques Cartier, and wished to place him
+     at the head of an expedition to the New World, to prosecute
+     discovery on the northeastern coast of America. This was in
+     the year A.D. 1534, ten year after Verrazano had been in the
+     region and named it New France, in honor of the French King.
+     On April 20, 1534, Cartier, with two small vessels of about
+     sixty tons each, set sail from the Britanny port of St. Malo
+     for Newfoundland, on the banks of which Cartier's Breton and
+     Norman countrymen had long been accustomed to fish. The
+     incidents of this and the subsequent voyages of the St. Malo
+     mariner, with an account of the expedition under the Viceroy
+     of Canada, the Sieur de Roberval, will be found appended in
+     Dr. Miles' interesting narrative.
+
+
+Canada was discovered in the year 1534, by Jacques Cartier (or
+Quartier), a mariner belonging to the small French seaport St. Malo. He
+was a man in whom were combined the qualities of prudence, industry,
+skill, perseverance, courage, and a deep sense of religion. Commissioned
+by the King of France, Francis I, he conducted three successive
+expeditions across the Atlantic for the purpose of prosecuting discovery
+in the western hemisphere; and it is well understood that he had
+previously gained experience in seamanship on board fishing-vessels
+trading between Europe and the Banks of Newfoundland.
+
+He was selected and recommended to the King for appointment as one who
+might be expected to realize, for the benefit of France, some of the
+discoveries of his predecessor, Verrazano, which had been attended with
+no substantial result, since this navigator and his companions had
+scarcely done more than view, from a distance, the coasts of the
+extensive regions to which the name of New France had been given. It was
+also expected of Cartier that, through his endeavors, valuable lands
+would be taken possession of in the King's name, and that places
+suitable for settlement, and stations for carrying on traffic, would be
+established. Moreover, it was hoped that the precious metals would be
+procured in those parts, and that a passage onward to China (Cathay) and
+the East Indies would be found out. And, finally, the ambitious
+sovereign of France was induced to believe that, in spite of the
+pretensions of Portugal and Spain,[44] he might make good his own claim
+to a share in transatlantic territories.
+
+With such objects in view, Jacques Cartier set sail from St. Malo, on
+Monday, April 20, 1534.[45] His command consisted of two small vessels,
+with crews amounting to about one hundred twenty men, and provisioned
+for four or five months.
+
+On May 10th the little squadron arrived off Cape Bonavista,
+Newfoundland; but, as the ice and snow of the previous winter had not
+yet disappeared, the vessels were laid up for ten days in a harbor near
+by, named St. Catherine's. From this, on the 21st, they sailed northward
+to an island northeast of Cape Bonavista, situated about forty miles
+from the mainland, which had been called by the Portuguese the "Isle of
+Birds." Here were found several species of birds which, it appears,
+frequented the island at that season of the year in prodigious numbers,
+so that, according to Cartier's own narrative, the crews had no
+difficulty in capturing enough of them, both for their immediate use and
+to fill eight or ten large barrels (_pippes_) for future consumption.
+Bears and foxes are described as passing from the mainland, in order to
+feed upon the birds as well as their eggs and young.
+
+From the Isle of Birds the ships proceeded northward and westward until
+they came to the Straits of Belle-Isle, when they were detained by foul
+weather, and by ice, in a harbor, from May 27th until June 9th. The
+ensuing fifteen days were spent in exploring the coast of Labrador as
+far as Blanc Sablon and the western coast of Newfoundland. For the most
+part these regions, including contiguous islands, were pronounced by
+Cartier to be unfit for settlement, especially Labrador, of which he
+remarks, "it might, as well as not, be taken for the country assigned by
+God to Cain." From the shore of Newfoundland the vessels were steered
+westward across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and about June 25th arrived in
+the vicinity of the Magdalen Islands. Of an island named "Isle Bryon,"
+Cartier says it contained the best land they had yet seen, and that "one
+acre of it was worth the whole of Newfoundland." Birds were plentiful,
+and on its shores were to be seen "beasts as large as oxen and
+possessing great tusks like elephants, which, when approached, leaped
+suddenly into the sea." There were very fine trees and rich tracts of
+ground, on which were seen growing quantities of "wild corn, peas in
+flower, currants, strawberries, roses, and sweet herbs." Cartier noticed
+the character of the tides and waves, which swept high and strong among
+the islands, and which suggested to his mind the existence of an opening
+between the south of Newfoundland and Cape Breton.
+
+Toward the end of June the islands and mainland of the northwest part of
+the territory now called New Brunswick came in sight, and, as land was
+approached, Cartier began at once to search for a passage through which
+he might sail farther westward.
+
+The ships' boats were several times lowered, and the crews made to row
+close inshore in the bays and inlets, for the purpose of discovering an
+opening. On these occasions natives were sometimes seen upon the beach,
+or moving about in bark canoes, with whom the French contrived to
+establish a friendly intercourse and traffic, by means of signs and
+presents of hatchets, knives, small crucifixes, beads, and toys. On one
+occasion they had in sight from forty to fifty canoes full of savages,
+of which seven paddled close up to the French boats, so as to surround
+them, and were driven away only by demonstrations of force. Cartier
+learned afterward that it was customary for these savages to come down
+from parts more inland, in great numbers, to the coast, during the
+fishing season, and that this was the cause of his finding so many of
+them at that time. On the 7th day of the month a considerable body of
+the same savages came about the ships, and some traffic occurred. Gifts,
+consisting of knives, hatchets, and toys, along with a red cap for their
+head chief, caused them to depart in great joy.
+
+Early in July, Cartier found that he was in a considerable bay, which he
+named "La Baie des Chaleurs." He continued to employ his boats in the
+examination of the smaller inlets and mouths of the rivers flowing into
+the bay, hoping that an opening might be discovered similar to that by
+which, a month before, he had passed round the north of Newfoundland
+into the gulf. After the 16th the weather was boisterous, and the ships
+were anchored for shelter close to the shore several days. During this
+time the savages came there to fish for mackerel, which were abundant,
+and held friendly intercourse with Cartier and his people. They were
+very poor and miserably clad in old skins, and sang and danced to
+testify their pleasure on receiving the presents which the French
+distributed among them.
+
+Sailing eastward and northward, the vessels next passed along the coast
+of Gaspé, upon which the French landed and held intercourse with the
+natives. Cartier resolved to take formal possession of the country, and
+to indicate, in a conspicuous manner, that he did so in the name of the
+King, his master, and in the interests of religion. With these objects
+in view, on Friday, July 24th, a huge wooden cross, thirty feet in
+height, was constructed, and was raised with much ceremony, in sight of
+many of the Indians, close to the entrance of the harbor; three
+_fleurs-de-lys_ being carved under the cross, and an inscription, "_Vive
+le Roy de France_." The French formed a circle on their knees around it,
+and made signs to attract the attention of the savages, pointing up to
+the heavens, "as if to show that by the cross came their redemption."
+These ceremonies being ended, Cartier and his people went on board,
+followed from the shore by many of the Indians. Among these the
+principal chief, with his brother and three sons, in one canoe, came
+near Cartier's ship. He made an oration, in course of which he pointed
+toward the high cross, and then to the surrounding territory, as much as
+to say that it all belonged to him, and that the French ought not to
+have planted it there without his permission. The sight of hatchets and
+knives displayed before him, in such a manner as to show a desire to
+trade with him, made him approach nearer, and, at the same time, several
+sailors, entering his canoe, easily induced him and his companions to
+pass into the ship. Cartier, by signs, endeavored to persuade the chief
+that the cross had been erected as a beacon to mark the way into the
+harbor; that he would revisit the place and bring hatchets, knives, and
+other things made of iron, and that he desired the friendship of his
+people. Food and drink were offered, of which they partook freely, when
+Cartier made known to the chief his wish to take two of his sons away
+with him for a time. The chief and his sons appear to have readily
+assented. The young men at once put on colored garments, supplied by
+Cartier, throwing out their old clothing to others near the ship. The
+chief, with his brother and remaining son, were then dismissed with
+presents. About midday, however, just as the ships were about to move
+farther from shore, six canoes, full of Indians, came to them, bringing
+presents of fish, and to enable the friends of the chief's sons to bid
+them adieu. Cartier took occasion to enjoin upon the savages the
+necessity of guarding the cross which had been erected, upon which the
+Indians replied in unintelligible language. Next day, July 25th, the
+vessels left the harbor with a fair wind, making sail northward to 50°
+latitude. It was intended to prosecute the voyage farther westward, if
+possible; but adverse winds, and the appearance of the distant
+headlands, discouraged Cartier's hopes so much that on Wednesday, August
+5th, after taking counsel with his officers and pilots, he decided that
+it was not safe to attempt more that season. The little squadron,
+therefore, bore off toward the east and northeast, and made Blanc Sablon
+on the 9th. Continuing thence their passage into the Atlantic, they
+were favored with fair winds, which carried them to the middle of the
+ocean, between Newfoundland and Bretagne. They then encountered storms
+and adverse winds, respecting which Cartier piously remarks: "We
+suffered and endured these with the aid of God, and after that we had
+good weather and arrived at the harbor of St. Malo, whence we had set
+out, on September 5, 1534." Thus ended Jacques Cartier's first voyage to
+Canada. As a French-Canadian historian of Canada has observed, this
+first expedition was not "sterile in results"; for, in addition to the
+other notable incidents of the voyage, the two natives whom he carried
+with him to France are understood to have been the first to inform him
+of the existence of the great river St. Lawrence, which he was destined
+to discover the following year.
+
+It is not certainly known how nearly he advanced to the mouth of that
+river on his passage from Gaspé Bay. But it is believed that he passed
+round the western point of Anticosti, subsequently named by him Isle de
+l'Assumption, and that he then turned to the east, leaving behind the
+entrance into the great river, which he then supposed to be an extensive
+bay, and, coasting along the shore of Labrador, came to the river
+Natachquoin, near Mount Joli, whence, as already stated, he passed
+eastward and northward to Blanc Sablon.
+
+Cartier and his companions were favorably received on their return to
+France. The expectations of his employers had been to a certain extent
+realized, while the narrative of the voyage, and the prospects which
+this afforded of greater results in future, inspired such feelings of
+hope and confidence that there seems to have been no hesitation in
+furnishing means for the equipment of another expedition. The Indians
+who had been brought to France were instructed in the French language,
+and served also as specimens of the people inhabiting his majesty's
+western dominions. During the winter the necessary preparations were
+made.
+
+On the May 19, 1535, Cartier took his departure from St. Malo on his
+second expedition. It was in every way better equipped than that of the
+preceding year, and consisted of three ships, manned by one hundred ten
+sailors. A number of gentlemen volunteers from France accompanied it.
+Cartier himself embarked on board the largest vessel, which was named
+La Grande Hermine, along with his two interpreters. Adverse winds
+lengthened the voyage, so that seven weeks were occupied in sailing to
+the Straits of Belle-Isle. Thence the squadron made for the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence, so named by Cartier in honor of the day upon which he entered
+it. Emboldened by the information derived from his Indian interpreters,
+he sailed up the great river, at first named the River of Canada, or of
+Hochelaga. The mouth of the Saguenay was passed on September 1st, and
+the island of Orleans reached on the 9th. To this he gave the name "Isle
+of Bacchus," on account of the abundance of grape-vines upon it.
+
+On the 16th the ships arrived off the headland since known as Cape
+Diamond. Near to this, a small river, called by Cartier St. Croix, now
+the St. Charles, was observed flowing into the St. Lawrence,
+intercepting, at the confluence, a piece of lowland, which was the site
+of the Indian village Stadacona. Towering above this, on the left bank
+of the greater river, was Cape Diamond and the contiguous highland,
+which in after times became the site of the Upper Town of Quebec. A
+little way within the mouth of the St. Croix, Cartier selected stations
+suitable for mooring and laying up his vessels; for he seems, on his
+arrival at Stadacona, to have already decided upon wintering in the
+country. This design was favored, not only by the advanced period of the
+season, but also by the fact that the natives appeared to be friendly
+and in a position to supply his people abundantly with provisions. Many
+hundreds came off from the shore in bark canoes, bringing fish, maize,
+and fruit.
+
+Aided by the two interpreters, the French endeavored at once to
+establish a friendly intercourse. A chief, Donacona, made an oration,
+and expressed his desire for amicable relations between his own people
+and their visitors. Cartier, on his part, tried to allay apprehension,
+and to obtain information respecting the country higher up the great
+river. Wishing also to impress upon the minds of the savages a
+conviction of the French power, he caused several pieces of artillery to
+be discharged in the presence of the chief and a number of his warriors.
+Fear and astonishment were occasioned by the sight of the fire and
+smoke, followed by sounds such as they had never heard before. Presents,
+consisting of trinkets, small crosses, beads, pieces of glass, and other
+trifles, were distributed among them.
+
+Cartier allowed himself a rest of only three days at Stadacona, deeming
+it expedient to proceed at once up the river with an exploring party.
+For this purpose he manned his smallest ship, the Ermerillon, and two
+boats, and departed on the 19th of September, leaving the other ships
+safely moored at the mouth of the St. Charles. He had learned from the
+Indians that there was another town, called Hochelaga, situated about
+sixty leagues above. Cartier and his companions, the first European
+navigators of the St. Lawrence, and the earliest pioneers of
+civilization and Christianity in those regions, moved very slowly up the
+river. At the part since called Lake St. Peter the water seemed to
+become more and more shallow. The Ermerillon, was therefore left as well
+secured as possible, and the remainder of the passage made in the two
+boats. Frequent meetings, of a friendly nature, with Indians on the
+river bank, caused delays, so that they did not arrive at Hochelaga
+until October 2d.
+
+As described by Cartier himself, this town consisted of about fifty
+large huts or cabins, which, for purposes of defence, were surrounded by
+wooden palisades. There were upward of twelve hundred inhabitants,[46]
+belonging to some Algonquin tribe.
+
+At Hochelaga, as previously at Stadacona, the French were received by
+the natives in a friendly manner. Supplies of fish and maize were freely
+offered, and, in return, presents of beads, knives, small mirrors, and
+crucifixes were distributed. Entering into communication with them,
+Cartier sought information respecting the country higher up the river.
+From their imperfect intelligence it appears he learned the existence of
+several great lakes, and that beyond the largest and most remote of
+these there was another great river which flowed southward. They
+conducted him to the summit of a mountain behind the town, whence he
+surveyed the prospect of a wilderness stretching to the south and west
+as far as the eye could reach, and beautifully diversified by elevations
+of land and by water. Whatever credit Cartier attached to their vague
+statements about the geography of their country, he was certainly struck
+by the grandeur of the neighboring scenery as viewed from the eminence
+on which he stood. To this he gave the name of Mount Royal, whence the
+name of Montreal was conferred on the city which has grown up on the
+site of the ancient Indian town Hochelaga.
+
+According to some accounts, Hochelaga was, even in those days, a place
+of importance, having subject to it eight or ten outlying settlements or
+villages.
+
+Anxious to return to Stadacona, and probably placing little confidence
+in the friendly professions of the natives, Cartier remained at
+Hochelaga only two days, and commenced his passage down the river on
+October 4th. His wary mistrust of the Indian character was not
+groundless, for bands of savages followed along the banks and watched
+all the proceedings of his party. On one occasion he was attacked by
+them and narrowly escaped massacre.
+
+Arriving at Stadacona on the 11th, measures were taken for maintenance
+and security during the approaching winter. Abundant provisions had been
+already stored up by the natives and assigned for the use of the
+strangers. A fence or palisade was constructed round the ships, and made
+as strong as possible, and cannon so placed as to be available in case
+of any attack. Notwithstanding these precautions, it turned out that, in
+one essential particular, the preparations for winter were defective.
+Jacques Cartier and his companions being the first of Europeans to
+experience the rigors of a Canadian winter, the necessity for warm
+clothing had not been foreseen when the expedition left France, and
+now, when winter was upon them, the procuring of a supply was simply
+impossible. The winter proved long and severe. Masses of ice began to
+come down the St. Lawrence on November 15th, and, not long afterward, a
+bridge of ice was formed opposite to Stadacona. Soon the intensity of
+the cold--such as Cartier's people had never before experienced--and the
+want of suitable clothing occasioned much suffering. Then, in December,
+a disease, but little known to Europeans, broke out among the crew. It
+was the scurvy, named by the French _mal-de-terre_.
+
+As described by Cartier, it was very painful, loathsome in its symptoms
+and effects, as well as contagious. The legs and thighs of the patients
+swelled, the sinews contracted, and the skin became black. In some cases
+the whole body was covered with purple spots and sore tumors. After a
+time the upper parts of the body--the back, arms, shoulders, neck, and
+face--were all painfully affected. The roof of the mouth, gums, and
+teeth fell out. Altogether, the sufferers presented a deplorable
+spectacle.
+
+Many died between December and April, during which period the greatest
+care was taken to conceal their true condition from the natives. Had
+this not been done, it is to be feared that Donacona's people would have
+forced an entrance and put all to death for the purpose of obtaining the
+property of the French. In fact, the two interpreters were, on the
+whole, unfaithful, living entirely at Stadacona; while Donacona, and the
+Indians generally, showed, in many ways, that, under a friendly
+exterior, unfavorable feelings reigned in their hearts.
+
+But the attempts to hide their condition from the natives might have
+been fatal, for the Indians, who also suffered from scurvy, were
+acquainted with means of curing the disease. It was only by accident
+that Cartier found out what those means were. He had forbidden the
+savages to come on board the ships, and when any of them came near the
+only men allowed to be seen by them were those who were in health. One
+day, Domagaya was observed approaching. This man, the younger of the two
+interpreters, was known to have been sick of the scurvy at Stadacona, so
+that Cartier was much surprised to see him out and well. He contrived to
+make him relate the particulars of his recovery, and thus found out
+that a decoction of the bark and foliage of the white spruce-tree
+furnished the savages with a remedy. Having recourse to this enabled the
+French captain to arrest the progress of the disease among his own
+people, and, in a short time, to bring about their restoration to
+health.
+
+The meeting with Domagaya occurred at a time when the French were in a
+very sad state--reduced to the brink of despair. Twenty-five of the
+number had died, while forty more were in expectation of soon following
+their deceased comrades. Of the remaining forty-five, including Cartier
+and all the surviving officers, only three or four were really free from
+disease. The dead could not be buried, nor was it possible for the sick
+to be properly cared for.
+
+In this extremity, the stout-hearted French captain could think of no
+other remedy than a recourse to prayers and the setting up of an image
+of the Virgin Mary in sight of the sufferers. "But," he piously
+exclaimed, "God, in his holy grace, looked down in pity upon us, and
+sent to us a knowledge of the means of cure." He had great apprehensions
+of an attack from the savages, for he says in his narrative: "We were in
+a marvellous state of terror lest the people of the country should
+ascertain our pitiable condition and our weakness," and then goes on to
+relate artifices by which he contrived to deceive them.
+
+One of the ships had to be abandoned in course of the winter, her crew
+and contents being removed into the other two vessels. The deserted hull
+was visited by the savages in search of pieces of iron and other things.
+Had they known the cause for abandoning her, and the desperate condition
+of the French, they would have soon forced their way into the other
+ships. They were, in fact, too numerous to be resisted if they had made
+the attempt.
+
+At length the protracted winter came to an end. As soon as the ships
+were clear of ice, Cartier made preparations for returning at once to
+France.
+
+On May 3, 1536, a wooden cross, thirty-five feet high, was raised upon
+the river bank. Donacona was invited to approach, along with his people.
+When he did so, Cartier caused him, together with the two interpreters
+and seven warriors, to be seized and taken on board his ship. His object
+was to convey them to France and present them to the King. On the 6th,
+the two vessels departed. Upward of six weeks were spent in descending
+the St. Lawrence and traversing the gulf. Instead of passing through the
+Straits of Belle-Isle, Cartier this time made for the south coast of
+Newfoundland, along which he sailed out into the Atlantic Ocean. On
+Sunday, July 17, 1536, he arrived at St. Malo.
+
+By the results of this second voyage, Jacques Cartier established for
+himself a reputation and a name in history which will never cease to be
+remembered with respect. He had discovered one of the largest rivers in
+the world, had explored its banks, and navigated its difficult channel
+more than eight hundred miles, with a degree of skill and courage which
+has never been surpassed; for it was a great matter in those days to
+penetrate so far into unknown regions, to encounter the hazards of an
+unknown navigation, and to risk his own safety and that of his followers
+among an unknown people. Moreover, his accounts of the incidents of his
+sojourn of eight months, and of the features of the country, as well as
+his estimate of the two principal sites upon which, in after times, the
+two cities, Quebec and Montreal, have grown up, illustrate both his
+fidelity and his sagacity. His dealings with the natives appear to have
+been such as to prove his tact, prudence, and sense of justice,
+notwithstanding the objectionable procedure of capturing and carrying
+off Donacona with other chiefs and warriors. This latter measure,
+however indefensible in itself, was consistent with the almost universal
+practice of navigators of that period and long afterward. Doubtless
+Cartier's expectation was that their abduction could not but result in
+their own benefit by leading to their instruction in civilization and
+Christianity, and that it might be afterward instrumental in producing
+the rapid conversion of large numbers of their people. However this may
+be, considering the inherent viciousness of the Indian character,
+Cartier's intercourse with the Indians was conducted with dignity and
+benevolence, and was marked by the total absence of bloodshed--which is
+more than can be urged in behalf of other eminent discoverers and
+navigators of those days or during the ensuing two centuries. Cartier
+was undoubtedly one of the greatest sea-captains of his own or any other
+country, and one who provided carefully for the safety and welfare of
+his followers, and, so far as we know, enjoyed their respect and
+confidence; nor were his plans hindered or his proceedings embarrassed
+by disobedience on their part or the display of mutinous conduct
+calculated to mar the success of a maritime expedition. In fine, Jacques
+Cartier was a noble specimen of a mariner, in an age when a maritime
+spirit prevailed.
+
+A severe disappointment awaited Cartier on his return home from his
+second voyage. France was now engaged in a foreign war; and at the same
+time the minds of the people were distracted by religious dissensions.
+In consequence of these untoward circumstances, both the court and the
+people had ceased to give heed to the objects which he had been so
+faithfully engaged in prosecuting in the western hemisphere. Neither he
+nor his friends could obtain even a hearing in behalf of the fitting out
+of another expedition, for the attention of the King and his advisers
+was now absorbed by weightier cares at home. Nevertheless, from time to
+time, as occasion offered, several unsuccessful attempts were made to
+introduce the project of establishing a French colony on the banks of
+the St. Lawrence. Meanwhile, Donacona, and the other Indian warriors who
+had been brought captives to France, pined away and died.
+
+At length, after an interval of about four years, proposals for another
+voyage westward, and for colonizing the country, came to be so far
+entertained that plans of an expedition were permitted to be discussed.
+But now, instead of receiving the unanimous support which had been
+accorded to previous undertakings, the project was opposed by a powerful
+party at court, consisting of persons who tried to dissuade the King
+from granting his assent. These alleged that enough had already been
+done for the honor of their country; that it was not expedient to take
+in hand the subjugation and settlement of those far-distant regions,
+tenanted only by savages and wild animals; that the intensely severe
+climate and hardships such as had proved fatal to one-fourth of
+Cartier's people in 1535, were certain evils, which there was no
+prospect of advantage to outweigh; that the newly discovered country had
+not been shown to possess mines of gold and silver; and, finally, that
+such extensive territories could not be effectively settled without
+transporting thither a considerable part of the population of the
+kingdom of France.
+
+Notwithstanding the apparent force of these objections, the French King
+did eventually sanction the project of another transatlantic enterprise
+on a larger scale than heretofore.
+
+A sum of money was granted by the King toward the purchase and equipment
+of ships, to be placed under the command of Jacques Cartier, having the
+commission of captain-general.[47] Apart from the navigation of the
+fleet, the chief command in the undertaking was assigned to M. de
+Roberval, who, in a commission dated January 15, 1540, was named viceroy
+and lieutenant-general over Newfoundland, Labrador, and Canada. Roberval
+was empowered to engage volunteers and emigrants, and to supply the lack
+of these by means of prisoners to be taken from the jails and hulks.
+Thus, in about five years from the discovery of the river St. Lawrence,
+and, six years after, of Canada, measures were taken for founding a
+colony. But from the very commencement of the undertaking, which, it
+will be seen, proved an entire failure, difficulties presented
+themselves. Roberval was unable to provide all the requisite supplies of
+small arms, ammunition, and other stores, as he had engaged to do,
+during the winter of 1540. It also was found difficult to induce
+volunteers and emigrants to embark. It was, therefore, settled that
+Roberval should remain behind to complete his preparations, while
+Cartier, with five vessels, provisioned for two years, should set sail
+at once for the St. Lawrence.
+
+On May 23, 1541, Cartier departed from St. Malo on his third voyage to
+Canada. After a protracted passage of twelve weeks, the fleet arrived at
+Stadacona. Cartier and some of his people landed and entered into
+communication with the natives, who flocked round him as they had done
+in 1535. They desired to know what had become of their chief, Donacona,
+and the warriors who had been carried off to France five years before.
+On being made aware that all had died, they became distant and sullen in
+their behavior. They held out no inducements to the French to
+reëstablish their quarters at Stadacona. Perceiving this, as well as
+signs of dissimulation, Cartier determined to take such steps as might
+secure himself and followers from suffering through their resentment.
+Two of his ships he sent back at once to France, with letters for the
+King and for Roberval, reporting his movements, and soliciting such
+supplies as were needed. With the remaining ships he ascended the St.
+Lawrence as far as Cap-Rouge, where a station was chosen close to the
+mouth of a stream which flowed into the great river. Here it was
+determined to moor the ships and to erect such storehouses and other
+works as might be necessary for security and convenience. It was also
+decided to raise a small fort or forts on the highland above, so as to
+command the station and protect themselves from any attack which the
+Indians might be disposed to make. While some of the people were
+employed upon the building of the fort, others were set at work
+preparing ground for cultivation. Cartier himself, in his report, bore
+ample testimony to the excellent qualities of the soil, as well as the
+general fitness of the country for settlement.[48]
+
+Having made all the dispositions necessary for the security of the
+station at Cap-Rouge, and for continuing, during his absence, the works
+already commenced, Cartier departed for Hochelaga on September 7th, with
+a party of men, in two barges. On the passage up he found the Indians
+whom he had met in 1535 as friendly as before. The natives of Hochelaga
+seemed also well disposed, and rendered all the assistance he sought in
+enabling him to attempt the passage up the rapids situated above that
+town. Failing to accomplish this, he remained but a short time among
+them, gathering all the information they could furnish about the regions
+bordering on the Upper St. Lawrence. He then hastened back to Cap-Rouge.
+On his way down he found the Indians, who a short time before were so
+friendly, changed and cold in their demeanor, if not actually hostile.
+Arrived at Cap-Rouge, the first thing he learned was that the Indians
+had ceased to visit the station as at first, and, instead of coming
+daily with supplies of fish and fruit, that they only approached near
+enough to manifest, by their demeanor and gestures, feelings decidedly
+hostile toward the French. In fact, during Cartier's absence, former
+causes of enmity had been heightened by a quarrel, in which, although
+some of his own people had, in the first instance, been the aggressors,
+a powerful savage had killed a Frenchman, and threatened to deal with
+another in like manner.
+
+Winter came, but not Roberval with the expected supplies of warlike
+stores and men, now so much needed, in order to curb the insolence of
+the natives. Of the incidents of that winter passed at Cap-Rouge, there
+is but little reliable information extant. It is understood, however,
+that the Indians continued to harass and molest the French throughout
+the period of their stay, and that Cartier, with his inadequate force,
+found it difficult to repel their attacks. When spring came round, the
+inconveniences to which they had been exposed, and the discouraging
+character of their prospects, led to a unanimous determination to
+abandon the station and return to France as soon as possible.[49]
+
+At the very time that Cartier, in Canada, was occupied in preparations
+for the reëmbarkation of the people who had wintered at Cap-Rouge,
+Roberval, in France, was completing his arrangements for departure from
+Rochelle with three considerable ships. In these were embarked two
+hundred persons, consisting of gentlemen, soldiers, sailors, and
+colonists, male and female, among whom was a considerable number of
+criminals taken out of the public prisons. The two squadrons met in the
+harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland, when Cartier, after making his
+report to Roberval, was desired to return with the outward-bound
+expedition to Canada. Foreseeing the failure of the undertaking, or, as
+some have alleged, unwilling to allow another to participate in the
+credit of his discoveries, Cartier disobeyed the orders of his superior
+officer. Various accounts have been given of this transaction, according
+to some of which, Cartier, to avoid detention or importunity, weighed
+anchor in the night-time and set sail for France.
+
+Roberval resumed his voyage westward, and by the close of July had
+ascended the St. Lawrence to Cap-Rouge, where he at once established his
+colonists in the quarters recently vacated by Cartier.
+
+It is unnecessary to narrate in detail the incidents which transpired in
+connection with Roberval's expedition, as this proved a signal failure,
+and produced no results of consequence to the future fortunes of the
+country. It is sufficient to state that, although Roberval himself was a
+man endowed with courage and perseverance, he found himself powerless to
+cope with the difficulties of his position, which included
+insubordination that could be repressed only by means of the gallows and
+other extreme modes of punishment; disease, which carried off a quarter
+of his followers in the course of the ensuing winter; unsuccessful
+attempts at exploration, attended with considerable loss of life; and
+finally famine, which reduced the surviving French to a state of abject
+dependence upon the natives for the salvation of their lives. Roberval
+had sent one of his vessels back to France, with urgent demands for
+succor; but the King, instead of acceding to his petition, despatched
+orders for him to return home. It is stated, on somewhat doubtful
+authority, that Cartier himself was deputed to bring home the relics of
+the expedition; and, if so, this distinguished navigator must have made
+a fourth voyage out to the regions which he had been the first to make
+known to the world. Thus ended Roberval's abortive attempt to establish
+a French colony on the banks of the St. Lawrence.
+
+Of the principal actors in the scenes which have been described, but
+little remains to be recorded. Roberval, after having distinguished
+himself in the European wars carried on by Francis I, is stated to have
+fitted out another expedition, in conjunction with his brother, in the
+year 1549, for the purpose of making a second attempt to found a colony
+in Canada; but he and all with him perished at sea. The intrepid
+Cartier, by whose services in the western hemisphere so extensive an
+addition had been made to the dominions of the King of France, was
+suffered to retire into obscurity, and is supposed to have passed the
+remainder of his days on a small estate possessed by him in the
+neighborhood of his native place, St. Malo. The date of his decease is
+unknown.[50]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[44] The courts of Spain and Portugal had protested against any fresh
+expedition from France to the west, alleging that, by right of prior
+discovery, as well as the Pope's grant of all the western regions to
+themselves, the French could not go there without invading their
+privileges. Francis, on the other hand, treated these pretensions with
+derision, observing sarcastically that he would "like to see the clause
+in old Father Adam's will by which an inheritance so vast was bequeathed
+to his brothers of Spain and Portugal."
+
+[45] The dates in this and subsequent pages are in accordance with the
+"old style" of reckoning.
+
+[46] It has not been satisfactorily settled to what tribe the Indians
+belonged who were found by Cartier at Hochelaga. Some have even doubted
+the accuracy of his description in relation to their numbers, the
+character of their habitations, and other circumstances, under the
+belief that allowance must be made for exaggeration in the accounts of
+the first European visitors, who were desirous that their adventures
+should rival those of Cortés and Pizarro. It has also been suggested
+that the people were not Hurons, but remnants of the Iroquois tribes,
+who might have lingered there on their way southward. At any rate, when
+the place was revisited by Frenchmen more than half a century afterward,
+very few savages were seen in the neighborhood, and these different from
+those met by Cartier, while the town itself was no longer in existence.
+Champlain, upward of seventy years after Jacques Cartier, visited
+Hochelaga, but made no mention in his narrative either of the town or of
+inhabitants.
+
+[47] Commission dated October 20, 1540. In this document the French
+King's appreciation of Cartier's merits is strongly shown in the terms
+employed to express his royal confidence "in the character, judgment,
+ability, loyalty, dignity, hardihood, great diligence, and experience of
+the said Jacques Cartier." Cartier was also authorized to select fifty
+prisoners "whom he might judge useful," etc.
+
+[48] His description is substantially as follows: "On both sides of the
+river were very good lands filled with as beautiful and vigorous trees
+as are to be seen in the world, and of various sorts. A great many oaks,
+the finest I have ever seen in my life, and so full of acorns that they
+seemed like to break down with their weight. Besides these there were
+the most beautiful maples, cedars, birches, and other kinds of trees not
+to be seen in France. The forest land toward the south is covered with
+vines, which are found loaded with grapes as black as brambleberries.
+There were also many hawthorn-trees, with leaves as large as those of
+the oak, and fruit like that of the medlar-tree. In short, the country
+is as fit for cultivation as one could find or desire. We sowed seeds of
+cabbage, lettuce, turnips, and others of our country, which came up in
+eight days."
+
+[49] Early in the spring of 1542 Cartier seems to have made several
+small excursions in search of gold and silver. That these existed in the
+country, especially in the region of the Saguenay, was intimated to him
+by the Indians; and this information probably led Roberval afterward to
+undertake his unfortunate excursion to Tadousac. Cartier did find a
+yellowish material, which he styled "_poudre d'or_," and which he took
+to France, after exhibiting it to Roberval when he met him at
+Newfoundland. It is likely that this was merely fine sand intermixed
+with particles of mica. He also took with him small transparent stones,
+which he supposed to be diamonds, but which could have been no other
+than transparent crystals of quartz.
+
+[50] Cartier was born December 31, 1494. He was therefore in the prime
+of life when he discovered Canada, and not more than forty-nine years of
+age at the time when he returned home from his last trip to the west.
+
+
+
+
+MENDOZA SETTLES BUENOS AIRES
+
+A.D. 1535
+
+ROBERT SOUTHEY
+
+     By the discovery in 1515 of the Rio de la Plata ("River of
+     Silver"), the Spaniards opened for themselves a way to
+     colonization in South America. The first explorer, Juan Diaz
+     de Solis, was killed by the Indians on landing from the
+     river. But in 1519 Magellan, while on his great voyage of
+     circumnavigation, visited the Plata, and in 1526 Sebastian
+     Cabot, in the service of Charles I of Spain (the emperor
+     Charles V), ascended the river to the junction of the
+     Paraguay and the Parana, both of which he then explored for
+     a long distance.
+
+     Among the natives, whose silver ornaments, it is said, gave
+     origin to the name La Plata, as well as to that of
+     Argentina, Cabot passed two years in friendly intercourse.
+     He then sent to Spain an account of Paraguay, and a request
+     for authority and reënforcements to take possession of the
+     country with its rich resources. Although his request was
+     favorably received, no efficient action was taken upon it,
+     and, after waiting for five years, Cabot, despairing of the
+     necessary assistance, left the region.
+
+     It was not long, however, before a somewhat extensive
+     settlement in those parts was projected. Don Pedro Mendoza,
+     a knight of Guadix, Granada, one of the royal household,
+     undertook the colonization of the country, and September 1,
+     1534, he sailed from San Lucar.
+
+
+Mendoza had enriched himself at the sackage of Rome by the Constable de
+Bourbon in 1527. Ill-gotten wealth has been so often ill-expended as to
+have occasioned proverbs in all languages; the plunder of Rome did not
+satisfy him, and, dreaming of other Mexicos and Cuzcos, he obtained a
+grant of all the country from the river Plata to the straits, to be his
+government, with permission to proceed across the continent to the South
+Sea.
+
+He undertook to carry out in two voyages, and within two years, a
+thousand men, a hundred horses, and stores for one year at his own
+expense, the King[51] granting him the title of _adelantado_, and a
+salary of two thousand ducats for life, with two thousand more from the
+fruits of the conquest in aid of his expenses. He was to build three
+fortresses, and be perpetual alcaid of the first; his heirs after him
+were to be first alguazils of the place where he fixed his residence,
+and after he had remained three years he might transfer the task of
+completing the colonization and conquest either to his heir or any other
+person whom it might please him to appoint--and with it the privileges
+annexed--if within two years the King approved the choice.
+
+A king's ransom was now understood to belong to the crown; but as a
+further inducement this prerogative was waived in favor of Mendoza and
+his soldiers, who were to share it, first having deduced the royal
+fifth, and then a sixth. If, however, the King in question were slain in
+battle, half the spoils should go to the crown. These terms were made in
+wishful remembrance of the ransom of Atabalipa.
+
+He was to take with him a physician, an apothecary, and a surgeon, and
+especially eight "religioners." Life is lightly hazarded by those who
+have nothing more to stake, but that a man should, like Mendoza, stake
+such riches as would content the most desperate life-gambler for his
+winnings is one of the many indications how generally and how strongly
+the contagious spirit of adventure was at that time prevailing.
+
+Mendoza had covenanted to carry five hundred men in his first voyage.
+Such was his reputation, and such the ardor for going to the Silver
+River, that more adventurers offered than it was possible for him to
+take, and he accelerated his departure on account of the enormous
+expense which such a host occasioned. The force with which he set forth
+consisted of eleven ships and eight hundred men. So fine an armament had
+never yet sailed from Europe for America: but they who beheld its
+departure are said to have remarked that the service of the dead ought
+to be performed for the adventurers. They reached Rio de Janeiro after a
+prosperous voyage, and remained there a fortnight, during which time the
+Adelantado, being crippled by a contraction of the sinews, appointed
+Juan Osorio to command in his stead. Having made this arrangement they
+proceeded to their place of destination, anchored at Isle St. Gabriel
+within the Plata, and then on its southern shore and beside a little
+river. There Don Pedro de Mendoza laid the foundation of a town which
+because of its healthy climate he named "Nuestra Señora de Buenos Aires"
+("Our Lady of Good Air"). It was not long before he was made jealous of
+Osorio by certain envious officers, and, weakly lending ear to wicked
+accusations, he ordered them to fall upon him and kill him, then drag
+his body into the plaza, or public market-place, and proclaim him a
+traitor. The murder was perpetrated, and thus was the expedition
+deprived of one who is described as an honest and generous good soldier.
+
+Experience had not yet taught the Spaniards that any large body of
+settlers in a land of savages must starve unless well supplied with food
+from other sources until they can raise it for themselves. The
+Quirandies, who possessed the country round about this new settlement,
+were a wandering tribe who, in places where there was no water, quenched
+their thirst by eating a root which they called _cardes_, or by sucking
+the blood of the animals which they slew.
+
+About three thousand of these savages had pitched their movable
+dwellings some four leagues from the spot which Mendoza had chosen for
+the site of his city. They were well pleased with their visitors, and
+during fourteen days brought fish and meat to the camp; on the fifteenth
+day they failed, and Mendoza sent a few Spaniards to them to look for
+provisions, who came back empty-handed and wounded. Upon this, he
+ordered his brother Don Diego, with three hundred soldiers and thirty
+horsemen, to storm their town, and kill or take prisoner the whole
+horde. The Quirandies had sent away their women and children, collected
+a body of allies, and were ready for the attack. Their weapons were bows
+and arrows and _tardes_--stone-headed tridents about half the length of
+a lance. Against the horsemen they used a long thong, having a ball of
+stone at either end. With this they were wont to catch their game;
+throwing it with practised aim at the legs of the animal it coiled round
+and brought it to the ground. In all former wars with the Indians the
+horsemen had been the main strength and often the salvation of the
+Spaniards. This excellent mode of attack made them altogether useless;
+they could not defend themselves. The commander and six hidalgos were
+thrown and killed, and the whole body of horse must have been cut off if
+the rest had not fled in time and been protected by the infantry. About
+twenty foot-soldiers were slain with tardes. But it was not possible
+that these people, brave as they were, could stand against European
+weapons and such soldiers as the Spaniards: they gave way at last,
+leaving many of their brethren dead, but not a single prisoner. The
+conquerors found in their town plenty of flour, fish, what is called
+"fish-butter"--which probably means inspissated oil--otter-skins, and
+fishing-nets. They left a hundred men to fish with these nets, and the
+others returned to the camp.
+
+Mendoza was a wretched leader for such an expedition. He seems,
+improvidently, to have trusted to the natives for provision and to have
+quarrelled with them unnecessarily. Very soon after his arrival six
+ounces of bread had been the daily allowance; it was now reduced to
+three ounces of flour, and, every third day, a fish. They marked out the
+city and began a mud wall for its defence, the height of a lance and
+three feet thick. It was badly constructed: what was built up one day,
+fell down the next; the soldiers had not as yet learned this part of
+their duties.
+
+A strong house was built within the circuit for the Adelantado; meantime
+their strength began to fail for want of food. Rats, snakes, and vermin
+of every eatable size were soon exterminated from the environs. Three
+men stole a horse and ate it; they were tortured to make them confess
+the fact and then hanged for it; their bodies were left upon the
+gallows, and in the night all the flesh below the waist was cut away.
+One man ate the corpse of his brother; some murdered their messmates for
+the sake of receiving their rations as long as they could conceal their
+death by saying they were ill. The mortality was very great. Mendoza,
+seeing that all must perish if they remained here, sent George Luchsan,
+one of his German or Flemish adventurers, up the river, with four
+brigantines, to seek for food. Wherever they came the natives fled
+before them and burned what they could not carry away. Half the men were
+famished to death, and all must have perished if they had not fallen in
+with a tribe who gave them barely enough maize to support them during
+their return.
+
+The Quirandies had not been dismayed by one defeat: they prevailed upon
+the Bartenes, the Zechuruas, and the Timbues to join them, and with a
+force which the besieged in their fear estimated at three-and-twenty
+thousand--though it did not probably amount to a third of that
+number--suddenly attacked the new city. The weapons which they used were
+not less ingeniously adapted to their present purpose than those which
+had proved so effectual against the horse. They are said to have had
+arrows which took fire at the point as soon as they were discharged,
+which were not extinguished until they had burned out, and which kindled
+whatever they touched. With these devilish instruments they set fire to
+the thatched huts of the settlers and consumed them all. The stone house
+of the Adelantado was the only dwelling which escaped destruction. At
+the same time, and with the same weapons, they attacked the ships and
+burned four; the other three got to a safe distance in time and at
+length drove them off with their artillery. About thirty Spaniards were
+slain.
+
+The Adelantado now left a part of his diminished force in the ships to
+repair the settlement, giving them stores enough to keep them from
+starving for a year, which they were to eke out as best they could; he
+himself advancing up the river with the rest in the brigantines and
+smaller vessels. But he deputed his authority to Juan de Ayolas, being
+utterly unequal to the fatigue of command--in fact he was, at this time,
+dying of the most loathsome and dreadful malady that human vices have
+ever yet brought upon human nature.
+
+About eighty-four leagues up the river they came to an island inhabited
+by the Timbues, who received them well. Mendoza presented their chief,
+Zchera Wasu, with a shirt, a red cap, an axe, and a few other trifles,
+in return for which he received fish and game enough to save the lives
+of his people. This tribe trusted wholly to fishing and to the chase for
+food. They used long canoes. The men were naked, and ornamented both
+nostrils with stones. The women wore a cotton cloth from the waist to
+the knee, and cut beauty-slashes in their faces. Here the Spaniards took
+up their abode, and named the place "Buena Esperanza," signifying "Good
+Hope." One Gonzalo Romero, who had been one of Cabot's people and had
+been living among the savages, joined them here. He told them there were
+large and rich settlements up the country, and it was thought advisable
+that Ayolas should proceed with the brigantines in search of them.
+
+Meantime Mendoza, who was now become completely crippled, returned to
+Buenos Aires, where he found a great part of his people dead, and the
+survivors struggling with famine and every species of wretchedness. They
+were relieved by the arrival of Gonzalo Mendoza, who, at the beginning
+of their distresses, had been despatched to the coast of Brazil in quest
+of supplies. Part of Cabot's people, after the destruction of his
+settlement, had sailed for Brazil and established themselves in a bay
+called Ygua, four-and-twenty leagues from St. Vicente. There they began
+to form plantations, and continued two years on friendly terms with the
+adjoining natives and with the Portuguese. Disputes then arose, and,
+according to the Castilian account (for no other remains), the
+Portuguese resolved to fall upon them and drive them out of the country;
+of this they obtained intelligence, surprised the intended invaders,
+plundered the town of St. Vicente, and, being joined by some
+discontented Portuguese from that infant colony, sailed in two ships for
+the island of St. Catalina. There these adventurers began a new
+settlement, but such was their restless spirit that, when Gonzalo
+Mendoza arrived there, they were easily persuaded to abandon the houses
+which they had just constructed, and the fields which were now beginning
+to afford them comfortable subsistence; and the whole colony, with their
+two ships, joined him and made for the Plata, to partake in the conquest
+and spoils of the Silver River.
+
+They brought a considerable supply of stores, and were themselves well
+armed and well supplied with ammunition. Some Brazilian Indians with
+their families accompanied them, and they themselves, being accustomed
+to the language and manners of the natives, were of the most essential
+service to the adventurers with whom they joined company. At sight of
+this seasonable relief Mendoza returned thanks to God, shedding tears of
+joy. He waited awhile in hopes of hearing good tidings from Ayolas, and
+at length sent Juan de Salazar with a second detachment in quest of him.
+His health grew daily worse and his hopes fainter; he had lost his
+brother in this expedition, and expended above forty thousand ducats of
+his substance; nor did there appear much probability of any eventual
+success to reimburse him, so he determined to sail for Spain, leaving
+Francisco Ruyz to command at Buenos Aires, and appointing Ayolas
+governor if he should return; and Salazar, in case of his death. His
+instructions were that, as soon as either of them should return, he was
+to examine what provisions were left, and allow no rations to any
+persons who could support themselves, nor to any women who were not
+employed in either washing or in some other such necessary service; that
+he should sink the ships, or dispose of them in some other manner, and,
+if he thought fit, proceed across the continent to Peru, where, if he
+met with Pizarro and Almagro, he was to procure their friendship in the
+Adelantado's name; and if Almagro should be disposed to give him one
+hundred fifty thousand ducats for a resignation of his government--as he
+had given to Pedro de Alvarado--he was to accept it--or even one hundred
+thousand--unless it should appear more profitable not to close with such
+an offer. How strong must his hope of plunder have been after four years
+of continued disappointment and misery!
+
+Moreover, he charged his successor, if it should please God to give him
+any jewel or precious stone, not to omit sending it him, as some help in
+his trouble, and he instructed him to form a settlement on the way to
+Peru, either upon the Paraguay or elsewhere, from whence tidings of his
+proceedings might be transmitted. Having left these directions Mendoza
+embarked, still dreaming of gold and jewels. On the voyage they were so
+distressed for provisions that he was obliged to kill a favorite bitch
+which had accompanied him through all his troubles. While he was eating
+this wretched meal his senses failed him--he began to rave, and died in
+the course of two days.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[51] Charles I of Spain, who was also the emperor Charles V.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDING OF THE JESUITS
+
+A.D. 1540
+
+ISAAC TAYLOR
+
+     Toward the middle of the sixteenth century definite
+     utterance began to be given to a widespread feeling in the
+     Church that the old monastic orders were no longer
+     fulfilling their purpose. Suggestions of new orders were
+     entertained by the church authorities, and plans for their
+     formation--not to supersede but to supplement the old--began
+     to assume shape.
+
+     Meanwhile an enthusiastic Spanish soldier, who had renounced
+     the profession of arms, independently gathered about himself
+     the nucleus of what was to be one of the most famous orders
+     in the history of the Church. This organization, called the
+     Company (or Society) of Jesus, but better known to many as
+     the Order of Jesuits, owes its foundation primarily to
+     Ignatius de Loyola (Inigo Lopez de Recalde), who was born at
+     the castle of Loyola, Guipuzcoa, Spain, in 1491. After being
+     educated as a page at the court of Ferdinand, he joined the
+     army, and during his recovery from a wound received at
+     Pamplona in 1521, he became imbued with spiritual ardor and
+     dedicated himself to the service of the Virgin. Henceforth
+     the "fiery Ignatius" devoted himself to the pursuit and, as
+     he believed, the purification of religion.
+
+     In 1528 he entered the University of Paris, and there, with
+     a few associates, in 1534 he projected the new religious
+     order, which in 1540 was confirmed by the Pope. _The
+     Constitution of the Order_ and _Spiritual Exercises_ were
+     written by him in Spanish. The object of these comrades was
+     to battle for the Church in that time of religious warfare,
+     to stop the spread of heresy, and especially to stay the
+     progress of Protestantism and win back those who had
+     abandoned the old faith. Exempting themselves from the
+     routine of monastic duties, the members of the new order
+     were to have freedom for preaching, hearing confessions, and
+     educating the young.
+
+     After considering and abandoning various plans for work
+     abroad, the band of fathers at last decided to devote
+     themselves to serving the Church within its own domains, and
+     the first step was a visit of some members of the fraternity
+     to Rome for the purpose of obtaining papal confirmation.
+
+
+Loyola himself, with his chosen colleagues, Faber and Lainez, undertook
+the mission to Rome, while the eight others were to disperse themselves
+throughout Northern Italy, and especially to gain a footing, if they
+could, and to acquire influence at those seats of learning where the
+youth of Italy were to be met with; such as Padua, Ferrara, Bologna,
+Siena, and Vicenza. Surprising effects resulted, it is said, from these
+labors; but we turn toward the three fathers, Ignatius, Lainez, and
+Faber, who were now making their way on foot to Rome.
+
+If Loyola's course of secular study, and if his various engagements as
+evangelist and as chief of a society, had at all chilled his devotional
+ardor, or had drawn his thoughts away from the unseen world, this fervor
+and this upward direction of the mind now returned to him in full force:
+we are assured that, on this pilgrimage, and "through favor of the
+Virgin," his days and nights were passed in a sort of continuous
+ecstasy. As they drew toward the city, and while upon the Siena road, he
+turned aside to a chapel, then in a ruinous condition, and which he
+entered alone. Here ecstasy became more ecstatic still; and, in a
+trance, he believed himself very distinctly to see Him whom, as holy
+Scripture affirms, "no man hath seen at any time." By the side of this
+vision of the invisible appeared Jesus, bearing a huge cross. The Father
+presents Ignatius to the Son, who utters the words, so full of meaning,
+"I will be favorable to you at Rome."
+
+It is no agreeable task thus to compromise the awful realities of
+religion, and thus to perplex the distinctions which a religious mind
+wishes to observe between truth and illusion; yet it seems inevitable to
+narrate that which comes before us, as an integral and important portion
+of the history we have to do with. And yet incidents such as these,
+while they will be very far from availing to bring us over as converts
+to the system which they are supposed supernaturally to authenticate,
+need not generate any extreme revulsion of feeling in an opposite
+direction. Good men, ill-trained, or trained under a system which to so
+great an extent is factitious, demand from us often, we do not say that
+which an enlightened Christian charity does not include, but a something
+which is logically distinguishable from it; we mean a philosophic habit
+of mind, accustomed to deal with human nature, and with its wonderful
+inconsistencies, on the broadest principles.
+
+Some diversities of language present themselves in the narratives that
+have come down to us of this vision. In that which, perhaps, is worthy
+of the most regard, the phraseology is such as to suggest the belief
+that its _exact_ meaning should not easily be gathered from the words.
+Loyola had asked of the blessed Virgin, "_ut eum cum filio suo
+poneret_"; and during this trance this request, whatever it might mean,
+was manifestly granted.
+
+From this vision, and from the memorable words "_Ego vobis Romæ
+propitius ero_," the society may be said to have taken its formal
+commencement, and to have drawn its appellation. Henceforward it was the
+"Society of Jesus," for its founder, introduced to the Son of God by the
+eternal Father, had been orally assured of the divine favor--favor
+consequent upon his present visit to Rome. Here, then, we have exposed
+to our view the inner economy or divine machinery of the Jesuit
+Institute. The Mother of God is the primary mediatrix; the Father, at
+her intercession, obtains for the founder an auspicious audience of the
+Son; and the Son authenticates the use to be made of his name in this
+instance; and so it is that the inchoate order is to be the "Society of
+Jesus."
+
+An inquiry, to which in fact no certain reply could be given, obtrudes
+itself upon the mind on an occasion like this; namely, how far the
+infidelity and atheism which pervaded Europe in the next and the
+following century sprung directly out of profanation such as this?
+Merely to narrate them, and to do so in the briefest manner, does
+violence to every genuine sentiment of piety. What must have been the
+effect produced upon frivolous and sceptical tempers when with sedulous
+art such things were put forward as solemn verities not to be
+distinguished from the primary truths of religion, and entitled to the
+same reverential regard in our minds!
+
+Loyola, although thus warranted, as he thought, in assuming for his
+order so peculiar and exclusive a designation, used a discreet reserve
+at the first in bringing it forward, lest he should wound the self-love
+of rival bodies, or seem to be challenging for his company a superiority
+over other religious orders. So much caution as this his experience
+would naturally suggest to him; and that he felt the need of it is
+indicated by what he is reported to have said as he entered Rome.
+Although the words so recently pronounced still sounded in his ear,
+"_Ego vobis Romæ propitius ero_," yet as he set foot within the city he
+turned to his companions and said, with a solemn significance of tone,
+"I see the windows shut!"--meaning that they should there meet much
+opposition, and find occasion for the exercise of prudence and of
+patient endurance of sufferings; of prudence, not less than of patience.
+
+But while care was to be taken not to draw toward themselves the envious
+or suspicious regards of the religious orders or of ecclesiastical
+potentates, there was even a more urgent need of discretion in avoiding
+those occasions of scandal which might spring from their undertaking the
+cure of the souls of the other sex. Into what jeopardy of their saintly
+reputation had certain eminent men fallen in this very manner; and how
+narrowly had they escaped the heaviest imputations! The fathers were not
+to take upon themselves the office of confessors to women--"_nisi essent
+admodum illustres_." That the risk must necessarily be less, or that
+there would be none in the instance of ladies of high rank, is not
+conspicuously certain; but if not, what were those special motives which
+should warrant the fathers in incurring this peril in such cases? Mere
+Christian charity would undoubtedly impel a man to meet danger for the
+welfare of the soul of a poor sempstress as readily as for that of a
+duchess or the mistress of a monarch. If, therefore, the peril is to be
+braved in the one case which ought to be evaded in the other, there must
+be present some motive of which Christian charity knows nothing. So
+acutely alive was Loyola to the evils that might spring to his order
+from this source that we find him at a later period not merely rejecting
+ladies, "_admodum illustres_," but bearding the Pope and the cardinals,
+and glaringly contravening his own vow of unconditional obedience to the
+Vicar of Christ, rather than give way to the solicitations of fair and
+noble penitents.
+
+Soon after the arrival of the three--_i.e._, Loyola, Faber, and
+Lainez--at Rome, in the year 1537, they obtained an audience of the
+Pope, who welcomed their return, and gave anew his sanction to their
+endeavors. Faber and Lainez received appointments as theological
+professors in the gymnasium; while Loyola addressed himself wholly to
+the care of souls and to the reform of abuses. To several persons of
+distinction and to some dignitaries of the Church he administered the
+discipline of the _Spiritual Exercises_, they, for this purpose,
+withdrawing to solitudes in the neighborhood of Rome, where they were
+daily conversed with and instructed by himself. At the same time he
+labored in hospitals, schools, and private houses to induce repentance
+and to cherish the languishing piety of those who would listen to him.
+Among such, who fully surrendered their souls to his guidance, were the
+Spanish procurator Peter Ortiz and Cardinal Gaspar Contarini, both of
+whom were led by him into a course of fervent devotion in which they
+persisted, and they, moreover, continued to use their powerful influence
+in favor of the infant society.
+
+The pulpits of many of the churches in the several cities where the
+fathers had stationed themselves, and some in Rome, had been opened to
+their use, and the energy and the freshness of their eloquence affected
+the popular mind in an extraordinary manner; sometimes, indeed, they
+brought upon themselves violent opposition, but in more frequent
+instances, their zeal and patient assiduity triumphing over prejudice,
+jealousy, ecclesiastical inertness, and voluptuousness, the tide of
+feeling set in with this new impulse, and a commencement was effectively
+made of that Catholic revival which spread itself throughout Southern
+Europe, turned back the Reformation wave, saved the papacy, and secured
+for Christendom the still needed antagonist influence of the Romish and
+of the reformed systems of doctrine, worship, and polity.
+
+At Rome, Loyola, by his personal exertions, effected great reforms in
+liturgical services--induced a more frequent and devout attention to the
+sacraments of confession and the eucharist; established and promoted the
+catechetical instruction of youth; and, in a word, restored to Romanism
+much of its vitality.
+
+The author and mover of so much healthful change did not escape the
+persecutions that are the lot of reformers. Such trials Loyola
+encountered, and passed through triumphantly--so we are assured; but in
+listening to the Jesuit writers, when telling their own story, where the
+credit of the order and the reputation of its founder are deeply
+implicated, it is with reservation that we follow them.
+
+So fearful a storm--yet a storm long before descried, it is said, by
+Loyola--fell suddenly upon him and his colleagues that it seemed as if
+the infant society could by no means resist the impetuous torrent that
+assailed it. The populace, as well as persons in authority, suddenly
+gave heed to rumors most startling which came in at once from Spain,
+from France, and from the North of Italy, and the purport of which was
+to throw upon the fathers the most grievous imputations affecting their
+personal character as well as their doctrine. These men were reported to
+be heretics, Lutherans in disguise, seducers of youth, and men of
+flagitious life.
+
+The author or secret mover of this assault is said to have been a
+Piedmontese monk of the Augustinian order, himself a secret favorer of
+the Lutheran heresy and "a tool of Satan," and who at last, throwing off
+the mask, avowed himself a Lutheran. This man, for the purpose of
+diverting from himself the suspicions of which his mode of preaching had
+made him the object at Rome, raised this outcry against Loyola and his
+companions, affirming of them slanderously and falsely what was quite
+true as to himself.
+
+The Pope and the court having been absent for some time from Rome, this
+disguised heresiarch had seized the opportunity for gaining the ear of
+the populace by inveighing against the vices of ecclesiastics, and
+insinuating opinions to which he gave a color of truth by citations from
+Scripture and the early fathers. Two of Loyola's colleagues, Salmeron
+and Lainez, who in their passage through Germany had become skilled in
+detecting Lutheran pravity, were deputed to listen to this noisy
+preacher; they did so, and reported that the audacious man was, under
+some disguise of terms, broaching rank Lutheranism in the very heart of
+Rome. Loyola, however, determined to treat the heresiarch courteously,
+and therefore sent him privately an admonition to abstain from a course
+which occasioned so much scandal, and which could not but afflict
+Catholic ears. The preacher took fire at this remonstrance, and openly
+attacked those who had dared thus to rebuke him.
+
+Thus attacked, Loyola and his colleagues, on their side, loudly
+maintained the great points of Catholic doctrine impugned by this
+preacher, such as the merit and necessity of good works, the validity of
+religious vows, and the supreme authority of the Church; and in
+consequence it became extremely difficult on his part to ward off the
+imputation of Lutheranism or to make it appear that he was anything
+else than a self-condemned heretic. He, however, so far commanded the
+popular mind that he maintained his reputation and his influence, and
+actually succeeded in rendering his accusers the objects of almost
+universal suspicion or hatred. Their powerful friends forsook them; all
+stood aloof, or all but a Spaniard named Garzonio, who, having lodged
+Loyola and some of his companions under his roof, knew well their
+soundness in the faith and their personal piety. Through his timely
+intervention the cardinal-dean of the sacred college was induced to
+inform himself, by a personal interview, of their doctrine and life.
+
+This dignitary was satisfied, and more than satisfied, of the innocence
+and piety of the fathers. Nevertheless, Loyola, looking far forward, and
+knowing well what detriment to his order might arise in remote quarters
+from slanders not authoritatively refuted and disallowed, demanded to be
+confronted with his accusers before the ecclesiastical authorities. He
+would be content with no vague and irregular expression of approval--he
+would accept no half acquittal. He sought, and at length obtained, an
+official exculpation in the amplest terms, with an acknowledgment of his
+orthodoxy on the part of the highest authority on earth, and this was
+granted under circumstances that gave it universal notoriety.
+
+In court the principal witness was confounded by proof, under his own
+hand, of the falseness of the allegation he had advanced; and at the
+same time testimonials from the highest quarters in favor of the
+fathers, severally and individually, arrived opportunely; in a word, the
+society, in this early and signal instance, triumphed over its
+assailants, and thenceforward it occupied a position the most lofty and
+commanding in the view of the Catholic world. Loyola and his colleagues
+saw the ruin of their adversaries, two of whom, falling into the hands
+of the inquisitors, were burned as heretics.
+
+The time was now come for effecting a permanent organization of the
+society and for installing a chief at its head. With these purposes in
+view, Loyola summoned his colleagues to Rome from the cities of Italy
+where they were severally laboring. The fathers being assembled, he
+commended to them anew the proposal which they had already accepted, but
+which he seemed anxious to fix irrevocably upon their consciences by
+often-repeated challenges of the most solemn kind. To impart the more
+solemnity to this repetition of their mutual engagements, and to
+preclude, by all means, the possibility of retraction, he advised that
+several days should be devoted to preliminary prayer and fasting, during
+which season each should, with an absolute surrender of himself to the
+will of God, await passively the manifestation of that will.
+
+"Heaven," said Loyola to his companions, "heaven has forbidden Palestine
+to our zeal--nevertheless that zeal burns with increasing intensity from
+day to day. Should we not hence infer that God has called us--not,
+indeed, to undertake the conversion of one nation or of a country, but
+of all the people and of all the kingdoms of the world?"
+
+Such was the founder's profession and such the limits of his ambition.
+The spiritual mechanism which he had devised, and which he was now
+putting in movement, intends nothing that is partial or circumscribed;
+its very purport is universality; it is absolutism carried out until it
+has embraced the human family and has brought every human spirit into
+its toils.
+
+But so small a band could hope for no success that should be indicative
+of ultimate triumph unless they would surrender themselves individually
+to a common will, which should be to each of them as the will of God,
+articulately pronounced. After renewing, therefore, the vows of poverty,
+of chastity, and of unconditional obedience to the Pope, the fathers
+assented to the proposal that one of their number should, by the
+suffrages of all, be constituted the superior or general of the order,
+and as such be invested with an authority as absolute as it was possible
+for man to exercise or for men to submit to. Yet to whose hands should
+be assigned--and for life--this irresponsible power over the bodies,
+souls, and understandings of his companions?
+
+It had not been until after a lengthened preparation of fasting, prayer,
+and night-watching that a resolution so appalling had been formed. Yet
+it was easier to consent to the proposal, abstractedly placed before
+them, than to yield themselves to all its undefined and irrevocable
+consequences, when the awful surrender of what is most precious to
+man--his individuality--was to be made, not to a chief unnamed, but to
+this or that one among themselves. To whose hands could the ten consign
+the irresponsible disposal of their souls and bodies? They had, however,
+already advanced too far to recede. They had, as they believed, in
+humble imitation of Christ the Lord, offered themselves as a living
+sacrifice to God--so far as concerned the body--by the vow of poverty
+and the vow of chastity. They had thus immolated the flesh, and had
+reserved to themselves nothing of worldly possessions, nothing of
+earthly solaces; all had been laid upon the altar. They, had, moreover
+professed their willingness to deposit there their very souls. The vow
+of unconditional obedience, as thus understood, was a holocaust of the
+immortal well-being. Each now, as an offering acceptable to God, was to
+pawn his interest in time and eternity, putting the pledge into the
+hands of one to be chosen by themselves. It was debated whether this
+absolute power should be conferred upon the holder of it for life or for
+a term of years only, and whether in the fullest sense it should be
+without conditions, or whether it should be limited by constitutional
+forms. At length, however, the election of a general for life was
+assented to, and especially for this reason--and it is well to note
+it--that the new society had been devised and formed for the very
+purpose of carrying forward vast designs which must demand a long course
+of years for their development and execution; and that no one who must
+look forward to the probable termination of his generalship at the
+expiration of a few years could be expected to undertake, or to
+prosecute with energy, any such far-reaching project. On the contrary,
+he should be allowed to believe that the limits of his life alone need
+be thought of as bounding his holy ambition. Provisions were made,
+however, for holding some sort of control over the individual to whom so
+much power was to be intrusted. The actual election of Loyola to the
+generalship did not formally take place until after the time when the
+order had received pontifical authentication. Meantime, all implicitly
+regarded him as their master; from him emanated the acts of the body;
+and to him was assigned the task--aided by Lainez--of preparing what
+should be the constitutions of the society.
+
+During the interval between the concerted organization of the order and
+the formal recognition of Loyola as the general he found several
+occasions highly favorable for extending and for enhancing his
+influence, as well among the common people as among ecclesiastical
+dignitaries. One such opportunity was afforded, soon after the
+above-mentioned exculpation of the fathers, by the occurrence of a
+famine during an unusually severe winter. The streets of Rome presented
+the spectacle of hundreds of half-naked and starving wretches who
+fruitlessly implored aid or who silently expired unaided. Loyola and his
+colleagues, themselves subsisting from day to day on alms, felt
+often--we are told--the nip of hunger, yet they needed no incitement
+which these scenes of woe did not spontaneously supply. They were at
+once alive to the claims of humanity and to the requirements of
+Christian duty. They begged for the perishing, took them to such shelter
+as was at their command, carefully and tenderly ministered to the sick,
+and, withal, used the advantage which these offices of kindness afforded
+them for purposes of religious instruction. Hundreds, rescued from death
+through cold and hunger, were thus brought to repentance on the path
+which the Church prescribes. A great impression in favor of the Jesuit
+fathers was made upon all classes by this course of conduct. In
+humanity, self-denying assiduity, and Christian zeal they had
+immeasurably surpassed any who might have pretended rivalry with them.
+
+It was now, therefore, that Loyola sought from the Pontiff that formal
+recognition which his personal assurances of regard and approval seemed
+to show he could not refuse. Paul III was, however, cautious in this
+instance, and seemed unwilling to commit himself and the Church at this
+critical moment, except so far as he knew himself to be supported by the
+feeling and opinion of those of the cardinals whom he most regarded. He
+referred Loyola's petition to three of them. The first of these was
+Barthelemi Guidiccioni, who had often declared himself to be decisively
+opposed to the multiplication of religious orders. The Church, he
+thought, had too many of these excrescences already, and, instead of
+adding another to the number, he would gladly have reduced them all to
+four. His two colleagues were easily induced to concur with him in this
+opinion, and thus it appeared as if the infant society, notwithstanding
+the advances it had lately made in securing the good opinion of persons
+of high rank, as well as in winning popular applause, was little likely
+to receive what was indispensable to its permanent establishment--a
+papal bull in its favor.
+
+Personally, however, the Pope did not conceal his cordial feeling toward
+Loyola and his companions. He seems to have perceived clearly that these
+men, resolute in their punctilious adherence to the doctrine and ritual
+of the Church, and committed by the most solemn engagements to its
+service--deep-purposed as they were, full of a well-governed energy,
+resolute in the performance of the most arduous duties, and, moreover,
+highly accomplished in secular and sacred learning--were the very
+instruments which the Church had need of in this crisis of its fate.
+Northern Europe was irrecoverably lost; Germany and Switzerland were
+held to Catholicism at points only; while France and Northern Italy were
+listening to the seductions of heresy. Scarcely could it be said, even
+of Spain, that it was clear of the same infection. The Church ought
+then, at such a moment, to embrace cordially, and by all means to favor,
+the efforts of men like Loyola and his distinguished companions.
+
+It was with this feeling that Paul III, while held back by his advisers
+from the course he would have adopted, went as far as he could in
+promoting and extending the influence of the society. At the same moment
+application had been made, on the part of several potentates, for the
+services of the fathers, who had already gained a high reputation at the
+courts near to which they had exercised their ministry. It was seen and
+understood by princes that these were the men--and these almost
+alone--to whom might be confided those arduous tasks which the perils of
+the times continually presented: none so well furnished as these
+fathers; none so self-denying and laborious; none so uncompromising in
+the maintenance of their principles. They were, therefore, despatched in
+various directions, and with the papal sanction, to undertake offices
+more or less spiritual, and in some instances purely secular. It was
+thus that a commencement was made in that course which has thrown
+unlimited power into the hands of the society, and which again has
+brought upon it suspicion, hatred, and reiterated ruin.
+
+But the most noted of these appointments was that which, in sending, as
+by an accident, Francis Xavier to India, detached from the Jesuit
+society the man who, had he remained at home, must have imparted his own
+character to its constitutions, and have guided its movements, and who
+probably would have dislodged Loyola from the generalship, and have held
+Lainez and Faber in a subordinate position. Not merely did Xavier's
+departure allow Jesuitism to take its form from the hands of these
+three, but it conferred upon the society, from a very early date, the
+incalculable advantage of that reflected power and reputation which the
+Indian missions secured for it. Xavier's apostleship in the East, with
+its real and with its romantic and exaggerated glories, was a fund upon
+which the society at home allowed itself to draw without limit. If it be
+admitted that Xavier effected something real for Christianity in pagan
+India, it may be affirmed that he accomplished at the same time, though
+indirectly, far more for Jesuitism throughout Europe. This course of
+events, so signal in its consequences as favoring the development and
+rapid extension of the Jesuit scheme throughout Christendom, and which
+yet could not be attributed to any forethought or machination on the
+part of Loyola, is well deserving of a distinct notice.
+
+The train of circumstances, as related and affirmed by the Jesuit
+writers, excludes the supposition of its taking its rise in any plot or
+intention. John III of Portugal--a religious prince--had long
+entertained the project of stretching the empire of the Church over
+those regions which his valiant and enterprising people were subjecting
+to his secular sway. In modern phraseology, he piously desired to
+consecrate his military triumphs in the East by spreading the Gospel
+among the subjugated heathen. His royal wish and intention had become
+known to Loyola's friend Govea, who wrote to him from Paris on the
+subject. This letter was as a spark at contact with which Loyola's zeal
+burst forth in a flame. He replied, however, that, as he and his
+companions had now solemnly surrendered themselves to the absolute and
+unconditional disposal of the Vicar of Christ, they could attempt
+nothing spontaneously. It is easy to imagine how speedily this
+declaration, conveyed to Govea, would produce its effect, would come
+round to its destination, and would assume the form of a pontifical
+injunction addressed to Loyola to despatch some of the fathers to the
+court of John, there to await the pleasure of so religious a prince.
+Six missionaries had been asked for. Loyola, with the consent of the
+Pope, assigned two--Rodriquez and Bobadilla--to his service. The latter,
+however, falling ill--so it is affirmed--Francis Xavier was appointed in
+his place. Xavier, it is said, leaped for joy when summoned, at a
+moment, to set out toward Portugal commissioned to convert India to the
+Christian faith. A few hours sufficed for his preparations; by noon of
+the next day he had sewed the tatters of his attire with his own hand,
+had packed his bundle, had bid adieu to his friends, and was forward on
+the road to Lisbon. Upon this desperate enterprise he set forward with
+his eye steadily fixed upon objects far more remote and more dazzling
+than the sunny plains of Hindostan. The immeasurable difficulty of his
+mission was to him its excitement; its dangers brightened in his view
+into martyrdom; its toils were to be his ease; its privations his
+solace, and despair the aliment of his hope. But at this initial point
+of his course we must take leave of Francis Xavier--the prince of
+missionaries. Bobadilla, with Loyola's consent, remained in Portugal,
+where his zeal found scope enough.
+
+At length--but it does not appear in what manner this change of opinion
+had been brought about--Cardinal Guidiccioni professed himself favorable
+to the suit of Loyola; probably an enhanced conviction that the Romish
+hierarchy was encountering a peril which called for extraordinary
+measures, and that the new order was likely to meet the occasion, had
+prevailed over considerations less urgent and of a more general kind.
+This opponent gained, no obstacle remained to be overcome. On October 3,
+1540 (or September 27th), was issued the bull which gave ecclesiastical
+existence to the new order under the name of the "Company of Jesus." At
+the first the society was forbidden to admit more than sixty professed
+members, but three years later another bull removed entirely this
+restriction.
+
+The time was now come when the decisive step must be taken which should
+enable the new institute to realize its intention, which should render
+Jesuitism _Jesuitism_ indeed. This was the election of a chief,
+individually, who thenceforward should be absolute lord of the bodies
+and souls, the will and well-being, of all the members. Until this
+election should be made and ratified, the society was a _project_ only;
+it would then become a dread reality.
+
+Those of the fathers who could leave their functions at foreign
+courts--and these were three only--were summoned to Rome; those who
+could not attend there sent forward their votes. But in what manner are
+we to deal with the account that is presented to us of that which took
+place on this occasion? How is it to be made to consist either with the
+straightforwardness and simplicity of intention that are the
+characteristics of great and noble natures, or how with those maxims of
+guilelessness which Christianity so much approves? The problem admits of
+only a partial and unsatisfactory solution; nor can we advance even so
+far as this unless we make a very large allowance in favor of Loyola
+personally, on the ground of the ill influence of the system within
+which he had received his moral and religious training. He conducted
+himself after the fashion of his Church: this must be his apology.
+
+It was he, unquestionably, who had conceived the primary idea of the
+society. He was author of the book which constitutes its germ and law,
+the _Spiritual Exercises_. He had been principal in digesting the
+constitutions, or actual code, of the society. It was he, individually,
+whom the others had always regarded as their leader and teacher. His
+personal influence was the cement which held the parts in union. It was
+Loyola who, while his colleagues dispersed themselves throughout Europe,
+remained in Rome, there to manage the common interests of all, and to
+carry forward those negotiations with the papal court which were of
+vital importance and of the highest difficulty. In a word, it was he who
+had convoked this meeting to elect a chief and who asked the proxies of
+the absent. Are we then to believe that this bold spirit, this
+far-seeing mind, this astute, inventive, and politic Ignatius, born to
+rule other minds, and able always to subjugate his own will; that this
+contriver of a despotism, after having carried the principle of
+unconditional obedience, after having won the consent of his companions
+to the proposal that their master should be their master _for life_--are
+we to believe that he had never imagined it as probable (much less
+wished) that the choice of his compeers should fall upon himself, or
+that he had peremptorily resolved, in such a case, to reject the
+proffered sovereignty? Surely those writers--the champions of the
+society--use us cruelly who demand that we should believe so much as
+this.
+
+Le Jay, Brouet, Lainez, and Loyola were those who personally appeared on
+this occasion. The absent members sent their votes in sealed letters.
+Three days having passed in prayer and silence, the four assembled on
+the fourth day, when the votes were ascertained. All but Loyola's own
+were in his favor; he voted for the one who should carry the majority of
+votes.
+
+Loyola, we are told, was in an equal degree distressed and amazed in
+discovering what was in the minds of his colleagues. _He_, indeed, to be
+general of the Society of Jesus!--how strange and preposterous a
+supposition! Positively he could think of no such thing. What a life had
+he led before his conversion! How abounding in weaknesses had been his
+course since! How could he aspire to rule others, who so poorly could
+rule himself? Days of prayer must yet be devoted to the purpose of
+imploring the divine aid in directing the minds of all toward one who
+should indeed be qualified for so arduous an office. At the end of this
+term Loyola was a second time elected, and again refused to comply with
+the wishes of his friends. He would barely admit their importunities;
+they could scarcely bring themselves to listen to his contrary reasons.
+Time passed on, and there seemed a danger lest the society should go
+adrift upon the rocks even in its first attempt to reach deep water. At
+length Loyola agreed to submit himself to the direction of his
+confessor. He might thus, perhaps, find it possible to thrust himself
+through his scruples by the loophole of passive obedience, for he
+already held himself bound to comply with the injunctions of his
+spiritual guide, be they what they might.
+
+This good man, therefore, a father Theodosius of the communion of Minor
+Brethren, is constituted arbiter of the destinies of the Society of
+Jesus. To his ear Loyola confides all the reasons, irresistible as they
+were, which forbade his compliance with the will of his friends. The
+confessor listens patiently to the long argument, but sets the whole of
+it at naught. In a word he declares that Loyola, in declining the
+proffered generalship, is fighting against God. Further resistance would
+have been a flagrant impiety.
+
+The installation of the general was carried forward in a course of
+services held in the seven principal churches of Rome, and with
+extraordinary solemnity in the Church of St. Paul without the city,
+April 23, 1541. On this occasion the vows of perpetual poverty,
+chastity, and obedience were renewed before the altar of the Virgin,
+where Loyola administered the communion to his brethren, they having
+vowed absolute obedience to him, and he the same to the Pope.
+
+
+
+
+DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI[52]
+
+A.D. 1541
+
+JOHN S. C. ABBOTT
+
+     From the eastern coast of Florida the Spaniards made early
+     explorations of the interior until they reached the
+     Mississippi River. Florida, which was discovered by Juan
+     Ponce de Leon in 1513, was soon visited by other voyagers,
+     and in 1528 Panfilo Narvaez made a disastrous march into the
+     forests. One survivor of his party, Cabaça de Vaca,
+     afterward crossed the Mississippi, near the site of Memphis,
+     and made his way to the Spanish settlements in Mexico.
+
+     Still the vast Florida region was unexplored, but in 1539
+     Hernando de Soto, the companion of Pizarro in the conquest
+     of Peru (1532) landed, with upward of six hundred men, at
+     what is now called Tampa Bay, on the west coast, in search
+     of the fabulous wealth believed to await him. "For month
+     after month and year after year the procession of priests
+     and cavaliers, cross-bowmen, arquebusiers, and Indian
+     captives laden with the baggage, wandered on through wild
+     and boundless wastes, lured hither and thither by the _ignis
+     fatuus_ of their hopes." Through untold hardships, increased
+     by fierce battles with the Indians, they traversed wide
+     regions now embraced in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi,
+     reaching the great river probably in the spring of 1541, and
+     still looking for the "phantom El Dorado."
+
+
+De Soto directed his footsteps in a westerly direction, carefully
+avoiding an approach to the sea, lest his troops should rise in mutiny,
+send for the ships, and escape from the ill-starred enterprise. This
+certainly indicates, under the circumstances, an unsound, if not a
+deranged, mind. For four days the troops toiled along through a dismal
+region, uninhabited, and encumbered with tangled forests and almost
+impassable swamps.
+
+At length they came to a small village called Chisca, upon the banks of
+the most majestic stream they had yet discovered. Sublimely the mighty
+flood, a mile and a half in width, rolled by them. The current was rapid
+and bore upon its bosom a vast amount of trees, logs, and driftwood,
+showing that its sources must be hundreds of leagues far away in the
+unknown interior. This was the mighty Mississippi, the "Father of
+Waters." The Indians at that point called it Chucagua. Its source and
+its embouchure were alike unknown to De Soto. Little was he then aware
+of the magnitude of the discovery he had made.
+
+"De Soto," says Irving, "was the first European who looked out upon the
+turbid waters of this magnificent river; and that event has more surely
+enrolled his name among those who will ever live in American history
+than if he had discovered mines of silver and gold."
+
+The Spaniards had reached the river after a four days' march through an
+unpeopled wilderness. The Indians of Chisca knew nothing of their
+approach, and probably had never heard of their being in the country.
+The tribe inhabiting the region of which Chisca was the metropolis was
+by no means as formidable as many whom they had already encountered. The
+dwelling of the cacique stood on a large artificial mound from eighteen
+to twenty feet in height. It was ascended by two ladders, which could of
+course be easily drawn up, leaving the royal family thus quite isolated
+from the people below.
+
+Chisca, the chieftain, was far advanced in years, a feeble, emaciated
+old man of very diminutive stature. In the days of his prime he had been
+a renowned warrior. Hearing of the arrival of the Spaniards he was
+disposed to regard them as enemies, and, seizing his tomahawk, he was
+eager to descend from his castle and lead his warriors to battle.
+
+The contradictory statements are made that De Soto, weary of the
+harassing warfare of the winter, was very anxious to secure the
+friendship of these Indians. Unless he were crazed, it must have been
+so; for there was absolutely nothing to be gained, but everything to be
+imperilled, by war. On the other hand, it is said that the moment the
+Spaniards descried the village they rushed into it, plundering the
+houses, seizing men and women as captives. Both statements may have been
+partially true. It is not improbable that the disorderly troops of De
+Soto, to his great regret, were guilty of some outrages, while he
+personally might have been intensely anxious to repress this violence
+and cultivate only friendly relations with the natives.
+
+But, whatever may have been the hostile or friendly attitude assumed by
+the Spaniards, it is admitted that the cacique was disposed to wage war
+against the new-comers. The more prudent of his warriors urged that he
+should delay his attack upon them until he had made such preparations as
+would secure successful results.
+
+"It will be best first," said they, "to assemble all the warriors of our
+nation, for these men are well armed. In the mean time let us pretend
+friendship, and not provoke an attack until we are strong enough to be
+sure of victory."
+
+The irascible old chief was willing only partially to listen to this
+advice. He delayed the conflict, but did not disguise his hostility. De
+Soto sent to him a very kindly message declaring that he came in peace,
+and wished only for an unmolested march through his country. The cacique
+returned an angry reply refusing all courteous intercourse.
+
+The Spaniards had been but three hours in the village when, to their
+surprise, they perceived an army of four thousand warriors, thoroughly
+prepared for battle, gathered around the mound upon which was reared the
+dwelling of their chief. If so many warriors could be assembled in so
+short a time, they feared there must be a large number in reserve who
+could soon be drawn in. The Spaniards, in their long marches and many
+battles, had dwindled away to less than five hundred men. Four thousand
+against five hundred were fearful odds; and yet the number of their foes
+might speedily be doubled or even quadrupled. In addition to this, the
+plains around the city were exceedingly unfavorable for the movements of
+the Spanish army, while they presented great advantages to the
+nimble-footed natives; for their region was covered with forests,
+sluggish streams, and bogs.
+
+By great exertions, De Soto succeeded in effecting a sort of compromise.
+The cacique consented to allow the Spaniards to remain for six days in
+the village to nurse the sick and the wounded. Food was to be furnished
+them by the cacique. At the end of six days the Spaniards were to leave,
+abstaining entirely from pillage, from injuring the crops, and from all
+other acts of violence.
+
+The cacique and all the inhabitants of the village abandoned the place,
+leaving it to the sole occupancy of the Spaniards. April, in that sunny
+clime, was mild as genial summer. The natives, with their simple habits,
+probably found little inconvenience in encamping in the groves around.
+On the last day of his stay, De Soto obtained permission to visit the
+cacique. He thanked the chief cordially for his hospitality, and, taking
+an affectionate leave, continued his journey into the unknown regions
+beyond.
+
+Ascending the tortuous windings of the river on the eastern bank, the
+Spaniards found themselves, for four days, in almost impenetrable
+thickets, where there were no signs of inhabitants. At length they came
+to quite an opening in the forest. A treeless plain, waving with grass,
+spread far and wide around them. The Mississippi River here was about
+half a league in width. On the opposite bank large numbers of Indians
+were seen, many of them warriors in battle array, while a fleet of
+canoes lined the shore.
+
+De Soto decided, for some unexplained reason, to cross the river at that
+point, though it was evident that the Indians had in some way received
+tidings of his approach, and were assembled there to dispute his
+passage. The natives could easily cross the river in their canoes, but
+they would hardly venture to attack the Spaniards upon the open plain,
+where there was such a fine opportunity for the charges of their
+cavalry.
+
+Here De Soto encamped for twenty days, while all who could handle tools
+were employed in building four large flat-boats for the transportation
+of the troops across the stream. On the second day of the encampment
+several natives from some tribe disposed to be friendly, on the eastern
+side of the river, visited the Spaniards. With very much ceremony of
+bowing and semibarbaric parade they approached De Soto and informed him
+that they were commissioned by their chief to bid him welcome to his
+territory, and to assure him of his friendly services. De Soto, much
+gratified by this message, received the envoys with the greatest
+kindness, and dismissed them highly pleased with their reception.
+
+Though this chief sent De Soto repeated messages of kindness, he did not
+himself visit the Spanish camp, the alleged reason being--and perhaps
+the true one--that he was on a sick-bed. He, however, sent large
+numbers of his subjects with supplies of food, and to assist the
+Spaniards in drawing the timber to construct their barges. The hostile
+Indians on the opposite bank frequently crossed in their canoes, and,
+attacking small bands of workmen, showered upon them volleys of arrows,
+and fled again to their boats.
+
+One day the Spaniards, while at work, saw two hundred canoes filled with
+natives, in one united squadron, descending the river. It was a
+beautiful sight to witness this fleet, crowded with decorated and plumed
+warriors, their paddles, ornaments, and burnished weapons flashing in
+the sunlight. They came in true military style; several warriors
+standing at the bow and stern of each boat, with large shields of
+buffalo-hide on their left arms, and with bows and arrows in their
+hands. De Soto advanced to the shore to meet them, where he stood
+surrounded by his staff. The royal barge containing the chief paddled
+within a few rods of the bank. The cacique then rose, and addressed De
+Soto in words which, translated by the interpreter, were as follows: "I
+am informed that you are the envoy of the most powerful monarch of the
+globe. I have come to proffer to you friendship and homage, and to
+assure you of my assistance in any way in which I can be of service."
+
+De Soto thanked him heartily for his offer and entreated him to land,
+assuring him that he should meet only with the kindest reception. The
+boats immediately returned for another load. Rapidly they passed to and
+fro, and the whole army was transported to the western bank of the
+Mississippi. The point where De Soto and his army crossed, it is
+supposed, was at what is called the lowest Chickasaw Bluff.
+
+"The river in this place," says the Portuguese narrative, "was a mile
+and a half in breadth, so that a man standing still could scarcely be
+discerned from the opposite shore. It was of great depth, of wonderful
+rapidity, and very turbid, and was always filled with floating trees and
+timber carried down by the force of the current."
+
+The army having all crossed, the boats were broken up, as usual, to
+preserve the nails. It would seem that the hostile Indians had all
+vanished, for the Spaniards advanced four days in a westerly direction,
+through an uninhabited wilderness, encountering no opposition. On the
+fifth day they toiled up a heavy swell of land, from whose summit they
+discerned, in a valley on the other side, a large village of about four
+hundred dwellings. It was situated on the fertile banks of a stream
+which is supposed to have been the St. Francis.
+
+The extended valley, watered by this river, presented a lovely view as
+far as the eye could reach, with luxuriant fields of Indian corn and
+with groves of fruit and trees. The natives had received some intimation
+of the approach of the Spaniards, and in friendly crowds gathered around
+them, offering food and the occupancy of their houses. Two of the
+highest chieftains subordinate to the cacique soon came, with an
+imposing train of warriors, bearing a welcome from their chief and the
+offer of his services.
+
+De Soto received them with the utmost courtesy, and, in the interchange
+of these friendly offices, both Spaniards and natives became alike
+pleased with each other. The adventurers remained in this village for
+six days, finding abundant food for themselves and their horses, and
+experiencing, in the friendship and hospitality of the natives, joys
+which certainly never were found in the horrors of war. The province was
+called by the name of Kaski, and was probably the same as that occupied
+by the Kaskaskia Indians.
+
+Upon commencing anew their march they passed through a populous and
+well-cultivated country, where peace, prosperity, and abundance seemed
+to reign. In two days, having journeyed about twenty miles up the
+western bank of the Mississippi, they approached the chief town of the
+province, where the cacique lived. It was situated, as is supposed, in
+the region now called Little Prairie, in the extreme southern part of
+the State of Missouri, not far from New Madrid. Here they found the
+hospitable hands of the cacique and his people extended to greet them.
+
+The residence of the chief stood upon a broad artificial mound,
+sufficiently capacious for twelve or thirteen houses, which were
+occupied by his numerous family and attendants. He made De Soto a
+present of a rich fur mantle, and invited him, with his suite, to occupy
+the royal dwellings for their residence. De Soto politely declined this
+offer, as he was unwilling thus to incommode his kind entertainer. He,
+however, accepted the accommodation of several houses in the village.
+The remainder of the army were lodged in exceedingly pleasant bowers,
+skilfully and very expeditiously constructed by the natives of bark and
+the green boughs of trees, outside the village.
+
+It was now the month of May. The weather was intensely hot, and these
+rustic bowers were found to be refreshingly cool and grateful. The name
+of the friendly chief was Casquin. Here the army remained for three
+days, without a ripple of unfriendly feeling arising between the
+Spaniards and the natives.
+
+It was a season of unusual drouth in the country, and, on the fourth day
+following, an extraordinary incident occurred. Casquin, accompanied by
+quite an imposing retinue of his most distinguished men, came into the
+presence of De Soto, and, stepping forward with great solemnity of
+manner, said to him: "Señor, as you are superior to us in prowess and
+surpass us in arms, we likewise believe that your God is better than our
+God. These you behold before you are the chief warriors of my dominions.
+We supplicate you to pray to your God to send us rain, for our fields
+are parched for the want of water." De Soto, who was a reflective man,
+of pensive temperament and devoutly inclined, responded: "We are all
+alike sinners, but we will pray to God, the Father of Mercies, to show
+his kindness to you."
+
+He then ordered the carpenter to cut down one of the tallest pine trees
+in the vicinity. It was carefully trimmed and formed into a perfect but
+gigantic cross. Its dimensions were such that it required the strength
+of one hundred men to raise and plant it in the ground. Two days were
+employed in this operation. The cross stood upon a bluff on the western
+bank of the Mississippi. The next morning after it was reared the whole
+Spanish army was called out to celebrate the erection of the cross by a
+solemn religious procession. A large number of the natives, with
+apparent devoutness, joined in the festival. Casquin and De Soto took
+the lead, walking side by side. The Spanish soldiers and the native
+warriors, composing a procession of more than a thousand, persons,
+walked harmoniously along as brothers to commemorate the erection of
+the cross--the symbol of the Christian's faith.
+
+The cross! It should be the emblem of peace on earth and good-will among
+men. Alas! how often has it been the badge of cruelty and crime!
+
+The priests--for there were several in the army--chanted their Christian
+hymns and offered fervent prayers. The Mississippi at this point is not
+very broad, and it is said that upon the opposite bank twenty thousand
+natives were assembled, watching with intensest interest the imposing
+ceremony, and apparently at times taking part in the exercises. When the
+priests raised their hands in prayer, they too extended their arms and
+raised their eyes, as if imploring the aid of the God of heaven and
+earth.
+
+Occasionally a low moan was heard wafted across the river--a wailing
+cry, as if woe-stricken children were imploring the aid of an almighty
+father. The spirit of De Soto was deeply moved to tenderness and
+sympathy as he witnessed this benighted people paying such homage to the
+emblem of man's redemption. After several prayers were offered, the
+whole procession, slowly advancing two by two, knelt before the cross,
+as if in brief ejaculatory prayer, and kissed it. All then returned with
+the same solemnity to the village, the priests chanting the grand
+anthem, _Te Deum Laudamus_.
+
+Thus more than three hundred years ago the cross, significant of the
+religion of Jesus, was planted upon the banks of the Mississippi, and
+the melody of Christian hymns was wafted across the silent waters and
+blended with the sighing of the breeze through the tree-tops. It is sad
+to reflect how little of the spirit of that religion has since been
+manifested in those realms in man's treatment of his brother-man.
+
+It is worthy of especial notice that upon the night succeeding this
+eventful day clouds gathered, and the long-looked-for rain fell
+abundantly. The devout Las Casas writes: "God, in his mercy, willing to
+show these heathen that he listeneth to those who call upon him in
+truth, sent down in the middle of the ensuing night a plenteous rain, to
+the great joy of the Indians."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52] By permission of the executor of the estate of the late John S. C.
+Abbott.
+
+
+
+
+REVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMY BY COPERNICUS
+
+A.D. 1543
+
+SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL
+
+     The promulgation of the accepted system of astronomy, called
+     the Copernican system, which represents the earth as
+     revolving on its axis and considers the sun as the centre of
+     motion for the earth and other planets, marked the greatest
+     of scientific revolutions.
+
+     Copernicus, whose name, thus Latinized, was Koppernigk or
+     Kopernik, was born at Thorn, Prussia, February 19, 1473, and
+     died at Frauenburg, Prussia, May 24, 1543. The founder of
+     modern astronomy was probably of German descent: according
+     to some authorities his father was a Germanized Slav, his
+     mother a German; and the honor of producing him is claimed
+     by both Germany and Poland.
+
+     With equal conciseness and lucidity, in the following pages
+     the eminent British astronomer furnishes important
+     particulars concerning the life of Copernicus; and he gives
+     an account, no less interesting than instructive, of the
+     evolution of the Copernican astronomy in its founder's mind.
+
+
+Copernicus, the astronomer, whose discoveries make him the great
+predecessor of Kepler and Newton, did not come from a noble family, as
+certain other early astronomers have done, for his father was a
+tradesman. Chroniclers are, however, careful to tell us that one of his
+uncles was a bishop. We are not acquainted with any of those details of
+his childhood or youth which are often of such interest in other cases
+where men have risen to exalted fame. It would appear that the young
+Nicolaus, for such was his Christian name, received his education at
+home until such time as he was deemed sufficiently advanced to be sent
+to the University at Cracow. The education that he there obtained must
+have been in those days of very primitive description, but Copernicus
+seems to have availed himself of it to the utmost. He devoted himself
+more particularly to the study of medicine, with the view of adopting
+its practice as the profession of his life. The tendencies of the future
+astronomer were, however, revealed in the fact that he worked hard at
+mathematics, and for him, as for one of his illustrious successors,
+Galileo, the practice of the art of painting had a very great interest,
+and in it he obtained some measure of success.
+
+By the time he was twenty-seven years old, it would seem that Copernicus
+had given up the notion of becoming a medical practitioner, and had
+resolved to devote himself to science. He was engaged in teaching
+mathematics, and appears to have acquired some reputation. His growing
+fame attracted the notice of his uncle the Bishop, at whose suggestion
+Copernicus took holy orders, and he was presently appointed to a canonry
+in the Cathedral of Frauenburg, near the mouth of the Vistula.
+
+To Frauenburg, accordingly, this man of varied gifts retired. Possessing
+somewhat of the ascetic spirit, he resolved to devote his life to work
+of the most serious description. He eschewed all ordinary society,
+restricting his intimacies to very grave and learned companions, and
+refusing to engage in conversation of any useless kind. It would seem as
+if his gifts for painting were condemned as frivolous; at all events, we
+do not learn that he continued to practise them. In addition to the
+discharge of his theological duties, his life was occupied partly in
+ministering medically to the wants of the poor, and partly with his
+researches in astronomy and mathematics. His equipment in the matter of
+instruments for the study of the heavens seems to have been of a very
+meagre description. He arranged apertures in the walls of his house at
+Allenstein, so that he could observe in some fashion the passage of the
+stars across the meridian. That he possessed some talent for practical
+mechanics is proved by his construction of a contrivance for raising
+water from a stream, for the use of the inhabitants of Frauenburg.
+Relics of this machine are still to be seen.
+
+The intellectual slumber of the Middle Ages was destined to be awakened
+by the revolutionary doctrines of Copernicus. It may be noted, as an
+interesting circumstance, that the time at which he discovered the
+scheme of the solar system coincided with a remarkable epoch in the
+world's history. The great astronomer had just reached manhood at the
+time when Columbus discovered the New World.
+
+Before the publication of the researches of Copernicus, the orthodox
+scientific creed averred that the earth was stationary, and that the
+apparent movements of the heavenly bodies were real movements. Ptolemy
+had laid down this doctrine fourteen hundred years before. In his theory
+this huge error was associated with so much important truth, and the
+whole presented such a coherent scheme for the explanation of the
+heavenly movements, that the Ptolemaic theory was not seriously
+questioned until the great work of Copernicus appeared. No doubt others
+before Copernicus had from time to time in some vague fashion surmised,
+with more or less plausibility, that the sun, and not the earth, was the
+centre about which the system really revolved. It is, however, one thing
+to state a scientific fact; it is quite another thing to be in
+possession of the train of reasoning, founded on observation or
+experiment, by which that fact may be established. Pythagoras, it
+appears, had indeed told his disciples that it was the sun, and not the
+earth, which was the centre of movement, but it does not seem at all
+certain that Pythagoras had any grounds which science could recognize
+for the belief which is attributed to him. So far as information is
+available to us, it would seem that Pythagoras associated his scheme of
+things celestial with a number of preposterous notions in natural
+philosophy. He may certainly have made a correct statement as to which
+was the most important body in the solar system, but he certainly did
+not provide any rational demonstration of the fact. Copernicus, by a
+strict train of reasoning, convinced those who would listen to him that
+the sun was the centre of the system. It is useful for us to consider
+the arguments which he urged and by which he effected that intellectual
+revolution which is always connected with his name.
+
+The first of the great discoveries which Copernicus made relates to the
+rotation of the earth on its axis. That general diurnal movement, by
+which the stars and all other celestial bodies appear to be carried
+completely round the heavens once every twenty-four hours, had been
+accounted for by Ptolemy on the supposition that the apparent movements
+were the real movements. Ptolemy himself felt the extraordinary
+difficulty involved in the supposition that so stupendous a fabric as
+the celestial sphere should spin in the way supposed. Such movements
+required that many of the stars should travel with almost inconceivable
+velocity. Copernicus also saw that the daily rising and setting of the
+heavenly bodies could be accounted for either by the supposition that
+the celestial sphere moved round and that the earth remained at rest, or
+by the supposition that the celestial sphere was at rest while the earth
+turned round in the opposite direction. He weighed the arguments on both
+sides as Ptolemy had done, and as the result of his deliberation
+Copernicus came to an opposite conclusion from Ptolemy. To Copernicus it
+appeared that the difficulties attending the supposition that the
+celestial sphere revolved were vastly greater than those which appeared
+so weighty to Ptolemy as to force him to deny the earth's rotation.
+
+Copernicus shows clearly how the observed phenomena could be accounted
+for just as completely by a rotation of the earth as by a rotation of
+the heavens. He alludes to the fact that, to those on board a vessel
+which is moving through smooth water, the vessel itself appears to be at
+rest, while the objects on shore appear to be moving past. If,
+therefore, the earth were rotating uniformly, we dwellers upon the
+earth, oblivious of our own movement, would wrongly attribute to the
+stars the displacement which was actually the consequence of our own
+motion.
+
+Copernicus saw the futility of the arguments by which Ptolemy had
+endeavored to demonstrate that a revolution of the earth was impossible.
+It was plain to him that there was nothing whatever to warrant refusal
+to believe in the rotation of the earth. In his clear-sightedness on
+this matter we have specially to admire the sagacity of Copernicus as a
+natural philosopher. It had been urged that, if the earth moved round,
+its motion would not be imparted to the air, and that therefore the
+earth would be uninhabitable by the terrific winds which would be the
+result of our being carried through the air. Copernicus convinced
+himself that this deduction was preposterous. He proved that the air
+must accompany the earth, just as one's coat remains round him,
+notwithstanding the fact that he is walking down the street. In this way
+he was able to show that all _a priori_ objections to the earth's
+movements were absurd, and therefore he was able to compare together the
+plausibilities of the two rival schemes for explaining the diurnal
+movement.
+
+Once the issue had been placed in this form, the result could not be
+long in doubt. Here is the question: Which is it more likely--that the
+earth, like a grain of sand at the centre of a mighty globe, should turn
+round once in twenty-four hours, or that the whole of that vast globe
+should complete a rotation in the opposite direction in the same time?
+Obviously, the former is far the more simple supposition. But the case
+is really much stronger than this. Ptolemy had supposed that all the
+stars were attached to the surface of a sphere. He had no ground
+whatever for this supposition, except that otherwise it would have been
+wellnigh impossible to devise a scheme by which the rotation of the
+heavens around a fixed earth could have been arranged. Copernicus,
+however, with the just instinct of a philosopher, considered that the
+celestial sphere, however convenient, from a geometrical point of view,
+as a means of representing apparent phenomena, could not actually have a
+material existence. In the first place, the existence of a material
+celestial sphere would require that all the myriad stars should be at
+exactly the same distances from the earth. Of course, no one will say
+that this or any other arbitrary disposition of the stars is actually
+impossible; but as there was no conceivable physical reason why the
+distances of all the stars from the earth should be identical, it seemed
+in the very highest degree improbable that the stars should be so
+placed.
+
+Doubtless, also, Copernicus felt a considerable difficulty as to the
+nature of the materials from which Ptolemy's wonderful sphere was to be
+constructed. Nor could a philosopher of his penetration have failed to
+observe that, unless that sphere were infinitely large, there must have
+been space outside it, a consideration which would open up other
+difficult questions. Whether infinite or not, it was obvious that the
+celestial sphere must have a diameter at least many thousands of times
+as great as that of the earth. From these considerations Copernicus
+deduced the important fact that the stars and other important celestial
+bodies must all be vast objects. He was thus enabled to put the question
+in such a form that it would hardly receive any answer but the correct
+one: Which is it more rational to suppose, that the earth should turn
+round on its axis once in twenty-four hours, or that thousands of mighty
+stars should circle round the earth in the same time, many of them
+having to describe circles many thousands of times greater in
+circumference than the circuit of the earth at the equator? The obvious
+answer pressed upon Copernicus with so much force that he was compelled
+to reject Ptolemy's theory of the stationary earth, and to attribute the
+diurnal rotation of the heavens to the revolution of the earth on its
+axis.
+
+Once this tremendous step had been taken, the great difficulties which
+beset the monstrous conception of the celestial sphere vanished, for the
+stars need no longer be regarded as situated at equal distances from the
+earth. Copernicus saw that they might lie at the most varied degrees of
+remoteness, some being hundreds or thousands of times farther away than
+others. The complicated structure of the celestial sphere as a material
+object disappeared altogether; it remained only as a geometrical
+conception, whereon we find it convenient to indicate the places of the
+stars. Once the Copernican doctrine had been fully set forth, it was
+impossible for anyone, who had both the inclination and the capacity to
+understand it, to withhold acceptance of its truth. The doctrine of a
+stationary earth had gone forever.
+
+Copernicus having established a theory of the celestial movements which
+deliberately set aside the stability of the earth, it seemed natural
+that he should inquire whether the doctrine of a moving earth might not
+remove the difficulties presented in other celestial phenomena. It had
+been universally admitted that the earth lay unsupported in space.
+Copernicus had further shown that it possessed a movement of rotation.
+Its want of stability being thus recognized, it seemed reasonable to
+suppose that the earth might also have some other kinds of movements as
+well. In this, Copernicus essayed to solve a problem far more difficult
+than that which hitherto occupied his attention. It was a comparatively
+easy task to show how the diurnal rising and setting could be accounted
+for by the rotation of the earth. It was a much more difficult
+undertaking to demonstrate that the planetary movements, which Ptolemy
+had represented with so much success, could be completely explained by
+the supposition that each of these planets revolved uniformly round the
+sun, and that the earth was also a planet, accomplishing a complete
+circuit of the sun once in the course of a year.
+
+It would be impossible, in a sketch like the present, to enter into any
+detail as to the geometrical propositions on which this beautiful
+investigation of Copernicus depended. We can only mention a few of the
+leading principles. It may be laid down in general that, if an observer
+is in movement, he will, if unconscious of the fact, attribute to the
+fixed objects around him a movement equal and opposite to that which he
+actually possesses. A passenger on a canal-boat sees the objects on the
+banks apparently moving backward with a speed equal to that by which he
+himself is advancing forward. By an application of this principle, we
+can account for all the phenomena of the movements of the planets, which
+Ptolemy had so ingeniously represented by his circles. Let us take, for
+instance, the most characteristic feature in the irregularities of the
+outer planets. Mars, though generally advancing from west to east among
+the stars, occasionally pauses, retraces his steps for a while, again
+pauses, and then resumes his ordinary onward progress. Copernicus showed
+clearly how this effect was produced by the real motion of the earth,
+combined with the real motion of Mars. When the earth comes directly
+between Mars and the sun, the retrograde movement of Mars is at its
+highest. Mars and the earth are then advancing in the same direction.
+We, on the earth, however, being unconscious of our own motion,
+attribute, by the principle I have already explained, an equal and
+opposite motion to Mars. The visible effect upon the planet is that Mars
+has two movements, a real onward movement in one direction, and an
+apparent movement in the opposite direction. If it so happened that the
+earth was moving with the same speed as Mars, then the apparent movement
+would exactly neutralize the real movement, and Mars would seem to be at
+rest relatively to the surrounding stars. Under the actual circumstances
+considered, however, the earth is moving faster than Mars, and the
+consequence is that the apparent movement of the planet backward exceeds
+the real movement forward, the net result being an apparent retrograde
+movement.
+
+With consummate skill, Copernicus showed how the applications of the
+same principles could account for the characteristic movements of the
+planets. His reasoning in due time bore down all opposition. The supreme
+importance of the earth in the system vanished. It had now merely to
+take rank as one of the planets.
+
+The same great astronomer now, for the first time, rendered something
+like a rational account of the changes of the seasons. Nor did certain
+of the more obscure astronomical phenomena escape his attention.
+
+He delayed publishing his wonderful discoveries to the world until he
+was quite an old man. He had a well-founded apprehension of the storm of
+opposition which they would arouse. However, he yielded at last to the
+entreaties of his friends, and his book[53] was sent to the press. But
+ere it made its appearance to the world, Copernicus was seized with
+mortal illness. A copy of the book was brought to him on May 23, 1543.
+We are told that he was able to see it and to touch it, but no more; and
+he died a few hours afterward.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[53] _De Orbium Coelestium Revolutionibus._
+
+
+
+
+COUNCIL OF TRENT AND THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
+
+A.D. 1545
+
+ADOLPHUS W. WARD
+
+     An important phase of history in the sixteenth century is
+     summarized by Macaulay when he says that "the Church of
+     Rome, having lost a large part of Europe, not only ceased to
+     lose, but actually regained nearly half of what she had
+     lost." Macaulay is speaking of what is known as the
+     "Counter-reformation," a reaction against the Protestant
+     movement, which was rapidly spreading in Europe. By the
+     Counter-reformation not only were the Roman Catholic losses
+     largely recovered, but an increased zeal for the
+     regeneration of the Church of Rome became fruitful of
+     results.
+
+     The reformation of the Church from within had been often
+     attempted by the ecclesiastical leaders. Several "reforming
+     councils" had been held, but the desired object had not been
+     accomplished. During the pontificate of Paul III (1534-1549)
+     the movement for regenerating the Church, as well as for
+     opposing the progress of Protestantism, was effectually
+     inaugurated. At the Council of Trent the new policy was
+     definitely set forth.
+
+     A general council had long been demanded by the Germans.
+     Even many of the leading Italians had come to desire it.
+     Charles V, who had his own reasons for temporizing with the
+     Protestants, had urged it year after year. Much as the
+     domination of the Emperor might be feared in such an
+     assembly, Paul at length decided to comply. Twice he ordered
+     the assembling of a council (1536 and 1538), but the
+     distracted state of Europe caused postponement. Meanwhile,
+     owing to the continued progress of the Protestants, Paul and
+     Charles came to an agreement that another summons should be
+     issued. A few prelates were gathered at Trent in 1542, but,
+     owing to the Emperor's war with France and the Turks, the
+     Pope next year dispersed them.
+
+     Finally a papal bull summoned all the bishops of Christendom
+     to Trent for March 15, 1545. The Pope showed much sagacity
+     in calling this council at the moment when Charles and his
+     inveterate enemy, Francis I, were concerting the suppression
+     of the Protestants.
+
+
+On December 13, 1545, three legates appointed by the Pope held their
+public entry into Trent, and the council was formally opened. Paul III's
+continued desire to conciliate the Emperor was shown by his adherence to
+Trent as the locality of the council, when the legates again urged the
+choice of a town on Italian soil. Yet the very Bishop of Trent, Cardinal
+Madruccio, was a prince of the Empire, and by descent attached to the
+house of Austria, whose interests he consistently represented during the
+first series of sessions. The papal legates, with whose control over the
+council the Emperor at the outset showed no intention of interfering,
+typified the different elements in the ecclesiastical policy of Paul
+III. The presiding legate, Cardinal del Monte--afterward Pope Julius
+III--while notable neither for religious zeal nor for wise self-control,
+was a thoroughgoing supporter of the interests of the Curia. Cardinal
+Cervino, afterward Pope Marcellus II, a prelate of blameless life, was
+animated by those ideas of ecclesiastical reform of which Pope Paul had
+encouraged the open expression; but he was more especially eager for the
+extirpation of heresy, and not over-scrupulous in the choice of means
+for reaching his ends. Lastly, Cardinal Pole's[54] presence at Trent, in
+which some have seen a mere papal ruse, must have surrounded the early
+proceedings of the council with a hopeful glamour in the eyes of those
+who, like himself, expected from it the reunion as well as the
+reinvigoration of Western Christendom.
+
+Nothing, as had probably been foreseen at Rome, could have better
+facilitated the immediate establishment of the ascendency in the council
+of the papal policy than the composition of its opening meeting. Of the
+thirty-four ecclesiastics present, only five were Spanish and two French
+bishops, and no German bishop had crossed the Alps. Nor had any secular
+power except the Emperor and King Ferdinand sent their ambassadors. The
+business machinery of the council, which the legates lost no time in
+getting into order, was altogether in favor of their influence as
+managers. Learned doctors, without being, as in former councils, allowed
+to take part in the debates, prepared the work of the three committees
+or congregations, who in their turn brought it up for discussion to the
+general congregations.
+
+The sessions in which the decrees thus prepared were actually passed
+had a purely formal character, but before they were successively held
+opportunity enough was given for manipulation and delay. The voting in
+the council was by heads, instead of by nations, as at Constance and
+Basel; and care was taken to refresh by occasional additions the working
+majority of Italian bishops, mostly, in comparison with the
+"ultramontane" prelates, holders of petty sees. Some of these are even
+stated to have bound themselves by a sworn engagement to uphold the
+interests of the holy see, though by no means all of the Italian bishops
+were servile Curialists; witness those of Chioggia and of Fiesole. The
+council in its second session (January 7, 1546) waived the form of title
+by which previous councils had implicitly declared their representative
+authority paramount. On the other hand, it boded well for the cause of
+reform that, by an early resolution, virtually all abbots and members of
+the monastic orders except five generals were excluded.
+
+Clearly, episcopal interest was resolved upon asserting itself. So long,
+however, as the German bishops were detained in their dioceses by the
+duty of repressing heresy there, while the great body of the French were
+kept away by the vigilant jealousy of their government, the episcopal
+interest and the episcopal principle were mainly represented in the
+council by the Spanish prelates, the loyal subjects of Charles. Their
+leader was Pacheco, Cardinal of Jaën. With him came eminent theological
+professors, who in the early period of the council at least were without
+rivals--Dominico de Soto, whom Queen Mary afterward placed in Peter
+Martyr's chair at Oxford, and Bartolomeo Carranza, afterward primate of
+all Spain and for many years a prisoner of the Inquisition. Through the
+Emperor's ambassador, the accomplished and indefatigable but not
+invariably discreet Mendoza, the Spanish bishops were carefully apprised
+of the wishes of their sovereign.
+
+The crucial question as to the order in which the council should debate
+the two divisions of subjects which it had met to settle had to be
+decided at once; and the compromise arrived at showed both the strength
+of the minority and the unwillingness of the leaders of the majority,
+the presiding legates, to push matters to an extreme. Their instructions
+from the Pope were to give the declaration of dogma the preference over
+the announcement of disciplinary reforms; for it seemed to him of
+primary necessity to draw, while there was time, a clear line of
+demarcation between the Church and heresy; and for this, as he correctly
+judged, the assistance of the council was absolutely indispensable. The
+Emperor, on the other hand, was still unwilling to shut the door
+completely against the Protestants, while both he and the episcopal
+party at the council were eager for that reformation of the life and
+government of the Church which seemed to them her most crying need.
+
+Ultimately it was agreed that the declaration of dogma and the
+reformation of abuses should be treated _pari passu_, the decrees
+formulated in each case being from time to time announced
+simultaneously. Taking into account the subsequent history of the
+council, one can hardly deny that this arrangement saved the work of the
+assembly from being left half done. Nor was the progress made in the
+period ending with the eighth session of the council (March 11, 1547),
+intrigues and quarrels notwithstanding, by any means trifling. On the
+doctrinal side, the foundations of the faith were in the first instance
+examined, and the whole character of the doctrinal decrees of the
+council was in point of fact determined, when the authority of the
+tradition of the Church, including of course the decrees of her
+ecumenical councils, was acknowledged by the side of that of Scripture.
+Little to the credit of the council's capacity for taking pains, the
+authenticity of the Vulgate was proclaimed, a pious wish being added
+that it should be henceforth printed as correctly as possible. At first,
+Pope Paul III hesitated about giving his assent to these decrees, which
+had been passed before receiving his approval, and showed some anxiety
+to prevent a similar course being taken in the matter of discipline by
+publishing a regulatory bull on his own authority. But on being more
+fully advised by the legates of the nature of the situation, he
+consented to allow the debates to proceed, provided always that the
+decrees should be submitted to him before publication.
+
+During the next months (April to June, 1546) the work of the council was
+accordingly vigorously continued in both its branches. In that of
+discipline, the episcopal and the monastic interests at once came into
+conflict on the subject of the license for preaching; and still more
+excitement was aroused by the question of episcopal residence, which
+brought into conflict the highest purposes of the episcopal office and
+the selfish profits of the Roman Curia. The discussions on preaching
+ended with a reasonable compromise, monks being henceforth prohibited
+from preaching without the bishop's license in any churches but those of
+their own order. The question of residence was by the Pope's wish
+adjourned.
+
+Thus the council, now augmented by Swiss and many other bishops, while
+all the chief Catholic powers except Poland were represented by
+ambassadors, could venture to approach those questions of dogma which
+the Emperor would gladly have seen postponed, so long as he was still
+pausing on the brink of his conflict with the German Protestants. The
+Pope, on the contrary, while ostentatiously displaying on the frontier
+the auxiliary forces which he had promised to the Emperor, was eager to
+proclaim through the council as distinctly as possible the solid unity
+of the orthodox Church. The doctrine concerning original sin having been
+promulgated in the teeth of imperial opposition, the legates pressed for
+the issue of the decree concerning justification. In the midst of the
+debates the Smalkaldic War broke out (July, 1546).
+
+For a time it seemed as if at Trent, too, the opposing interests would
+have proved irreconcilable. Pole, as the justification decree began to
+shape itself, had, "for reasons of health," withdrawn to Padua;
+Madruccio and Del Monte exchanged personal insults; Pacheco accused the
+legates of gross chicanery, and they in their turn threatened a removal
+of the council to an Italian city, where, in accordance with what they
+knew to be the papal wish, the council might deliberate without being
+either overawed by the Emperor or menaced by his Protestant adversaries.
+Soon, however, the case was altered by the manifest collapse of the
+latter, notwithstanding their expectations of support from England,
+Denmark, and France, long before their final catastrophe in the battle
+of Muhlberg, April 24, 1547. The Emperor would not hear of the removal
+of the council to Lucca, Ferrara, or any other Italian town, and in
+consequence the plan of campaign at Trent was modified, in order at all
+events to make the breach with the Protestants impassable. The debates
+on justification were eagerly pushed on, and, after some further trials
+of _finesse_, the decree on the subject which anathematized the
+fundamental doctrines of the Lutheran Reformation was passed in the
+sixth session of the council, January 13, 1547.
+
+On the other hand, the decree on residence was again postponed, and a
+very high tone was taken toward the prelates absent from the
+council--the Germans being, of course, those principally glanced at. In
+the next session (March 5th) decrees followed asserting the orthodox
+doctrine of the Church concerning the sacraments, and baptism and
+confirmation in particular, and with these was at last issued the decree
+concerning residence. It avoided pronouncing on the view which had been
+so ardently advocated by the Spanish bishops and argued by the pen of
+Archbishop Carranza, that the duty of residence was imposed by divine
+law, and it took care to safeguard the dispensing authority of the Roman
+see. Yet, though at times evaded or overridden, the prohibition of
+pluralism contained in this decree, together with certain other
+provisions for the _bona-fide_ execution of bishops' functions, has
+indisputably proved most advantageous to the vigor and vitality of the
+episcopacy of the Church of Rome.
+
+Paul III's attitude toward the Emperor had meanwhile grown more and more
+suspicious. Partly they had become antagonists on the great question of
+Church reorganization; partly the Emperor was becoming disposed to
+thwart the dynastic policy of the Farnese; partly, again, the Pope now
+thought himself able to fall back on the alliance of France. In January
+Paul III recalled the auxiliaries and stopped the subsidies which he had
+furnished to Charles V; and in March Henry II succeeded to the French
+throne, whose intrigues with the German Protestants, though leaving
+unaffected his fanatical rigor against his own heretics at home, seemed
+likely to break the current of imperial success. Thus at Trent the
+struggle against the Spanish bishops acquired an intense significance;
+and in the eighth session, March 11th, the legates at last made use of
+the power intrusted to them, it was said, eighteen months before, and
+carried, against the votes of Spain, the removal of the council to
+Bologna, on the plea of an outbreak of the plague at Trent. By the
+Emperor's desire, the Spanish bishops, plague or no plague, remained in
+the city.
+
+"The obstinate old man," said Charles, "would end by ruining the
+Church;" and sanguine Protestants might dream of a renewal of the
+situation of 1526-1527. The progress of events widened the breach
+between the Emperor and the Pope. After Muhlberg Charles V seemed
+irresistible, and, as he would hear of no solution but a return of the
+council to Trent, there seemed no choice between submission and
+defiance. Gradually, however, it became clear that he had no wish again
+to drive things to extremes, and least of all to provoke anything of the
+nature of a schism. Moreover, France, where the Guises were now in the
+ascendant, was becoming more hostile to him; and the murder of the
+Pope's son at Piacenza, followed by the occupation of that city by
+Spanish troops, September, 1547, nearly brought about the conclusion of
+a Franco-Italian league against Charles. But though French bishops
+arrived at Bologna, their attitude there was by no means acceptable to
+the Pope, and Henry II had no real intention of making war upon the
+Emperor. Thus the latter thought himself able to take into his own hands
+the settlement of the religious difficulty.
+
+In the midst of further disappointments and of fresh designs, the
+immediate purposes of which are not altogether clear, Pope Paul III
+died, November 15, 1549. That the most generous of the aspirations which
+had under his reign first found full opportunity for asserting
+themselves had survived his manoeuvring, was shown by the favorable
+reception, both outside and inside the conclave, of the proposal that
+Reginald Pole should be his successor. But Pole refused to be elected by
+the impulsive method of adoration, and in the end the Farnese[55]
+interest, supported by the French, prevailed, and Cardinal del Monte was
+chosen.
+
+The papal government of Julius III (1550 to 1555) showed hardly more of
+temperate wisdom than had marked his conduct of the presidency at Trent;
+but he had the courage at the very outset to decide upon the safest
+course. After a few conditions, most of them quite in the spirit of the
+imperial policy, had been proposed and accepted, the bull summoning the
+council to Trent for the following spring was issued without further ado
+(November).
+
+Yet even before the council actually reopened, _i.e._, May 1, 1551, it
+had become evident that the papal view of its purposes remained as
+widely divergent from the Imperial as in the days of Paul III. The
+nomination of Cardinal Crescentio, a Roman by birth, as president of the
+council, with two Italian prelates, Pighino of Siponto and Lippomano of
+Verona, by his side, was in itself ominous; and the German Protestants,
+upon whom the Emperor pressed safe-conducts at Augsburg (1551),
+perceived the papal intention of treating the council as a mere
+continuation of that which had previously sat at Trent. Still, several
+of them, as well as the Catholic electors, finally promised to attend.
+On the other hand, Henry II of France prohibited the appearance of a
+single French prelate, and began to talk of a Gallican council. Thus the
+brief series of sessions held at Trent from May, 1551, to April, 1552,
+proved in the main, though not altogether, barren of results. Unless the
+assembled fathers were prepared to reconsider the decrees already
+passed, and to force the assent of the Pope to a religious policy of
+quite unprecedented breadth, another deadlock was at hand; and already,
+in the early months of 1552, the council, this time with the manifest
+connivance of Rome, began to thin. When, in April, Maurice of Saxony,
+now the ally of France, approached the southern frontier of the Empire,
+the Pope, whose own French war had taken a disastrous turn, had reason
+enough for shunning further coöperation with the Emperor. The council
+dwindled apace in spite of the efforts of Charles V, who had never
+ceased to believe in his schemes. Finally, however, he could not prevent
+the remnants of the council from passing a decree suspending its
+sessions for two years, which was opposed by not more than a dozen loyal
+Spanish votes, April 28, 1552.
+
+Charles V's resignation of his thrones (1554-1556) resulted, though far
+from being so intended, in a confession of his failure. While it was in
+progress, Julius III died (March 23, 1555), leaving behind him scant
+evidence to support the rumor of his having indulged, at all events in
+the last period of his reign, in ideas of church reformation. But the
+choice of his successor, Marcellus II (April-May, 1555), shows that
+these ideas were not yet extinct in the sacred college, notwithstanding
+the simultaneous creation by Julius III of fourteen cardinals; for
+Cervino had always been reckoned a member, though a moderate one, of the
+reforming party. Far greater, however, was the significance attaching to
+the election of the Pope who speedily took the place of Marcellus.
+
+The pontificate of Paul IV (Gian Pietro Caraffa, May, 1555-August, 1559)
+forms one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of the
+Counter-reformation, which in him seemed under both its aspects to have
+secured the mastery of the Church. God's will alone, he was convinced,
+had placed him where he stood; for he was unconscious of having achieved
+anything through the favor of man. He was now seventy-nine years of age,
+but he had never been more eager to devote himself to his chosen
+purpose--the establishment in the eyes of all peoples of a pure and
+spiritually active church, free from all impediments of corruptions and
+abuses, and purged of all poison of heresy and schism.
+
+Fully aware--though he had belonged to it himself--of the virtual
+failure of Paul III's commission of reform, Paul IV, in his first bull,
+solemnly promised an effectual reform of the Church and the Roman Curia,
+and lost no time in instituting a congregation for the purpose. The
+commission, which consisted of three divisions, each of them composed
+jointly of cardinals, bishops, and doctors, wisely addressed itself in
+the first instance to the question of ecclesiastical appointments. The
+new Pope likewise issued orders for the specific reform of monastic
+establishments, and his energy seemed to stand in striking contrast with
+the hesitations and delays of the recently suspended council.
+
+But once more the seductions of the temporal power overcame its holder.
+Caraffa's residence in Spain, and enthusiasm for the religious ideals
+and methods prevalent there, had not eradicated the bitterly
+anti-Spanish feeling inborn in him as a Neapolitan, and Charles V,
+returning hatred for hatred, had done his utmost to offend the dignity
+and damage the interests of the Cardinal. To these personal and
+national sentiments had been added the conviction that the Emperor's
+dealings with the German Protestants had encouraged them to deal a
+deadly blow to the unity and strength of the Church; and thus Paul IV
+allowed himself to be borne away by passion. His fiery temperament,
+fretted rather than soothed by old age, left him and those around him no
+peace; he maltreated the imperialist cardinals and the dependents of the
+Emperor within his reach, and sought to instigate the French government
+to take up arms once more.
+
+Of a sudden, as if in another gust of passion, he made a clean sweep of
+the obstacles which his own perversity had placed in his path, and then
+took up in terrible earnest the work of church reform. He would allow no
+appointment savoring of corruption to any spiritual office; he would
+hear of no exception to the duty of residence; he completely abolished
+dispensations for marriages within prohibited degrees. Into the general
+management of the churches of the city, as well as into that of his own
+papal court, he introduced so strict a discipline that Rome was likened
+to a well-conducted monastery. But the agency which above all others he
+encouraged was that which his own advice had established in the centre
+of the Catholic world--the Inquisition. From the sacred college
+downward, no sphere of life was exempted from its control; and his
+intolerance extended itself to the very Jews whose privileges in the
+papal states he ruthlessly revoked. On his death-bed he recommended the
+Inquisition with the holy see itself to the pious cardinals surrounding
+him. It was afterward observed that many reforms decreed in its third
+period by the Council of Trent were copied from the ordinances issued by
+Paul IV in this memorable _biennium_. But inasmuch as during his
+pontificate the Church of Rome had lost ground in almost every country
+of Europe except Italy and Spain, his death (August 18, 1559) naturally
+brought with it a widespread renewal of the demand for remedies more
+effective than those supplied by his feverish activity and by the
+operations of his favorite institution.
+
+Personally, Pius IV (1559-1566) was regarded, and probably chosen, as an
+opponent of the late Pope; his family history inclined him to the
+Imperial interest, and he was understood to favor concessions to
+Germany with a view of bringing her stray sheep back into the fold. But
+in general he furthered rather than arrested the religious reaction.
+Above all, the Inquisition, though he is not known to have done anything
+to intensify its rigor or augment its authority, went on as before.
+Carlo Borromeo,[56] the nephew of Pius IV, served the holy see in a
+spirit of unselfish devotion, and began those efforts on behalf of
+religion which in the end obtained for him a place among the saints of
+the Church--a position not reached by many popes' nephews. With the aid
+of this influence, Pius IV came to perceive that the future, both of the
+Church and of the papacy, depended on the spirit of confidence and
+cohesion which could be infused into the former; nor had he from the
+very outset of his pontificate ever doubted the expediency of
+reassembling the council at Trent.
+
+The emperor Ferdinand and the French Government, who persisted in
+treating the reunion of the Church as the primary object of the council,
+at first strongly urged the substitution for Trent of a genuinely German
+or French town, where the German bishops, and perhaps even the
+Protestants, would feel no scruple about attending. But a totally free
+and _new_ council of this description lay outside the horizon of the
+papacy; and Pius IV might have let fall the plan altogether but for the
+fear of the entire separation in that event of the Gallican Church from
+Rome. In France, Protestantism had made considerable strides during the
+reign of Henry II (1547-1559). About six weeks before the death of Henry
+the first national synod of Protestants was held at Paris (May, 1559).
+Under Francis II the Guise influence became paramount, and the
+persecution of the Protestants continued. But though the suppression,
+just before this, of the so-called conspiracy of Amboise had temporarily
+added to the power of the Guises, it had also made the Queen-mother,
+Catherine de' Medici, resolve not to let the power of the state pass
+wholly out of her hands. Hence the appointment of the large-hearted
+L'Hôpital as chancellor, and the assembly of notables at Fontainebleau
+(August), where the grievances against Rome found full expression, and
+where arrangements were made for a meeting of the States-general and a
+national council of the French Church. This resolution determined Pius
+IV to lose no further time. On November 29, 1560, he issued a bull
+summoning all the prelates and princes of Christendom to Trent for the
+following Easter. The invitation included both Eastern schismatics and
+Western heretics, Elizabeth of England among the rest; but neither she
+nor the German Protestant princes assembled at Naumburg, nor the kings
+of the Scandinavian North, would so much as receive the papal summons.
+In France the death of Francis II (December 5, 1560) further depressed
+the Guise influence; and Catherine entered into negotiations with the
+Pope with a view to concessions such as would satisfy the Huguenots
+while approved by the French bishops. The "Edict of January" (1562),
+which followed, long remained a sort of standard of fair concessions to
+the Huguenots.
+
+The first deliberations of the reassembled council were barren. The
+question which really came home to the fathers of the Church assembled
+at Trent presented itself again when the sacrament of orders had in due
+course to be debated. The imperial and French ambassadors still
+coöperated as actively as ever, and the episcopal party, the Spanish
+prelates in particular, entered upon the struggle with a full sense of
+its critical importance. If the right divine of episcopacy could be
+declared, with it would be established the divine obligation of
+residence. Pius IV accordingly showed considerable shrewdness in
+instructing the legates at once to formulate a decree on residence,
+which, while leaving the question of divine obligation open, imposed
+penalties on nonresidence--except for lawful reasons--sufficient to meet
+practical requirements. But though such a decree was passed by the
+council, the debates on the origin of the episcopal office, which
+involved nothing less than the origin and nature of the papal supremacy,
+continued (November); and the critical nature of the discussion was the
+more apparent when in the midst of it there at last arrived nearly a
+score of French bishops, headed by the Cardinal of Lorraine. Hitherto
+France had been represented at the council by spokesmen of the French
+court and of the Parliament of Paris; now the foremost among the
+prelates of the monarchy, whose abilities, however, unfortunately fell
+far short of his pretensions, announced in full conciliar assembly the
+demands of his branch of the Church. The recent January edict proved the
+strength of the Huguenots in France; and though the Cardinal's first
+speech at Trent breathed nothing but condemnation of these heretics, it
+suited him to pose as the advocate of as extensive a series of reforms
+as had yet been urged upon the council.
+
+Further additions were made in the "libel," which was shortly afterward
+(January, 1563) presented by the French ambassador, and perfect harmony
+existed between the French and the imperial policy at the council. What
+decision, then, was to be expected on the crucial question as to the
+relations between papal and episcopal authority? How could a recognition
+of the Pope's claim to be regarded as _rector universalis ecclesiæ_ be
+expected from such a union of the ultramontane forces? The current was
+not likely to be stopped by the papal court, which about this time Pius
+IV announced on his own account at Rome; it seemed on the point of
+rising higher than ever when (February, 1563) the Cardinal of Lorraine
+and some other prelates waited upon the Emperor at Innsbruck. In truth,
+however, a turning-point in the history of the council was close at
+hand. The Cardinal of Lorraine had left Trent for Innsbruck with threats
+of a Gallican synod on his lips. Ferdinand I had arrived there very
+wroth with the council, and had received the Bishop of Zante
+(Commendone), whom the legates sent to deprecate his vexation, with
+marked coolness. The remedies proposed to the Emperor by the Cardinal
+were drastic enough; the council was to be swamped by French, German,
+and Spanish bishops, and the Emperor, by repairing to Trent in person,
+was to awe the assembly into discussing the desired reforms, whether
+with or without the approval of the legates. But Ferdinand I, by nature
+moderate in action, and taught by the example of his brother, Charles V,
+the danger of violent courses, preferred to resort to a series of direct
+and by no means tame appeals to the Pope. The latter, indisposed as he
+was to support a fresh proposition for the removal of the council to
+some German town, urged by France, but resisted by Spain, which at the
+same time persistently opposed the concession of the cup demanded by
+both France and the Emperor, saw his opportunity for taking his
+adversaries singly. The deaths about this time (March, 1563) of the
+presiding legate, Cardinal Gonzaga, and of his colleague Cardinal
+Seripando, both of whom had occasionally shown themselves inclined to
+yield to the reforming party, were likewise in his favor. Their places
+were filled by Cardinals Morone, formerly a prisoner indicted by the
+Inquisition, now an eager champion of papal claims, and Navagero, a
+Venetian by birth, but not in his political sentiments. Morone, though
+he had left Rome almost despairing of any favorable issue of the
+council, at once began to negotiate with the Emperor through the Jesuit
+Canisius. The leverage employed may, in addition to the distrust between
+Ferdinand and his Spanish nephew, and the ancient jealousy between
+Austria and France, have included some reference to the heterodox
+opinions and the consequently doubtful prospects of the Emperor's eldest
+son, Maximilian.
+
+In a word, the papal government about this time formed and carried out a
+definite plan for inducing the Emperor to abandon his conciliar policy.
+The consideration offered for his assenting to a speedy termination of
+the council was the promise that, so soon as that event should have
+taken place, the desired concession of the cup should be made to his
+subjects. Ferdinand I, without becoming a thoroughgoing partisan of the
+papal policy, accepted the bargain as seemingly the shortest road to the
+end which, for the sake of the peace of the empire, he had at heart.
+Thus, notwithstanding the continued opposition of the French bishops,
+the decrees concerning the episcopate began to shape themselves more
+easily, and the Pope of his own accord submitted to the council certain
+canons of a stringent kind reforming in a similar way the discipline of
+the cardinalate (June). And when, in the course of a violent quarrel
+about precedence between the kings of France and Spain, the latter,
+enraged at his demands not being enforced by the Pope, had threatened,
+by insisting on the admission of Protestants to the council,
+indefinitely to prolong it, the Emperor intervened against the proposal.
+But the conflict between the papal and the episcopal authority seemed
+still incapable of solution, and, though Lainez audaciously demanded
+the reference of all questions of reform to the sole decision of the
+Pope, and denounced the opposition of the French bishops as proceeding
+from members of a schismatic church, this opposition steadily continued
+in conjunction with that of the Spaniards, and still found a leader in
+the Cardinal of Lorraine.
+
+Yet at this very time a change began to be perceptible in the conduct of
+this versatile and ambitious prelate. The Cardinal was supposed to have
+himself aspired to the office of presiding legate, and, though he had
+missed this place of honor and power, the condition of things in France
+was such as naturally to incline him in the direction of Rome. The
+assassination of his brother Francis, Duke of Guise (February, 1563),
+deprived his family and interest of their natural chief, and inclined
+Catherine de' Medici to transact with the Huguenots. The Cardinal
+accordingly became anxious at the same time to return to France and
+prevent the total eclipse of the influence he had hitherto exercised at
+court, and to secure himself by an understanding with the Pope.
+
+A letter which about this time arrived from Mary, Queen of Scots,
+declaring her readiness to submit to the decrees of the council, and,
+should she ascend the throne of England, to reduce that country to
+obedience to the holy see, may perhaps be connected with these
+overtures. Pius IV, delighted to meet the Cardinal half way, sent
+instructions in this sense to the legates, whom the recent display of
+Spanish arrogance had already disposed favorably toward France. Thus the
+decree on the sacrament of orders was passed in the colorless condition
+desired by the papal party, in a session held on July 15th, the Spanish
+bishops angrily declaring themselves betrayed by the French Cardinal.
+Other decrees were passed in this memorable session, among them one of
+substantial importance for the establishment of diocesan seminaries for
+priests. Clearly, the council had now become tractable and might
+speedily be brought to an end. In this sense the Pope addressed urgent
+letters to the three great Catholic monarchs, and found willing
+listeners except in Spain.
+
+Meanwhile the remaining decrees, both of doctrine and of discipline,
+were eagerly pushed on. The sacrament of marriage gave rise to much
+discussion; but the proposal that the marriage of priests should be
+permitted, though formerly included in both the imperial and the French
+libel, was now advocated only by the two prelates who spoke directly in
+the name of the Emperor. But in the decree proposed on the all-important
+subject of the reformation of the life and morals of the clergy, the
+legates presumed too far on the yielding mood of the governments. It not
+only contained many admirable reforms as to the conditions under which
+spiritual offices, from the cardinalate downward, were to be held or
+conferred, but the papacy had wisely and generously surrendered many
+existing usages profitable to itself. At the same time, however, it was
+proposed not only to deprive the royal authority in the several states
+of a series of analogous profits, but to take away from it the
+nomination of bishops and the right of citing ecclesiastics before a
+secular tribunal. To the protest which the ambassadors of the powers
+inevitably raised against these proposals, the legates replied by
+raising a cry that the "reformation of the princes" should be
+comprehended in the decrees. It became necessary to postpone the
+objectionable article; but now the fears of the supporters of the
+existing system began to be excited, both at Rome and at Trent, and it
+was contrived to introduce so many modifications into the proposed
+decree as seriously to impair its value. Then, though the Cardinal of
+Lorraine himself, during a visit to Rome (September), showed his
+readiness to support the papal policy, the French ambassadors at the
+council carried their opposition to its encroachments upon the claims of
+their sovereign so far as to withdraw to Venice. And above all, the
+Spanish bishops, upheld by the persistency of their King, stood firmly
+by the original form of the reformation decree, and finally obtained its
+restoration to a very considerable extent. Thus the greater portion of
+the decree was at last passed in the penultimate session of the council
+(November 11th).
+
+With the exception of Spain, all the powers now made known their consent
+to winding up the business of the council without further loss of time.
+But Count Luna still immovably resisted the closing of the council
+before the express assent of King Philip should have been received; nor
+was it till the news--authentic or not--arrived of a serious illness
+having befallen the Pope that the fear of the complications which might
+arise in the event of his death put an end to further delay.
+
+Summoned in all haste, the fathers met on December 3d for their
+five-and-twentieth session, and on this and the following day rapidly
+discussed a series of decrees, some of which were by no means devoid of
+intrinsic importance. In the doctrinal decrees concerning purgatory and
+indulgences, as in those concerning the invocation of saints and the
+respect due to their relics and images, it was sought to preclude a
+reckless exaggeration or distortion of the doctrines of the Church on
+these heads, and a corrupt perversion of the usages connected with them.
+
+Of the disciplinary decrees, the most important and elaborate related to
+the religious of both sexes. It contained a clause, inserted on the
+motion of Lainez, which the Jesuits afterward interpreted as generally
+exempting their society from the operation of this decree. Another
+decree enjoined sobriety and moderation in the use of the ecclesiastical
+penalty of excommunication. For the rest, all possible expedition was
+used in gathering up the threads of the work done or attempted by the
+council. The determination of the Index, as well as the revision of
+missal, breviary, ritual, and catechism, was remitted to the Pope. Then
+the decrees debated in the last session and at its adjourned meeting
+were adopted, being subscribed by 234 (or 255?) ecclesiastics; and the
+decrees passed in the sessions of the council before its reassembling
+under Pope Pius IV were read over again, and thus its continuity
+(1545-1563) was established without any use being made of the terms
+"approbation" and "confirmation." A decree followed, composed by the
+Cardinal of Lorraine and Cardinal Madruccio, solemnly commending the
+ordinances of the council to the Church and to the princes of
+Christendom, and remitting any difficulties concerning the execution of
+the decrees to the Pope, who would provide for it either by summoning
+another general council or as he might determine. A concluding decree
+put an end to the council itself, which closed with a kind of general
+thanksgiving intoned by the Cardinal of Lorraine.
+
+The decrees of the council were shortly afterward (January 26, 1564)
+ratified by Pius IV, against the wish of the more determined
+Curialists, while others would have wished him to guard himself by
+certain restrictions. These were, however, unnecessary, as he reserved
+to himself the interpretation of doubtful or disputed decrees. This
+reservation remained absolute as to decrees concerning dogma; for the
+interpretation of those concerning discipline, Sixtus V afterward
+appointed a special commission under the name of the "congregation of
+the Council of Trent." While the former became _ipso facto_ binding on
+the entire Church, the decrees on discipline and reformation could not
+become valid in any particular state till after they had been published
+in it with the consent of its government. This distinction is of the
+greatest importance. The doctrinal system of the Church of Rome was now
+enduringly fixed; the area which the Church had lost she could
+henceforth only recover if she reconquered it.
+
+Many attempts at reunion by compromise have since been made from the
+Protestant side, and some of these have perhaps been met half way by the
+generous wishes of not a few Catholics; but the Council of Trent has
+doomed all these projects to inevitable sterility. The gain of the
+Church of Rome from her acquisition at Trent of a clearly and sharply
+defined "body of doctrine" is not open to dispute, except from a point
+of view which her doctors have steadily repudiated. And it is difficult
+to suppose but that, in her conflict with the spirit of criticism which
+from the first in some measure animated the Protestant Reformation and
+afterward urged it far beyond its original scope, the Church of Rome
+must have proved an unequal combatant had not the Council of Trent
+renewed the foundations of the authority claimed by herself and of that
+claimed by her head on earth.
+
+The effect of the disciplinary decrees of the council, though more
+far-reaching and enduring than has been on all sides acknowledged, was
+necessarily in the first instance dependent on the reception given to
+them by the several Catholic powers. The representatives of the Emperor
+at once signed the whole of the decrees of the council, though only on
+behalf of his hereditary dominions; and he had his promised reward when,
+a few months afterward (April), the German bishops were, under certain
+restrictions, empowered to accord the cup in the eucharist to the
+laity. But neither the Empire through its diet, nor Hungary, ever
+accepted the Tridentine decrees, though several of the Catholic estates
+of the Empire, both spiritual and temporal, individually accepted them
+with modifications. The example of Ferdinand was followed by several
+other powers; but in Poland the diet, to which the decrees were twice
+(1564 and 1578) presented as having been accepted by King Sigismund
+Augustus, refused to accord its own acceptance, maintaining that the
+Polish Church, as such, had never been represented at the council.
+
+In Portugal and in the Swiss Catholic cantons the decrees were received
+without hesitation, as also by the Seigniory of Venice, whose
+representatives at Trent had rarely departed from an attitude of studied
+moderation, and who now merely safeguarded the rights of the republic.
+True to the part recently played by him, the Cardinal of Lorraine, on
+his own responsibility, subscribed to the decrees in the name of the
+King of France. But the Parliament of Paris was on the alert, and on his
+return home the Cardinal had to withdraw in disgrace to Rheims. Neither
+the doctrinal decrees of the council nor the disciplinary, which in part
+clashed with the customs of the kingdom and the privileges of the
+Gallican Church, were ever published in France. The ambassador of Spain,
+whose King and prelates had so consistently held out against the closing
+of the council, refused his signature till he had received express
+instructions. Yet as it was Spain which had hoped and toiled for the
+achievement at the council of solid results, so it was here that the
+decrees fell on the most grateful soil, when, after considerable
+deliberation and delay, their publication at last took place,
+accompanied by stringent safeguards as to the rights of the King and the
+usages of his subjects (1565). The same course was adopted in the
+Italian and Flemish dependencies of the Spanish monarchy.
+
+The disciplinary decrees of the council, on the whole, fell short in
+completeness of the doctrinal. But while they consistently maintained
+the papal authority and confirmed its formal pretensions, the episcopal
+authority, too, was strengthened by them, not only as against the
+monastic orders, but in its own moral foundations. More than this, the
+whole priesthood, from the Pope downward, benefited by the warnings
+that had been administered, by the sacrifices that had been made, and by
+the reforms that had been agreed upon. The Church became more united,
+less worldly, and more dependent on herself. These results outlasted the
+movement known as the Counter-reformation, and should be ignored by no
+candid mind.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[54] Pole became archbishop of Canterbury (1556) and chief adviser to
+Queen Mary, under whom he was largely responsible for the persecution of
+English Protestants.
+
+[55] The Farnese were an illustrious Italian family. Alessandro Farnese
+was Pope Paul III.
+
+[56] Count Carlo Borromeo, Italian cardinal, Archbishop of Milan, was
+one of the most noted of the ecclesiastical reformers. He was canonized
+in 1610.
+
+
+
+
+PROTESTANT STRUGGLE AGAINST CHARLES V
+
+THE SMALKALDIC WAR
+
+A.D. 1546
+
+EDWARD ARMSTRONG
+
+     In 1530 Charles V convened a diet at Augsburg for the
+     settlement of religious disputes in Germany and preparation
+     for war against the Turks, who were advancing into the
+     empire. The diet issued a decree condemning most of the
+     Protestant tenets. In consequence of this the Protestant
+     princes of Germany at once entered into a league, known as
+     the Smalkaldic League, from Smalkald, Germany, where it was
+     formed. They bound themselves to assist each other by arms
+     and money in defence of their faith against the Emperor, and
+     to act together in all religious matters. They concluded an
+     alliance with Francis I, King of France, and from Henry VIII
+     of England they received moral support and some material
+     assistance.
+
+     Charles was not yet ready to proceed to extremities. In 1531
+     terms of pacification were agreed upon, and the Emperor
+     received earnest support from Protestant Germany in his
+     preparations against the Turks, who after all withdrew
+     without a battle. During the next few years there was no
+     open hostility between the two religious parties, but all
+     attempts at reconciliation failed. In 1538 the Catholic
+     princes formed a counter-league, called the Holy League, and
+     violent disputes continued.
+
+     At last Charles determined to crush the Reformation in
+     Germany by military force. The German Protestants refused to
+     be bound by the decrees of the Council of Trent (1545),
+     because it was held in a foreign country and presided over
+     by the Pope. Their attitude confirmed the Emperor in his
+     resolve, and in 1546 began the conflict known as the
+     Smalkaldic War, of which Armstrong gives us a spirited and
+     impartial account.
+
+
+War was actually opened neither by Emperor nor princes, but by the
+Protestant towns. The capable _condottiere_ Sebastian Schartlin von
+Burtenbach led the forces of Augsburg and Ulm briskly southward, seized
+Fussen in the Bishop of Augsburg's territory on July 9th, and then
+surprised the small force guarding the pass of Ehrenberg, which gave
+access to the Inn valley. The religious character of the war was
+emphasized by plunder of churches and ill usage of monks and clergy. Two
+obvious courses were now open to the insurgent princes. Either they
+could march direct on Regensburg, where a mere handful of troops
+protected Charles from a strongly Protestant population, or in support
+of Schartlin they could clear Tyrol of imperialists, close the passes to
+Spanish and Italian reënforcements, and even pay a domiciliary visit to
+the Council of Trent. This latter was Schartlin's programme; the
+Tyrolese had Protestant sympathies and dreaded the advent of the foreign
+troops; Charles averred that even their government was ill-affected.
+Schartlin would even have persuaded the Venetians and Grisons to forbid
+passage to the Emperor's troops, and have enlisted the services of
+Ercole of Ferrara, the enemy of the Pope. But either of the two
+strategic movements was too bold for the Smalkaldic council of war. The
+first would have violated the neutrality of Bavaria, in which the league
+still believed, while it had no quarrel with Ferdinand, who was
+ostensibly conciliatory. The towns, moreover, wished to keep their
+captain within hail, for they feared the possibility of attack either
+from Regensburg or from Ferdinand's paltry forces in the Vorarlberg.
+
+Schartlin retired on Augsburg, but on July 20th, reënforced by a
+Wuertemberg contingent, occupied Donauworth, and was here joined on
+August 4th by the Elector and Landgrave. The insurgent army now numbered
+fifty thousand foot and seven thousand horse. The very size of this
+force, by far the largest that Germany could remember, is a disproof of
+the not uncommon assertion that Charles took the Lutherans by surprise.
+
+On a rumor that the enemy were crossing the Danube to separate him from
+the troops on the march from Italy, Charles moved on Landshut with some
+six thousand men, not much more than a tenth of the opposing force. He
+was determined, he wrote, to remain in Germany alive or dead, rejecting
+as idle vanity the notion that it was beneath his dignity to lead a
+small force. At Landshut he met papal auxiliaries under Ottavio Farnese
+and Alessandro Vitelli, with detachments of light horse sent by the
+Dukes of Florence and Ferrara. When the Spanish foot and Neapolitan
+cavalry had joined, he could muster at Regensburg twenty-eight thousand
+men, over whom he placed Alba in command. The Elector and Landgrave, in
+renunciation of their fealty, had sent in a herald with a broken staff
+addressed to Charles self-styled the Fifth and Roman Emperor. To him was
+delivered the ban of the empire against his masters, condemning them,
+not for heresy, but for acts of violence and rebellion, for the Pack
+plot, the attack on Wuertemberg, and the seizure of Brunswick.
+
+The campaign now began in earnest. While the Lutherans timidly wasted
+their opportunities, Charles with his greatly inferior force made a
+hazardous night march on Ingolstadt. The movement was executed with much
+disorder, resembling a flight rather than an advance. The league
+neglected the chance of making a flank attack on the hurrying,
+straggling line as it followed the right bank of the Danube until it was
+conveyed across the river at Neustadt. To add to the Emperor's danger,
+his German troops were mostly Lutherans, hating the priests and the
+Spanish and Italian regiments. Many had early deserted from their
+general, the Marquis of Marignano; all cherished ill-feeling against
+Charles' confessor as being the cause of the civil war. Even the
+population of Bavaria, professedly a friendly territory, was in great
+part a Lutheran.
+
+At Ingolstadt Charles could draw supplies from Bavaria, whose neutrality
+the league had foolishly respected, and thither the Count of Buren with
+the Netherland army might find his way. He was by no means out of
+danger, encamped as he was with but feeble artillery outside the city
+walls. But the Lutheran princes with all their bluster had little
+stomach for stand-up fights. From August 31st to September 3d they
+bombarded the city with one hundred ten guns, to which Charles'
+thirty-two pieces could make scant reply. They did not dare attack the
+impoverished trenches. "I would have done it," wrote the Landgrave, "had
+I been alone." On the other hand it was reported that the Lutherans laid
+the blame on Philip, that he had refused to move, "for every fox must
+save his own skin." The Cockerel, as the confessor, De Soto, had
+contemptuously prophesied, had crowed better than he fought. Charles, on
+the other hand, was at his best. He rode round the trenches, exhorting
+his soldiers to stand firm, with the assurance that artillery made more
+noise than mischief. In vain Granvelle sent the confessor to persuade
+him that Christianity needed an emperor less gallant and more sensible.
+He answered that no king nor emperor had ever been killed by a
+cannon-ball, and, if he were so unfortunate as to make a start, it would
+be better so to die than to live. When Ferdinand afterward expostulated
+with his brother, Charles assured him that his self-exposure had been
+exaggerated, but that they were short of hands, and it was not a time to
+set bad example.
+
+The division of Lutheran command was already giving Charles the expected
+opportunities. The princes withdrew westward, a palpable confession of
+weakness. They had been the aggressors, and yet they now surrendered the
+initiative to Charles. Their retirement enabled the Count of Buren to
+march in with his Netherland division, and with him the troops of Albert
+and Hans of Hohenzollern. This march of Buren was the strategic feat of
+the war. He had led the hostile forces which were watching him a dance
+up and down the Rhine, and slipped across it unopposed. He had brought
+his troops three hundred miles, mainly through the heart of Protestant
+Germany, with no certain knowledge where he should find the Emperor, for
+communications could only be maintained by means of long detours.
+Finally he marched boldly past the vastly superior army of the league,
+which had professedly retired from Ingolstadt to bar his passage.
+
+Charles now took the offensive, pushing the enemy slowly up the Danube,
+and steadily forcing his way toward Ulm. The strongly Protestant Count
+Palatine of Neuburg, Otto Henry, was the first prince to lose his
+territory, which, indeed, his debts had already forced him to desert.
+
+The Lutherans now showed more fight, and during the last fortnight of
+October the advance came almost to a standstill. Charles was ill, money
+and supplies were falling short, Spaniards and Italians were suffering
+from the cold rains of the Danube valley. The papal contingent was
+demoralized for want of pay; three thousand men deserted in a day,
+whereas the Lutherans were reënforced. Yet Charles, in spite of
+professional advice, refused to go into winter quarters. He counted on
+divisions in the League, on the selfish interests of the towns, on the
+penury of the princes, and reckoned aright. The fighting was never more
+than skirmishing; not arms but ducats were deciding the issue; the fate
+of war was literally hanging on a fortnight's pay.
+
+The Emperor had said that a league between towns and princes could never
+last. The financial burden pressed mainly on the cities, and they
+refused to raise further subsidies. The richer classes had always
+disliked the war; the great merchants were often, as the Fuggers of
+Augsburg, zealous Catholics. Trade was at a standstill, and they could
+protest that all their capital was at the Emperor's mercy, at Antwerp,
+at Seville, in the Indies, or else in Portugal. It was convenient to
+forget the brisk traffic which still continued with friendly Lyons. Zeal
+for the Lutheran cause seemed limited to a Catholic, Piero Strozzi the
+Florentine exile, who in his hatred for the Hapsburgs was vainly
+spending his fortune on revenge, striving for aid from Venice,
+negotiating loans from France. There was, moreover, no real solidarity
+between Northern and Southern Germany. Neither the Protestant princes
+nor the wealthy cities of the Baltic had as yet stirred a finger for the
+cause. Under any circumstances the Lutheran army must have broken up.
+The leaders had resolved to retire to the Rhineland for the winter, live
+at free quarters on the ecclesiastical princes, and renew the struggle
+in the spring.
+
+At this critical moment Maurice of Saxony came into action. Hitherto his
+conduct had been ambiguous. This was probably due less to deliberate
+deceit than to genuine hesitation. The incompetence of the Lutheran
+leaders and Ferdinand's expressed intention of invading Ernestine Saxony
+determined him. Persuading his estates with difficulty that it was
+necessary to save the Electorate for the house of Wettin, he undertook
+to execute the ban in his cousin's state. His reward was the title of
+elector and the Ernestine territories. The correspondence of Charles and
+his brother on the subject was characteristic of both. Ferdinand, always
+greedy of territory, had bargained for partition, but Charles persuaded
+him to be content with John Frederick's Bohemian fiefs.
+
+Charles, cautious and suspicious, was unwilling to grant the title until
+Maurice had proved his loyalty; Ferdinand, more impetuous, induced him
+to pay the bribe and give credit for the service. The Albertine and
+Austrian troops soon overran the defenceless land. This determined the
+manner of the Danubian campaign, and the Saxon phase of the war began.
+John Frederick must withdraw his troops to defend their homes, and he
+plundered _en route_ the neutral ecclesiastical territories through
+which he passed. "In a papal country," he told the burgomaster of
+Aschaffenburg, "there is nothing neutral." The campaign of the Danube
+was suddenly over. Philip of Hesse retired sullenly to his two wives, as
+Schartlin put it. As he passed through Frankfurt he hoisted banners with
+the crucifix, flails, and mattocks, to incite the lower classes to
+revolt; he had failed to bend the powers above him, he would fain stir
+Acheron.
+
+Charles could now complete the subjection of Southern Germany.
+Granvelle, the last to be convinced of the necessity of war, was the
+first convert to the policy of peace, which the Landgrave and the towns
+desired. Peace would relieve the financial strain and prevent the
+Germans from becoming desperate; peace would enable Charles to turn his
+arms against the Turks. Charles thought it undignified to negotiate with
+an army in the field: peace entailed the abandonment of Maurice, and
+henceforth no other prince would dare serve him; Augsburg and Ulm, if
+they were persuaded that he had no wish to establish a tyranny in
+Germany, were likely to capitulate, and after a victory his generosity
+in leaving Germany her liberty would appear the greater. Charles did not
+at this moment fear the Turk, and it was in his power at any moment to
+propitiate the French. Pedro de Soto urged the continuance of the war,
+to avert the danger of a papal-French combination, which would be the
+natural result of Paul's indignation at a compromise with heretics.
+
+The deserted princes and towns of South Germany now one by one made
+submission. Very pathetic was the Emperor's meeting with the Elector
+Palatine, the friend of his youth, the whilom lover of his sister, the
+husband of his niece. Charles did not extend his hand: the Elector made
+three low bows, after which Charles drew out a paper which he read and
+then spoke to him in French--"It has grieved me most of all that you in
+your old age should have been my enemies' companion, when we have been
+brought up together in our youth." The Elector answered almost in a
+whisper, and left "like a skinned cat," the Emperor half raising his
+cap, but no one else. He was ordered to go to Granvelle, and the
+minister played the doctor and healed the wound. He returned with tears
+in his eyes, and then Charles forgave him. "My cousin, I am content that
+your past deserts toward me should cancel the errors which you have
+recently committed." Henceforth the old friendship was renewed.
+
+Ulrich of Wuertemberg escaped less lightly. He paid a large indemnity,
+received Spanish garrisons in his fortresses, and engaged to serve
+against his late allies. He had no resource, for his subjects hated him;
+from the windows of the cottages fluttered the red and white Burgundian
+colors as a token of what was in the peasants' hearts. Ferdinand pressed
+warmly for the restoration of the duchy to Austria, but Charles replied
+that the aim of the war was the service of God and the revival of
+imperial authority: to seek their private advantage would only quicken
+the envy with which neighboring powers regarded the house of Hapsburg.
+Farther north the octogenarian of the Elector of Cologne resigned his
+see, and the evangelization of the Middle Rhine was at an end. Ulm gave
+in with a good grace, but Augsburg long delayed. Charles' original
+intention was, apparently, to garrison these towns, as Milan and Naples,
+with reliable Spanish troops, and perhaps to destroy their walls and
+dominate them by fortresses. But he treated the cities leniently. He
+left here and there companies of imperial troops, levied moderate
+contributions, replaced at Ulm and Augsburg the democratic constitution
+of the trades by the old wealthy aristocracies, but promised to respect
+the existing religion. Strasburg, which, in spite of French entreaties,
+capitulated in February, 1547, was almost exempt from punishment; it was
+feared that the distant, wealthy, and headstrong city might hold out a
+hand to the Swiss and become a canton.
+
+In Southern and Western Germany there was no longer an enemy in the
+field, but, in the North, Maurice's treachery had brought its penalty.
+John Frederick, acting with unusual vigor, recovered his dominions,
+received homage from the feudatories of Halberstadt and Magdeburg, and
+overran Maurice's territories, until he was checked before the walls of
+Leipsic. When Ferdinand prepared to aid Maurice, the German Protestants
+of Lusatia and Silesia refused their contingents, and the Bohemian
+Utraquists made common cause with the Lutherans. The Utraquist nobility
+and towns formed a league in defence of national and religious
+liberties; they convoked a diet and raised an army. Ferdinand was faced
+by a general Bohemian revolt. His position was weakened by his wife's
+death in February, for it was pretended that he was merely consort. Only
+the Catholic nobles were for the Hapsburg King; the roads were
+barricaded to prevent the passage of his artillery; and John Frederick,
+entering Bohemia, received a hearty welcome. The North German maritime
+and inland cities were now in arms, and the Lutheran princes of
+Oldenburg and Mansfield were threatening the Netherlands. Charles sent
+his best troops to Ferdinand's aid, and despatched Hans and Albert
+Hohenzollern in support of Maurice. But Germans could still beat
+Germans. Albert was surprised and taken at Rochlitz. Ferdinand eagerly
+pressed Charles to march north in person. The Emperor was unwilling, and
+Granvelle strongly dissuaded it. The despatch of Alba was the
+alternative, but Charles did not trust his generalship. He was delayed,
+partly by gout, and partly by fear of a fresh rising in the Swabian
+towns. Here he had left seven thousand men, but he could not himself
+safely stay in Nuremberg without a garrison of three thousand, and could
+not afford to lock these up. His sole presence in the North, wrote Piero
+Colonna, was worth twenty-five thousand foot, and Charles, ill as he
+was, must march.
+
+The unexpected turn which the war had taken in Saxony was not Charles'
+only trouble. Paul III had been alarmed by the Emperor's progress, which
+had been more rapid and complete than he expected, and at the end of six
+months, for which he had promised his contingent, he withdrew it. The
+material loss was slight, but the whole aspect of the war was altered.
+Charles could scarcely now profess to be fighting for submission to Pope
+and council, for the council in March transferred itself, after violent
+altercations with the Spanish bishops and imperial envoys, to Bologna.
+Rome rejoiced at the successes of John Frederick. In the late French war
+the Turks had figured as the Pope's friends and had spared his shores;
+it now seemed possible that the Lutherans might be the Pope's allies.
+It was certain that, if time were given, the Pope's defection would
+stimulate the active hostility of France. Charles must have done with
+the rebellion, and that quickly.
+
+Tortured by gout and fearing that his forces would prove inferior to the
+Saxons, Charles moved painfully from Nordlingen to Regensburg and thence
+to Eger, where he was joined by Ferdinand, Maurice, and the electoral
+prince of Brandenburg. Spending Easter at Eger, he crossed the Saxon
+frontier on April 13, 1547, with eighteen thousand foot and eight
+thousand horse. Ten days of incessant marching brought him within touch
+of the Elector, who was guarding the bridge of Meissen. John Frederick
+had foolishly frittered away his forces in Saxon and Bohemian garrisons.
+He now burned the bridge and retired down the Elbe to Muehlberg, hoping
+to concentrate his scattered forces under the walls of Wittenberg, while
+his bridge of boats would keep open communications with the left bank.
+
+Charles was too quick for the ponderous Elector. He marched at midnight
+on April 23-24, and at 9 A.M. reached the Elbe, nearly opposite
+Muehlberg. As the mist cleared, Alba's light horse descried the bridge
+of boats swinging from the farther bank, and a dozen Spaniards, covered
+by an arquebuse fire, swam the river with swords between their teeth,
+routed the guard, and brought the boats across. Meanwhile Alba and
+Maurice found a ford by which the light horse crossed with arquebusiers
+_en croupe_. Charles and Ferdinand followed, with the water up to the
+girths, the Emperor pale as death and thin as a skeleton. The Elector,
+after attending his Sunday sermon, was enjoying his breakfast; he made
+no attempt to defend his strong position on the higher bank, but
+withdrew his guns and infantry, covering the retreat in person with his
+cavalry. The bulk of the imperial forces had crossed by the bridge of
+boats, and the day was passed in a running rear-guard action. It was a
+long-drawn sunset, and not till between six and seven did Alba, as ever
+making sure, deliver his decisive attack. The Saxon horse had turned
+fiercely on the pursuing light cavalry some nine miles from Muehlberg,
+and then the imperialists, striking home, converted the retreat into a
+headlong flight. More than a third of the Saxon forces were left upon
+the field; the whole of their artillery and baggage train was taken.
+John Frederick regained his timid generalship by his personal bravery.
+Left almost single-handed in the wood through which his troops retired,
+he slashed at the Neapolitan light-horsemen and Hungarian hussars who
+surrounded him, but at length surrendered to Ippolito da Porto of
+Vicenza, who led him, his forehead streaming with blood, to Charles.
+
+Of the interview between the Emperor and his enemy there are several
+versions, but none inconsistent. "Most powerful and gracious Emperor,"
+said the Elector, vainly endeavoring to dismount, "I am your prisoner."
+"You recognize me as Emperor now?" rejoined Charles. "I am to-day a poor
+prisoner; may it please your majesty to treat me as a born prince." "I
+will treat you as you deserve," said Charles. Then broke in Ferdinand,
+"You have tried to drive me and my children from our lands."
+
+The evidence as to the angry scene seems conclusive. Charles had been
+twenty-one hours in the saddle; he had been exasperated by the insolence
+of the Princess, who had addressed him as "Charles of Ghent, self-styled
+Emperor." Yet his harsh reception of a wounded prisoner contrasts
+unpleasantly with the generosity which his biographers have ascribed to
+him.
+
+Muehlberg was little more than a skirmish, and yet it was decisive. In a
+far more murderous battle the imperialists were beaten. The forces of
+the maritime towns had compelled Eric of Brunswick to raise the siege of
+Bremen, and on his retreat had defeated him near Drakenberg with a heavy
+loss. But victories belated or premature do not turn the scale against
+an opportune success. The sole result of the battle was to delay the
+Landgrave's surrender a little longer. Philip had sworn to die like a
+mad-dog before he would surrender his fortresses, but he yielded
+ultimately without a blow. He found discontent rife among his nobles; he
+was threatened alike from the Netherlands and by the Count of Buren; for
+months he wavered between capitulation and resistance. Arras assured the
+nuncio that he was a scoundrel and a coward; that he had implored
+Maurice to intercede, first for all Lutheran Germany, then for John
+Frederick and himself, and finally for himself alone. "See what men
+these are," added the Bishop later. "Philip has even offered to march
+against the Duke of Saxony; he is a sorry fellow and of evil nature: he
+is such a scoundrel that his majesty cannot trust him in any promise
+that he may make, for he has never kept one yet."
+
+The imperial minister's judgment upon the Landgrave was too severe. He
+long struggled for honor against fear, and, but for his son-in-law,
+Maurice's influence might have made a better fight. Maurice had from the
+first striven to detach Philip from John Frederick, while in turn he was
+expected by the Landgrave to strike in for a free Germany and a free
+gospel against the Hungarian hussars and the black Spanish devils. When
+the two Lutheran leaders parted in November, 1546, on no good terms,
+Philip warned his son-in-law that the Elector was on the march against
+him, but begged to intercede with Charles for a general peace. Maurice
+would have no peace with his Ernestine cousins, but offered to use all
+his influence on behalf of Philip, who must hasten to decide, for Buren
+was "on his legs" and the Emperor was an obstinate man. From this moment
+the Landgrave's irresolution was piteous; the negotiations crippled all
+enterprise, and yet he could not persuade himself to abandon his ally,
+although the natural expiry of the League of Smalkald on February 27,
+1547, gave him a tolerable pretext. Maurice waxed impatient at the
+recurring hesitation, at the perpetual amendment of all suggested terms:
+Philip could not bargain with Charles as though he were a tradesman; he
+need have no fear for religion, but he must make it clear to the Emperor
+and Ferdinand that he was against John Frederick. Then came the defeat
+of Muehlberg, which at least relieved Philip from obligations to his
+late ally. It was now the surrender of his fortresses and his artillery
+that he could not stomach, and the victory of Drakenberg raised his once
+martial ardor to a final flicker.
+
+The flicker died away, and at length Philip yielded to the pressure of
+Maurice and Joachim of Brandenburg. Charles insisted on unconditional
+surrender, but promised the mediators that punishment should not extend
+to personal injury or perpetual imprisonment--this only, however, on
+their pledge that Philip should not be informed of these limitations. It
+was agreed that he should dismantle his fortresses with one exception,
+surrender his artillery, and pay an indemnity, but that his territory
+should remain intact and its religion undisturbed.
+
+With Philip's surrender the war seemed virtually at an end. Magdeburg,
+indeed, still held out, for fear of falling again under its Catholic
+Hohenzollern Archbishop. There was no reason to believe that the city
+would prove more courageous than its fellows. Charles did not dare spend
+his four thousand Spaniards in the assault, but in this case
+extravagance would have proved to be economy. When he knew his subject,
+his opinion was usually well founded; he had little knowledge, however,
+of North Germany, and confused Magdeburg with Ulm or Augsburg. It were
+better for Charles had his Spaniards been decimated on its parapet than
+that they should lord it in security over the churches and taverns of
+Southern Germany.
+
+Apart from his two last mistakes, in the campaign against the league,
+Charles, whether as a soldier or statesman, is seen at his best. When
+once the drums beat to arms there was an end to irresolution. He had
+that reserve of energy upon which an indolent, lethargic nature can
+sometimes at a crisis draw. The Netherlands seemed threatened from east
+to west; yet in perfect calm he ordered his agitated sister Mary to
+watch her frontiers, but to send every man and gun that could be spared
+under Buren to the front. Taking advantage of his enemies' delays, he
+made with greatly inferior forces the forward move on Ingolstadt, and
+was there seen under heavy fire "steady as a rock and smiling." Racked
+by gout he now sought sleep in his litter behind a bastion, now warmed
+his aching limbs in a little movable wooden room heated by a stove. In
+the cold, wet November, when generals and ministers fell sick, and
+soldiers of every nationality deserted, he resolutely rejected expert
+advice to withdraw into winter quarters. He would not give his enemies,
+he said, the least chance of outstaying him. All success, wrote the
+Marquis of Marignano, was due to the Emperor's resolution to keep the
+field. Charles vexed the fiery Buren by shrinking from a general
+engagement, because he knew that his combinations would break up the
+league without the risk of a battle. But when once danger really
+pressed, ill as he was, he marched across Germany, and followed fast
+upon the Elector's heels until he tripped and took him.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO JAPAN
+
+A.D. 1549
+
+JOHN H. GUBBINS
+
+     Lands discovered or settled by Europeans after the founding
+     of the Jesuits were quickly chosen by the zealous members of
+     that order as scenes of missionary work. In the case of
+     Japan, missions followed discovery with unusual rapidity.
+
+     Excepting what was told by Marco Polo, who visited the coast
+     of Japan in the thirteenth century, nothing was learned of
+     that country by the Western World until its discovery by the
+     Portuguese. In 1541 King John III requested Francis Xavier,
+     one of the Jesuit founders, with other members of his order,
+     to undertake missionary work in the Portuguese colonies.
+     Through his labors in India, Xavier became known as the
+     "Apostle of the Indies." Before sailing to Japan he had
+     established a flourishing mission with a school, called the
+     Seminary of the Holy Faith, at Goa, on the Malabar coast of
+     India.
+
+
+It was to Portuguese enterprise that Christianity owed its introduction
+into Japan in the sixteenth century. As early as 1542 Portuguese trading
+vessels began to visit Japan, where they exchanged Western commodities
+for the then little-known products of the Japanese islands; and seven
+years afterward three Portuguese missionaries (Xavier, Torres, and
+Fernandez) took passage in one of these merchant ships and landed at
+Kagoshima.
+
+The leading spirit of the three, it need scarcely be said, was Xavier,
+who had already acquired considerable reputation by his missionary
+labors in India. After a short residence the missionaries were forced to
+leave Satsuma, and after as short a stay in the island of Hirado, which
+appears to have been then the rendezvous of trade between the Portuguese
+merchants and the Japanese, they crossed over to the mainland and
+settled down in Yamaguchi in Nagato, the chief town of the territories
+of the Prince of Choshiu. After a visit to the capital, which was
+productive of no result, owing to the disturbed state of the country,
+Xavier (November, 1551) left Japan with the intention of founding a
+Jesuit mission in China, but died on his way in the island of Sancian.
+
+In 1553 fresh missionaries arrived, some of whom remained in Bungo,
+where Xavier had made a favorable impression before his departure, while
+others joined their fellow-missionaries in Yamaguchi. After having been
+driven from the latter place by the outbreak of disturbances, and having
+failed to establish a footing in Hizen, we find the missionaries in 1557
+collected in Bungo, and this province appears to have become their
+headquarters from that time. In the course of the next year but one,
+Vilela made a visit to Kioto, Sakai, and other places, during which he
+is said to have gained a convert in the person of the _daimio_, of the
+small principality of Omura, who displayed an imprudent excess of
+religious zeal in the destruction of idols and other extreme measures,
+which could only tend to provoke the hostility of the Buddhist
+priesthood. The conversion of this prince was followed by that of
+Arima-no-Kami (mistakenly called the Prince of Arima by the Jesuits).
+
+Other missionaries arriving in 1560, the circle of operations was
+extended; but shortly afterward the revolution, headed by Mori,
+compelled Vilela to leave Kioto, where he had settled, and a
+simultaneous outbreak in Omura necessitated the withdrawal of the
+missionaries stationed there. Mori, of Choshiu, was perhaps the most
+powerful noble of the day, possessing no fewer than ten provinces, and,
+as he was throughout an open enemy to Christianity, his influence was
+exercised against it with much ill result.
+
+On Vilela's return to Kioto from Sakai, where a branch mission had been
+established, he succeeded in gaining several distinguished converts.
+Among these were Takayama, a leading general of the time, and his
+nephew. He did not, however, remain long in the capital. The recurrence
+of troubles in 1568 made it necessary for him to withdraw, and he then
+proceeded to Nagasaki, where he met with considerable success. In this
+same year we come across Valegnani preaching in the Goto Isles, and
+Torres in the island of Seki, where he died. Almeida, too, about this
+time founded a Christian community at Shimabara, afterward notorious as
+the scene of the revolt and massacre of the Christians.
+
+Hitherto we find little mention of Christianity in Japanese books. This
+may partly be explained by the fact that the labors of the missionaries
+were chiefly confined to the southern provinces, Christianity having as
+yet made little progress at Kioto, the seat of literature. But the
+scarcity of Japanese records can scarcely be wondered at in the face of
+the edict issued later in the next century, which interdicted not only
+books on the subject of Christianity, but any book in which even the
+name of _Christian_ or the word _Foreign_ should be mentioned.
+
+Short notices occur in several native works of the arrival in Kioto at
+this date of the Jesuit missionary Organtin, and some curious details
+are furnished respecting the progress of Christianity in the capital and
+the attitude of Nobunaga in regard to it.
+
+The _Saikoku Kirishitan Bateren Jitsu Roku_, or "True Record of
+Christian Padres in Kiushiu," gives a minute account of the appearance
+and dress of Organtin, and goes on to say: "He was asked his name and
+why he had come to Japan, and replied that he was the Padre Organtin and
+had come to spread his religion. He was told that he could not be
+allowed at once to preach his religion, but would be informed later on.
+Nobunaga accordingly took counsel with his retainers as to whether he
+should allow Christianity to be preached or not. One of these strongly
+advised him not to do so, on the ground that there were already enough
+religions in the country. But Nobunaga replied that Buddhism had been
+introduced from abroad and had done good in the country, and he
+therefore did not see why Christianity should not be granted a trial.
+Organtin was consequently allowed to erect a church and to send for
+others of his order, who, when they came, were found to be like him in
+appearance. Their plan of action was to tend the sick and relieve the
+poor, and so prepare the way for the reception of Christianity, and then
+to convert everyone and make the sixty-six provinces of Japan subject to
+Portugal."
+
+The _Ibuki Mogusa_ gives further details of this subject, and says that
+the Jesuits called their church _Yierokuji_, after the name of the
+period in which it was built, but that Nobunaga changed the name to
+_Nambanji_, or "Temple of the Southern Savages." The word _Namban_ was
+the term usually applied to the Portuguese and Spaniards.
+
+During the next ten years Organtin and other missionaries worked with
+considerable success in Kioto under Nobunaga's immediate protection.
+This period is also remarkable for the conversion of the Prince of
+Bungo, who made open profession of Christianity and retired into private
+life, and for the rapid progress which the new doctrine made among the
+subjects of Arima-no-Kami. This good fortune was again counterbalanced
+by the course of events in the Goto Islands, where Christianity lost
+much ground owing to a change of rulers.
+
+Ten years thus passed away, when the Christian communities sustained
+great loss in the disgrace of Takayama, who was banished to Kaga for
+taking part in an unsuccessful intrigue against Nobunaga which was
+headed by the Prince of Choshiu. Takayama's nephew, Ukon, however,
+declared for Nobunaga, and the latter gave a further proof of his
+friendly feeling toward Christianity by establishing a church in
+Adzuchi-no-Shiro, the castle town which he had built for himself in his
+native province of Omi.
+
+In 1582 a mission was sent to the papal see on the part of the Princes
+of Bungo and Omura, and Arima-no-Kami. This mission was accompanied by
+Valegnani, and reached Rome in 1585, returning five years later to
+Japan.
+
+In the following year Nobunaga was assassinated and Hideyoshi, who
+succeeded him in the chief power, was content, for the first three or
+four years of his administration, to follow in the line of policy marked
+out by his predecessor. Christianity, therefore, progressed in spite of
+the drawbacks caused by the frequent feuds between the southern
+_daimios_, and seminaries were established under Hideyoshi's auspices at
+Osaka and Sakai. During this period Martinez arrived in the capacity of
+bishop; he was charged with costly presents from the Viceroy of Goa to
+Hideyoshi, and received a favorable audience.
+
+Hideyoshi's attitude toward Christianity at this time is easily
+explained. The powerful southern barons were not willing to accept him
+as Nobunaga's successor without a struggle, and there were other reasons
+against the adoption of too hasty measures. Two of his generals, Kondera
+and Konishi Setsu-no-Kami, who afterward commanded the second division
+of the army sent against Corea, the Governor of Osaka, and numerous
+other officers of state and nobles of rank and influence, had embraced
+Christianity, and the Christians were therefore not without influential
+supporters. Hideyoshi's first act was to secure his position. For this
+purpose he marched into Kiushiu at the head of a large force and was
+everywhere victorious. This done, he threw off the mask he had been
+wearing up to this time, and in 1587 took the first step in his new
+course of action by ordering the destruction of the Christian church at
+Kioto--which had been in existence for a period of eighteen years--and
+the expulsion of the missionaries from the capital.
+
+It will be seen by the following extract from the _Ibuki Mogusa_ that
+Nobunaga at one time entertained designs for the destruction of
+Nambanji.
+
+"Nobunaga," we read, "now began to regret his previous policy in
+permitting the introduction of Christianity. He accordingly assembled
+his retainers and said to them: 'The conduct of these missionaries in
+persuading people to join them by giving money does not please me. It
+must be, I think, that they harbor the design of seizing the country.
+How would it be, think you, if we were to demolish Nambanji?' To this
+Mayeda Tokuzenin replied: 'It is now too late to demolish the temple of
+Nambanji. To endeavor to arrest the power of this religion now is like
+trying to arrest the current of the ocean. Nobles both great and small
+have become adherents of it. If you would exterminate this religion now,
+there is fear lest disturbances be created even among your own
+retainers. I am, therefore, of opinion that you should abandon your
+intention of destroying Nambanji.' Nobunaga in consequence regretted
+exceedingly his previous action with regard to the Christian religion,
+and set about thinking how he could root it out."
+
+The Jesuit writers attribute Hideyoshi's sudden change of attitude to
+three different causes, but it is clear that Hideyoshi was never
+favorable to Christianity, and that he only waited for his power to be
+secure before taking decided measures of hostility. His real feeling in
+regard to the Christians and their teachers is explained in the _Life of
+Hideyoshi_, from which work we learn that even before his accession to
+power he had ventured to remonstrate with Nobunaga for his policy toward
+Christianity.
+
+Hideyoshi's next act was to banish Takayama Ukon to Kaga, where his
+uncle already was, and he then in 1588 issued a decree ordering the
+missionaries to assemble at Hirado and prepare to leave Japan. They did
+so, but finding that measures were not pushed to extremity they
+dispersed and placed themselves under the protection of various nobles
+who had embraced Christianity. The territories of these princes offered
+safe asylums, and in these scattered districts the work of Christianity
+progressed secretly while openly interdicted.
+
+In 1591 Valegnani had a favorable audience of Hideyoshi, but he was
+received entirely in an official capacity, namely, in the character of
+envoy of the Viceroy of Goa.
+
+Christianity was at its most flourishing stage during the first few
+years of Hideyoshi's administration. We can discern the existence at
+this date of a strong Christian party in the country, though the
+turning-point had been reached, and the tide of progress was on the ebb.
+It is to this influence probably, coupled with the fact that his many
+warlike expeditions left him little leisure to devote to religious
+questions, that we must attribute the slight relaxation observable in
+his policy toward Christianity at this time.
+
+"Up to this date," says Charlevoix, "Hideyoshi had not evinced any
+special bitterness against Christianity, and had not proceeded to
+rigorous measures in regard to Christians. The condition of Christianity
+was reassuring. Rodriguez was well in favor at court, and Organtin had
+returned to Kioto along with several other missionaries, and found means
+to render as much assistance to the Christians in that part of the
+country as he had been able to do before the issue of the edict against
+Christianity by Hideyoshi."
+
+The inference which it is intended should be drawn from these remarks,
+taken with the context, is clear; namely, that, had the Jesuits been
+left alone to prosecute the work of evangelizing Japan, the ultimate
+result might have been very different. However, this was not to be.
+
+Hitherto, for a period of forty-four years, the Jesuits had it all their
+own way in Japan; latterly, by virtue of a bull issued by Pope Gregory
+XIII in 1585--the date of the appointment of the first bishop and of the
+arrival at Rome of the Japanese mission--and subsequently confirmed by
+the bull of Clement III in 1600, by which the _réligieux_ of other
+orders were excluded from missionary work in Japan. The object of these
+papal decrees was, it seems, to insure the propagation of Christianity
+on a uniform system. They were, however, disregarded when the time came,
+and therefore, for a new influence which was brought to bear upon
+Christianity at this date--not altogether for its good, if the Jesuit
+accounts may be credited--we must look to the arrival of an embassy from
+the Governor of the Philippines, whose ambassador was accompanied by
+four Franciscan priests.
+
+These new arrivals, when confronted by the Jesuits with the papal bull,
+declared that they had not transgressed it, and defended their action on
+the ground that they had come attached to an embassy and not in the
+character of missionaries; but they argued at the same time, with a
+casuistry only equalled by their opponents, that, having once arrived in
+Japan, there was nothing to hinder them from exercising their calling as
+preachers of Christianity.
+
+The embassy was successful, and Baptiste, who appears to have conducted
+the negotiations in place of the real envoy, obtained Hideyoshi's
+consent to his shrewd proposal that, pending the reference to Manila of
+Hideyoshi's claim to the sovereignty of the Philippines, he and his
+brother missionaries should remain as hostages. Hideyoshi, while
+consenting, made their residence conditional on their not preaching
+Christianity--a condition which it is needless to say was never
+observed.
+
+Thus, at one and the same time, the Spaniards, who had long been
+watching with their jealous eyes the exclusive right of trade enjoyed by
+the Portuguese, obtained an opening for commerce, and the Franciscans a
+footing for their religious mission.
+
+It was not long before the newly-arrived missionaries were called upon
+to prove their devotion to their cause. In 1593, in consequence of the
+indiscreet statements of the pilot of a Spanish galleon, which, being
+driven by stress of weather into a port of Tosa, was seized by
+Hideyoshi, nine missionaries--namely, six Franciscans and three
+Jesuits--were arrested in Kioto and Osaka, and, having been taken to
+Nagasaki, were there burned. This was the first execution carried out by
+the government.
+
+Hideyoshi died in the following year (1594), and the civil troubles
+which preceded the succession of Iyeyasu to the post of administrator,
+in which the Christians lost their chief supporter, Konishi, who took
+part against Iyeyasu, favored the progress of Christianity in so far as
+diverting attention from it to matters of more pressing moment.
+
+Iyeyasu's policy toward Christianity was a repetition of his
+predecessor's. Occupied entirely with military campaigns against those
+who refused to acknowledge his supremacy, he permitted the Jesuits, who
+now numbered one hundred, to establish themselves in force at Kioto,
+Osaka, and Nagasaki. But as soon as tranquillity was restored, and he
+felt himself secure in the seat of power, he at once gave proof of the
+policy he intended to follow by the issue of a decree of expulsion
+against the missionaries. This was in 1600. The Jesuit writers affirm
+that he was induced to withdraw his edict in consequence of the
+threatening attitude adopted by certain Christian nobles who had
+espoused his cause in the late civil war, but no mention is made of this
+in the Japanese accounts.
+
+So varying, and indeed so altogether unintelligible, was the action of
+the different nobles throughout Kiushiu in regard to Christianity during
+the next few years, that we see one who was not a Christian offering an
+asylum in his dominions to several hundred native converts who were
+expelled from a neighboring province; another who had systematically
+opposed the introduction of Christianity actually sending a mission to
+the Philippines to ask for missionaries; while a third, who had hitherto
+made himself conspicuous by his almost fanatical zeal in the Christian
+cause, suddenly abandoned his new faith, and, from having been one of
+its most ardent supporters, became one of its most bitter foes.
+
+The year 1602 is remarkable for the despatch of an embassy by Iyeyasu to
+the Philippines, and for the large number of _réligieux_ of all orders
+who flocked to Japan.
+
+Affairs remained _in statu quo_ for the next two or three years, during
+which the Christian cause was weakened by the death of two men which it
+could ill afford to lose. One of these was the noble called Kondera by
+Charlevoix, but whose name we have been unable to trace in Japanese
+records. The other was Organtin, who had deservedly the reputation of
+being the most energetic member of the Jesuit body.
+
+The number of Christians in Japan at this time is stated to have been
+one million eight hundred thousand. The number of missionaries was of
+course proportionally large, and was increased by the issue in 1608 of a
+new bull by Pope Paul V allowing to _réligieux_ of all orders free
+access to Japan.
+
+The year 1610 is remarkable for the arrival of the Dutch, who settled in
+Hirado, and for the destruction in the harbor of Nagasaki of the annual
+Portuguese galleon sent by the traders of Macao. In this latter affair,
+which rose out of a dispute between the natives and the people of the
+ship, Arima-no-Kami was concerned, and his alliance with the
+missionaries was thus terminated.
+
+In 1611 no less than three embassies arrived in Japan from the Dutch,
+Spanish, and Portuguese respectively, and in 1613 Saris succeeded in
+founding an English factory in Hirado, where the Dutch had already
+established themselves. It was early in the following year that
+Christianity was finally proscribed by Iyeyasu. The decree of expulsion
+directed against the missionaries was followed by a fierce outbreak of
+persecution in all the provinces in which Christians were to be found,
+which was conducted with systematic and relentless severity.
+
+The Jesuit accounts attribute this resolution on the part of Iyeyasu to
+the intrigues of the English and Dutch traders. Two stories, by one of
+which it was sought to fix the blame on the former and by the other on
+the latter, were circulated, and will be found at length in Charlevoix's
+history.
+
+We have no wish to enter upon a defence either of our countrymen or of
+the Dutch, and fully admit the possibility of such intrigues having
+occurred. Indeed, considering in what relations both Spanish and
+Portuguese stood at that time to both of the other nations, and how high
+religious feeling ran in the seventeenth century, it would be strange if
+some intrigue had not taken place. Still we should like to point out
+that there were, we think, causes, other than those to which the Jesuit
+writers confine themselves, quite sufficient in themselves to account
+for the extreme measures taken against Christianity at this date.
+
+There was the predetermination against Christianity already shown by
+Iyeyasu; there were the new avenues of trade opened up by the arrival of
+the English and Dutch; there was the increased activity displayed by the
+missionaries at a time when Christianity was in a weak state, and lastly
+there was the influence of the Buddhist priesthood.
+
+That this edict of expulsion issued by Iyeyasu was the effect of no
+sudden caprice on his part, is clear from the general view which we have
+of his whole policy, which was similar to that of his predecessor. His
+early tolerance of Christianity is susceptible of the same explanation
+as that shown by Hideyoshi. His mind was evidently made up, and he was
+only biding his time.
+
+It is also highly probable that the new facilities for trade offered by
+the advent of the Dutch and English may have had some influence upon the
+action of Iyeyasu. It is impossible that he can have been altogether
+blind to the fact that the teaching of Christianity had not been
+unattended with certain evils, dangerous, to say the least, to the
+tranquillity of the country; and it cannot have escaped his notice that,
+whereas the respective admissions of Portuguese and Spaniards had been
+followed by the introduction of Christian missionaries, who in numbers
+far exceeded the traders, the same feature was not a part of the policy
+of the two other nations, whose proceedings had no connection whatsoever
+with religion. Possibly, too, reports may have reached his ears of the
+growing supremacy of the Dutch in the East, and have induced him to
+transfer his favor from the Portuguese and Spaniards to the new
+arrivals.
+
+As regards the condition of Christianity at this time, the Jesuit
+accounts supply us with facts which show that, numerically speaking, the
+Christian cause was never so strong as at this period. There were some
+two millions of converts, whose spiritual concerns were administered by
+no fewer than two hundred missionaries, three-fourths of whom were
+Jesuits. According to the _Kerisuto-Ki_, a native work, there were
+Christian churches in every province of Kiushiu except Hiuga and Osumi,
+and also in Kioto, Osaka, Sendai, and Kanagawa in Kaga; and it was only
+in eight provinces of Japan that Christianity had gained no footing. An
+increased activity in the operations of the missionaries is discernible
+about this time. The Dominicans in Satsuma, the Franciscans in Yedo
+(Tokio), and the Jesuits in the capital and southern provinces, seem to
+have been vying with each other which should gain most converts; and the
+circuit made by Cerqueyra, in which he visited all the Jesuit
+establishments throughout the country, was probably not without effect
+in exciting fresh enthusiasm among the converts everywhere, which,
+again, would naturally draw attention to the progress of Christianity.
+But, strong as the position of the Christians was numerically, we must
+not judge of the strength of their cause merely by the number of
+converts, or by the number of missionaries resident in Japan. If we
+consider the facts before us, we find that Christianity lacked the best
+of all strength--influence in the state. All its principal supporters
+among the aristocracy were either dead, had renounced their new faith,
+or were in exile; and here we have the real weakness of the Christian
+cause. While, therefore, circumstances combined to draw attention to its
+progress, it was in a state which could ill resist any renewed activity
+of persecution which might be the result of the increased interest which
+it excited. Without influence at the court and without influence in the
+country, beyond what slight influence the mass of common people
+scattered through various provinces, who were Christians, might be said
+to possess, Christianity presented itself assailable with impunity.
+
+The last cause we have mentioned, as being probably connected with the
+decisive measures adopted by Iyeyasu, is the influence of the Buddhist
+priesthood. Japanese history mentions the great power attained by the
+priesthood prior to Nobunaga's administration. Although that power was
+broken by Nobunaga, Hideyoshi did not inherit the former's animosity
+toward the priests, and Iyeyasu from the first came forward as their
+patron. And, again, we must not lose sight of the fact that a
+deep-rooted suspicion of foreigners was ever present in the minds of the
+Japanese Government; a suspicion which the course of events in China, of
+which we may presume the Japanese were not altogether ignorant--the
+jealousy of the native priests; the control of their converts exercised
+by the missionaries, which doubtless extended to secular matters; the
+connection of Christianity with trade; and the astounding progress made
+by it in the space of half a century--all tended to confirm. Enough has
+been said to show that we need not go so far as the intrigues, real or
+imaginary, of the English and Dutch, to look for causes for the renewed
+stimulus given at this date to the measures against Christianity.
+
+In 1614 the edict was carried into effect, and the missionaries,
+accompanied by the Japanese princes who had been in exile in Kaga, and a
+number of native Christians, were made to embark from Nagasaki. Several
+missionaries remained concealed in the country, and in subsequent years
+not a few contrived to elude the vigilance of the authorities and to
+reënter Japan. But they were all detected sooner or later, and suffered
+for their temerity by their deaths.
+
+Persecution did not stop with the expulsion of the missionaries, nor at
+the death of Iyeyasu was any respite given to the native Christians. And
+this brings us to the closing scene of this history--the tragedy of
+Shimabara. In the autumn of 1637 the peasantry of a convert district in
+Hizen, driven past endurance by the fierce ferocity of the persecution,
+assembled to the number of thirty thousand, and, fortifying the castle
+of Shimabara, declared open defiance to the Government; their opposition
+was soon overborne; troops were sent against them, and after a short but
+desperate resistance all the Christians were put to the sword. With the
+rising of Shimabara, and its sanguinary suppression by the Government,
+the curtain falls on the early history of Christianity in Japan.
+
+
+
+
+COLLAPSE OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V
+
+FRANCE SEIZES GERMAN BISHOPRICS
+
+A.D. 1552
+
+LADY C. C. JACKSON
+
+     Henry II, son of Francis I, ascended the throne of France in
+     1547. It had been the ambition of the French to establish
+     the eastern boundary of their country on the Rhine, and
+     thence along the summit of the Alps to the Mediterranean
+     Sea. Jealousy of the growing power of his father's old
+     enemy, the emperor Charles V, probably added to the French
+     King's eagerness to fulfil the desire of his people for
+     extension of their borders.
+
+     Charles was now occupied with the religious wars in Germany,
+     and Henry prepared to improve his opportunity by taking full
+     advantage of the Emperor's situation. The fact that the
+     Protestants among his own subjects were cruelly persecuted
+     did not deter the French monarch from furthering his
+     ambition by consenting to assist the German Protestants
+     against their own sovereign.
+
+     In 1551, when for six years there had been no actual war
+     between France and the empire, Henry entered into an
+     alliance with German princes against the Emperor. Several of
+     those princes, headed by Maurice of Saxony, had secretly
+     formed a league to resist by force of arms the "measures
+     employed by Charles to reduce Germany to insupportable and
+     perpetual servitude."
+
+
+Charles V was on the point of becoming as despotic in Germany as he was
+in Spain. The long interval of peace, though not very profound--war
+being always threatened and attempts to provoke it frequent--yet was
+sufficiently so to enable him to devote himself to his favorite scheme
+of humbling the princes and free states of the empire. He had sown
+dissension among them, succeeded in breaking up the League of Smalkald,
+and detained in prison, threatened with perpetual captivity, the
+Landgrave of Hesse and the elector John Frederick of Saxony. They had
+been sentenced to death, having taken up arms against him. Frequently
+appealed to to release them, Charles declared that to trouble him
+further on their account would be to bring on them the execution of the
+sentence they so richly merited.
+
+His political aims he believed to be now accomplished, and the spirit of
+German independence nearly, if not wholly, extinguished. But with this
+he was not content. The time had arrived, he thought, for the full and
+final extirpation of heresy, and the carrying out of his grand scheme of
+"establishing uniformity of religion in the empire." The formula of
+faith, called the "Interim," which he had drawn up for general
+observance until the council reassembled, had been for the sake of peace
+accepted with slight resistance, except at Magdeburg, which, for its
+obstinate rejection of it, was placed under the ban of the empire. But
+the prelates were assembling at Trent, and the full acquiescence of all
+parties in their decisions--given, of course, in conformity with the
+views of Charles V--was to be made imperative.
+
+Henry II had already renewed the French alliance with Sultan Solyman,
+and was urged to send his lieutenants to ravage the coast of Sicily--a
+suggestion he was not at all loath to follow. Yet the proposal of an
+alliance with the heretic German princes--though the league was not
+simply a Protestant one--met with strenuous opposition from that
+excellent Catholic, Anne de Montmorency. The persecuting King, too,
+anxious as he was to oppose his arms to those of the Emperor, feared to
+do so in alliance with heretics, lest he should compromise his soul's
+salvation.
+
+But the princes had offered him an irresistible bribe. They
+proposed--even declared they thought it right--that the seigneur King
+should take possession of those imperial cities which were not Germanic
+in language--as Metz, Cambray, Toul, Verdun, and similar ones--and
+retain them in quality of vicar of the Holy Empire. As a further
+inducement, they promised--having accomplished their own objects--to aid
+him with their troops to recover from Charles his heritage of Milan.
+This was decisive.
+
+On October 5th a pact was signed with France by the Lutheran elector
+Maurice, in his own name and that of the confederate princes, Henry's
+ambassador being the Catholic Bishop of Bayonne. Extensive preparations
+for war were immediately set on foot and new taxes levied; for the King
+had promised aid in money also--a considerable sum monthly as long as
+hostilities continued.
+
+He, however, deemed it expedient, before joining his army, to give some
+striking proof of his continued orthodoxy; first, by way of
+counterbalancing his heretical alliance with the Lutherans and his
+infidel one with the Mussulmans; next, to destroy the false hopes
+founded on them by French reformers. The heretics, during his absence,
+were therefore to be hunted down with the utmost rigor. The Sorbonne was
+charged "to examine minutely all books from Geneva, and no unlettered
+person was permitted to discuss matters of faith." All cities and
+municipalities were strictly enjoined to elect none but good Catholics
+to the office of mayor or sheriff, exacting from them a certificate of
+Catholicism before entering on the duties of their office. Neglect of
+this would subject the electors themselves to the pains and penalties
+inflicted on heretics.
+
+A grand inquisitor was appointed to take care of the faith in Lyons, and
+the daily burnings on the Place de Grève went on simultaneously with the
+preparations in the arsenals, and no less vigorously. Thus the King was
+enabled to enter on this war with a safe conscience. Montmorency,[57]
+unwilling always to oppose the Emperor, was compelled, lest he should
+seem less patriotic than his rivals, to add his voice also in favor of
+the project that promised the realization of the views of Charles VII
+and Francis I that the natural boundary of France was the Rhine.
+
+To return to Germany and the Emperor--whose complicated affairs are so
+entangled with those of France that they cannot be wholly separated,
+each in some measure forming the complement of the other. The
+command-in-chief of the German army was given to Maurice of Saxony--an
+able general, full of resource, daring and dauntless in the field,
+crafty and cautious in the cabinet as Charles himself. Throughout the
+winter he secretly assembled troops, preparing to take the field early
+in the spring, yet adroitly concealing his projects, and lulling into
+security "the most artful monarch in Europe."
+
+The Emperor had left Augsburg for Innspruck that he might at the same
+time watch over the council and the affairs of Germany and Italy. He was
+suffering from asthma, gout, and other maladies, chiefly brought on by
+his excesses at table, and rendered incurable by his inability to put
+any restraint on his immoderate appetite.
+
+In his retreat some rumors had reached him that the movements of Maurice
+of Saxony were suspicious, and that he was raising troops in
+Transylvania. But he gave little heed to this, or to warnings pressed on
+him by some of his partisans. For Maurice, to serve his own ambitious
+views, had in fact, though professing the reformed faith, aided Charles
+to acquire that power and ascendency, that almost unlimited despotism in
+Germany he now proposed to overthrow. For his services he had obtained
+the larger part of the electoral dominions of his unfortunate relative,
+John Frederick of Saxony, whose release, as also that of the Landgrave,
+now formed part of his programme for delivering Germany from her fetters
+ere the imperial despot could--as Maurice saw he was prepared to
+do--rivet them on her. To renew the Protestant league, to place himself
+at its head and defy the despot, was more congenial to Maurice's
+restless, aspiring mind than to play the part of his lieutenant.
+
+The winter passed away without any serious suspicions on Charles' part.
+To throw him off his guard Maurice had undertaken to subdue the
+Magdeburgers. The leniency of his conduct toward "those rebels" with
+whom he was secretly in league did at last excite a doubt in Charles'
+mind. Maurice was summoned to Innspruck, ostensibly to confer with him
+respecting the liberation of his father-in-law, the Landgrave of Hesse.
+But Maurice was far too wary to put himself in his power, and readily
+found some plausible excuse to delay his journey from time to time. But
+when, early in March, at the head of twenty-five thousand men,
+thoroughly equipped, he announced that he was about to set out on his
+journey, the information was accompanied with a declaration of war. "It
+was a war," he said, "for the defence of the true religion, its
+ministers and preachers; for the deliverance of prisoners detained
+against all faith and justice; to free Germany from her wretched
+condition, and to oppose the Emperor's completion of that absolute
+monarchy toward which he had so long been aiming."
+
+To this manifesto was appended another from the King of France. Therein
+Henry announced himself the "defender of the liberties of Germany, and
+protector of her captive princes"; further stating "that, broken-hearted
+[_le coeur navre_] at the condition of Germany, he could not refuse to
+aid her, but had determined to do so to the utmost power of his ability,
+even to personally engaging in this war, undertaken for liberty and not
+for his personal benefit." This document--written in French--was headed
+by the representation of a cap between two poniards, and around it the
+inscription "The Emblem of Liberty." It is said to have been copied from
+some ancient coins, and to have been appropriated as the symbol of
+freedom by Cæsar's assassins. Thus singularly was brought to light by a
+king of the French Renaissance that terrible cap of liberty, before
+which the ancient crown of France was one day destined to fall.
+
+The declaration of the German princes and that of their ally, the King
+of France, fell like a thunderbolt on the Emperor--so great was his
+astonishment and consternation at the events so unexpected. With rapid
+marches Maurice advanced on Upper Germany, while other divisions of the
+army, headed by the confederate princes, hastened on toward Tyrol, by
+way of Franconia and Swabia, everywhere being received with open arms as
+"Germany's liberators." Maurice reached Augsburg on April 1st, and took
+possession of that important city--the garrison offering no resistance,
+and the inhabitants receiving him joyfully. There, as in other towns on
+his march which had willingly opened their gates to him, the Interim was
+abolished; the churches restored to the Protestants; the magistrates
+appointed by the Emperor displaced, and those he had rejected
+reinstated. Money, too, was freely offered him, and the deficiency in
+his artillery supplied. At Trent the news that the Protestant princes,
+joined by several of the Catholics and free states, "had taken up arms
+for liberty," caused a terrible panic. The fathers of the council,
+Italian, Spanish, and German, at once made a precipitate retreat, and
+this famous council, without authority from pope or emperor, dissolved
+itself, to reassemble only after even a longer interval than before.
+When Maurice began his march Henry II had joined his army at Châlons,
+and was on his way to Lorraine. Toul, on his approach, presented the
+keys of the city to the constable commanding the vanguard--the King
+afterward making his entry, and receiving the oath of fidelity from the
+inhabitants, having previously sworn to maintain their rights and
+privileges inviolate. After this easy conquest the French army continued
+its march toward Metz. This old free republican city did not so readily
+as Toul yield to the French. The municipal authorities very politely
+offered provisions to the army, but declined to deliver the keys of the
+city to the constable. They were, however, willing to admit the King and
+the princes who accompanied him within their walls. "Troops were not
+permitted to enter Metz, whatever their nation." This was one of their
+privileges.
+
+Montmorency cared little for privileges, and violence would probably
+have been used but that the Bishop of Metz, who was a Frenchman,
+prevailed on the principal burgesses to allow the constable to enter
+with an escort of two ensigns, each with his company of infantry.
+Montmorency availed himself of this permission to give his ensigns
+fifteen hundred of his best troops. The city gates were thrown open, and
+the burgesses then perceived their error, but too late to remedy it.
+They were firmly repulsed when attempting to exclude the unwelcome
+visitors; there was, however, no bloodshed. The people were soon
+reconciled to the change; and the chief sheriff and town council on the
+King's entry having assembled on the cathedral porch, Henry there, in
+the presence of an anxious multitude who crowded around him to hear him,
+made oath strictly to maintain their franchises and immunities. Thus
+easily was captured the former capital of the ancient Austrian kings,
+which remained under the dominion of France until separated from her by
+the misfortunes of the second empire.
+
+The city of Verdun followed the example of Toul; so that Henry's defence
+of the liberties of Germany was thus far nothing more than a military
+promenade, with grand public entries, banquets, and general festivity.
+The inhabitants of Metz--like the rest of his conquests, French in
+language and manners--petitioned the King not to restore their city to
+the empire, of which it had been a vassal republic from the beginning of
+the feudal era; they feared the Emperor's revenge. Henry, however, had
+no thought of relinquishing Metz; he was too well pleased with his new
+possession, and "proposed to make it one of the ramparts of France."
+
+But while Henry for the defence of German independence was making
+conquests and annexing them to his dominions, Charles V had fled before
+Maurice's vigorous pursuit, and had only escaped capture by a mere
+mischance that briefly retarded his pursuers' progress. When Augsburg
+was taken, Charles felt that he was not safe at Innspruck. He was
+neither in a position to crush the rebellious princes nor to resist the
+invasion of the King of France. Want of means had induced him to disband
+a large part of his army; Mexico and Peru for some time had failed to
+make any remittances to his treasury; the bankers of Venice and Genoa
+were not willing to lend him money, and it was only by placing Piombino
+in the hands of Cosmo de' Medici that he obtained from him the small sum
+of two hundred thousand crowns.
+
+His first impulse was to endeavor to pass over the route of the
+Netherlands by the valleys of the Inn and the Rhine; but as he could
+only move, owing to his gout, from place to place in a litter, he was
+compelled, from physical suffering, after proceeding a very short
+distance on his journey, to return to Innspruck. There he remained with
+a small body of soldiers sufficient to guard himself personally--having
+sent all he could possibly spare to hold the mountain pass leading to
+the almost inaccessible castle of Ehrenberg. But, guided by a shepherd,
+the heights of Ehrenberg were reached by the troops under George of
+Brandenburg, after infinite fatigue and danger. The walls were scaled,
+and the garrison, terrified by the appearance of this unlooked-for
+enemy, threw down their arms and surrendered.
+
+A few hours only separated Innspruck from Ehrenberg, and Maurice
+proposed to push on rapidly so as to anticipate the arrival there of any
+accounts of the loss of the castle, hoping to surprise the Emperor and
+his attendants in an open, defenceless town, and there to dictate
+conditions of peace. The dissatisfaction of a portion of the troops at
+not immediately receiving the usual gratuity for taking a place by
+assault occasioned a short delay in the advance of Maurice's army. He
+arrived at Innspruck in the middle of the night, and learned that the
+Emperor had fled only two hours before to Carinthia, followed by his
+ministers and attendants, on foot, on horses, in litters, as they
+could, but in the greatest hurry and confusion.
+
+The night was stormy; rain was falling in torrents when the modern
+Charlemagne, unable to move, was borne in a litter by the light of
+torches across steep mountain paths with a swiftness most surprising;
+terror adding wings to the footsteps of his bearers, lest they and their
+gouty burden should fall into the hands of the heretic army, said to be
+in pursuit. But pursuit was soon given up, for the troops were worn and
+weary with forced marches and climbing the heights of Ehrenberg; they
+needed rest, and there was the imperial palace of Innspruck to pillage,
+Maurice having given it up to them.
+
+Negotiations for peace were opened on May 20th at Passau on the Danube.
+The King of France was informed of this, it being found necessary to put
+some check on his proceedings; to remind him that he was the "defender
+of the liberties of Germany," not Germany's oppressor. He and his army
+had advanced into Alsace, and Montmorency had assured him that it would
+be "as easy to enter Strasburg and other cities of the Rhine as to
+penetrate butter." However, when they knocked at the gates of Strasburg
+and courteously requested that the Venetian, Florentine, and other
+ambassadors might be permitted to enter and admire the beautiful city,
+they found the Strasburgers insensible to these amenities--butter by no
+means easily melted; for not only they refused to gratify the
+_soi-disant_ ambassadors with a sight of their fine city, but mounted
+and pointed their cannon, as a hint to their visitors that they would do
+well to withdraw.
+
+Henry, perceiving that he would be unable in the present campaign to
+extend his dominions to the banks of the Rhine, contented himself,
+"before turning his back on it, with the fact that the horses of his
+army had drunk of the waters of that stream." The Austrasian expedition
+was less brilliant in its results than he had expected; nevertheless,
+whether he was to be included in the peace then negotiating or not, he
+resolved to retain the three bishoprics--Toul, Metz, and Verdun.
+
+Meanwhile the conference of Passau, between Maurice with his princes of
+the league on the one part; Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and the
+Emperor's plenipotentiaries on the other, proceeded less rapidly than
+Maurice desired. By prolonging the negotiation Charles hoped to gain
+time to assemble an army, when the Catholic princes might rally around
+him. But even those who had joined the league were exceedingly lukewarm
+toward their Emperor; his despotism, they considered, being as dangerous
+to them as to the Protestants. Even his brother Ferdinand--who was on
+such excellent terms with Maurice that it would almost seem that he had
+connived at an enterprise he could not openly join in--is said to have
+seen with satisfaction the check put on Charles by the dauntless leader
+of the league.
+
+But Maurice's propositions being at first rejected, and no counter ones
+proposed, he at once set off for his army to renew hostilities, as
+though the negotiations were closed. Charles doubtless renounced the
+realization of the dream of his life with a pang of despair. That it
+should vanish at the very moment when he looked for its fulfilment was
+anguish to him. But pressed by Ferdinand, convinced, too, that
+resistance is useless, Charles yields an unwilling assent to the demands
+of the princes, and the "Treaty of Public Peace" is signed on August 2d.
+Henceforth "the two religions are to be on a footing of equality in the
+empire"; Germany divided between Luther and the Pope, who are to live
+side by side in peace, neither interrupting the other. The ban of the
+empire to be withdrawn from all persons and places; the captive princes,
+detained for five years in prison if not in fetters, released; while
+many other matters relating to imperial encroachments are to be
+satisfactorily settled within six months.
+
+"The defender of German liberty" was not included in this treaty. As he
+proposed to keep the cities he was to occupy but as vicar of the empire,
+he would have to fight a battle for them with Charles himself. Though
+compelled to renounce absolute sway over Germany, he yet thought it
+incumbent on him to reëstablish the territory of the empire in its full
+integrity. His valiant sister, the Dowager-queen of Hungary, who
+governed the Netherlands so ably for him, was diligently collecting an
+army for the destitute monarch of many kingdoms, and troops were on
+their way from Spain.
+
+In spite of his infirmities, Charles was in such haste to chastise the
+French, and revenge himself on Henry--having succeeded in raising an
+army sixty thousand strong, besides seven thousand pioneers--that he
+rejected the prudent counsels of his generals, who begged him to wait
+until the spring, when Metz might be attacked with much greater
+advantage. But his excessive obstinacy, which had led to so many of his
+disasters, again prevailed. The Duc de Guise, now Governor of Metz, had
+put the citadel into a state of defence. The garrison was numerous, and,
+as was usual wherever he commanded, thither followed all the young,
+ardent spirits among the great families of France.
+
+The siege of Metz was a terrible disaster for the Emperor. The extreme
+severity of the winter, a scant supply of clothing and other
+necessaries, were soon followed by sickness, typhus, and many deaths.
+Desertions were numerous; for the sufferings of the troops had quenched
+all war and subverted all discipline. Desperate efforts to take Metz
+were continued for nearly three months without avail, when Charles,
+thoroughly disheartened, and unable to rise from his couch except for
+removal to his litter, raised the siege--abandoning the greater part of
+his artillery, which was half buried in the mud. "Fortune," he
+exclaimed, "I perceive is indeed a woman; she prefers a young king to an
+old emperor." The spectacle that met the eyes of the victorious
+defenders of Metz, on issuing forth in pursuit of the enemy, is said to
+have been one of so harrowing a nature that even rough soldiers,
+accustomed to the horrors of war, looked on the misery around them with
+emotions of deepest pity. There lay the dying and the dead heaped up
+together; the wounded and those who had been stricken down by fever
+stretched side by side on the gory, muddy earth. Others had sunk into
+it, and, unable to extricate themselves, were frozen to their knees, and
+plaintively asked for death to put an end to their wretchedness.
+Scattered along the route of the retreat lay dead horses, tents, arms,
+portions of the baggage, and many sick soldiers who had fallen by the
+way in their efforts to keep up with the hasty march of the remnant of
+the army--a sad and terrible scene indeed in a career called one of
+glory.
+
+François de Guise greatly distinguished himself as a general, and added
+to his military renown by his defence of Metz; but far greater glory
+attaches to his name for his humane and generous conduct to the
+suffering, abandoned troops of Charles' army. All whose lives could be
+saved, or sufferings relieved, received every care and attention that he
+and the surgeons of his army could bestow on them. Following his
+example, instead of the savage brutality with which the victors were
+then accustomed to treat their fallen foes, kindness and good offices
+were rendered by all to the poor victims of the Emperor's revenge for
+the loss of Metz. So utterly contrary was such treatment to the practice
+of the age that the generosity and humanity of François de Guise toward
+an enemy's troops passed into a proverb as the "_Courtoisie de Metz_."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[57] Anne de Montmorency, Marshal and Constable of France. He was
+distinguished in the wars against Charles V.
+
+
+
+
+THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF AUGSBURG
+
+ABDICATION OF CHARLES V
+
+A.D. 1555
+
+WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+     By the victory of Charles V at Muehlberg, in 1547, the
+     Emperor obtained a decided advantage over the Smalkaldic
+     League, and seemed to be master of the situation in Germany.
+     He convened a diet at Augsburg, and promulgated an
+     "interim," or provisional arrangement for peace, but it was
+     imperfectly carried out. Later interims also proving
+     unsatisfactory, various other attempts at settlement were
+     made, and finally, by the Peace of Passau (1552), religious
+     liberty was granted to the Protestants.
+
+     Charles now appeared to be at the height of his power; but
+     new danger threatened him from France. The alliance of King
+     Henry II with Maurice of Saxony, and other Protestant
+     princes, was followed by what is sometimes called the second
+     Smalkaldic War. Charles was quickly worsted, and only
+     escaped capture by fleeing into Switzerland. In a later
+     attack upon France he gained but little success.
+
+     The Emperor was now more than ever anxious for peace, and
+     only awaited the meeting of a diet which had been summoned
+     soon after the Treaty of Passau. This meeting was delayed by
+     violent commotions raised in Germany by Albert, Margrave of
+     Brandenburg. It was further delayed by the engrossment in
+     his own affairs of Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary.
+     He was the brother of Charles, had exerted himself, though
+     with slight success, to settle the religious disputes in
+     Germany, and Charles needed his presence at the Diet,
+     whereby he hoped to secure a final pacification.
+
+
+As a diet was now necessary on many accounts, Ferdinand, about the
+beginning of the year 1555, had repaired to Augsburg. Though few of the
+princes were present either in person or by their deputies, he opened
+the assembly by a speech, in which he proposed a termination of the
+dissensions to which the new tenets and controversies with regard to
+religion had given rise, not only as the first and great business of the
+diet, but as the point which both the Emperor and he had most at heart.
+He represented the innumerable obstacles which the Emperor had to
+surmount before he could procure the convocation of a general council,
+as well as the fatal accidents which had for some time retarded, and had
+at last suspended, the consultations of that assembly. He observed that
+experience had already taught them how vain it was to expect any remedy
+for evils which demanded immediate redress from a general council, the
+assembling of which would either be prevented, or its deliberations be
+interrupted, by the dissensions and hostilities of the princes of
+Christendom; that a national council in Germany, which, as some
+imagined, might be called with greater ease, and deliberate with more
+perfect security, was an assembly of an unprecedented nature, the
+jurisdiction of which was uncertain in its extent, and the form of its
+proceedings undefined; that in his opinion there remained but one method
+for composing their unhappy differences, which, though it had been often
+tried without success, might yet prove effectual if it were attempted
+with a better and more pacific spirit than had appeared on former
+occasions, and that was, to choose a few men of learning, abilities, and
+moderation, who, by discussing the disputed articles in an amicable
+conference, might explain them in such a manner as to bring the
+contending parties either to unite in sentiment, or to differ with
+charity.
+
+This speech being printed in common form, and dispersed over the empire,
+revived the fears and jealousies of the Protestants; Ferdinand, they
+observed with much surprise, had not once mentioned, in his address to
+the Diet, the Treaty of Passau, the stipulations of which they
+considered as the great security of their religious liberty. The
+suspicions to which this gave rise were confirmed by the accounts which
+were daily received of the extreme severity with which Ferdinand treated
+their Protestant brethren in his hereditary dominions; and as it was
+natural to consider his actions as the surest indication of his
+intentions, this diminished their confidence in those pompous
+professions of moderation, and of zeal for the reëstablishment of
+concord, to which his practice seemed to be so repugnant.
+
+The arrival of the cardinal, Morone, whom the Pope had appointed to
+attend the Diet as his nuncio, completed their conviction, and left them
+no room to doubt that some dangerous machination was forming against
+the peace or safety of the Protestant Church. Julius, elated with the
+unexpected return of the English nation from apostasy, began to flatter
+himself that, the spirit of mutiny and revolt having now spent its
+force, the happy period was come when the Church might resume its
+ancient authority, and be obeyed by the people with the same tame
+submission as formerly. Full of these hopes, he had sent Morone to
+Augsburg with instructions to employ his eloquence to excite the Germans
+to imitate the laudable example of the English, and his political
+address in order to prevent any decree of the Diet to the detriment of
+the Catholic faith. But Julius died, and as soon as Morone heard of this
+he set out abruptly from Augsburg, where he had resided only a few days,
+that he might be present at the election of the new pontiff.
+
+One cause of their suspicions and fears being thus removed, the
+Protestants soon became sensible that their conjectures concerning
+Ferdinand's intentions, however specious, were ill-founded, and that he
+had no thoughts of violating the articles favorable to them in the
+Treaty of Passau. Charles, from the time that Maurice had defeated all
+his schemes in the empire, and overturned the great system of religious
+and civil despotism which he had almost established there, gave little
+attention to the internal government of Germany, and permitted his
+brother to pursue whatever measures he judged most salutary and
+expedient. Ferdinand, less ambitious and enterprising than the Emperor,
+instead of resuming a plan which he, with power and resources so far
+superior, had failed of accomplishing, endeavored to attach the princes
+of the empire to his family by an administration uniformly moderate and
+equitable. To this he gave, at present, particular attention, because
+his situation at this juncture rendered it necessary to court their
+favor and support with more than usual assiduity.
+
+Charles had again resumed his favorite project of acquiring the imperial
+crown for his son Philip, the prosecution of which, the reception it had
+met with when first proposed had obliged him to suspend, but had not
+induced him to relinquish. This led him warmly to renew his request to
+his brother, that he would accept of some compensation for his prior
+right of succession, and sacrifice that to the grandeur of the house of
+Austria. Ferdinand, who was as little disposed as formerly to give such
+an extraordinary proof of self-denial, being sensible that, in order to
+defeat this scheme, not only the most inflexible firmness on his part,
+but a vigorous declaration from the princes of the empire in behalf of
+his title, were requisite, was willing to purchase their favor by
+gratifying them in every point that they deemed interesting or
+essential.
+
+At the same time he stood in need of immediate and extraordinary aid
+from the Germanic body, as the Turks, after having wrested from him a
+great part of his Hungarian territories, were ready to attack the
+provinces still subject to his authority with a formidable army, against
+which he could bring no equal force into the field. For this aid from
+Germany he could not hope, if the internal peace of the empire were not
+established on a foundation solid in itself, and which should appear,
+even to the Protestants, so secure and so permanent as might not only
+allow them to engage in a distant war with safety, but might encourage
+them to act in it with vigor.
+
+A step taken by the Protestants themselves, a short time after the
+opening of the Diet, rendered him still more cautious of giving them any
+new cause of offence. As soon as the publication of Ferdinand's speech
+awakened the fears and suspicions which have been mentioned, the
+electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, together with the Landgrave of
+Hesse, met at Naumburg, and, confirming the ancient treaty of
+confraternity which had long united their families, they added to it a
+new article, by which the contracting parties bound themselves to adhere
+to the Confession of Augsburg, and to maintain the doctrine which it
+contained in their respective dominions.
+
+Ferdinand, influenced by all these considerations, employed his utmost
+address in conducting the deliberations of the Diet, so as not to excite
+the jealousy of a party on whose friendship he depended, and whose
+enmity, as they had not only taken the alarm, but had begun to prepare
+for their defence, he had so much reason to dread. The members of the
+Diet readily agreed to Ferdinand's proposal of taking the state of
+religion into consideration previous to any other business. But, soon as
+they entered upon it, both parties discovered all the zeal and animosity
+which a subject so interesting naturally engenders, and which the
+rancor of controversy, together with the violence of civil war, had
+inflamed to the highest pitch.
+
+The Protestants contended that the security which they claimed in
+consequence of the Treaty of Passau should extend, without limitation,
+to all who had hitherto embraced the doctrine of Luther, or who should
+thereafter embrace it. The Catholics, having first of all asserted the
+Pope's right, as the supreme and final judge with respect to all
+articles of faith, declared that though, on account of the present
+situation of the empire, and for the sake of peace, they were willing to
+confirm the toleration granted by the Treaty of Passau to such as had
+already adopted the new opinions, they must insist that this indulgence
+should not be extended either to those cities which had conformed to the
+"interim," or to such ecclesiastics as should for the future apostatize
+from the Church of Rome. It was no easy matter to reconcile such
+opposite pretensions, which were supported, on each side, by the most
+elaborate arguments, and the greatest acrimony of expression, that the
+abilities or zeal of theologians long exercised in disputation could
+suggest. Ferdinand, however, by his address and perseverance; by
+softening some things on each side; by putting a favorable meaning upon
+others; by representing incessantly the necessity as well as the
+advantages of concord; and by threatening, on some occasions, when all
+other considerations were disregarded, to dissolve the Diet, brought
+them at length to a conclusion in which they all agreed.
+
+Conformably to this, a recess was framed, approved of, and published
+with the usual formalities. The following are the chief articles which
+it contained: That such princes and cities as have declared their
+approbation of the Confession of Augsburg shall be permitted to profess
+the doctrine and exercise the worship which it authorizes, without
+interruption or molestation from the Emperor, the King of the Romans, or
+any power or person whatsoever; that the Protestants, on their part,
+shall give no disquiet to the princes and states who adhere to the
+tenets and rites of the Church of Rome; that, for the future, no attempt
+shall be made toward terminating religious differences but by the gentle
+and pacific methods of persuasion and conference; that the Popish
+ecclesiastics shall claim no spiritual jurisdiction in such states as
+receive the Confession of Augsburg; that such as had seized the
+benefices or revenues of the Church, previous to the Treaty of Passau,
+shall retain possession of them, and be liable to no persecution in the
+imperial chamber on that account; that the supreme civil power in every
+state shall have right to establish what form of doctrine and worship it
+shall deem proper, and, if any of its subjects refuse to conform to
+these, shall permit them to remove with all their effects whithersoever
+they shall please; that if any prelate or ecclesiastic shall hereafter
+abandon the Romish religion, he shall instantly relinquish his diocese
+or benefice, and it shall be lawful for those in whom the right of
+nomination is vested to proceed immediately to an election, as if the
+office were vacant by death or translation, and to appoint a successor
+of undoubted attachment to the ancient system.
+
+Such are the capital articles in this famous recess, which is the basis
+of religious peace in Germany, and the bond of union among its various
+states, the sentiments of which are so extremely different with respect
+to points the most interesting as well as important. In our age and
+nation, to which the idea of toleration is familiar, and its beneficial
+effects well known, it may seem strange that a method of terminating
+their dissensions, so suitable to the mild and charitable spirit of the
+Christian religion, did not sooner occur to the contending parties. But
+this expedient, however salutary, was so repugnant to the sentiments and
+practice of Christians during many ages that it did not lie obvious to
+discovery. Among the ancient heathens, all whose deities were local and
+tutelary, diversity of sentiments concerning the object or rites of
+religious worship seems to have been no source of animosity, because the
+acknowledging veneration to be due to any one god did not imply denial
+of the existence or the power of any other god; nor were the modes and
+rites of worship established in one country incompatible with those
+which other nations approved of and observed. Thus the errors in their
+system of theology were of such a nature as to be productive of concord;
+and, notwithstanding the amazing number of their deities, as well as the
+infinite variety of their ceremonies, a sociable and tolerating spirit
+subsisted almost universally in the Pagan world.
+
+But when the Christian revelation declared one Supreme Being to be the
+sole object of religious veneration, and prescribed the form of worship
+most acceptable to him, whoever admitted the truth of it held, of
+consequence, every other system of religion, as a deviation from what
+was established by divine authority, to be false and impious. Hence
+arose the zeal of the first converts to the Christian faith in
+propagating its doctrines, and the ardor with which they labored to
+overturn every other form of worship. They employed, however, for this
+purpose no methods but such as suited the nature of religion. By the
+force of powerful arguments, they convinced the understandings of men;
+by the charms of superior virtue, they allured and captivated their
+hearts. At length the civil power declared in favor of Christianity; and
+though numbers, imitating the example of their superiors, crowded into
+the church, many still adhered to their ancient superstitions. Enraged
+at their obstinacy, the ministers of religion, whose zeal was still
+unabated, though their sanctity and virtue were much diminished, forgot
+so far the nature of their own mission, and of the arguments which they
+ought to have employed, that they armed the imperial power against these
+unhappy men, and, as they could not persuade, they tried to compel them
+to believe.
+
+The Diet of Augsburg was soon followed by the Emperor's resignation of
+his hereditary dominions to his son Philip; together with his resolution
+to withdraw entirely from any concern in business or the affairs of this
+world, in order that he might spend the remainder of his days in
+retirement and solitude. Though it requires neither deep reflection nor
+extraordinary discernment to discover that the state of royalty is not
+exempt from cares and disappointment; though most of those who are
+exalted to a throne find solicitude, and satiety, and disgust to be
+their perpetual attendants in that envied preëminence, yet to descend
+voluntarily from the supreme to a subordinate station, and to relinquish
+the possession of power in order to attain the enjoyment of happiness,
+seems to be an effort too great for the human mind. Several instances,
+indeed, occur in history, of monarchs who have quitted a throne, and
+have ended their days in retirement. But they were either weak princes,
+who took this resolution rashly, and repented of it as soon as it was
+taken, or unfortunate princes, from whose hands some stronger rival had
+wrested their sceptre, and compelled them to descend with reluctance
+into a private station. Diocletian is perhaps the only prince capable of
+holding the reins of government who ever resigned them from deliberate
+choice, and who continued during many years to enjoy the tranquillity of
+retirement without fetching one penitent sigh, or casting back one look
+of desire toward the power or dignity which he had abandoned.
+
+No wonder, then, that Charles' resignation should fill all Europe with
+astonishment, and give rise, both among his contemporaries and among the
+historians of that period, to various conjectures concerning the motives
+which determined a prince, whose ruling passion had been uniformly the
+love of power, at the age of fifty-six, when objects of ambition
+continue to operate with full force on the mind, and are pursued with
+the greatest ardor, to take a resolution so singular and unexpected.
+But, while many authors have imputed it to motives so frivolous and
+fantastical as can hardly be supposed to influence any reasonable mind;
+while others have imagined it to be the result of some profound scheme
+of policy, historians more intelligent and better informed neither
+ascribe it to caprice, nor search for mysterious secrets of state, where
+simple and obvious causes will fully account for the Emperor's conduct.
+Charles had been attacked early in life with the gout; and,
+notwithstanding all the precautions of the most skilful physicians, the
+violence of the distemper increased as he advanced in age, and the fits
+became every year more frequent as well as more severe. Not only was the
+vigor of his constitution broken, but the faculties of his mind were
+impaired by the excruciating torments which he endured. During the
+continuance of the fits, he was altogether incapable of applying to
+business; and even when they began to abate, as it was only at intervals
+that he could attend to what was serious, he gave up a great part of his
+time to trifling and even childish occupations, which served to relieve
+or amuse his mind, enfeebled and worn out with excess of pain. Under
+these circumstances, the conduct of such affairs as occurred of course
+in governing so many kingdoms was a burden more than sufficient; but to
+push forward and complete the vast schemes which the ambition of his
+more active years had formed, or to keep in view and carry on the same
+great system of policy, extending to every nation in Europe, and
+connected with the operations of every different court, were functions
+which so far exceeded his strength that they oppressed and overwhelmed
+his mind. As he had been long accustomed to view the business of every
+department, whether civil or military or ecclesiastical, with his own
+eyes, and to decide concerning it according to his own ideas, it gave
+him the utmost pain, when he felt his infirmities increase so fast upon
+him, that he was obliged to commit the conduct of all his affairs to his
+ministers. He imputed every misfortune which befell him, and every
+miscarriage that happened, even when the former was unavoidable or the
+latter accidental, to his inability to take the inspection of business
+himself. He complained of his hard fortune in being opposed, in his
+declining years, to a rival who was in the full vigor of life; and that,
+while Henry could take and execute all his resolutions in person, he
+should now be reduced, both in counsel and in action, to rely on the
+talents and exertions of other men. Having thus grown old before his
+time, he wisely judged it more decent to conceal his infirmities in some
+solitude than to expose them any longer to the public eye, and prudently
+determined not to forfeit the fame or lose the acquisitions of his
+better years by struggling, with a vain obstinacy, to retain the reins
+of government, when he was no longer able to hold them with steadiness,
+or to guide them with address.[58]
+
+But though Charles had revolved this scheme in his mind for several
+years, and had communicated it to his sisters the dowager queens of
+France and Hungary, who not only approved of his intention, but offered
+to accompany him to whatever place of retreat he should choose, several
+things had hitherto prevented his carrying it into execution. He could
+not think of loading his son with the government of so many kingdoms
+until he should attain such maturity of age and of abilities as would
+enable him to sustain that weighty burden. But as Philip had now reached
+his twenty-eighth year, and had been early accustomed to business, for
+which he discovered both inclination and capacity, it can hardly be
+imputed to the partiality of paternal affection that his scruples with
+regard to this point were entirely removed; and that he thought he might
+place his son, without further hesitation or delay, on the throne which
+he himself was about to abandon. His mother's situation had been another
+obstruction in his way. For although she had continued almost fifty
+years in confinement, and under the same disorder of mind which concern
+for her husband's death had brought upon her, yet the government of
+Spain was still vested in her jointly with the Emperor; her name was
+inserted, together with his, in all the public instruments issued in
+that kingdom; and such was the fond attachment of the Spaniards to her,
+that they would probably have scrupled to recognize Philip as their
+sovereign, unless she had consented to assume him as her partner on the
+throne. Her utter incapacity for business rendered it impossible to
+obtain her consent. But her death, which happened this year, removed
+this difficulty; and as Charles, upon that event, became sole monarch
+of Spain, it left the succession open to his son. The war with France
+had likewise been a reason for retaining the administration of affairs
+in his own hands, as he was extremely solicitous to have terminated it,
+that he might have given up his kingdoms to his son at peace with all
+the world. But as Henry had discovered no disposition to close with any
+of his overtures, and had even rejected proposals of peace which were
+equal and moderate, in a tone that seemed to indicate a fixed purpose of
+continuing hostilities, he saw that it was vain to wait longer in
+expectation of an event which, however desirable, was altogether
+uncertain.
+
+As this, then, appeared to be the proper juncture for executing the
+scheme which he had long meditated, Charles resolved to resign his
+kingdoms to his son with a solemnity suitable to the importance of the
+transaction, and to perform this last act of sovereignty with such
+formal pomp as might leave a lasting impression on the minds not only of
+his subjects, but of his successor. With this view he called Philip out
+of England, where the peevish temper of his queen, which increased with
+her despair of having issue, rendered him extremely unhappy; and the
+jealousy of the English left him no hopes of obtaining the direction of
+their affairs. Having assembled the states of the Low Countries at
+Brussels, on October 25th, Charles seated himself for the last time in
+the chair of state, on one side of which was placed his son, and on the
+other his sister the Queen of Hungary, regent of the Netherlands, with a
+splendid retinue of the princes of the empire and grandees of Spain
+standing behind him. The president of the council of Flanders, by his
+command, explained in a few words his intention in calling this
+extraordinary meeting of the states. He then read the instrument of
+resignation, by which Charles surrendered to his son Philip all his
+territories, jurisdiction, and authority in the Low Countries, absolving
+his subjects there from their oath of allegiance to him, which he
+required them to transfer to Philip, his lawful heir, and to serve him
+with the same loyalty and zeal which they had manifested, during so long
+a course of years, in support of his government.
+
+Charles then rose from his seat, and leaning on the shoulder of the
+Prince of Orange, because he was unable to stand without support, he
+addressed himself to the audience, and from a paper which he held in his
+hand, in order to assist his memory, he recounted with dignity, but
+without ostentation, all the great things which he had undertaken and
+performed since the commencement of his administration. He observed
+that, from the seventeenth year of his age, he had dedicated all his
+thoughts and attention to public objects, reserving no portion of his
+time for the indulgence of his ease, and very little for the enjoyment
+of private pleasure; that, either in a pacific or hostile manner, he had
+visited Germany nine times, Spain six times, France four times, Italy
+seven times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice, Africa as
+often, and had made eleven voyages by sea; that while his health
+permitted him to discharge his duty, and the vigor of his constitution
+was equal, in any degree, to the arduous office of governing such
+extensive dominions, he had never shunned labor, nor repined under
+fatigue; that now, when his health was broken, and his vigor exhausted
+by the rage of an incurable distemper, his growing infirmities
+admonished him to retire; nor was he so fond of reigning as to retain
+the sceptre in an impotent hand, which was no longer able to protect his
+subjects, or to secure to them the happiness which he wished they should
+enjoy; that instead of a sovereign worn out with diseases, and scarcely
+half alive, he gave them one in the prime of life, accustomed already to
+govern, and who added to the vigor of youth all the attention and
+sagacity of maturer years; and if, during the course of a long
+administration, he had committed any material error of government, or
+if, under the pressure of so many and great affairs, and amid the
+attention which he had been obliged to give to them, he had either
+neglected or injured any of his subjects, he now implored their
+forgiveness; that, for his part, he should ever retain a grateful sense
+of their fidelity and attachment, and would carry the remembrance of it
+along with him to the place of his retreat, as his sweetest consolation,
+as well as the best reward for all his services, and in his last prayers
+to Almighty God would pour forth his most earnest petitions for their
+welfare.
+
+Then, turning toward Philip, who fell on his knees and kissed his
+father's hand--"If," said he, "I had left you by my death this rich
+inheritance, to which I have made such large additions, some regard
+would have been justly due to my memory on that account; but now, when I
+voluntarily resign to you what I might have still retained, I may well
+expect the warmest expression of thanks on your part. With these,
+however, I dispense, and shall consider your concern for the welfare of
+your subjects, and your love of them, as the best and most acceptable
+testimony of your gratitude to me. It is in your power, by a wise and
+virtuous administration, to justify the extraordinary proof which I this
+day give of my paternal affection, and to demonstrate that you are
+worthy of the confidence which I repose in you. Preserve an inviolable
+regard for religion; maintain the Catholic faith in its purity; let the
+laws of your country be sacred in your eyes; encroach not on the rights
+and privileges of your people; and if the time should ever come when you
+shall wish to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a son
+endowed with such qualities that you can resign your sceptre to him with
+as much satisfaction as I give up mine to you."
+
+As soon as Charles had finished this long address to his subjects and to
+their new sovereign, he sank into the chair, exhausted and ready to
+faint with the fatigue of such an extraordinary effort. During his
+discourse the whole audience melted into tears, some from admiration of
+his magnanimity, others softened by the expressions of tenderness toward
+his son, and of love to his people; and all were affected with the
+deepest sorrow at losing a sovereign who, during his administration, had
+distinguished the Netherlands, his native country, with particular marks
+of his regard and attachment.
+
+Philip then arose from his knees, and after returning thanks to his
+father, with a low and submissive voice, for the royal gift which his
+unexampled bounty had bestowed upon him, he addressed the assembly of
+the states, and, regretting his inability to speak the Flemish language
+with such facility as to express what he felt on this interesting
+occasion, as well as what he owed to his good subjects in the
+Netherlands, he begged that they would permit Granvelle, bishop of
+Arras, to deliver what he had given him in charge to speak in his name.
+Granvelle, in a long discourse, expatiated on the zeal with which
+Philip was animated for the good of his subjects, on his resolution to
+devote all his time and talents to the promoting of their happiness, and
+on his intention to imitate his father's example in distinguishing the
+Netherlands with peculiar marks of his regard. Maes, a lawyer of great
+eloquence, replied in the name of the states, with large professions of
+their fidelity and affection to their new sovereign.
+
+Then Mary, Queen dowager of Hungary, resigned the regency with which she
+had been intrusted by her brother during the space of twenty-five years.
+Next day Philip, in the presence of the states, took the usual oaths to
+maintain the rights and privileges of his subjects; and all the members,
+in their own name and in that of their constituents, swore allegiance to
+him.
+
+A few weeks after this transaction, Charles, in an assembly no less
+splendid and with a ceremonial equally pompous, resigned to his son the
+crowns of Spain, with all the territories depending on them, both in the
+Old and in the New world. Of all these vast possessions, he reserved
+nothing for himself but an annual pension of a hundred thousand crowns,
+to defray the charges of his family, and to afford him a small sum for
+acts of beneficence and charity.
+
+As he had fixed on a place of retreat in Spain, hoping that the dryness
+and the warmth of the climate in that country might mitigate the
+violence of his disease, which had been much increased by the moisture
+of the air and rigor of the winters in the Netherlands, he was extremely
+impatient to embark for that kingdom, and to disengage himself entirely
+from business, which he found to be impossible while he remained in
+Brussels. But his physicians remonstrated so strongly against his
+venturing to sea at that cold and boisterous season of the year, that he
+consented, though with reluctance, to put off his voyage for some
+months.
+
+He retained the imperial dignity, not from any unwillingness to
+relinquish it, for, after having resigned the real and extensive
+authority that he enjoyed in his hereditary dominions, to part with the
+limited and often ideal jurisdiction which belongs to an elective crown
+was no great sacrifice. His sole motive for delay was to gain a few
+months for making one trial more, in order to accomplish his favorite
+scheme in behalf of his son. At the very time Charles seemed to be most
+sensible of the vanity of worldly grandeur, and when he appeared to be
+quitting it not only with indifference but with contempt, the vast
+schemes of ambition, which had so long occupied and engrossed his mind,
+still kept possession of it. He could not think of leaving his son in a
+rank inferior to that which he himself had held among the princes of
+Europe. As he had, some years before, made a fruitless attempt to secure
+the imperial crown to Philip, that, by uniting it to the kingdoms of
+Spain and the dominions of the house of Burgundy, he might put it in his
+power to prosecute, with a better prospect of success, those great plans
+which his own infirmities had obliged him to abandon, he was still
+unwilling to relinquish this flattering project as chimerical or
+unattainable.
+
+Notwithstanding the repulse which he had formerly met with from his
+brother Ferdinand, he renewed his solicitations with fresh importunity,
+and during the summer had tried every art, and employed every argument,
+which he thought could induce him to quit the imperial throne to Philip,
+and to accept of the investiture of some province, either in Italy or in
+the Low Countries, as an equivalent. But Ferdinand, who was so firm and
+inflexible with regard to this point that he had paid no regard to the
+solicitations of the Emperor, even when they were enforced with all the
+weight of authority which accompanies supreme power, received the
+overture, that now came from him in the situation to which he had
+descended, with great indifference, and would hardly deign to listen to
+it. Charles, ashamed of his own credulity in having imagined that he
+might accomplish now that which he had attempted formerly without
+success, desisted finally from his scheme. He then resigned the
+government of the empire, and, having transferred all his claims of
+obedience and allegiance from the Germanic body to his brother the King
+of the Romans, he executed a deed to that effect, with all the
+formalities requisite in such an important transaction. The instrument
+of resignation he committed to William, Prince of Orange, and empowered
+him to lay it before the college of electors.
+
+Nothing now remained to detain Charles from that retreat for which he
+languished. The preparations for his voyage having been made for some
+time, he set out for Zuitburg, in Zealand, where the fleet which was to
+convoy him had orders to assemble. In his way thither he passed through
+Ghent, and after stopping there a few days, to indulge that tender and
+pleasing melancholy which arises in the mind of every man in the decline
+of life on visiting the place of his nativity, and viewing the scenes
+and objects familiar to him in his early youth, he pursued his journey,
+accompanied by his son Philip, his daughter the archduchess, his sisters
+the dowager Queens of France and Hungary, Maximilian his son-in-law, and
+a numerous retinue of the French nobility. Before he went on board he
+dismissed them with marks of his attention or regard, and, taking leave
+of Philip with all the tenderness of a father who embraced his son for
+the last time, he set sail on September 17th, under the convoy of a
+large fleet of Spanish, Flemish, and English ships. He declined a
+pressing invitation from the Queen of England to land in some part of
+her dominions, in order to refresh himself, and that she might have the
+comfort of seeing him once more. "It cannot, surely," said he, "be
+agreeable to a queen to receive a visit from a father-in-law who is now
+nothing more than a private gentleman."
+
+His voyage was prosperous, and he arrived at Laredo, in Biscay, on the
+eleventh day after he left Zealand. As soon as he landed he fell
+prostrate on the ground, and, considering himself now as dead to the
+world, he kissed the earth and said, "Naked came I out of my mother's
+womb, and naked I now return to thee, thou common mother of mankind."
+From Laredo he pursued his journey to Burgos, carried sometimes in a
+chair and sometimes in a horse-litter, suffering exquisite pain at every
+step, and advancing with the greatest difficulty. Some of the Spanish
+nobility repaired to Burgos, in order to pay court to him, but they were
+so few in number, and their attendance was so negligent, that Charles
+observed it, and felt, for the first time, that he was no longer a
+monarch. Accustomed from his early youth to the dutiful and officious
+respect with which those who possess sovereign power are attended, he
+had received it with the credulity common to princes, and was sensibly
+mortified when he now discovered that he had been indebted to his rank
+and power for much of that obsequious regard which he had fondly thought
+was paid to his personal qualities. But though he might have soon
+learned to view with unconcern the levity of his subjects, or to have
+despised their neglect, he was more deeply afflicted with the
+ingratitude of his son, who, forgetting already how much he owed to his
+father's bounty, obliged him to remain some weeks at Burgos before he
+paid him the first moiety of that small pension which was all that he
+had reserved of so many kingdoms. As, without this sum, Charles could
+not dismiss his domestics with such rewards as their services merited,
+or his generosity had destined for them, he could not help expressing
+both surprise and dissatisfaction. At last the money was paid, and
+Charles having dismissed a great number of his domestics, whose
+attendance he thought would be superfluous or cumbersome in his
+retirement, he proceeded to Valladolid. There he took a last and tender
+leave of his two sisters, whom he would not permit to accompany him to
+his solitude, though they requested him with tears, not only that they
+might have the consolation of contributing by their attendance and care
+to mitigate or to soothe his sufferings, but that they might reap
+instruction and benefit by joining with him in those pious exercises to
+which he had consecrated the remainder of his days.
+
+From Valladolid he continued his journey to Plazentia in Estremadura. He
+had passed through this place a great many years before, and having been
+struck at that time with the delightful situation of the monastery of
+St. Justus, belonging to the order of St. Jerome, not many miles distant
+from the town, he had then observed to some of his attendants that this
+was a spot to which Diocletian might have retired with pleasure. The
+impression had remained so strong in his mind that he pitched upon it as
+the place of his own retreat. It was seated in a vale of no great
+extent, watered by a small brook, and surrounded by rising grounds,
+covered with lofty trees; from the nature of the soil, as well as the
+temperature of the climate, it was esteemed the most healthful and
+delicious situation in Spain. Some months before his resignation he had
+sent an architect thither to add a new apartment to the monastery, for
+his accommodation; but he gave strict orders that the style of the
+building should be such as suited his present station, rather than his
+former dignity. It consisted only of six rooms, four of them in the form
+of friars' cells, with naked walls; the other two, each twenty feet
+square, were hung with brown cloth, and furnished in the most simple
+manner. They were all on a level with the ground, with a door on one
+side into a garden, of which Charles himself had given the plan, and had
+filled it with various plants which he intended to cultivate with his
+own hands. On the other side, they communicated with the chapel of the
+monastery, in which he was to perform his devotions. Into this humble
+retreat, hardly sufficient for the comfortable accommodation of a
+private gentleman, did Charles enter, with twelve domestics only. He
+buried there, in solitude and silence, his grandeur, his ambition,
+together with all those vast projects which, during almost half a
+century, had alarmed and agitated Europe, filling every kingdom in it,
+by turns, with the terror of his arms, and the dread of being subdued by
+his power.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[58] Don Levesque, in his memoirs of Cardinal Granvelle, gives a reason
+for the Emperor's resignation, which, as far as I recollect, is not
+mentioned by any other historian. He says that, the Emperor having ceded
+the government of the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of Milan to his
+son upon his marriage with the Queen of England, Philip, notwithstanding
+the advice and entreaties of his father, removed most of the ministers
+and officers whom he had employed in those countries, and appointed
+creatures of his own to fill the places which they held. That he aspired
+openly, and with little delicacy, to obtain a share in the
+administration of affairs in the Low Countries. That he endeavored to
+thwart the Emperor's measures and to limit his authority, behaving
+toward him sometimes with inattention, and sometimes with haughtiness.
+That Charles, finding that he must either yield on every occasion to his
+son, or openly contend with him, in order to avoid either of these,
+which were both disagreeable and mortifying to a father, he took the
+resolution of resigning his crowns, and of retiring from the world (vol.
+i. p. 24, etc.). Don Levesque derived his information concerning these
+curious facts, which he relates very briefly, from the original papers
+of Cardinal Granvelle. But as that vast collection of papers, which has
+been preserved and arranged by M. l'Abbé Boizot of Besançon, though one
+of the most valuable historical monuments of the sixteenth century, and
+which cannot fail of throwing much light on the transactions of Charles
+V, is not published, I cannot determine what degree of credit should be
+given to this account of Charles' resignation. I have, therefore, taken
+no notice of it in relating this event.
+
+
+
+
+AKBAR ESTABLISHES THE MOGUL EMPIRE IN INDIA
+
+A.D. 1556
+
+J. TALBOYS WHEELER
+
+     Between the years 1494 and 1526 Baber, great-grandson of
+     Timur (Tamerlane), the Tartar conqueror, made extensive
+     conquests in India. There he laid the first foundations of
+     the Mahometan Tartar empire of the Moguls, as his followers
+     are called. This empire reached its height under Akbar
+     (Jel-al-eddin Mahomet), who succeeded his father Humayun,
+     son of Baber, in 1556. Humayun did little toward uniting the
+     various territories which Baber had conquered.
+
+     Akbar was the contemporary of Queen Elizabeth of England,
+     and his reign is as important in the history of India as is
+     hers in the history of the western world. He ascended the
+     throne at the age of fourteen. At the time of his accession
+     he was in the Punjab warring against the revolted Afghans.
+     The commander of the Mogul armies was Bairam Khan, and when
+     Humayun died that general became Akbar's guardian.
+
+     Wheeler's account of this great ruler's achievements
+     presents throughout a most interesting portrayal of his
+     personality and character, and is especially remarkable for
+     its simplicity and its oriental atmosphere.
+
+
+The reign of Akbar bears a strange resemblance to that of Asoka.[59]
+Indeed, the likeness between Akbar and Asoka is one of the most
+remarkable phenomena in history. They were separated from each other by
+an interval of eighteen centuries; the main features of their respective
+lives were practically the same. Asoka was putting down revolt in the
+Punjab when his father died; so was Akbar. Asoka was occupied for years
+in conquering and consolidating his empire; so was Akbar. Asoka
+conquered India to the north of the Nerbudda; so did Akbar. Asoka was
+tolerant of other religions; so was Akbar. Asoka went against the
+priests; so did Akbar. Asoka taught a religion of his own; so did Akbar.
+Asoka abstained from flesh meat; so did Akbar. In the end Asoka took
+refuge in Buddha, the law, and the assembly. In the end Akbar recited
+the formula of Islam: "There is but one God, and Mahomet is his
+prophet."
+
+Some of these coincidents are mere accidents. Others reveal a similarity
+in the current of religious thought, a similarity in the stages of
+religious development; consequently they add a new chapter to the
+history of mankind.
+
+The wars of Akbar are only interesting so far as they bring out types of
+character. When the news reached the Punjab that Humayun was dead, other
+news arrived. Hemu had recovered Agra and Delhi; he was advancing with a
+large army into the Punjab. The Mogul force was very small. The Mogul
+officers were in a panic; they advised a retreat into Kabul. Akbar and
+Bairam Khan resolved on a battle. The Afghans were routed. The Hindu
+general was wounded in the eye and taken prisoner. Bairam Khan bade
+Akbar slay the Hindu, and win the title of "champion of the faith."
+Akbar drew his sword, but shrunk back. He was as brave as a lion; he
+would not hack a wounded prisoner. Bairam Khan had no such sentiment. He
+beheaded Hemu with his own sword.
+
+This story marks the contrast between the prince and his guardian. Akbar
+was brave and skilful in the field; he was outwardly gracious and
+forgiving when the fight was over. Bairam Khan was loyal to the throne;
+he slaughtered enemies in cold blood without mercy. It was impossible
+that the two should agree. Akbar grew more and more impatient of his
+guardian; for years he was self-constrained at Rama. He thought a great
+deal, but did nothing; he bided his time.
+
+Within four years Bairam Khan had laid the foundations of the Mogul
+empire. Its limits were as yet restricted. The Mogul pale only covered
+the Punjab, the northwest provinces, and Oude; it is only extended from
+the Indus to the junction of the Jumna and Ganges. On the south it was
+bounded by Rajputana. It included the three capitals of Lahore, Delhi,
+and Agra. So far it coincided with the kingdom of Ala-ud-din, who
+conquered the Deccan and Peninsula.
+
+At the end of the four years Akbar was a young man of eighteen. He
+resolved to throw off the authority of his guardian. He carried out his
+designs with the artifice of an Asiatic. He pretended that his mother
+was sick. He left the camp where Bairam Khan commanded, in order to pay
+her a visit. He proclaimed that he had assumed the authority of
+Padishah; that no orders were to be obeyed save his own. Bairam Khan was
+taken by surprise. Possibly, had he known what was coming, he would have
+put Akbar out of the way; but his power was gone. He tried to work upon
+the feelings of Abkar; he found that the Padishah was inflexible. He
+revolted, but was defeated and forgiven. Akbar offered him any post save
+that of minister; he would be minister or nothing. In the end he elected
+to go to Mecca, the last refuge for Mussulman statesmen. Everything was
+ready for his embarkation; suddenly he was assassinated by an Afghan. It
+was the old story of Afghan revenge. He had killed the father of the
+assassin in some battle: in revenge the son had stabbed him to death.
+
+Akbar was now free to act. The political situation was one of extreme
+peril. The Afghans were fighting one another in Kabul in the northwest;
+they were also fighting one another in Behar and Bengal in the
+southeast. When he marched against one, his territories were exposed to
+the raids of the other. Meantime his Mogul officers often set his
+sovereignty at defiance; when brought to task they broke out in mutiny
+and rebellion. Two events at this period will show the actual state of
+affairs.
+
+Far away in the south of Rajputana lies the remote territory of Malwa.
+It was originally conquered by Ala-ud-din. During the decline of the
+Tughlaks the governor Malwa became an independent ruler. At the
+beginning of the reign of Akbar, Baz Bahadur was ruler of Malwa. He was
+a type of the Mussulman princes of the time; no doubt he went to mosque;
+he surrounded himself with Hindu singing and dancing girls; he became
+more or less Hinduized. Akbar sent an officer named Adham Khan to
+conquer Malwa. Adham Khan had no difficulty. Baz Bahadur abandoned his
+treasures and harem and fled. Adham Khan distributed part of the spoil
+to the Padishah. Akbar could not brook such disobedience.
+Notwithstanding the distance he hurried to Malwa. He received his
+rightful share of the plunder; he professed to accept the excuses of the
+defaulter. When he returned to Agra he recalled Adham Khan to court; he
+sent another governor to Malwa. Adham Khan obeyed; he went to Agra; he
+found that he had lost favor. Commands were given to others. He could
+get nothing. He was driven mad by delay and disappointment. He did not
+suspect Akbar; he threw the blame upon the minister. One day he went to
+the palace; he stabbed the minister to death in the hall of audience; he
+ran up to an outer terrace. Akbar heard the uproar; he rushed in and
+beheld the bleeding corpse. He saw the stupefied murderer on the
+terrace; he half drew his sword, but remembered himself. Adham Khan
+seized his hands and begged for mercy. Akbar shook him off and ordered
+the servants to throw him from the terrace. The order was obeyed; Adham
+Khan was killed on the spot.
+
+Another officer, named Khan Zeman, played a similar game in Behar. He
+was warned that Akbar was on the move; he escaped punishment by making
+over the spoil before Akbar came up. This satisfied Akbar; he returned
+part of the spoil and went back to Agra. Henceforth Khan Zeman was a
+rebel at heart. Some Usbeg chiefs revolted in Oudh; they were joined by
+Khan Zeman. Akbar was called away to the Punjab by an Afghan invasion;
+on his return the rebels were in possession of Oudh and Allahabad. Akbar
+marched against them in the middle of the rains. He outstripped his
+army; he reached the Ganges with only his bodyguard. The rebels were
+encamped on the opposite bank; they had no fear; they expected Akbar to
+wait until his army came up. That night Akbar swam the river with his
+bodyguard. At daybreak he attacked the enemy. The rebels heard the
+thunder of the imperial kettle-drums; they could not believe their ears.
+They fled in all directions. Khan Zeman was slain in the pursuit. The
+other leaders were taken prisoners; they were trampled to death by
+elephants. Thus for a while the rebellion was stamped out.
+
+These incidents are only types of others. In plain truth, the Mussulman
+power in India had spent its force. The brotherhood of Islam had ceased
+to bind together conflicting races; it could not hold together men of
+the same race. The struggle between Shiah and Sunni was dividing the
+world of Islam. Moguls, Turks, and Afghans were fighting against each
+other; they were also fighting among themselves. Rebels of different
+races were combining against the Padishah. Meantime any scruples that
+remained against fighting fellow-Mussulmans were a hinderance to Akbar
+in putting down revolts. The Mussulman power was crumbling to pieces.
+The dismemberment had begun two centuries earlier in the revolt of the
+Deccan. Since then the strength which remained in the scattered
+fragments was wasted in wars and revolts; the whole country was drifting
+into anarchy.
+
+No one could save the empire but a born statesman. Akbar had already
+proved himself a born soldier. Had he been only a soldier he might still
+have held his own against Afghans and Usbegs from Peshawur to Allahabad.
+Had he been bloodthirsty and merciless, like Bairam Khan, he might have
+stamped out revolt and mutiny by massacre and terrorism. But he would
+have left no mark in history, no lessons for posterity, no political
+ideas for the education of the world. He might have made a name like
+Genghis Khan or Timur; but the story of his life would have dropped into
+oblivion. After his death every evil that festered in the body politic
+would have broken out afresh. His successors would have inherited the
+same wars, the same revolts, and the same mutinies; unless they had
+inherited his capacity, they would have died out in anarchy and in
+revolution.
+
+Akbar had never been educated. He had never learned to write, nor even
+to read. He had not gone with his father to Persia, where he might have
+been schooled in Mussulman learning. He had spent a joyless boyhood with
+a cruel uncle in Kabul; he had been schooled in nothing but war. But he
+had listened to histories, and pondered over histories, until grand
+ideas began to seethe in his brain.
+
+The problem before him was the resuscitation of the empire, or rather
+the creation of a new empire out of the existing chaos. Fresh blood was
+wanted to infuse life and strength into the body politic; to enable the
+Mogul Shiahs to subdue the Afghan Sunnis. Akbar saw with the eye of
+genius that the necessary force was latent in the Rajputs. Henceforth he
+devoted all the energies of his nature to bring that force into healthy
+play.
+
+In 1575 Akbar was about thirty-four years of age. Twenty years had
+passed away since the boy had been installed as padishah. He had not as
+yet conquered Kabul in the northwest, nor Bengal in the southeast; he
+had not made any sensible advance into the Deccan. But he had gained a
+succession of victories. He had restored order in the Punjab and
+Hindustan. He had subdued Malwa, Guzerat, and Rajputana. Many Rajputs
+were still in arms against him; he had nothing to fear from them. He had
+fixed his capital at Agra; his favorite residence, however, was at
+Fathipur Sikri, about twelve miles from Agra.
+
+It is easy to individualize Akbar. He was haughty, like all the Moguls;
+he was outwardly clement and affable. He was tall and handsome; broad in
+the chest and long in the arms. His complexion was ruddy, a nut-brown.
+He had a good appetite and a good digestion. His strength was
+prodigious. His courage was very remarkable. While yet a boy he
+displayed prodigies of valor in the battle against Hemu. He would spring
+on the backs of elephants who had killed their keepers; he would compel
+them to do his bidding. He kept a herd of dromedaries; he gained his
+victories by the rapidity of his marches. He was an admirable marksman.
+He had a favorite gun which had brought him thousands of game. With that
+same gun he shot Jeimal the Rajput at the siege of Chitor.
+
+Akbar, like his father and grandfather, professed to be a Mussulman. His
+mother was a Persian; he was a Persian in his thoughts and ways. He was
+imbued with the old Mogul instinct of toleration. He was lax and
+indifferent, without the semblance of zeal. He consulted soothsayers who
+divined with burned rams' bones. He celebrated the Persian festival of
+the Nau-roz, or new year, which had no connection with Islam. He
+reverenced the seven heavenly bodies by wearing a dress of different
+color every day in the week. He joined in the Brahmanical worship and
+sacrifices of his Rajput queens. Still he was outwardly a Mussulman. He
+had no sons; he vowed that if a son was born to him he would walk to the
+tomb of a Mussulman saint at Ajmir; it was more than two hundred miles
+from Fathipur. In 1570 his eldest son Seli was born; Akbar walked to
+Ajmir; he offered up his prayers at the tomb.
+
+Meantime the Ulama were growing troublesome at Agra. The Ulama comprised
+the collective body of Mussulman doctors and lawyers who resided at the
+capital. The Ulama have always possessed great weight in a Mussulman
+state. Judges, magistrates, and law officers in general are chosen from
+their number. Consequently the opinion of the collective body was
+generally received as the final authority. The Ulama at Agra were
+bigoted Sunnis. They hated and persecuted the Shiahs. Especially they
+persecuted the teachers of the Sufi heresy, which had grown up in Persia
+and was spreading in India. They had grown in power under the Afghan
+sultans. They had been quiet in the days of Humayun and Bairam Khan;
+both were confessedly Shiahs; the Ulama were too courtly to offend the
+power which appointed the law officers. When, however, Akbar threw over
+Bairam Khan and asserted his own sovereignty, the Ulama became more
+active. They were anxious to keep the young Padishah in the right way.
+
+Akbar and his vizier Abul Fazl were certainly men of genius. They are
+still the bright lights of Indian history. They were the foremost men of
+their time. But each had a characteristic weakness. Akbar was a born
+Mogul. With all his good qualities he was proud, ignorant, inquisitive,
+and self-sufficient. Abul Fazl was a born courtier. With all his good
+qualities he was a flatterer, a time-server, and a eulogist; he made
+Akbar his idol; he bowed down and worshipped him. They became close
+friends; they were indeed necessary to each other. Akbar looked to his
+minister for praise; Abul Fazl looked to his master for advancement. It
+is difficult to admire the genius of Akbar without seeing that he has
+been worked upon by Abul Fazl. It is equally difficult to admire the
+genius of Abul Fazl without seeing that he is pandering to the vanity of
+Akbar.
+
+When Akbar made the acquaintance of Abul Fazl he was in sore perplexity.
+He was determined to rule men of all creeds with even hand. The Ulama
+were thwarting him. The chief justice at Agra had sentenced men to death
+for being Shiahs and heretics. The Ulama were urging the Padishah to do
+the same. He was reluctant to quarrel with them; he was still more
+reluctant to sanction their high-handed proceedings toward men who
+worshipped the same God, but after a different fashion.
+
+How far Akbar opened his soul to Abul Fazl is unknown. No doubt Abul
+Fazl read his thoughts. Indeed, he had his own wrongs to avenge. The
+Ulama had persecuted his father and driven him into exile. The Ulama
+were ignorant, bigoted, and puffed up with pride and orthodoxy. Their
+learning was confined to Arabic and the _Koran_. They ignored what they
+did not know and could not understand. Abul Fazl must have hated and
+despised them. He was far too courtly, too astute, to express his real
+sentiments. The Ulama were at variance with the Padishah; they were also
+at variance among themselves. Possibly he foresaw that if they disputed
+before Akbar they might excite his contempt. How far he worked upon
+Akbar can never be ascertained. In the end Akbar ordered that the Ulama
+should discuss all questions in his presence; he would then decide who
+was right and who was wrong.
+
+There is no evidence that Abul Fazl suggested this course. It was,
+however, the kind of incense that a courtier would offer to a sovereign
+like Akbar. The learned men were to lay their opinions before the
+Padishah; he was to sit and judge. If he needed help, Abul Fazl would be
+at his side. Indeed, Abul Fazl would ask questions and invite opinions.
+He, the Padishah, would only hear and decide. Accordingly, preparations
+were made for the coming debates.
+
+The discussions were held on Thursday evenings. They were carried on in
+a large pavilion; it was built for the purpose in the royal garden at
+Fathpur Sikri. All the learned men at Agra were invited to attend. The
+Padishah and all the grandees of the empire were present. Abul Fazl
+acted as a kind of director. He started questions; he expounded his
+master's policy of toleration. Akbar preserved his dignity as padishah.
+He listened with majestic gravity to all that was said. Occasionally he
+bestowed praises and presents upon the best speakers.
+
+For many evenings the proceedings were conducted with due decorum. As,
+however, the speakers grew accustomed to the presence of the Padishah,
+the spirit of dissension began to work. One evening it led to an uproar;
+learned men reviled each other before the Padishah. No doubt Abul Fazl
+did his best to make the Ulama uncomfortable. He shifted the discussion
+from one point to another. He started dangerous subjects. He placed them
+in dilemmas. If they sought to please the Padishah they sinned against
+the _Koran_; if they stuck to the _Koran_ they offended the Padishah. A
+question was started as to Akbar's marriages. One orthodox magistrate
+was too conscientious to hold his tongue; he was removed from his post.
+The courtiers saw that the Padishah delighted in the discomfiture of
+the Ulama with inconsistency, trickery, and cheating. The law officers
+were unable to defend themselves. Their authority and orthodoxy was set
+at naught. They were fast drifting into disgrace and ruin. They had
+cursed one another in their speech; probably in their hearts they were
+all agreed in cursing Abul Fazl.
+
+By this time Akbar held the Ulama in small esteem. He was growing
+sceptical of their religion. He had listened to the history of the
+caliphate; he yearned toward Ali and his family; he became in heart a
+Shiah. Already he may have doubted Mahomet and the _Koran_. Still he was
+outwardly a Mussulman. His object now was to overthrow the Ulama
+altogether; to become himself the supreme spiritual head, the pope or
+caliph of Islam. Abul Fazl was laboring to invest him with the same
+authority. He mooted the question one Thursday evening. He raised a
+storm of opposition; for this he was prepared. He had started the idea;
+he exerted all his tact and skill to carry it out.
+
+The debates proved that there were differences of opinion among the
+Ulama. Abul Fazl urged that there were differences of opinion between
+the highest Mussulman authorities; between those who were accepted as
+infallible, and were known as Mujtahids. He thus inserted the thin edge
+of the wedge. He proposed that when the Mujtahids disagreed, the
+decision should be left to the Padishah. Weeks and months passed away in
+these discussions. Nothing could be said against the measure excepting
+that it would prove offensive to the Padishah.
+
+Meantime a document was drawn up in the names of the chief men among the
+Ulama. It gave the Padishah the power of deciding between the
+conflicting authorities. It gave him the still more dangerous power of
+issuing fresh decrees, provided they were in accordance with some verse
+of the _Koran_ and were manifestly for the benefit of the people. The
+document was in the handwriting of Sheik Mubarak; Abul Fazl, Abdul Faiz,
+and probably Akbar himself had each a hand in the composition. The chief
+men among the Ulama were required to sign it. Perhaps if they had been
+priests or divines they might have resisted to the last. But they were
+magistrates and judges; their posts and emoluments were in danger. In
+the end they signed it in sheer desperation. From that day the power of
+the Ulama was gone; they had abdicated their authority to the padishah;
+they became mere ciphers in Islam. A worse lot befell their leaders. The
+head of the Ulama and the obnoxious chief justice were removed from
+their posts and forced to go to Mecca.
+
+The breaking up of the Ulama is an epoch in history of Mussulman India.
+The Ulama may have been ignorant and bigoted; they may have sought to
+keep religions and the government of the empire within the narrow
+grooves of orthodoxy. Nevertheless, they had played an important part
+throughout Mussulman rule. As exponents of the law of Mahomet they had
+often proved a salutary check upon despotism of the sovereign. They had
+forced every minister, governor, and magistrate to respect the
+fundamental principles of the _Koran_. They led and controlled public
+opinion among the Mussulman population. They formed the only body in the
+state that ever ventured to oppose the will of the sovereign.
+
+The Thursday evenings had done their work. Within four years they had
+broken up the power of the Ulama. Abul Fazl had another project in his
+brain; it combined the audacity of genius with the mendacity of a
+courtier. He declared that Akbar was himself the twelfth imam, the lord
+of the period, who was to reconcile the seventy-two sects of Islam, to
+regenerate the world, to usher in the millennium. The announcement took
+the court by surprise. It fitted, however, into current ideas; it paved
+the way for further assumptions. Akbar grasped the notion with
+eagerness; it fascinated him for the remainder of his life; it bound him
+in the closest ties of friendship and confidence with Abul Fazl.
+
+The religious life of Akbar had undergone a vast change. He was testing
+religion by morality and reason. His faith in Islam was fading away.
+Mahomet had married a girl of ten; he had taken another man's wife;
+therefore he could not have been a prophet sent by God. Akbar
+disbelieved the story of his night-journey to heaven. Meantime Akbar was
+eagerly learning the mysteries of other religions. He entertained
+Brahmans, Sufis, Parsis, and Christian fathers. He believed in the
+transmigration of the soul, in the supreme spirit, in the ecstatic
+reunion of the soul with God, in the deity of fire and the sun. He
+leaned toward Christianity; he rejected the trinity and incarnation.
+
+The gravitations of Akbar toward Christianity are invested with singular
+interest. He had been impressed with what he heard of the Portuguese in
+India; their large ships, impregnable forts, and big guns. He sent a
+letter to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa inviting Christian fathers to
+come to his court at Fathpur Sikri and instruct him in the sacred books.
+The religious world at Goa was thrown into a ferment at the prospect of
+converting the Great Mogul. Every priest in Goa prayed that he might be
+sent on the mission. Three fathers were despatched to Fathpur, which was
+more than twelve hundred miles away. Akbar awaited their arrival with
+the utmost impatience. He received them with every mark of favor. They
+delivered their presents, consisting of a polyglot Bible in four
+languages and the images of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. To their
+unspeakable delight the Great Mogul placed the Bible on his head and
+kissed the images. So eager was he for instruction that he spent the
+whole night in conversation with the fathers. He provided them with
+lodgings in the precincts of his palace; he permitted them to set up a
+chapel and altar.
+
+Akbar had ceased to be a Mussulman; he still maintained appearances. He
+set apart Saturday evenings for controversies between the fathers and
+the mollahs. In the end the fathers convinced Akbar of the superiority
+of Christianity. They contrasted the sensualities of Mahomet with the
+pure morality of the Gospel; the wars of Mahomet and the caliphs with
+the preachings and sufferings of the Apostles. The Mussulman historian
+curses the fathers; he states that Akbar became a Christian. The
+fathers, however, could never induce Akbar to be baptized. He gave them
+his favorite son Amurath, a boy of thirteen, to be educated in
+Christianity and the European sciences. He directed Abul Fazl to prepare
+a translation of the Gospel. He entered the chapel of the fathers, and
+prostrated himself before the image of the Saviour. He permitted the
+fathers to preach Christianity in any part of his empire; to perform
+their rites in public, in opposition to Mussulman law. A Portuguese was
+buried at Fathpur with all the pomp of the Roman Catholic ritual; the
+cross was carried through the streets for the first time. But Akbar
+would not become a Christian; he waited, he said, for the divine
+illumination.
+
+"He hated the Mussulman religion. He overthrew the mosques and converted
+them into stables. He trusted and employed the Hindus more than the
+Mussulmans. Many of the Mussulmans rebelled against him; they stirred up
+his brother, the Governor of Kabul, to take up arms against him; but
+Akbar defeated the rebels and restored order.
+
+"It is uncertain what really was the religion of Akbar. Some said that
+he was a Hindu; others that he was a Christian. Some said that he
+belonged to a fourth sect, which was not connected with either of the
+three others. He acknowledged one God who was best content with a
+variety of sects and worshippings. Early in the morning, and again at
+noon, evening, and midnight, he worshipped the sun. He belonged to a new
+sect, of which the followers regarded him as their prophet."
+
+Akbar was no fanatic. He was not carried away by religious craze. His
+religion was the outcome of his policy; it was political rather than
+superstitious; it began with him and ended with him. Probably the lack
+of fanaticism caused its failure. Abul Fazl speaks of the numbers who
+joined it; the list which he has preserved only contains the names of
+eighteen courtiers, including himself, his father, and his brother. Only
+one Hindu is on the list; namely, Bir Bar, the Brahman.
+
+Akbar tried hard to improve the morals of his subjects, Hindus as well
+as Mussulmans. He placed restrictions upon prostitution; he severely
+punished seducers. He permitted the use of wine; he punished
+intoxication. He prohibited the slaughter of cows. He forbade the
+marriage of boys before they were sixteen, and of girls before they were
+fourteen. He permitted the marriage of Hindu widows. He tried to stop
+sati among the Hindus, and polygamy among the Mussulmans.
+
+There was much practical simplicity in Akbar's character. It showed
+itself in a variety of ways. It was not peculiar to Akbar; it was an
+instinct which shows itself in Moguls generally. His emirs cheated him
+by bringing borrowed horses to muster; he stopped them by branding every
+horse with the name of the emir to which it belonged as well as with the
+imperial mark. He appointed writers to record everything he said or
+did. He sent writers into every city and province to report to him
+everything that was going on. He hung up a bell at the palace; any man
+who had a grievance might ring the bell and obtain a hearing.
+
+Akbar was very inquisitive. He sent an expedition to discover the
+sources of the Ganges. He made a strange experiment to discover what
+language was first spoken by mankind. This experiment is typical of the
+man. The Mussulmans declared that the first language was Arabic; the
+Jews said it was Hebrew; the Brahmans said it was Sanskrit. Akbar
+ordered twelve infants to be brought up by dumb nurses; not a word was
+to be spoken in their presence until they were twelve years of age. When
+the time arrived the children were brought before Akbar. Proficients in
+the learned tongues were present to catch the first words, to decide
+upon the language to which it belonged. The children could not say a
+word; they spoke only by signs. The experiment was an utter failure.
+
+The character of Akbar had its dark side. He was sometimes harsh and
+cruel. His persecution of Mussulmans was unpardonable. He had another
+way of getting rid of his enemies which is revolting to civilization. He
+kept a prisoner in his pay. He carried a box with three
+compartments--one for betel; another for digestive pills; a third for
+poisoned pills. No one dared to refuse to eat what was offered him by
+the Padishah; the offer was esteemed an honor. How many were poisoned by
+Akbar is unknown. The practice was in full force during the reigns of
+his successors.
+
+Akbar required his emirs to prostrate themselves before him. This rule
+gave great offence to Mussulmans; prostration is worship; no strict
+Mussulman will perform worship except when offering his prayers to God.
+Abul Fazl says that Akbar ordered it to be discontinued. The point is
+doubtful. It was certainly performed by members of the "divine faith."
+It was also performed during the reign of his son and successor.
+
+The Mogul government was pure despotism. Every governor and viceroy was
+supreme within his province; the Padishah was supreme throughout his
+empire. There was nothing to check provincial rulers but fear of the
+Padishah; there was nothing to check the Padishah but fear of rebellion.
+All previous Mussulman sovereigns had been checked by the Ulama and the
+authority of the _Koran_. Akbar had broken up the Ulama and set aside
+the _Koran_; he governed the empire according to his will; his will was
+law. The old Mogul khans had held diets; no trace of a diet is to be
+found in the history of Mogul India prior to the reign of Aurungzeb.
+There may have been a semblance of a diet on the accession of a new
+padishah; all the emirs, rajas, and princes of the empire paid their
+homage, presented gifts, and received titles and honors. But there was
+no council or parliament of any sort or kind. The Padishah was one and
+supreme.
+
+Akbar dwelt many years at Lahore. There he seems to have reached the
+height of human felicity. A proverb became current, "As happy as Akbar."
+He established his authority in Kabul and Bengal. He added Cashmere to
+his dominions. His empire was as large as that of Asoka.
+
+During the reign of Burhan, Akbar sent ambassadors to the sultans of the
+Deccan to invite them to accept him as their suzerain. In return he
+would uphold them on their thrones; he would prevent all internecine
+wars. One and all refused to pay allegiance to the Mogul. Akbar was
+wroth at the refusal. He sent his son Amurath to command in Guzerat; he
+ordered Amurath to seize the first opportunity for interfering in the
+affairs of Ahmadnagar.
+
+The moment soon arrived. Burhan died in 1594. A war ensued between rival
+claimants for the throne. The minister invited Amurath to interfere.
+Amurath advanced to Ahmadnagar. Meantime the minister and queen came to
+terms; they united to resist the Moguls. The Queen dowager, known as
+Chand Bibi, arrayed herself in armor; she veiled her face and led the
+troops in person. The Moguls were driven back. At last a compromise was
+effected. Berar was ceded to the Padishah; Amurath retired from
+Ahmadnagar.
+
+About this time a strange event took place at Lahore. On Easter Sunday,
+1597, the Padishah was celebrating the Nau-roz, or feast of the new
+year, in honor of the sun. Tented pavilions were set up in a large
+plain. An image of the sun, fashioned of gold and jewels, was placed
+upon a throne. Suddenly a thunderbolt fell from the skies. The throne
+was overturned. The royal pavilion was set on fire; the flames spread
+throughout the camp; the whole was burned to the ground. The fire
+reached the city and burned down the palace. Nearly everything was
+consumed. The imperial treasures were melted down, and molten gold and
+silver ran through the streets of Lahore.
+
+This portentous disaster made a deep impression on Akbar. He went away
+to Cashmere; he took one of the Christian fathers with him. He began to
+question the propriety of his new religion; he could not bring himself
+to retract, certainly not to become an open Christian. When the summer
+was over he returned to Lahore.
+
+In 1598 Akbar left Lahore and set out for Agra. He was displeased with
+the conduct of the war in the Deccan. His son Amurath was a drunkard.
+The commander-in-chief, known as the Khan Khanan, who accompanied
+Amurath, was intriguing and treacherous; he had probably been bribed by
+the Deccanis. Abul Fazl was still the trusted servant and friend; he had
+been raised to the rank of commander of two thousand five hundred. Akbar
+had already recalled the Khan Khanan. He now sent Abul Fazl into the
+Deccan to bring away Amurath, or to send him away, as should seem most
+expedient.
+
+Abul Fazl departed on his mission. He arrived at Burhanpur, the capital
+of Khandesh. He soon discovered the luke-warmness of Bahadur Khan, the
+ruler. He insisted that Bahadur Khan should join him and help the
+imperial cause. Bahadur Khan was disinclined to help Akbar to conquer
+the Deccan. He thought to back out by sending rich presents to Abul
+Fazl. Abul Fazl was too loyal to be bribed; he returned the presents and
+went alone toward Ahmadnagar.
+
+Meanwhile Amurath was retreating from Ahmadnagar. He encamped in Berar;
+he drank more deeply than ever; he died very suddenly the very day that
+Abul Fazl came up. The death of Amurath removed one complication, but it
+led to the question of advance. The imperial officers urged a retreat.
+Abul Fazl had been bred in a cloister; he was approaching his fiftieth
+year; he had never before been in active service, but he had the spirit
+of a soldier; he refused to retreat from an enemy's country; he pushed
+manfully on for Ahmadnagar. His efforts were rewarded with success. The
+Queen-regent was assailed by other enemies, and yielded to her fate.
+She agreed that if Abul Fazl would punish her enemies, she would
+surrender the fortress of Ahmadnagar.
+
+Tidings had now reached Akbar that his son Amurath was dead. He resolved
+to go in person to the Deccan. He left his eldest son, Selim, in charge
+of the government. He sent an advance force under his other son, Danyal,
+associated with the Khan Khanan. The advance force reached Burhanpur.
+There the disloyalty of Bahadur Khan was manifest; he refused to pay
+respects to Danyal. Akbar was encamped at Ujain when the news reached
+him. He ordered Abul Fazl to join him; he ordered Danyal to go on to
+Ahmadnagar; he then prepared for the subjugation of Bahadur Khan.
+
+The story of the operations may be told in a few words. Danyal advanced
+to Ahmadnagar. Chand Bibi was slaughtered by her own soldiers.
+Ahmadnagar was occupied by the Moguls. Meanwhile Bahadur Khan abandoned
+Burhanpur and took refuge in the strong fortress of Asirghur. Akbar was
+joined by Abul Fazl and laid siege to Asirghur. The siege lasted six
+months. At last Bahadur Khan surrendered; his life was spared;
+henceforth he fades away from history.
+
+So far Akbar had prospered; he had conquered the great highway into the
+Deccan--Malwa, Khandesh, Berar, and Ahmadnagar. He raised Abul Fazl to
+the command of four thousand. He resolved on conquering the Deccan. He
+was about to strike when his arm was arrested. His eldest son Selim had
+broken out in revolt. He had gone to Allahabad and assumed the title of
+padishah.
+
+Akbar returned alone to Agra; he was falling on evil days. He effected a
+reconciliation with Selim; he saw that Selim was still rebellious at
+heart; that his best officers were inclining toward his undutiful son.
+In his perplexity he sent to the Deccan for Abul Fazl. The trusted
+servant hastened to join his imperial master. But Selim had always hated
+Abul Fazl. He instigated a Rajput chief of Bundelkund to waylay Abul
+Fazl. This chief was Bir Singh of Urchah. Bir Singh fell upon Abul Fazl
+near Nawar, killed him, and sent his head to Selim. Bir Singh fled from
+the wrath of the Padishah; he led the life of an outlaw in the jungle
+until he heard of the death of Akbar.
+
+Akbar was deeply wounded by the murder of Abul Fazl. He thereby lost his
+chief support, his best trusted friend. Henceforth he seemed to yield to
+circumstances rather than to struggle against the world. Other
+misfortunes befell him: his mother died; his youngest son, Danyal,
+killed himself with drink in the Deccan; his own life was beginning to
+draw to a close.
+
+The last events in the reign of Akbar are obscure. Outwardly he became
+reconciled to Selim. Outwardly he abandoned scepticism and heresy; he
+professed himself a Mussulman. At heart he was anxious that Selim should
+be set aside; that Khuzru, the eldest son of Selim, should succeed him
+to the throne. It is impossible to unravel the intrigues that filled the
+court at Agra. At last Akbar was smitten with mortal disease. For some
+days Selim was refused admittance to his father's chamber. In the end
+there was a compromise. Selim swore to maintain the Mussulman religion.
+He also swore to pardon his son Khuzru and all who had supported Khuzru.
+He was then brought into the presence of Akbar. The old Padishah was
+past all speech. He made a sign with his hand that Selim should take the
+imperial diadem and gird on the imperial sword. Selim obeyed. He
+prostrated himself upon the ground before the couch of his dying father;
+he touched the ground with his head. He then left the chamber. A few
+hours had passed away and Akbar was dead. He died in October, 1605, aged
+sixty-three.
+
+The burial of Akbar was performed after a simple fashion. His grave was
+prepared in a garden at Secundra, about four miles from Agra. The body
+was placed upon a bier. Selim and his three sons carried it out of the
+fortress. The young princes, assisted by the officers of the imperial
+household, carried it to Secundra. Seven days were spent in mourning
+over the grave. Provisions and sweetmeats were distributed among the
+poor every morning and evening throughout the mourning. Twenty readers
+were appointed to recite the _Koran_ every night without ceasing.
+Finally, the foundations were laid of that splendid mausoleum which is
+known far and wide as the tomb of Akbar.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[59] Asoka was an illustrious king of the Maurya dynasty in India, who
+died about B.C. 225. He did much for the advancement of Buddhism, and
+has been called the "Buddhist Constantine."--ED.
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
+
+EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
+
+A.D. 1517-1557
+
+JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
+
+
+Events treated at length are here indicated in large type; the numerals
+following give volume and page.
+
+Separate chronologies of the various nations, and of the careers of
+famous persons, will be found in the INDEX VOLUME, with volume and page
+references showing where the several events are fully treated.
+
+* Denotes date uncertain.
+
+A.D.
+
+1517. Protest of Luther against the sale of indulgences. See "LUTHER
+BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY," ix, 1.
+
+Overthrow of the mameluke power in Egypt, by Selim I, who annexes that
+country to the Ottoman empire.
+
+Balboa beheaded by Pedrarias Davila, the new Governor of Darien, on a
+charge of contemplated revolt.
+
+Negro slaves first introduced into America. See "NEGRO SLAVERY IN
+AMERICA," ix, 36.
+
+
+1518. First preaching of the reformed doctrines by Zwingli, in
+Switzerland.
+
+Conquest of Arabia by the Ottomans.
+
+
+1519. Death of Maximilian I; his grandson, Charles I of Spain--jointly
+with Ferdinand his brother, in his hereditary realm--elected as Emperor
+Charles V. Union under one crown of the German Empire, Spain, the
+Netherlands, the Sicilies, Sardinia, and the Spanish Indies.
+
+Cortés first enters Mexico. See "CORTÉS CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO,"
+ix, 72.
+
+Mouth of the Mississippi discovered by Francisco de Garay.
+
+Magellan starts on his expedition to circumnavigate the world. See
+"FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE," ix, 41.
+
+
+1520. Papal bull of Leo X against Luther, who publicly burns it. See
+"LUTHER BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY," ix, 1.
+
+Execution of nobles at Stockholm, following the successful invasion of
+Sweden by King Christian II of Denmark; Sten Sture, the Protector, is
+mortally wounded at Bogesund; Christian proclaimed king.
+
+Henry VIII of England agrees to meet Francis I of France. See "THE FIELD
+OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD," ix, 59.
+
+Solyman the Magnificent, Sultan of the Ottomans, succeeds Selim I.
+
+
+1521. Conquest of Belgrade by the Ottoman Turks.
+
+Issue of the first of the Placards, edicts of Emperor Charles V against
+heresy, in the Netherlands.
+
+First of the wars between Charles V and Francis I; Navarre
+unsuccessfully invaded by the French; France invaded from the north;
+Milan lost to the French.
+
+Treaty of Bruges between Henry VIII and Charles V.
+
+Execution of the Duke of Buckingham for high treason; the office of
+constable of England, his inheritance, abolished.
+
+"CORTÉS CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO." See ix, 72.
+
+Magellan reaches the Ladrones and the Philippines; he is slain on an
+island of the latter group.
+
+
+1522. Conquest of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John by the Turks,
+under Solyman the Magnificent.
+
+Battle of La Biococca; the French defeated by the forces of Charles
+under Colonna.
+
+France invaded by the English under the Earl of Surrey.
+
+A ship belonging to Magellan's fleet completes the circumnavigation of
+the globe.
+
+Luther publishes his New Testament; he writes his Reply to Henry VIII,
+who had been dubbed "Defender of the Faith" by Pope Leo X, in
+acknowledgment of a book, _A Defence of the Seven Sacraments_, written
+against Luther.
+
+
+1523. Invasion of France by Henry VIII and Charles V.
+
+Italy invaded by the French.
+
+Abrogation of the mass and image-worship in Switzerland.
+
+Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden. See "LIBERATION OF SWEDEN," ix,
+79.
+
+Frederick I, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, succeeds to the throne of
+Christian II of Denmark, who is deposed by his subjects.
+
+
+1524. Retreat of Bonnivet; death of Bayard, "the knight without fear and
+without reproach." Italy invaded by Francis I; he occupies Milan and
+lays siege to Pavia.
+
+"THE PEASANTS' WAR IN GERMANY." See ix, 93.
+
+Voyage to the North American coast by Verrazano, an Italian navigator,
+on behalf of France.
+
+
+1525. Defeat of Francis I at Pavia. See "FRANCE LOSES ITALY," ix, 111.
+
+Bloody conclusion of the Peasants' War.
+
+A hereditary Protestant principality formed in East Prussia by the grand
+master of the Teutonic Knights; the suzerain being Sigismund, King of
+Poland.
+
+
+1526. Treaty of Madrid; release of Francis I. See "FRANCE LOSES ITALY,"
+ix, 111.
+
+Battle of Mohacs; the Hungarians are overwhelmed by Solyman; Louis II
+slain. Rival elections of John Zapolya and Ferdinand of Austria to the
+vacant throne.
+
+Foundation of the Mongol dynasty of India by Baber, who conquers Ibrahim
+Lodi of Delhi at Paniput.
+
+Tyndale's version of the English Bible printed at Worms.
+
+
+1527. Storming of Rome; it is pillaged by the troops of the Constable de
+Bourbon. See "SACK OF ROME BY THE IMPERIAL TROOPS," ix, 124.
+
+Restoration of the republic in Florence; the Medici expelled.
+
+Winning of the Hungarian crown by Ferdinand of Austria; Zapolya expelled
+the country.
+
+
+1528. War declared against Charles V by Henry VIII and Francis I.
+
+Deliverance of Genoa from the French yoke, by Andrea Doria.
+
+After tyrannizing over Scotland for more than two years, the Earl of
+Angus is driven out of the realm.
+
+
+1529. Fall of Cardinal Wolsey. See "GREAT RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT IN
+ENGLAND," ix, 137.
+
+Presentation of the Protest by the German reformers at the Diet of
+Spire; from this the reformers take the name of Protestants.[60]
+
+Peace of Cambrai between Francis I and Charles V.
+
+Siege of Florence; united attempt of Charles V and Pope Clement VII to
+restore the rule of the Medici.
+
+Vienna unsuccessfully besieged by Solyman the Magnificent; he gives to
+Zapolya the rule in Hungary.
+
+Establishment in Sweden of Lutheranism as the state church.
+
+
+1530. Coronation of Charles V, Pope Clement VII, at Bologna, performing
+the ceremony, the last crowning by any pope of a German emperor.
+
+Restoration of the Medici on the submission of Florence to the invaders.
+
+Malta ceded to the Knights of St. John by Charles V, who also hands over
+the Moluccas to the Portuguese.
+
+Formulation of the reform (Protestant) profession of faith at the Diet
+of Augsburg; prepared and read before the Diet by Melanchthon.
+
+
+1531. Breach between Henry VIII and Pope Clement VII.
+
+Battle of Kappel; defeat of the army of Zurich by Swiss Catholics; fall
+of Zwingli.
+
+Henry VIII of England first addressed as "supreme head of the Church."
+
+Publication of Michel Servetus' treatise on the _Errors of the Trinity_.
+
+
+1532. Restoration of religious peace, with freedom of worship, in
+Germany, secured by the Pacification of Nuremberg.
+
+Conquest of Peru. See "PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU," ix, 156.
+
+
+1533. Cranmer annuls the marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine of
+Aragon; he marries Anne Boleyn; her coronation.
+
+Marriage of the Dauphin Henry with Catherine de' Medici.
+
+Enforced flight of Calvin from Paris. See "CALVIN IS DRIVEN FROM PARIS,"
+ix, 176.
+
+Queen Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I, avows heretical
+opinions; her mysteries, farces, and novels give a great impulse to
+literature in France.
+
+A taste for poetry and refinement of the English language follows the
+writings of Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, in England.
+
+
+1534. Throwing off of the papal authority in England. See "ENGLISH ACT
+OF SUPREMACY," ix, 203.
+
+Establishment of their disorderly reign of the Anabaptists, under the
+lead of John of Leyden, in Muenster.
+
+Unsuccessful attempt of the Bishop of Geneva and the Duke of Savoy to
+reëstablish their authority over Geneva; it is henceforth free.
+
+First fierce persecution of the reformers in France begins.
+
+Discovery of the St. Lawrence by Jacques Cartier.* See "CARTIER EXPLORES
+CANADA," ix, 236.
+
+
+1535. Suppression of the monasteries in England.
+
+Publication in England by Tyndale and Coverdale of a new translation of
+the Bible.
+
+Settlement of Paraguay and founding of Buenos Aires. See "MENDOZA
+SETTLES BUENOS AIRES," ix, 254.
+
+Downfall of the Anabaptists at Muenster; John of Leyden put to death.
+
+After being created a cardinal, Fisher is beheaded in England; the like
+befalls Sir Thomas More.
+
+
+1536. Completion of the union between England and Wales.
+
+Henry VIII, on the charge of infidelity, commits Anne Boleyn to the
+Tower of London; she is executed. Marriage of Henry to Jane Seymour.
+
+Francis I takes Turin and attempts the surprise of Genoa.
+
+Provence invaded by Charles V.
+
+Discovery of California by Cortés.
+
+
+1537. Death of Jane Seymour, Queen of England.
+
+Further enslavement of the Indians forbidden by a brief of Pope Paul
+III.
+
+
+1538. General suppression of monasteries and destruction of relics in
+England.
+
+Truce of Nice, for ten years, between France and Spain.
+
+Marriage of Mary de Guise with James V of Scotland.
+
+John Calvin expelled Geneva.
+
+
+1539. Publication of Cranmer's Bible in England.
+
+Calvin, head of the Reformers, founds the University of Geneva.
+
+Beginning of the explorations of De Soto, after his landing in Florida.
+
+Emperor Charles V drives the citizens of Ghent into revolt against his
+exactions.
+
+
+1540. Marriage of Henry VIII to Anne of Cleves; she is divorced; the
+King marries Catherine Howard.
+
+Submission of Ghent to Charles V; he destroys its liberties; many of the
+citizens find refuge in England.
+
+Papal sanction given to the Society of Jesus. See "FOUNDING OF THE
+JESUITS," ix, 261.
+
+Cherry-trees, carried from Flanders, first planted in England.
+
+First known printing in America; done in Mexico. See "ORIGIN AND
+PROGRESS OF PRINTING," viii, 1.
+
+
+1541. Charles V heads an unsuccessful expedition against Algiers.
+
+Hungary overrun by the Turks, under Solyman the Magnificent.
+
+King John III of Portugal requests Francis Xavier and other Jesuits to
+undertake missions to his colonies.
+
+De Soto reaches the Mississippi River. See "DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE
+MISSISSIPPI," ix, 277.
+
+
+1542. Discovery of Japan by the Portuguese.*
+
+Execution of Catherine Howard, fifth queen-consort of Henry VIII. He
+assumes the title of king of Ireland.
+
+Battle of Solway Moss; successful invasion of Scotland by the English.
+
+War renewed between Francis I and Charles V.
+
+Trade with Japan by the Portuguese permitted.
+
+
+1543. Marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine Parr.
+
+"REVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMY BY COPERNICUS." See ix, 285.
+
+Birth and accession of Mary Stuart to the throne of Scotland; Earl of
+Arran is regent.
+
+
+1544. Invasion of Scotland by the English under the Earl of Hertford;
+they burn Edinburgh.
+
+Mary and Elizabeth restored to the right of succession to the English
+throne.
+
+
+1545. Attempted invasion of England by the French.
+
+Nineteenth general council. See "COUNCIL OF TRENT AND THE
+COUNTER-REFORMATION," ix, 293.
+
+Spanish discovery of the silver mines of Potosi.
+
+Massacre of the Vaudois in Southern France.
+
+
+1546. Burning of George Wishart as a heretic, by order of Cardinal
+Beaton, the Scottish primate; he is assassinated.
+
+Beginning of the War of the Smalkald League. See "PROTESTANT STRUGGLE
+AGAINST CHARLES V," ix, 313.
+
+
+1547. Death of Henry VIII; Edward VI succeeds his father on the English
+throne; the Duke of Somerset protector.
+
+Henry II succeeds to the throne of France, on the death of his father,
+Francis I.
+
+Capture of John Knox, the Scottish reformer; he is condemned to the
+French galleys.
+
+In Russia the Grand Prince of Moscow, Ivan IV (the Terrible), assumes
+the title of czar or tsar.
+
+
+1548. Publication of the Augsburg Interim. See "PROTESTANT STRUGGLE
+AGAINST CHARLES V," ix, 313.
+
+
+1549. In England the Act of Uniformity, regulating public worship, is
+passed.
+
+Formal uniting of the Netherlands with the Spanish crown by Charles V.
+
+Francis Xavier lands in Japan. See "INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO
+JAPAN," ix, 325.
+
+Book of Common Prayer adopted in England, under Edward VI.
+
+
+1550. Promulgation against the heretics in the Netherlands by Charles;
+the hateful Inquisition established there.
+
+Peace between England and France; Boulogne restored to the latter.
+
+Publication of his _Lives of the Painters_, by Giorgio Vasari.
+
+
+1551. After a long siege Magdeburg is taken by Maurice of Saxony.
+
+Turkish ravages on the coast of Sicily; an attack on Malta fails;
+Tripoli surrenders to them.
+
+Palestrina, the first to reconcile musical science with musical art,
+made _maestro di capella_ by Pope Julius III.
+
+
+1552. Adoption of the Forty-two Articles of the Church of England; these
+were afterward reduced to Thirty-nine.
+
+Alliance of Maurice of Saxony with France; they make war on Charles V,
+on behalf of the Protestants. The Peace of Passau follows. See "COLLAPSE
+OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V," ix, 337 and 348.
+
+Seizure of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun by Henry II of
+France. See "COLLAPSE OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V," ix, 337.
+
+Subjugation of the Tartars of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible of Russia.
+
+
+1553. Death of Edward VI; his sister, Mary, succeeds to the English
+throne.
+
+Unsuccessful attempt of the Duke of Northumberland to place his
+daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne.
+
+After a stubborn defence by Francis, Duke of Guise, Charles V is
+compelled to raise the siege of Metz.
+
+Burning of Servetus at Geneva, with Calvin's approval.
+
+
+1554. Rebellion of Wyatt, in support of Lady Jane Grey's attempt on the
+crown of England; she is executed.
+
+Queen Mary, of England, marries Philip of Spain.
+
+Regency of Mary de Guise, mother of Mary Stuart, in Scotland.
+
+Astrakhan conquered by Ivan the Terrible.
+
+
+1555. Peace of Augsburg between the Roman Catholic and Lutheran parties
+in Germany. See "THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF AUGSBURG," ix, 348.
+
+Persecution of the Protestants begun by Queen Mary in England; burning
+of Latimer and Ridley.
+
+The sovereignty of the Netherlands resigned by Charles V to his son,
+Philip II.
+
+Return to Scotland of John Knox.
+
+Completion of the version of the Psalms, in English metre, by Sternhold
+and Hopkins.
+
+
+1556. Burning of Cranmer.
+
+Emperor Charles V resigns the crown of Germany. See "RELIGIOUS PEACE OF
+AUGSBURG," ix, 348.
+
+"AKBAR ESTABLISHES THE MOGUL EMPIRE IN INDIA." See ix, 366.
+
+
+1557. Philip II of Spain arrives in England; he obtains a declaration of
+war against France and departs. Battle of St. Quentin; the Earl of
+Pembroke joins the army of Philip II in Flanders, with 10,000 English
+soldiers; defeat of the French.
+
+Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant, "even to the knife," by
+Scottish Lords of the Congregation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[60] Sometimes given as 1530.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS
+HISTORIANS, VOLUME 9***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 26337-8.txt or 26337-8.zip *******
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 9, by Various</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume
+9, by Various, Edited by Rossiter Johnson</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 9</p>
+<p>Author: Various</p>
+<p>Editor: Rossiter Johnson</p>
+<p>Release Date: August 17, 2008  [eBook #26337]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS HISTORIANS, VOLUME 9***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by<br />
+the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+(http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 342px;">
+<img src="images/img3.jpg" width="342" height="500" alt="Henry VIII, during the festivities at Guines&mdash;&quot;The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold&quot;&mdash;in courtly dance with one of the French Queen&#39;s
+ladies-in-waiting" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Henry VIII, during the festivities at Guines&mdash;&quot;The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold&quot;&mdash;in courtly dance with one of the French Queen&#39;s
+ladies-in-waiting<br /><br />
+
+Painting by Adolph Menzel</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 380px;">
+<img src="images/img4.jpg" width="380" height="531" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE GREAT EVENTS</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>FAMOUS HISTORIANS</h2>
+
+<p class="center">A COMPREHENSIVE AND READABLE ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY. EMPHASIZING
+THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS. AND PRESENTING THESE AS COMPLETE NARRATIVES
+IN THE MASTER-WORDS OF THE MOST EMINENT HISTORIANS</p>
+
+<h4>
+NON-SECTARIAN&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; NON-PARTISAN&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NON-SECTIONAL<br />
+</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><b>ON THE PLAN EVOLVED FROM A CONSENSUS OF OPINIONS GATHERED FROM THE MOST
+DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS OF AMERICA AND EUROPE. INCLUDING BRIEF
+INTRODUCTIONS BY SPECIALISTS TO CONNECT AND EXPLAIN THE CELEBRATED
+NARRATIVES. ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY. WITH THOROUGH INDICES,
+BIBLIOGRAPHIES, CHRONOLOGIES, AND COURSES OF READING</b></p>
+
+<h3>EDITOR-IN-CHIEF</h3>
+
+<h2>ROSSITER JOHNSON, LL.D.</h2>
+
+<h4>ASSOCIATE EDITORS</h4>
+
+<h3>CHARLES F. HORNE, Ph.D.</h3>
+
+<h3> JOHN RUDD, LL.D.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>With a staff of specialists</i></h4>
+
+<h4><i>VOLUME IX</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 118px;">
+<img src="images/deco.jpg" width="118" height="50" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h4>The National Alumni</h4>
+
+<p class="center">COPYRIGHT, 1905,<br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> THE NATIONAL ALUMNI</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>VOLUME IX</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br />
+<i>An Outline Narrative of the Great Events</i>,        <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">charles f. horne</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1517)</i>,    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">julius koestlin</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">jean m. v. audin</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Negro Slavery in America</i><br />
+<i>Its Introduction by Law (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1517)</i>,        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap"> sir arthur helps</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>First Circumnavigation of the Globe (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1519)</i><br />
+<i>Magellan Reaches the Ladrones and Philippines</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">joan bautista</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">antonio pigafetta</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>The Field of the Cloth of Gold (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1520)</i>,        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">j. s. brewer</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Cort&eacute;s Captures the City of Mexico (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1521)</i>,  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">william h. prescott</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Liberation of Sweden (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1523)</i>,        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><span class="smcap"> eric gustave geijer</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>The Peasants' War in Germany (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1524)</i>,          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">j. h. merle d'aubign&eacute;</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>France Loses Italy (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1525)</i><br />
+<i>Battle of Pavia</i>,          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span> <br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">william robertson</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1527)</i>,  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">benvenuto cellini</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">t. adolphus trollope</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Great Religious Movement in England</i><br />
+<i>Fall of Wolsey (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1529)</i>,          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">john richard green</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Pizarro Conquers Peru (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1532)</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">hernando pizarro</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">william h. prescott</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Calvin is Driven from Paris (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1533)</i><br />
+<i>He Makes Geneva the Stronghold of Protestantism</i>,        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">a. m. fairbairn</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">jean m. v. audin</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>England Breaks with the Roman Church (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1534)</i><br />
+<i>Destruction of Monasteries</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">john richard green</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Cartier Explores Canada (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1534)</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">h. h. miles</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Mendoza Settles Buenos Aires (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1535)</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">robert southey</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Founding of the Jesuits (<span class="smcap">a.d. 1540</span>)</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_261'>261</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">isaac taylor</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>De Soto Discovers the Mississippi (<span class="smcap">a.d. 1541</span>)</i>,         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_277'>277</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">john s. c. abbott</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1543)</i>,   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">sir robert stawell ball</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Council of Trent and the Counter-reformation (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1545)</i>        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_293'>293</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">adolphus w. ward</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Protestant Struggle against Charles V</i><br />
+<i>The Smalkaldic War (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1546)</i>,          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span> <br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">edward armstrong</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Introduction of Christianity into Japan (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1549)</i>,   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">john h. gubbins</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Collapse of the Power of Charles V (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1552)</i><br />
+<i>France Seizes German Bishoprics</i>,          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_337'>337</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">lady c. c. jackson</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>The Religious Peace of Augsburg (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1555)</i><br />
+<i>Abdication of Charles V</i>                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_348'>348</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">william robertson</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1556)</i>,   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_366'>366</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">j. talboys wheeler</span></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Universal Chronology (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1517-1557)</i>        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_385'>385</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">john rudd</span></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<h3>VOLUME IX</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br />
+<i>Henry VIII during the festivities at Guines</i>&mdash;"<i>The Field of the Cloth<br />
+of Gold</i>"&mdash;<i>in courtly dance with one of the French Queen's<br />
+ladies-in-waiting</i> (<i>page 63</i>),              <span class="tocnum"><a href="#front">Frontispiece</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Painting by Adolph Menzel.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the Estates</i>,       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></span> <br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Painting by L. Hersent.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>AN OUTLINE NARRATIVE</h2>
+
+<h4>TRACING BRIEFLY THE CAUSES, CONNECTIONS, AND CONSEQUENCES OF</h4>
+
+<h2>THE GREAT EVENTS</h2>
+
+<h4>(THE REFORMATION: REIGN OF CHARLES V)</h4>
+
+<h3>CHARLES F. HORNE</h3>
+
+
+<p>Our modern world begins with the Protestant Reformation. The term itself
+is objected to by Catholics, who claim that there was little real
+reform. But the importance of the event, whether we call it reform or
+revolution, is undenied. Previous to 1517 the nations of Europe had
+formed a single spiritual family under the acknowledged leadership of
+the Pope. The extent of the Holy Father's authority might be disputed,
+especially when he interfered in affairs of state. Kings had fought
+against his troops on the field of battle. But in spiritual matters he
+was still supreme, and when reformers like Huss and Savonarola refused
+him obedience on questions of doctrine, the very men who had been
+fighting papal soldiers were shocked by this heretical wickedness. The
+heretics were burned and the wars resumed. When Alexander Borgia sat
+upon the papal throne for eleven years, there were even philosophers who
+drew from his very wickedness an argument for the divine nature of his
+office. It must be indeed divine, said they, since despite such
+pollution as his, it had survived and retained its influence.</p>
+
+<p>Some modern critics have even gone so far as to assert that for at least
+two generations before the Reformation the great majority of the
+educated classes had ceased to care whether the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> Christian religion were
+true or not. The Renaissance had so awakened their interest in the
+affairs of this world, its artistic beauties and intellectual advance,
+that they gave no thought to the beyond. But we approach controversial
+matters scarce within our scope. Suffice it to say that the Reformation
+brought religion once more into intensest prominence in all men's eyes,
+and that a large portion of the civilized world broke away from the
+domination of the Pope. Men insisted on judging for themselves in
+spiritual matters. Only after three centuries of strife was the
+privilege granted them. Only within the past century has thought been
+made everywhere free&mdash;at least from direct physical coercion. The last
+execution by the Spanish Inquisition was in 1826, and the institution
+was formally abolished in 1835.</p>
+
+<p>The era of open warfare and actual bodily torture between various sects
+all calling themselves Christian, thus extended over three centuries.
+These may be divided into four periods. The first is one of fierce
+dispute but little actual warfare, during which the revolt spread over
+Europe with Germany as its centre. An agreement between the contestants
+was still hoped for; the break was not recognized as final until 1555,
+when, by the Peace of Augsburg, the two German factions definitely
+agreed to separate and to refrain from interference with each other. Or
+perhaps it would be better to end the first period with 1556, when the
+mighty Emperor, Charles V, resigned all his authority, giving Germany to
+his brother, Ferdinand, who maintained peace there, while Spain passed
+to Charles' son, Philip II, most resolute and fanatic of Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>The second period began in 1558, when the Protestant queen, Elizabeth,
+ascended the throne of England. She and Philip of Spain became the
+champions of their respective faiths; the strife extended over Europe,
+and soon developed into bitter war. This spread from land to land, and
+finally returned to Germany as the awful Thirty Years' War.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the third period, during which the religious question was less
+prominent; but Catholic sovereigns like Louis XIV of France and James II
+of England still hoped by persecutions to force their subjects to
+reaccept the ancient faith. These aims were only abandoned with the
+downfall of Louis' military power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> before the armies of Marlborough and
+Eugene, early in the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>During the final hundred years the stubborn contest was confined to the
+lands still Catholic, in which intellect, under such leaders as
+Voltaire, struggled with the superstition and prejudice of the masses,
+and demanded everywhere the freedom it at last attained.</p>
+
+<p>For the present we need look only to the first of these periods, that in
+which Germany holds the centre of the view.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> It is an odd coincidence
+that at the outbreak of the Reformation all the chief states of Europe
+were ruled by sovereigns of unusual ability, but each one of them a man
+who obviously thought more of his ambitions, his pleasures, and his
+political plans than of his religion. Moreover, each of these rulers
+came to the throne before he was of age, and thus lacked the salutary
+training of a subordinate position; while, on the other hand, each of
+them, through varying causes, wielded a power much greater than that of
+any of his recent predecessors.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RULERS OF EUROPE IN 1517</h4>
+
+<p>Henry VIII of England was the first of these young despots to assume
+authority. Nine years older than the century, he became king in 1509 at
+the age of eighteen. His father, Henry VII, had, as we have seen,
+snatched power from an exhausted aristocracy. He had been what men
+sneeringly called a "tradesman" king, caring little for the show and
+splendor of his office, but using it to amass enormous sums of money by
+means not over-scrupulous. Young Henry VIII, handsome, dashing, and
+debonair, at once repudiated his father's policy, executed the ministers
+who had directed it, and was hailed as a liberator by his delighted
+people. They quite overlooked the fact that he neglected to restore the
+ill-gotten funds, and soon used them in establishing a far more vigorous
+tyranny than his father would have dared. Much is forgiven a youthful
+king if he be but brave and jovial and hearty in his manner. His
+blunders, his excesses of fury, are put down to his inexperience.
+Nations are ever yearning for a hero-ruler.</p>
+
+<p>In France a monarch of twenty years, Francis I, ascended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> the throne in
+1515, five years older then than the century. Henry of England had
+descended from a family of simple Welsh gentlemen, far indeed at one
+time from the crown; Francis I was also of a new line of kings, only a
+distant cousin of the childless Louis XII, whom he succeeded. "That
+great boy of Angoul&ecirc;me will ruin all," groaned Louis on his death-bed.
+Ruin the prosperity of France, he meant, for Louis had been a good and
+thoughtful king, cherishing his land and enabling it to rise to the
+height of wealth and power, justified by its natural resources and the
+ingenuity of its people.</p>
+
+<p>Francis, the "great boy," even more than his rival Henry, proved bent on
+being a hero. Like Maximilian of Germany, he sought to be known as the
+flower of knighthood. To win his ambition he also was possessed of youth
+and wealth, a gallant bearing, and a devoted people. He had intellect,
+too, and a love of art. He became the great patron of the later
+Renaissance. The famous artist Da Vinci died at his court, in his arms,
+legend says. Artists, literary men, flocked to his service. Paris became
+the intellectual centre of Europe. France snatched from Italy the
+supremacy of thought, of genius.</p>
+
+<p>Alas for the fickleness of untried youth! Henry seemed to promise his
+country freedom and he gave it tyranny. Francis promised his people
+glory&mdash;that is, honor and splendor. In the end he brought them shame and
+suffering. Charles V of Germany, youngest of this mighty trio, seemed by
+his wisdom to promise his subjects at least protection; and his reign
+produced anarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Charles, unlike his rivals, was almost born into power. His father died
+in the lad's babyhood; his mother went insane. His two grandfathers were
+the two mightiest potentates of Europe, Ferdinand the Wise of Spain, and
+Maximilian, head of the great Hapsburg house and Emperor of Germany.
+Neither had any nearer heir than little Charles. His father's position
+as ruler of the Netherlands was given him as a child, so that he was
+really a Fleming by education, a silent, thoughtful, secretive youth,
+far different from the jovial Henry or the brilliant Francis, but
+ambitious as either and more conscientious perhaps, a dangerous rival in
+the race for fame.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand died in 1515, and Charles became King of Spain,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span> with all that
+the title included of power over the Mediterranean and Southern Italy,
+and all the vast new world of America. Charles was then fifteen, just
+the age of the century, nine years younger than Henry, five years
+younger than Francis. Amid the tumult of the opening Reformation in
+1519, the aged Maximilian also died, departed not unwillingly, one
+fancies, from an age whose intricacies had grown too many for his simple
+soul. The young King of Spain thus became lord of all the vast Hapsburg
+possessions of Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands and so on.</p>
+
+<p>He sought to be elected Emperor of Germany also, but here the matter was
+less easy. Already his rule extended over more of Europe than any
+sovereign had held since Charlemagne, and Europe took alarm. Henry and
+Francis both thrust in, each of them suggesting to the German electorial
+princes that he had claims of his own, and would make an emperor far
+more suitable than Charles. Henry polished up his German ancestry;
+Francis recalled that Germans and Frenchmen were both Franks, had been
+one mighty race under Charlemagne, and surely might become so once
+again&mdash;under his leadership, of course.</p>
+
+<p>The matter was really decided by a fourth party. The Turks had once more
+become a serious menace to Europe. During the brief reign of Sultan
+Selim the Ferocious (1512-1520) they crushed Persia and conquered Syria
+and Egypt. They seized the caliph, spiritual ruler of the Mahometan
+faith, and declared themselves heads of the Mahometan world. Triumphant
+over Asia, they were turning upon Europe with renewed energy. Hungary
+was at its last expiring gasp. Selim's death in 1520 did not stop the
+invaders, for his son Solyman, a youth of twenty-five, soon proved
+himself a fourth giant, fitted to be ranked with the three young rulers
+of the West. He also was a seeker after glory. History calls him the
+"magnificent," and holds him greatest among the Turkish rulers. It was
+certainly under him that the Turks advanced farthest into Europe, if
+that is to be established as the chief measure of Mahometan greatness.
+In 1526 Solyman utterly crushed the Hungarians at Mohacs. In 1529 he
+besieged Vienna; and though he failed to capture the Hapsburg capital,
+yet at a still later period he exacted from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> German Emperor
+Ferdinand a money tribute. His fleets swept the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>This increasing menace of the Turks was much considered by the German
+electors. At first they refused to add to the power of either of the
+three monarchs who so assiduously courted them. They chose instead the
+ablest of their own number, Frederick the Wise, Duke of Saxony. But
+Frederick proved his wisdom by refusing the task of steering Germany
+through the troublous seas ahead. He insisted on their electing some
+ruler strong enough to command obedience, and to gather all Europe
+against the Turks. So as Charles was after all a German, and of the
+Hapsburg race which had so long ruled them, they named him Emperor. He
+was Charles I of Spain, but Charles V of Germany. His rule extended over
+a wider realm than any monarch has since held.</p>
+
+<p>This success of their younger rival was very differently received by
+Henry and by Francis. The English King accepted the rebuff
+good-naturedly; perhaps he had never felt any real hope of success. But
+Francis was enraged. It was the first check he had met in a career of
+spectacular success. He invited Henry to their celebrated meeting at the
+Field of the Cloth of Gold<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> to plan an alliance and revenge. Henry
+came, but the silent Charles had already managed to enlist his interests
+by quieter ways; while Francis, by his ostentation and splendor,
+offended the bluff Englishman. So Henry kept out of the quarrel; but to
+Charles and Francis it became the main business of their lives. Their
+reigns thereafter are the story of one long strife between them, rising
+to such bitterness that at one time they passed the lie and challenged
+each other to personal combat, over which there was much bustling and
+bluster, but no result.</p>
+
+<p>To get a full view of this Europe of young men, that beheld the
+Reformation, we must note one other ruler farther north. Ever since the
+union of Colmar in 1397, Sweden had been more or less bound to Denmark,
+the strongest of the northern kingdoms. By the year 1520 the Danish
+monarch Christian had reduced the Swedes to a state of most cruel
+vassalage and misery. Only one young noble, Gustavus Vasa, a lad of
+twenty-three, still held out, and by adventures wild as those of Robin
+Hood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span> evaded his enemies and at last roused his countrymen to one more
+revolt. It was successful, and in 1523 Gustavus, by the unanimous
+election of the Swedes, became the first of a new line of monarchs.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+He proved as able as a king as he had been daring as an adventurer, and
+his long reign laid the foundation of Sweden's greatness in the
+following century. He early accepted the reformed religion, and thus it
+spread through the Far North almost without a check.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE REFORMATION</h4>
+
+<p>The Reformation began in Germany in 1517, when the Saxon monk
+Luther&mdash;himself then only thirty-four years a sojourner upon our
+planet&mdash;protested against the Church's sale of indulgences. He was not
+alone in his protest, but only stood forth as the mouthpiece of many
+earnest men. His prince, that Frederick the Wise who afterward refused
+to be emperor, upheld him. Maximilian, dying in the early days of the
+dispute, had kind words of regard for the hero-monk. Even the Pope, Leo
+X, treated the matter amicably at first. He also was still in early
+life, having been made pope at thirty-six, an age quite as juvenile for
+the leadership of the spiritual world as that of the various temporal
+monarchs for theirs. Leo, being a member of the famous Medici family,
+was apparently more interested in art than in religion. He wanted to
+rebuild the gorgeous cathedral of St. Peter, and he did not want to
+quarrel with Germany. So also Charles V, desiring to be emperor, could
+scarce antagonize Frederick of Saxony, who could and did secure him his
+ambition.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in its earliest days Luther's revolt was handled very gently, and
+it spread with speed. Then Charles, secure upon his throne and gravely
+Catholic, resolved on firmer methods of stamping out the heresy. He
+summoned Luther to that famous interview at Worms (1521), where the
+reformer, threatened with outlawry and all the terror of the empire's
+power, refused to unsay his preaching, crying out in agony: "Here I
+stand! I can no other! God help me! Amen!"</p>
+
+<p>Charles in his shrewd, silent way saw that the matter was not to be
+settled so easily as he had hoped. Already half Germany<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span>was on
+Luther's side. Several leading nobles accompanied him as he left the
+Emperor's presence. Charles wanted their help against the Turks. So
+there was more temporizing. Then came war with Francis no tune this for
+quarrelling with obstinate Teutonic princes and their obstinate
+<i>protege</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The peasants of Germany did Luther's cause more harm than Charles had
+done. These ignorant and bitterly oppressed unfortunates, constituting
+everywhere, remember, the vast majority of the human race, heard
+impassioned preachings of reform, revolt. To them Rome seemed not the
+oppressor, but their immediate lords; and, thinking they were obeying
+Luther's behest, they rose in arms. Some of the more violent reformers
+joined them. Luther preached against the uprising, but it was not to be
+checked. Terrible were the excesses of the mobs of brutal peasantry, and
+all the upper classes of the land were forced in self-defence to turn
+against them and crush them. Many a noble who had once thought well of
+the reform, abandoned it in fear and horror at its consequences.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the war with France became more serious. The claims of both
+Charles and Francis to Italian lands made that unlucky country the
+theatre of their battles. Francis, with his compact domain and readily
+gathered resources, proved at first more than a match for the scattered
+forces and insecure authority of the Emperor. Never had the French
+monarch's fame stood higher than when in 1525, with an army made
+confident by repeated victories, he besieged Pavia. The city was the
+last important stronghold of Charles in Italy; it was reduced almost to
+surrender.</p>
+
+<p>Then came a fatal blunder. Francis confused the old ways with the new.
+The German generals had been hopeless of raising the siege, the imperial
+armies were on the point of disbanding, but as a last resort their
+leaders advanced and defied the enemy to fight on equal terms. Instead
+of laughing at the proposal as any modern leader would, Francis, in face
+of the protest of all his generals, accepted and in true chivalrous
+fashion fought the wholly unnecessary battle of Pavia. His forces were
+completely defeated, he himself made prisoner. "All is lost," he wrote
+home to France, "but honor." Even that too was lost,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</a></span> had he but
+known. Charles, unchivalrous, determined to make the most of his
+good-luck, and, for the release of his royal prisoner, demanded such
+terms as would make France little more than a subject state.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>King Francis refused, threatened heroic suicide to save his country; but
+he wearied of captivity at last and descended to his rival's level. It
+was the tragic turning-point of the French monarch's life, the not
+wholly untragic turning-point of larger destinies, ancient chivalry
+being admitted unsuccessful and wholly out of date. The two monarchs
+dickered over the terms of release. Charles abated somewhat of his
+demands, and Francis was made free, having sworn to a treaty which he
+never meant to keep. He repudiated it on various pleas, and having thus
+sacrificed honor to regain something of all it had lost him, recommenced
+the strife with Charles on more equal terms.</p>
+
+<p>The Pope, not the Leo of earlier years, but Clement VII, another Medici,
+absolved Francis from his treaty oath. This benevolence can scarce be
+ascribed to religious grounds, for Charles was assuredly a better
+Catholic than Francis. But as a temporal ruler Clement feared to have in
+Italy a neighbor so powerful and unchecked as the Emperor was becoming.
+Charles had his revenge. A German army of "Lutheran heretics" marched
+into Italy swearing to hang the Pope to the dome of St. Peter's. They
+stormed Rome, sacked it with such cruelty as rivalled the barbarian
+plunderings of over a thousand years before; and if they did not hang
+Clement, it was only because his castle of St. Angelo proved too strong
+for their assaults. The marvellous art treasures which had been slowly
+garnered in Rome since the days of Nicholas V, were almost wholly
+destroyed.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Charles hastened to disclaim responsibility for this
+direct assault upon the head of his Church; but he did not relinquish
+any of the advantages it gave. He and the Pope arranged an alliance and
+the Imperial army turned from Rome against Florence, where Pope
+Clement's family, the Medici, had recently been expelled as rulers. The
+siege and capture of Florence (1529) mark almost the last fluttering of
+real independence in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span>Italy. From that time the country remained in the
+grasp of the Hapsburgs or their heirs and allies. Petty tyrants, minions
+of Austria or Spain, ruled over the various cities. Their intellectual
+supremacy passed over to France. Only within the last half-century has a
+brighter day redawned for Italy, has she ceased to be what she was so
+long called, "the battle-ground" of other nations.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile since neither Pope nor Emperor had found time to offer any
+vigorous opposition to the German Reformation, it had grown unchecked.
+In its inception it had unquestionably been a pure and noble movement:
+but as the "protesting" princes moved further in the matter, it dawned
+on them that the suppression of the Roman Church meant the suppression
+of all the bishoprics and abbeys, to which at least half the lands of
+the empire belonged. Such an opportunity for plunder, and such easy
+plunder, had never been before. Luther and the other preachers urged
+that the church property should be used to erect schools and support
+Protestant divines; but only a small fraction of it was ever surrendered
+by the princes for these purposes. The Reformation had ceased to be a
+purely religious movement.</p>
+
+<p>In no country was this new aspect of the revolt so marked as in England.
+There Henry VIII had grown ever more secure in his power by holding
+aloof from the jangling that weakened Charles and Francis. He had sunk
+into a tyrant and a voluptuary. Yet England herself, profiting by almost
+half a century of peace, was progressing rapidly in culture. She was no
+longer behind her neighbors. The Renaissance movement can scarce be said
+to have begun in England before 1500, yet by 1516 her famous chancellor,
+Sir Thomas More, was writing histories and philosophies. In 1522 the
+King himself sighed for literary fame and gave opportunity for many
+future satirists by writing a Latin book against the Lutherans. The Pope
+conferred upon his royal champion a title, "Defender of the Faith."</p>
+
+<p>As Henry, however, devoted himself more and more to pleasure, the real
+power in England passed into the hands of his great minister Cardinal
+Wolsey, who had risen from humble station to be for a time the most
+influential man in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> He even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</a></span> aspired to be pope, with what
+seemed assured chances of success. But destiny willed otherwise. Henry
+chanced to fall in love with a lady who insisted on his marrying her. To
+do this he had to secure from the Pope a divorce from his former Queen,
+who chanced to be an aunt of the Emperor Charles. What was poor Pope
+Clement to do? Offend Charles who was just helping him crush the
+Florentines, or refuse his "Defender of the Faith"? Real reason for the
+divorce there was none. Clement temporized: and Wolsey with one eye on
+his own future, helped him.</p>
+
+<p>The result was tempestuous. Wolsey was hurried to his tragic downfall.
+Henry took matters in his own hands and had his own English bishops
+divorce him. England joined the ranks of the nations denying the
+authority of Rome. Sir Thomas More and other nobles who refused to
+follow Henry's bidding were beheaded. Thomas Cromwell, a new minister,
+abler perhaps than even Wolsey, and risen from a yet lower sphere of
+life, directed England's counsel. By one act after another the break
+with Rome was made complete. A thousand monasteries were suppressed and
+their wealth added to the crown. Cromwell earned his name, "the hammer
+of the monks." In 1534 was passed the final "Act of Supremacy,"
+declaring that the King of England and he alone was head of the English
+Church.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>In France, too, was heresy beginning to appear. The young scholar, Jean
+Calvin, wrote so vigorously against Rome that he was driven to flee from
+Paris, though King Francis was himself suspected of favoring the free
+thought of the reformers. Calvin, after many vicissitudes, settled in
+Geneva and built up there a religious republic, that became intolerant
+on its own account, and burned heretics who departed from its heresy.
+But at least Geneva was in earnest. Calvinism spread fast over France;
+it began crowding Lutheranism from parts of Germany. Geneva became the
+"Protestant Rome," the centre of the opposition from which ministers
+went forth to preach the faith.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Science also began to raise its head against the ancient Church. The
+Polish astronomer Copernicus had long since conceived his idea that the
+earth was not the centre of the universe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</a></span> He even pointed out the
+proofs of his theory to a few brother-scientists; but the Church taught
+otherwise, so Copernicus kept silent till, on his death-bed, he let his
+doctrines be published in a book. Then he passed away, bequeathing to
+posterity the wonderful foundation upon which modern science has so
+built as to make impossible many of the over-literal teachings of the
+medi&aelig;val Church.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+
+<h4>THE COUNTER-REFORMATION</h4>
+
+<p>Nothing but a miracle, it seemed, could save the falling cause of Rome,
+and there have been men to assert that a miracle occurred. The order of
+the Jesuits was founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> His followers
+with intense fanaticism and self-abnegation devoted themselves
+absolutely to upholding the ancient faith, to trampling out heresy
+wherever it appeared. They sent out missionaries too, to the New World,
+to Asia, Africa, and even distant Japan. As Catholicism lost ground in
+Europe it extended over other continents.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>Partly at least under Jesuit influence began the great
+"Counter-reformation," as it is called, the reform within the Church
+itself. Even the most faithful Catholics had admitted the need of this.
+Charles V had long urged the calling of a general council, and one
+finally assembled in 1545 at Trent. It even tried to win the Lutherans
+back peaceably into the fold, and, though this hope was soon abandoned,
+a very marked reform was established within the Church. This Council of
+Trent held sessions extending over nearly twenty years, and when its
+labors were completed the entire body of laws and doctrines of the Roman
+Catholic Church were fully established and defined.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>The refusal of the Protestants to join the Council of Trent brought
+matters to a crisis. It placed them definitely outside the pale of the
+Church, and Charles V could no longer find excuse in his not
+over-troublous conscience, to avoid taking measures against them. They
+themselves realized this, and formed a league for mutual support, the
+Smalkald League; but it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[Pg xxv]</a></span> never very harmonious. Thought, made
+suddenly free, could not be expected to run all in the same channel. The
+Protestants had divided into Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, and a
+dozen minor sects, some of which opposed one another more bitterly than
+they did the Catholics. Toleration was as yet a thing unknown.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>The state of affairs was thus one peculiarly fitted for the genius of
+Charles, who managed so to divide the members of the league that only
+one of them, the Elector of Saxony, successor to Frederick the Wise, met
+the Emperor's forces in battle. He was easily overthrown. The league
+dissolved, and Charles, supported by his Spanish forces, was undisputed
+master of Germany. He used his power mildly, insisting indeed on the
+Protestants returning to the Church, but promising them many of the
+reforms they demanded.</p>
+
+<p>This was the moment of Charles' greatest power (1547). His ancient
+rivals Henry and Francis both died in this year, the one sunk in sensual
+sloth, the other in shame and gloom and savage cruelty. In his hatred of
+Charles, Francis had even in his latter years allied himself with
+Solyman the Magnificent, and encouraged the Turks in their assault on
+Germany. Henry's crown fell to a child, Edward VI; that of Francis, to
+his son, another Henry, the second of France, a young man apparently
+immersed in sports and pleasures. The Turks had been defeated by
+Charles' fleets in the Mediterranean. The Council of Trent, at first
+refractory, seemed yielding to his wishes. Spain, where at one time he
+had faced a violent revolt against his absolutism, was now wholly
+submissive. Germany seemed equally overcome. The Emperor was at the
+summit of his ambitions. Europe lay at his feet.</p>
+
+<p>In 1552, with the suddenness of an earthquake, the Protestant princes of
+Germany burst into a carefully planned revolt.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> Maurice, another
+member of the Saxon house, was their leader. Charles, caught unprepared,
+had to flee from Germany, crossing the Alps in a litter, while he
+groaned with gout. Henry of France, in alliance with the rebels,
+proclaimed himself "Defender of the Liberties of Germany," and invading
+the land,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[Pg xxvi]</a></span> began seizing what cities and strong places he could. The
+princes, amazed at their own complete success, sent Henry word that
+their liberties were now fully secured, and he might desist. But he
+concluded to keep what he had won. So began the series of aggressions by
+which France gradually advanced her frontier to the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>Charles returned with an army the next year, and made peace with his
+Germans, that he might turn all his fury against Henry, who had thus
+assumed his father's unforgotten quarrel. A mighty German army laid
+siege to Henry's most valuable bit of spoils, the strong city of Metz.
+But the young French nobles, under Francis, Duke of Guise, a new, great
+general who had risen to the help of France, threw themselves gallantly
+into the fortress for its defence. Cold, hunger, and pestilence wasted
+the imperial troops until&mdash;one can scarce say they raised the siege,
+they disappeared, those who did not die had slunk away in fear before
+the grisly death. Charles accepted his fate with bitter calm, commenting
+that he saw Fortune was indeed a woman, she deserted an aged emperor for
+a young king.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor's life had failed. He had not the heart to begin his plots
+again. In 1555 he consented to the Peace of Augsburg,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> which granted
+complete liberty of faith to the German princes, and so ended the first
+period of the Reformation. Religion, in this celebrated treaty, was
+still regarded as a matter in which only monarchs were to be considered.
+By a peculiar obliquity of vision, the princes denied to their subjects
+the very thing they demanded for themselves. Each ruler was allowed to
+establish what creed he chose within his own domains, and then to compel
+his subjects to accept it.</p>
+
+<p>The following year (1556) Charles with solemn ceremony resigned all his
+kingdoms&mdash;Austria and the Empire to his brother, Spain to his son the
+celebrated Philip II. Charles himself retired to a Spanish monastery,
+where two years later he died. He had found life a vanity, indeed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE OTHER CONTINENTS</h4>
+
+<p>Of the world of Asia during this time it scarce seems necessary to
+speak. The Tartars or Mongols, driven back from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[Pg xxvii]</a></span> borders of the
+Turkish empire, invaded India and there founded the Mongol or Mogul
+empire which Akbar pushed to its greatest extent.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> These Moguls
+remained emperors of India until its conquest by the English, over two
+centuries later. Even to our own days their title has come down as a
+symbol of power, "the Great Mogul."</p>
+
+<p>Portuguese adventurers continued and expanded the trade with Asia, which
+Vasco da Gama had opened. The Spaniards also sought a share in it, and
+Jesuit missionaries preached the Christian faith. Magellan, a Portuguese
+but sailing in the service of Spain, was the first to fulfil the vision
+of Columbus and find the Indies by sailing westward.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> He crossed the
+entire Atlantic and Pacific oceans, discovered the Philippine Islands,
+and was slain there by the natives. One of his ships completed the first
+circumnavigation of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Look also to Spain's achievements in America, a new continent, but one
+already vastly important because of the broad empires Spaniards were
+winning there, the enormous wealth that was beginning to pour into the
+mother-country. Settlement had begun immediately on the discovery. Rich
+mines were opened and the Indians forced to work in them as slaves. As
+the unhappy aborigines perished by thousands under the unaccustomed
+toil, negroes were brought from Africa to supply their places, were
+driven like wild beasts to the labor.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The New World became more like
+a hell than like the paradise for which Isabella and Columbus planned.
+Cort&eacute;s conquered Mexico,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> rich with gold beyond all that Europe had
+even dreamed. Pizarro found in Peru<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> a civilization whose remarkable
+advance we are only lately beginning to realize. And he annihilated
+it&mdash;for gold. Lima was founded, and Buenos Aires, to be twice destroyed
+by Indians and yet become the metropolis of South America.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Even here
+extended the rivalry of the great European monarchs, Charles and
+Francis. Cartier, in the service of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[Pg xxviii]</a></span> the latter, refused to acknowledge
+the claims of Spain to America, and exploring the St. Lawrence planned
+for France a colonial empire to match that of her enemy.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> De Leon
+discovered Florida, and died while seeking there to emulate the
+successes of Cort&eacute;s. De Soto discovered the Mississippi<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> and he also
+perished, lured on in the same knight-errant search for another golden
+empire to conquer. Who, having read the lives of such adventurers as
+these, shall ridicule the wildest extravagance in all the romances of
+chivalry? Wonderland grew real around these men. They achieved
+impossibilities. The maddest imaginings of the poets, the most fantastic
+tales of knightly wanderings and successes, seem slight beside the
+exploits of these daring, dauntless, heartless cavaliers of Spain.</p>
+
+
+<p>[FOR THE NEXT SECTION OF THIS GENERAL SURVEY SEE VOLUME X]</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See <i>Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany</i>, page 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See <i>The Field of the Cloth of Gold</i>, page 59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See <i>Liberation of Sweden</i>, page 79.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See The Peasants' War in Germany, page 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See <i>France Loses Italy</i>, page 111.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See <i>Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops</i>, page 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See <i>Great Religious Movement in England</i>, page 137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See <i>England Breaks with the Roman Church</i>, page 203.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See <i>Calvin is Driven from Paris</i>, page 176.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See <i>Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus</i>, page 285.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See <i>Founding of the Jesuits</i>, page 261.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See <i>Introduction of Christianity into Japan</i>, page 325.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See <i>Council of Trent</i>, page 293.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See <i>Protestant Struggle against Charles V</i>, page 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See <i>Collapse of the Power of Charles V</i>, page 337.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See <i>The Religious Peace of Augsburg</i>, page 348.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See <i>Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India</i>, page
+366.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See <i>First Circumnavigation of the Globe</i>, page 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See <i>Negro Slavery in America</i>, page 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See <i>Cort&eacute;s Captures the City of Mexico</i>, page 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See <i>Pizarro Conquers Peru</i>, page 156.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See <i>Mendoza Settles Buenos Aires</i>, page 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See <i>Cartier Explores Canada</i>, page 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See <i>De Soto Discovers the Mississippi</i>, page 277.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LUTHER BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1517</h4>
+
+<h3>
+JULIUS KOESTLIN &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It has seldom happened that the story of one man was
+essentially the history of a great movement and of an epoch
+in human progress. In the case of Luther, a large part of
+the world regards his name as a historic epitome. The monk
+whose "words were half-battles," and whom Carlyle chose for
+his hero-priest, was chief among the reformers, and in the
+general view stands for the Reformation itself.</p>
+
+<p>But recognition of Luther's dominating position and
+representative character should not leave us blind to other
+factors in the religious revolution which was also an
+evolution, the achievement not of one man, but of advancing
+generations with many leaders. Luther had great helpers in
+his own time and great successors. He also had great
+predecessors. The Reformation was the religious development
+of the Renaissance; it had been heralded by Wycliffe, Huss,
+and Savonarola, and there were many minor prophets of a
+reformed church before the great German was born.</p>
+
+<p>Luther's Reformation was a revolt against the power and
+abuses of the Roman Catholic Church. It was directed against
+certain doctrines as well as certain practices, and
+especially against evils in the spiritual and temporal
+government of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>All the reformers aimed at freeing themselves from
+oppressive rule at Rome, and endeavored to establish a purer
+faith. The appeal to private judgment as against
+unquestioning belief was a natural result of the revival of
+learning as well as of spiritual quickening.</p>
+
+<p>Before Luther's time, however, such revolts against church
+authority had been quickly suppressed. It is also true that
+many abuses had been done away by reformation within the
+Church itself; and that, indeed, was what Luther at first
+intended. His movement became "too powerful to be put down,
+and its leaders soon passed beyond the point at which they
+were willing to reform the Church from within. Finding that
+the Church would not respond as quickly and as fully to
+their demands as they wished, they left the Church and
+attacked it from without." In Germany the administration of
+the Church had long caused discontent. Through Martin Luther
+this feeling found powerful utterance, and in him the demand
+for reforms became irresistibly urgent.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, the son of a poor miner, was born at Eisleben,
+Saxony, November<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> 10, 1483. He became an Augustinian monk,
+in 1507 was consecrated a priest, and the next year was made
+professor of philosophy in the University of Wittenberg. In
+1511 he visited Rome, and on his return to Wittenberg was
+made doctor of theology. He had already become known through
+the power and independence of his preaching. Although he
+went to Rome "an insane papist," as he said, and while he
+was still intensely devoted to the Church and its leaders,
+he made known his belief in what became the fundamental
+doctrines of Protestantism, exclusive authority of the
+Bible&mdash;implying the right of private judgment&mdash;and
+justification by faith.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate occasion of Luther's first great protest was
+the sale of indulgences by the Dominican monk John Tetzel.
+From early times the church authorities had granted
+indulgences or remissions of penances imposed on persons
+guilty of mortal sins, the condition being true penitence.
+At length the Church began to accept money, not in lieu of
+penitence, but of the customary penances which usually
+accompanied it. Before 1517 Luther had given warnings
+against the abuse of indulgences, without blaming the
+administration of the Church. But when in that year Tetzel
+approached the borders of Saxony selling indulgences in the
+name of the Pope, Leo X, who wanted money for the building
+of St. Peter's Church in Rome, Luther, with many of the
+better minds of Germany, was greatly offended by the
+vender's methods. Against the course of Tetzel Luther took a
+firm stand, and when the reformer posted his theses
+(summarized by Koestlin) on the church door at Wittenberg
+the first great movement of the Reformation in the sixteenth
+century was inaugurated.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the impartial plan of the present work
+regarding the treatment of controverted matters, it is here
+sought to satisfy the historic sense, which includes the
+sense of justice, by giving a presentation of each view of
+the story&mdash;the Protestant by Koestlin, the Catholic by Jean
+M. V. Audin, whose <i>Life of Luther</i> has been called the
+"tribunal" before which the great reformer must be summoned
+for his answer.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>JULIUS KOESTLIN</h4>
+
+<p>Luther longed now to make known to theologians and ecclesiastics
+generally his thoughts about indulgences, his own principles, his own
+opinions and doubts, to excite public discussion on the subject, and to
+awake and maintain the fray. This he did by the ninety-five Latin theses
+or propositions which he posted on the doors of the Castle Church at
+Wittenberg on October 31, 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day and of the
+anniversary of the consecration of the church.</p>
+
+<p>These theses were intended as a challenge for disputation. Such public
+disputations were then very common at the universities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> and among
+theologians, and they were meant to serve as means not only of
+exercising learned thought, but of elucidating the truth. Luther headed
+his theses as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Disputation to Explain the Virtue of Indulgences.</i>&mdash;In charity, and in
+the endeavor to bring the truth to light, a disputation on the following
+propositions will be held at Wittenberg, presided over by the Reverend
+Father Martin Luther. Those who are unable to attend personally may
+discuss the question with us by letter. In the name of our Lord Jesus
+Christ. Amen."</p>
+
+<p>It was in accordance with the general custom of that time that, on the
+occasion of a high festival, particular acts and announcements, and
+likewise disputations at a university, were arranged, and the doors of a
+collegiate church were used for posting such notices.</p>
+
+<p>The contents of these theses show that their author really had such a
+disputation in view. He was resolved to defend with all his might
+certain fundamental truths to which he firmly adhered. Some points he
+considered still within the region of dispute; it was his wish and
+object to make these clear to himself by arguing about them with others.</p>
+
+<p>Recognizing the connection between the system of indulgences and the
+view of penance entertained by the Church, he starts with considering
+the nature of true Christian repentance; but he would have this
+understood in the sense and spirit taught by Christ and the Scriptures.
+He begins with the thesis: "Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when he
+says repent, desires that the whole life of the believer should be one
+of repentance." He means, as the subsequent theses express it, that true
+inward repentance, that sorrow for sin and hatred of one's own sinful
+self, from which must proceed good works and mortification of the sinful
+flesh. The pope could only remit his sin to the penitent so far as to
+declare that God had forgiven it.</p>
+
+<p>Thus then the theses expressly declare that God forgives no man his sin
+without making him submit himself in humility to the priest who
+represents him, and that he recognizes the punishments enjoined by the
+Church in her outward sacrament of penance. But Luther's leading
+principles are consistently opposed to the customary announcements of
+indulgences by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> Church. The pope, he holds, can only grant
+indulgences for what the pope and the law of the Church have imposed;
+nay, the pope himself means absolution from these obligations only, when
+he promises absolution from all punishment. And it is only the living
+against whom those punishments are directed which the Church's
+discipline of penance enjoins; nothing, according to her own laws, can
+be imposed upon those in another world.</p>
+
+<p>Further on Luther declares: "When true repentance is awakened in a man,
+full absolution from punishment and sin comes to him without any letters
+of indulgence." At the same time he says that such a man would willingly
+undergo self-imposed chastisement, nay, he would even seek and love it.</p>
+
+<p>Still, it is not the indulgences themselves, if understood in the right
+sense, that he wishes to be attacked, but the loose babble of those who
+sold them. Blessed, he says, be he who protests against this, but cursed
+be he who speaks against the truth of apostolic indulgences. He finds it
+difficult, however, to praise these to the people, and at the same time
+to teach them the true repentance of the heart. He would have them even
+taught that a Christian would do better by giving money to the poor than
+by spending it in buying indulgences, and that he who allows a poor man
+near him to starve draws down on himself, not indulgences, but the wrath
+of God. In sharp and scornful language he denounces the iniquitous
+trader in indulgences, and gives the Pope credit for the same abhorrence
+for the traffic that he felt himself. Christians must be told, he says,
+that, if the Pope only knew of it, he would rather see St. Peter's
+Church in ashes than have it built with the flesh and bones of his
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p>Agreeably with what the preceding theses had said about the true
+penitent's earnestness and willingness to suffer, and the temptation
+offered to a mere carnal sense of security, Luther concludes as follows:
+"Away therefore with all those prophets who say to Christ's people
+'Peace, peace!' when there is no peace, but welcome to all those who bid
+them seek the Cross of Christ, not the cross which bears the papal arms.
+Christians must be admonished to follow Christ their Master through
+torture, death, and hell, and thus through much tribulation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> rather
+than, by a carnal feeling of false security, hope to enter the kingdom
+of heaven."</p>
+
+<p>The Catholics objected to this doctrine of salvation advanced by Luther
+that, by trusting to God's free mercy, and by undervaluing good works,
+it led to moral indolence. But, on the contrary, it was to the very
+unbending moral earnestness of a Christian conscience, which, indignant
+at the temptations offered to moral frivolity, to a deceitful feeling of
+ease in respect to sin and guilt, and to a contempt of the fruits of
+true morality, rebelled against the false value attached to this
+indulgence money, that these theses, the germ, so to speak, of the
+Reformation, owed their origin and prosecution. With the same
+earnestness he now for the first time publicly attacked the
+ecclesiastical power of the papacy, in so far namely as, in his
+conviction, it invaded the territory reserved to himself by the heavenly
+Lord and Judge. This was what the Pope and his theologians and
+ecclesiastics could least of all endure.</p>
+
+<p>On the same day that these theses were published, Luther sent a copy of
+them with a letter to the archbishop Albert, his "revered and gracious
+lord and shepherd in Christ." After a humble introduction, he begged him
+most earnestly to prevent the scandalizing and iniquitous harangues with
+which his agents hawked about their indulgences, and reminded him that
+he would have to give an account of the souls intrusted to his episcopal
+care.</p>
+
+<p>The next day he addressed himself to the people from the pulpit in a
+sermon he had to preach on the festival of All Saints. After exhorting
+them to seek their salvation in God and Christ alone, and to let the
+consecration by the Church become a real consecration of the heart, he
+went on to tell them plainly, with regard to indulgences, that he could
+only absolve from duties imposed by the Church, and that they dare not
+rely on him for more, nor delay on his account the duties of true
+repentance.</p>
+
+<p>Theologians before Luther, and with far more acuteness and penetration
+than he showed in his theses, had already assailed the whole system of
+indulgences. And, in regard to any idea on Luther's part of the effects
+of his theses extending widely in Germany, it may be noticed that not
+only were they composed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> Latin, but that they dealt largely with
+scholastic expressions and ideas, which a layman would find it difficult
+to understand.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the theses created a sensation which far surpassed Luther's
+expectations. In fourteen days, as he tells us, they ran through the
+whole of Germany, and were immediately translated and circulated in
+German. They found, indeed, the soil already prepared for them, through
+the indignation long since and generally aroused by the shameless doings
+they attacked; though till then nobody, as Luther expresses it, had
+liked to bell the cat, nobody had dared to expose himself to the
+blasphemous clamor of the indulgence-mongers and the monks who were in
+league with them, still less to the threatened charge of heresy. On the
+other hand, the very impunity with which this traffic in indulgences had
+been maintained throughout German Christendom had served to increase
+from day to day the audacity of its promoters.</p>
+
+<p>The task that Luther had now undertaken lay heavy upon his soul. He was
+sincerely anxious, while fighting for the truth, to remain at peace with
+his Church, and to serve her by the struggle. Pope Leo, on the contrary,
+as was consistent with his whole character, treated the matter at first
+very lightly, and, when it threatened to become dangerous, thought only
+how, by means of his papal power, to make the restless German monk
+harmless.</p>
+
+<p>Two expressions of his in these early days of the contest are recorded.
+"Brother Martin," he said, "is a man of a very fine genius, and this
+outbreak the mere squabble of envious monks;" and again, "It is a
+drunken German who has written the theses; he will think differently
+about them when sober." Three months after the theses had appeared, he
+ordered the vicar-general of the Augustinians to "quiet down the man,"
+hoping still to extinguish easily the flame. The next step was to
+institute a tribunal for heretics at Rome for Luther's trial; what its
+judgment would be was patent from the fact that the single theologian of
+learning among the judges was Sylvester Prierias. Before this tribunal
+Luther was cited on August 7th; within sixty days he was to appear there
+at Rome. Friend and foe could well feel certain that they would look in
+vain for his return.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Papal influence, meanwhile, had been brought to bear on the elector
+Frederick<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> to induce him not to take the part of Luther, and the
+chief agent chosen for working on the Elector and the emperor Maximilian
+was the papal legate, Cardinal Thomas Vio of Gaeta, called Cajetan, who
+had made his appearance in Germany. The University of Wittenberg, on the
+other hand, interposed on behalf of their member, whose theology was
+popular there, and whose biblical lectures attracted crowds of
+enthusiastic hearers. He had just been joined at Wittenberg by his
+fellow-professor Philip Melanchthon, then only twenty-one years old, but
+already in the first rank of Greek scholars, and the bond of friendship
+was now formed which lasted through their lives. The university claimed
+that Luther should at least be tried in Germany. Luther expressed the
+same wish through Spalatin<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> to his sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>The Pope meanwhile had passed from his previous state of haughty
+complacency to one of violent haste. Already, on August 23d, thus long
+before the sixty days had expired, he demanded the Elector to deliver up
+this "child of the devil," who boasted of his protection, to the legate,
+to bring away with him. This is clearly shown by two private briefs from
+the Pope, of August 23d and 25th, the one addressed to the legate, the
+other to the head of all the Augustinian convents in Saxony, as
+distinguished from the vicar of those congregations, Staupitz, who
+already was looked on with suspicion at Rome. These briefs instructed
+both men to hasten the arrest of the heretic; his adherents were to be
+secured with him, and every place where he was tolerated laid under the
+interdict.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1518 a diet was held at Augsburg at which the papal
+legate attended. The Pope was anxious to obtain its consent to the
+imposition of a heavy tax throughout the empire, to be applied
+ostensibly for the war against the Turks, but alleged to be wanted in
+reality for entirely other objects. The demand for a tax, however, was
+received with the utmost disfavor both by the diet and the empire; and a
+long-cherished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> bitterness of feeling now found expression. An anonymous
+pamphlet was circulated, from the pen of one Fischer, a prebendary of
+Wuerzburg, which bluntly declared that the avaricious lords of Rome only
+wished to cheat the "drunken Germans," and that the real Turks were to
+be looked for in Italy. This pamphlet reached Wittenberg and fell into
+the hands of Luther, whom now for the first time we hear denouncing
+"Roman cunning," though he only charged the Pope himself with allowing
+his grasping Florentine relations to deceive him.</p>
+
+<p>The diet seized the opportunity offered by this demand for a tax, to
+bring up a whole list of old grievances; the large sums drawn from
+German benefices by the Pope under the name of annates, or extorted
+under other pretexts; the illegal usurpation of ecclesiastical patronage
+in Germany; the constant infringement of concordats, and so on. The
+demand itself was refused; and in addition to this, an address was
+presented to the diet from the bishop and clergy of Li&egrave;ge, inveighing
+against the lying, thieving, avaricious conduct of the Romish minions,
+in such sharp and violent tones that Luther, on reading it afterward
+when printed, thought it only a hoax, and not really an episcopal
+remonstrance.</p>
+
+<p>This was reason enough why Cajetan, to avoid increasing the excitement,
+should not attempt to lay hands on the Wittenberg opponent of
+indulgences. The elector Frederick, from whose hands Cajetan would have
+to demand Luther, was one of the most powerful and personally respected
+princes of the empire, and his influence was especially important in
+view of the election of a new emperor. This Prince went now in person to
+Cajetan on Luther's behalf, and Cajetan promised him, at the very time
+that the brief was on its way to him from Rome, that he would hear
+Luther at Augsburg, treat him with fatherly kindness, and let him depart
+in safety.</p>
+
+<p>Luther accordingly was sent to Augsburg. It was an anxious time for
+himself and his friends when he had to leave for that distant place,
+where the Elector, with all his care, could not employ any physical
+means for his protection, and to stand accused as a heretic before that
+papal legate who, from his own theological principles, was bound to
+condemn him. "My thoughts on the way," said Luther afterward, "were now
+I must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> die; and I often lamented the disgrace I should be to my dear
+parents."</p>
+
+<p>He went thither in humble garb and manner. He made his way on foot till
+within a short distance of Augsburg, when illness and weakness overcame
+him, and he was forced to proceed by carriage. Another younger monk of
+Wittenberg accompanied him, his pupil Leonard Baier. At Nuremberg he was
+joined by his friend Link, who held an appointment there as preacher.
+From him he borrowed a monk's frock, his own being too bad for Augsburg.
+He arrived here on October 7th.</p>
+
+<p>The surroundings he now entered, and the proceedings impending over him,
+were wholly novel and unaccustomed. But he met with men who received him
+with kindness and consideration; several of them were gentlemen of
+Augsburg favorable to him, especially the respected patrician, Dr.
+Conrad Peutinger, and two counsellors of the Elector. They advised him
+to behave with prudence, and to observe carefully all the necessary
+forms to which as yet he was a stranger.</p>
+
+<p>Luther at once announced his arrival to Cajetan, who was anxious to
+receive him without delay. His friends, however, kept him back until
+they had obtained a written safe-conduct from the Emperor, who was then
+hunting in the environs. In the mean time a distinguished friend of
+Cajetan, one Urbanus of Serralonga, tried to persuade him, in a flippant
+and, as Luther thought, a downright Italian manner, to come forward and
+simply pronounce six letters&mdash;"<i>Revoco</i>" ("I retract"). Urbanus asked
+him with a smile if he thought his sovereign would risk his country for
+his sake. "God forbid!" answered Luther. "Where then do you mean to take
+refuge?" he went on to ask him. "Under heaven," was Luther's reply.</p>
+
+<p>On October 11th Luther received the letter of safe-conduct, and the next
+day he appeared before Cajetan. Humbly, as he had been advised, he
+prostrated himself before the representative of the Pope, who received
+him graciously and bade him rise.</p>
+
+<p>The Cardinal addressed him civilly and with a courtesy Luther was not
+accustomed to meet with from his opponents; but he immediately demanded
+him, in the name and by command<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> of the Pope, to retract his errors, and
+promise in future to abstain from them and from everything that might
+disturb the peace of the Church. He pointed out, in particular, two
+errors in his theses; namely, that the Church's treasure of indulgences
+did not consist of the merits of Christ, and that faith on the part of
+the recipient was necessary for the efficacy of the sacrament. With
+respect to the second point, the religious principles upon which Luther
+based his doctrine were altogether strange and unintelligible to the
+scholastic standpoint of Cajetan; mere tittering and laughter followed
+Luther's observations, and he was required to retract this thesis
+unconditionally. The first point settled the question of papal
+authority. The Cardinal-legate could not believe that Luther would
+venture to resist a papal bull, and thought he had probably not read it.
+He read him a vigorous lecture of his own on the paramount authority of
+the pope over council, Church, and Scripture. As to any argument,
+however, about the theses to be retracted, Cajetan refused from the
+first to engage in it, and undoubtedly he went further in that direction
+than he originally desired or intended. His sole wish was, as he said,
+to give fatherly correction, and with fatherly friendliness to arrange
+the matter. But in reality, says Luther, it was a blunt, naked,
+unyielding display of power. Luther could only beg from him further time
+for consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Luther's friends at Augsburg, and Staupitz, who had just arrived there,
+now attempted to divert the course of these proceedings, to collect
+other decisions of importance bearing on the subject, and to give him
+the opportunity of a public vindication. Accompanied therefore by
+several jurists friendly to his cause, and by a notary and Staupitz, he
+laid before the legate next day a short and formal statement of defence.
+He could not retract unless convicted of error, and to all that he had
+said he must hold as being Catholic truth. Nevertheless he was only
+human, and therefore fallible, and he was willing to submit to a
+legitimate decision of the Church. He offered, at the same time,
+publicly to justify his theses, and he was ready to hear the judgment of
+the learned doctors of Basel, Freiburg, Louvain, and even Paris upon
+them. Cajetan with a smile dismissed Luther and his proposals, but
+consented to receive a more detailed reply in writing to the principal
+points discussed the previous day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the morrow, October 14th, Luther brought his reply to the legate. But
+in this document also he insisted clearly and resolutely from the
+commencement on those very principles which his opponents regarded as
+destructive of all ecclesiastical authority and of the foundations of
+Christian belief. Still he entreated Cajetan to intercede with Leo X,
+that the latter might not harshly thrust out into darkness his soul,
+which was seeking for the light. But he repeated that he could do
+nothing against his conscience: one must obey God rather than man, and
+he had the fullest confidence that he had Scripture on his side.
+Cajetan, to whom he delivered this reply in person, once more tried to
+persuade him. They fell into a lively and vehement argument; but Cajetan
+cut it short with the exclamation, "Revoke." In the event of Luther not
+revoking or submitting to judgment at Rome, he threatened him and all
+his friends with excommunication, and whatever place he might go to with
+an interdict; he had a mandate from the Pope to that effect already in
+his hands. He then dismissed him with the words, "Revoke, or do not come
+again into my presence." Nevertheless he spoke in quite a friendly
+manner after this to Staupitz, urging him to try his best to convert
+Luther, whom he wished well. Luther, however, wrote the same day to his
+friend Spalatin, who was with the Elector, and to his friends at
+Wittenberg, telling them he had refused to yield. Luther added further
+that an appeal would be drawn up for him in the form best fitted to the
+occasion. He further hinted to his Wittenberg friends at the possibility
+of his having to go elsewhere in exile; indeed, his friends already
+thought of taking him to Paris, where the university still rejected the
+doctrine of papal absolutism. He concluded this letter by saying that he
+refused to become a heretic by denying that which had made him a
+Christian; sooner than do that, he would be burned, exiled, or cursed.
+The appeal, of which Luther here spoke, was "from the Pope ill-informed
+to the same when better informed." On October 16th he submitted it,
+formally prepared, to a public notary.</p>
+
+<p>Luther even addressed, on October 17th, a letter to Cajetan, conceding
+to him the utmost he thought possible. Moved, as he said, by the
+persuasions of his dear father Staupitz and his brother Link, he offered
+to let the whole question of indulgences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> rest, if only that which drove
+him to this tragedy were put a stop to; he confessed also to having been
+too violent and disrespectful in dispute. In after-years he said to his
+friends, when referring to this concession, that God had never allowed
+him to sink deeper than when he had yielded so much. The next day,
+however, he gave notice of his appeal to the legate, and told him he did
+not wish longer to waste his time in Augsburg. To this letter he
+received no answer.</p>
+
+<p>Luther waited, however, till the 20th. He and his Augsburg patrons began
+to suspect whether measures had not already been taken to detain him.
+They therefore had a small gate in the city wall opened in the night,
+and sent with him an escort well acquainted with the road. Thus he
+hastened away, as he himself described it, on a hard-trotting hack, in a
+simple monk's frock, with only knee-breeches, without boots or spurs,
+and unarmed. On the first day he rode eight miles, as far as the little
+town of Monheim. As he entered in the evening an inn and dismounted in
+the stable, he was unable to stand from fatigue and fell down instantly
+among the straw. He travelled thus on horseback to Wittenberg, where he
+arrived, well and joyful, on the anniversary of his ninety-five theses.
+He had heard on the way of the Pope's brief to Cajetan, but he refused
+to think it could be genuine. His appeal, meanwhile, was delivered to
+the Cardinal at Augsburg, who had it posted by his notary on the doors
+of the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Without waiting for an answer direct from Rome, Luther now abandoned all
+thoughts of success with Leo X. On November 28th he formally and
+solemnly appealed from the Pope to a general Christian council. By so
+doing he anticipated the sentence of excommunication which he was daily
+expecting. With Rome he had broken forever, unless she were to surrender
+her claims and acquisitions of more than a thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>After once the first restraints of awe were removed with which Luther
+had regarded the papacy, behind and beyond the matter of the
+indulgences, and he had learned to know the papal representative at
+Augsburg, and made a stand against his demands and menaces, and escaped
+from his dangerous clutches, he enjoyed for the first time the fearless
+consciousness of freedom. He took a wider survey around him, and saw
+plainly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> the deep corruption and ungodliness of the powers arrayed
+against him. His mind was impelled forward with more energy as his
+spirit for the fight was stirred within him. Even the prospect that he
+might have to fly, and the uncertainty whither his flight could be, did
+not daunt or deter him.</p>
+
+<p>He was really prepared for exile or flight at any moment. At Wittenberg
+his friends were alarmed by rumors of designs on the part of the Pope
+against his life and liberty, and insisted on his being placed in
+safety. Flight to France was continually talked of; had he not followed
+in his appeal a precedent set by the University of Paris? We certainly
+cannot see how he could safely have been conveyed thither, or where,
+indeed, any other and safer place could have been found for him. Some
+urged that the Elector himself should take him into custody and keep him
+in a place of safety, and then write to the legate that he held him
+securely in confinement and was in future responsible for him. Luther
+proposed this to Spalatin, and added: "I leave the decision of this
+matter to your discretion; I am in the hands of God and of my friends."
+The Elector himself, anxious also in this respect, arranged early in
+December a confidential interview between Luther and Spalatin at the
+castle of Lichtenberg. He also, as Luther reported to Staupitz, wished
+that Luther had some other place to be in, but he advised him against
+going away so hastily to France. His own wish and counsel, however, he
+refrained as yet from making known. Luther declared that at all events,
+if a ban of excommunication were to come from Rome, he would not remain
+longer at Wittenberg. On this point also the Prince kept secret his
+resolve.</p>
+
+<p>At Rome the bull of excommunication was published as early as June 16th.
+It had been considered very carefully in the papal consistory. The
+jurists there were of opinion that Luther should be cited once more, but
+their views did not prevail. The bull begins with the words, "Arise, O
+Lord, and avenge thy cause." It proceeds to invoke St. Peter, St. Paul,
+the whole body of the saints, and the Church. A wild boar had broken
+into the vineyard of the Lord, a wild beast was there seeking to devour,
+etc. Of the heresy against which it was directed, the Pope, as he
+states, had additional reason to complain, since the Germans, among whom
+it had broken out, had always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> been regarded by him with such tender
+affection: he gives them to understand that they owed the empire to the
+Roman Church. Forty-one propositions from Luther's writings are then
+rejected and condemned as heretical, or at least scandalous and
+corrupting, and his works collectively are sentenced to be burned. As to
+Luther himself, the Pope calls God to witness that he has neglected no
+means of fatherly love to bring him into the right way. Even now he is
+ready to follow toward him the example of divine mercy which wills not
+the death of a sinner, but that he should be converted and live; and so
+once more he calls upon him to repent, in which case he will receive him
+graciously like the prodigal son. Sixty days are given him to recant.
+But if he and his adherents will not repent, they are to be regarded as
+obstinate heretics and withered branches of the vine of Christ, and must
+be punished according to law. No doubt the punishment of burning was
+meant; the bull in fact expressly condemns the proposition of Luther
+which denounces the burning of heretics. All this was called then at
+Rome, and has been called even latterly by the papal party, "the tone
+rather of fatherly sorrow than of penal severity."</p>
+
+<p>The emperor Charles V, before leaving the Netherlands on his journey to
+Aix-la-Chapelle to be crowned (1520),<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> had already been induced to
+take his first step against Luther. He had consented to the execution of
+the sentence in the bull condemning Luther's works to be burned, and had
+issued orders to that effect throughout the Netherlands. They were
+burned in public at Louvain, Cologne, and Mainz. At Cologne this was
+done while he was staying there. It was in this town that the two
+legates approached the elector Frederick with the demand to have the
+same done in his territory, and to execute due punishment on the heretic
+himself, or at least to keep him close prisoner or to deliver him over
+to the Pope. Frederick, however, refused, saying that Luther must first
+be heard by impartial judges. Erasmus also, who was then staying at
+Cologne, expressed himself to the same effect, in an opinion obtained
+from him by Frederick through Spalatin. At an interview with the
+Elector<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> he said to him: "Luther has committed two great faults: he has
+touched the Pope on his crown and the monks on their bellies." The
+burning of Luther's books at Mainz was effected without hinderance, and
+the legates in triumph proceeded to carry out their mission elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, however, lost no time in following up their execution of the
+bull with his reply. On December 10th he posted a public announcement
+that the next morning, at nine o'clock, the anti-Christian decretals,
+that is, the papal law-books, would be burned, and he invited all the
+Wittenberg students to attend. He chose for this purpose a spot in front
+of the Elster gate, to the east of the town, near the Augustinian
+convent. A multitude poured forth to the scene. With Luther appeared a
+number of other doctors and masters, and among them Melanchthon and
+Carlstadt. After one of the masters of art had built up a pile, Luther
+laid the decretals upon it, and the former applied the fire. Luther then
+threw the papal bull into the flames, with the words, "Because thou hast
+vexed the Holy One of the Lord,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> let the everlasting fire consume
+thee." While Luther with the other teachers returned to the town, some
+hundreds of students remained upon the scene and sang a <i>Te Deum</i>, and a
+Dirge for the decretals. After the ten o'clock meal, some of the young
+students, grotesquely attired, drove through the town in a large
+carriage, with a banner, emblazoned with a bull, four yards in length,
+amid the blowing of brass trumpets and other absurdities. They collected
+from all quarters a mass of scholastic and papal writings, and hastened
+with them and the bull to the pile, which their companions had meanwhile
+kept alight. Another <i>Te Deum</i> was then sung, with a requiem, and the
+hymn, "<i>O du armer Judas</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Luther at his lecture the next day told his hearers with great
+earnestness and emotion what he had done. The papal chair, he said,
+would yet have to be burned. Unless with all their hearts they abjured
+the kingdom of the pope, they could not obtain salvation.</p>
+
+<p>By this bold act, Luther consummated his final rupture with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the papal
+system, which for centuries had dominated the Christian world and had
+identified itself with Christianity. The news of it must also have made
+the fire which his words had kindled throughout Germany blaze out in all
+its violence. He saw now, as he wrote to Staupitz, a storm raging, such
+as only the last day could allay, so fiercely were passions aroused on
+both sides. Germany was then, in fact, in a state of excitement and
+tension more critical than at any other period of her history.</p>
+
+<p>The announcement of the retractation required from Luther by the bull
+was to have been sent to Rome within one hundred twenty days. Luther had
+given his answer. The Pope declared that the time of grace had expired;
+and on January 3d Leo X finally pronounced the ban against Luther and
+his followers, and an interdict on the places where they were harbored.</p>
+
+<p>Never did the most momentous issue in the fortunes of the German nation
+and church rest so entirely with one man as they did now with the
+Emperor. Everything depended on this whether he, as head of the empire,
+should take the great work in hand, or should fling his authority and
+might into the opposite scale. Charles had been welcomed in Germany as
+one whose youthful heart seemed likely to respond to the newly awakened
+life and aspirations, as the son of an old German princely family, who
+by his election as emperor had won a triumph over the foreign king
+Francis, supported though the latter was by the Pope. Rumor now alleged
+that he was in the hands of the Mendicant friars; the Franciscan Glapio
+was his confessor and influential adviser, the very man who had
+instigated the burning of Luther's works.</p>
+
+<p>He was, however, by no means so dependent on those about him as might
+have been supposed. His counsellors, in the general interests of his
+government, pursued an independent line of policy, and Charles himself,
+even in these his youthful days, knew to assert his independence as a
+monarch and display his cleverness as a statesman. He saw the prudence
+of cultivating friendship and contracting if possible an alliance with
+the Pope. The pressure desirable for this purpose could now be supplied
+by means of the very danger with which the papacy was threatened by the
+great German heresy, and against which Rome so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> sorely needed the aid of
+a temporal power. At the same time, Charles was far too astute to allow
+his regard for the Pope, and his desire for the unity of the Church, to
+entangle his policy in measures for which his own power was inadequate,
+or by which his authority might be shaken and possibly destroyed.
+Strengthened as was his monarchical power in Spain, in Germany he found
+it hemmed in and fettered by the estates of the empire and the whole
+contexture of political relations.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the main points of view which determined for Charles V his
+conduct toward Luther and his cause. Luther thus was at least a passive
+sharer in the game of high policy, ecclesiastical and temporal, now
+being played, and had to pursue his own course accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial court was quickly enough acquainted with the state of
+feeling in Germany. The Emperor showed himself prudent at this juncture,
+and accessible to opinions differing from his own, however small cause
+his proclamations gave to the friends of Luther to hope for any positive
+act of favor on his part.</p>
+
+<p>While Charles was on his way up the Rhine to hold, at the beginning of
+the new year, a diet at Worms, the elector Frederick approached him with
+the request that Luther should at least be heard before the Emperor took
+any proceedings against him. The Emperor informed him in reply that he
+might bring Luther for this purpose to Worms, promising that the monk
+should not be molested.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor, on March 6th, issued a citation to Luther, summoning him to
+Worms to give "information concerning his doctrines and books." An
+imperial herald was sent to conduct him. In the event of his disobeying
+the citation, or refusing to retract, the estates declared their consent
+to treat him as an open heretic. Luther, therefore, had to renounce at
+once all hope of having the truth touching his articles of faith tested
+fairly at Worms by the standard of God's word in Scripture. Spalatin
+indicated to him the points on which he would in any case be expected to
+make a public recantation.</p>
+
+<p>Luther formed his resolve at once on the two points required of him. He
+determined to obey the summons to the diet, and, if there unconvicted of
+error, to refuse the recantation demanded.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> The Emperor's citation was
+delivered to him on March 26th by the imperial herald, Kaspar Sturm, who
+was to accompany him to Worms. Within twenty-one days after its receipt,
+Luther was to appear before the Emperor; he was due therefore at Worms
+on April 16th at the latest.</p>
+
+<p>On April 2d, the Tuesday after Easter, he set out on his way to Worms.
+His friend Amsdorf and the Pomeranian nobleman Peter Swaven, who was
+then studying at Wittenberg, accompanied him. He took with him also,
+according to the rules of the order, a brother of the order, John
+Pezensteiner. The Wittenberg magistracy provided carriages and horses.</p>
+
+<p>The way led past Leipzig, through Thuringia from Naumburg to Eisenach,
+southward past Berka, Hersfeld, Gruenberg, Friedberg, Frankfort, and
+Oppenheim. The herald rode on before in his coat-of-arms, and announced
+the man whose word had everywhere so mightily stirred the minds of
+people, and for whose future behavior and fate friend and foe were alike
+anxious. Everywhere people collected to catch a glimpse of him. On April
+6th he was very solemnly received at Erfurt. The large majority of the
+university there were by this time full of enthusiasm for his cause.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile at Worms disquietude and suspense prevailed on both sides.
+Hutten<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> from the castle of Ebernburg sent threatening and angry
+letters to the papal legates, who became really anxious lest a blow
+might be struck from that quarter. Some anxious friends of Luther's were
+afraid that, according to papal law, the safe-conduct would not be
+observed in the case of a condemned heretic. Spalatin himself sent from
+Worms a second warning to Luther after he had left Frankfort, intimating
+that he would suffer the fate of Huss.</p>
+
+<p>But Luther continued on his way. To Spalatin he replied, though Huss
+were burned, yet the truth was not burned; he would go to Worms though
+there were as many devils there as there were tiles on the roofs of the
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>On April 16th, at ten o'clock in the morning, Luther entered Worms. He
+sat in an open carriage with his three companions from Wittenberg,
+clothed in his monk's habit. He was accompanied by a large number of men
+on horseback, some of whom,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> like Jonas, had joined him earlier in his
+journey; others, like some gentlemen belonging to the Elector's court,
+had ridden out from Worms to receive him. The imperial herald rode on
+before. The watchman blew a horn from the tower of the cathedral on
+seeing the procession approach the gate. Thousands streamed hither to
+see Luther. The gentlemen of the court escorted him into the house of
+the Knights of St. John, where he lodged with two counsellors of the
+Elector. As he stepped from his carriage he said, "God will be with me."
+Aleander, writing to Rome, said that he looked around with the eyes of a
+demon. Crowds of distinguished men, ecclesiastics and laymen, who were
+anxious to know him personally, flocked daily to see him.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of the following day he had to appear before the diet,
+which was assembled in the Bishop's palace, the residence of the
+Emperor, not far from where Luther was lodging. He was conducted thither
+by side streets, it being impossible to get through the crowds assembled
+in the main thoroughfare to see him. On his way into the hall where the
+diet was assembled, tradition tells us how the famous warrior, George
+von Frundsberg, clapped him on the shoulder and said: "My poor monk! my
+poor monk! thou art on thy way to make such a stand as I and many of my
+knights have never done in our toughest battles. If thou art sure of the
+justice of thy cause, then forward in the name of God, and be of good
+courage&mdash;God will not forsake thee." The Elector had given Luther as his
+advocate the lawyer Jerome Schurf, his Wittenberg colleague and friend.</p>
+
+<p>When at length, after waiting two hours, Luther was admitted to the
+diet, Eck, the official of the Archbishop of Treves, put to him simply,
+in the name of the Emperor, two questions, whether he acknowledged the
+books&mdash;pointing to them on a bench beside him&mdash;to be his own, and next,
+whether he would retract their contents or persist in them. Schurf here
+exclaimed, "Let the titles of the books be named." Eck then read them
+out. Among them there were some merely edifying writings, such as <i>A
+Commentary on the Lord's Prayer</i>, which had never been made the subject
+of complaint.</p>
+
+<p>Luther was not prepared for this proceeding, and possibly the first
+sight of the august assembly made him nervous. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> answered in a low
+voice, and as if frightened, that the books were his, but that since the
+question as to their contents concerned the highest of all things, the
+Word of God and the salvation of souls, he must beware of giving a rash
+answer, and must therefore humbly entreat further time for
+consideration. After a short deliberation the Emperor instructed Eck to
+reply that he would, out of his clemency, grant him a respite till the
+next day.</p>
+
+<p>So Luther had again, on April 18th, a Thursday, to appear before the
+diet. Again he had to wait two hours till six o'clock. He stood there in
+the hall among the dense crowd, talking unconstrained and cheerfully
+with the ambassador of the diet, Peutinger, his patron at Augsburg.
+After he was called in, Eck began by reproaching him for having wanted
+time for consideration. He then put the second question to him in a form
+more befitting and more conformable with the wishes of the members of
+the diet: "Wilt thou defend <i>all</i> the books acknowledged by thee to be
+thine, or recant some part?" Luther now answered with firmness and
+modesty, in a well-considered speech. He divided his works into three
+classes. In some of them he had set forth simple evangelical truths,
+professed alike by friend and foe. Those he could on no account retract.
+In others he had attacked corrupt laws and doctrines of the papacy,
+which no one could deny had miserably vexed and martyred the consciences
+of Christians, and had tyrannically devoured the property of the German
+nation: if he were to retract these books, he would make himself a cloak
+for wickedness and tyranny.</p>
+
+<p>In the third class of his books he had written against individuals who
+endeavored to shield that tyranny and to subvert godly doctrine. Against
+these he freely confessed that he had been more violent than was
+befitting. Yet even these writings it was impossible for him to retract
+without lending a hand to tyranny and godlessness. But in defence of his
+books he could only say in the words of the Lord Jesus Christ: "If I
+have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil; but if well, why smitest
+thou me?" If anyone could do so, let him produce his evidence and
+confute him from the sacred writings, the Old Testament and the Gospel,
+and he would be the first to throw his books into the fire. And now, as
+in the course of his speech he had sounded a new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> challenge to the
+papacy, so he concluded by an earnest warning to Emperor and empire,
+lest, by endeavoring to promote peace by a condemnation of the divine
+Word, they might rather bring a dreadful deluge of evils, and thus give
+an unhappy and inauspicious beginning to the reign of the noble young
+Emperor. He said not these things as if the great personages who heard
+him stood in any need of his admonitions, but because it was a duty that
+he owed to his native Germany, and he could not neglect to discharge it.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, like Eck, spoke in Latin, and then, by desire, repeated his
+speech with equal firmness in German. Schurf, who was standing by his
+side, declared afterward with pride, "how Martin had made this answer
+with such bravery and modest candor, with eyes upraised to heaven, that
+he and everyone were astonished."</p>
+
+<p>The princes held a short consultation after this harangue. Then Eck,
+commissioned by the Emperor, sharply reproved him for having spoken
+impertinently and not really answered the question put to him. He
+rejected his demand that evidence from Scripture might be brought
+against him by declaring that his heresies had already been condemned by
+the Church, and in particular by the Council of Constance, and such
+judgments must suffice if anything were to be held settled in
+Christianity. He promised him, however, if he would retract the
+offensive articles, that his other writings should be fairly dealt with,
+and finally demanded a plain answer "without horns" to the question
+whether he intended to adhere to all he had written or would retract any
+part of it?</p>
+
+<p>To this Luther replied he would give an answer "with neither horns nor
+teeth." Unless he were refuted by proofs from Scripture, or by evident
+reason, his conscience bound him to adhere to the Word of God which he
+had quoted in his defence. Popes and councils, as was clear, had often
+erred and contradicted themselves. He could not, therefore, and he would
+not, retreat anything, for it was neither safe nor honest to act against
+one's conscience.</p>
+
+<p>Eck exchanged only a few more words with him in reply to his assertion
+that councils had erred. "You cannot prove that," said Eck. "I will
+pledge myself to do it," was Luther's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> answer. Pressed and threatened by
+his enemy, he concluded with the famous words: "Here I stand, I can do
+no otherwise. God help me. Amen."</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor reluctantly broke up the diet at about eight o'clock in the
+evening. Darkness had meanwhile come on; the hall was lighted with
+torches, and the audience were in a state of general excitement and
+agitation. Luther was led out; whereupon an uproar arose among the
+Germans, who thought that he had been taken prisoner. As he stood among
+the heated crowd, Duke Erich of Brunswick sent him a silver tankard of
+Eimbeck beer, after having first drunk of it himself.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching his lodging, "Luther," to use the words of a Nuremberger
+present there, "stretched out his hands, and with a joyful countenance
+exclaimed, 'I am through! I am through!'" Spalatin says: "He entered the
+lodging so courageous, comforted, and joyful in the Lord that he said
+before others and myself, 'if he had a thousand heads, he would rather
+have them all cut off than make one recantation.'" He relates also how
+the elector Frederick, before his supper, sent for him from Luther's
+dwelling, took him into his room and expressed to him his astonishment
+and delight at Luther's speech. "How excellently did Father Martin speak
+both in Latin and German before the Emperor and the orders! He was bold
+enough, if not too much so." The Emperor, on the contrary, had been so
+little impressed by Luther's personality, and had understood so little
+of it, that he fancied the writings ascribed to him must have been
+written by someone else. Many of his Spaniards had pursued Luther, as he
+left the diet, with hisses and shouts of scorn.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, by refusing thus point-blank to retract, effectually destroyed
+whatever hopes of mediation or reconciliation had been entertained by
+the milder and more moderate adherents of the Church who still wished
+for reform. Nor was any union possible with those who, while looking to
+a truly representative council as the best safeguard against the tyranny
+of a pope, were anxious also to obtain at such a council a secure and
+final settlement of all questions of Christian faith and morals. It was
+these very councils about which Eck purposely called on Luther for a
+declaration; and Luther's words on this point might well have been
+considered by the Elector as "too bold."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Luther remained faithful to himself. True it was that he had often
+formerly spoken of yielding in mere externals, and of the duty of living
+in love and harmony, and respecting the weaknesses of others; and his
+conduct during the elaboration of his own church system will show us how
+well he knew to accommodate himself to the time, and, where perfection
+was impossible, to be content with what was imperfect. But the question
+here was not about externals, or whether a given proceeding were
+judicious or not for the attainment of an object admittedly good. It was
+a question of confessing or denying the truth&mdash;the highest and holiest
+truths, as he expressed it&mdash;relating to God and the salvation of man. In
+this matter his conscience was bound.</p>
+
+<p>And the trial thus offered for his endurance was not yet over. On the
+morning of the 19th the Emperor sent word to the estates that he would
+now send Luther back in safety to Wittenberg, but treat him as a
+heretic. The majority insisted on attempting further negotiations with
+him through a committee specially appointed. These were conducted
+accordingly by the Elector of Treves. The friendliness and the visible
+interest in his cause with which Luther now was urged were more
+calculated to move him than Eck's behavior at the diet. He himself bore
+witness afterward how the Archbishop had shown himself more than
+gracious to him and would willingly have arranged matters peaceably.
+Instead of being urged simply to retract all his propositions condemned
+by the Pope, or his writings directed against the papacy, he was
+referred in particular to those articles in which he rejected the
+decisions of the Council of Constance. He was desired to submit in
+confidence to a verdict of the Emperor and the empire when his books
+should be submitted to judges beyond suspicion. After that he should at
+least accept the decision of a future council, unfettered by any
+acknowledgment of the previous sentence of the Pope.</p>
+
+<p>So freely and independently of the Pope did this committee of the German
+Diet, including several bishops and Duke George of Saxony, proceed in
+negotiating with a papal heretic. But everything was shipwrecked on
+Luther's firm reservation that the decision must not be contrary to the
+Word of God; and on that question his conscience would not allow him to
+renounce the right of judging for himself. After two days'
+negotiations,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> he thus, on April 25th, according to Spalatin, declared
+himself to the Archbishop: "Most gracious Lord, I cannot yield; it must
+happen with me as God wills," and continued: "I beg of your grace that
+you will obtain for me the gracious permission of his imperial majesty
+that I may go home again, for I have now been here for ten days and
+nothing yet has been effected." Three hours later the Emperor sent word
+to Luther that he might return to the place he came from, and should be
+given a safe-conduct for twenty-one days, but would not be allowed to
+preach on the way.</p>
+
+<p>Free residence, however, and protection at Wittenberg, in case Luther
+were condemned by the empire, was more than even Frederick the Wise
+would be able to assure him. But he had already laid his plan for the
+emergency. Spalatin refers to it in these words: "Now was my most
+gracious Lord somewhat disheartened; he was certainly fond of Dr.
+Martin, and was also most unwilling to act against the Word of God or to
+bring upon himself the displeasure of the Emperor. Accordingly, he
+devised means how to get Dr. Martin out of the way for a time, until
+matters might be quietly settled, and caused Luther also to be informed,
+the evening before he left Worms, of his scheme for getting him out of
+the way. At this Dr. Martin, out of deference to his Elector, was
+submissively content, though certainly, then and at all times, he would
+much rather have gone courageously to the attack."</p>
+
+<p>The very next morning, Friday, the 26th, Luther departed. The imperial
+herald went behind him, so as not to attract notice. They took the usual
+road to Eisenach. At Friedberg Luther dismissed the herald, giving him a
+letter to the Emperor and the estates, in which he defended his conduct
+at Worms, and his refusal to trust in the decision of men, by saying
+that when God's Word and things eternal were at stake, one's trust and
+dependence should be placed, not on one man or many men, but on God
+alone. At Hersfeld, where Abbot Crato, in spite of the ban, received him
+with all marks of honor, and again at Eisenach, he preached,
+notwithstanding the Emperor's prohibition, not daring to let the Word of
+God be bound.</p>
+
+<p>From Eisenach, while Swaven, Schurf, and several other of his companions
+went straight on, he struck southward, together<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> with Amsdorf and
+Brother Pezensteiner, in order to go and see his relations at Moehra.
+Here, after spending the night at the house of his uncle Heinz, he
+preached the next morning, Saturday, May 4th. Then, accompanied by some
+of his relations, he took the road through Schweina, past the castle of
+Altenstein, and then across the back of the Thuringian Forest to
+Waltershausen and Gotha. Toward evening, when near Altenstein, he bade
+leave of his relations. About half an hour farther on, at a spot where
+the road enters the wooded heights, and, ascending between hills along a
+brook, leads to an old chapel, which even then was in ruins and has now
+quite disappeared, armed horsemen attacked the carriage, ordered it to
+stop with threats and curses, pulled Luther out of it, and then hurried
+him away at full speed. Pezensteiner had run away as soon as he saw them
+approach. Amsdorf and the coachman were allowed to pass on; the former
+was in the secret, and pretended to be terrified, to avoid any suspicion
+on the part of his companion.</p>
+
+<p>The Wartburg<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> lay to the north, about eight miles distant, and had
+been the starting-point of the horsemen, as it now was their goal; but
+precaution made them ride first in an eastern direction with Luther. The
+coachman afterward related how Luther in the haste of the flight dropped
+a gray hat he had worn. And now Luther was given a horse to ride. The
+night was dark, and at about eleven o'clock they arrived at the stately
+castle, situated above Eisenach. Here he was to be kept as a
+knight-prisoner. The secret was kept as strictly as possible toward
+friend and foe. For many weeks afterward even Frederick's brother John
+had no idea of it. Among his friends and followers the terrible news had
+spread, immediately upon his capture, that he had been made away with by
+his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>At Worms, however, while the Pope was concluding an alliance with
+Charles against France, the papal legate Aleander, by commission of the
+Emperor, prepared the edict against Luther on the 8th of May. It was
+not, however, until the 25th, after Frederick the Elector of the
+Palatinate and a great part of the other members of the diet had already
+left, that it was deemed advisable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> to have it communicated to the rest
+of the estates; nevertheless it was antedated the 8th, and issued "by
+the unanimous advice of the electors and estates." It pronounced upon
+Luther, applying the customary strong expressions of papal bulls, the
+ban and reban; no one was to receive him any longer, or feed him, etc.,
+but wherever he was found he was to be seized and handed over to the
+Emperor.</p>
+
+
+<h4>JEAN M. V. AUDIN</h4>
+
+<p>The Reformation was a revolution, and they who rebelled against the
+authority of the Church were revolutionists. However slightly you look
+into the constitution of the Church, you will be convinced that the
+Reformation possessed the character of an insurrection. What is the
+meaning of this fine word, Reformation? Amelioration, doubtless. Well,
+then, with history before us, it is easy to show that it was only a
+prostration of the human mind. Glutted with the wealth of which it
+robbed the Catholics, and the blood which it shed, it gives us, instead
+of the harmony and Christian love of which it deprived our ancestors,
+nothing but dissensions, resentments, and discords. No, the Reformation
+was not an era of happiness and peace; it was only established by
+confusion and anarchy. Do you feel your heart beat at the mention of
+justice and truth? Acknowledge, then, what it is impossible to deny,
+that Luther must not be compared with the apostles. The apostles came
+teaching in the name of Jesus Christ their master, and the Catholics are
+entitled to ask us from whom Luther had his mission. We cannot prove
+that he had a mission direct or indirect. Luther perverted Christianity;
+he withdrew himself criminally from the communion in which regeneration
+alone was possible.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that all Christendom demanded a reformation&mdash;who
+disputes it? But long before the time of Luther the papacy had listened
+to the complaints of the faithful. The Council of Lateran had been
+convened to put an end to the scandals which afflicted the Church. The
+papacy labored to restore the discipline of the early ages, in
+proportion as Europe, freed from the yoke of brute force, became
+politically organized and advanced with slow but sure step to
+civilization. Was it not at that time that the source of all religious
+truth was made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> accessible to scientific study, since, by means of the
+watchful protection of the papacy, the holy Scriptures were translated
+into every language? The New Testament of Erasmus, dedicated to Leo X,
+had preceded the quarrel about indulgences.</p>
+
+<p>A reformer should take care that, in his zeal to get rid of manifest
+abuses, he does not at the same time shake the faith and its wholesome
+institutions to the foundation. When the reformers violently separated
+themselves from the Church of Rome, they thought it necessary to reject
+every doctrine taught by her. Luther, that spirit of evil, who scattered
+gold with dirt, declared war against the institutions without which the
+Church could not exist; he destroyed unity. Who does not remember that
+exclamation of Melanchthon, "We have committed many errors, and have
+made good of evil without any necessity for it"?</p>
+
+<p>In justification of the brutal rupture of Germany with Rome, the
+scandals of the clergy are alleged. But if at the period of the
+Reformation there were priests and monks in Germany whose conduct was
+the cause of regret to Christians, their number was not larger than it
+had been previously. When Luther appeared, there was in Germany a great
+number of Catholic prelates whose piety the reformers themselves have
+not hesitated to admire.</p>
+
+<p>What pains they take to deceive us! In books of every size they teach
+us, even at the present day, that the beast, the man of sin, the
+creature of Babylon, are the names which God has given in his Scriptures
+to the pope and the papacy! Can it be imagined that Christ, who died for
+our sins, and saved us by his blood, would have suffered that for ten or
+twelve centuries his church should be guided by such an abominable
+wretch? that he would have allowed millions of his creatures to walk in
+the shadow of death? and that so many generations should have had no
+other pastor but Antichrist?</p>
+
+<p>Luther mistook the genius of Christianity in introducing a new principle
+into the world&mdash;the immediate authority of the Bible as the sole
+criterion of the truth. If tradition is to be rejected, it follows that
+the Bible cannot be authoritatively explained by acquired knowledge; in
+a word, human interpretation based upon its comprehensions of the Greek
+and Hebrew languages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> So, by this theory, the palladium of orthodoxy is
+to be found in a knowledge of foreign tongues, and living authority is
+replaced by a dead letter; a slavery a thousand times more oppressive
+than the yoke of tradition. Has any dogmatist succeeded in drawing up a
+confession of faith by means of the Bible which could not be attacked by
+means of reason? This formula, that the Bible must be the "<i>unicum
+principium theologi&aelig;</i>," is the source of contradictory doctrines in
+Protestant theology; hence this question arises: "What Protestant
+theology is there in which there are not errors more or less?" It was
+the Bible that inspired all the neologists of the sixteenth century; the
+Bible that they made use of to persecute and condemn themselves as
+heretics. When Luther maintained that the Bible contains the enunciation
+of all the truths of which a knowledge is necessary to salvation, and
+that no doctrine which is not distinctly laid down in the Bible can be
+regarded as an article of faith, he did not imagine that the time was at
+hand when everybody, from this very volume, would form a confession for
+himself, and reject all others which contradicted his individual creed.
+This necessity for inquiry so occupies the minds of men at the present
+day that the principal articles of the original creed are rejected by
+those who call themselves the disciples of Jesus.</p>
+
+<p>But what are we to understand by the Bible? The question was a difficult
+one to solve even at the beginning of the Reformation, when Luther, in
+his preface to the translation of the Bible, laid down a difference
+between the canonical books by preferring the gospel of St. John to the
+three other evangelists; by depreciating the Epistle of St. James as an
+epistle of straw, that contained nothing of the Gospel in it, and which
+an apostle could not have written, since it attributes to works a merit
+which they did not possess. It was in the Bible that Luther discovered
+these two great truths of salvation, which he revealed to the world at
+the beginning of his apostleship&mdash;<i>the slavery of man's will, and the
+impeccability of the believer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is said in Exodus, chapter ix, that God hardened the heart of
+Pharaoh. It was questioned whether these words were to be construed
+literally. This Erasmus rightly denied, and it roused the doctor's
+wrath. Luther, in his reply, furiously attacks the fools who, calling
+reason to their aid, dare call for an account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> from God why he condemns
+or predestines to damnation innocent beings before they have even seen
+the light. Truly, Luther, in the eyes of all God's creatures, must
+appear a prodigy of daring when he ventures to maintain that no one can
+reach heaven unless he adopts the slavery of the human will. And it is
+not merely by the spirit of disputation, but by settled conviction, that
+he defends this most odious of all ideas. He lived and died teaching
+that horrible doctrine, which the most illustrious of his
+disciples&mdash;among others, Melanchthon and Matthew Albert of
+Reutlingen&mdash;condemned. "How rich is the Christian!" repeated Luther;
+"even though he wished it, he cannot forfeit heaven by any stain;
+believe, then, and be assured of your salvation: God in eternity cannot
+escape you. Believe, and you shall be saved: repentance, confession,
+satisfaction, good works, all these are useless for salvation; it is
+sufficient to have faith."</p>
+
+<p>Is not this a fearful error&mdash;a desolating doctrine? If you demonstrate
+to Luther its danger or absurdity, he replies that you blaspheme the
+Spirit of light. Neither attempt to prove to him that he is mistaken; he
+will tell you that you offend God. No, no, my brother, you will never
+convince me that the Holy Spirit is confined to Wittenberg any more than
+to your person.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with maledictions, Luther then turns himself to prophecy; he
+announces that his doctrine, which proceeds from heaven, will gain, one
+by one, all the kingdoms of the world. He says of Zwingli's explanation
+of the eucharist, "I am not afraid of this fanatical interpretation
+lasting long." On the other hand Zwingli predicted that the Swiss creed
+would be handed down from generation to generation, crossing the Elbe
+and the Rhine. Prophet against prophet, if success be the test of truth,
+Luther will inevitably have to yield in this point.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation, which at first was entirely a religious phenomenon,
+soon assumed a political character; it could not fail to do so. When
+people began to exclaim, like Luther, on the house-tops: "The Emperor
+Charles V ought not to be supported longer; let him and the Pope be
+knocked on the head;" that "he is an excited madman, a bloodhound, who
+must be killed with pikes and clubs," how could civil society continue<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+subject to authority? It was natural that the monk's virulent writings
+against the bishops' spiritual power should be reduced by the subjects
+of the ecclesiastical superiors into a political theory. When he
+proclaimed that the yoke of priests and monks must be shaken off, we
+might expect that this wild appeal would be directed against the tithes
+which the people paid to the prelates and the abbots. The Saxon's
+doctrine being based wholly on the holy Scriptures, the peasant
+considered himself authorized in virtue of their text to break violently
+with his lord; hence that long war between the cottage and the castle.
+This it was that made Erasmus write sorrowfully to Luther: "You see that
+we are now reaping the fruits of what you sowed. You will not
+acknowledge the rebels; but they acknowledge you, and they know only too
+well that many of your disciples, who clothed themselves in the mantle
+of the Gospel, have been the instigators of this bloody rebellion. In
+your pamphlet against the peasants, you in vain endeavor to justify
+yourself. It is you who have raised the storm by your publications
+against the monks and the prelates, and you say that you fight for
+gospel liberty, and against the tyranny of the great! From the moment
+that you began your tragedy I foresaw the end of it."</p>
+
+<p>That civil war, in which Germany had to mourn the loss of more than a
+hundred thousand of her children, was the consequence of Luther's
+preaching. It is fortunate that, through the efforts of a Catholic
+prince, Duke George of Saxony, it was speedily brought to an end. Had it
+lasted but a few years longer, of all the ancient monuments with which
+Germany was filled, not a single vestige would have remained. Karlstadt
+might then have sat upon their ruins, and sung, with his Bible in his
+hand, the downfall of the images. The iconoclast's theories, all drawn
+from the Word of God, held their ground in spite of Luther, and dealt a
+fatal blow to the arts.</p>
+
+<p>When a gorgeous worship requires magnificent temples, imposing
+ceremonies, and striking solemnities; when religion presents to the eye
+sensible images as objects of public veneration; when earth and heaven
+are peopled with supernatural beings, to whom imagination can lend a
+sensible form&mdash;then it is that the arts, encouraged and ennobled, reach
+the zenith of their splendor and perfection. The architect, raised to
+honors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> and fortune, conceives the plans of those basilicas and
+cathedrals whose aspect strikes us with religious awe, and whose richly
+adorned walls are ornamented with the finest efforts of art. Those
+temples and altars are decorated with marbles and precious metals, which
+sculpture has fashioned into the similitude of angels, saints, and the
+images of illustrious men. The choirs, the jubes, the chapels, and
+sacristies are hung with pictures on all sides. Here Jesus expires on
+the cross; there he is transfigured on Mount Tabor. Art, the friend of
+imagination, which delights only in heaven, finds there the most sublime
+creations&mdash;a St. John, a Cecilia, above all a Mary, that patroness of
+tender hearts, that virgin model to all mothers, that mediatrix of
+graces, placed between man and his God, that august and amiable being,
+of whom no other religion presents either the resemblance or the model.
+During the solemnities, the most costly stuffs, precious stones, and
+embroidery cover the altars, vessels, priests, and even the very walls
+of the sanctuary. Music completes the charm by the most exquisite
+strains, by the harmony of the choir. These powerful incentives are
+repeated in a hundred different places; the metropolises, parishes, the
+numerous religious houses, the simple oratories, sparkle with emulation
+to captivate all the powers of the religious and devout mind. Thus a
+taste for the arts becomes general by means of so potent a lever, and
+artists increase in number and rivalry. Under this influence the
+celebrated schools of Italy and Flanders flourished; and the finest
+works which now remain to us testify the splendid encouragement which
+the Catholic religion lavished upon them.</p>
+
+<p>After this natural progress of events, it cannot be doubted that the
+Reformation has been unfavorable to the fine arts, and has very much
+restrained the exercise of them. It has severed the bonds which united
+them to religion, which sanctified them, and secured for them a place in
+the veneration of the people. The Protestant worship tends to disenchant
+the material imagination; it makes fine churches and statues and
+paintings unnecessary; it renders them unpopular, and takes from them
+one of their most active springs.</p>
+
+<p>The peasants' war was soon succeeded by the spoliation of the
+monasteries; "an invasion of the most sacred of all rights, more
+important, in certain respects, than liberty itself&mdash;property."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> From
+that time not a day passed without Luther preaching up the robbery of
+the religious houses. To excite the greed of the princes whom he wished
+to secure to his views, he loved to direct their attention to the
+treasures which the abbeys, cloisters, sacristies, and sanctuaries
+contained. "Take them," he said; "all these are your own&mdash;all belong to
+you." Luther was convinced that to the value of the golden remonstrances
+which shone on the Catholic altars he was indebted for more than one
+conversion. In a moment of humor he said: "The gentry and princes are
+the best Lutherans; they willingly accept both monasteries and chapters,
+and appropriate their treasures."</p>
+
+<p>The Landgrave of Hesse, to obtain authority for giving his arm to two
+lawful wives, took care to make the wealth of the monasteries glitter in
+the eyes of the Church of Wittenberg, so that as the price of their
+permission he was willing to give it to the Saxon ministers. The plunder
+of church property, preached by Luther, will be the eternal condemnation
+of the Protestants. Though Naboth's vineyard may serve as a bait or
+reward for apostasy, it cannot justify crime.</p>
+
+<p>A laureate of the Institute of France has discovered grounds for
+palliating this blow to property. He congratulates the princes who
+embraced the Reformation for having, by means of the ecclesiastical
+property, filled their coffers, paid their debts, applied the
+confiscated wealth to useful establishments, clubs, universities,
+hospitals, orphanages, retreats, and rewards for the old servants of the
+state. But Luther himself took care, on more than one occasion, to
+denounce the avarice of the princes who, when once masters of the
+monastic property, employed its revenues for the support of mistresses
+and packs of hounds. We remember the eloquent complaints which he
+uttered in his old age against these carnal men, who left the Protestant
+clergy in destitution, and did not even pay the schoolmasters their
+salaries. He mourned them, but it was too late. Sometimes the
+chastisement of heaven fell, even in this life, on the spoiler; and
+Luther has mentioned instances of several of those iron hands, who,
+after having enriched themselves by the plunder of a monastery, church,
+or abbey, fell into abject poverty. Besides, we will admit that Luther
+never thought of consoling the plundered monks by asserting, like
+Charles Villers, that "one of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> finest effects of these terrible
+commotions which unsettle all properties, the fruits of social
+institutions, is to substitute for them greatness of mind, virtues, and
+talents, the fruits of nature exclusively."</p>
+
+<p>If the triumph of the peasants in the fields of Thuringia might have
+been an irreparable misfortune to Germany and to Christianity, we cannot
+deny that Luther's appeal to the secular arm, to suppress the rebellion,
+may have thoroughly altered the character of the first Reformation. Till
+then it had been established by preaching; but from the moment of that
+bloody episode it required the civil authority to move it. The sword,
+therefore, took the place of the Word; and to perpetuate itself the
+Reformation was bound to exaggerate the theory of passive obedience. One
+of the distinguished historians of Heidelberg, Carl Hagen, has recently
+favored us with some portions of the political code in which
+Protestantism commands subjects to be obedient to the civil power, even
+when it commands them to commit sin.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the democratic element, first developed by the Reformation, was
+effaced to become absorbed in the despotic. It was no longer the people,
+but the prince, who chose or rejected the Protestant minister. When the
+Landgrave of Hesse consulted Melanchthon, in 1525, as to the line he
+should pursue in the appointment of a pastor, the doctor told him that
+he had the right to interfere in the election of the ministers, and
+that, if he surmounted the struggles in which the Word of God had
+involved him, he ought not to commit that sacred Word but to such
+preacher as seemed best to him; in other terms, observes the historian,
+to him whom the civil power thinks competent. And Martin Bucer contrived
+to extend Melanchthon's theory by constituting the civil power supreme
+judge of religious orthodoxy, by conferring on it the right of ultimate
+decision in questions of heresy, and of punishing, if necessary by fire
+and sword innovators, who are a thousand times more culpable, he says,
+than the robber or murderer, who only steal the material bread and slay
+the body, while the heretic steals the bread of life and kills the soul.</p>
+
+<p>Intolerance then entered into the councils of the Reformation. It was no
+longer with the peasants that Luther declared war. Whoever did not
+believe in his doctrines was denounced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> as a rebel; in the Saxon's eyes,
+the peasant was only an enemy to be despised; the real Satan was
+Karlstadt, Zwingli, and Krautwald.</p>
+
+<p>His disciples were no longer satisfied with plundering the
+monasteries&mdash;they desired to live in ease; they must have servants, a
+fine house, a well-supplied table, and plenty of money. The struggle
+then was no longer with piety and knowledge, but with power and
+influence. Every city and town had its own Lutheran pope. At Nuremberg,
+Osiander was a regular pacha. Those who among the Protestants endeavored
+to reprove his scandalous ostentation were abused and maligned. When he
+ascended the pulpit, his fingers were adorned with diamonds which
+dazzled the eyes of his hearers.</p>
+
+<p>The religious disputes which disturbed men's minds in Germany retarded,
+rather than advanced, the march of intellect. Blind people who fought
+furiously with each other could not find the road to truth. These
+quarrels were only another disease of the human mind. Although printing
+served to disseminate the principles of the reformers, the sudden
+progress of Lutheranism, and the zeal with which it was embraced, prove
+that reason and reflection had no part in their development.</p>
+
+<p>Villers has drawn a brilliant sketch of the influence which the
+Reformation exercised over biblical criticism. "It may be said that
+criticism of the Scripture text was unknown previous to the time of
+Luther; and if by this is meant that captious, whimsical, and shuffling
+criticism which DeWette has so justly condemned&mdash;certainly so. But that
+which relates to languages, antiquities, the knowledge of times, places,
+authors&mdash;in a word, hermeneutics&mdash;was known and practised in our schools
+before the Reformation, as is proved by the works of Cajetan and
+Sadoletus, and a multitude of learned men whom Leo X had encouraged and
+rewarded. We have seen besides, in the history of the Reformation, what
+that vain science has produced. It was by means of his critical
+researches that, from the time of Luther, Karlstadt found such a meaning
+of '<i>Semen immolare Moloch</i>,' as made his disciples shrug their
+shoulders; that Muenzer preached community of goods and wives; that
+Melanchthon taught that the dogma of the Trinity deprives our mind of
+all liberty; that at a later period Ammon asserted that the
+resurrection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> of the dead could not be deduced from the New Testament;
+Veter, that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses; that the history of
+the Jews to the time of the Judges is only a popular tradition;
+Bretschneider, that the Psalms cannot be looked upon as inspired;
+Augusti, that the true doctrine of Jesus Christ has not been preserved
+intact in the New Testament; and Geisse, that not one of the four
+gospels was written by the evangelist whose name it bears.</p>
+
+<p>"Since the days of Semler, Germany presents a singular spectacle: every
+ten years, or nearly so, its theological literature undergoes a complete
+revolution. What was admired during the one decennial period is rejected
+in the next, and the image which they adored is burned to make way for
+new divinities; the dogmas which were held in honor fall into discredit;
+the classical treatise of morality is banished among the old books out
+of date; criticism overturns criticism; and the commentary of yesterday
+ridicules that of the previous day."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, was Luther's friend
+and protector.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Georg Spalatin, a friend and fellow-reformer of Luther's,
+was in the diplomatic service of Elector Frederick.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Charles, the grandson of Maximilian I, Emperor of the Holy
+Roman Empire, succeeded him 1519. At the time of his coronation Charles
+was but twenty years old. He was also King of Spain.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> It is obvious that he refers to Christ, who is spoken of
+in Scripture as the Holy One of God (St. Mark i. 24; Acts ii. 27), not,
+as ignorance and malice have suggested, to himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Ulrich von Hutten was a friend and supporter of Luther.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> In 1521-1522 Frederick the Wise gave Luther asylum in the
+Wartburg, where for ten months the reformer remained in disguise as
+"Junker Georg." His room, with its furniture, is still preserved.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<h2>NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA</h2>
+
+<h3>ITS INTRODUCTION BY LAW</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1517</h4>
+
+<h3>SIR ARTHUR HELPS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In 1442 the first negro slaves were imported into Europe.
+They were taken from Africa to Portugal in ships of Prince
+Henry, the "Navigator." From that time there was little
+traffic in negroes until after the discovery of America.
+Then there was great destruction of American Indians by war,
+disease, and killing work, and the importation of negroes
+into Spanish America was begun in order to fill the void in
+the labor market.</p>
+
+<p>Influenced by the spirit of Bartolome de las Casas, a
+Spanish monk, celebrated as the defender of the Indians
+against his own countrymen who conquered them, the monarchs
+of Spain prohibited Indian slavery. "It is a very
+significant fact that the great 'Protector of the Indians,'
+Las Casas, should, however innocently, have been concerned
+with the first large grant of licenses to import negroes
+into the West India Islands."</p>
+
+<p>We first hear of the introduction of negro slaves in those
+islands through the instructions given in 1501 to Nicolas de
+Ovando, who in the following year succeeded Columbus as
+governor. During the nine years of his governorship negro
+slavery in the Spanish possessions of the New World was
+greatly extended. A few years later, as shown by Helps,
+official license gave it a legal sanction. Helps' account
+begins with an abstract of Las Casas' memorials to the King
+of Spain looking to a remedy for the bad government of the
+West Indies.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The outline of Las Casas' scheme was as follows: The King was to give to
+every laborer willing to emigrate to Espa&ntilde;ola his living during the
+journey from his place of abode to Seville, at the rate of half a real a
+day throughout the journey, for great and small, child and parent. At
+Seville the emigrants were to be lodged in the Casa de la Contratacion
+(the India House), and were to have from eleven to thirteen maravedis a
+day. From thence they were to have a free passage to Espa&ntilde;ola, and to be
+provided with food for a year. And if the climate "should try them so
+much" that at the expiration of this year they should not be able to
+work for themselves, the King was to continue to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> maintain them; but
+this extra maintenance was to be put down to the account of the
+emigrants, as a loan which they were to repay. The King was to give them
+lands&mdash;his own lands&mdash;furnish them with ploughshares and spades, and
+provide medicines for them. Lastly, whatever rights and profits accrued
+from their holdings were to become hereditary. This was certainly a most
+liberal plan of emigration. And, in addition, there were other
+privileges held out as inducements to these laborers.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the above scheme, Las Casas, unfortunately for his
+reputation in after-ages, added another provision, namely, that each
+Spanish resident in the island should have license to import a dozen
+negro slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of this suggestion was, as he informs us, that the colonists
+had told him that, if license were given them to import a dozen negro
+slaves each, they, the colonists, would then set free the Indians. And
+so, recollecting that statement of the colonists, he added this
+provision. Las Casas, writing his history in his old age, thus frankly
+owns his error: "This advice, that license should be given to bring
+negro slaves to these lands, the <i>clerigo</i> Casas first gave, not
+considering the injustice with which the Portuguese take them and make
+them slaves; which advice, after he had apprehended the nature of the
+thing, he would not have given for all he had in the world. For he
+always held that they had been made slaves unjustly and tyrannically;
+for the same reason holds good of them as of the Indians." The above
+confession is delicately and truthfully worded&mdash;"not considering"; he
+does not say, not being aware of; but though it was a matter known to
+him, his moral sense was not watchful, as it were, about it. We must be
+careful not to press the admissions of a generous mind too far, or to
+exaggerate the importance of the suggestion of Las Casas.</p>
+
+<p>It would be quite erroneous to look upon this suggestion as being the
+introduction of negro slavery. From the earliest times of the discovery
+of America, negroes had been sent there. But what is of more
+significance, and what it is strange that Las Casas was not aware of, or
+did not mention, the Hieronymite Fathers<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> had also come to the
+conclusion that negroes must be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> introduced into the West Indies.
+Writing in January, 1518, when the fathers could not have known what was
+passing in Spain in relation to this subject, they recommended licenses
+to be given to the inhabitants of Espa&ntilde;ola, or to other persons, to
+bring negroes there. From the tenor of their letter it appears that they
+had before recommended the same thing. Zuazo, the judge of residencia,
+and the legal colleague of Las Casas, wrote to the same effect. He,
+however, suggested that the negroes should be placed in settlements and
+married. Fray Bernardino de Manzanedo, the Hieronymite father, sent over
+to counteract Las Casas, gave the same advice as his brethren about the
+introduction of negroes. He added a proviso, which does not appear in
+their letter&mdash;perhaps it did exist in one of the earlier ones&mdash;that
+there should be as many women as men sent over, or more.</p>
+
+<p>The suggestion of Las Casas was approved of by the Chancellor; and,
+indeed, it is probable there was hardly a man of that time who would
+have seen further than the excellent clerigo did. Las Casas was asked
+what number of negroes would suffice? He replied that he did not know;
+upon which a letter was sent to the officers of the India House at
+Seville to ascertain the fit number in their opinion. They said that
+four thousand at present would suffice, being one thousand for each of
+the islands, Espa&ntilde;ola, Porto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. Somebody now
+suggested to the Governor, De Bresa, a Fleming of much influence and a
+member of the council, that he should ask for this license to be given
+to him. De Bresa accordingly asked the King for it, who granted his
+request; and the Fleming sold this license to certain Genoese merchants
+for twenty-five thousand ducats, having obtained from the King a pledge
+that for eight years he should give no other license of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>The consequence of this monopoly enjoyed by the Genoese merchants was
+that negroes were sold at a great price, of which there are frequent
+complaints. Both Las Casas and Pasamonte&mdash;rarely found in
+accord&mdash;suggested to the King that it would be better to pay the
+twenty-five thousand ducats and resume the license, or to abridge its
+term. Figueroa, writing to the Emperor from Santo Domingo in July, 1500,
+says: "Negroes are very much in request; none have come for about a
+year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> It would have been better to have given De Bresa the customs
+duties&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, the duties that had been usually paid on the importation
+of slaves&mdash;than to have placed a prohibition." I have scarcely a doubt
+that the immediate effect of the measure adopted in consequence of the
+clerigo's suggestion was greatly to check that importation of negro
+slaves which otherwise, had the license been general, would have been
+very abundant.</p>
+
+<p>Before quitting this part of the subject, something must be said for Las
+Casas which he does not allege for himself. This suggestion of his about
+the negroes was not an isolated one. Had all his suggestions been
+carried out, and the Indians thereby been preserved, as I firmly believe
+they might have been, these negroes might have remained a very
+insignificant number in the general population. By the destruction of
+Indians a void in the laborious part of the community was being
+constantly created, which had to be filled up by the labor of negroes.
+The negroes could bear the labor in the mines much better than the
+Indians; and any man who perceived that a race, of whose Christian
+virtues and capabilities he thought highly, were fading away by reason
+of being subjected to labor which their natures were incompetent to
+endure, and which they were most unjustly condemned to, might prefer the
+misery of the smaller number of another race treated with equal
+injustice, but more capable of enduring it. I do not say that Las Casas
+considered all these things; but, at any rate, in estimating his
+conduct, we must recollect that we look at the matter centuries after it
+occurred, and see all the extent of the evil arising from circumstances
+which no man could then be expected to foresee, and which were
+inconsistent with the rest of the clerigo's plans for the preservation
+of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>I suspect that the wisest among us would very likely have erred with
+him; and I am not sure that, taking all his plans together, and taking
+for granted, as he did then, that his influence at court was to last,
+his suggestion about the negroes was an impolitic one.</p>
+
+<p>One more piece of advice Las Casas gave at this time, which, if it had
+been adopted, would have been most serviceable. He proposed that forts
+for mercantile purposes, containing about thirty persons, should be
+erected at intervals along the coast of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> the <i>terra firma</i>, to traffic
+with merchandise of Spain for gold, silver, and precious stones; and in
+each of these ports ecclesiastics were to be placed, to undertake the
+superintendence of spiritual matters. In this scheme may be seen an
+anticipation of subsequent plans for commercial intercourse with Africa.
+And, indeed, one is constantly reminded by the proceedings in those
+times of what has occurred much later and under the auspices of other
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>Of all these suggestions, some of them certainly excellent, the only
+questionable one was at once adopted. Such is the irony of life. If we
+may imagine superior beings looking on at the affairs of men, and
+bearing some unperceived part of the great contest in the world, this
+was a thing to have gladdened all the hosts of hell.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Spanish monks, followers of St. Jerome (Hieronymus).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+<h2>FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE</h2>
+
+<h3>MAGELLAN REACHES THE LADRONES AND PHILIPPINES</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1519</h4>
+
+<h3>
+JOAN BAUTISTA &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;   ANTONIO PIGAFETTA<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Ferdinand Magellan, whose name in Portuguese was Fernao de
+Magalhaes, was born in Portugal about 1480. After serving
+with the Portuguese in the East Indies, 1505-1512, and in
+Morocco, 1514, where during an action he was lamed for life,
+he became disaffected toward his country, and in 1517
+renounced his allegiance and turned to Spain in hope of
+better reward for his services. In conjunction with a
+fellow-countryman, Ruy Faleiro, a geographer and astronomer,
+he offered to find for Spain the Moluccas, in the Malay
+Archipelago, and to prove that they were within the Spanish
+and not the Portuguese lines of demarcation. The acceptance
+of this proposal by the Emperor, Charles V, who was also
+King of Spain, gave Magellan the opportunity, which he so
+well improved, to immortalize his name in the annals of
+maritime discovery.</p>
+
+<p>While the specific object of the expedition failed on
+account of the leader's death, his performance made him
+worthy, as some historians think, to be considered "the most
+undaunted and in many respects the most extraordinary man
+that ever traversed an unknown sea."</p>
+
+<p>A squadron of five ships with two hundred sixty-five men was
+fitted out by the Emperor, and the two friends were named as
+joint commanders, but Faleiro was afterward detached from
+the expedition, leaving full command to Magellan, who sailed
+from San Lucar, Spain, September 20, 1519, first touching at
+Madeira.</p>
+
+<p>Magellan passed through the straits that bear his name and
+so penetrated to the Pacific, that ocean being first so
+called by him. He was the first European to reach it from
+the Atlantic. Magellan was killed by natives in the
+Philippines, April 27, 1521; but his ships continued their
+course. One by one they were lost from the expedition,
+except the Victoria, on which was Pigafetta, who wrote for
+Charles V an account of the voyage. The Victoria returned to
+Spain in September, 1522, completing the first
+circumnavigation of the earth. Bautista was pilot and
+afterward captain of the Trinidad, one of the lost vessels.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 the Philippines and Guam, one of the Ladrones, were
+acquired by the United States as a result of the
+Spanish-American War.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>JOAN BAUTISTA</h4>
+
+<p>Magellan steered to the southwest to make the island of Teneriffe, and
+they reached the said island on the day of St. Michael, which was
+September 29th. Thence he made his course to fetch the Cape Verd
+Islands, and they passed between the islands and the cape without
+sighting either the one or the other. Having to make for Brazil, and as
+soon as they sighted the other coast of Brazil, he steered to the
+southeast along the coast of Cape Frio, which is in 23&deg; south latitude;
+and from this cape he steered to the west, a matter of thirty leagues,
+to make the Rio Janeiro, which is in the same latitude as Cape Frio, and
+they entered the said river on the day of St. Lucy, which was December
+13th, in which place they took in wood, and they remained there until
+the first octave of Christmas, which was December 26th of the same year.</p>
+
+<p>They sailed from this Rio de Janeiro on December 26th, and navigated
+along the coast to make Cape of St. Mary, which is only 35&deg;; as soon as
+they sighted it, they made their course west-northwest, thinking they
+would find a passage for their voyage, and they found that they had got
+into a great river of fresh water, to which they gave the name of River
+St. Christopher, and it is in 34&deg;, and they remained in it till February
+2, 1520.</p>
+
+<p>He sailed from this river of St. Christopher on the 2d of the said month
+of February; they navigated along the said coast, and farther on to the
+south they discovered a point, which is in the same river more to the
+south, to which they gave the name of Point St. Anthony; it is in 36&deg;;
+hence they ran to the southwest a matter of twenty-five leagues, and
+made another cape, which they named Cape St. Apelonia, which is in 36&deg;;
+thence they navigated to the west-southwest to some shoals, which they
+named Shoals of the Currents, which are in 39&deg;; and thence they
+navigated out to the sea, and lost sight of land for a matter of two or
+three days, when they again made for the land, and they came to a bay,
+which they entered, and ran within it the whole day, thinking that there
+was an outlet for Molucca; and when night came they found that it was
+quite closed up, and in the same night they again stood out by the way
+which they had come in. This bay is in 34&deg;; they named it the island of
+St. Matthew.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> They navigated from this island of St. Matthew along the
+coast until they reached another bay, where they caught many sea-wolves
+and birds; to this they gave the name of Bay of Labors; it is in 37&deg;;
+here they came near losing the flag-ship in a storm. Thence they
+navigated along the said coast, and arrived on the last day of March of
+the year 1520 at the port of St. Julian, which is in 49&deg;. Here they
+wintered, and found the day a little more or less than seven hours.</p>
+
+<p>In this port three of the ships rose up against the captain-major, their
+captains saying that they intended to take him to Castile in arrest, as
+he was taking them all to destruction. Here, through the exertions of
+the said captain-major, and the assistance and favor of the foreigners
+whom he carried with him, the captain-major went to the said three ships
+which were already mentioned, and there the captain of one of them was
+killed, who was the treasurer of the whole fleet, and named Luis de
+Mendoza; he was killed in his own ship by stabs with a dagger by the
+chief constable of the fleet, who was sent to do this by Ferdinand
+Magellan in a boat with certain men. The said three ships having thus
+been recovered, five days later Ferdinand Magellan ordered Gaspar de
+Quexixada to be decapitated and quartered; he was captain of one of the
+ships and was one of those who had mutinied.</p>
+
+<p>In this port they refitted the ship. Here the captain-major made Alvaro
+de Mesquita, a Portuguese, a captain of one of the ships the captain of
+which had been killed. There sailed from this port on August 24th four
+ships, for the smallest of the ships had been already lost; he had sent
+it to reconnoitre, and the weather had been heavy and had cast it
+ashore, where all the crew had been recovered along with the
+merchandise, artillery, and fittings of the ship. They remained in this
+port, in which they wintered, five months and twenty-four days, and they
+were 70&deg; less ten minutes to the southward.</p>
+
+<p>They sailed on August 24th of the said year from this port of St.
+Julian, and navigated a matter of twenty leagues along the coast, and so
+they entered a river which was called Santa Cruz, which is in 50&deg;, where
+they took in goods and as much as they could obtain. The crew of the
+lost ship were already distributed among the other ships, for they had
+returned by land<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> to where Ferdinand Magellan was, and they continued
+collecting goods which had remained there during August and up to
+September 18th, and there they took in water and much fish which they
+caught in this river; and in the other, where they wintered, there were
+people like savages, and the men are from nine to ten spans in height,
+very well made; they have not got houses, they only go about from one
+place to another with their flocks, and eat meat nearly raw. They are
+all of them archers, and kill many animals with arrows, and with the
+skins they make clothes, that is to say, they make the skins very
+supple, and fashion them after the shape of the body, as well as they
+can, then they cover themselves with them, and fasten them by a belt
+round the waist. When they do not wish to be clothed from the waist
+upward, they let that half fall which is above the waist, and the
+garment remains hanging down from the belt which they have girt around
+them.</p>
+
+<p>They wear shoes which cover them four inches above the ankle, full of
+straw inside to keep their feet warm. They do not possess any iron, nor
+any other ingenuity of weapons, only they make the points of their
+arrows with flints, and so also the knives with which they cut, and the
+adze and awls with which they cut and stitch their shoes and clothes.
+They are very agile people and do no harm, and thus follow their flocks;
+wherever night finds them, there they sleep; they carry their wives
+along with them, with all the chattels they possess. The women are very
+small and carry heavy burdens on their backs. They wear shoes and
+clothes just like the men. Of these men they obtained three or four and
+brought them in the ships, and they all died except one, who went to
+Castile in a ship which went thither.</p>
+
+<p>They sailed from this river of Santa Cruz on October 18th: they
+continued navigating along the coast until the 21st day of the same
+month, October, when they discovered a cape, to which they gave the name
+of Cape of the Virgins, because they sighted it on the day of the eleven
+thousand virgins; it is in 52&deg;, a little more or less, and from this
+cape, a matter of two or three leagues' distance, we found ourselves at
+the mouth of a strait. We sailed along the said coast within that
+strait, which they had reached the mouth of: they entered in it a little
+and anchored. Ferdinand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> Magellan sent to discover what there was
+farther in, and they found three channels; that is to say, two more in a
+southerly direction, and one traversing the country in the direction of
+Molucca, but at that time this was not yet known, only the three mouths
+were seen.</p>
+
+<p>The boats went thither, and brought back word, and they set sail and
+anchored at these mouths of the channels, and Ferdinand Magellan sent
+two ships to learn what there was within, and these ships went; one
+returned to the captain-major, and the other, of which Alvaro de
+Mesquita was captain, entered into one of the bays which was to the
+south, and did not return any more. Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that it
+did not come back, set sail, and the next day he did not choose to make
+for the bays, and went to the south and took another which runs
+northwest and southeast and a quarter west and east. He left letters in
+the place from which he sailed, so that, if the other ship returned, it
+might make the course which he left prescribed.</p>
+
+<p>After this they entered into the channel, which at some places had a
+width of three leagues, and two, and one, and in some places half a
+league, and he went through it as long as it was daylight, and anchored
+when it was night: and he sent the boats, and the ships went after the
+boats, and they brought news that there was an outlet, for they already
+saw the great sea on the other side; on which account Ferdinand Magellan
+ordered artillery to be fired for rejoicing; and before they set forth
+from this strait they found two islands, the first one larger, and the
+other, nearer toward the outlet, is the smaller one; and they went out
+between these islands and the coast on the southern side, as it was
+deeper than on the other side.</p>
+
+<p>This strait is a hundred leagues in length to the outlet; that outlet
+and the entrance are in 52&deg; latitude. They made a stay in this strait
+from October 21st to November 26th, which makes thirty-six days of the
+said year of 1520, and as soon as they went out from the strait to the
+sea they made their course, for the most part, to west-northwest, when
+they found that their needles varied to the northwest almost one-half;
+and after they had navigated thus for many days they found an island in
+a little more or less than 18&deg; or 19&deg;, and also another, which was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> in
+from 13&deg; to 14&deg;, and this in south latitude; they are uninhabited.</p>
+
+<p>They ran on until they reached the line, when Ferdinand Magellan said
+that now they were in the neighborhood of Molucca, and that he would go
+in a northerly direction as far as 10&deg; or 12&deg;, and they reached to as
+far as 13&deg; north, and in this latitude they navigated to the west and a
+quarter southwest a matter of a hundred leagues, where on March 6, 1521,
+they fetched two islands inhabited by many people of little truth; and
+they did not take precautions against them until they saw that they were
+taking away the skiff of the flag-ship, and they cut the rope with which
+it was made fast, and took it ashore without their being able to prevent
+it. They gave this island the name of Thieves' Island (<i>dos Ladroes</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that the skiff was lost, set sail, it being
+already night, tacking about until the next day; as soon as it was
+morning they anchored at the place where they had seen the skiff carried
+to, and he ordered two boats to be got ready with a matter of fifty or
+sixty men, and he went ashore in person and burned the whole village,
+and they killed seven or eight persons, between men and women, and
+recovered the skiff, and returned to the ships; and while they were
+there they saw forty or fifty <i>paraos</i> come from the same land, and
+which brought much refreshments.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand Magellan would not make any further stay, and at once set
+sail, and ordered the course to be steered west and a quarter southwest,
+and so they made land, which is in barely 11&deg;. This land is an island,
+but he would not touch at this one, and they went to touch at another
+farther on which appeared first. Ferdinand Magellan sent a boat ashore
+to observe the nature of the island; when the boat reached land, they
+saw, from the ships, paraos come out from behind the point; then they
+called back their boat. The people of the paraos, seeing that the boat
+was returning to the ships, turned back the paraos, and the boat reached
+the ships, which at once set sail for another island very near to this
+island, which is 10&deg;, and they gave it the name of the Island of Good
+Signs, because they observed some gold in it.</p>
+
+<p>While they were thus anchored at this island there came to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> them two
+paraos, and brought them fowls and cocoanuts, and told them they had
+already seen there other men like them, from which they presumed that
+these might be Lequios or Mogores, a nation of people who have this
+name, or Chiis; and thence they set sail, and navigated farther on among
+many islands, to which they gave the name of Valley without Peril, and
+also St. Lazarus; and they ran on to another island twenty leagues from
+that from which they sailed, which is in 10&deg;, and came to anchor at
+another island, which is named Macangor, which is in 9&deg;; and in this
+island they were very well received, and they placed a cross in it. This
+King conducted them thence a matter of thirty leagues to another island,
+named Cabo, which is in 10&deg;, and in this island Ferdinand Magellan did
+what he pleased with the consent of the country, and in one day eight
+hundred people became Christian, on which account Ferdinand Magellan
+desired that the other kings, neighbors to this one, should become
+subject to this one, who had become Christian; and these did not choose
+to yield to such obedience. Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that, got ready
+one night with his boats, and burned the villages of those who would not
+yield the said obedience; and a matter of ten or twelve days after this
+was done he sent to a village about half a league from that which he had
+burned, which is named Matam, and which is also an island, and ordered
+them to send him at once three goats, three pigs, three loads of rice,
+and three loads of millet for provisions for the ship. They replied
+that, of each article which he sent to ask them three of, they would
+send him by twos, and if he was satisfied with this they would at once
+comply; if not, it might be as he pleased, but that they would not give
+it. Because they did not choose to grant what he demanded of them,
+Ferdinand Magellan ordered three boats to be equipped with a matter of
+fifty or sixty men, and went against the said place, which was on April
+28th in the morning; there they found many people, who might well be as
+many as three thousand or four thousand men, who fought with such will
+that the said Ferdinand Magellan was killed there, with six of his men,
+in the year 1521.</p>
+
+<p>When Ferdinand Magellan was dead the Christians got back to the ships,
+where they thought fit to make two captains and governors whom they
+should obey; and, having done this, they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> took counsel (and decided)
+that the captains should go ashore where the people had turned
+Christians, to ask for pilots to take them to Borneo, and this was on
+May 1st of the said year. When the two captains went, being agreed upon
+what had been said, the same people of the country who had become
+Christians armed themselves against them, and killed the two captains
+and twenty-six gentlemen; and the other people who remained got back to
+the boats and returned to the ships, and, finding themselves again
+without captains, they agreed, inasmuch as the principal persons were
+killed, that one Joan Lopez, who was the chief treasurer, should be
+captain-major of the fleet, and the chief constable of the fleet should
+be captain of one of the ships. He was named Gonzalo Vas Despinosa.</p>
+
+<p>Having done this, they set sail, and ran about twenty-five leagues with
+three ships, which they still possessed; they then mustered, and found
+that they were altogether one hundred eight men in all these three
+ships, and many of them were wounded and sick, on which account they did
+not venture to navigate the three ships and thought it would be well to
+burn one of them&mdash;the one that should be most suitable for that
+purpose&mdash;and to take into the two ships those that remained: this they
+did out at sea, out of sight of any land. While they did this many
+paraos came to speak to them, and navigating among the islands, for in
+that neighborhood there are a great many. They did not understand one
+another, for they had no interpreter, for he had been killed with
+Ferdinand Magellan. Sailing farther on among islets, they came to anchor
+at an island which is named Carpyam, where there is gold enough, and
+this island is in fully 8&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>While at anchor in this port of Carpyam they had speech with the
+inhabitants of the island, and made peace with them, and Carvalho, who
+was captain-major, gave them the boat of the ship which had been burned:
+this island has three islets in the offing. Here they took in
+refreshments, and sailed farther on to the west-southwest, and fell in
+with another island, which is named Caram, and is in 11&deg;; from this they
+went on farther to west-southwest, and fell in with a large island, and
+ran along the coast of this island to the northeast, and reached as far
+as 9&deg;, where they went ashore one day, with the boats equipped to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> seek
+for provisions, for in the ships there was now not more than eight days'
+food. On reaching shore the inhabitants would not suffer them to land,
+and shot at them with arrows of cane hardened in fire, so that they
+returned to the ships.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing this, they agreed to go to another island, where they had had
+some dealings, to see if they could get some provisions. Then they met
+with a contrary wind, and, going about in the direction in which they
+wished to go, they anchored, and while at anchor they saw people on
+shore hailing them to go thither; they went there with the boats, and as
+they were speaking to those people by signs, for they did not understand
+each other otherwise, a man-at-arms, named Joan de Campos, told them to
+let him go on shore, since there were no provisions in the ships, and it
+might be that they would obtain some means of getting provisions, and
+that, if the people killed him, they would not lose much with him, for
+God would take thought of his soul; and also if he found provisions, and
+if they did not kill him, he would find means for bringing them to the
+ships: and they thought well of this. So he went on shore, and as soon
+as he reached it the inhabitants received him and took him into the
+interior the distance of a league, and when he was in the village all
+the people came to see him, and they gave him food and entertained him
+well, especially when they saw that he ate pigs' flesh, because in this
+island they had dealings with the Moors of Borneo, and because the
+country people were greedy they made them neither eat pigs nor bring
+them up in the country. The country is called Dyguacam and is in 9&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>The said Christian, seeing that he was favored and well treated by the
+inhabitants, gave them to understand by his signs that they should carry
+provisions to the ships, which would be well paid for. In the country
+there was nothing except rice not pounded. Then the people set to
+pounding rice all the night, and when it was morning they took the rice
+and the said Christian and came to the ships, where they did them great
+honor, and took in the rice and paid them, and they returned on shore.
+This man being already set on shore, inhabitants of another village a
+little farther on came to the ships and told them they would give them
+much provisions for their money; and as soon as the said man whom they
+had sent arrived, they set sail and went to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> anchor at the village of
+those who had come to call them, which was named Vay Palay Cucar a
+Canbam, where Carvalho made peace with the King of the country, and they
+settled the price of rice, and they gave them two measures of rice,
+which weighed one hundred fourteen pounds, for three fathoms of linen
+stuff of Britanny; they took there as much rice as they wanted, and
+goats and pigs; and while they were at this place there came a Moor, who
+had been in the village of Dyguacam, which belongs to the Moors of
+Borneo, as had been said above, and after that he went to his country.</p>
+
+<p>While they were at anchor at this village of Dyguacam, there came to
+them a parao in which there was a negro named Bastiam, who asked for a
+flag and a passport for the Governor of Dyguacam, and they gave him all
+this and other things for a present. They asked the said Bastiam, who
+spoke Portuguese sufficiently well, since he had been in Molucca, where
+he had become a Christian, if he would go with them and show them
+Borneo; he said he would be very willing, and when the departure arrived
+he hid himself, and, seeing that he did not come, they set sail from
+this port of Dyguacam on July 21st to seek for Borneo. As they set sail
+there came to them a parao, which was coming to the port of Dyguacam,
+and they took it, and in it they took three Moors, who said they were
+pilots and that they would take them to Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>Having got these Moors, they steered along this island to the southwest,
+and fell in with two islands at its extremity, and passed between them;
+that on the north side is named Bolyna, and that on the south Bamdym.
+Sailing to the west-southwest a matter of fourteen leagues, they fell in
+with a white bottom, which was a shoal below the water; and the black
+men they carried with them told them to draw near to the coast of the
+island, as it was deeper there, and that was more in the direction of
+Borneo, for from that neighborhood the island of Borneo could already be
+sighted. This same day they reached and anchored at some islands, to
+which they gave the name of islets of St. Paul, which was a matter of
+two and a half or three leagues from the great island of Borneo, and
+they were in about 7&deg; at the south side of these islands. In the island
+of Borneo there is an exceedingly big mountain to which they gave the
+name of Mount<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> St. Paul; and from thence they navigated along the coast
+of Borneo to the southwest, between an island and the island of Borneo
+itself; and they went forward on the same course and reached the
+neighborhood of Borneo, and the Moors they had with them told them that
+there was no Borneo, and the wind did not suffer them to arrive thither,
+as it was contrary. They anchored at an island which is there, and which
+may be eight leagues from Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>Close to this island is another which has many Myrobalans, and the next
+day they set sail for the other island, which is nearer to the port of
+Borneo; and going along thus they saw so many shoals that they anchored
+and sent the boats ashore in Borneo, and they took the aforesaid Moorish
+pilots on shore, and there went a Christian with them; and the boats
+went to set them on land, from whence they had to go to the city of
+Borneo, which was three leagues off, and there they were taken before
+the Shahbender of Borneo, and he asked what people they were, and for
+what they came in the ships; and they were presented to the King of
+Borneo with the Christian. As soon as the boats had set the said men on
+shore, they sounded, in order to see if the ships should come in closer;
+and during this they saw three junks which were coming from the port of
+Borneo&mdash;from the said city&mdash;out to sea, and as soon as they saw the
+ships they returned inshore; continuing to sound, they found the channel
+by which the port is entered; then they set sail, and entered this
+channel, and being within the channel they anchored, and would not go
+farther in until they received a message from the shore, which arrived
+next day with two paraos: these carried certain swivel guns of metal,
+and a hundred men in each parao, and they brought goats and fowls and
+two cows, and figs and other fruit, and told them to enter farther in
+opposite the islands which were near there, which was the true berth;
+and from this position to the city there might be three or four leagues.
+While thus at anchor they established peace, and settled that they
+should trade in what there was in the country, especially wax, to which
+they answered that they would be willing to sell all that there was in
+the country for their money. This port of Borneo is in 8&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>For the answer thus received from the King they sent him a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> present by
+Gonzalo Mendes Despinosa, captain of the ship Victoria, and the King
+accepted the present, and gave to all of them China stuffs; and when
+there had passed twenty or twenty-three days that they were there
+trading with the people on the island, and had got five men on shore in
+the city itself, there came to anchor at the bar, close to them, five
+junks, at the hour of vespers, and they remained there that evening and
+the night until next day in the morning, when they saw coming from the
+city two hundred paraos, some under sail, others rowing. Seeing in this
+manner the five junks and the paraos, it seemed to them that there might
+be treachery, and they set sail for the junks, and as soon as the crews
+of the junks saw them under sail, they also set sail and made off where
+the wind best served them; and they overhauled one of the junks with
+boats, and took it with twenty-seven men; and the ships went and
+anchored abreast off the Island of the Myrobalans, with the junk made
+fast to the poop of the flag-ship, and the paraos returned to the shore,
+and when night came there came a squall from the west in which the said
+junk went to the bottom alongside the flag-ship, without being able to
+receive any assistance from it whatever.</p>
+
+<p>Next day, in the morning, they saw a sail, and went to it and took it.
+This was a great junk in which the son of the King of Lucam came as
+captain, and had with him ninety men; and as soon as they took them they
+sent some of them to the King of Borneo; and they sent him word by these
+men to send the Christians whom they had got there, who were seven men,
+and they would give him all the people they had taken in the junk; on
+which account the King sent two men of seven whom he had got there in a
+parao, and they again sent him word to send the five men who still
+remained, and they would send all the people they had got from the junk.
+They waited two days for the answer, and there came no message; and they
+took thirty men from the junk, and sent them to the King of Borneo, and
+set sail with fourteen men of those they had taken and three women; and
+they steered along the coast of the said island to the northeast,
+returning backward, and they again passed between the islands and the
+great island of Borneo, where the flag-ship grounded on a point of the
+island, and so remained more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> four hours, and the tide turned and
+it got off, by which it was seen clearly that the tide was of
+twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p>While making the aforesaid course the wind shifted to northeast, and
+they stood out to sea, and they saw a sail coming, and the ships
+anchored and the boats went to it and took it. It was a small junk and
+carried nothing but cocoanuts; and they took in water and wood, and set
+sail along the coast of the island to the northeast, until they reached
+the extremity of the said island, and met with another small island,
+where they overhauled the ships, and they gave it the name of Port St.
+Mary of August, and it is in fully 7&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as they had taken these precautions they set sail and steered to
+the southwest until they sighted the island, which is called Fagajam,
+and this is a course of thirty-eight to forty leagues; and as soon as
+they sighted this island they steered to the southwest, and again made
+an island which is called Seloque, and they had information that there
+were many pearls there; and when they had already sighted the island the
+wind shifted to a head wind, and they could not fetch it by the course
+they were sailing, and it seemed to them that it might be in 6&deg;. This
+same night they arrived at the island of Quipe, and ran along it to the
+southeast, and passed between it and another island called Tamgym; and
+always running along the coast of the said island, and going thus, they
+fell in with a parao laden with sago leaves (which is of a tree which is
+named <i>cajare</i>), which the people of that country eat as bread. The
+parao carried twenty-one men, and the chief of them had been in Molucca,
+in the house of Francisco Semrryn; this was in 5&deg;, a little more or
+less. The inhabitants of this land came to see the ships, and so they
+had speech of one another, and an old man of these people said he would
+conduct them to Molucca.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner, having fixed a time with the old man, an agreement was
+made with him, and they gave him a certain price for this; and when the
+next day came, and they were to depart, the old man intended to escape,
+and they understood it, and took him and others who were with him, and
+who also said that they knew pilots' work, and they set sail; and as
+soon as the inhabitants saw them go, they fitted out to go after them;
+and of the paraos, there did not reach the ships more than two,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> and
+these reached so near that they shot arrows into the ships, and the wind
+was fresh and they could not come up with them. At midnight of that day
+they sighted some islands, and they steered more toward them; and next
+day they saw land, which was an island; and at night following that day
+they found themselves very close to it, and when night fell the wind
+calmed and the currents drew them very much inshore; there the old pilot
+cast himself into the sea and betook himself to land.</p>
+
+<p>Sailing thus forward, after one of the pilots had fled, they sighted
+another island and arrived close to it, and another Moorish pilot said
+that Molucca was still farther on; and navigating thus, the next day in
+the morning they sighted three high mountains, which belonged to a
+nation of people whom they called Salabos; and then they saw a small
+island and they anchored to take in some water, because they feared that
+in Molucca they would not be allowed to take it in; and they omitted
+doing so because the Moorish pilot told them that there were some four
+hundred in that island, and that they were all very bad, and might do
+them some injury, as they were men of little faith; and that he would
+give them no such advice as to go to that island; and also because
+Molucca, which they were seeking, was now near, and that its kings were
+good men, who gave a good reception to all sorts of men in their
+country; and while still in this neighborhood they saw the islands
+themselves of Molucca, and for rejoicing they fired all the artillery,
+and they arrived at the island on November 8, 1521, so that they spent
+from Spain to Molucca two years and two months.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as they arrived at the island of Tydor, which is in 30', the
+King thereof did them great honor, which could not be exceeded. There
+they treated with the King for their cargo, and the King engaged to give
+them whatever there was in the country for their money, and they settled
+to give for the bahar of cloves fourteen ells of yellow cloth of
+seventy-seven tem, which are worth in Castile a ducat the ell; of red
+cloth of the same kind ten ells; they also gave thirty ells of Britanny
+linen cloth, and for each of these quantities they received a bahar of
+cloves; likewise for thirty knives, eight bahars. Having thus settled
+all the above mentioned prices, the inhabitants of the country gave them
+information that farther on, in another island<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> near, there was a
+Portuguese man. This island might be two leagues distant, and it was
+named Targatell. This man was the chief person of Molucca; there we now
+have got a fortress. They then wrote letters to the said Portuguese to
+come and speak with them, to which he answered that he did not dare,
+because the King of the country forbade it; that if they obtained
+permission from the King he would come at once. This permission they
+soon got, and the Portuguese came to speak with them.</p>
+
+<p>They gave him an account of the prices which they had settled, at which
+he was amazed, and said on that account the King had ordered him not to
+come, as they did not know the truth about the prices of the country;
+and while they were thus taking in cargo there arrived the King of
+Baraham, which is near there, and said that he wished to be a vassal of
+the King of Castile, and also that he had got four hundred bahars of
+cloves, and that he had sold them to the King of Portugal, and that they
+had bought it, but that he had not yet delivered it; and if they wished
+for it, he would give it all to them; to which the captains answered
+that if he brought it to them, and came with it, they would buy it, but
+not otherwise. The King, seeing that they did not wish to take the
+cloves, asked them for a flag and a letter of safe-conduct, which they
+gave him, signed by the captains of the ships.</p>
+
+<p>While they were thus waiting for the cargo, it seemed to them, from the
+delay in delivery, that the King was preparing some treachery against
+them, and the greater part of the ships' crews made an uproar and told
+the captains to go, as the delays which the King made were for nothing
+else than treachery: as it seemed to them all that it might be so, they
+were abandoning everything and were intending to depart; and being about
+to unfurl the sails, the King, who had made the agreement with them,
+came to the flag-ship and asked the captain why he wanted to go, because
+that which he had agreed upon with him he intended to fulfil it as had
+been settled. The captain replied that the ships' crews said they should
+go and not remain any longer, as it was only treachery that was being
+prepared against them. To this the King answered that it was not so, and
+on that account he at once sent for his <i>Koran</i>, upon which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> wished
+to make oath that nothing should be done to them. They at once brought
+him his <i>Koran</i>, and upon it he made oath, and told them to rest at ease
+with that. At this the crews were set at rest, and he promised them that
+he would give them their cargo by December 15, 1521, which he fulfilled
+within the said time, without being wanting in anything.</p>
+
+<p>When the two ships were already laden and about to unfurl their sails,
+the flag-ship sprung a large leak, and, the King of the country learning
+this, he sent them twenty-five divers to stop the leak, which they were
+unable to do. They settled that the other ship should depart, and that
+this one should again discharge all its cargo and unload it; and as they
+could not stop the leak, the King promised that they, the people of the
+country, should give them all that they might be in need of. This was
+done, and they discharged the cargo of the flag-ship; and when the said
+ship was repaired, they took in her cargo, and decided on making for the
+country of the Antilles, and the course from Molucca to it was two
+thousand leagues, a little more or less. The other ship, which set sail
+first, left on December of the said year, and went out to sea for the
+Timor, and made its course behind Java, two thousand fifty-five leagues,
+to the Cape of Good Hope.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ANTONIO PIGAFETTA</h4>
+
+<p>In order to double the Cape of Good Hope, we went as far as 42&deg; south
+latitude, and we remained off that cape for nine weeks, with the sails
+struck, on account of the western and northwestern gales, which beat
+against our bows with fierce squalls. The Cape of Good Hope is in 34&deg;
+30' south latitude, sixteen hundred leagues distant from Cape of
+Molucca, and it is the largest and most dangerous cape in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Some of our men, and among them the sick, would have liked to land at a
+place belonging to the Portuguese called Mozambique, both because the
+ship made much water and because of the great cold which we suffered;
+and much more because we had nothing but rice-water for food and drink,
+all the meat of which we had made provision having putrefied, for the
+want of salt had not permitted us to salt it. But the greater number of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+us, prizing honor more than life itself, decided on attempting at any
+risk to return to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>At length, by the aid of God, on the 6th of May, we passed the terrible
+cape, but we were obliged to approach it within only five leagues'
+distance, or else we should never have passed it. We then sailed toward
+the northwest for two whole months without ever taking rest; and in this
+short time we lost twenty-one men, between Christians and Indians. We
+made then a curious observation on throwing them into the sea; that was
+that the Christian remained with the face turned to the sky, and the
+Indians with the face turned to the sea. If God had not granted us
+favorable weather, we should all have perished of hunger.</p>
+
+<p>Constrained by extreme necessity, we decided on touching at the Cape
+Verd island named St. James. Knowing that we were in an enemy's country
+and among suspicious persons, on sending the boat ashore to get
+provision of victuals, we charged the seamen to say to the Portuguese
+that we had sprung our foremast under the equinoctial line&mdash;although
+this misfortune had happened at the Cape of Good Hope&mdash;and that our ship
+was alone, because while we tried to repair it our captain-general had
+gone with the other two ships to Spain. With these good words, and
+giving our merchandise in exchange, we obtained two boat-loads of rice.</p>
+
+<p>In order to see whether we had kept an exact account of the days, we
+charged those who went ashore to ask what day of the week it was, and
+they were told by the Portuguese inhabitants of the island that it was
+Thursday, which was a great cause of wondering to us, since with us it
+was only Wednesday. We could not persuade ourselves that we were
+mistaken; and I was more surprised than the others, since, having always
+been in good health, I had every day, without intermission, written down
+the day that was current. But we were afterward advised that there was
+no error on our part, since, as we had always sailed toward the west,
+following the course of the sun, and had returned to the same place, we
+must have gained twenty-four hours, as it is clear to anyone who
+reflects upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The boat, having returned for rice a second time to the shore, was
+detained with thirteen men who were in it. As we saw that, and, from the
+movement in certain caravels, suspected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> that they might wish to capture
+us and our ship, we at once set sail. We afterward learned, some time
+after our return, that our boat and men had been arrested, because one
+of our men had discovered the deception and said that the
+captain-general was dead, and that our ship was the only one remaining
+of Magellan's fleet.</p>
+
+<p>At last, when it pleased heaven, on Saturday, September 6, 1522, we
+entered the Bay of San Lucar; and of sixty men who composed our crew
+when we left Molucca, we were reduced to only eighteen, and these for
+the most part sick. Of the others, some died of hunger, some had run
+away at the island of Timor, and some had been condemned to death for
+their crimes.</p>
+
+<p>From the day when we left this Bay of San Lucar until our return
+thither, we reckoned that we had run more than fourteen thousand four
+hundred sixty leagues, and we had completed going round the earth from
+east to west.</p>
+
+<p>Monday, September 8th, we cast anchor near the mole of Seville, and
+discharged all the artillery.</p>
+
+<p>Tuesday we all went in shirts and barefoot, with a taper in our hands,
+to visit the shrine of Santa Maria de Antigua.</p>
+
+<p>Then leaving Seville, I went to Valladolid, where I presented to his
+sacred majesty Don Carlos neither gold nor silver, but things more
+precious in the eyes of so great a sovereign. I presented to him, among
+other things, a book written by my hand of all the things that occurred
+day by day in our voyage. I departed thence as I was best able and went
+to Portugal, and related to King John the things which I had seen.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1520</h4>
+
+<h3>J. S. BREWER</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>From the magnificence of the preparations made for the
+famous meeting described in the following pages, the plain
+on which it took place, between Guines and Ardres, France,
+received the name of the "Field of the Cloth of Gold."</p>
+
+<p>The meeting of the two kings, Henry VIII of England and
+Francis I of France, was brought about by circumstances
+connected with the rivalry between Francis and the emperor
+Charles V. The enmity of the two latter and their repeated
+wars form a principal subject of European history during
+many years.</p>
+
+<p>Francis came to the throne in 1515, and the first four years
+of his reign were marked by brilliant successes, which
+brought him fame as a ruler and a warrior. But in 1519 he
+was an unsuccessful candidate for the imperial dignity, and
+Charles, being preferred before him, became emperor of the
+Holy Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Great was the mortification of Francis and he soon after
+declared war against his rival. Both sought the alliance of
+Henry VIII, and in hopes of securing his friendship, and
+thereby preventing a union of the Emperor and the English
+King against himself, Francis arranged the meeting so
+brilliantly pictured by Brewer. But Francis, by overdoing
+this gorgeous reception, gave offence to Henry, whom he
+seemed to eclipse in magnificence. Meanwhile Charles,
+anticipating the interview, had visited Henry in England,
+and by his more politic address he secured the favor both of
+the English monarch and his great minister, Cardinal Wolsey.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Situated in a flat and uninviting plain&mdash;poor and barren, as the
+uncultivated border-land of the two kingdoms&mdash;Guines and its castle
+offered little attraction, and if possible less accommodation, to the
+gay throng now to be gathered within its walls. Its weedy moat and
+dismantled battlements, "its keep too ruinous to mend," defied the
+efforts of carpenters and bricklayers, as the English commissioners
+pathetically complained; and could not by any artifice or contrivance be
+made to assume the appearance of a formidable, or even a respectable,
+fortress to friend or enemy. But on the castle green, within the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> limits
+of a few weeks, and in the face of great difficulties, the English
+artists of that day contrived a summer palace, more like a vision of
+romance, the creation of some fairy dream&mdash;if the accounts of
+eye-witnesses of all classes may be trusted&mdash;than the dull, every-day
+reality of clay-born bricks and mortar.</p>
+
+<p>No "palace of art" in these beclouded climates of the West ever so truly
+deserved its name. As if the imagination of the age, pent up in wretched
+alleys and narrow dwelling-houses, had resolved for once to throw off
+its ordinary trammels and recompense itself for its long restraint, it
+prepared to realize those visions of enchanted bowers and ancient
+pageantry on which it had fed so long in the fictions and romances of
+the Middle Ages. I have thought it worth while to notice so much of the
+details as will enable the reader to form some slight conception for
+himself of this scene of enchantment which the genius of the age had
+contrived for its own amusement.</p>
+
+<p>The palace was an exact square of three hundred twenty-eight feet. It
+was pierced on every side with oriel windows and clear-stories curiously
+glazed, the mullions and posts of which were overlaid with gold. An
+embattled gate, ornamented on both sides with statues representing men
+in various attitudes of war, and flanked by an embattled tower, guarded
+the entrance. From this gate to the entrance of the palace arose in long
+ascent a sloping dais or half pace, along which were grouped "images of
+sore and terrible countenances," in armor of argentine or bright metal.
+At the entrance, under an embowed landing-place, facing the great doors,
+stood "antique" (classical) figures girt with olive branches. The
+passages, the roofs of the galleries from place to place and from
+chamber to chamber, were ceiled and covered with white silk, fluted and
+embowed with silken hanging of divers colors and braided cloths, "which
+showed like bullions of fine burnished gold." The roofs of the chambers
+were studded with roses, set in lozenges, and diapered on a ground of
+fine gold. Panels enriched with antique carving and gilt bosses covered
+the spaces between the windows; while along all the corridors and from
+every window hung tapestry of silk and gold, embroidered with figures.
+Chairs covered with cushions of turkey-work, cloths of estate, of
+various shapes and sizes, overlaid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> with golden tissue and rich
+embroidery, ornamented the state apartments. The square on every side
+was decorated with equal richness, and blazed with the same profusion of
+glass, gold, and ornamental hangings; and "every quarter of it, even the
+least, was a habitation fit for a prince," says Fleuranges, who had
+examined it with the critical eye of a rival and a Frenchman.</p>
+
+<p>To the palace was attached a spacious chapel, still more sumptuously
+adorned. Its altars were hung with cloth of gold tissue embroidered with
+pearls; cloth of gold covered the walls and desks. Basins, censers,
+cruets, and other vessels, of the same precious materials, lent their
+lustre to its services. On the high altar, shaded by a magnificent
+canopy of immense proportions, stood enormous candlesticks and other
+ornaments of gold. Twelve golden images of the apostles, as large as
+children of four years old, astonished the eyes of the spectator. The
+copes and vestments of the officiating clergy were cloth of tissue
+powdered with red roses, brought from the looms of Florence, and woven
+in one piece, thickly studded with gold and jewelry. No less profusion
+might be seen in the two closets left apart for the King and the Queen.
+Images and sacred vessels of solid gold, in gold cloth, cumbrous with
+pearls and precious stones, attested the rank, the magnificence, and
+devotion of the occupants. The ceilings of these closets were gilded and
+painted; the hangings were of tapestry embroidered with fretwork of
+pearls and gems. The chapel was served by thirty-five priests and a
+proportionate number of singing-boys.</p>
+
+<p>From the palace a secret gallery led into a private apartment in Guines
+castle, along which the royal visitors could pass and repass at
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>The King was attended by squires of the body, sewers, gentlemen-ushers,
+grooms and pages of the chamber, for all of whom suitable accommodation
+had to be provided. The lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the lord
+treasurer of the household, the comptroller, with their numerous staffs,
+had to be lodged in apartments adapted to their rank and services. As it
+was one great object of the interview to entertain all comers with
+masques and banquetings of the most sumptuous kind, the mere rank and
+file of inferior officers and servants formed a colony of themselves.
+The bakehouse, pantry, cellar, buttery,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> kitchen, larder, accatry, were
+amply provided with ovens, ranges, and culinary requirements, to say
+nothing of the stables, the troops of grooms, farriers, saddlers,
+stirrup-makers, furbishers, and footmen. Upward of two hundred
+attendants were employed in and about the kitchen alone.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the palace gate, on the greensward, stood a quiet fountain, of
+antique workmanship, with a statue of Bacchus "birlyng the wine." Three
+runlets, fed by secret conduits hid beneath the earth, spouted claret,
+hypocras, and water into as many silver cups, to quench the thirst of
+all comers. On the opposite side was a pillar wreathed in gold, and
+supported by four gilt lions; and on the top stood an image of blind
+Cupid, armed with bow and arrows. The gate itself, built in massive
+style, was pierced with loop-holes. Its windows and recesses were filled
+with images of Hercules, Alexander, and other ancient worthies, richly
+gilt and painted. In long array, in the plain beyond, twenty-eight
+hundred tents stretched their white canvas before the eyes of the
+spectator, gay with the pennons, badges, and devices of the various
+occupants; while miscellaneous followers, in tens of thousands,
+attracted by profit or the novelty of the scene, camped on the grass and
+filled the surrounding slopes, in spite of the severity of
+provost-marshal and reiterated threats of mutilation and chastisement.
+Multitudes from the French frontiers, or the populous cities of
+Flanders, indifferent to the political significance of the scene,
+swarmed from their dingy homes to gaze on kings, queens, knights, and
+ladies dressed in their utmost splendor. Beggars, itinerant minstrels,
+venders of provisions and small luxuries, mixed with wagoners,
+ploughmen, laborers, and the motley troop of camp-followers, crowded
+round, or stretched themselves beneath the summer's sun on bundles of
+straw and grass, in drunken idleness. No better lodging awaited many a
+gay knight and lady who had travelled far to be present at the
+spectacle, and were obliged to content themselves with such open-air
+accommodation. Backward and forward surged the excited and unwieldy
+crowd, as every hour brought its fresh contingent of curiosity or
+criticism in the shape of some new-comer conspicuous for his fantastic
+bearing or the quaint fashion of his armor. Each new candidate for the
+love and honor of the ladies, for popular applause,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> or less noble
+objects, was greeted with shouts and acclamations as he succeeded in
+distinguishing himself from the throng by the strangeness or splendor of
+his appointments. Christendom had never witnessed such a scene. The
+fantastic usages of the courts of Love and Beauty were revived once
+more. The Medi&aelig;val Age had gathered up its departing energies for this
+last display of its favorite pastime&mdash;henceforth to be consigned,
+without regret, to "the mouldered lodges of the past."</p>
+
+<p>At the time that Henry set sail for Calais, Francis started from
+Montreuil for Ardres. It was a meagre old town, long since in ruins, the
+fosses and castle of which had been hastily repaired. He was attended on
+his route by a vast and motley multitude. No less than ten thousand of
+this poor vagrant crew were compelled to turn back, by a proclamation
+ordering that no person, without special permission, should approach
+within two leagues of the King's train, "on pain of the halter." As the
+French had proposed that both parties should lodge in tents erected on
+the field, they had prepared numerous pavilions, fitted up with halls,
+galleries, and chambers, ornamented within and without with gold and
+silver tissue. Amid golden balls and quaint devices glittering in the
+sun, rose a gilt figure of St. Michael, conspicuous for his blue mantle
+powdered with golden <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>, and crowning a royal pavilion, of
+vast dimensions, supported by a single mast. In his right hand he held a
+dart, in his left a shield emblazoned with the arms of France. Inside,
+the roof of the pavilion represented the canopy of heaven, ornamented
+with stars and figures of the zodiac. The lodgings of the Queen, of the
+Duchess of Alen&ccedil;on, the King's favorite sister, and of other ladies and
+princes of the blood were covered with cloth of gold. The rest of the
+tents, to the number of three hundred or four hundred, emblazoned with
+the arms of the owners, were pitched on the banks of a small river
+outside the city walls. A large house in the town, built for the
+occasion, served as a place of reception for royal visitors.</p>
+
+<p>From June 4, 1520, when Henry first entered Guines, the festivities
+continued with unabated splendor for twenty days. They were opened by a
+visit of Wolsey to the French King, and gave the Cardinal an opportunity
+for displaying his love of magnificence, not unaptly reckoned by poets
+and philosophers as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> the nearest virtue to magnanimity. A hundred
+archers of the guard, followed by fifty gentlemen of his household,
+clothed in crimson velvet with chains of gold, bareheaded, bonnet in
+hand, and mounted on magnificent horses richly caparisoned, led the way.
+After them came fifty gentlemen ushers, also bareheaded, carrying gold
+maces with knobs as big as a man's head; next a cross-bearer in scarlet,
+supporting a crucifix adorned with precious stones. Then four lackeys
+followed, with gilt b&acirc;tons and pole-axes, in paletots of crimson velvet,
+their bonnets in hand adorned with plumes, their coats ornamented before
+and behind with the Cardinal's badge in goldsmith's work. Lastly came
+the Legate himself, mounted on a barded mule trapped in crimson velvet,
+with gold front-stalls, studs, buckles, and stirrups. Over a chimere of
+figured crimson velvet he wore a fine linen rochet. Bishops and other
+ecclesiastics succeeded, and the whole procession was brought up by
+fifty archers of the King's guard, their bows bent, their quivers at
+their sides, their jackets of red cloth adorned with a gold rose before
+and behind.</p>
+
+<p>In this state the procession approached the town of Ardres. Arrived at
+the King's lodgings Wolsey dismounted, amid the roar of artillery and
+the sound of drums, trumpets, fifes, and other instruments of music. He
+was received by the King of France, bonnet in hand, with the greatest
+demonstrations of affection. The visit was returned next day by the
+French. These ceremonies were preliminary to the meeting of the two
+sovereigns on Thursday, June 7th. On that day, the King of England,
+apparelled in cloth of silver damask, thickly ribbed with cloth of gold,
+and mounted on a charger arrayed in the most dazzling trappings overlaid
+with fine gold and curiously wrought in mosaic, advanced toward the
+valley of Ardres. No man, from personal inclinations or personal
+qualities, was better calculated to sustain his part in a brilliant
+ceremonial such as then struck the eyes of the spectators. An admirable
+horseman, tall and muscular, slightly inclined to corpulence, with a red
+beard and ruddy countenance, Henry VIII was at this time, by the
+admission of his rivals, the most comely and commanding prince of his
+age. Closely attending on the King was Sir Henry Guilford, the master of
+the horse, leading a spare charger, not less splendidly arrayed in
+trappings of fine gold wrought in ciphers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> with headstall, reins, and
+saddle of the same material. Nine henchmen followed in cloth of tissue,
+the harness of their horses covered with gold scales. In front rode the
+old Marquis of Dorset, bearing the sword of estate before the King;
+behind came the Cardinal, the Dukes of Buckingham and Suffolk, with the
+Earl of Shrewsbury and others.</p>
+
+<p>A shot fired from the castle of Guines, and responded to by a shot from
+the castle of Ardre, gave warning that the two princes were ready to set
+forward. As Henry advanced toward the valley with all his company in
+military array, the French King might be descried on the opposite hill
+with his dazzling company, in dress, deportment, and the splendor of his
+retinue not less glorious or conspicuous than his rival. Over a short
+cassock of gold frieze he wore a mantle of cloth of gold covered with
+jewels. The front and the sleeves were studded with diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and large loose-hanging pearls; on his head he wore a velvet
+bonnet adorned with plumes and precious stones. Far in advance rode the
+provost-marshal with his archers to clear the ground. Then followed the
+marshals of the army in cloth of gold, their orders about their necks,
+mounted on horses covered with gold trappings; next the grand master,
+the princes of the blood, and the King of Navarre. After them came the
+Swiss guard on foot, in new liveries, with their drums, flutes,
+trumpets, clarions, and hautboys; then the gentlemen of the household;
+and immediately preceding the King was the grand constable, Bourbon,
+bearing the sword naked, and the <i>grand ecuyer</i>, with the sword of
+France, powdered with gold fleurs-de-lis.</p>
+
+<p>As the two companies approached each other, there was a momentary pause.
+The French watched with some jealousy the close array of the English
+footmen, who, stretched in a long line on the King's left, marched step
+for step with all the solemn gravity of their nation, as if they were
+rather preparing for battle than pastime, while, on the other side, the
+superior numbers of the French awakened the national jealousy of the
+Englishmen. "Sir, ye be my king and sovereign," broke in the lord
+Abergavenny in breathless haste; "wherefore, above all I am bound to
+show you truth, and not to let [stop] for none. I have been in the
+French party, and they may be more in number; double<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> so many as ye be."
+Then spoke up the Earl of Shrewsbury, "Sire, whatever my lord of
+Abergavenny sayeth, I myself have been there, and the Frenchmen be more
+in fear of you and your subjects than your subjects be of them.
+Wherefore," said the Earl, "if I were worthy to give counsel, your grace
+should march forward." "So we intend, my lord," replied the King. "On
+afore, my masters!" shouted the officers of arms; and the whole company
+halted, face foremost, close by the valley of Ardres.</p>
+
+<p>A minute's pause&mdash;a breathless silence, followed by a slight stir on
+both sides. Then from the dense array of cloth of gold, silver, and
+jewelry, of white plumes and waving pennons, amid the acclamations of
+myriads of spectators on the surrounding hills, and the shrill burst of
+pipes, trumpets, and clarions, two horsemen were seen to emerge, and, in
+the sight of both nations, slowly descend into the valley from opposite
+sides. These were the two sovereigns. As they approached nearer they
+spurred their horses to a gallop; then, uncovering, embraced each other
+on horseback, and, after dismounting, embraced again. While the two
+sovereigns proceeded arm in arm to a rich pavilion&mdash;which no one else
+was allowed to enter, except Wolsey on one side and the Admiral of
+France on the other&mdash;the officers on both sides, intermingling their
+ranks, made good cheer, and toasted each other in broken French and
+English, "Bons amys, French and English!"</p>
+
+<p>Friday and Saturday were occupied in preparing the field for the
+tournament. The lists, nine hundred feet in length and three hundred
+twenty feet broad, were pitched on a rising ground in the territory of
+Guines, about half way between Guines and Ardres. Galleries hung with
+tapestry surrounded the enclosure, and on the right side, in the place
+of honor, were two glazed chambers for the two Queens. A deep foss
+served to keep off the crowd. The entrances were guarded by twelve
+French and twelve English archers; and at the foot of the lists, under a
+triumphal arch, stood the <i>perron</i>, or tree of nobility, from which the
+shields of the two Kings were suspended on a higher line than those of
+the other challengers and answerers. The perron for Henry VIII was
+formed of a hawthorn; and for Francis I a raspberry (<i>framboisier</i>), in
+supposed allusion to his name. Cloth of gold served for the trunk and
+dried leaves; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> foliage was of green silk; the flowers and fruits of
+silver and Venetian gold. Under the tree, which measured in compass not
+less than one hundred twenty-nine feet, the heralds took their stand on
+an artificial mound, surrounded by railings of green damask.</p>
+
+<p>On Sunday, while the French King dined at Guines with the Queen of
+England, the English King dined with the French Queen and the Duchess of
+Alen&ccedil;on at Ardres. On arriving at the Queen's lodgings, Henry was
+received by Louis of Savoy and a bevy of ladies magnificently dressed.
+Passing slowly through their ranks, in leisurely admiration of their
+charms, he reached the apartment where the Queen attended his coming. As
+he made his reverence to the Queen, she rose from her chair of state to
+meet him. Kneeling with one knee on the ground, his bonnet in his hand,
+he first kissed the Queen, next Madame, then the Duchess of Alen&ccedil;on, and
+finally all the princesses and ladies of the company. This done, dinner
+was announced. At the third service, Mountjoy's herald entered with a
+great golden goblet, crying in the name of the King of England, "Largess
+to the most high, mighty, and excellent prince, Henry, King of England,
+etc. Largess, largess!" The banquet ended at five in the evening, when
+the King took his leave. To display his skill before the ladies, he set
+spurs to his horse, making it bound and curvet "as valiantly as any man
+could do."</p>
+
+<p>The jousts commenced on Monday, the 11th. The rules adopted to secure
+fair play and guard against accidents may be read by those curious in
+such matters in the original black-letter <i>Ordonnance</i>, printed at the
+time.</p>
+
+<p>On the first day the Kings of England and France, with their aids, held
+the lists against all comers; and, with the exception of Wednesday, when
+the wind was too high, the jousts continued without interruption
+throughout the week. On Sunday, the two Kings exchanged hospitality as
+before. On this occasion, Francis, dropping all reserve, visited the
+King of England before eight in the morning, attended by four companions
+only, and, entering his apartment without ceremony, embraced him as he
+was seated at breakfast. The jousts were concluded in the following
+week, with a solemn mass sung by the Cardinal in a chapel erected on the
+field. The arrangements observed on this occasion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> not less elaborate
+than those by which the feats of arms were regulated, may be read in the
+same volume as the <i>Ordonnance</i>. Here, as in the ceremonial of the
+lists, the spirit of chivalry reigned triumphant. When the Cardinal of
+Bourbon, according to the usages of the time, presented the Gospel to
+the French King to kiss, Francis, declining, commanded it to be offered
+to the King of England, who was too well bred to accept the honor. When
+the <i>Pax</i> was presented at the <i>Agnus Dei</i>, the two sovereigns repeated
+the same mannerly breeding. The two Queens were equally ceremonious.
+After a polite altercation of some minutes, when neither would decide
+who should be the first to kiss the <i>Pax</i>, woman-like they kissed each
+other instead. A sermon in Latin, enlarging on the blessings of peace,
+was delivered by Pace at the close of the service; and a salamander was
+sent up in the air in the direction of Guines, to the astonishment and
+terror of the beholders. The whole was concluded with a banquet, at
+which the royal ladies, too polite to eat, spent their time in
+conversation; but the legates, cardinals, and prelates dined, drank, and
+ate <i>sans fiction</i> in another room by themselves.</p>
+
+<p>On Sunday, June 24th, the Kings met in the lists to interchange gifts
+and bid each other farewell. Henry and his court left for Calais;
+Francis returned to Abbeville.</p>
+
+<p>The two Kings parted on the best of terms, as the world thought, and
+with mutual feelings of regret. Yet Henry had already arranged to meet
+the Emperor at Gravelines, there settle the terms of a new convention,
+to the disadvantage of the French King. The imperial envoy, the Marquis
+d'Arschot, arrived at Calais on July 4th, and was received by the Duke
+of Buckingham. On the 5th the King visited Gravelines, and returned with
+the Emperor to Calais three days after. The interview, graced by the
+presence of Charles, his brother Ferdinand, Herman, the Archbishop of
+Cologne, and the Lord Chi&egrave;vres, though less splendid, was more cordial
+than the interview with the French King, and was meant for business.</p>
+
+<p>Frugal and reserved, the Emperor contrived, by his simple and
+unostentatious habits, to render himself more agreeable to his English
+guests than even Francis had been able to do with all his profuse and
+expensive civilities. Not, as some may condemn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> us, in consequence of
+our national fickleness; nor, as others may excuse us, because
+Englishmen preferred the plainer manners of the German or the Fleming;
+but because in the interview with Francis, in spite of appearances,
+there was no real cordiality. A tournament, in fact, was the least
+eligible method of promoting friendly feeling; it was more likely to
+engender unpleasant disputes and jealousies. To enforce the rules laid
+down for preserving order and fair play among the combatants was not an
+easy or a popular task. National rivalry was apt to break out, and it
+was hard for the judges to escape the imputation of partiality. Nor did
+the English, it must be admitted, return from the field in much good
+humor. With a feeling of complacency engendered by their insular
+position and their long isolation from the Continent, they had been wont
+to consider themselves as far superior to the French in all exercises of
+strength and agility. The French knights had shown themselves fully
+equal to their English opponents; the French King was not inferior in
+personal courage and activity to his English rival. Then rumors, such as
+spring up like the dragon's teeth in vast and motley multitudes,
+evidently fanned and fostered by Flemish emissaries, continually
+represented the French as engaged in contriving some act of treachery
+against the English King and nation. Among the nobles, also, the Dukes
+of Suffolk and Buckingham, the lord Abergavenny, and others were glad of
+any pretext for maligning a pageant of which Wolsey had the prime
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>Francis still hovered on the frontier in the fruitless hope of being
+invited to take part in this interview with the Emperor. The day before
+Charles left Ghent, the Lady Vend&ocirc;me and the Duchess her daughter-in-law
+contrived to have business in that town, but their artifice was not
+successful. Francis was obliged to content himself with the assurance
+that the visage and countenance of his English ally appeared "not to be
+so replenished with joy" as at the valley of Ardres, and that he had
+given proofs of undiminished affection by riding a courser that Francis
+had given him. With an impressiveness intended to be candid, he told Sir
+Richard Wingfield, who had succeeded as English resident at the French
+court, that "if the King Catholic were a prince of like faith unto the
+King his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> brother [Henry], and that he might perceive from Wolsey that
+his coming thither [to Calais] might be the cause of any good conclusion
+between them" (that is, between himself and the Emperor), "he would not
+fail to come in post, and not to have looked for rank and place to him
+belonging, but would have put him into the King's chamber as one of the
+number of the same." But neither his extreme humility nor his flattering
+proposal that Henry and himself, "the chief pillars of Christendom,"
+should handle the Pope, whom Francis knew "to be at some season the
+fearfulest creature of the world, and at some other to be as brave," nor
+the schemes and blandishments of the ladies, availed. He chafed under
+disappointment; still more at his ill-success in counteracting the
+growing intimacy of Henry and the Emperor. He had exhausted, to little
+purpose, "that liberal and unsuspicious confidence" which too credulous
+historians are apt to think characterized his proceedings at the Field
+of the Cloth of Gold, to the disadvantage of his less attractive and
+engaging contemporary. He could neither prevent the meetings of his two
+rivals nor penetrate their secrets. He was utterly foiled, yet dared not
+show his resentment. While the Pope and the Spaniards, unable to
+penetrate beneath the surface or read the signs of the times, were
+puzzled and scandalized at the Emperor's condescension, the world looked
+on with astonishment, as well it might, to see the two monarchs of the
+West thus anxiously soliciting the Cardinal's good graces. What could
+there be in the son of a butcher to command such deference?</p>
+
+<p>Of the projects discussed at this interview we are not precisely
+informed. The English version, intended for the meridian of the French
+court, and to lull the suspicions of Francis, is the only account we
+possess. If any credit be due to a statement prepared under such
+circumstances and calculated to alienate the French King irrecoverably
+from the Emperor, we are to believe that the imperial ambassadors had
+already proposed to Henry to break off his matrimonial engagement with
+France, and transfer the hand of the princess Mary to the Emperor. As an
+inducement for the King to coincide in this arrangement, the Emperor
+undertook to make war on France by sea and land, and not desist until
+Henry "had recovered his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> right and title in the same." The King,
+according to the same document, rejected such a treacherous overture
+with the utmost horror, vehemently protesting against its immorality and
+perfidiousness. That such a proposal was made, though probably not by
+Chi&egrave;vres, to whom it is attributed&mdash;that it was accepted by England, but
+with none of the indignation described in the document&mdash;is clear beyond
+dispute. Long before any interruption had occurred in the amicable
+relations between the two countries, before even the landing of Charles
+at Canterbury, or in the interview in the valley of Ardres, it had been
+secretly proposed that the French engagement should be set aside, and
+the hand of Mary be transferred to the Emperor. The King's horror at
+this act of faithlessness&mdash;if it had any existence beyond the paper on
+which it was written&mdash;must have been tardy and gratuitous, seeing that
+the chief purpose of the meeting at Calais was to settle the basis of
+this matrimonial alliance, and obtain the solemn ratification of the
+Emperor.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CORT&Eacute;S CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1521</h4>
+
+<h3>WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Spain had already begun to conquer and colonize the New
+World when in 1519 Hernando Cort&eacute;s, with about 700 men,
+landed in Mexico, having previously served in Espa&ntilde;ola
+(Haiti) and Cuba. He was born in Medellin, Estremadura,
+Spain, in 1485, and was therefore now about thirty-four
+years of age. To make the retreat of his force impossible,
+he destroyed his ships and marched into the interior and
+established himself in the capital city, Tenochtitlan, on
+the site of the present city of Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Cort&eacute;s found Southern Mexico under the rule of the Aztecs
+(more correctly Aztecas), a partly civilized and powerful
+branch of Nahuatl Indians of Central Mexico. They had formed
+a confederacy with other tribes, and now maintained a
+formidable empire in the Mexican valley plateau. Their
+emperor was Montezuma II, who sent messengers to remonstrate
+against the advance of Cort&eacute;s. The Spaniard continued his
+march, entered the city, and soon made Montezuma his
+prisoner, holding him as a hostage. In June, 1520, the
+Spaniards were besieged in the city; during a parley
+Montezuma was killed; on the night of the 30th the
+Spaniards, while trying to leave the city, lost half their
+men in a severe fight, and only after another battle (July
+7th) escaped into Tlascala.</p>
+
+<p>Reorganizing his force, strengthened by Indian allies and by
+ships which he built on the lakes, Cort&eacute;s, in May, 1521,
+began the siege of Mexico, as historians call the Aztec
+capital. Guatemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, made a
+desperate defence, and before its capture the city was
+almost destroyed. On August 12th the Spaniards made a strong
+assault, which so weakened the defenders that the following
+day was to be the last of the once flourishing empire.
+Cort&eacute;s' chief lieutenants were Pedro de Alvarado, Gonzalo de
+Sandoval, and Olid, famous Spanish soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>After taking the capital city, Cortes, being empowered by
+Guatemotzin, conquered the whole of Mexico, which was called
+New Spain, and in 1523 he was appointed governor.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>On the morning of August 13, 1521, the Spanish commander again mustered
+his forces, having decided to follow up the blow of the preceding day
+before the enemy should have time to rally, and at once to put an end to
+the war. He had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> arranged with Alvarado, on the evening previous, to
+occupy the market-place of Tlatelolco; and the discharge of an arquebuse
+was to be the signal for a simultaneous assault. Sandoval was to hold
+the northern causeway, and, with the fleet, to watch the movements of
+the Indian Emperor and to intercept the flight to the mainland, which
+Cort&eacute;s knew he meditated. To allow him to effect this would be to leave
+a formidable enemy in his own neighborhood, who might at any time kindle
+the flame of insurrection throughout the country. He ordered Sandoval,
+however, to do no harm to the royal person, and not to fire on the enemy
+at all except in self-defence.</p>
+
+<p>It was the day of St. Hippolytus&mdash;from this circumstance selected as the
+patron saint of modern Mexico&mdash;that Cort&eacute;s led his warlike array for the
+last time across the black and blasted environs which lay around the
+Indian capital. On entering the Aztec precincts he paused, willing to
+afford its wretched inmates one more chance of escape before striking
+the fatal blow. He obtained an interview with some of the principal
+chiefs, and expostulated with them on the conduct of their Prince. "He
+surely will not," said the general, "see you all perish, when he can
+easily save you." He then urged them to prevail on Guatemotzin to hold a
+conference with him, repeating the assurances of his personal safety.</p>
+
+<p>The messengers went on their mission, and soon returned with the
+Cihuacoatl at their head, a magistrate of high authority among the
+Mexicans. He said, with a melancholy air, in which his own
+disappointment was visible, that "Guatemotzin was ready to die where he
+was, but would hold no interview with the Spanish commander"; adding in
+a tone of resignation, "It is for you to work your pleasure." "Go,
+then," replied the stern conqueror, "and prepare your countrymen for
+death. Their hour is come."</p>
+
+<p>He still postponed the assault for several hours. But the impatience of
+his troops at this delay was heightened by the rumor that Guatemotzin
+and his nobles were preparing to escape with their effects in the
+periaguas and canoes which were moored on the margin of the lake.
+Convinced of the fruitlessness and impolicy of further procrastination,
+Cort&eacute;s made his final dispositions for the attack, and took his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+station on an azotea which commanded the theatre of operations.</p>
+
+<p>When the assailants came into the presence of the enemy, they found them
+huddled together in the utmost confusion, all ages and both sexes, in
+masses so dense that they nearly forced one another over the brink of
+the causeways into the water below. Some had climbed on the terraces,
+others feebly supported themselves against the walls of the buildings.
+Their squalid and tattered garments gave a wildness to their appearance
+which still further heightened the ferocity of their expression, as they
+glared on their enemy with eyes in which hate was mingled with despair.
+When the Spaniards had approached within bow-shot, the Aztecs let off a
+flight of impotent missiles, showing to the last the resolute spirit,
+though they had lost the strength, of their better days. The fatal
+signal was then given by the discharge of an arquebuse&mdash;speedily
+followed by peals of heavy ordnance, the rattle of fire-arms, and the
+hellish shouts of the confederates as they sprang upon their victims.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to stain the page with a repetition of the horrors of
+the preceding day. Some of the wretched Aztecs threw themselves into the
+water and were picked up by the canoes. Others sank and were suffocated
+in the canals. The number of these became so great that a bridge was
+made of their dead bodies, over which the assailants could climb to the
+opposite banks. Others again, especially the women, begged for mercy,
+which, as the chroniclers assure us, was everywhere granted by the
+Spaniards, and, contrary to the instructions and entreaties of Cort&eacute;s,
+everywhere refused by the confederates.</p>
+
+<p>While this work of butchery was going on, numbers were observed pushing
+off in the barks that lined the shore, and making the best of their way
+across the lake. They were constantly intercepted by the brigantines,
+which broke the flimsy array of boats, sending off their volleys to the
+right and left as the crews of the latter hotly assailed them. The
+battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. Many of the Indian
+vessels were shattered and overturned. Some few, however, under cover of
+smoke, which rolled darkly over the waters, succeeded in clearing
+themselves of the turmoil, and were fast nearing the opposite shore.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+Sandoval had particularly charged his captains to keep an eye on the
+movements of any vessel in which it was at all probable that Guatemotzin
+might be concealed. At this crisis, three or four of the largest
+periaguas were seen skimming over the water and making their way rapidly
+across the lake. A captain, named Garci Holguin, who had command of one
+of the best sailors in the fleet, instantly gave them chase. The wind
+was favorable, and every moment he gained on the fugitives, who pulled
+their oars with a vigor that despair alone could have given. But it was
+in vain; and after a short race, Holguin, coming alongside of one of the
+periaguas, which, whether from its appearance or from information he had
+received, he conjectured might bear the Indian Emperor, ordered his men
+to level their cross-bows at the boat. But, before they could discharge
+them a cry arose from those in it that their lord was on board. At the
+same moment a young warrior, armed with buckler and <i>maquahuitl</i>, rose
+up, as if to beat off the assailants. But, as the Spanish captain
+ordered his men not to shoot, he dropped his weapons and exclaimed: "I
+am Guatemotzin. Lead me to Malintzin;<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> I am his prisoner, but let no
+harm come to my wife and my followers."</p>
+
+<p>Holguin assured him that his wishes should be respected, and assisted
+him to get on board the brigantine, followed by his wife and attendants.
+These were twenty in number, consisting of Coanaco, the deposed Lord of
+Tlacopan, the Lord of Tlacopan, and several other caciques and
+dignitaries, whose rank, probably, had secured them some exemption from
+the general calamities of the siege. When the captives were seated on
+the deck of the vessel Holguin requested the Aztec Prince to put an end
+to the combat by commanding his people in the other canoes to surrender.
+But with a dejected air he replied: "It is not necessary. They will
+fight no longer when they see their Prince is taken." He spoke the
+truth. The news of Guatemotzin's capture spread rapidly through the
+fleet and on shore, where the Mexicans were still engaged in conflict
+with their enemies. It ceased, however, at once. They made no further
+resistance; and those on the water quickly followed the brigantines,
+which conveyed their captive monarch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> to land. It seemed as if the fight
+had been maintained thus long the better to divert the enemy's attention
+and cover their master's retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Sandoval, on receiving tidings of the capture, brought his
+own brigantine alongside of Holguin's and demanded the royal prisoner to
+be surrendered to him. But the captain claimed him as his prize. A
+dispute arose between the parties, each anxious to have the glory of the
+deed, and perhaps the privilege of commemorating it on his escutcheon.
+The controversy continued so long that it reached the ears of Cort&eacute;s,
+who, in his station on the azotea, had learned with no little
+satisfaction the capture of his enemy. He instantly sent orders to his
+wrangling officers to bring Guatemotzin before him, that he might adjust
+the difference between them. He charged them, at the same time, to treat
+their prisoner with respect. He then made preparations for the
+interview, caused the terrace to be carpeted with crimson cloth and
+matting, and a table to be spread with provisions, of which the unhappy
+Aztecs stood so much in need. His lovely Indian mistress, Do&ntilde;a Marina,
+was present to act as interpreter. She stood by his side through all the
+troubled scenes of the conquest, and she was there now to witness its
+triumphant termination.</p>
+
+<p>Guatemotzin, on landing, was escorted by a company of infantry to the
+presence of the Spanish commander. He mounted the azotea with a calm and
+steady step, and was easily to be distinguished from his attendant
+nobles, though his full, dark eye was no longer lighted up with its
+accustomed fire, and his features wore an expression of passive
+resignation, that told little of the fierce and fiery spirit that burned
+within. His head was large, his limbs well proportioned, his complexion
+fairer than that of his bronze-colored nation, and his whole deportment
+singularly mild and engaging.</p>
+
+<p>Cort&eacute;s came forward with a dignified and studied courtesy to receive
+him. The Aztec monarch probably knew the person of his conqueror, for he
+first broke silence by saying: "I have done all that I could to defend
+myself and my people. I am now reduced to this state. You will deal with
+me, Malintzin, as you list." Then, laying his hand on the hilt of a
+poniard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> stuck in the General's belt, he added with vehemence, "Better
+despatch me with this, and rid me of life at once." Cort&eacute;s was filled
+with admiration at the proud bearing of the young barbarian, showing in
+his reverses a spirit worthy of an ancient Roman. "Fear not," he
+replied; "you shall be treated with all honor. You have defended your
+capital like a brave warrior. A Spaniard knows how to respect valor even
+in an enemy." He then inquired of him where he had left the Princess his
+wife; and, being informed that she still remained under protection of a
+Spanish guard on board the brigantine, the General sent to have her
+escorted to his presence.</p>
+
+<p>She was the youngest daughter of Montezuma, and was hardly yet on the
+verge of womanhood. On the accession of her cousin Guatemotzin to the
+throne, she had been wedded to him as his lawful wife. She is celebrated
+by her contemporaries for her personal charms; and the beautiful
+Princess Tecuichpo is still commemorated by the Spaniards, since from
+her by a subsequent marriage are descended some of the illustrious
+families of their own nation. She was kindly received by Cort&eacute;s, who
+showed her the respectful attentions suited to her rank. Her birth, no
+doubt, gave her an additional interest in his eyes, and he may have felt
+some touch of compunction as he gazed on the daughter of the unfortunate
+Montezuma. He invited his royal captives to partake of the refreshments
+which their exhausted condition rendered so necessary. Meanwhile the
+Spanish commander made his dispositions for the night, ordering Sandoval
+to escort the prisoners to Cojohuacan, whither he proposed himself
+immediately to follow. The other captains, Olid and Alvarado, were to
+draw off their forces to their respective quarters.</p>
+
+<p>It was impossible for them to continue in the capital, where the
+poisonous effluvia from the unburied carcasses loaded the air with
+infection. A small guard only was stationed to keep order in the wasted
+suburbs. It was the hour of vespers when Guatemotzin surrendered, and
+the siege might be considered as then concluded. The evening set in
+dark, and the rain began to fall before the several parties had
+evacuated the city.</p>
+
+<p>During the night a tremendous tempest, such as the Spaniards had rarely
+witnessed, and such as is known only within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> the tropics, burst over the
+Mexican valley. The thunder, reverberating from the rocky amphitheatre
+of hills, bellowed over the waste of waters, and shook the <i>teocallis</i>
+and crazy tenements of Tenochtitlan&mdash;the few that yet survived&mdash;to their
+foundations. The lightning seemed to cleave asunder the vault of heaven,
+as its vivid flashes wrapped the whole scene in a ghastly glare for a
+moment, to be again swallowed up in darkness. The war of elements was in
+unison with the fortunes of the ruined city. It seemed as if the deities
+of Anahuac,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> scared from their ancient bodies, were borne along
+shrieking and howling in the blast, as they abandoned the fallen capital
+to its fate.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> A name given by the Indians to Cort&eacute;s.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The low water-bordered coastal region of Mexico. The name
+is now applied to a part of the table-land near the city of
+Mexico.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIBERATION OF SWEDEN</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1523</h4>
+
+<h3>ERIC GUSTAVE GEIJER<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Gustavus Vasa, son of Eric Johanson, and hence called
+Gustavus Ericson, was descended from the house of Vasa, and
+before the beginning of his long reign (1523-1560) as king
+of Sweden had served his country against the Danes, who were
+the controlling power in the union with Sweden and Norway.
+In a battle fought at the Brennkirk, July 22, 1518,
+Gustavus, then twenty-two years old, bore the Swedish
+banner. This battle resulted in the defeat of Christian II
+of Denmark. Gustavus was given as a hostage to Christian
+during his interview with the Swedish administrator, and the
+Dane treacherously carried the young patriot off to Denmark.
+In the following year he escaped in the disguise of a
+peasant.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden was conquered by Christian in 1520, and in the same
+year, having taken Stockholm, he ordered there the massacre
+of the nobility, known as the "Blood-bath." Ninety of the
+leading men of Sweden, including the father of Gustavus,
+were put to death. This outrage provoked an uprising, in
+which the province of Dalecarlia bore the leading part, and
+its people followed Gustavus in a movement for independence.
+He soon gathered an army of his adherents, called
+"Dalesmen"&mdash;men of the dales&mdash;strong enough to meet the
+enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus Vasa is not only famed as the deliverer of Sweden,
+but also as the promoter of popular education in his
+country, and for the support which he gave to the
+Reformation, he himself having early embraced the doctrines
+of Luther.</p>
+
+<p>The heroic aspects of this Scandinavian patriot and King
+have alike endeared his memory to his own people and made
+his fame to endure in the world annals of mankind. His last
+appearance and address before the estates of his kingdom, in
+the closing year of his life, have been finely commemorated
+in art, with a commingling of power and pathos, the aged
+monarch taking leave of his people and his throne. "He took
+his place in the hall of assemblage, accompanied by all his
+sons. The King having saluted the estates, they listened for
+the last time to the accents of that eloquence so well liked
+by the people."</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;">
+<img src="images/img2.jpg" width="312" height="500" alt="Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the
+Estates" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the
+Estates<br /><br />
+
+Painting by L. Hersent</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<img src="images/img1.jpg" width="380" height="500" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The most influential yeomen of all the parishes in the eastern and
+western dales elected Gustavus to be "lord and chieftain over them and
+the commons of the realm of Sweden." Some scholars who had arrived from
+Westeras brought with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> them new accounts of the tyranny of Christian.
+Gustavus placed them amid a ring of peasants to tell their story and
+answer the questions of the crowd. Old men represented it as a
+comfortable sign for the people, that as often as Gustavus discoursed to
+them the north wind always blew, "which was an old token to them that
+God would grant them good success." Sixteen active peasants were
+appointed to be his bodyguard; and two hundred more youths who joined
+him were called his foot-goers. The chronicles reckon his reign from
+this small beginning; while the Danes and their abettors in Stockholm
+long continued to speak of him and his party as a band of robbers in the
+woods.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Dalesmen swore fidelity to Gustavus&mdash;the inhabitants, namely,
+of the upper parishes on both arms of the Dal-elf, where a numerous
+people, living amid wild yet grand natural scenery and hardened by
+privations, is still known by that name. Gustavus came to the Kopparberg
+with several hundred men in the early part of February, 1521, there took
+prisoner his enemy Christopher Olson, the powerful warden of the mines,
+made himself master of the money collected for the crown dues, and of
+the wares of the Danish traders on the spot, distributed both the money
+and goods among his men&mdash;who made their first standard from the silk
+stuffs there taken&mdash;and then returned to the Dales. Not long afterward,
+on a Sunday, when the people of the Kopparberg were at church, Gustavus
+again appeared at the head of fifteen hundred Dalesmen. He spoke to the
+people after divine service, and now the miners likewise swore fidelity
+to his cause. Thereupon the commonalty of the mining districts and the
+Dalesmen wrote to the commons of Helsingland, requesting that the
+Helsingers might bear themselves like true Swedish men against the
+overbearing violence and tyranny of the Danes. Those cruelties which
+King Christian had already exercised on the best in the land, they said,
+would soon reach every man's door and fill all the houses of Sweden with
+the tears and shrieks of widows and orphans; if they would take up arms
+and show themselves to be stout-hearted men, there was now good hope for
+victory and triumph under a praiseworthy captain, the lord Gustavus
+Ericson, whom God had preserved "as a drop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> of the knightly blood of
+Sweden"; wherefore they begged them to give their help for the sake of
+the brotherly league by which, since early times, the commonalty of both
+countries had been united.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years afterward, the Dalecarlians recall the fact that they had
+received a friendly answer to the request which their accredited
+messengers had preferred on that occasion, and that their neighbors the
+Helsingers had promised to stand by them as one man, "whatever evils
+might befall them from the oppression of foreign or native masters."
+When Gustavus had begun the siege of Stockholm, every third man of the
+Helsingers in fact marched thither to strengthen his army. Yet at first
+they hesitated to embrace the cause, although Gustavus himself went
+among them, and spoke to the assembled people from the barrow on the
+royal domain of Norrala. Thence he proceeded to Gestricland, where
+fugitives from Stockholm had already prepared men's minds. The burghers
+of Gefle, and commissioners from several parishes, swore fidelity to him
+in the name of the whole province. Here the rumor reached him that the
+Dalecarlians had already suffered a defeat; he hastened back, and soon
+received an account of the first victory of his followers.</p>
+
+<p>Letters of the magistracy of Stockholm, which were sent over the whole
+kingdom, warned the people to avoid all participation in the revolt.
+Relief was supplicated from the King; additions were made to the
+fortifications of the capital, sloops and barks were equipped, in order,
+as it was said, to deprive "Gustavus Ericson and his company of
+malefactors of all opportunity of quitting the country," but really to
+keep the approaches on the side of the sea open, which were obstructed
+by the fishers and peasants of the islets, who had begun to take arms
+for Gustavus. Special admonitory letters were despatched to Helsingland
+and Dalecarlia, signed by Gustavus Trolle, his father Eric Trolle, and
+Canute Bennetson (Sparre) of Engsoe, styling themselves the council of
+the realm of Sweden, by which, however, say the chronicles, the royal
+cause was rather damaged than strengthened. "For when the Dalesmen and
+miners heard the letter, they said it was manifest to them that the
+council at this time was but small and thin, since it consisted of only
+three men, and these of little weight."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> Gustavus Trolle, the Danish
+bishops, Canute Bennetson, above named, and Henry of Mellen, the King's
+lieutenant at Westeras&mdash;where they had recently been assembled with
+commissioners from the magistracy of Stockholm by Bishop Otho&mdash;now
+marched with six thousand men of horse and foot toward the Dal River,
+and encamped at the ferry of Brunback. On the other side the
+Dalecarlians guarded this frontier of their country, under the command
+of Peter Swenson of Viderboda, a powerful miner, whom Gustavus had
+appointed their captain in his absence. When those in the Danish camp
+observed how the Dalesmen shot their arrows across the stream, Bishop
+Beldenacke is said to have inquired of the Swedish lords present&mdash;to use
+the words of the chronicles&mdash;"how great a force the tract above the Long
+Wood (the forest on the boundary between Westmanland and Dalecarlia)
+could furnish at the utmost?" Answer was made to him, full twenty
+thousand men. Yet further he asked where so many mouths might obtain
+sustenance? To this it was replied that the people were not used to
+dainty meats; they drunk for the most part nothing but water, and, if
+need were, could be satisfied with bark-bread. Then Beldenacke declared:
+"Men who eat wood and drink water the devil himself could not overcome,
+much less anyone else. Brethren, let us leave this place!" The story
+makes the Danes hereupon prepare for breaking up their encampment.
+However this may be, it is certain that Peter Swenson, with the
+Dalesmen, crossed the Dal secretly, by a circuit, at Utsund's Ferry,
+surprised the camp, and put the foe to rout.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus had himself dealt with the inhabitants of Helsingland and
+Gestricland, in order to insure himself against leaving foes in the
+rear, and, after his return to the Dales, he prepared for an expedition
+into the lower country. He assembled his troops at Hedemora, and sought
+to inure them to habits of order and obedience by military exercises.
+The dale peasant had no fire-arms and knew little of discipline; his
+weapons were the axe, the bow, the pike, and the sling, the latter
+sometimes throwing pieces of red-hot iron. Gustavus instructed his men
+to fashion their arrows in a more effective shape, and increased the
+length of the spear by four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> or five feet, with a view to repel the
+attacks of cavalry. He caused monetary tokens to be struck&mdash;an expedient
+which seems to have been not uncommon in Sweden, since, from a remote
+period, even leather money is mentioned. The coins now struck at
+Hedemora were of copper, with a small admixture of silver, similar to
+those introduced by the King, and called "Christian's klippings;" on one
+side was the impress of an armed man; on the other, arrows laid
+crosswise, with three crowns.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus broke from his quarters, and marched across the Long Wood into
+Westmanland. His course lay through districts which bore traces yet
+fresh of the enemy's passage. The peasantry rose as he advanced. On St.
+George's Day, April 23d, he mustered his army at the church of
+Romfertuna. The number is stated by the chronicles at from fifteen to
+twenty thousand men, yet on the correctness of this little reliance can
+be placed, even if we did not absolutely class this account with those
+which compare the multitude of Dalesmen in the fight of Brunneback to
+the sands of the sea-shore and the leaves of the forest, and their
+arrows to the hail of the storm-cloud. The liberation of Sweden by
+Gustavus Vasa is a history written by the people, and they counted
+neither themselves nor their foes. The army was now divided under two
+generals, Lawrence Olaveson and Lawrence Ericson, both practised
+warriors. Gustavus next issued his declaration of war against Christian,
+and marched to Westeras. He expected here to be met by the peasants of
+the western mining district from Lindesberg and Nora, who had already
+taken the oath of fidelity to him through his deputies; but instead of
+this he was informed that Peter Ugla, one of those intrusted with the
+performance of this duty, had allowed himself to be surprised at Koping,
+and cut to pieces with his whole force. On the other hand, tidings
+arrived that the peasants on Wermd Isle had revolted, slain a band of
+Christian's men in the church itself, and made themselves masters of two
+of his ships. The letters conveying the news, and magnifying the
+advantages gained, Gustavus caused to be read aloud to his followers.</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Slagheck, exercising power with barbarous cruelty and outrage,
+had himself taken the command of the castle of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> Westeras. He caused all
+the fences of the neighborhood to be broken down, in order to be able to
+use his cavalry without impediment against the insurgent peasants, who,
+on April 29th, approached the town. Both horsemen and foot, with
+field-pieces, marched against them; and Gustavus, who had interdicted
+his men from engaging in a contest with the enemy, intending to defer
+the attack till the following day, was still at Balundsas, half a mile
+from the town, when news reached him that his young soldiers were
+already at blows with their adversaries, and he hastened to their
+assistance. The Dalecarlians opposed their long pikes to the onset of
+the cavalry with such effect that, more than four hundred horses having
+perished in the assault, they were driven back on the infantry, who were
+posted in their rear, and compelled to flee along with them, while
+Lawrence Ericson pushed into the town by a circuitous road and possessed
+himself of the enemy's artillery in the market-place. When the garrison
+of the castle observed this, they set fire to the houses by shooting
+their combustibles, and burned the greatest part of the town. The miners
+and peasants dispersed to extinguish the flames or to plunder, bartered
+with one another the goods of the traders in the booths, possessed
+themselves of the stock of wine in the cathedral and the council-house,
+seated themselves round the vats, drank and sang. The Danes, re&euml;nforced
+from the castle, rallied anew, and the victory would undoubtedly have
+been changed into an overthrow had not Gustavus sent Lawrence Olaveson,
+with the followers he had kept about him, again into the town, where,
+after a renewal of the conflict, the foe was put to an utter rout. Many
+cast away their arms, and threw themselves, between fire and sword, into
+the waters. Gustavus caused all the stores of spirituous liquors to be
+destroyed, and beat in the wine casks with his own hand.</p>
+
+<p>The fight of Westeras, from its influence on public opinion, acquired
+greater importance than of itself it would have possessed. Little was
+gained by the conquest of the town, so long as the castle held out; and
+how unserviceable a force of peasants was for a siege, Gustavus was
+often subsequently to experience. Wherever the tidings of his victory
+came, the people revolted, and he was already enabled to divide his
+power, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> to invest the castles of several provinces. Siege was
+accordingly laid to Stegborg, Nykoping, and Orebro. A division of the
+Vermelanders, with the peasants of Rekarne, in Sudermania, was employed
+in beleaguering the castle of Westeras; of whose exploits, however,
+nothing else is told than that they shot the councillor Canute Bennetson
+(Sparre), to whom Slagheck transferred the command, so that he tumbled
+in his wolfskin coat from the wall into the stream. Howbeit, another
+detachment reduced Horningsholm in Sudermania; Christian's governors in
+Vermeland and Dalsland were slain; the people of the former province,
+under the command of their justiciary, prepared for an attack upon the
+councillor Thure Jonson, the King's lieutenant in West-Gothland, and,
+crossing Lake Vener, entered that district.</p>
+
+<p>In Dalsland, fifteen hundred men took up arms; several thousand peasants
+from Nerike marched across the Tiwed with the same object. Gustavus had
+been obliged to grant a furlough to his Dalesmen about seed-time; and to
+supply their place he caused the people of several districts of Upland
+to be summoned to assemble in the forest of Rymningen, at
+&#338;resundsbro; from which point his two captains essayed an attack upon
+the Archbishop of Upsala. It was St. Eric's Day (May 18th), and a great
+confluence of people was present at the fair. An assault was expected;
+for a deputation of four priests and two burgesses, sent from Upsala to
+the forest, had received from the leaders the answer that it must be
+Swedes, not outlandish men, who should bear the shrine of holy Eric, and
+that they would come to take their part in the festival. Bennet Bjugg
+(Barley), the Archbishop's bailiff, to show his contempt of such foes,
+caused a banquet to be set out in the open space between the larger and
+smaller episcopal manor houses of that day, where, before the eyes of
+the people, he made himself and his fellows merry till late in the night
+with drinking, dancing, and singing. Roused from a late sleep by an
+assault on the gates of the fortified house, and finding it beset by the
+enemy, they attempted to escape by a concealed passage, which then
+connected the Bishop's house with the cathedral. But the peasants set
+fire to this passage, which was of wood, and shot fire arrows at the
+roof of the episcopal residence, in which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> the flames soon burst forth.
+The building was laid in ashes, and next day the females of the
+household, with some burghers of Upsala, crept out of its cellars, in
+which they had taken refuge. Great part of the garrison perished. The
+bailiff escaped with a wound from an arrow, of which he died after
+rejoining his master at Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>This prelate, Archbishop Gustavus Trolle, had lately returned from a
+journey to Helsingland, undertaken in order to retain this part of his
+diocese in its allegiance to the King. Shortly afterward he received, by
+a messenger from Gustavus, who had himself come to Upsala at
+Whitsuntide, a letter exhorting him to embrace the cause of his country,
+to which his chapter had been persuaded to annex a memorial to the same
+effect. The Archbishop detained the messenger, saying that he would
+carry the answer himself. He broke up immediately with five hundred
+German horse and three thousand foot of the garrison of Stockholm, and
+had come within half a mile of Upsala before Gustavus received
+intelligence of his approach. This the latter did not at first credit,
+but remained, expecting an answer to his overture of negotiation, until,
+about six in the morning, being on horseback upon the sand-hill near
+Upsala, the spot where he afterward built a royal castle, he saw the
+Archbishop marching across the King's Mead (Kungsang) toward the town.
+Gustavus had but two hundred of his so-called foot-goers and a small
+number of horse with him, for the peasants had returned to their homes.
+He made a hasty retreat, but was overtaken by Trolle's horsemen at the
+Ford of Laby. Here a young Finnish noble, who was next to him, in the
+confusion rode down his horse in the midst of the stream; and he would
+have been lost had not the rest of his followers turned upon the enemy
+with such effect as to make them desist from the pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus now betook himself to the forest of Rymningen, raised the
+peasantry of the adjoining districts, and sent out young men under his
+best captains to surprise the Archbishop on his return. The remains of
+cattle slaughtered on the road betrayed the ambush to the prelate, who
+drew off in another direction. He was nevertheless overtaken and
+attacked, escaping the spear of Lawrence Olaveson only by bending
+downward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> on his horse, so that the weapon pierced his neighbor; and he
+brought back to Stockholm hardly a sixth part of his army. Gustavus
+followed close after with his collected force, and encamped under the
+Brunkeberg. Four gibbets on this eminence, stocked with corpses of
+Swedish inhabitants, attested the character of the government in the
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>Thus began, at the midsummer of 1521, the siege of Stockholm, which was
+to last full two years, amid difficulties little thought of nowadays,
+after the lapse of ages; and the admiration which men so willingly
+render to the exertions in the cause of freedom have deprived events of
+their original colors. The path of Gustavus was not in general one of
+glittering feats, although his life is in itself one grand achievement.
+What he accomplished was the effect of strong endurance and great
+sagacity; and though he wanted not for intrepidity, it was of a kind
+before which the mere warrior must vail his crest. All the remaining
+movements of the war of liberation consist in sieges of the various
+castles and fortresses of the country, undertaken as opportunity
+offered, with levies of the peasantry, whose detachments relieved each
+other, though sometimes neglecting this duty when pressed by the cares
+or necessities of their own families. Hence the object of these
+investments, which was to deprive the besieged of provisions, could only
+be imperfectly attained, and there were many fortified mansions of which
+the proprietors adhered to the Danish party, as that of Wik in Upland,
+which remained blockaded throughout the whole year. These difficulties
+were the most formidable where, as at Stockholm, access was open by the
+sea, of which Severin Norby, with the Danish squadron, was master. The
+scantiness of the means of attack may be discovered from the
+circumstance that sixty German spearmen, whom Clement Rensel, a burgher
+of Stockholm, himself a narrator of these events, brought from Dantzic
+in July for the service of Gustavus, were regarded as a re&euml;nforcement of
+the highest importance. "At this time," says the chronicle, "Lord
+Gustave enjoyed not much repose or many pleasant days, when he kept his
+people in so many campaigns and investments, since he bore for them all
+great anxiety, fear, and peril, how he might lend them help in their
+need, so that they might not be surprised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> through heedlessness and
+laches. So likewise his pain was not small when he had but little in his
+money chest, and it was grievous to give this answer when the folk cried
+for stipend. Therefore he stayed not many days in the same place, but
+travelled day and night between the camps."</p>
+
+<p>In the month of August he arrived at Stegeborg, which was now besieged
+by his general, Arwid the West-Goth, who had recently repulsed with
+great bravery Severin Norby's attempt to relieve the castle, and had
+even begun to take homage for Gustavus from the people of his province,
+although in this he experienced difficulties. The East-Goths declared
+that they had been so chastised for their attack on the Bishop's castle
+at Linkoping the preceding year that they no longer dared to provoke
+either King Christian or Bishop Hans Brask. The personal presence of
+Gustavus decided the waverers, and even the Bishop received him as a
+friend, because he would otherwise have stood in danger of a hostile
+visitation. Gustavus now convoked a diet of barons at Vadstena, which
+was attended by seventy Swedish gentlemen of noble family and by many
+other persons of all classes in Gothland. These made him a tender of the
+crown, which he refused to accept. On August 24th, therefore, they swore
+fealty and obedience to him as administrator of the kingdom&mdash;"in like
+manner," add the chronicles, "as had formerly been done in Upland";
+whence they seem to have assumed that he had already been acknowledged
+as such in Upper Sweden, here called Upland, as we often find it in the
+chronicles of the Middle Age. This was the first public declaration of
+the nobility in favor of Gustavus and his cause; although the greatest
+barons in this division of the kingdom, such as Nils Boson (Grip),
+Holger Carlson (Gere), and Thure Jenson (Roos) in West-Gothland, all
+three councillors of state, were still in arms for Christian. That the
+first-named nobleman joined the party of Gustavus before the end of the
+year we know from his letter of thanks for a fief of which he received
+the investure. Both the latter were proclaimed in 1523 to be enemies of
+the realm, as also was the archbishop Gustavus Trolle. He had repaired
+to Denmark two years before, in order to obtain, by his personal
+instances with the King, the often-promised relief for the besieged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+garrison of Stockholm, but was received with coldness and reproaches.</p>
+
+<p>After the baronial diet of Vadstena, the Gothlanders acknowledged the
+authority of the administrator, and, the Danes having been driven out
+West-Gothland and Smaland, the seat of the war was removed to Finland.
+By the commencement of the next year the principal castles of the
+interior had fallen into the hands of Gustavus, and some, as those of
+Westeras and Orebo, were razed to the ground by the now exasperated
+peasantry. Stockholm and Kalmar, as well as Abo in Finland, yet stood
+out, and by help of re&euml;nforcement which they received at the beginning
+of 1522, through the Danish admiral Severin Norby, the enemy were again
+able to resume the offensive. By sallies from the beleaguered capital on
+April 7th, 8th, and 13th, the camp of Gustavus was set on fire and
+destroyed, and for a whole month afterward no Swedish force was seen
+before the walls of Stockholm. The besiegers of Abo were likewise driven
+off, and the chief adherents of Gustavus, being obliged to flee from
+Finland, Arvid, Bishop of Abo, with many noble persons of both sexes,
+perished at sea.</p>
+
+<p>Christian himself by new cruelties added to the detestation with which
+he was regarded in Sweden. The wives and children, of the most
+distinguished among the barons beheaded in Stockholm, had been conveyed
+to Denmark, and among them the mother and two sisters of Gustavus, whom
+the King, in spite of the entreaties of his consort, threw into a
+dungeon. Here they died, either by violence, as Gustavus himself
+complains in a letter of 1522 concerning the cruel oppression of King
+Christian, directed to the Pope, the Emperor, and all Christian princes,
+or, as others assert, of the plague. An order had also been recently
+issued by the King to commanders in Sweden to put to death all the
+Swedes of distinction who had fallen into their hands. The chronicles
+say that Severin Norby had received this order so early as the summer of
+1521, but, instead of complying with it, permitted the escape of many
+noblemen, who afterward did homage to Gustavus at Vadstena, in order, as
+he expressed it, that they might rather guard their necks like warriors
+than be slaughtered like chickens. But in Abo a new massacre was
+perpetrated at the beginning of the next<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> year by Lord Thomas, the
+royalist commander there, who afterward, in an attempt to relieve
+Stockholm, fell, with all his ships, into the hands of Gustavus, and was
+hanged upon an oak in Tynnels Island.</p>
+
+<p>After Severin Norby had relieved the capital, the secretary, master
+Gotschalk Ericson, wrote thence to Christian that there were but eighty
+of the burghers, for the most part Germans, who could be counted on for
+the King's service, but of footmen and gunners in the castle there were
+now eight hundred fifty men, well furnished with all; the peasants were,
+indeed, weary of the war, but were still more fearful of the King's
+vengeance, and put faith in no assurances, whence the country could only
+be reduced to obedience by violent methods; if a sufficient force were
+sent, East-Gothland, Sodermanland, and Upland would submit to the King,
+and his grace could then punish the Dalecarlians and Helsingers, who
+first stirred up these troubles.</p>
+
+<p>The governor of the castle of Stockholm informs the King, in a report on
+military occurrences of the winter, "that his men had compelled him to
+consent to an increase of pay on account of the successes they had
+gained; that he had expelled from the town, or imprisoned, the suspected
+Swedish burghers; that the peasants would rather be hanged on their own
+hearths than longer endure the burden of war; that Gustavus, who had in
+vain tempted his fidelity, had already sent his plate and the chief part
+of his own movable property to a priest in Helsingland; he (the
+governor) also transmitted an inventory of the goods of the decapitated
+nobles."</p>
+
+<p>But by the end of one month Gustavus, who in this letter is styled "a
+forest thief and robber," had again filled three camps around Stockholm
+with Dalesmen and Norrlanders; and when, pursuant to a convention with
+Lubeck, he received thence in the month of June an auxiliary force of
+ten ships, a number that was afterward augmented, he was enabled to
+dispense with the greatest portion of his peasants, and retained about
+him only those who were young and unmarried. The assistance of the
+Lubeckers, it was true, was given only by halves, and from selfish
+motives; they did not forget their profit on the arms, purchased Swedish
+iron and copper for klippings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> with which worthless coins they came
+well provided, and exacted a dear price for their men, ships, and
+military stores, refusing even, it is said, to supply Gustavus with two
+pieces of cannon at a decisive moment, although upon the proffered
+security of two of the royal castles.</p>
+
+<p>This occurred on occasion of a second, and this time unsuccessful,
+attempt made by Norby to relieve Stockholm; in which he was only saved
+from ruin by the refusal of the admiral of Lubeck to attack. Meanwhile
+Gustavus, despite the losses which he sustained by sallies, pushed his
+three camps by degrees close to the town, then covering little more than
+the island still contains, the town properly so called. At length, after
+Kingsholm, Langholm, Sodermalm, Waldemar's Island, now the Zo&ouml;logical
+Gardens, had been connected by block-houses and chains, the place was
+invested on all sides. Yet it held out through the winter, until the
+news of Christian's fate, joined to the pangs of hunger, deprived the
+garrison of all spirit for further resistance.</p>
+
+<p>He did not dare to trust either his subjects or his soldiers, collected
+twenty ships, in which he embarked the public records, with the treasure
+and crown jewels, his consort and child, and his adviser Sigbert, who
+was concealed in his chest. Deserting his kingdom, he sailed away in the
+face of the whole population of Copenhagen, April 20, 1523.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the reign of Christian II, a king in whom one knows not which
+rivets the attention, the multiplied undertakings he commenced and
+abandoned in a career so often stained with blood, his audacity, his
+feebleness, or that misery of many years by which he was to expiate a
+short and ill-used tenure of power. There are men who, like the storm
+birds before the tempest, appear in history as foretokens of the
+approaching outburst of great convulsions. Of such a nature was
+Christian, who, tossed hither and thither between all the various
+currents of his time without central consistence, awakened alternately
+the fear or pity of the beholders.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick I, who was chosen to succeed him in Denmark, wrote to the
+estates of Sweden, demanding that in accordance with the stipulations of
+the Union of Kalmar he might also be acknowledged king in Sweden. They
+replied "that they had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> elected Gustavus Ericson to be Sweden's king."
+That event came to pass at the Diet of Strengess, June 7, 1523. Thus was
+the union dissolved, after enduring one hundred twenty-six years. Norway
+wavered at this critical moment. The inhabitants of the southern portion
+declared, when the Swedes under Thure Jenson (Roos) and Lawrence
+Siggeson (Sparre) had penetrated into their country as far as Opslo,
+that they would unite with Sweden if they might rely upon its support.
+Bohusland was subdued, Bleking likewise on another side, and Gustavus
+sought, both by negotiation and arms, to enforce the old claims of
+Sweden to Scania and Halland. The town of Kalmar was taken on May 27th,
+and the castle on July 7th. Stockholm having surrendered on June 20th,
+on condition of the free departure of the garrison with their property
+and arms, and of every other person who adhered to the cause of
+Christian, Gustavus made his public entry on Midsummer's Eve; before the
+end of the year Finland also was reduced to obedience. The kingdom was
+freed from foreign enemies, but internal foes still remained; and Lubeck
+was an ally whose demands made it more troublesome than it would have
+been as an enemy.</p>
+
+<p>A town wasted in the civil war had been the scene of the election of
+Gustavus Vasa to the throne. In the capital, when he made his public
+entry, one-half of the houses were empty, and of population scarcely a
+fourth part remained. To fill up the gap, he issued an invitation to the
+burghers in other towns to settle there, a summons which he was obliged
+twelve years afterward to renew, "seeing that Stockholm had not yet
+revived from the days of King Christian." The spectacle which here met
+his eyes was a type of the condition of the whole kingdom, and never was
+it said of any sovereign with more justice that the throne to which he
+had been elevated was more difficult to preserve than to win.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Translated by J. H. Turner, M.A.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE PEASANTS' WAR IN GERMANY</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1524</h4>
+
+<h3>J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Peasants' War was the most widespread and most bloody of
+the medi&aelig;val forerunners of the French Revolution. Like the
+rebellion of the Jacquerie and many another ferocious,
+desperate outburst of the downtrodden common folk, it
+foretold a day of vengeance to come. These early uprisings
+were all hopeless from their start, because the untrained
+and naked bodies of the people, however numerous, could not
+possibly hold an open battlefield against skilled and armed
+men of war. Each revolt terminated in the butchery of the
+unhappy rebels.</p>
+
+<p>The Peasants' War has acquired special notoriety because of
+its connection with the Reformation. The people rose in the
+name of religion, and, as their ignorance and ferocity led
+them into hideous excesses of revenge upon their oppressors,
+the new religion was blamed for all the evil thus done in
+its name. This revolt, because of the fear and disgust it
+roused, became the most severe set-back Protestantism
+received in all its struggle with the more ancient and
+conservative Church.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the outbreak and its consequences
+is by a standard Protestant historian, president of the
+College of Geneva, a student who can see justice on both
+sides of the great controversy.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>A political ferment, very different from that produced by the Gospel,
+had long been at work in the empire. The people, bowed down by civil and
+ecclesiastical oppression, bound in many countries to the seigniorial
+estates, and transferred from hand to hand along with them, threatened
+to rise with fury and at last to break their chains. This agitation had
+showed itself long before the Reformation by many symptoms, and even
+then the religious element was blended with the political; in the
+sixteenth century it was impossible to separate these two principles, so
+closely associated in the existence of nations. In Holland, at the close
+of the preceding century, the peasants had revolted, placing on their
+banners, by way of arms, a loaf and a cheese, the two great blessings of
+these poor people. The "Alliance of the Shoes" had shown itself in the
+neighborhood of Spires in 1502. In 1513 it appeared again in Breisgau,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+being encouraged by the priests. In 1514 Wuertemberg had seen the
+"League of Poor Conrad," whose aim was to maintain by rebellion "the
+right of God." In 1515 Carinthia and Hungary had been the theatres of
+terrible agitations. These seditions had been quenched in torrents of
+blood, but no relief had been accorded to the people. A political
+reform, therefore, was not less necessary than a religious reform. The
+people were entitled to this; but we must acknowledge that they were not
+ripe for its enjoyment.</p>
+
+<p>Since the commencement of the Reformation, these popular disturbances
+had not been renewed; men's minds were occupied by other thoughts.
+Luther, whose piercing glance had discerned the condition of the people,
+had already from the summit of the Wartburg addressed them in serious
+exhortations calculated to restrain their agitated minds:</p>
+
+<p>"Rebellion," he had said, "never produces the amelioration we desire,
+and God condemns it. What is it to rebel, if it be not to avenge one's
+self? The devil is striving to excite to revolt those who embrace the
+Gospel, in order to cover it with opprobrium; but those who have rightly
+understood my doctrine do not revolt."</p>
+
+<p>Everything gave cause to fear that the popular agitation could not be
+restrained much longer. The government that Frederick of Saxony had
+taken such pains to form, and which possessed the confidence of the
+nation, was dissolved. The Emperor, whose energy might have been an
+efficient substitute for the influence of this national administration,
+was absent; the princes whose union had always constituted the strength
+of Germany were divided; and the new declaration of Charles V against
+Luther, by removing every hope of future harmony, deprived the reformer
+of part of the moral influence by which in 1522 he had succeeded in
+calming the storm. The chief barriers that hitherto had confined the
+torrent being broken, nothing could any longer restrain its fury.</p>
+
+<p>It was not the religious movement that gave birth to political
+agitations; but in many places it was carried away by their impetuous
+waves. Perhaps we should even go further, and acknowledge that the
+movement communicated to the people by the Reformation gave fresh
+strength to the discontent fermenting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> in the nation. The violence of
+Luther's writings, the intrepidity of his actions and language, the
+harsh truths that he spoke, not only to the Pope and prelates, but also
+to the princes themselves, must all have contributed to inflame minds
+that were already in a state of excitement. Accordingly, Erasmus did not
+fail to tell him, "We are now reaping the fruits that you have sown."
+And further, the cheering truths of the Gospel, at last brought to
+light, stirred all hearts and filled them with anticipation and hope.
+But many unregenerated souls were not prepared by repentance for the
+faith and liberty of Christians. They were very willing to throw off the
+papal yoke, but they would not take up the yoke of Christ. And hence,
+when princes devoted to the cause of Rome endeavored in their wrath to
+stifle the Reformation, real Christians patiently endured these cruel
+persecutions; but the multitude resisted and broke out, and, seeing
+their desires checked in one direction, gave vent to them in another.
+"Why," said they, "should slavery be perpetuated in the state while the
+Church invites all men to a glorious liberty? Why should governments
+rule only by force, when the Gospel preaches nothing but gentleness?"
+Unhappily, at a time when the religious reform was received with equal
+joy both by princes and people, the political reform, on the contrary,
+had the most powerful part of the nation against it; and while the
+former had the Gospel for its rule and support, the latter had soon no
+other principles than violence and despotism. Accordingly, while the one
+was confined within the bounds of truth, the other rapidly, like an
+impetuous torrent, overstepped all limits of justice. But to shut one's
+eyes against the indirect influence of the Reformation on the troubles
+that broke out in the empire would betoken partiality. A fire had been
+kindled in Germany by religious discussions from which it was impossible
+to prevent a few sparks escaping, which were calculated to inflame the
+passions of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The claims of a few fanatics to divine inspiration increased the evil.
+While the Reformation had continually appealed from the pretended
+authority of the Church to the real authority of the holy Scriptures,
+these enthusiasts not only rejected the authority of the Church, but of
+the Scriptures also; they spoke only of an inner word, of an internal
+revelation from God;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> and, overlooking the natural corruption of their
+hearts, they gave way to all the intoxication of spiritual pride, and
+fancied they were saints.</p>
+
+<p>"To them the holy Scriptures were but a dead letter," said Luther, "and
+they all began to cry, 'The Spirit! the Spirit!' But most assuredly I
+will not follow where their spirit leads them. May God of his mercy
+preserve me from a church in which there are none but saints. I desire
+to dwell with the humble, the feeble, the sick, who know and feel their
+sins, and who groan and cry continually to God from the bottom of their
+hearts to obtain his consolation and support." These words of Luther
+have great depth of meaning, and point out the change that was taking
+place in his views as to the nature of the Church. They indicate at the
+same time how contrary were the religious opinions of the rebels to
+those of the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>The most notorious of these enthusiasts was Thomas Munzer; he was not
+devoid of talent, had read his Bible, was zealous, and might have done
+good if he had been able to collect his agitated thoughts and find peace
+of heart. But as he did not know himself, and was wanting in true
+humility, he was possessed with a desire of reforming the world, and
+forgot, as all enthusiasts do, that the reformation should begin with
+himself. Some mystical writings that he had read in his youth had given
+a false direction to his mind. He first appeared at Zwickau, quitted
+Wittenberg after Luther's return, dissatisfied with the inferior part he
+was playing, and became pastor of the small town of Alstadt in
+Thuringia. He could not long remain quiet, and accused the reformers of
+founding, by their adherence to the letter, a new popery, and of forming
+churches which were not pure and holy.</p>
+
+<p>"Luther," said he, "has delivered men's consciences from the yoke of the
+Pope, but he has left them in a carnal liberty, and not led them in
+spirit toward God."</p>
+
+<p>He considered himself as called of God to remedy this great evil. The
+revelations of the Spirit were in his eyes the means by which his reform
+was to be effected. "He who possesses this spirit," said he, "possesses
+the true faith, although he should never see the Scriptures in his life.
+Heathens and Turks are better fitted to receive it than many Christians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+who style us enthusiasts." It was Luther whom he here had in view. "To
+receive this Spirit we must mortify the flesh," said he at another time,
+"wear tattered clothing, let the beard grow, be of sad countenance, keep
+silence, retire into desert places, and supplicate God to give us a sign
+of his favor. Then God will come and speak with us, as formerly he spoke
+with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. If he were not to do so, he would not
+deserve our attention. I have received from God the commission to gather
+together his elect into a holy and eternal alliance."</p>
+
+<p>The agitation and ferment which were at work in men's minds were but too
+favorable to the dissemination of these enthusiastic ideas. Man loves
+the marvellous and whatever flatters his pride. Munzer, having persuaded
+a part of his flock to adopt his views, abolished ecclesiastical singing
+and all other ceremonies. He maintained that obedience to princes, "void
+of understanding," was at once to serve God and Belial. Then, marching
+out at the head of his parishioners to a chapel in the vicinity of
+Alstadt, whither pilgrims from all quarters were accustomed to resort,
+he pulled it down. After the exploit, being compelled to leave that
+neighborhood, he wandered about Germany, and went as far as Switzerland,
+carrying with him, and communicating to all who would listen to him, the
+plan of a general revolution. Everywhere he found men's minds prepared;
+he threw gunpowder on the burning coals, and the explosion forthwith
+took place.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, who had rejected the warlike enterprises of Sickengen, could not
+be led away by the tumultuous movements of the peasantry. He wrote to
+the Elector: "It causes me especial joy that these enthusiasts
+themselves boast, to all who are willing to listen to them, that they do
+not belong to us. The Spirit urges them on, say they; and I reply, it is
+an evil spirit, for he bears no other fruit than the pillage of convents
+and churches; the greatest highway robbers upon earth might do as much."</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, Luther, who desired that others should enjoy the
+liberty he claimed for himself, dissuaded the Prince from all measures
+of severity: "Let them preach what they please, and against whom they
+please," said he; "for it is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> Word of God that must march in front
+of the battle and fight against them. If their spirit be the true
+spirit, he will not fear our severity; if ours is the true one, he will
+not fear their violence. Let us leave the spirits to struggle and
+contend with one another. Perhaps some persons may be led astray; there
+is no battle without wounds; but he who fighteth faithfully shall be
+crowned. Nevertheless, if they desire to take up the sword, let your
+highness forbid it, and order them to quit the country."</p>
+
+<p>The insurrection began in the Black Forest, and near the sources of the
+Danube, so frequently the theatre of popular commotions. On the 19th of
+July, 1524, some Thurgovian peasants rose against the Abbot of
+Reichenau, who would not accord them an evangelical preacher. Ere long
+thousands were collected round the small town of Tengen to liberate an
+ecclesiastic who was there imprisoned. The revolt spread with
+inconceivable rapidity from Swabia as far as the Rhenish provinces,
+Franconia, Thuringia, and Saxony. In the month of January, 1525, all
+these countries were in a state of rebellion.</p>
+
+<p>About the end of this month the peasants published a declaration in
+twelve articles, in which they claimed the liberty of choosing their own
+pastors; the abolition of small tithes, of slavery, and of fines on
+inheritance; the right to hunt, fish, and cut wood, etc. Each demand was
+backed by a passage from holy writ, and they said in conclusion, "If we
+are deceived, let Luther correct us by Scripture."</p>
+
+<p>The opinions of the Wittenberg divines were consulted. Luther and
+Melanchthon delivered theirs separately, and they both gave evidence of
+the difference of their characters. Melanchthon, who thought every kind
+of disturbance a crime, oversteps the limits of his usual gentleness,
+and cannot find language strong enough to express his indignation. The
+peasants are criminals against whom he invokes all laws human and
+divine. If friendly negotiation is unavailing, the magistrates should
+hunt them down as if they were robbers and assassins. "And yet," adds
+he&mdash;and we require at least one feature to remind us of
+Melanchthon&mdash;"let them take pity on the orphans when having recourse to
+the penalty of death!"</p>
+
+<p>Luther's opinion of the revolt was the same as Melanchthon's, but he had
+a heart that beat for the miseries of the people.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> On this occasion he
+manifested a dignified impartiality, and spoke the truth frankly to both
+parties. He first addressed the princes, and more especially the
+bishops:</p>
+
+<p>"It is you," said he, "who are the cause of this revolt; it is your
+clamors against the Gospel, your guilty oppressions of the poor, that
+have driven the people to despair. It is not the peasants, my dear
+lords, that rise up against you&mdash;it is God himself who opposes your
+madness. The peasants are but the instruments he employs to humble you.
+Do not imagine you can escape the punishment he is preparing for you.
+Even should you have succeeded in destroying all these peasants, God is
+able from the very stones to raise up others to chastise your pride. If
+I desired revenge, I might laugh in my sleeve, and look on while the
+peasants were carrying on their work, or even increase their fury; but
+may God preserve me from such thoughts! My dear lords, put away your
+indignation, treat those poor peasants as a man of sense treats people
+who are drunk or insane. Quiet these commotions by mildness, lest a
+conflagration should arise and burn all Germany. Among these twelve
+articles there are certain demands which are just and equitable."</p>
+
+<p>This prologue was calculated to conciliate the peasants' confidence in
+Luther, and to make them listen patiently to the truths he had to tell
+them. He represented to them that the greater number of their demands
+were well founded, but that to revolt was to act like heathens; that the
+duty of a Christian is to be patient, not to fight; that if they
+persisted in revolting against the Gospel in the name of the Gospel, he
+should look upon them as more dangerous enemies than the Pope. "The Pope
+and the Emperor," continued he, "combined against me; but the more they
+blustered, the more did the Gospel gain ground. And why was this?
+Because I have never drawn the sword or called for vengeance; because I
+never had recourse to tumult or insurrection: I relied wholly on God,
+and placed everything in his almighty hands. Christians fight not with
+swords or arquebuses, but with sufferings and with the Cross. Christ,
+their captain, handled not the sword. He was hung upon a tree."</p>
+
+<p>But to no purpose did Luther employ this Christian language.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> The people
+were too much excited by the fanatical speeches of the leaders of the
+insurrection to listen, as of old, to the words of the reformer. "He is
+playing the hypocrite," said they; "he flatters the nobles. He has
+declared war against the Pope, and yet wishes us to submit to our
+oppressors."</p>
+
+<p>The revolt, instead of dying away, became more formidable. At Weinsberg,
+Count Louis of Helfenstein and the seventy men under his orders were
+condemned to death by the rebels. A body of peasants drew up with their
+pikes lowered, while others drove the count and his soldiers against
+this wall of steel. The wife of the wretched Helfenstein, a natural
+daughter of the emperor Maximilian, holding an infant two years old in
+her arms, knelt before them, and with loud cries begged for her
+husband's life, and vainly endeavored to arrest this march of murder; a
+boy, who had been in the count's service and had joined the rebels,
+capered gayly before him, and played the dead march upon his fife, as if
+he had been leading his victims in a dance. All perished; the child was
+wounded in its mother's arms, and she herself thrown upon a dung-cart
+and thus conveyed to Heilbronn.</p>
+
+<p>At the news of these cruelties, a cry of horror was heard from the
+friends of the Reformation, and Luther's feeling heart underwent a
+terrible conflict. On the one hand the peasants, ridiculing his advice,
+pretended to receive revelations from heaven, made an impious use of the
+threatenings of the Old Testament, proclaimed an equality of rank and a
+community of goods, defended their cause with fire and sword, and
+indulged in barbarous atrocities. On the other hand, the enemies of the
+Reformation asked the reformer, with a malicious sneer, if he did not
+know that it was easier to kindle a fire than to extinguish it. Shocked
+at these excesses, alarmed at the thought that they might check the
+progress of the Gospel, Luther hesitated no longer, no longer
+temporized; he inveighed against the insurgents with all the energy of
+his character, and perhaps overstepped the just bounds within which he
+should have contained himself.</p>
+
+<p>"The peasants," said he, "commit three horrible sins against God and
+man, and thus deserve the death of body and soul. First, they revolt
+against their magistrates, to whom they have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> sworn fidelity; next, they
+rob and plunder convents and castles; and lastly, they veil their crimes
+with the cloak of the Gospel. If you do not put a mad dog to death, you
+will perish, and all the country with you. Whoever is killed fighting
+for the magistrates will be a true martyr, if he has fought with a good
+conscience." Luther then gives a powerful description of the guilty
+violence of the peasants who force peaceful and simple men to join their
+alliance and thus drag them to the same condemnation. He then adds: "For
+this reason, my dear lords, help, save, deliver, have pity on these poor
+people. Let everyone strike, pierce, and kill who is able. If thou
+diest, thou canst not meet a happier death; for thou diest in the
+service of God, and to save thy neighbor from hell."</p>
+
+<p>Neither gentleness nor violence could arrest the popular torrent. The
+church-bells were no longer rung for divine service; whenever their deep
+and prolonged sounds were heard in the fields, it was the tocsin, and
+all ran to arms. The people of the Black Forest had rallied round John
+Muller of Bulgenbach. With an imposing aspect, covered with a red cloak
+and wearing a red cap, this leader boldly advanced from village to
+village followed by the peasantry. Behind him, on a wagon decorated with
+ribands and branches of trees, was raised the tricolor flag&mdash;black, red,
+and white&mdash;the signal of revolt. A herald dressed in the same colors
+read the twelve articles, and invited the people to join in the
+rebellion. Whoever refused was banished from the community.</p>
+
+<p>Ere long this march, which at first was peaceful, became more
+disquieting. "We must compel the lords to submit to our alliance,"
+exclaimed they. And to induce them to do so, they plundered the
+granaries, emptied the cellars, drew the seigniorial fish-ponds,
+demolished the castles of the nobles who resisted, and burned the
+convents. Opposition had inflamed the passions of these rude men;
+equality no longer satisfied them; they thirsted for blood, and swore to
+put to death every man who wore a spur.</p>
+
+<p>At the approach of the peasants, the cities that were unable to resist
+them opened their gates and joined them. In whatever place they entered,
+they pulled down the images and broke the crucifixes; armed women
+paraded the streets and threatened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> the monks. If they were defeated in
+one quarter, they assembled in another, and braved the most formidable
+forces. A committee of peasants was established at Heilbrunn. The counts
+of Lowenstein were taken prisoners, dressed in a smock-frock, and then,
+a white staff having been placed in their hands, they were compelled to
+swear to the twelve articles. "Brother George, and thou, brother
+Albert," said a tinker of Ohringen to the counts of Hohenlohe who had
+gone to their camp, "swear to conduct yourselves as our brethren, for
+you also are now peasants; you are no longer lords." Equality of rank,
+the dream of many democrats, was established in aristocratic Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Many nobles, some through fear, others from ambition, then joined the
+insurgents. The famous Goetz von Berlichingen, finding his vassals
+refuse to obey him, desired to flee to the Elector of Saxony; but his
+wife, who was lying-in, wishing to keep him near her, concealed the
+Elector's answer. Goetz, being closely pursued, was compelled to put
+himself at the head of the rebel army. On the 7th of May the peasants
+entered Wuerzburg, where the citizens received them with acclamations.
+The forces of the princes and knights of Swabia and Franconia, which had
+assembled in this city, evacuated it, and retired in confusion to the
+citadel, the last bulwark of the nobility.</p>
+
+<p>But the movement had already extended to other parts of Germany. Spires,
+the Palatinate, Alsace, and Hesse accepted the twelve articles, and the
+peasants threatened Bavaria, Westphalia, the Tyrol, Saxony, and
+Lorraine. The Margrave of Baden, having rejected the articles, was
+compelled to flee. The coadjutor of Fulda acceded to them with a smile.
+The smaller towns said they had no lances with which to oppose the
+insurgents. Mentz, Treves, and Frankfort obtained the liberties they had
+claimed.</p>
+
+<p>An immense revolution was preparing in all the empire. The
+ecclesiastical and secular privileges, that bore so heavily on the
+peasants, were to be suppressed; the possessions of the clergy were to
+be secularized, to indemnify the princes and provide for the wants of
+the empire; taxes were to be abolished, with the exception of a tribute
+payable every ten years; the imperial power was to subsist alone, as
+being recognized by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> the New Testament; all the other princes were to
+cease to reign; sixty-four free tribunals were to be established, in
+which men of all classes should have a seat; all ranks were to return to
+their primitive condition; the clergy were to be henceforward merely the
+pastors of the churches; princes and knights were to be simply the
+defenders of the weak; uniformity in weights and measures was to be
+introduced, and only one kind of money was to be coined throughout the
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the princes had shaken off their first lethargy, and George
+von Truchsess, commander-in-chief of the imperial army, was advancing on
+the side of the Lake of Constance. On the 2d of May he defeated the
+peasants at Beblingen; then marched on the town of Weinsberg, where the
+unhappy Count of Helfenstein had perished, burned and razed it to the
+ground, giving orders that the ruins should be left as an eternal
+monument of the treason of its inhabitants. At Fairfeld he united with
+the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Treves, and all three moved
+toward Franconia.</p>
+
+<p>The Frauenburg, the citadel of Wuerzburg, held out for the princes, and
+the main army of the peasants still lay before its walls. As soon as
+they heard of the Truchsess' march, they resolved on an assault, and at
+nine o'clock at night on the 15th of May the trumpets sounded, the
+tricolor flag was unfurled, and the peasants rushed to the attack with
+horrible shouts. Sebastian von Rotenhan, one of the warmest partisans of
+the Reformation, was governor of the castle. He had put the fortress in
+a formidable state of defence, and, having exhorted the garrison to
+repel the assault with courage, the soldiers, holding up three fingers,
+had all sworn to do so. A most terrible conflict took place. To the
+vigor and despair of the insurgents, the fortress replied from its walls
+and towers by petards, showers of sulphur and boiling pitch and the
+discharges of artillery. The peasants, thus struck by their unseen
+enemies, were staggered for a moment; but in an instant their fury grew
+more violent. The struggle was prolonged as the night advanced. The
+fortress, lit up by a thousand battle-fires, appeared in the darkness
+like a towering giant, who, vomiting flames, struggled alone amid the
+roar of thunder, for the salvation of the empire against the ferocious
+valor of these furious hordes. Two hours after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> midnight the peasants
+withdrew, having failed in all their efforts.</p>
+
+<p>They now tried to enter into negotiations, either with the garrison or
+with Truchsess, who was advancing at the head of his army. But this was
+going out of their path; violence and victory alone could save them.
+After some little hesitation they resolved to march against the imperial
+forces, but the cavalry and artillery made terrible havoc in their
+ranks. At Koenigshofen, and afterward at Engelstadt, those unfortunate
+creatures were totally defeated. The princes, the nobles, and bishops,
+abusing their victory, indulged in the most unprecedented cruelties. The
+prisoners were hanged on the trees by the wayside. The Bishop of
+Wuerzburg, who had run away, now returned, traversed his diocese
+accompanied by executioners, and watered it alike with the blood of the
+rebels and of the peaceful friends of the Word of God. Goetz von
+Berlichingen was sentenced to imprisonment for life. The margrave
+Casimir of Anspach put out the eyes of eighty-five insurgents who had
+sworn that their eyes should never look upon that Prince again; and he
+cast this troop of blinded individuals upon the world, to wander up and
+down, holding each other by the hand, groping along, tottering, and
+begging their bread. The wretched boy who had played the dead-march on
+his fife at the murder of Helfenstein, was chained to a post, a fire was
+kindled around him, and the knights looked on, laughing at his horrible
+contortions.</p>
+
+<p>Public worship was now everywhere restored in its ancient forms. The
+most flourishing and populous districts of the empire exhibited to those
+who travelled through them nothing but heaps of dead bodies and smoking
+ruins. Fifty thousand men had perished, and the people lost nearly
+everywhere the little liberty they had hitherto enjoyed. Such was the
+horrible termination of this revolt in the south of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>But the evil was not confined to the south and west of Germany. Munzer,
+after having traversed a part of Switzerland, Alsace, and Swabia, had
+again directed his steps toward Saxony. A few citizens of Muelhausen, in
+Thuringia, had invited him to their city and elected him their pastor.
+The town council having resisted, Munzer deposed it and nominated
+another, consisting of his friends, with himself at their head.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> Full of
+contempt for that Christ, "sweet as honey," whom Luther preached, and
+being resolved to employ the most energetic measures, he exclaimed,
+"Like Joshua, we must put all the Canaanites to the sword." He
+established a community of goods and pillaged the convents. "Munzer,"
+wrote Luther to Ansdorff on the 11th of April, 1525, "Munzer is not only
+pastor, but king and emperor of Muelhausen." The poor no longer worked;
+if anyone needed corn or cloth, he went and demanded it of some rich
+man; if the latter refused, the poor man took it by force; if the owner
+resisted, he was hanged. As Muelhausen was an independent city, Munzer
+was able to exercise his power for nearly a year without opposition. The
+revolt in the south of Germany led him to imagine that it was time to
+extend his new kingdom. He had a number of heavy guns cast in the
+Franciscan convent, and endeavored to raise the peasantry and miners of
+Mansfeld. "How long will you sleep?" said he to them in a fanatical
+proclamation: "Arise and fight the battle of the Lord! The time is come.
+France, Germany, and Italy are moving. On, on, on! (<i>Dran, Dran, Dran!</i>)
+Heed not the groans of the impious ones. They will implore you like
+children, but be pitiless. <i>Dran, Dran, Dran!</i> The fire is burning: let
+your sword be ever warm with blood. <i>Dran, Dran, Dran!</i> Work while it is
+yet day." The letter was signed, "Munzer, servant of God against the
+wicked."</p>
+
+<p>The country people, thirsting for plunder, flocked round his standard.
+Throughout all the districts of Mansfeld, of Stolberg, and Schwarzburg
+in Hesse, and the duchy of Brunswick the peasantry rose in insurrection.
+The convents of Michelstein, Ilsenburg, Walkenfied, Rossleben, and many
+others in the neighborhood of the Hartz, or in the plains of Thuringia,
+were devastated. At Reinhardsbrunn, which Luther had visited, the tombs
+of the ancient landgraves were profaned and the library destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Terror spread far and wide. Even at Wittenberg some anxiety was felt.
+Those doctors, who had feared neither the Emperor nor the Pope, trembled
+in the presence of a madman. They were always on the watch for news;
+every step of the rebels was counted. "We are here in great danger,"
+said Melanchthon. "If Munzer succeeds, it is all over with us, unless
+Christ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> should rescue us. Munzer advances with a worse than Scythian
+cruelty, and it is impossible to repeat his dreadful threats."</p>
+
+<p>The pious Elector had long hesitated what he should do. Munzer had
+exhorted him and all the princes to be converted, because, said he,
+their hour was come; and he had signed these letters: "Munzer, armed
+with the sword of Gudeon." Frederick would have desired to reclaim these
+misguided men by gentle measures. On the 14th of April, when he was
+dangerously ill, he had written to his brother John: "We may have given
+these wretched people more than one cause for insurrection. Alas! the
+poor are oppressed in many ways by their spiritual and temporal lords."
+And when his attention was directed to the humiliation, the revolutions,
+the dangers to which he would expose himself unless he promptly stifled
+the rebellion, he replied: "Hitherto I have been a mighty elector,
+having chariots and horses in abundance; if it be God's pleasure to take
+them from me now, I will go on foot."</p>
+
+<p>The youthful Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, was the first of the princes
+who took up arms. His knights and soldiers swore to live and die with
+him. After pacifying his own states, he directed his march toward
+Saxony. On their side, Duke John, the Elector's brother, Duke George of
+Saxony, and Duke Henry of Brunswick advanced and united their troops
+with those of Hesse. The peasants, terrified at the sight of this army,
+fled to a small hill, where, without any discipline, without arms, and
+for the most part without courage, they formed a rampart with their
+wagons. Munzer had not even prepared ammunition for his large guns. No
+succors appeared; the rebels were hemmed in by the army; they lost all
+confidence. The princes, taking pity on them, offered them propositions
+which they appeared willing to accept. Upon this Munzer had recourse to
+the most powerful lever that enthusiasm can put in motion. "To-day we
+shall behold the arm of the Lord," said he, "and all our enemies shall
+be destroyed." At this moment a rainbow appeared over their heads; the
+fanatical host, who carried a rainbow on their flags, beheld in it a
+sure prognostic of the divine protection. Munzer took advantage of it:
+"Fear nothing," said he to the citizens and peasants: "I will catch all
+their balls in my sleeve." At the same time he cruelly put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> to death a
+young gentleman, Maternus von Geholfen, an envoy from the princes, in
+order to deprive the insurgents of all hope of pardon.</p>
+
+<p>The Landgrave, having assembled his horsemen, said to them: "I well know
+that we princes are often in fault, for we are but men; but God commands
+all men to honor the powers that be. Let us save our wives and children
+from the fury of these murderers. The Lord will give us the victory, for
+he has said, 'Whosoever resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of
+God.'" Philip then gave the signal of attack. It was the 15th of May,
+1525. The army was put in motion; but the peasant host stood immovable,
+singing the hymn, "Come, Holy Ghost," and waiting for heaven to declare
+in their favor. The artillery soon broke down their rude rampart,
+carrying dismay and death into the midst of the insurgents. Their
+fanaticism and courage at once forsook them; they were seized with a
+panic-terror, and ran away in disorder. Five thousand perished in the
+flight.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle the princes and their victorious troops entered
+Frankenhausen. A soldier who had gone into a loft in the house where he
+was quartered, found a man in bed. "Who art thou?" said he; "art thou
+one of the rebels?" Then, observing a pocket-book, he took it up, and
+found several letters addressed to Thomas Munzer, "Art thou Munzer?"
+demanded the trooper. The sick man answered, "No." But as the soldier
+uttered dreadful threats, Munzer, for it was really he, confessed who he
+was. "Thou art my prisoner," said the horseman. When Munzer was taken
+before Duke George and the Landgrave, he persevered in saying that he
+was right to chastise the princes, since they opposed the Gospel.
+"Wretched man!" replied they, "think of all those of whose death you
+have been the cause." But he answered, smiling in the midst of his
+anguish, "They would have it so!" He took the sacrament, and was
+beheaded at the same time with Pfeiffer, his lieutenant. Mulhausen was
+taken, and the peasants were loaded with chains.</p>
+
+<p>A nobleman having observed among the crowd of prisoners a peasant of
+favorable appearance, went up and said to him: "Well, my man, which
+government do you like best&mdash;that of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> the peasants or of the princes?"
+The poor fellow made answer with a deep sigh, "Ah, my lord, no knife
+cuts so deep as the rule of the peasant over his fellows."</p>
+
+<p>The remnants of the insurrection were quenched in blood; Duke George, in
+particular, acted with the greatest severity. In the states of the
+Elector, there were neither executions nor punishment. The Word of God,
+preached in all its purity, had shown its power to restrain the
+tumultuous passions of the people.</p>
+
+<p>From the very beginning, indeed, Luther had not ceased to struggle
+against the rebellion, which was, in his opinion, the forerunner of the
+Judgment-day. Advice, prayers, and even irony had not been spared. At
+the end of the articles drawn up at Erfurth by the rebels he had
+subjoined, as a supplementary article: "<i>Item.</i> The following article
+has been omitted. Henceforward the honorable council shall have no
+power; it shall do nothing; it shall sit like an idol or a log of wood;
+the commonalty shall chew its food, and it shall govern with its hands
+and feet tied; henceforth the wagon shall guide the horses, the horses
+shall hold the reins, and we shall go on admirably, in conformity with
+the glorious system set forth in these articles."</p>
+
+<p>Luther did not confine himself to writing. While the disturbance was
+still at its height, he quitted Wittenberg and went through some of the
+districts where the agitation was greatest. He preached, he labored to
+soften his hearers' hearts, and his hand, to which God had given power,
+turned aside, quieted, and brought back the impetuous and overflowing
+torrents into their natural channels.</p>
+
+<p>In every quarter the doctors of the Reformation exerted a similar
+influence. At Halle, Brentz had revived the drooping spirits of the
+citizens by the promise of God's Word, and four thousand peasants had
+fled before six hundred citizens. At Ichterhausen, a mob of peasants
+having assembled with an intent to demolish several castles and put
+their lords to death, Frederick Myconius went out to them alone, and
+such was the power of his words that they immediately abandoned their
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the part taken by the reformers and the Reformation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> in the
+midst of this revolt; they contended against it with all their might,
+with the sword of the Word, and boldly maintained those principles which
+alone, in every age, can preserve order and subjection among the
+nations. Accordingly, Luther asserted that, if the power of sound
+doctrine had not checked the fury of the people, the revolt would have
+extended its ravages far more widely, and have overthrown both church
+and state. If the reformers thus contended against sedition, it was not
+without receiving grievous wounds. That moral agony which Luther had
+first suffered, in his cell at Erfurth, became still more serious after
+the insurrection of the peasants. No great change takes place among men
+without suffering on the part of those who are its instruments. The
+birth of Christianity was effected by the agony of the Cross; but He who
+hung upon that cross addressed these words to each of his disciples,
+"Are ye able to drink of the cup that I shall drink of, and to be
+baptized with the same baptism that I am baptized with?"</p>
+
+<p>On the side of the princes, it was continually repeated that Luther and
+his doctrine were the cause of the revolt, and, however absurd this idea
+may be, the reformer could not see it so generally entertained without
+experiencing the deepest grief. On the side of the people, Munzer and
+all the leaders of the insurrection represented him as a vile hypocrite,
+a flatterer of the great, and these calumnies easily obtained belief.
+The violence with which Luther had declared against the rebels had
+displeased even moderate men. The friends of Rome exulted; all were
+against him, and he bore the heavy anger of his times. But his greatest
+affliction was to behold the work of heaven thus dragged in the mire and
+classed with the most fanatical projects. Here he felt was his
+Gethsemane: he saw the bitter cup that was presented to him; and,
+foreboding that he would be forsaken by all, he exclaimed: "Soon,
+perhaps, I shall also be able to say, 'All ye shall be offended because
+of me this night.'"</p>
+
+<p>Yet in the midst of this deep bitterness he preserved his faith: "He who
+has given me power to trample the enemy under foot," said he, "when he
+rose up against me like a cruel dragon or a furious lion, will not
+permit this enemy to crush<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> me, now that he appears before me with the
+treacherous glance of the basilisk. I groan as I contemplate those
+calamities. Often have I asked myself whether it would not have been
+better to have allowed the papacy to go on quietly, rather than witness
+the occurrence of so many troubles and seditions in the world. But no!
+it is better to have snatched a few souls from the jaws of the devil
+than to have left them all between his murderous fangs."</p>
+
+<p>Now terminated the revolution in Luther's mind that had begun at the
+period of his return from the Wartburg. The inner life no longer
+satisfied him: the Church and her institutions now became most important
+in his eyes. The boldness with which he had thrown down everything was
+checked at the sight of still more sweeping destructions; he felt it his
+duty to preserve, govern, and build up; and from the midst of the
+blood-stained ruins with which the peasant war had covered all Germany,
+the edifice of the new Church began slowly to arise.</p>
+
+<p>These disturbances left a lasting and deep impression on men's minds.
+The nations had been struck with dismay. The masses, who had sought in
+the Reformation nothing but political reform, withdrew from it of their
+own accord, when they saw it offered them spiritual liberty only.
+Luther's opposition to the peasants was his renunciation of the
+ephemeral favor of the people. A seeming tranquillity was soon
+established, and the noise of enthusiasm and sedition was followed in
+all Germany by a silence inspired by terror.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the popular passions, the cause of revolution, the interests of a
+radical equality, were quelled in the empire; but the Reformation did
+not yield. These two movements, which many have confounded with each
+other, were clearly marked out by the difference of their results. The
+insurrection was from below; the Reformation, from above. A few horsemen
+and cannon were sufficient to put down the one; but the other never
+ceased to rise in strength and vigor, in despite of the reiterated
+assaults of the empire and the Church.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<h2>FRANCE LOSES ITALY</h2>
+
+<h3>BATTLE OF PAVIA</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1525</h4>
+
+<h3>WILLIAM ROBERTSON</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Close upon the election of Charles V as emperor of the Holy
+Roman Empire came the first of a series of wars between that
+sovereign and Francis I, King of France, who had been
+Charles's rival for the imperial crown. The Emperor was at
+this time, 1521, favored by Henry VIII of England, and a
+secret treaty with Charles was finally concluded by Pope Leo
+X, who from the first had hesitated between the two young
+rivals, and who had already treated with Francis. The papal
+support proved the foundation of future power for Charles in
+Italy. The Pope and the Emperor agreed to unite their forces
+for expulsion of the French from their seat in the duchy of
+Milan.</p>
+
+<p>In 1521 hostilities broke out in Navarre and in the
+Netherlands, and finally in the Milanese, where the people
+were tired of French government. The various allies drove
+the French completely out of Italy, and Charles invaded
+France, but was there repulsed. King Francis, elated by this
+last success, determined upon another invasion of the
+Milanese. He went in person to Italy, leaving his mother as
+regent in France. With largely superior forces, he drove the
+imperialists before him.</p>
+
+<p>Instead, however, of pursuing the enemy, whom he might have
+overtaken at an untenable position, Francis, against the
+almost unanimous advice of his generals, laid siege to the
+strongly fortified city of Pavia, only to meet before it the
+crushing defeat which for centuries settled the fate of
+Italy. Pavia was held by a strong imperialist force under
+Lannoy.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Francis prosecuted the siege with obstinacy equal to the rashness with
+which he had undertaken it. During three months everything known to the
+engineers of that age, or that could be effected by the valor of his
+troops, was attempted, in order to reduce the place; while Lannoy and
+Pescara, unable to obstruct his operations, were obliged to remain in
+such an ignominious state of inaction that a pasquinade was published at
+Rome offering a reward to any person who could find the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> imperial army,
+lost in the month of October in the mountains between France and
+Lombardy, and which had not been heard of since that time.</p>
+
+<p>Leyva, well acquainted with the difficulties under which his countrymen
+labored, and the impossibility of their facing, in the field, such a
+powerful army as formed the siege of Pavia, placed his only hopes of
+safety in his own vigilance and valor. The efforts of both were
+extraordinary, and in proportion to the importance of the place with the
+defence of which he was intrusted. He interrupted the approaches of the
+French by frequent and furious sallies. Behind the breaches made by
+their artillery he erected new works, which appeared to be scarcely
+inferior in strength to the original fortifications. He repulsed the
+besiegers in all their assaults, and by his own example brought not only
+the garrison, but the inhabitants, to bear the most severe fatigues, and
+to encounter the greatest dangers, without murmuring. The rigor of the
+season conspired with his endeavors in retarding the progress of the
+French. Francis, attempting to become master of the town by diverting
+the course of the Tessino, which is its chief defence on one side, a
+sudden inundation of the river destroyed, in one day, the labor of many
+weeks, and swept away all the mounds which his army had raised with
+infinite toil as well as at great expense.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the slow progress of the besiegers, and the glory which
+Leyva acquired by his gallant defence, it was not doubted but that the
+town would at last be obliged to surrender. Pope Clement, who already
+considered the French arms as superior in Italy, became impatient to
+disengage himself from his connections with the Emperor, of whose
+designs he was extremely jealous, and to enter into terms of friendship
+with Francis. As Clement's timid and cautious temper rendered him
+incapable of following the bold plan which Leo had formed of delivering
+Italy from the yoke of both the rivals, he returned to the more obvious
+and practicable scheme of employing the power of the one to balance and
+to restrain that of the other.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason he did not dissemble his satisfaction at seeing the
+French King recover Milan, as he hoped that the dread of such a neighbor
+would be some check upon the Emperor's ambition, which no power in Italy
+was now able to control. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> labored hard to bring about a peace that
+would secure Francis in the possession of his new conquests; and as
+Charles, who was always inflexible in the prosecution of his schemes,
+rejected the proposition with disdain, and with bitter exclamations
+against the Pope, by whose persuasions, while Cardinal di Medici, he had
+been induced to invade the Milanese, Clement immediately concluded a
+treaty of neutrality with the King of France, in which the republic of
+Florence was included.</p>
+
+<p>Francis having, by this transaction, deprived the Emperor of his two
+most powerful allies, and at the same time having secured a passage for
+his own troops through their territories, formed a scheme of attacking
+the kingdom of Naples, hoping either to overrun that country, which was
+left altogether without defence, or that at least such an unexpected
+invasion would oblige the viceroy to recall part of the imperial army
+out of the Milanese. For this purpose he ordered six thousand men to
+march under the command of John Stuart, Duke of Albany. But Pescara,
+foreseeing that the effect of this diversion would depend entirely upon
+the operations of the armies in the Milanese, persuaded Lannoy to
+disregard Albany's motions, and to bend his whole force against the King
+himself; so that Francis not only weakened his army very unseasonably by
+this great detachment, but incurred the reproach of engaging too rashly
+in chimerical and extravagant projects.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the garrison of Pavia was reduced to extremity; their
+ammunition and provisions began to fail; the Germans, of whom it was
+chiefly composed, having received no pay for seven months, threatened to
+deliver the town into the enemy's hands, and could hardly be restrained
+from mutiny by all Leyva's address and authority. The imperial generals,
+who were no strangers to his situation, saw the necessity of marching
+without loss of time to his relief. This they had now in their power.
+Twelve thousand Germans, whom the zeal and activity of Bourbon taught to
+move with unusual rapidity, had entered Lombardy under his command, and
+rendered the imperial army nearly equal to that of the French, greatly
+diminished by the absence of the body under Albany, as well as by the
+fatigues of the siege and the rigor of the season.</p>
+
+<p>But the more their troops increased in number, the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> sensibly did
+the imperialists feel the distress arising from want of money. Far from
+having funds for paying a powerful army, they had scarcely what was
+sufficient for defraying the charges of conducting their artillery and
+of carrying their ammunition and provisions. The abilities of the
+generals, however, supplied every defect. By their own example, as well
+as by magnificent promises in name of the Emperor, they prevailed on the
+troops of all the different nations which composed their army to take
+the field without pay; they engaged to lead them directly toward the
+enemy, and flattered them with the certain prospect of victory, which
+would at once enrich them with such royal spoils as would be an ample
+reward for all their services. The soldiers, sensible that, by quitting
+the army, they would forfeit the great arrears due to them, and eager to
+get possession of the promised treasures, demanded a battle with all the
+impatience of adventurers who fight only for plunder.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial generals, without suffering the ardor of their troops to
+cool, advanced immediately toward the French camp. On the first
+intelligence of their approach, Francis called a council of war to
+deliberate what course he ought to take. All his officers of greatest
+experience were unanimous in advising him to retire, and to decline a
+battle with an enemy who courted it from despair. The imperialists, they
+observed, would either be obliged in a few weeks to disband an army
+which they were unable to pay, and which they kept together only by the
+hope of plunder, or the soldiers, enraged at the nonperformance of the
+promises to which they had trusted, would rise in some furious mutiny,
+which would allow their generals to think of nothing but their own
+safety; that meanwhile he might encamp in some strong post, and, waiting
+in safety the arrival of fresh troops from France and Switzerland, might
+before the end of spring take possession of all the Milanese without
+danger or bloodshed. But in opposition to them, Bonnivet, whose destiny
+it was to give counsels fatal to France during the whole campaign,
+represented the ignominy that it would reflect on their sovereign if he
+should abandon a siege which he had prosecuted so long, or turn his back
+before an enemy to whom he was still superior in number, and insisted on
+the necessity of fighting the imperialists rather than relinquish an
+undertaking on the success<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> of which the King's future fame depended.
+Unfortunately, Francis' notions of honor were delicate to an excess that
+bordered on what was romantic. Having often said that he would take
+Pavia or perish in the attempt, he thought himself bound not to depart
+from that resolution; and, rather than expose himself to the slightest
+imputation, he chose to forego all the advantages which were the certain
+consequences of a retreat, and determined to wait for the imperialists
+before the walls of Pavia.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial generals found the French so strongly intrenched that,
+notwithstanding the powerful motives which urged them on, they hesitated
+long before they ventured to attack them; but at last the necessities of
+the besieged and the murmurs of their own soldiers obliged them to put
+everything to hazard. Never did armies engage with greater ardor or with
+a higher opinion of the importance of the battle which they were going
+to fight; never were troops more strongly animated with emulation,
+national antipathy, mutual resentment, and all the passions which
+inspire obstinate bravery. On the one hand, a gallant young monarch,
+seconded by a generous nobility and followed by subjects to whose
+natural impetuosity indignation at the opposition which they had
+encountered added new force, contended for victory and honor. On the
+other side, troops more completely disciplined, and conducted by
+generals of greater abilities, fought from necessity, with courage
+heightened by despair. The imperialists, however, were unable to resist
+the first efforts of the French valor, and their firmest battalions
+began to give way. But the fortune of the day was quickly changed. The
+Swiss in the service of France, unmindful of the reputation of their
+country for fidelity and martial glory, abandoned their post in a
+cowardly manner. Leyva, with his garrison, sallied out and attacked the
+rear of the French, during the heat of the action, with such fury as
+threw it into confusion; and Pescara, falling on their cavalry with the
+imperial horse, among whom he had prudently intermingled a considerable
+number of Spanish foot armed with the heavy muskets then in use, broke
+this formidable body by an unusual method of attack, against which they
+were wholly unprovided. The rout became universal; and resistance ceased
+in almost every part but where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> the King was in person, who fought now,
+not for fame or victory, but for safety. Though wounded in several
+places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed under him, Francis
+defended himself on foot with a heroic courage.</p>
+
+<p>Many of his bravest officers, gathering round him, and endeavoring to
+save his life at the expense of their own, fell at his feet. Among these
+was Bonnivet, the author of this great calamity, who alone died
+unlamented. The King, exhausted with fatigue, and scarcely capable of
+further resistance, was left almost alone, exposed to the fury of some
+Spanish soldiers, strangers to his rank and enraged at his obstinacy. At
+that moment came up Pomperant, a French gentleman, who had entered
+together with Bourbon into the Emperor's service, and, placing himself
+by the side of the monarch against whom he had rebelled, assisted in
+protecting him from the violence of the soldiers, at the same time
+beseeching him to surrender to Bourbon, who was not far distant.
+Imminent as the danger was which now surrounded Francis, he rejected
+with indignation the thoughts of an action which would have afforded
+such matter of triumph to his traitorous subject, and calling for
+Lannoy, who happened likewise to be near at hand, gave up his sword to
+him; which he, kneeling to kiss the King's hand, received with profound
+respect; and taking his own sword from his side, presented it to him,
+saying that it did not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in
+the presence of one of the Emperor's subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Ten thousand men fell on this day, one of the most fatal France had ever
+seen. Among these were many noblemen of the highest distinction, who
+chose rather to perish than to turn their backs with dishonor. Not a few
+were taken prisoners, of whom the most illustrious was Henry d'Albret,
+the unfortunate King of Navarre. A small body of the rear-guard made its
+escape under the command of the Duke of Alen&ccedil;on; the feeble garrison of
+Milan, on the first news of the defeat, retired, without being pursued,
+by another road; and, in two weeks after the battle, not a Frenchman
+remained in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Lannoy, though he treated Francis with all the outward marks of honor
+due to his rank and character, guarded him with the utmost attention. He
+was solicitous, not only to prevent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> any possibility of his escaping,
+but afraid that his own troops might seize his person and detain it as
+the best security for the payment of their arrears. In order to provide
+against both these dangers, he conducted Francis, the day after the
+battle, to the strong castle of Pizzichitone, near Cremona, committing
+him to the custody of Don Ferdinand Alarcon, general of the Spanish
+infantry, an officer of great bravery and of strict honor, but
+remarkable for that severe and scrupulous vigilance which such a trust
+required.</p>
+
+<p>Francis, who formed a judgment of the Emperor's dispositions by his own,
+was extremely desirous that Charles should be informed of his situation,
+fondly hoping that from his generosity or sympathy he should obtain
+speedy relief. The imperial generals were no less impatient to give
+their sovereign an early account of the decisive victory which they had
+gained, and to receive his instructions with regard to their future
+conduct. As the most certain and expeditious method of conveying
+intelligence to Spain at that season of the year was by land, Francis
+gave the <i>commendador</i> Pennalosa, who was charged with Lannoy's
+despatches, a passport to travel through France.</p>
+
+<p>Charles received the account of this signal and unexpected success that
+had crowned his arms with a moderation which, if it had been real, would
+have done him more honor than the greatest victory. Without uttering one
+word expressive of exultation or of intemperate joy, he retired
+immediately into his chapel, and, having spent an hour in offering up
+his thanksgivings to heaven, returned to the presence-chamber, which by
+that time was filled with grandees and foreign ambassadors assembled in
+order to congratulate him. He accepted of their compliments with a
+modest deportment; he lamented the misfortune of the captive King, as a
+striking example of the sad reverse of fortune to which the most
+powerful monarchs are subject; he forbade any public rejoicings, as
+indecent in a war carried on among Christians, reserving them until he
+should obtain a victory equally illustrious over the infidels; and
+seemed to take pleasure, in the advantage which he had gained, only as
+it would prove the occasion of restoring peace to Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>Charles, however, had already begun to form schemes in his own mind
+which little suited such external appearances. Ambition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> not
+generosity, was the ruling passion in his mind; and the victory at Pavia
+opened such new and unbounded prospects of gratifying it as allured him
+with irresistible force. But it being no easy matter to execute the vast
+designs which he meditated, he thought it necessary, while proper
+measures were taking for that purpose, to affect the greatest
+moderation, hoping under that veil to conceal his real intentions from
+the other princes of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile France was filled with consternation. The King himself had
+early transmitted an account of the rout at Pavia in a letter to his
+mother, delivered by Pennalosa, which contained only these words:
+"Madam, all is lost except our honor." The officers who made their
+escape, when they arrived from Italy, brought such a melancholy detail
+of particulars as made all ranks of men sensibly feel the greatness and
+extent of the calamity. France, without its sovereign, without money in
+her treasury, without an army and without generals to command it, and
+encompassed on all sides by a victorious and active enemy, seemed to be
+on the very brink of destruction. But on that occasion the great
+abilities of Louise, the regent, saved the kingdom which the violence of
+her passions had more than once exposed to the greatest danger. Instead
+of giving herself up to such lamentations as were natural to a woman so
+remarkable for her maternal tenderness, she discovered all the foresight
+and exerted all the activity of a consummate politician. She assembled
+the nobles at Lyons, and animated them, by her example no less than by
+her words, with such zeal in defence of their country as its present
+situation required. She collected the remains of the army which had
+served in Italy, ransomed the prisoners, paid the arrears, and put them
+in a condition to take the field. She levied new troops, provided for
+the security of the frontiers, and raised sums sufficient for defraying
+these extraordinary expenses. Her chief care, however, was to appease
+the resentment or to gain the friendship of the King of England; and
+from that quarter the first ray of comfort broke in upon the French.</p>
+
+<p>Though Henry, in entering into alliances with Charles or Francis, seldom
+followed any regular or concerted plan of policy, but was influenced
+chiefly by the caprice of temporary passions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> such occurrences often
+happened as recalled his attention toward that equal balance of power
+which it was necessary to keep between the two contending potentates,
+the preservation of which he always boasted to be his peculiar office.
+He had expected that his union with the Emperor might afford him an
+opportunity of recovering some part of those territories in France which
+had belonged to his ancestors, and for the sake of such an acquisition
+he did not scruple to give his assistance toward raising Charles to a
+considerable pre&euml;minence above Francis. He had never dreamed, however,
+of any event so decisive and so fatal as the victory at Pavia, which
+seemed not only to have broken, but to have annihilated, the power of
+one of the rivals; so that the prospect of the sudden and entire
+revolution which this would occasion in the political system filled him
+with the most disquieting apprehensions. He saw all Europe in danger of
+being overrun by an ambitious prince, to whose power there now remained
+no counterpoise; and though he himself might at first be admitted, in
+quality of an ally, to some share in the spoils of the captive monarch,
+it was easy to discern that with regard to the manner of making the
+partition, as well as his security for keeping possession of what should
+be allotted him, he must absolutely depend upon the will of a
+confederate, to whose forces his own bore no proportion.</p>
+
+<p>He was sensible that if Charles were permitted to add any considerable
+part of France to the vast dominions of which he was already master, his
+neighborhood would be much more formidable to England than that of the
+ancient French kings; while at the same time the proper balance on the
+Continent, to which England owed both its safety and importance, would
+be entirely lost. Concern for the situation of the unhappy monarch
+co&ouml;perated with these political considerations; his gallant behavior in
+the battle of Pavia had excited a high degree of admiration, which never
+fails of augmenting sympathy; and Henry, naturally susceptible of
+generous sentiments, was fond of appearing as the deliverer of a
+vanquished enemy from a state of captivity. The passions of the English
+minister seconded the inclinations of the monarch. Wolsey, who had not
+forgotten the disappointment of his hopes in two successive conclaves,
+which he imputed chiefly to the Emperor, thought this a proper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+opportunity of taking revenge; and, Louise courting the friendship of
+England with such flattering submissions as were no less agreeable to
+the King than to the Cardinal, Henry gave her secret assurances that he
+would not lend his aid toward oppressing France in its present helpless
+state, and obliged her to promise that she would not consent to
+dismember the kingdom even in order to procure her son's liberty.</p>
+
+<p>During these transactions, Charles, whose pretensions to moderation and
+disinterestedness were soon forgotten, deliberated, with the utmost
+solicitude, how he might derive the greatest advantages from the
+misfortunes of his adversary. Some of his counsellors advised him to
+treat Francis with the magnanimity that became a victorious prince, and,
+instead of taking advantage of his situation to impose rigorous
+conditions, to dismiss him on such equal terms as would bind him forever
+to his interest by the ties of gratitude and affection, more forcible as
+well as more permanent than any which could be formed by extorted oaths
+and involuntary stipulations.</p>
+
+<p>Such an exertion of generosity is not, perhaps, to be expected in the
+conduct of political affairs, and it was far too refined for that prince
+to whom it was proposed. The more obvious but less splendid scheme, of
+endeavoring to make the utmost of Francis' calamity, had a greater
+number in the council to recommend it, and suited better with the
+Emperor's genius. But though Charles adopted this plan, he seems not to
+have executed it in the most proper manner. Instead of making one great
+effort to penetrate into France with all the forces of Spain and the Low
+Countries; instead of crushing the Italian states before they recovered
+from the consternation which the success of his arms had occasioned, he
+had recourse to the artifices of intrigue and negotiation. This
+proceeded partly from necessity, partly from the natural disposition of
+his mind. The situation of his finances at that time rendered it
+extremely difficult to carry on any extraordinary armament; and he
+himself, having never appeared at the head of his armies, the command of
+which he had hitherto committed to his generals, was averse to bold and
+martial counsels, and trusted more to the arts with which he was
+acquainted. He laid, besides, too much stress upon the victory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> of
+Pavia, as if by that event the strength of France had been annihilated,
+its resources exhausted, and the kingdom itself, no less than the person
+of its monarch, had been subjected to his power.</p>
+
+<p>Full of this opinion, he determined to set the highest price upon
+Francis' freedom; and, having ordered the Count de Roeux to visit the
+captive King in his name, he instructed him to propose the following
+articles as the conditions on which he would grant him his liberty: That
+he should restore Burgundy to the Emperor, from whose ancestors it had
+been unjustly wrested; that he should surrender Provence and Dauphin&eacute;,
+that they might be erected into an independent kingdom for the constable
+Bourbon; that he should make full satisfaction to the King of England
+for all his claims, and finally renounce the pretensions of France to
+Naples, Milan, or any other territory in Italy. When Francis, who had
+hitherto flattered himself that he should be treated by the Emperor with
+the generosity becoming one great prince toward another, heard these
+rigorous conditions, he was so transported with indignation that,
+drawing his dagger hastily, he cried out, "'Twere better that a king
+should die thus." Alarcon, alarmed at his vehemence, laid hold on his
+hand; but though he soon recovered greater composure, he still declared
+in the most solemn manner that he would rather remain a prisoner during
+life than purchase liberty by such ignominious concessions.</p>
+
+<p>The chief obstacle that stood in the way of Francis' liberty was the
+Emperor's continuing to insist so peremptorily on the restitution of
+Burgundy as a preliminary to that event. Francis often declared that he
+would never consent to dismember his kingdom; and that, even if he
+should so far forget the duties of a monarch as to come to such a
+resolution, the fundamental laws of the nation would prevent its taking
+effect. On his part he was willing to make an absolute cession to the
+Emperor of all his pretensions in Italy and the Low Countries; he
+promised to restore to Bourbon all his lands which had been confiscated;
+he renewed his proposal of marrying the Emperor's sister, the
+queen-dowager of Portugal; and engaged to pay a great sum by way of
+ransom for his own person.</p>
+
+<p>But all mutual esteem and confidence between the two monarchs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> were now
+entirely lost; there appeared, on the one hand, a rapacious ambition,
+laboring to avail itself of every favorable circumstance; on the other,
+suspicion and resentment, standing perpetually on their guard; so that
+the prospect of bringing their negotiations to an issure seemed to be
+far distant. The Duchess of Alen&ccedil;on, the French King's sister, whom
+Charles permitted to visit her brother in his confinement, employed all
+her address in order to procure his liberty on more reasonable terms.
+Henry of England interposed his good offices to the same purpose; but
+both with so little success that Francis, in despair, took suddenly the
+resolution of resigning his crown, with all its rights and prerogatives,
+to his son, the Dauphin, determining rather to end his days in prison
+than to purchase his freedom by concessions unworthy of a king. The deed
+for this purpose he signed with legal formality in Madrid, empowering
+his sister to carry it into France, that it might be registered in all
+the parliaments of the kingdom; and, at the same time, intimating his
+intention to the Emperor, he desired him to name the place of his
+confinement, and to assign him a proper number of attendants during the
+remainder of his days.</p>
+
+<p>This resolution of the French King had great effect; Charles began to be
+sensible that, by pushing rigor to excess, he might defeat his own
+measures; and instead of the vast advantages which he hoped to draw from
+ransoming a powerful monarch, he might at last find in his hands a
+prince without dominions or revenues. About the same time one of the
+King of Navarre's domestics happened, by an extraordinary exertion of
+fidelity, courage, and address, to procure his master an opportunity of
+escaping from the prison in which he had been confined ever since the
+battle of Pavia. This convinced the Emperor that the most vigilant
+attention of his officers might be eluded by the ingenuity or boldness
+of Francis or his attendants, and one unlucky hour might deprive him of
+all the advantages which he had been so solicitous to obtain. By these
+considerations he was induced to abate somewhat of his former demands.
+On the other hand, Francis' impatience under confinement daily
+increased; and having received certain intelligence of a powerful league
+forming against his rival in Italy, he grew more compliant with regard
+to his concessions, trusting that, if he could once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> obtain his liberty,
+he would soon be in a condition to resume whatever he had yielded.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the views and sentiments of the two monarchs, the treaty
+which procured Francis his liberty was signed at Madrid on January 14,
+1526.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+<h2>SACK OF ROME BY THE IMPERIAL TROOPS</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1527</h4>
+
+<h3>
+BENVENUTO CELLINI   &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Charles, Duc de Bourbon, known as the Constable de Bourbon,
+became famous in the wars of the emperor Charles V with
+Francis I, King of France. The vast estates of both branches
+of the Bourbon family were united in the possession of the
+Constable, making him a person of importance independently
+of his military career. He was born in 1490, and was made
+Constable of France for his services at the battle of
+Melegnano (1515), in which Francis gained a brilliant
+victory over the Swiss.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt of powerful enemies to undermine Bourbon in the
+favor of the King led to the threatened loss of the
+Constable's dignities and lands, and provoked him to
+renounce the French service. After making a secret treaty
+with Charles V and with his ally, Henry VIII of England,
+Bourbon led a force of German mercenaries into Lombardy,
+where in 1523 he joined Charles' Spanish army, and next year
+aided in driving the French from Italy. Invading France, he
+marched under the Emperor's orders to Marseilles and laid
+siege to the city, but failed to take it.</p>
+
+<p>Bourbon contributed materially to the Emperor's great
+victory at Pavia, and was rewarded by being made Duke of
+Milan and commander in Northern Italy. But although Charles
+thus honored Bourbon he did not trust him, and was not
+really desirous of advancing a person of such great resource
+and consequence. In the peace between Spain and France in
+1526 Bourbon's great interests were neglected.
+Notwithstanding these things, when Charles V wished to
+punish Pope Clement VII, who had joined a league against
+him, Bourbon, with George of Frundsberg, led an army of
+Spanish and German mercenaries to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the sack which followed, written by
+Benvenuto Cellini, the celebrated Italian artist, shows him
+as an effective participant in the defence. This account of
+a combatant is of course only fragmentary, and is
+supplemented by Trollope's critical narrative.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>BENVENUTO CELLINI</h4>
+
+<p>The whole world was now in warfare. Pope Clement had sent to get some
+troops from Giovanni de' Medici, and when they came they made such
+disturbances in Rome that it was ill living in open shops.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> On this
+account I retired to a good snug<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> house behind the Banchi, where I
+worked for all the friends I had acquired. Since I produced few things
+of much importance at that period, I need not waste time in talking
+about them. I took much pleasure in music and amusements of the kind.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Giovanni de' Medici in Lombardy, the Pope, at the advice
+of Messer Jacopo Salviati, dismissed the five bands he had engaged; and
+when the Constable of Bourbon knew there were no troops in Rome, he
+pushed his army with the utmost energy up to the city. The whole of Rome
+upon this flew to arms. I happened to be intimate with Alessandro, the
+son of Piero del Bene, who, at the time when the Colonnesi entered Rome,
+had requested me to guard his palace.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> On this more serious occasion,
+therefore, he prayed me to enlist fifty comrades for the protection of
+the said house, appointing me their captain, as I had been when the
+Colonnesi came. So I selected fifty young men of the highest courage,
+and we took up quarters in his palace, with good pay and excellent
+appointments.</p>
+
+<p>Bourbon's army had now arrived before the walls of Rome, and Alessandro
+begged me to go with him to reconnoitre. So we went with one of the
+stoutest fellows in our company; and on the way a youth called Cecchino
+della Casa joined himself to us. On reaching the walls by the Campo
+Santo, we could see that famous army, which was making every effort to
+enter the town. Upon the ramparts where we took our station, several
+young men were lying, killed by the besiegers; the battle raged there
+desperately, and there was the densest fog imaginable. I turned to
+Alessandro and said: "Let us go home as soon as we can, for there is
+nothing to be done here; you see the enemies are mounting, and our men
+are in flight." Alessandro, in a panic, cried, "Would God that we had
+never come here!" and turned in maddest haste to fly. I took him up
+somewhat sharply with these words: "Since you have brought me here, I
+must perform some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> action worthy of a man"; and, directing my arquebuse
+where I saw the thickest and most serried troop of fighting men, I aimed
+exactly at one whom I remarked to be higher than the rest: the fog
+prevented me from being certain whether he was on horseback or on foot.
+Then I turned to Alessandro and Cecchino, and bade them discharge their
+arquebuses, showing them how to avoid being hit by the besiegers. When
+we had fired two rounds apiece I crept cautiously up to the wall, and,
+observing among the enemy a most extraordinary confusion, I discovered
+afterward that one of our shots had killed the Constable of Bourbon;
+and, from what I subsequently learned, he was the man whom I had first
+noticed above the heads of the rest.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>Quitting our position on the ramparts, we crossed the Campo Santo, and
+entered the city by St. Peter's; then, coming out exactly at the Church
+of Santo Agnolo, we got with the greatest difficulty to the great gate
+of the castle; for the generals, Renzo di Ceri and Orazio Baglioni, were
+wounding and slaughtering everybody who abandoned the defence of the
+walls.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>By the time we had reached the great gate, part of the foemen had
+already entered Rome, and we had them in our rear. The castellan had
+ordered the portcullis to be lowered, in order to do which they cleared
+a little space, and this enabled us four to get inside. On the instant
+that I entered, the captain Palone de' Medici claimed me as being of the
+papal household and forced me to abandon Alessandro, which I had to do
+much against my will. I ascended to the keep, and at the same instant
+Pope Clement came in through the corridors into the castle; he had
+refused to leave the palace of St. Peter earlier, being unable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> to
+believe that his enemies would effect their entrance into Rome.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>Having got into the castle in this way, I attached myself to certain
+pieces of artillery, which were under the command of a bombardier called
+Giuliano Fiorentino. Leaning there against the battlements, the unhappy
+man could see his poor house being sacked, and his wife and children
+outraged; fearing to strike his own folk, he dared not discharge the
+cannon, and, flinging the burning fuse upon the ground, he wept as
+though his heart would break, and tore his cheeks with both his
+hands.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some of the other bombardiers were behaving in like manner; seeing
+which, I took one of the matches, and got the assistance of a few men
+who were not overcome by their emotions. I aimed some swivels and
+falconets at points where I saw it would be useful, and killed with them
+a good number of the enemy. Had it not been for this, the troops who
+poured into Rome that morning and were marching straight upon the castle
+might possibly have entered it with ease, because the artillery was
+doing them no damage. I went on firing under the eyes of several
+cardinals and lords, who kept blessing me and giving me the heartiest
+encouragement. In my enthusiasm I strove to achieve the impossible; let
+it suffice that it was I who saved the castle that morning, and brought
+the other bombardiers back to their duty.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> I worked hard the whole of
+that day, and when the evening came&mdash;while the army was marching into
+Rome through Trastevere&mdash;Pope Clement appointed a great Roman nobleman
+named Antonio Santacroce to be a captain of all the gunners. The first
+thing this man did was to come to me, and, having greeted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> me with the
+utmost kindness, he stationed me with five fine pieces of artillery on
+the highest point of the castle, to which the name of the "Angel"
+specially belongs.</p>
+
+<p>This circular eminence goes round the castle and surveys both Prati and
+the town of Rome. The captain put under my orders enough men to help in
+managing my guns, and, having seen me paid in advance, he gave me
+rations of bread and a little wine, and begged me to go forward as I had
+begun. I was perhaps more inclined by nature to the profession of arms
+than to the one I had adopted, and I took such pleasure in its duties
+that I discharged them better than those of my own art.</p>
+
+<p>Night came, the enemy had entered Rome, and we who were in the
+castle&mdash;especially myself, who have always taken pleasure in
+extraordinary sights&mdash;stayed gazing on the indescribable scene of tumult
+and conflagration in the streets below. People who were anywhere else
+but where we were could not have formed the least imagination of what it
+was.</p>
+
+
+<h4>T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE</h4>
+
+<p>The combined force of Bourbon and Frundsberg was in all respects more
+like a rabble-rout of brigands and bandits than an army, and was
+assuredly such as must, even in those days, have been felt to be a
+disgrace to any sovereign permitting them to call themselves his
+soldiers. Their pay was, as was often the case with the troops of
+Charles V, hopelessly in arrear, and discipline was of course
+proportionably weak among them. Indeed, it seemed every now and then on
+the point of coming to an end altogether. The two generals had the
+greatest difficulty in preventing their army from becoming an entirely
+anarchical and disorganized mob of freebooters as dangerous to its
+masters as to everybody else. Of course food, raiment, and shelter were
+the first absolute essentials for keeping this dangerous mass of armed
+men in any degree of order and organization, and in fact the present
+march of Frundsberg and Bourbon had the obtaining of these necessaries
+for its principal and true object.</p>
+
+<p>The progress southward of this bandit army unchecked by any opposing
+force&mdash;for Giovanni delle Bande Nere had lost his life in the attempt to
+prevent them from passing the Po; and after the death of that great
+captain, the army of the league did<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> not muster courage to attack or
+impede the invaders in any way&mdash;filled the cities exposed to their
+inroad with terror and dismay. They had passed like a destroying locust
+swarm over Bologna and Imola, and crossing the Apennines, which separate
+Umbria from Tuscany, had descended into the valley of the Arno not far
+from Arezzo. Florence and Rome both trembled. On which would the storm
+burst? That was the all-absorbing question.</p>
+
+<p>Pope Clement, with his usual avarice-blinded imbecility, had,
+immediately on concluding a treaty with the Neapolitan viceroy,
+discharged all his troops except a bodyguard of about six hundred men.
+Florence was nearly in as defenceless a position. She had, says Varchi,
+"two great armies on her territory; one that under Bourbon, which came
+as an enemy to sack and plunder her; and the other, that of a league,
+which came as a friend to protect her, but sacked and plundered her none
+the less." It was, however, probably the presence of this army, little
+as it had hitherto done to impede the progress of the enemy, which
+decided Bourbon eventually to determine on marching toward Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It seems doubtful how far they were, in so doing, executing the orders
+or carrying out the wishes of the Emperor. Clement, though he had played
+the traitor to Charles, as he did to everyone else, and had been at war
+with him recently, had now entered into a treaty with the Emperor's
+viceroy. And apart from this there was a degree of odium and scandal
+attaching to the sight of the "most Catholic" Emperor sending a Lutheran
+army in his pay to attack the head of the Church, and ravage the
+venerated capital of Christendom, which so decorous a sovereign as
+Charles would hardly have liked to incur. Still, it may be assumed that
+if the Emperor wished his army kept together, and provided no sums for
+the purpose, he was not unwilling that they should live by plunder. And
+perhaps his real intention was to extort from Rome the means of paying
+his troops by the mere exhibition of the danger arising from their
+propinquity while they remained unpaid. Upon the whole we are warranted
+in supposing that Bourbon and Frundsberg would hardly have ventured on
+the course they took if they had not had reason to believe that it would
+not much displease their master. And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> Charles was exactly the sort of
+man who would like to have the profit of an evil deed without the loss
+of reputation arising from the commission of it, and who would consider
+himself best served by agents who could commit a profitable atrocity
+without being guilty of the annoying want of tact of waiting for his
+direct orders to commit it.</p>
+
+<p>For the especial business in hand, it was impossible, moreover, to have
+had two more fitting agents than Bourbon and Frundsberg. It was not
+every knightly general in those days who would have accepted the task,
+even with direct orders, of marching to the sack of Rome, and the open
+defiance of its sacred ruler. A Florentine or a Neapolitan soldier might
+have had small scruple in doing so; and a Roman baron&mdash;a Colonna or an
+Orsini&mdash;none at all. But there would have been found few men of such
+mark as Bourbon, in either France or Spain, willing to undertake the
+enterprise he was now engaged in. The unfortunate Constable, however,
+was a disgraced and desperate man. He was disgraced in the face of
+Europe by unknightly breach of fealty to his sovereign, despite the
+intensity of the provocation which had driven him to that step. For all
+the sanctions which held European society together, in the universal
+bondage which alone then constituted social order, were involved in
+maintaining the superstition that so branded him. And he was a desperate
+man in his fortunes; for though no name in all Europe was at that day as
+great a military power at the head of a host as that of Bourbon, and
+though the miserable bearer of it had so shortly before been one of the
+wealthiest and largest territorial nobles of France, yet the Constable
+had now his sword for his fortune as barely as the rawest lad in the
+rabble-rout that followed him, sent out from some landless tower of an
+impoverished knight, in half-starved Galicia or poverty-stricken
+Navarre, to carve his way in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Even among those whose ranks he had joined, Bourbon was a disgraced and
+ruined man beyond redemption. Although his well-known military capacity
+had easily induced Charles to welcome and make use of him, he must have
+felt that the step he had taken in breaking his allegiance and
+abandoning his country had rendered him an outcast and almost a pariah
+in the estimation of the chivalry of Europe. The feeling he had awakened
+against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> himself throughout Christendom is strikingly illustrated by an
+anecdote recorded of his reception at Madrid. When, shortly after
+winning the battle of Pavia, Bourbon went thither to meet Charles, and
+the Marquis of Villane was requested to lodge the victorious general in
+his palace, the haughty Spaniard told the Emperor that his house and all
+that he possessed were at his sovereign's disposition, but that he
+should assuredly burn it down as soon as Bourbon was out of it; since,
+having been sullied by the presence of a renegade, it could no longer be
+a fitting residence for a man of honor.</p>
+
+<p>So low had Bourbon fallen! Every man's hand was raised against him, and
+his hand was against every man. And it is easy to conceive what must
+have been his tone of mind and feeling, as he led on his mutinous
+robber-rout to Rome, while men of all parties looked on in
+panic-stricken horror. Thus Bourbon led his unpaid and mutinous hordes
+to a deed which, none knew better than he, would shock and scandalize
+all Europe, as a man who, having fallen already so low as to have lost
+all self-respect, cares not in his reckless despair to what depth he
+plunges.</p>
+
+<p>As for Frundsberg, he was a mere soldier of fortune, whose world was his
+camp, whose opinions and feelings had been formed in quite another
+school from those of his fellow-general; whose code of honor and of
+morals was an entirely different one, and whose conscience was not only
+perfectly at rest respecting the business he was bound on, but approved
+of it as a good and meritorious work for the advancement of true
+religion. He carried round his neck a halter of golden tissue, we are
+told, with which he loudly boasted that he would hang the Pope as soon
+as he got to Rome; and had others of crimson silk at his saddle-bow,
+which he said were destined for the cardinals!</p>
+
+<p>Too late Clement became aware of the imminence and magnitude of the
+danger that threatened him and the capital of Christendom. He besought
+the Neapolitan viceroy, who had already signed a treaty with him, as has
+been seen, to exert himself and use his authority to arrest the
+southward march of Bourbon's army. And it is remarkable that this
+representative of the Emperor in the government of Naples did, as it
+would seem, endeavor earnestly to avert the coming avalanche from the
+Eternal City. But, while the Emperor's viceroy used all his authority<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+and endeavors to arrest the advance of the Emperor's army, the Emperor's
+generals advanced and sacked Rome in spite of him. Which of them most
+really acted according to the secret wishes of that profound dissembler,
+and most false and crafty monarch, it is impossible to know. It may have
+been that Bourbon himself had no power to stay the plundering,
+bandit-like march of his hungry and unpaid troops. And the facts
+recorded of the state of discipline of the army are perfectly consistent
+with such a supposition.</p>
+
+<p>The Viceroy sent a messenger to Bourbon, while he was yet in Bologna,
+informing him of the treaty signed with Clement, and desiring him
+therefore to come no farther southward. Bourbon, bent, as Varchi says,
+on deceiving both the Pope and the Viceroy, replied that, if the Pope
+would send him two hundred thousand florins for distribution to the
+army, he would stay his march. But, while this answer was carried back
+to Rome, the tumultuous host continued its fearfully menacing advance;
+and the alarm in Rome was rapidly growing to desperate terror. At the
+Pope's earnest request, the Viceroy, "who knew well," says Varchi, "that
+his holiness had not a farthing," himself took post and rode hard for
+Florence with letters from Clement, hoping to obtain the money there.</p>
+
+<p>The departure of the Viceroy in person, and the breathless haste of his
+ride to Florence, speak vividly of this Spanish officer's personal
+anxiety respecting the dreadful fate which threatened Rome. But the
+Florentines do not seem to have been equally impressed with the
+necessity of losing no time in making an effort to avert the calamity
+from a rival city. It was after "much talking," we are told, that they
+at last consented to advance a hundred fifty thousand florins, eighty
+thousand in cash down, and the remainder by the end of October. It was
+now April; and Bourbon had by this time crossed the Apennines, and was
+with his army on the western slopes of the mountains, not far from the
+celebrated monastery of Lavernia. Thither the Viceroy hurried with all
+speed, accompanied by only two servants and a trumpeter; and having
+"with much difficulty," says Varchi, come to speech with the general,
+proffered him the eighty thousand florins. Upon which he was set upon by
+the tumultuous troops, and "narrowly escaped being torn in pieces by
+them."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> In endeavoring to get away from them and make his way back to
+Florence, he fell into the hands of certain peasants near Camaldoli, and
+was here again in danger of his life, and was wounded in the head. He
+was, however, rescued by a monk of Vallombrosa, and by him conducted to
+the neighboring little town of Poppi in the Casentino, or upper valley
+of the Arno, whence he made his way to Siena, and so back to Rome, with
+no pleasant tidings of what might be expected from Bourbon and his
+brigand army.</p>
+
+<p>The Vallombrosan monk, who thus bestead the Viceroy at his need, was, as
+Varchi records, rewarded by the bishopric of Muro, in the kingdom of
+Naples, which, adds the historian, "he still holds."</p>
+
+<p>The fate of Rome was no longer doubtful. Clement, who by his pennywise
+parsimony had left himself defenceless, made a feeble and wholly vain
+attempt to put the city in a state of defence. The corrupt and cowardly
+citizens could not have opposed any valid resistance to the ruffian
+hordes who were slowly but surely, like an advancing conflagration,
+coming upon them, even if they had been willing to do their best. But
+the trembling Pope's appeal to them to defend the walls fell on the ears
+of as sorely trembling men, each thinking only of the possible chances
+of saving his own individual person. Yet it seems clear that means of
+defence might have been found had not the Pope been thus paralyzed by
+terror.</p>
+
+<p>Clement, however, was as one fascinated. Martin du Bellay tells us that
+he himself, then in Italy as ambassador from Francis I, hurried to Rome,
+and warned the Pope of his danger in abundant time for him to have
+prepared for the protection of the city by the troops he had at his
+disposal. But no persuasion availed to induce Clement to take any step
+for that purpose. Neither would he seek safety by flight, nor permit his
+unfortunate subjects to do so. John da Casale, ambassador of Henry VIII
+at Venice, writes thence to Wolsey on May 16th&mdash;the fatal tidings of the
+sack of the city having just reached Venice&mdash;as follows:
+"He"&mdash;Clement&mdash;"refused to quit the city for some safer place. He even
+forbade by edict that anyone should carry anything out of the gates on
+pain of death, though many were anxious to depart and carry their
+fortunes elsewhere."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> Meantime Florence, for her own protection, had
+hastily induced Francesco Maria, Duke of Urbino, to place himself at the
+head of the remaining forces of the Italian league, and to take up a
+position at Incisa, a small town in the Upper Valdarno, about twenty
+miles from the city, on the road to Arezzo. Thus the torrent was turned
+off from the capital of the commonwealth. Probably as soon as the
+invading army once found itself to the south of Florence, that wealthy
+city was in no immediate danger. Rome was metal more attractive to the
+invaders, even had there not been an army between them and Florence.</p>
+
+<p>And now it became frightfully clear that the doom of the Eternal City
+was at hand. On came the strangely heterogeneous rout of lawless
+soldiery, leaving behind them a trail of burned and ruined cities,
+devastated fields, and populations plague-stricken from the
+contamination engendered by the multitude of their unburied dead.</p>
+
+<p>On May 5th Bourbon arrived beneath the walls of Rome. During the last
+few days the unhappy Pope had endeavored to arm what men he could get
+together under Renzo di Ceri and one Horatius&mdash;not Cocles,
+unhappily&mdash;but Baglioni. "Rome contained within her walls," says Ranke,
+"some thirty thousand inhabitants capable of bearing arms. Many of these
+men had seen service. They wore swords by their sides, which they had
+used freely in their broils among each other, and then boasted of their
+exploits. But to oppose the enemy, who brought with him certain
+destruction, five hundred men were the utmost that could be mustered
+within the city. At the first onset the Pope and his forces were
+overthrown." On the evening of May 6th the city was stormed and given
+over to the unbridled cupidity and brutality of the soldiers, who during
+many a long day of want and hardship had been looking forward to the
+hour that was to repay them amply for all past sufferings by the
+boundless gratification of every sense, and every caprice of lawless
+passion. Bourbon himself had fallen in the first moments of the attack,
+as he was leading his men to scale the walls, and any small influence
+that he might have exerted in moderating the excesses of the conquerors
+was thus at an end.</p>
+
+<p>It does not fall within the scope of the present narrative to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> attempt
+any detailed account of the days and scenes that followed. They have
+been described by many writers; and the reader who bears in mind what
+Rome was&mdash;her vileness, her cowardice, her imbecility, her wealth, her
+arts, her monuments, her memories, her helpless population of religious
+communities of both sexes, and the sacred character of her high places
+and splendors, which served to give an additional zest to the violence
+of triumphant heretics&mdash;he that bears in mind all these things may
+safely give the reign to his imagination without any fear of
+overcharging the picture. Frundsberg had been wont to boast that if ever
+he reached Rome he would hang the Pope. He never did reach it, having
+been carried off by a fit of apoplexy while striving to quell a mutiny
+among his troops shortly after leaving Bologna on his southward march.
+But the threat is sufficiently indicative of the spirit that animated
+his army, to show that Clement owed his personal safety only to the
+strength of the castle of St. Angelo, in which he sought refuge.</p>
+
+<p>The sensation produced throughout Europe by the dreadful misfortune
+which had fallen on the Eternal City was immense. John da Casale, in the
+letter cited above, says that it would have been better for Rome to have
+been taken by the Turks, when they were in Hungary, as the infidels
+would have perpetrated less odious outrages and less horrible sacrilege.
+Clerk, Bishop of Bath, writes to Wolsey from Paris on May 28th
+following: "Please it, your Grace, after my most humble recommendation,
+to understand that about the fifteenth of this moneth, by letters sent
+from Venyce, it was spoken, that the Duke of Burbon with the armye
+imperyall by vyolence shold enter Rome as the 6th of this moneth; and
+that in the same entree the said Duke should be slayne; and that the
+Pope had savyd Himself with the Cardynalls in Castell Angell; whiche
+tydinges bycause they ware not written unto Venyce, but upon relation of
+a souldier, that came from Rome to Viterbe, and bycause ther cam hither
+no maner of confirmation thereof unto this day, thay war not belevyd.
+This day ther is come letters from Venyce confyrming the same tydinges
+to be true. They write also that they have sackyd and spoylyd the town,
+and slayne to the nombre of 45,000, <i>non parcentes nec etati nec sexui
+nec ordini</i>; amongst other that they have murdyrd a marveillous sorte of
+fryars, and agaynst pristes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> churchis they have behavyd thymselfes
+as it doth become Murranys and Lutherans to do."</p>
+
+<p>How deeply Wolsey himself was moved by the news is seen by a letter from
+him to Henry VIII, written on June 2d following. He forwards to the King
+the letters "nowe arryved, as wel out of Fraunce as out of Italy,
+confirming the piteous and lamentable spoiles, pilages, with most cruel
+murdres, committed by the Emperialls in the citie of Rome, <i>non
+parcentes sacris, etati, sexui, aut relioni</i>; and the extreme daungier
+that the Poopes Holines and Cardinalles, who fled into the Castel Angel,
+wer in, if by meane of the armye of the liege, they should not be
+shortly socoured and releved. Which, sire, is matier that must nedes
+commove and stire the hartes of al good christen princes and people to
+helpe and put their handes with effecte to reformacion thereof, and the
+repressing of such tirannous demenour."</p>
+
+<p>Even Charles himself affected at least to mourn the success of his own
+army. Nowhere did this terrible Italian misfortune fail to awaken
+sympathy and compassion save in a rival Italian city. Florence heard the
+tidings, says Varchi, with the utmost delight. The same historian
+expresses his own opinion, that the sack of Rome was at once the most
+cruel and the most merited chastisement ever inflicted by heaven. And
+another Florentine writer piously accounts for the failure of all means
+adopted to avert the calamity, by supposing that it was God's eternal
+purpose then and thus to chastise the crimes of the Roman prelates&mdash;a
+theory, it may occur to some minds, somewhat damaged by the unfortunate
+fact that the greater part of the miseries suffered in those awful days
+were inflicted on the unhappy flocks of those purple shepherds.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> These troops entered Rome in October, 1526. They were
+disbanded in March, 1527.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Cellini here refers to the attack made upon Rome by the
+great Ghibelline house of Colonna, led by their chief captain, Pompeo,
+in September, 1526. They took possession of the city and drove Clement
+into the castle of St. Angelo, where they forced him to agree to terms
+favoring the Imperial cause. It was customary for Roman gentlemen to
+hire bravoes for the defence of their palaces when any extraordinary
+disturbance was expected, as, for example, upon the vacation of the
+papal chair.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> All historians of the sack of Rome agree in saying that
+Bourbon was shot dead while placing ladders against the outworks near
+the shop Cellini mentions. But the honor of firing the arquebuse which
+brought him down cannot be assigned to anyone in particular. Very
+different stories were current on the subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Renzo di Ceri was a captain of adventurers, who had
+conquered Urbino for the Pope in 1515, and afterward fought for the
+French in the Italian wars. Orazio Baglioni, of the semiprincely
+Perugian family, was a distinguished <i>condottiere</i>. He subsequently
+obtained the captaincy of the Bande Nere, and died fighting near Naples
+in 1528. Orazio murdered several of his cousins in order to acquire the
+lordship of Perugia. His brother Malatesta undertook to defend Florence
+in the siege of 1530, and sold the city by treason to Clement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Giovio, in his <i>Life of the Cardinal Prospero Colonna</i>,
+relates how he accompanied Clement in his flight from the Vatican to the
+castle. While passing some open portions of the gallery, he threw his
+violet mantle and cap of a monseigneur over the white stole of the
+Pontiff, for fear he might be shot at by the soldiers in the streets
+below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The short autobiography of Raffaello da Montelupo, a man
+in many respects resembling Cellini, confirms this part of our author's
+narrative. It is one of the most interesting pieces of evidence
+regarding what went on inside the castle during the sack of Rome.
+Montelupo was also a gunner and commanded two pieces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> This is an instance of Cellini's exaggeration. He did more
+than yeoman's service, no doubt, but we cannot believe that, without
+him, the castle would have been taken.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+<h2>GREAT RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND</h2>
+
+<h3>FALL OF WOLSEY</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1529</h4>
+
+<h3>JOHN RICHARD GREEN</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The "New Learning" which had been slowly spreading from
+Italy over all Europe, did not markedly affect England until
+the sixteenth century. There the long Wars of the Roses had
+not only gone nigh to exterminating the old nobility, but
+had so distracted men's minds from more peaceful pursuits
+that little note was taken of the intellectual movement
+abroad. Under Henry VII and Henry VIII all this changed.
+These Tudor monarchs were indeed tyrants over England, but
+they brought her peace&mdash;and time for thought. Under the
+leadership of the celebrated Dutch scholar Erasmus, and the
+almost equally renowned Englishmen, Sir Thomas More and Dean
+Colet, the land awakened about 1500 to a new life of study
+and of culture, whose principles spread rapidly among the
+upper classes.</p>
+
+<p>When news of Luther's religious revolt reached England, the
+leaders of the New Learning were at first inclined to favor
+his ideas. But the two movements, one scholarly and calm,
+the other impassioned and intense, soon parted company, as
+Green shows in his justly famous account.</p>
+
+<p>The true ruler of England at the time was the "great
+cardinal," Wolsey, whose brain long enabled him to play upon
+King Henry as a toreador does upon a bull, guiding at will
+the frenzied rushes of the mighty brute. In 1521, the period
+when the following account begins, Wolsey was fifty years
+old. He had risen from being the studious son of a grazier
+and wool merchant to be a dean of the Church under Henry
+VII, and a bishop, cardinal and lord chancellor, of England
+under Henry VIII. His ambition to be pope was thwarted by
+the emperor Charles V, but he was "cardinal legate," having
+control of the Catholic Church throughout England; and it
+was said of him that in all European affairs he was "seven
+times more powerful than the Pope."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>In England Luther's protest seemed at first to find no echo. King Henry
+VIII was, both on political and on religious grounds, firm on the papal
+side. England and Rome were drawn to a close alliance by the identity of
+their political position.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> Each was hard pressed between the same great
+powers; Rome had to hold its own between the masters of Southern and the
+masters of Northern Italy, as England had to hold her own between the
+rulers of France and of the Netherlands. From the outset of his reign to
+the actual break with Clement VII the policy of Henry is always at one
+with that of the papacy. Nor were the King's religious tendencies
+hostile to it. He was a trained theologian and proud of his theological
+knowledge, but to the end his convictions remained firmly on the side of
+the doctrines which Luther denied. In 1521, therefore, he entered the
+lists against Luther with an "Assertion of the Seven Sacraments," for
+which he was rewarded by Leo with the title of "Defender of the Faith."
+The insolent abuse of the reformer's answer called More and Fisher into
+the field.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the "New Learning" was now strong at the English court.
+Colet and Grocyn were among its foremost preachers; Linacre was Henry's
+physician; More was a privy councillor; Pace was one of the secretaries
+of state; Tunstall was master of the rolls. And as yet the New Learning,
+though scared by Luther's intemperate language, had steadily backed him
+in his struggle. Erasmus pleaded for him with the Emperor. Ulrich von
+Hutten attacked the friars in satires and invectives as violent as his
+own. But the temper of the Renaissance was even more antagonistic to the
+temper of Luther than that of Rome itself.</p>
+
+<p>From the golden dream of a new age wrought peaceably and purely by the
+slow progress of intelligence, the growth of letters, the development of
+human virtue, the reformer of Wittenberg turned away with horror. He had
+little or no sympathy with the new cult. He despised reason as heartily
+as any papal dogmatist could despise it. He hated the very thought of
+toleration or comprehension. He had been driven by a moral and
+intellectual compulsion to declare the Roman system a false one, but it
+was only to replace it by another system of doctrine just as elaborate
+and claiming precisely the same infallibility. To degrade human nature
+was to attack the very base of the New Learning; and his attack on it
+called the foremost of its teachers to the field. But Erasmus no sooner
+advanced to its defence than Luther declared man to be utterly enslaved
+by original sin and incapable,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> through any efforts of his own, of
+discovering truth or of arriving, at goodness.</p>
+
+<p>Such a doctrine not only annihilated the piety and wisdom of the classic
+past, from which the New Learning had drawn its larger views of life and
+of the world; it trampled in the dust reason itself, the very instrument
+by which More and Erasmus hoped to regenerate both knowledge and
+religion. To More especially, with his keener perception of its future
+effect, this sudden revival of a purely theological and dogmatic spirit,
+severing Christendom into warring camps and ruining all hopes of union
+and tolerance, was especially hateful. The temper which hitherto had
+seemed so "endearing, gentle, and happy," suddenly gave way. His reply
+to Luther's attack upon the King sank to the level of the work it
+answered; and though that of Bishop Fisher was calmer and more
+argumentative, the divorce of the New Learning from the Reformation
+seemed complete.</p>
+
+<p>But if the world of scholars and thinkers stood aloof from the new
+movement it found a warmer welcome in the larger world where men are
+stirred rather by emotion than by thought. There was an England of which
+even More and Colet knew little, in which Luther's words kindled a fire
+that was never to die. As a great social and political movement
+Lollardry had ceased to exist, and little remained of the directly
+religious impulse given by Wycliffe beyond a vague restlessness and
+discontent with the system of the Church. But weak and fitful as was the
+life of Lollardry the prosecutions whose records lie scattered over the
+bishops' registers failed wholly to kill it. We see groups meeting here
+and there to read "in a great book of heresy all one night certain
+chapters of the Evangelists in English," while transcripts of Wycliffe's
+tracts passed from hand to hand.</p>
+
+<p>The smouldering embers needed but a breath to fan them into flame, and
+the breath came from William Tyndale. Born among the Cotswolds when
+Bosworth Field gave England to the Tudors, Tyndale passed from Oxford to
+Cambridge to feel the full impulse given by the appearance there of the
+New Testament of Erasmus. From that moment one thought was at his heart.
+He "perceived by experience how that it was impossible to establish the
+lay people in any truth except the Scripture were plainly laid before
+their eyes in their mother tongue."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"If God spare my life," he said to a learned controversialist, "ere many
+years I will cause a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the
+Scripture than thou dost." But he was a man of forty before his dream
+became fact. Drawn from his retirement in Gloucestershire by the news of
+Luther's protest at Wittenberg, he found shelter for a year with a
+London alderman, Humfrey Monmouth. "He studied most part of the day at
+his book," said his host afterward, "and would eat but sodden meat by
+his good-will and drink but small single beer." The book at which he
+studied was the Bible. But it was soon needful to quit England if his
+purpose was to hold. "I understood at the last not only that there was
+no room in my lord of London's palace to translate the New Testament,
+but also that there was no place to do it in all England."</p>
+
+<p>From Hamburg, where he took refuge in 1524, he probably soon found his
+way to the little town which had suddenly become the sacred city of the
+Reformation. Students of all nations were flocking there with an
+enthusiasm which resembled that of the crusades. "As they came in sight
+of the town," a contemporary tells us, "they returned thanks to God with
+clasped hands, for from Wittenberg, as heretofore from Jerusalem, the
+light of evangelical truth had spread to the utmost parts of the earth."</p>
+
+<p>Such a visit could only fire Tyndale to face the "poverty, exile, bitter
+absence from friends, hunger and thirst and cold, great dangers, and
+innumerable other hard and sharp fightings," which the work he had set
+himself was to bring with it. In 1525 his version of the New Testament
+was completed, and means were furnished by English merchants for
+printing it at Cologne. But Tyndale had soon to fly with his sheets to
+Worms, a city whose Lutheran tendencies made it a safer refuge, and it
+was from Worms that six thousand copies of the New Testament were sent
+in 1526 to English shores. The King was keenly opposed to a book which
+he looked on as made "at the solicitation and instance of Luther"; and
+even the men of the New Learning from whom it might have hoped for
+welcome were estranged from it by its Lutheran origin. We can only
+fairly judge their action by viewing it in the light of the time. What
+Warham and More saw over sea might well have turned them from a
+movement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> which seemed breaking down the very foundations of religion
+and society. Not only was the fabric of the Church rent asunder and the
+centre of Christian unity denounced as "Babylon," but the reform itself
+seemed passing into anarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Luther was steadily moving onward from the denial of one Catholic dogma
+to that of another; and what Luther still clung to, his followers were
+ready to fling away. Carlstadt was denouncing the reformer of Wittenberg
+as fiercely as Luther himself had denounced the Pope, and meanwhile the
+religious excitement was kindling wild dreams of social revolution, and
+men stood aghast at the horrors of a peasant war which broke out in
+Southern Germany. It was not therefore as a mere translation of the
+Bible that Tyndale's work reached England. It came as a part of the
+Lutheran movement, and it bore the Lutheran stamp in its version of
+ecclesiastical words. "Church" became "congregation," "priest" was
+changed into "elder." It came too in company with Luther's bitter
+invectives and reprints of the tracts of Wycliffe, which the German
+traders of the Steelyard were importing in large numbers. We can hardly
+wonder that More denounced the book as heretical, or that Warham ordered
+it to be given up by all who possessed it.</p>
+
+<p>Wolsey took little heed of religious matters, but his policy was one of
+political adhesion to Rome, and he presided over a solemn penance to
+which some Steelyard men submitted in St. Paul's. "With six-and-thirty
+abbots, mitred priors, and bishops, and he in his whole pomp mitred,"
+the Cardinal looked on while "great baskets full of books were
+commanded; after the great fire was made before the Rood of Northen (the
+crucifix by the great north door of the cathedral), thus to be burned,
+and those heretics to go thrice about the fire and to cast in their
+fagots."</p>
+
+<p>But scenes and denunciations such as these were vain in the presence of
+an enthusiasm which grew every hour. "Englishmen," says a scholar of the
+time, "were so eager for the Gospel as to affirm that they would buy a
+New Testament even if they had to give a hundred thousand pieces of
+money for it." Bibles and pamphlets were smuggled over to England and
+circulated among the poorer and trading classes through the agency of an
+association of "Christian Brethren," consisting principally of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> London
+tradesmen and citizens, but whose missionaries spread over the country
+at large. They found their way at once to the universities, where the
+intellectual impulse given by the New Learning was quickening religious
+speculation.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge had already won a name for heresy; Barnes, one of its foremost
+scholars, had to carry his fagot before Wolsey at St. Paul's; two other
+Cambridge teachers, Bilney and Latimer, were already known as
+"Lutherans." The Cambridge scholars whom Wolsey introduced into Cardinal
+College, which he was founding, spread the contagion through Oxford. A
+group of "brethren" was formed in Cardinal College for the secret
+reading and discussion of the Epistles; and this soon included the more
+intelligent and learned scholars of the university. It was in vain that
+Clark, the centre of this group, strove to dissuade fresh members from
+joining it by warnings of the impending dangers. "I fell down on my
+knees at his feet," says one of them, Anthony Dalaber, "and with tears
+and sighs besought him that for the tender mercy of God he should not
+refuse me, saying that I trusted verily that he who had begun this on me
+would not forsake me, but would give me grace to continue therein to the
+end. When he heard me say so, he came to me, took me in his arms, and
+kissed me, saying, 'The Lord God Almighty grant you so to do, and from
+henceforth ever take me for your father, and I will take you for my son
+in Christ.'"</p>
+
+<p>In 1528 the excitement which followed on this rapid diffusion of
+Tyndale's works forced Wolsey to more vigorous action; many of the
+Oxford Brethren were thrown into prison and their books seized. But in
+spite of the panic of the Protestants, some of whom fled over sea,
+little severity was really exercised. Henry's chief anxiety, indeed, was
+lest in the outburst against heresy the interest of the New Learning
+should suffer harm. This was remarkably shown in the protection he
+extended to one who was destined to eclipse even the fame of Colet as a
+popular preacher. Hugh Latimer was the son of a Leicestershire yeoman,
+whose armor the boy had buckled on in the days of Henry VII, ere he set
+out to meet the Cornish insurgents at Blackheath Field. Latimer has
+himself described the soldierly training of his youth.</p>
+
+<p>"My father was delighted to teach me to shoot with the bow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> He taught
+me how to draw, how to lay my body to the bow, not to draw with strength
+of arm as other nations do, but with the strength of the body."</p>
+
+<p>At fourteen he was at Cambridge, flinging himself into the New Learning
+which was winning its way there with a zeal that at last told on his
+physical strength. The ardor of his mental efforts left its mark on him
+in ailments and enfeebled health from which, vigorous as he was, his
+frame never wholly freed itself. But he was destined to be known, not as
+a scholar, but as a preacher. In his addresses from the pulpit the
+sturdy good-sense of the man shook off the pedantry of the schools as
+well as the subtlety of the theologian. He had little turn for
+speculation, and in the religious changes of the day we find him
+constantly lagging behind his brother-reformers. But he had the moral
+earnestness of a Jewish prophet, and his denunciations of wrong had a
+prophetic directness and fire. "Have pity on your soul," he cried to
+Henry, "and think that the day is even at hand when you shall give an
+account of your office, and of the blood that hath been shed by your
+sword."</p>
+
+<p>His irony was yet more telling than his invective. "I would ask you a
+strange question," he said once at Paul's Cross to a ring of bishops;
+"who is the most diligent prelate in all England, that passeth all the
+rest in doing of his office? I will tell you. It is the Devil! Of all
+the pack of them that have cure, the Devil shall go for my money; for he
+ordereth his business. Therefore, you unpreaching prelates, learn of the
+Devil to be diligent in your office. If you will not learn of God, for
+shame learn of the Devil." But Latimer was far from limiting himself to
+invective. His homely humor breaks in with story and apologue; his
+earnestness is always tempered with good-sense; his plain and simple
+style quickens with a shrewd mother-wit. He talks to his hearers as a
+man talks to his friends, telling stories such as we have given of his
+own life at home, or chatting about the changes and chances of the day
+with a transparent simplicity and truth that raise even his chat into
+grandeur. His theme is always the actual world about him, and in his
+simple lessons of loyalty, of industry, of pity for the poor, he touches
+upon almost every subject from the plough to the throne. No such
+preaching had been heard in England before his day, and with the growth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+of his fame grew the danger of persecution. There were moments when,
+bold as he was, Latimer's heart failed him. "If I had not trust that God
+will help me," he wrote once, "I think the ocean sea would have divided
+my lord of London and me by this day."</p>
+
+<p>A citation for heresy at last brought the danger home. "I intend," he
+wrote with his peculiar medley of humor and pathos, to "make merry with
+my parishioners this Christmas, for all the sorrow, lest perchance I may
+never return to them again." But he was saved throughout by the steady
+protection of the court. Wolsey upheld him against the threats of the
+Bishop of Ely; Henry made him his own chaplain; and the King's
+interposition at this critical moment forced Latimer's judges to content
+themselves with a few vague words of submission.</p>
+
+<p>What really sheltered the reforming movement was Wolsey's indifference
+to all but political matters. In spite of the foundation of Cardinal
+College in which he was now engaged, and of the suppression of some
+lesser monasteries for its endowment, the men of the New Learning looked
+on him as really devoid of any interest in the revival of letters or in
+their hopes of a general enlightenment. He took hardly more heed of the
+new Lutheranism. His mind had no religious turn, and the quarrel of
+faiths was with him simply one factor in the political game which he was
+carrying on and which at this moment became more complex and absorbing
+than ever. The victory of Pavia had ruined that system of balance which
+Henry VII, and, in his earlier days, Henry VIII, had striven to
+preserve. But the ruin had not been to England's profit, but to the
+profit of its ally. While the Emperor stood supreme in Europe, Henry had
+won nothing from the war, and it was plain that Charles meant him to win
+nothing. He set aside all projects of a joint invasion; he broke his
+pledge to wed Mary Tudor and married a princess of Portugal; he pressed
+for a peace with France which would give him Burgundy. It was time for
+Henry and his minister to change their course. They resolved to withdraw
+from all active part in the rivalry of the two powers.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1525, a treaty was secretly concluded with France. But Henry
+remained on fair terms with the Emperor; and though England joined the
+Holy League for the deliverance of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> Italy from the Spaniards which was
+formed between France, the Pope, and the lesser Italian states on the
+release of Francis in the spring of 1526 by virtue of a treaty which he
+at once repudiated, she took no part in the lingering war which went on
+across the Alps. Charles was too prudent to resent Henry's alliance with
+his foes, and from this moment the country remained virtually at peace.
+No longer spurred by the interest of great events, the King ceased to
+take a busy part in foreign politics, and gave himself to hunting and
+sport. Among the fairest and gayest ladies of his court stood Anne
+Boleyn. She was sprung of a merchant family which had but lately risen
+to distinction through two great marriages, that of her grandfather with
+the heiress of the earls of Ormond, and that of her father, Sir Thomas
+Boleyn, with a sister of the Duke of Norfolk.</p>
+
+<p>It was probably through his kinship with the Duke, who was now lord
+treasurer and high in the King's confidence, that Boleyn was employed
+throughout Henry's reign in state business, and his diplomatic abilities
+had secured his appointment as envoy both to France and to the Emperor.
+His son, George Boleyn, a man of culture and a poet, was among the group
+of young courtiers in whose society Henry took most pleasure. Anne was
+his youngest daughter; born in 1507, she was still but a girl of sixteen
+when the outbreak of war drew her from a stay in France to the English
+court. Her beauty was small, but her bright eyes, her flowing hair, her
+gayety and wit soon won favor with the King, and only a month after her
+return in 1522 the grant of honors to her father marked her influence
+over Henry.</p>
+
+<p>Fresh gifts in the following years showed that the favor continued; but
+in 1524 a new color was given to this intimacy by a resolve on the
+King's part to break his marriage with the Queen. Catharine had now
+reached middle age; her personal charms had departed. The death of every
+child save Mary may have woke scruples as to the lawfulness of a
+marriage on which a curse seemed to rest; the need of a male heir for
+public security may have deepened this impression. But whatever were the
+grounds of his action we find Henry from this moment pressing the Roman
+see to grant him a divorce.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the matter was already mooted in 1525, a year which
+saw new proof of Anne's influence in the elevation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> of Sir Thomas Boleyn
+to the baronage as Lord Rochford. It is certain that it was the object
+of secret negotiation with the Pope in 1526. No sovereign stood higher
+in the favor of Rome than Henry, whose alliance had ever been ready in
+its distress and who was even now prompt with aid in money. But
+Clement's consent to his wish meant a break with the Emperor,
+Catharine's nephew; and the exhaustion of France, the weakness of the
+league in which the lesser Italian states strove to maintain their
+independence against Charles after the battle of Pavia, left the Pope at
+the Emperor's mercy. While the English envoy was mooting the question of
+divorce in 1526 the surprise of Rome by an imperial force brought home
+to Clement his utter helplessness.</p>
+
+<p>It is hard to discover what part Wolsey had as yet taken in the matter,
+or whether as in other cases Henry had till now been acting alone,
+though the Cardinal himself tells us that on Catharine's first discovery
+of the intrigue she attributed the proposal of divorce to "my
+procurement and setting forth." But from this point his intervention is
+clear. As legate he took cognizance of all matrimonial causes, and in
+May, 1527, a collusive action was brought in his court against Henry for
+cohabiting with his brother's wife. The King appeared by proctor; but
+the suit was suddenly dropped. Secret as were the proceedings, they had
+now reached Catharine's ear; and as she refused to admit the facts on
+which Henry rested his case her appeal would have carried the matter to
+the tribunal of the Pope, and Clement's decision could hardly be a
+favorable one.</p>
+
+<p>The Pope was now in fact a prisoner in the Emperor's hands. At the very
+moment of the suit Rome was stormed and sacked by the army of the Duke
+of Bourbon. "If the Pope's holiness fortune either to be slain or
+taken," Wolsey wrote to the King when the news of this event reached
+England, "it shall not a little hinder your grace's affairs." But it was
+needful for the Cardinal to find some expedient to carry out the King's
+will, for the group around Anne were using her skilfully for their
+purposes. A great party had now gathered to her support. Her uncle, the
+Duke of Norfolk, an able and ambitious man, counted on her rise to set
+him at the head of the council board; the brilliant group of young
+courtiers to which her brother belonged saw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> in her success their own
+elevation; and the Duke of Suffolk with the bulk of the nobles hoped
+through her means to bring about the ruin of the statesman before whom
+they trembled.</p>
+
+<p>What most served their plans was the growth of Henry's passion. "If it
+please you," the King wrote at this time to Anne Boleyn, "to do the
+office of a true, loyal mistress, and give yourself body and heart to
+me, who have been and mean to be your loyal servant, I promise you not
+only the name but that I shall make you my sole mistress, remove all
+others from my affection, and serve you only." What stirred Henry's
+wrath most was Catharine's "stiff and obstinate" refusal to bow to his
+will. Wolsey's advice that "your Grace should handle her both gently and
+doulcely" only goaded Henry's impatience. He lent an ear to the rivals
+who charged his minister with slackness in the cause, and danger drove
+the Cardinal to a bolder and yet more unscrupulous device.</p>
+
+<p>The entire subjection of Italy to the Emperor was drawing closer the
+French alliance, and a new treaty had been concluded in April. But this
+had hardly been signed when the sack of Rome and the danger of the Pope
+called for bolder measures. Wolsey was despatched on a solemn embassy to
+Francis to promise an English subsidy on the despatch of a French army
+across the Alps. But he aimed at turning the Pope's situation to the
+profit of the divorce. Clement was virtually a prisoner in the castle of
+St. Angelo; and as it was impossible for him to fulfil freely the
+function of a Pope, Wolsey proposed, in conjunction with Francis, to
+call a meeting of the college of cardinals at Avignon which should
+exercise the papal powers till Clement's liberation. As Wolsey was to
+preside over this assembly, it would be easy to win from it a favorable
+answer to Henry's request.</p>
+
+<p>But Clement had no mind to surrender his power, and secret orders from
+the Pope prevented the Italian cardinals from attending such an
+assembly. Nor was Wolsey more fortunate in another plan for bringing
+about the same end by inducing Clement to delegate to him his full
+powers westward of the Alps. Henry's trust in him was fast waning before
+these failures and the steady pressure of his rivals at court, and the
+coldness of the King on his return in September was an omen of his
+minister's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> fall. Henry was in fact resolved to take his own course; and
+while Wolsey sought from the Pope a commission enabling him to try the
+case in his legatine court and pronounce the marriage null and void by
+sentence of law, Henry had determined at the suggestion of the Boleyns
+and apparently of Thomas Cranmer, a Cambridge scholar who was serving as
+their chaplain, to seek, without Wolsey's knowledge, from Clement either
+his approval of a divorce or, if a divorce could not be obtained, a
+dispensation to remarry without any divorce at all.</p>
+
+<p>For some months his envoys could find no admission to the Pope; and
+though in December Clement succeeded in escaping to Orvieto and drew
+some courage from the entry of the French army into Italy, his temper
+was still too timid to venture on any decided course. He refused the
+dispensation altogether. Wolsey's proposal for leaving the matter to a
+legatine court found better favor; but when the commission reached
+England it was found to be "of no effect or authority." What Henry
+wanted was not merely a divorce but the express sanction of the Pope to
+his divorce, and this Clement steadily evaded. A fresh embassy, with
+Wolsey's favorite and secretary, Stephen Gardiner, at its head, reached
+Orvieto in March, 1528, to find, in spite of Gardiner's threats, hardly
+better success; but Clement at last consented to a legatine commission
+for the trial of the case in England. In this commission Cardinal
+Campeggio, who was looked upon as a partisan of the English King, was
+joined with Wolsey.</p>
+
+<p>Great as the concession seemed, this gleam of success failed to hide
+from the minister the dangers which gathered round him. The great nobles
+whom he had practically shut out from the King's counsels were longing
+for his fall. The Boleyns and the young courtiers looked on him as cool
+in Anne's cause. He was hated alike by men of the old doctrine and men
+of the new. The clergy had never forgotten his extortions, the monks saw
+him suppressing small monasteries. The foundation of Cardinal College
+failed to reconcile to him the scholars of the New Learning; their poet,
+Skelton, was among his bitterest assailants.</p>
+
+<p>The Protestants, goaded by the persecution of this very year, hated him
+with a deadly hatred. His French alliances, his declaration of war with
+the Emperor, hindered the trade with Flanders and secured the hostility
+of the merchant class. The country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> at large, galled with murrain and
+famine and panic-struck by an outbreak of the sweating sickness which
+carried off two thousand in London alone, laid all its suffering at the
+door of the Cardinal. And now that Henry's mood itself became uncertain
+Wolsey knew his hour was come. Were the marriage once made, he told the
+French ambassador, and a male heir born to the realm, he would withdraw
+from state affairs and serve God for the rest of his life. But the
+divorce had still to be brought about ere marriage could be made or heir
+be born. Henry indeed had seized on the grant of a commission as if the
+matter were at an end. Anne Boleyn was installed in the royal palace and
+honored with the state of a wife. The new legate, Campeggio, held the
+bishopric of Salisbury, and had been asked for as judge from the belief
+that he would favor the King's cause. But he bore secret instructions
+from the Pope to bring about if possible a reconciliation between Henry
+and the Queen, and in no case to pronounce sentence without reference to
+Rome. The slowness of his journey presaged ill; he did not reach England
+till the end of September, and a month was wasted in vain efforts to
+bring Henry to a reconciliation or Catharine to retirement into a
+monastery.</p>
+
+<p>A new difficulty disclosed itself in the supposed existence of a brief
+issued by Pope Julius and now in the possession of the Emperor, which
+overruled all the objections to the earlier dispensation on which Henry
+relied. The hearing of the cause was delayed through the winter, while
+new embassies strove to induce Clement to declare this brief also
+invalid. Not only was such a demand glaringly unjust, but the progress
+of the imperial arms brought vividly home to the Pope its injustice. The
+danger which he feared was not merely a danger to his temporal domain in
+Italy&mdash;it was a danger to the papacy itself. It was in vain that new
+embassies threatened Clement with the loss of his spiritual power over
+England. To break with the Emperor was to risk the loss of his spiritual
+power over a far larger world.</p>
+
+<p>Charles had already consented to the suspension of the judgment of his
+diet at Worms, a consent which gave security to the new Protestantism in
+North Germany. If he burned heretics in the Netherlands, he employed
+them in his armies. Lutheran soldiers had played their part in the sack
+of Rome. Lutheranism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> had spread from North Germany along the Rhine, it
+was now pushing fast into the hereditary possessions of the Austrian
+house, it had all but mastered the Low Countries. France itself was
+mined with heresy; and were Charles once to give way, the whole
+Continent would be lost to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Amid difficulties such as these the papal court saw no course open save
+one of delay. But the long delay told fatally for Wolsey's fortunes.
+Even Clement blamed him for having hindered Henry from judging the
+matter in his own realm and marrying on the sentence of his own courts,
+and the Boleyns naturally looked upon his policy as dictated by hatred
+to Anne. Norfolk and the great peers took courage from the bitter tone
+of the girl; and Henry himself charged the Cardinal with a failure in
+fulfilling the promises he had made him. King and minister still clung
+indeed passionately to their hopes from Rome. But in 1529 Charles met
+their pressure with a pressure of his own; and the progress of his arms
+decided Clement to avoke the cause to Rome. Wolsey could only hope to
+anticipate this decision by pushing the trial hastily forward, and at
+the end of May the two legates opened their court in the great hall of
+the Blackfriars.</p>
+
+<p>King and Queen were cited to appear before them when the court again met
+on June 18th. Henry briefly announced his resolve to live no longer in
+mortal sin. The Queen offered an appeal to Clement, and on the refusal
+of the legates to admit it flung herself at Henry's feet. "Sire," said
+Catharine, "I beseech you to pity me, a woman and a stranger, without an
+assured friend and without an indifferent counsellor. I take God to
+witness that I have always been to you a true and loyal wife, that I
+have made it my constant duty to seek your pleasure, that I have loved
+all whom you loved, whether I have reason or not, whether they are
+friends to me or foes. I have been your wife for years; I have brought
+you many children. God knows that when I came to your bed I was a
+virgin, and I put it to your own conscience to say whether it was not
+so. If there be any offence which can be alleged against me I consent to
+depart with infamy; if not, then I pray you to do me justice."</p>
+
+<p>The piteous appeal was wasted on a king who was already entertaining
+Anne Boleyn with royal state in his own palace; the trial proceeded, and
+on July 23d the court assembled to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> pronounce sentence. Henry's hopes
+were at their highest when they were suddenly dashed to the ground. At
+the opening of the proceedings Campeggio rose to declare the court
+adjourned to the following October. The adjournment was a mere evasion.
+The pressure of the imperialists had at last forced Clement to summon
+the cause to his own tribunal at Rome, and the jurisdiction of the
+legates was at an end.</p>
+
+<p>"Now see I," cried the Duke of Suffolk as he dashed his hand on the
+table, "that the old saw is true, that there was never legate or
+cardinal that did good to England!" The Duke only echoed his master's
+wrath. Through the twenty years of his reign Henry had known nothing of
+opposition to his will. His imperious temper had chafed at the weary
+negotiations, the subterfuges and perfidies of the Pope. Though the
+commission was his own device, his pride must have been sorely galled by
+the summons to the legates' court. The warmest adherents of the older
+faith revolted against the degradation of the Crown. "It was the
+strangest and newest sight and device," says Cavendish, "that ever we
+read or heard of in any history or chronicle in any region that a king
+and queen should be convented and constrained by process compellatory to
+appear in any court as common persons, within their own realm and
+dominion, to abide the judgment and decree of their own subjects, having
+the royal diadem and prerogative thereof."</p>
+
+<p>Even this degradation had been borne in vain. Foreign and papal tribunal
+as that of the legates really was, it lay within Henry's kingdom and had
+the air of an English court. But the citation to Rome was a summons to
+the King to plead in a court without his realm. Wolsey had himself
+warned Clement of the hopelessness of expecting Henry to submit to such
+humiliation as this. "If the King be cited to appear in person or by
+proxy and his prerogative be interfered with, none of his subjects will
+tolerate the insult. To cite the King to Rome, to threaten him with
+excommunication, is no more tolerable than to deprive him of his royal
+dignity. If he were to appear in Italy it would be at the head of a
+formidable army." But Clement had been deaf to the warning, and the case
+had been avoked out of the realm.</p>
+
+<p>Henry's wrath fell at once on Wolsey. Whatever furtherance or hinderance
+the Cardinal had given to his remarriage, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> was Wolsey who had
+dissuaded him from acting, at the first, independently; from conducting
+the cause in his own courts and acting on the sentence of his own
+judges. Whether to secure the succession by a more indisputable decision
+or to preserve uninjured the prerogatives of the papal see, it was
+Wolsey who had counselled him to seek a divorce from Rome and promised
+him success in his suit. And in this counsel Wolsey stood alone. Even
+Clement had urged the King to carry out his original purpose when it was
+too late. All that the Pope sought was to be freed from the necessity of
+meddling in the matter at all. It was Wolsey who had forced papal
+intervention on him, as he had forced it on Henry, and the failure of
+his plans was fatal to him. From the close of the legatine court Henry
+would see him no more, and his favorite, Stephen Gardiner, who had
+become chief secretary of state, succeeded him in the King's confidence.</p>
+
+<p>If Wolsey still remained minister for a while, it was because the thread
+of the complex foreign negotiations which he was conducting could not be
+roughly broken. Here too, however, failure awaited him. His diplomacy
+sought to bring fresh pressure on the Pope and to provide a fresh check
+on the Emperor by a closer alliance with France. But Francis was anxious
+to recover his children who had remained as hostages for his return; he
+was weary of the long struggle, and hopeless of aid from his Italian
+allies. At this crisis of his fate therefore Wolsey saw himself deceived
+and outwitted by the conclusion of peace between France and the Emperor
+in a new treaty at Cambray. Not only was his French policy no longer
+possible, but a reconciliation with Charles was absolutely needful, and
+such a reconciliation could only be brought about by Wolsey's fall. In
+October, on the very day that the Cardinal took his place with a haughty
+countenance and all his former pomp in the court of chancery an
+indictment was preferred against him by the King's attorney for
+receiving bulls from Rome in violation of the Statute of Provisors.</p>
+
+<p>A few days later he was deprived of the seals. Wolsey was prostrated by
+the blow. In a series of abject appeals he offered to give up everything
+that he possessed if the King would but cease from his displeasure. "His
+face," wrote the French ambassador, "is dwindled to half its natural
+size. In truth his misery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> is such that his enemies, Englishmen as they
+are, cannot help pitying him." For the moment Henry seemed contented
+with his disgrace. A thousand boats full of Londoners covered the Thames
+to see the Cardinal's barge pass to the Tower, but he was permitted to
+retire to Esher.</p>
+
+<p>Although judgment of forfeiture and imprisonment was given against him
+in the king's bench at the close of October, in the following February
+he received a pardon on surrender of his vast possessions to the crown
+and was permitted to withdraw to his diocese of York, the one dignity he
+had been suffered to retain.</p>
+
+<p>Not less significant was the attitude of the New Learning. On Wolsey's
+fall the seals had been offered to Warham, and it was probably at his
+counsel that they were finally given to Sir Thomas More. The
+Chancellor's dream, if we may judge it from the acts of his brief
+ministry, seems to have been that of carrying out the religious
+reformation which had been demanded by Colet and Erasmus while checking
+the spirit of revolt against the unity of the Church. His severities
+against the Protestants, exaggerated as they have been by polemic
+rancor, remain the one stain on a memory that knows no other. But it was
+only by a rigid severance of the cause of reform from what seemed to him
+the cause of revolution that More could hope for a successful issue to
+the projects of reform which the council laid before parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The "Petition of the Commons" sounded like an echo of Colet's famous
+address to the convocation. It attributed the growth of heresy not more
+to "frantic and seditious books published in the English tongue contrary
+to the very true Catholic and Christian faith" than to "the extreme and
+uncharitable behavior of divers ordinaries." It remonstrated against the
+legislation of the clergy in convocation without the King's assent or
+that of his subjects, the oppressive procedure of the church courts, the
+abuses of ecclesiastical patronage, and the excessive number of holy
+days. Henry referred the petition to the bishops, but they could devise
+no means of redress, and the ministry persisted in pushing through the
+houses their bills for ecclesiastical reform. The importance of the new
+measures lay really in the action of parliament. They were an explicit
+announcement that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> church reform was now to be undertaken, not by the
+clergy, but by the people at large. On the other hand it was clear that
+it would be carried out in a spirit of loyalty to the Church. The
+commons forced from Bishop Fisher an apology for words which were taken
+as a doubt thrown on their orthodoxy.</p>
+
+<p>Henry forbade the circulation of Tyndale's translation of the Bible as
+executed in a Protestant spirit. The reforming measures, however, were
+pushed resolutely on. Though the questions of convocation and the
+bishops' courts were adjourned for further consideration, the fees of
+the courts were curtailed, the clergy restricted from lay employments,
+pluralities restrained, and residence enforced. In spite of a dogged
+opposition from the bishops the bills received the assent of the House
+of Lords, "to the great rejoicing of lay people, and the great
+displeasure of spiritual persons."</p>
+
+<p>Not less characteristic of the New Learning was the intellectual
+pressure it strove to bring to bear on the wavering Pope. Cranmer was
+still active in the cause of Anne Boleyn; he had just published a book
+in favor of the divorce; and he now urged on the ministry an appeal to
+the learned opinion of Christendom by calling for the judgment of the
+chief universities of Europe. His counsel was adopted; but Norfolk
+trusted to coarser means of attaining his end. Like most of the English
+nobles and the whole of the merchant class, his sympathies were with the
+house of Burgundy. He looked upon Wolsey as the real hinderance to the
+divorce through the French policy which had driven Charles into a
+hostile attitude; and he counted on the Cardinal's fall to bring about a
+renewal of friendship with the Emperor and to insure his support.</p>
+
+<p>The father of Anne Boleyn, now created Earl of Wiltshire, was sent in
+1530 on this errand to the imperial court. But Charles remained firm to
+Catharine's cause, and Clement would do nothing in defiance of the
+Emperor. Nor was the appeal to the learned world more successful. In
+France the profuse bribery of the English agents would have failed with
+the University of Paris but for the interference of Francis himself,
+eager to regain Henry's good-will by this office of friendship. As
+shameless an exercise of the King's own authority was needed to wring an
+approval of his cause from Oxford and Cambridge. In Germany<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> the very
+Protestants, then in the fervor of their moral revival and hoping little
+from a proclaimed opponent of Luther, were dead against the King. So far
+as could be seen from Cranmer's test every learned man in Christendom,
+but for bribery and threats, would have condemned the royal cause.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was embittered by failures which he attributed to the unskilful
+diplomacy of his new counsellors; and it was rumored that he had been
+heard to regret the loss of the more dexterous statesman whom they had
+overthrown. Wolsey, who since the beginning of the year had remained at
+York, though busy in appearance with the duties of his see, was hoping
+more and more as the months passed by for his recall. But the jealousy
+of his political enemies was roused by the King's regrets, and the
+pitiless hand of Norfolk was seen in the quick and deadly blow which he
+dealt at his fallen rival.</p>
+
+<p>On November 4th, the eve of his installation feast, the Cardinal was
+arrested on a charge of high treason and conducted by the lieutenant of
+the Tower toward London. Already broken by his enormous labors, by
+internal disease, and the sense of his fall, Wolsey accepted the arrest
+as a sentence of death. An attack of dysentery forced him to rest at the
+Abbey of Leicester, and as he reached the gate he said feebly to the
+brethren who met him, "I am come to lay my bones among you."</p>
+
+<p>On his death-bed his thoughts still clung to the Prince whom he had
+served. "Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the King,"
+murmured the dying man, "he would not have given me over in my gray
+hairs. But this is my due reward for my pains and study, not regarding
+my service to God, but only my duty to my Prince."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1532</h4>
+
+<h3>
+HERNANDO PIZARRO   &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Before Europeans visited Peru, a highly developed
+civilization existed there under the native Indian empire of
+the Incas, as the chiefs were called who ruled from the
+thirteenth to the sixteenth century. These sovereigns
+constituted a hereditary aristocratic order, and had long
+been the masters of prodigious wealth taken from the gold
+and silver mines of the country. It was the rich treasure
+which they expected to find there that first led the
+Spaniards to look for conquests in that quarter of the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>When the "South Sea," as the Spaniards called the Pacific
+Ocean, had been discovered by Balboa, and the first
+conquests on the mainland secured, another Spanish soldier,
+Francisco Pizarro, who had accompanied Balboa, settled in
+the new city of Panama. While living there in repose, he
+longed to perform further and greater services for the
+Spanish sovereign. He therefore obtained permission from the
+colonial governor to explore the Pacific coast toward the
+south. After an unsuccessful voyage in 1524-1526, he set out
+again in the latter year, and sailed for Peru, reaching that
+country through many hardships, the surmounting of which
+places him fairly among the great discoverers.</p>
+
+<p>Having collected much information concerning the empire of
+the Incas, Pizarro went to Spain and received authority to
+conquer Peru. Returning to Panama, he sailed from there in
+December, 1531, with three ships, one hundred eighty-three
+men, and thirty-seven horses. He first landed at the island
+of Puna, where he was joined by Hernando de Soto, and then,
+crossing to Tumbez, marched inland and reached Cajamarca,
+the city of the Incas, in November, 1532.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstantial account of what followed, written by
+Hernando Pizarro, half-brother and companion of Francisco,
+is fitly supplemented by the narrative of Prescott, whose
+story of the last of the Incas is so widely known.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>HERNANDO PIZARRO</h4>
+
+<p><i>To the Magnificent Lords, the Judges of the Royal Audience of his
+Majesty, who reside in the city of Santo Domingo.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Magnificent Lords:</span> I arrived in this port of Yaguana on my way to Spain,
+by order of the governor Francisco Pizarro, to inform his majesty of
+what has happened in that government<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> of Peru, to give an account of the
+country and of its present condition; and, as I believe that those who
+come to this city give your worships inconsistent accounts, it has
+seemed well to me to write a summary of what has taken place, that you
+may be informed of the truth.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor, in the name of his majesty, founded a town near the
+sea-coast, which was called San Miguel. It is twenty-five leagues from
+that point of Tumbez. Having left citizens there, and assigned the
+Indians in the district to them, he set out, with sixty horse and ninety
+foot, in search of the town of Cajamarca, at which place he was informed
+that Atahualpa then was brother of him who is now lord of that land.
+Between the two brothers there had been a very fierce war, and this
+Atahualpa had conquered the land as far as he then was, which, from the
+point whence he started, was a hundred fifty leagues. After seven or
+eight marches, a captain of Atahualpa came to the Governor and said that
+his lord had heard of his arrival and rejoiced greatly at it, having a
+strong desire to see the Christians; and when he had been two days with
+the Governor he said that he wished to go forward and tell the news to
+his lord, and that another would soon be on the road with a present as a
+token of peace.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor continued his march until he came to a town called La
+Ramada. Up to that point all the land was flat, while all beyond was
+very rugged and obstructed by very difficult passes. When he saw that
+the messenger from Atahualpa did not return, he wished to obtain
+intelligence from some Indians who had come from Cajamarca; so they were
+tortured, and they then said that they had heard that Atahualpa was
+waiting for the Governor in the mountains to give him battle. The
+Governor then ordered the troops to advance, leaving the rear-guard in
+the plain. The rest ascended, and the road was so bad that, in truth, if
+they had been waiting for us, either in this pass or in another that we
+came to on the road to Cajamarca, they could very easily have stopped
+us; for, even by exerting all our skill, we could not have taken our
+horses by the roads; and neither horse nor foot can cross those
+mountains except by the roads. The distance across them to Cajamarca is
+full twenty leagues.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> When we were half-way, messengers arrived from
+Atahualpa and brought provisions to the Governor. They said that
+Atahualpa was waiting for him at Cajamarca, wishing to be his friend;
+and that he wished the Governor to know that his captains had taken his
+brother prisoner, that they would reach Cajamarca within two days, and
+that all the territory of his father now belonged to him. The Governor
+sent back to say that he rejoiced greatly at this news, and that, if
+there was any lord who refused to submit, he would give assistance and
+subjugate him. Two days afterward the Governor came in sight of
+Cajamarca, and he met Indians with food. He put the troops in order and
+marched to the town. Atahualpa was not there, but was encamped on the
+plain, at a distance of a league, with all his people in tents. When the
+Governor saw that Atahualpa did not come, he sent a captain, with
+fifteen horsemen, to speak to Atahualpa, saying that he would not assign
+quarters to the Christians until he knew where it was the pleasure of
+Atahualpa that they should lodge, and he desired him to come that they
+might be friends. Just then I went to speak to the Governor, touching
+the orders in case the Indians made a night attack. He told me that he
+had sent men to seek an interview with Atahualpa. I told him that, out
+of the sixty cavalry we had, there might be some men who were not
+dexterous on horseback, and some unsound horses, and that it seemed a
+mistake to pick out fifteen of the best; for, if Atahualpa should attack
+them, their numbers were insufficient for defence, and any reverse might
+lead to a great disaster. He therefore ordered me to follow with other
+twenty horsemen, and to act according to circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>When I arrived I found the other horsemen near the camp of Atahualpa,
+and that their officer had gone to speak with him. I left my men there
+also, and advanced with two horsemen to the lodging of Atahualpa, and
+the captain announced my approach and who I was. I then told Atahualpa
+that the Governor had sent me to visit him and to ask him to come, that
+they might be friends. He replied that a cacique of the town of San
+Miguel had sent to tell him that we were bad people and not good for
+war, and that he himself had killed some of us, both men and horses. I
+answered that those people of San Miguel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> were like women, and that one
+horse was enough for the whole of them; that, when he saw us fight, he
+would know what we were like; that the Governor had a great regard for
+him; that if he had any enemy he had only to say so, and that the
+Governor would send to conquer him. He said that, four marches from that
+spot, there were some very rebellious Indians who would not submit to
+him, and that the Christians might go there to help his troops. I said
+that the Governor would send ten horsemen, who would suffice for the
+whole country, and that his Indians were unnecessary, except to search
+for those who concealed themselves. He smiled like a man who did not
+think so much of us. The captain told me that, until I came, he had not
+been able to get him to speak, but that one of his chiefs had answered
+for him, while he always kept his head down. He was seated in all the
+majesty of command, surrounded by all his women, and with many chiefs
+near him. Before coming to his presence there was another group of
+chiefs, each standing according to his rank. At sunset I said that I
+wished to go, and asked him to tell me what to say to the Governor. He
+replied that he would come to see him on the following morning, that he
+would lodge in three great chambers in the court-yard, and that the
+centre one should be set apart for himself.</p>
+
+<p>That night a good lookout was kept. In the morning he sent messengers to
+put off his visit until the afternoon; and these messengers, in
+conversing with some Indian girls in the service of the Christians, who
+were their relations, told them to run away because Atahualpa was coming
+that afternoon to attack the Christians and kill them. Among the
+messengers there came that captain who had already met the Governor on
+the road. He told the Governor that his lord Atahualpa said that, as the
+Christians had come armed to his camp, he also would come armed. The
+Governor replied that he might come as he liked. Atahualpa set out from
+his camp at noon, and when he came to a place which was about half a
+quarter of a league from Cajamarca he stopped until late in the
+afternoon. There he pitched his tents, and formed his men in three
+divisions. The whole road was full of men, and they had not yet left off
+marching out of the camp.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor had ordered his troops to be distributed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> the three
+halls which were in the open court-yard, in form of a triangle; and he
+ordered them to be mounted and armed until the intentions of Atahualpa
+were known. Having pitched his tents, Atahualpa sent a messenger to the
+Governor to say that as it was now late he wished to sleep where he was,
+and that he would come in the morning. The Governor sent back to beg him
+to come at once, because he was waiting for supper, and that he should
+not sup until Atahualpa should come. The messengers came back to ask the
+Governor to send a Christian to Atahualpa, that he intended to come at
+once, and that he would come unarmed. The Governor sent a Christian, and
+presently Atahualpa moved, leaving the armed men behind him. He took
+with him about five or six thousand Indians without arms, except that,
+under their shirts, they had small darts and slings with stones.</p>
+
+<p>He came in a litter, and before him went three or four hundred Indians
+in liveries, cleaning the straws from the road and singing. Then came
+Atahualpa in the midst of his chiefs and principal men, the greatest
+among them being also borne on men's shoulders. When they entered the
+open space, twelve or fifteen Indians went up to the little fortress
+that was there and occupied it, taking possession with a banner fixed on
+a lance. When Atahualpa had advanced to the centre of an open space, he
+stopped, and a Dominican friar, who was with the Governor, came forward
+to tell him, on the part of the Governor, that he waited for him in his
+lodging, and that he was sent to speak with him. The friar then told
+Atahualpa that he was a priest, and that he was sent there to teach the
+things of the faith if they should desire to be Christians. He showed
+Atahualpa a book which he carried in his hands, and told him that that
+book contained the things of God. Atahualpa asked for the book, and
+threw it on the ground, saying: "I will not leave this place until you
+have restored all that you have taken in my land. I know well who you
+are and what you have come for." Then he rose up in his litter and
+addressed his men, and there were murmurs among them and calls to those
+who were armed. The friar went to the Governor and reported what was
+being done and that no time was to be lost. The Governor sent to me; and
+I had arranged with the captain of the artillery that, when a sign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> was
+given, he should discharge his pieces, and that, on hearing the reports,
+all the troops should come forth at once. This was done, and as the
+Indians were unarmed they were defeated without danger to any Christian.
+Those who carried the litter and the chiefs who surrounded Atahualpa
+were all killed, falling round him. The Governor came out and seized
+Atahualpa, and in protecting him he received a knife-cut from a
+Christian in the hand. The troops continued the pursuit as far as the
+place where the armed Indians were stationed, who made no resistance
+whatever, because it was now night. All were brought into the town where
+the Governor was quartered.</p>
+
+<p>Next morning the Governor ordered us to go to the camp of Atahualpa,
+where we found forty thousand castellanos and four or five thousand
+marcos of silver. The camp was as full of people as if none were
+wanting. All the people were assembled, and the Governor desired them to
+go to their homes, and told them that he had not come to do them harm;
+that what he had done was by reason of the pride of Atahualpa, and that
+he himself ordered it. On asking Atahualpa why he had thrown away the
+book and shown so much pride, he answered that his captain, who had been
+sent to speak with the Governor, had told him that the Christians were
+not warriors, that the horses were unsaddled at night, and that with two
+hundred Indians he could defeat them all. He added that this captain and
+the chief of San Miguel had deceived him. The Governor then inquired
+concerning his brother the Cuzco, and he answered that he would arrive
+next day, that he was being brought as a prisoner, and that his captain
+remained with the troops in the town of Cuzco. It afterward turned out
+that in all this he had spoken the truth, except that he had sent orders
+for his brother to be killed, lest the Governor should restore him to
+his lordship. The Governor said that he had not come to make war on the
+Indians, but that our lord the Emperor, who was lord of the whole world,
+had ordered him to come that he might see the land, and let Atahualpa
+know the things of our faith, in case he should wish to become a
+Christian. The Governor also told him that that land and all other lands
+belonged to the Emperor, and that he must acknowledge him as his lord.
+He replied that he was content, and, observing that the Christians had
+collected some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> gold, Atahualpa said to the Governor that they need not
+take such care of it, as if there was so little; for that he could give
+them ten thousand plates, and that he could fill the room in which he
+was up to a white line, which was the height of a man and a half from
+the floor. The room was seventeen or eighteen feet wide and thirty-five
+feet long. He said that he could do this in two months.</p>
+
+<p>Two months passed away and the gold did not arrive, but the Governor
+received tidings that every day parties of men were advancing against
+him. In order both to ascertain the truth of these reports, and to hurry
+the arrival of the gold, the Governor ordered me to set out with twenty
+horsemen and ten or twelve foot-soldiers for a place called Guamachuco,
+which is twenty leagues from Cajamarca. This was the place where it was
+reported that armed men were collecting together. I advanced to that
+town, and found a quantity of gold and silver, which I sent thence to
+Cajamarca. Some Indians, who were tortured, told us that the captains
+and armed men were at a place six leagues from Guamachuco; and, though I
+had no instructions from the Governor to advance beyond that point, I
+resolved to push forward with fourteen horsemen and nine foot-soldiers,
+in order that the Indians might not take heart at the notion that we had
+retreated. The rest of my party were sent to guard the gold, because
+their horses were lame. Next morning I arrived at that town, and did not
+find any armed men there, and it turned out that the Indians had told
+lies, perhaps to frighten us and induce us to return.</p>
+
+<p>At this village I received permission from the Governor to go to a
+mosque of which we had intelligence, which was a hundred leagues away on
+the sea-coast, in a town called Pachacamac. It took us twenty-two days
+to reach it. The road over the mountains is a thing worth seeing,
+because, though the ground is so rugged, such beautiful roads could not
+in truth be found throughout Christendom. The greater part of them is
+paved. There is a bridge of stone or wood over every stream. We found
+bridges of network over a very large and powerful river, which we
+crossed twice, which was a marvellous thing to see. The horses crossed
+over by them. At each passage they have two bridges, the one by which
+the common people go over, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> other for the lords of the land and
+their captains. The approaches are always kept closed, with Indians to
+guard them. These Indians exact transit dues from all passengers. The
+chiefs and people of the mountains are more intelligent than those of
+the coast. The country is populous. There are mines in many parts of it.
+It is a cold climate, it snows, and there is much rain. There are no
+swamps. Fuel is scarce. Atahualpa has placed governors in all the
+principal towns, and his predecessors had also appointed governors. In
+all these towns there were houses of imprisoned women, with guards at
+the doors, and these women preserve their virginity. If any Indian has
+any connection with them his punishment is death. Of these houses, some
+are for the worship of the sun, others for that of old Cuzco, the father
+of Atahualpa. Their sacrifices consist of sheep and <i>chica</i>, which they
+pour out on the ground. They have another house of women in each of the
+principal towns, also guarded. These women are assembled by the chiefs
+of the neighboring districts, and when the lord of the land passes by
+they select the best to present to him, and when they are taken others
+are chosen to fill up their places. These women also have the duty of
+making chica for the soldiers when they pass that way. They took Indian
+girls out of these houses and presented them to us. All the surrounding
+chiefs come to these towns on the roads to perform service when the army
+passes. They have stores of fuel and maize and of all other necessaries.
+They count by certain knots on cords, and so record what each chief has
+brought. When they had to bring us loads of fuel, maize, chica, or meat,
+they took off knots or made them on some other part; so that those who
+have charge of the stores keep an exact account. In all these towns they
+received us with great festivities, dancing, and rejoicing.</p>
+
+<p>When we arrived on the plain of the sea-coast we met with a people who
+were less civilized, but the country was populous. They also have houses
+of women, and all the other arrangements as in the towns of the
+mountains. They never wished to speak to us of the mosque, for there was
+an order that all who should speak to us of it should be put to death.
+But as we had intelligence that it was on the coast, we followed the
+high road until we came to it. The road is very wide, with an earthen
+wall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> on either side, and houses for resting at intervals, which were
+prepared to receive the Cuzco when he travelled that way. There are very
+large villages, the houses of the Indians being built of canes, and
+those of the chiefs are of earth with roofs of branches of trees; for in
+that land it never rains. From the city of San Miguel to this mosque the
+distance is one hundred sixty or one hundred eighty leagues, the road
+passing near the sea-shore through a very populous country. The road,
+with a wall on each side, traverses the whole of this country; and,
+neither in that part nor in the part farther on, of which we had notice
+for two hundred leagues, does it ever rain.</p>
+
+<p>They live by irrigation, for the rainfall is so great in the mountains
+that many rivers flow from them, so that throughout the land there is
+not three leagues without a river. The distance from the sea to the
+mountains is in some parts ten leagues, in others twelve. It is not
+cold. Throughout the whole of this coast-land, and beyond it, tribute is
+not paid to Cuzco, but to the mosque. The bishop of it was in Cajamarca
+with the Governor. He had ordered another room of gold, such as
+Atahualpa had ordered, and the Governor ordered me to go on this
+business, and to hurry those who were collecting it. When I arrived at
+the mosque I asked for the gold, and they denied it to me, saying that
+they had none. I made some search, but could not find it. The
+neighboring chiefs came to see me, and brought presents, and in the
+mosque there was found some gold-dust, which was left behind when the
+rest was concealed. Altogether I collected eighty-five thousand
+castellanos and three thousand marcos of silver.</p>
+
+<p>This town of the mosque is very large, and contains grand edifices and
+courts. Outside, there is another great space surrounded by a wall, with
+a door opening on the mosque. In this space there are the houses of the
+women, who, they say, are the women of the devil. Here, also, are the
+storerooms, where the stores of gold are kept. There is no one in the
+place where these women are kept. Their sacrifices are the same as those
+to the sun, which I have already described. Before entering the first
+court of the mosque, a man must fast for twenty days; before ascending
+to the court above, he must fast for a year. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> this upper court the
+bishop used to be. When messengers of the chiefs, who had fasted for a
+year, went up to pray to God that he would give them a good harvest,
+they found the bishop seated, with his head covered. There are other
+Indians whom they call pages of the sun. When these messengers of the
+chief delivered their messages to the bishop, the pages of the devil
+went into a chamber, where they said that he speaks to them; and that
+devil said that he was enraged with the chiefs, with the sacrifices they
+had to offer, and with the presents they wished to bring. I believe that
+they do not speak with the devil, but that these his servants deceive
+the chiefs. For I took pains to investigate the matter, and an old page,
+who was one of the chief and most confidential servants of their god,
+told a chief, who repeated it to me, that the devil said they were not
+to fear the horses, as they could do no harm. I caused the page to be
+tortured, and he was so stubborn in his evil creed that I could never
+gather anything from him, but that they really held their devil to be a
+god. This mosque is so feared by all the Indians that they believe that,
+if any of those servants of the devil asked them for anything and they
+refused it, they would presently die. It would seem that the Indians do
+not worship this devil from any feelings of devotion, but from fear. For
+the chiefs told me that, up to that time, they had served that mosque
+because they feared it, but that now they had no fear but of us; and
+that, therefore, they wished to serve us. The cave in which the devil
+was placed was very dark, so that one could not enter it without a
+light, and within it was very dirty. I made all the caciques, who came
+to see me, enter the place, that they might lose their fear; and, for
+want of a preacher, I made my sermon, explaining to them the errors in
+which they lived.</p>
+
+<p>In this town I learned that the principal captain of Atahualpa was at a
+distance of twenty leagues from us, in a town called Jauja. I sent to
+tell him to come and see me, and he replied that I should take the road
+to Cajamarca, and that he would take another road and meet me. The
+Governor, on hearing that the captain was for peace and that he was
+ready to come with me, wrote to me to tell me to return; and he sent
+three Christians to Cuzco, which is fifty leagues beyond Jauja, to take
+possession and to see the country. I returned by the road of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> Cajamarca,
+and by another road, where the captain of Atahualpa was to join me. But
+he had not started; and I learned from certain chiefs that he had not
+moved, and that he had taken me in. So I went back to the place where he
+was, and the road was very rugged, and so obstructed with snow that it
+cost us much labor to get there. Having reached the royal road, and come
+to a place called Bombon, I met a captain of Atahualpa with five
+thousand armed Indians whom Atahualpa had sent on pretence of conquering
+a rebel chief; but, as it afterward appeared, they were assembled to
+kill the Christians. Here we found five hundred thousand pesos of gold
+that they were taking to Cajamarca. This captain told me that the
+captain-general remained in Jauja, that he knew of our approach, and was
+much afraid. I sent a messenger to him to tell him to remain where he
+was and to fear nothing. I also found a negro here who had gone with the
+Christians to Cuzco, and he told me that these fears were feigned; for
+that the captain-general had many well-armed men with him, that he
+counted them by his knots in presence of the Christians, and that they
+numbered thirty-five thousand Indians. So we went to Jauja, and, when we
+were half a league from the town, and found that the captain did not
+come out to receive us, a chief of Atahualpa, whom I had with me and
+whom I had treated well, advised me to advance in order of battle,
+because he believed that the captain intended to fight. We went up a
+small hill overlooking Jauja, and saw a large black mass in the plaza,
+which appeared to be something that had been burned. I asked what it
+was, and they told me it was a crowd of Indians. The plaza is large, and
+has a length of a quarter of a league. As no one came to receive us on
+reaching the town, our people advanced in the expectation of having to
+fight the Indians. But, at the entrance of the square, some principal
+men came out to meet us with offers of peace, and told us that the
+captain was not there, as he had gone to reduce certain chiefs to
+submission. It would seem that he had gone out of fear, with some of his
+troops, and had crossed a river near the town by a bridge of network. I
+sent to tell him to come to me peaceably or else the Christians would
+destroy him. Next morning the people came who were in the square. They
+were Indian servants, and it is true that they numbered over a hundred
+thousand souls. We remained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> here five days, and during all that time
+they did nothing but dance and sing and hold great drinking-feasts. The
+captain did not wish to come with me, but when he saw that I was
+determined to make him he came of his own accord. I left the chief who
+came with me as captain there. This town of Jauja is very fine and
+picturesque, with very good level approaches, and it has an excellent
+river-bank. In all my travels I did not see a better site for a
+Christian settlement, and I believe that the Governor intends to form
+one there, though some think that it would be more convenient to select
+a position near the sea, and are, therefore, of an opposite opinion. All
+the country, from Jauja to Cajamarca, by the road we returned, is like
+that of which I have already given a description.</p>
+
+<p>After returning to Cajamarca and reporting my proceedings to the
+Governor, he ordered me to go to Spain and to give an account to his
+majesty of this and other things which appertain to his service. I took,
+from the heap of gold, one hundred thousand castellanos for his majesty,
+being the amount of his fifth. The day after I left Cajamarca, the
+Christians, who had gone to Cuzco, returned, and brought one million
+five hundred thousand of gold. After I arrived at Panama, another ship
+came in, with some knights. They say that a distribution of the gold was
+made; and that the share of his majesty, besides the one hundred
+thousand pesos and the five thousand marcos of silver that I bring, was
+another one hundred sixty-five thousand castellanos and seven thousand
+or eight thousand marcos of silver; while to all those of us who had
+gone, a further share of gold was sent.</p>
+
+<p>After my departure, according to what the Governor writes to me, it
+became known that Atahualpa had assembled troops to make war on the
+Christians, and justice was done upon him. The Governor made his
+brother, who was an enemy, lord in his place. Molina comes to this city,
+and from him your worships may learn anything else that you may desire
+to know. The shares of the troops were, to the horsemen nine thousand
+castellanos, to the Governor six thousand, to me three thousand. The
+Governor has derived no other profit from that land, nor has there been
+deceit or fraud in the account. I say this to your worships because, if
+any other statement is made, this is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> truth. May our lord long guard
+and prosper the magnificent persons of your worships.</p>
+
+<p>Done in this city, November, 1533. At the service of your worships,</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+<span class="smcap">Hernando Pizarro.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT</h4>
+
+<p>The clouds of the evening had passed away, and the sun rose bright on
+the following morning, the most remarkable epoch in the annals of Peru.
+It was Saturday, November 16, 1532. The loud cry of the trumpet called
+the Spaniards to arms with the first streak of dawn; and Pizarro,
+briefly acquainting them with the plan of the assault, made the
+necessary dispositions.</p>
+
+<p>The plaza was defended on its three sides by low ranges of buildings,
+consisting of spacious halls with wide doors or vomitories opening into
+the square. In these halls he stationed his cavalry in two divisions,
+one under his brother Hernando, the other under De Soto. The infantry he
+placed in another of the buildings, reserving twenty chosen men to act
+with himself as occasion might require. Pedro de Candia, with a few
+soldiers and the artillery, comprehending under this imposing name two
+small pieces of ordnance called falconets, he established in the
+fortress. All received orders to wait at their posts till the arrival of
+the Inca. After his entrance into the great square, they were still to
+remain under cover, withdrawn from observation, till the signal was
+given by the discharge of a gun, when they were to cry their war-cries,
+to rush out in a body from their covert, and, putting the Peruvians to
+the sword, bear off the person of the Inca. The arrangements of the
+immense halls, opening on a level with the plaza, seemed to be contrived
+on purpose for a <i>coup de th&eacute;&acirc;tre</i>. Pizarro particularly inculcated
+order and implicit obedience, that in the hurry of the moment there
+should be no confusion. Everything depended on their acting with
+concert, coolness, and celerity.</p>
+
+<p>The chief next saw that their arms were in good order, and that the
+breastplates of their horses were garnished with bells, to add by their
+noise to the consternation of the Indians. Refreshments were also
+liberally provided, that the troops should be in condition for the
+conflict. These arrangements being completed, mass was performed with
+great solemnity by the ecclesiastics<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> who attended the expedition; the
+God of battles was invoked to spread his shield over the soldiers who
+were fighting to extend the empire of the cross; and all joined with
+enthusiasm in the chant, "<i>Exsurge, Domine</i>" ("Rise, O Lord! and judge
+thine own cause"). One might have supposed them a company of martyrs
+about to lay down their lives in defence of their faith, instead of a
+licentious band of adventurers, meditating one of the most atrocious
+acts of perfidy on the record of history; yet, whatever were the vices
+of the Castilian cavalier, hypocrisy was not among the number. He felt
+that he was battling for the Cross, and under this conviction, exalted
+as it was at such a moment as this into the predominant impulse, he was
+blind to the baser motives which mingled with the enterprise. With
+feelings thus kindled to a flame of religious ardor, the soldiers of
+Pizarro looked forward with renovated spirits to the coming conflict;
+and the chieftain saw with satisfaction that in the hour of trial his
+men would be true to their leader and themselves.</p>
+
+<p>It was late in the day before any movement was visible in the Peruvian
+camp, where much preparation was making to approach the Christian
+quarters with due state and ceremony. A message was received from
+Atahualpa, informing the Spanish commander that he should come with his
+warriors fully armed, in the same manner as the Spaniards had come to
+his quarters the night preceding. This was not an agreeable intimation
+to Pizarro, though he had no reason, probably, to expect the contrary.
+But to object might imply distrust, or perhaps disclose, in some
+measure, his own designs. He expressed his satisfaction, therefore, at
+the intelligence, assuring the Inca that, come as he would, he would be
+received by him as a friend and brother.</p>
+
+<p>It was noon before the Indian procession was on its march, when it was
+seen occupying the great causeway for a long extent. In front came a
+large body of attendants, whose office seemed to be to sweep away every
+particle of rubbish from the road. High above the crowd appeared the
+Inca, borne on the shoulders of his principal nobles, while others of
+the same rank marched by the sides of his litter, displaying such a
+dazzling show of ornaments on their persons that, in the language of one
+of the conquerors, "they blazed like the sun." But the greater part of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Inca's forces mustered along the fields that lined the road, and
+were spread over the broad meadows as far as the eye could reach.</p>
+
+<p>When the royal procession had arrived within half a mile of the city, it
+came to a halt; and Pizarro saw, with surprise, that Atahualpa was
+preparing to pitch his tents as if to encamp there. A messenger soon
+after arrived, informing the Spaniards that the Inca would occupy his
+present station the ensuing night and enter the city on the following
+morning.</p>
+
+<p>This intelligence greatly disturbed Pizarro, who had shared in the
+general impatience of his men at the tardy movements of the Peruvians.
+The troops had been under arms since daylight, the cavalry mounted, and
+the infantry at their post, waiting in silence the coming of the Inca. A
+profound stillness reigned throughout the town, broken only at intervals
+by the cry of the sentinel from the summit of the fortress, as he
+proclaimed the movements of the Indian army. Nothing, Pizarro well knew,
+was so trying to the soldiers as prolonged suspense in a critical
+situation like the present; and he feared lest his ardor might
+evaporate, and be succeeded by that nervous feeling natural to the
+bravest soul at such a crisis, and which, if not fear, is near akin to
+it. He returned an answer, therefore, to Atahualpa, deprecating his
+change of purpose, and adding that he had provided everything for his
+entertainment, and expected him that night to sup with him.</p>
+
+<p>This message turned the Inca from his purpose; and, striking his tents
+again, he resumed his march, first advising the general that he should
+leave the greater part of his warriors behind, and enter the place with
+only a few of them, and without arms, as he preferred to pass the night
+at Cajamarca. At the same time he ordered accommodations to be provided
+for himself and his retinue in one of the large stone buildings, called,
+from a serpent sculptured on the walls, the "House of the Serpent". No
+tidings could have been more grateful to the Spaniards. It seemed as if
+the Indian monarch was eager to rush into the snare that had been spread
+for him! The fanatical cavalier could not fail to discern in it the
+immediate finger of Providence.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to account for this wavering conduct of Atahualpa, so
+different from the bold and decided character which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> history ascribes to
+him. There is no doubt that he made his visit to the white men in
+perfect good faith, though Pizarro was probably right in conjecturing
+that this amiable disposition stood on a very precarious footing. There
+is as little reason to suppose that he distrusted the sincerity of the
+strangers, or he would not thus unnecessarily have proposed to visit
+them unarmed. His original purpose of coming with all his force was
+doubtless to display his royal state, and perhaps, also, to show greater
+respect for the Spaniards; but when he consented to accept their
+hospitality and pass the night in their quarters, he was willing to
+dispense with a great part of his armed soldiery, and visit them in a
+manner that implied entire confidence in their good faith. He was too
+absolute in his own empire easily to suspect; and he probably could not
+comprehend the audacity with which a few men, like those now assembled
+in Cajamarca, meditated an assault on a powerful monarch in the midst of
+his victorious army. He did not know the character of the Spaniard.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long before sunset when the van of the royal procession
+entered the gates of the city. First came some hundreds of the menials,
+employed to clear the path from every obstacle, and singing songs of
+triumph as they came, "which, in our ears," says one of the conquerors,
+"sounded like the songs of hell!" Then followed other bodies of
+different ranks and dressed in different liveries. Some wore a showy
+stuff, checkered white and red, like the squares of a chess-board.
+Others were clad in pure white, bearing hammers or maces of silver or
+copper; and the guards, together with those in immediate attendance on
+the Prince, were distinguished by a rich azure livery, and a profusion
+of gay ornaments, while the large pendants attached to the ears
+indicated the Peruvian noble.</p>
+
+<p>Elevated high above his vassals came the Inca Atahualpa, borne on a
+sedan or open litter, on which was a sort of throne made of massive gold
+of inestimable value. The palanquin was lined with the richly colored
+plumes of tropical birds, and studded with shining plates of gold and
+silver. The monarch's attire was much richer than on the preceding
+evening. Round his neck was suspended a collar of emeralds of uncommon
+size and brilliancy. His short hair was decorated with golden ornaments,
+and the imperial <i>borla</i> encircled his temples. The bearing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> of the Inca
+was sedate and dignified; and from his lofty station he looked down on
+the multitudes below with an air of composure, like one accustomed to
+command.</p>
+
+<p>As the leading lines of the procession entered the great square&mdash;larger,
+says an old chronicler, than any square in Spain&mdash;they opened to the
+right and left for the royal retinue to pass. Everything was conducted
+with admirable order. The monarch was permitted to traverse the plaza in
+silence, and not a Spaniard was to be seen. When some five or six
+thousand of his people had entered the place, Atahualpa halted, and,
+turning round with an inquiring look, demanded, "Where are the
+strangers?"</p>
+
+<p>At this moment Fray Vicente de Valverde, a Dominican friar, Pizarro's
+chaplain, and afterward Bishop of Cuzco, came forward with his breviary,
+or, as other accounts say, a Bible, in one hand and a crucifix in the
+other, and, approaching the Inca, told him that he came by order of his
+commander to expound to him the doctrines of the true faith, for which
+purpose the Spaniards had come from a great distance to his country. The
+friar then explained, as clearly as he could, the mysterious doctrine of
+the Trinity, and, ascending high in his account, began with the creation
+of man, thence passed to his fall, to his subsequent redemption by Jesus
+Christ, to the Crucifixion, and the Ascension, when the Saviour left the
+apostle Peter as his vicegerent upon earth.</p>
+
+<p>This power had been transmitted to the successors of the apostle, good
+and wise men, who, under the title of popes, held authority over all
+powers and potentates on earth. One of the last of these popes had
+commissioned the Spanish Emperor, the most mighty monarch in the world,
+to conquer and convert the natives in this western hemisphere; and his
+general, Francisco Pizarro, had now come to execute this important
+mission. The friar concluded with beseeching the Peruvian monarch to
+receive him kindly, to abjure the errors of his own faith and embrace
+that of the Christians now proffered to him, the only one by which he
+could hope for salvation; and, furthermore, to acknowledge himself a
+tributary of the emperor Charles, who, in that event, would aid and
+protect him as his loyal vassal.</p>
+
+<p>Whether Atahualpa possessed himself of every link in the curious chain
+of argument by which the monk connected Pizarro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> with St. Peter, may be
+doubted. It is certain, however, that he must have had very incorrect
+notions of the Trinity if, as Garcilasso states, the interpreter,
+Felipillo, explained it by saying that "the Christians believed in three
+gods and one God, and that made four." But there is no doubt he
+perfectly comprehended that the drift of the discourse was to persuade
+him to resign his sceptre and acknowledge the supremacy of another.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes of the Indian monarch flashed fire and his dark brow grew
+darker as he replied: "I will be no man's tributary! I am greater than
+any prince upon earth. Your Emperor may be a great prince; I do not
+doubt it when I see that he has sent his subjects so far across the
+waters; and I am willing to hold him as a brother. As for the Pope of
+whom you speak, he must be crazy to talk of giving away countries which
+do not belong to him. For my faith," he continued, "I will not change
+it. Your own God, as you say, was put to death by the very men whom he
+created. But mine," he concluded, pointing to his deity&mdash;then, alas!
+sinking in glory behind the mountains&mdash;"my God still lives in the
+heavens and looks down on his children."</p>
+
+<p>He then demanded of Valverde by what authority he had said these things.
+The friar pointed to the book which he held as his authority. Atahualpa,
+taking it, turned over the pages a moment; then, as the insult he had
+received probably flashed across his mind, he threw it down with
+vehemence and exclaimed: "Tell your comrades that they shall give me an
+account of their doings in my land. I will not go from here till they
+have made me full satisfaction for all the wrongs they have committed."</p>
+
+<p>The friar, greatly scandalized by the indignity offered to the sacred
+volume, stayed only to pick it up, and, hastening to Pizarro, informed
+him of what had been done, exclaiming at the same time: "Do you not see
+that, while we stand here wasting our breath in talking with this dog,
+full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with Indians? Set on at
+once! I absolve you." Pizarro saw that the hour had come. He waved a
+white scarf in the air, the appointed signal. The fatal gun was fired
+from the fortress. Then, springing into the square, the Spanish captain
+and his followers shouted the old war-cry of "St. Iago and at them!"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was answered by the battle-cry of every Spaniard in the city, as,
+rushing from the avenues of the great halls in which they were
+concealed, they poured into the plaza, horse and foot, each in his own
+dark column, and threw themselves into the midst of the Indian crowd.
+The latter, taken by surprise, stunned by the report of artillery and
+muskets, the echoes of which reverberated like thunder from the
+surrounding buildings, and blinded by the smoke which rolled in
+sulphurous volumes along the square, were seized with a panic. They knew
+not whither to fly for refuge from the coming ruin. Nobles and
+commoners, all were trampled down under the fierce charge of the
+cavalry, who dealt their blows right and left without sparing; while
+their swords, flashing through the thick gloom, carried dismay into the
+hearts of the wretched natives, who now, for the first time, saw the
+horse and his rider in all their terrors.</p>
+
+<p>They made no resistance, as, indeed, they had no weapons with which to
+make it. Every avenue to escape was closed, for the entrance to the
+square was choked up with the dead bodies of men who had perished in
+vain efforts to fly; and such was the agony of the survivors under the
+terrible pressure of their assailants that a large body of Indians, by
+their convulsive struggles, burst through the wall of stone and dried
+clay which formed part of the boundary of the plaza! It fell, leaving an
+opening of more than a hundred paces, through which multitudes now found
+their way into the country, still hotly pursued by the cavalry, who,
+leaping the fallen rubbish, hung on the rear of the fugitives, striking
+them down in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the fight, or rather massacre, continued hot around the Inca,
+whose person was the great object of the assault. His faithful nobles,
+rallying about him, threw themselves in the way of the assailants, and
+strove, by tearing them from their saddles, or, at least, by offering
+their own bosoms as a mark for their vengeance, to shield their beloved
+master. It is said by some authorities that they carried weapons
+concealed under their clothes. If so, it availed them little, as it is
+not pretended that they used them. But the most timid animal will defend
+itself when at bay. That they did not so in the present instance is
+proof that they had no weapons to use. Yet they still continued to force
+back the cavaliers, clinging to their horses with dying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> grasp, and, as
+one was cut down, another taking the place of his fallen comrade with a
+loyalty truly affecting.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects
+falling round him without hardly comprehending his situation. The litter
+on which he rode heaved to and fro as the mighty press swayed backward
+and forward; and he gazed on the overwhelming ruin, like some forlorn
+mariner, who, tossed about in his bark by the furious elements, sees the
+lightning's flash and hears the thunder bursting around him, with the
+consciousness that he can do nothing to avert his fate. At length, weary
+with the work of destruction, the Spaniards, as the shades of evening
+grew deeper, felt afraid that the royal prize might, after all, elude
+them; and some of the cavaliers made a desperate effort to end the
+affray at once by taking Atahualpa's life. But Pizarro, who was nearest
+his person, called out with stentorian voice, "Let no one who values his
+life strike at the Inca"; and, stretching out his arm to shield him,
+received a wound on the hand from one of his own men&mdash;the only wound
+received by a Spaniard in the action.</p>
+
+<p>The struggle now became fiercer than ever round the royal litter. It
+reeled more and more, and at length, several of the nobles who supported
+it having been slain, it was overturned, and the Indian prince would
+have come with violence to the ground, had not his fall been broken by
+the efforts of Pizarro and some other of the cavaliers, who caught him
+in their arms. The imperial borla was instantly snatched from his
+temples by a soldier named Estete, and the unhappy monarch, strongly
+secured, was removed to a neighboring building, where he was carefully
+guarded.</p>
+
+<p>All attempt at resistance now ceased. The fate of the Inca soon spread
+over town and country. The charm which might have held the Peruvians
+together was dissolved. Every man thought only of his own safety. Even
+the soldiery encamped on the adjacent fields took alarm, and, learning
+the fatal tidings, were seen flying in every direction before their
+pursuers, who, in the heat of triumph, showed no touch of mercy. At
+length night, more pitiful than man, threw her friendly mantle over the
+fugitives, and the scattered troops of Pizarro rallied once more to the
+sound of the trumpet in the bloody square of Cajamarca.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CALVIN IS DRIVEN FROM PARIS</h2>
+
+<h3>HE MAKES GENEVA THE STRONGHOLD OF PROTESTANTISM</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1533</h4>
+
+<h3>A. M. FAIRBAIRN&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;JEAN M. V. AUDIN</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Among what may be called the second generation of Protestant
+reformers, the great leader was John Calvin. By his
+writings, and by his directive and administrative work, he
+exerted a strong influence upon the reformed churches in his
+own day and upon the theology and polity of later times. He
+was born in France in 1509, and while still in early
+manhood, having become familiar with classical learning,
+with law, and especially with theology, he ardently embraced
+the Protestant faith and began to preach the reformed
+doctrines.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin spent some time in Paris, then a centre of the "New
+Learning" and of religious ferment, and there he felt the
+effects of raging persecution. The publication of his great
+work, the <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, marked an
+epoch in the history of Protestantism. Though differing on
+certain points from the teachings of Luther, it was a
+powerful exposition of the Protestant faith as Calvin
+understood it, severely logical in form, and especially
+distinguished by its stern doctrines relating to divine
+sovereignty.</p>
+
+<p>When in 1536 Calvin went to live in Geneva, it was already a
+Protestant city. He became virtually its ruler and made it a
+kind of theocracy, or rather a "religious republic," which
+he administered with vigorous laws enforced with the
+greatest strictness. Zealous Protestants from many countries
+gathered at Geneva, and from there the influence of Calvin,
+somewhat modified by that of his Swiss predecessor Zwingli,
+spread rapidly into France, England, Scotland, and Germany.
+At the time of Calvin's death (1564) there were three types
+of Protestantism established in the world&mdash;his own, and
+those of Luther and Zwingli. In Great Britain, and afterward
+in America, the Calvinistic type came to play a most
+important part in religious and national development.</p>
+
+<p>Two estimates of Calvin, the first from a Protestant point
+of view, the second that of a Roman Catholic writer, are
+here presented.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>A. M. FAIRBAIRN</h4>
+
+<p>In 1528 Calvin's father, perhaps illuminated by the disputes in his
+cathedral chapter, discovered that the law was a surer road to wealth
+and honor than the church, and decided that his son should leave
+theology for jurisprudence. The son, nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> loath, obeyed, and left
+Paris for Orleans, possibly, as he descended the steps of the Coll&egrave;ge de
+Montaigu, brushing shoulders with a Spanish freshman named Ignatius
+Loyola. In Orleans Calvin studied law under Pierre de l'Estoile, who is
+described as <i>jurisconsultorum Gallorum facile princeps</i>, and as
+eclipsing in classical knowledge Reuchlin, Aleander, and Erasmus; and
+Greek under Wolmar, in whose house he met for the first time Theodore
+Beza, then a boy about ten years of age.</p>
+
+<p>After a year in Orleans he went to Bourges, attracted by the fame of the
+Italian jurist Alciati, whose ungainliness of body and speech and vanity
+of mind his students loved to satirize and even by occasional rebellion
+to chasten. In 1531 G&eacute;rard Calvin died and his son, in 1532, published
+his first work, a commentary on Seneca's <i>de Clementia</i>. His purpose has
+been construed by the light of his late career; and some have seen in
+the book a veiled defence of the Huguenot martyrs, others a cryptic
+censure of Francis I, and yet others a prophetic dissociation of himself
+from Stoicism. But there is no mystery in the matter; the work is that
+of a scholar who has no special interest in either theology or the
+Bible. This may be statistically illustrated: Calvin cites twenty-two
+Greek authors and fifty-five Latin, the quotations being most abundant
+and from many books; but in his whole treatise there are only three
+Biblical texts expressly cited, and those from the Vulgate.</p>
+
+<p>The man is cultivated and learned, writes elegant Latin, is a good judge
+of Latinity, criticises like any modern the mind and style, the
+knowledge and philosophy, the manner, the purpose, and the ethical ideas
+of Seneca; but the passion for religion has not as yet penetrated as it
+did later into his very bones. Erasmus is in Calvin's eyes the ornament
+of letters, though his large edition of Seneca is not all it ought to
+have been; but even Erasmus could not at twenty-three have produced a
+work so finished in its scholarship, so real in its learning, or so wide
+in its outlook.</p>
+
+<p>The events of the next few months are obscure, but we know enough to see
+how forces, internal and external, were working toward change. In the
+second half of 1532 and the earlier half of 1533 Calvin was in Orleans,
+studying, teaching, practising the law, and acting in the university as
+proctor for the Picard nation; then he went to Noyon, and in October he
+was once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> more in Paris. The capital was agitated; Francis was absent,
+and his sister, Margaret of Navarre, held her court there, favoring the
+new doctrines, encouraging the preachers, the chief among them being her
+own almoner, G&eacute;rard Roussel.</p>
+
+<p>Two letters of Calvin to Francis Daniel belong to this date and place;
+and in them we find a changed note. One speaks of "the troublous times,"
+and the other narrates two events: first, it describes a play "pungent
+with gall and vinegar," which the students had performed in the College
+of Navarre to satirize the Queen; and secondly, the action of certain
+factious theologians who had prohibited Margaret's <i>Mirror of a Sinful
+Soul</i>. She had complained to the King, and he had intervened. The matter
+came before the university, and Nicolas Cop, the rector, had spoken
+strongly against the arrogant doctors and in defence of the Queen,
+"mother of all the virtues and of all good learning." Le Clerc, a parish
+priest, the author of the mischief, defended his performance as a task
+to which he had been formally appointed, praising the King, the Queen as
+woman and as author, contrasting her book with "such an obscene
+production" as <i>Pantagruel</i>, and finally saying that the book had been
+published without the approval of the faculty and was set aside only as
+"liable to suspicion."</p>
+
+<p>Two or three days later, on November 1, 1533, came the famous rectorial
+address which Calvin wrote, and Cop revised and delivered, and which
+shows how far the humanist had travelled since April 4, 1532, the date
+of the <i>de Clementia</i>. He is now alive to the religious question, though
+he has not carried it to its logical and practical conclusion. Two fresh
+influences have evidently come into his life, the New Testament of
+Erasmus and certain sermons by Luther. The exordium of the address
+reproduces, almost literally, some sentences from Erasmus' <i>Paraclesis</i>,
+including those which unfold his idea of the <i>philosophia Christiana</i>;
+while the body of it repeats Luther's exposition of the beatitudes and
+his distinction between law and gospel, with the involved doctrines of
+grace and faith. Yet "<i>Ave gratia plena</i>" is retained in the exordium;
+and at the end the peace-makers are praised, who follow the example of
+Christ and contend not with the sword, but with the word of truth.</p>
+
+<p>This address enables us to seize Calvin in the very act and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> article of
+change; he has come under a double influence. Erasmus has compelled him
+to compare the ideal of Christ with the church of his own day; and
+Luther has given him a notion of grace which has convinced his reason
+and taken possession of his imagination. He has thus ceased to be a
+humanist and a papist, but has not yet become a reformer. And a reformer
+was precisely what his conscience, his country, and his reason compelled
+him to become. Francis was flagrantly immoral, but a fanatic in
+religion; and mercy was not a virtue congenial to either church or
+state. Calvin had seen the Protestants from within; he knew their
+honesty, their honor, the purity of their motives, and the integrity of
+their lives; and he judged, as a jurist would, that a man who had all
+the virtues of citizenship ought not to be oppressed and treated as
+unfit for civil office or even as a criminal by the state. This is no
+conjecture, for it is confirmed by the testimony he bears to the
+influence exercised over him by the martyred &Eacute;tienne de la Forge. He
+thus saw that a changed mind meant a changed religion, and a changed
+religion a change of abode. Cop had to flee from Paris, and so had
+Calvin.</p>
+
+<p>In the May of 1534 he went to Noyon, laid down his offices, was
+imprisoned, liberated, and while there he seems to have finally
+renounced Catholicism. But he feared the forces of disorder which lurked
+in Protestantism, and which seemed embodied in the Anabaptists. Hence at
+Orleans he composed a treatise against one of their favorite beliefs,
+the sleep of the soul between death and judgment. Conscious personal
+being was in itself too precious, and in the sight of God too sacred, to
+be allowed to suffer even a temporary lapse. But to serve the cause he
+loved was impossible with the stake waiting for him, its fires scorching
+his face, and kindly friends endangered by his presence. And so, in the
+winter of 1534, he retired from France and settled at Basel.</p>
+
+<p>Now a city where Protestantism reigned, where learning flourished, and
+where men so unlike as Erasmus and Farel&mdash;the fervid preacher of
+reform&mdash;could do their work unhindered, was certain to make a deep
+impression on a fugitive harassed and expatriated on account of
+religion; and the impression it made can be read in the <i>Christian&aelig;
+Religionis Institutio</i>, and especially in the prefatory <i>Letter to
+Francis I</i>. The <i>Institutio</i> is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> Calvin's positive interpretation of the
+Christian religion: the <i>Letter</i> is learned, eloquent, elegant,
+dignified, the address of a subject to his sovereign, yet of a subject
+who knows that his place in the state is as legal, though not as
+authoritative, as the sovereign's. It throbs with a noble indignation
+against injustice, and with a noble enthusiasm for freedom and truth. It
+is one of the great epistles of the world, a splendid apology for the
+oppressed and arraignment of the oppressors. It does not implore
+toleration as a concession, but claims freedom as a right.</p>
+
+<p>Its author is a young man of but twenty-six, yet he speaks with the
+gravity of age. He tells the King that his first duty is to be just;
+that to punish unheard is but to inflict violence and perpetrate fraud.
+Those for whom he speaks are, though simple and godly men, yet charged
+with crimes that, were they true, ought to condemn them to a thousand
+fires and gibbets. These charges the King is bound to investigate, for
+he is a minister of God, and if he fails to serve the God whose minister
+he is, then he is a robber and no king.</p>
+
+<p>Then he asks, "Who are our accusers?" and he turns on the priests like a
+new Erasmus, who does not, like the old, delight in satire for its own
+sake or in a literature which scourges men by holding up the mirror to
+vice, but who feels the sublimity of virtue so deeply that witticisms at
+the expense of vice are abhorrent to him. He takes up the charges in
+detail: it is said that the doctrine is new, doubtful, and uncertain,
+unconfirmed by miracles, opposed to the fathers and ancient custom,
+schismatical and productive of schism, and that its fruits are sects,
+seditions, license. On no point is he so emphatic as the repudiation of
+the personal charges: the people he pleads for have never raised their
+voice in faction or sought to subvert law and order; they fear God
+sincerely and worship him in truth, praying even in exile for the royal
+person and house.</p>
+
+<p>The book which this address to the King introduces is a sketch or
+programme of reform in religion. The first edition of the <i>Institutio</i>
+is distinguished from all later editions by the emphasis it lays, not on
+dogma, but on morals, on worship, and on polity. Calvin conceives the
+Gospel as a new law which ought to be embodied in a new life, individual
+and social. What came later to be known as Calvinism may be stated in an
+occasional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> sentence or implied in a paragraph, but it is not the
+substance or determinative idea of the book. The problem discussed has
+been set by the studies and the experience of the author; he has read
+the New Testament as a humanist learned in the law, and he has been
+startled by the contrast between its ideal and the reality which
+confronts him. And he proceeds in a thoroughly juridical fashion, just
+as Tertullian before him, and as Grotius and Selden after him. Without a
+document he can decide nothing; he needs a written law or actual custom;
+and his book falls into divisions which these suggest.</p>
+
+<p>Hence his first chapter is concerned with duty or conduct as prescribed
+by the Ten Commandments; his second with faith as contained in the
+apostolic symbol; his third with prayer as fixed by the words of Christ;
+his fourth with the sacrament as given in the Scriptures; his fifth with
+the false sacraments as defined by tradition and enforced by Catholic
+custom; and his sixth with Christian liberty or the relation of the
+ecclesiastical and civil authorities. But though the book is, as
+compared with what it became later, limited in scope and contents&mdash;the
+last edition which left the author's hand in 1559 had grown from a work
+in six chapters to one in four books and eighty chapters&mdash;yet its
+constructive power, its critical force, its large outlook impress the
+student. We have here none of Luther's scholasticism, or of
+Melanchthon's deft manipulation of incompatible elements; but we have
+the first thoughts on religion of a mind trained by ancient literature
+to the criticism of life.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Institutio</i> bears the date "<i>Mense Martio; Anno</i> 1536"; but Calvin,
+without waiting till his book was on the market, made a hurried journey
+to Ferrara, whose Duchess, Ren&eacute;e, a daughter of Louis XII, stood in
+active sympathy with the reformers. The reasons for this brief visit are
+very obscure; but it may have been undertaken in the hope of mitigating,
+by the help of Ren&eacute;e, the severity of the persecutions in France. On his
+return Calvin ventured, tradition says, to Noyon, probably for the sake
+of family affairs; but he certainly reached Paris; and, while in the
+second half of July making his way into Germany, he arrived at Geneva.
+An old friend, possibly Louis du Tillet, discovered him, and told Farel;
+and Farel, in sore straits for a helper, besought him, and indeed in the
+name of the Almighty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> commanded him, to stay. Calvin was reluctant, for
+he was reserved and shy, and conceived his vocation to be the scholar's
+rather than the preacher's; but the entreaties of Farel, half tearful,
+half minatory, prevailed. And thus Calvin's connection with Geneva
+began.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin's life from this point onward falls into three parts: his first
+stay in Geneva from July, 1536, to March, 1538; his residence in
+Strasburg from September, 1538, to September, 1541; and his second stay
+in Geneva from the last date till his death, May 27, 1564. In the first
+period, he, in company with Farel, made an attempt to organize the
+church and reform the mind and manners of Geneva, and failed; his exile,
+formally voted by the council, was the penalty of his failure. In the
+second period he was professor of theology and French preacher at
+Strasburg, a trusted divine and adviser, a delegate to the Protestant
+churches of Germany, which he learned to know better, making the
+acquaintance of Melanchthon, and becoming more appreciative of Luther.</p>
+
+<p>At Strasburg some of his best literary work was done&mdash;his <i>Letter to
+Cardinal Sadoleto</i> (in its way his most perfect production), his
+<i>Commentary on the Romans</i>, a <i>Treatise on the Lord's Supper</i>, the
+second Latin and the first French edition of his <i>Institutio</i>. In the
+third period he introduced and completed his legislation at Geneva,
+taught, preached, and published there, watched the churches everywhere,
+and conducted the most extensive correspondence of his day. In these
+twenty-eight years he did a work which changed the face of Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>We come then to Calvin's legislative achievements as his main title to
+name and fame. But two points must here be noted. In the first place,
+while his theology was less original and effective than his legislation
+or polity, yet he so construed the former as to make the latter its
+logical and indeed inevitable outcome. The polity was a deduction from
+the theology, which may be defined as a science of the divine will as a
+moral will, aiming at the complete moralization of man, whether as a
+unit or as a society. The two were thus so organically connected that
+each lent strength to the other, the system to the church and the church
+to the system, while other and more potently reasonable theologies
+either died or lived a feeble and struggling life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the legislation was made possible and practicable by Geneva,
+probably the only place in Europe where it could have been enacted and
+enforced. We have learned enough concerning Genevan history and
+institutions to understand why this should have been the case. The city
+was small, free, homogeneous, distinguished by a strong local
+patriotism, a stalwart communal life. In obedience to these instincts it
+had just emancipated itself from the ecclesiastical Prince and its
+ancient religious system; and the change thus accomplished was, though
+disguised in a religious habit, yet essentially political. For the
+council which abolished the bishop had made itself heir to his faculties
+and functions; it could only dismiss him as civil lord by dismissing him
+as the ecclesiastical head of Geneva, and in so doing it assumed the
+right to succeed as well as to supersede him in both capacities.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, involved a notable inversion of old ideas; before the
+change the ecclesiastical authority had been civil, but because of the
+change the civil authority became ecclesiastical. If theocracy means the
+rule of the church or the sovereignty of the clergy in the state, then
+the ancient constitution of Geneva was theocratic; if democracy means
+the sovereignty of the people in church as well as in state, then the
+change had made it democratic. And it was just after the change had been
+effected that Calvin's connection with the city began.</p>
+
+<p>Its chief pastor had persuaded him to stay as a colleague, and the
+council appointed him professor and preacher. He was young, exactly
+twenty-seven years of age, full of high ideals, but inexperienced,
+unacquainted with men, without any knowledge of Geneva and the state of
+things there. He could therefore make no terms, could only stay to do
+his duty. What that duty was soon became apparent. Geneva had not become
+any more moral in character because it had changed its mind in religion.
+It had two months before Calvin's arrival sworn to live according to the
+holy evangelical law and Word of God; but it did not seem to understand
+its own oath. And the man whom his intellectual sincerity and moral
+integrity had driven out of Catholicism could not hold office in any
+church which made light of conviction and conduct; and so he at once set
+himself to organize a church that should be efficaciously moral.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He built on the ancient Genevan idea, that the city is a church; only he
+wished to make the church to be primary and real. The theocracy, which
+had been construed as the reign of the clergy, he would interpret as
+ideal and realize as a reign of God. The citizens, who had assumed
+control of their own spiritual destinies and ecclesiastical affairs, he
+wanted to instruct in their responsibilities and discipline into
+obedience. And he would do it in the way of a jurist who believes in the
+harmony of law and custom; he would by positive enactments train the
+city, which conceived itself to be a church, to be and behave as if it
+were indeed a church, living according to the gospel which it had sworn
+to obey.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a confession of faith was drawn up which the people were to adopt
+as their own, and so attain clarity and concordance of mind concerning
+God and his Word; and a catechism was composed which was to be made the
+basis of religious instruction in both the school and the family, for
+the citizen as well as the child. Worship was to be carefully regulated,
+psalm-books prepared, psalm-singing cultivated; the preacher was to
+interpret the Word, and the pastor to supervise the flock.</p>
+
+<p>The Lord's Supper was to be celebrated monthly, but only those who were
+morally fit or worthy were to be allowed to communicate. The church, in
+order that it might fulfil its functions and guard the holy table, must
+have the right of excommunication. It was not enough that a man should
+be a citizen or a councillor to be admitted to the Lord's Supper; his
+mind must be Christian and his conduct Christlike. Without faith the
+rite was profaned, the presence of Christ was not realized. Moreover,
+since matrimonial cases were many and infelicity sprang both from
+differences of faith and impurity of conduct, a board, composed partly
+of magistrates and partly of ministers, was to be appointed to deal with
+them; and it was to have the power to exclude from the church those who
+either did not believe its doctrines or did not obey its commandments.</p>
+
+<p>These were drastic proposals to be made to a city which had just
+dismissed its bishop, attained political freedom, and proclaimed a
+reformation of religion; and Calvin was not the man to leave them
+inoperative. A card-player was pilloried; a tire-woman, a mother, and
+two bridesmaids were arrested because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> they had adorned the bride too
+gayly; an adulterer was driven with the partner of his guilt through the
+streets by the common hangman, and then banished. These things taxed the
+temper of the city sorely; it was not unfamiliar with legislation of the
+kind, but it had not been accustomed to see it enforced. Hence, men who
+came to be known as "libertines," though they were both patriotic and
+moral and only craved freedom, rose and said: "This is an intolerable
+tyranny; we will not allow any man to be lord over our consciences." And
+about the same time Calvin's orthodoxy was challenged. Two Anabaptists
+arrived and demanded liberty to prophesy; and Peter Caroli charged him
+with heresy as to the Trinity. He would not use the Athanasian creed;
+and he defended himself by reasons that the scholar who knows its
+history will respect. The end soon came. When he heard that he had been
+sentenced to banishment he said, "If I had served men this would have
+been a poor reward, but I have served Him who never fails to perform
+what he has promised."</p>
+
+<p>In 1541 Geneva recalled Calvin, and he obeyed as one who goes to fulfil
+an imperative but unwelcome duty. There is nothing more pathetic in the
+literature of the period than his hesitancies and fears. He tells Farel
+that he would rather die a hundred times than again take up that cross
+"<i>in qua millies quotidie pereundum esset</i>." And he writes to Viret that
+it were better to perish once for all than "<i>in illa carnificina iterum
+torqueri</i>." But he loved Geneva, and it was in evil case. Rome was
+plotting to reclaim it; Savoy was watching her opportunity, the patriots
+feared to go forward, and even the timid dared not go back. So the
+necessities of the city, divided between its factions and its foes,
+constituted an appeal which Calvin could not resist; but he did not
+yield unconditionally. He went back as the legislator who was to frame
+laws for its church; and he so adapted them to the civil constitution
+and the constitution to them, that he raised the little city of Geneva
+to be the Protestant Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ordonnances eccl&eacute;siastiques</i> may be described as Calvin's programme
+of Genevan reform, or his method for applying to the local and external
+church the government which our Lord had instituted and the Apostles had
+realized. These ordinances expressed his historical sense and gratified
+his religious temper, while adapting the church to the city, so that the
+city might become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> a better church. To explain in detail how he proposed
+to do this is impossible within our limits; and we shall therefore
+confine ourselves to the most important of the factors he created, the
+ministry.</p>
+
+<p>The ministerial ideal embodied in these ecclesiastical ordinances may be
+said to have had certain indirect but international results; it
+compelled Calvin to develop his system of education; it supplied the
+reformed church, especially in France, with the men which it needed to
+fight its battles and to form the iron in its blood; it presented the
+reformed church everywhere with an intellectual and educational ideal,
+which must be realized if its work was to be done; and it created the
+modern preacher, defining the sphere of his activity and setting up for
+his imitation a noble and lofty example.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin soon found that the reformed faith could live in a democratic
+city only by an enlightened pulpit speaking to enlightened citizens, and
+that an educated ministry was helpless without an educated people. His
+method for creating both entitles him to rank among the foremost makers
+of modern education. As a humanist he believed in the classical
+languages and literatures&mdash;there is a tradition which says that he read
+through Cicero once a year&mdash;and so "he built his system on the solid
+rock of Gr&aelig;co-Roman antiquity." Yet he did not neglect religion; he so
+trained the boys of Geneva through his catechism that each was said to
+be able to give a reason for his faith "like a doctor of the Sorbonne."
+He believed in the unity of knowledge and the community of learning,
+placing the magistrate and the minister, the citizen and the pastor, in
+the hands of the same teacher, and binding the school and the university
+together. The boy learned in the one and the man studied in the other,
+but the school was the way to the university, the university was the
+goal of the school.</p>
+
+<p>In nothing does the pedagogic genius of Calvin more appear than in his
+fine jealousy as to the character and competence whether of masters or
+professors, and in his unwearied quest after qualified men. His letters
+teem with references to the men in various lands and many universities
+whom he was seeking to bring to Geneva. The first rector, Antoine
+Saunier, was a notable man; and he never rested till he had secured his
+dear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> old teacher, Mathurin Cordier. Castellio was a schoolmaster;
+Theodore Beza was head of college and academy, or school and university,
+together; and Calvin himself was a professor of theology. The success of
+the college was great; the success of the academy was greater. Men came
+from all quarters&mdash;English, Italians, Spanish, Germans, Russians,
+ministers, jurists, old men, young men, all with the passion to learn in
+their blood&mdash;to jostle each other among the thousand hearers who met to
+listen to the great reformer. But France was the main feeder of the
+academy; Frenchmen filled its chairs, occupied its benches, learned in
+it the courage to live and the will to die. From Geneva books poured
+into France; and the French church was ever appealing for ministers, yet
+never appealed in vain.</p>
+
+<p>Within eleven years, 1555-1566&mdash;Calvin died in 1564&mdash;it is known that
+Geneva sent one hundred sixty-one pastors into France; how many more may
+have gone unrecorded we cannot tell. And they were learned men,
+strenuous, fearless, praised by a French bishop as modest, grave,
+saintly, with the name of Jesus Christ ever on their lips. Charles IX
+implored the magistrates of Geneva to stop the supply and withdraw the
+men already sent; but the magistrates replied that the preachers had
+been sent not by them, but by their ministers, who believed that the
+sovereign duty of all princes and kings was to do homage to Him who had
+given to them their dominion. It was small wonder that the Venetian
+Suriano should describe Geneva as "the mine whence came the ore of
+heresy"; or that the Protestants should gather courage as they heard the
+men from Geneva sing psalms in the face of torture and death.</p>
+
+<p>It was indeed a very different France which the eyes of the dying Calvin
+saw from that which the young man had seen thirty years before.
+Religious hate was even more bitter and vindictive; war had come and
+made persecution more ferocious; but the Huguenots had grown numerous,
+potent, respected, feared, and disputed with Catholicism the supremacy
+of the kingdom. And Calvin had done it, not by arms nor by threats, nor
+by encouragement of sedition or insurrection&mdash;to such action he was ever
+resolutely opposed&mdash;but by the agency of the men whom he formed in
+Geneva, and by their persuasive speech. The reformed minister was
+essentially a preacher, intellectual,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> exegetical, argumentative,
+seriously concerned with the subjects that most appealed to the
+serious-minded.</p>
+
+<p>Modern oratory may be said to begin with him, and indeed to be his
+creation. He helped to make the vernacular tongues of Western Europe
+literary. He accustomed the people to hear the gravest and most sacred
+themes discussed in the language which they knew; and the themes
+ennobled the language, the language was never allowed to degrade the
+themes. And there was no tongue and no people that he influenced more
+than the French. Calvin made Bossuet and Massillon possible; as a
+preacher he found his successor in Bourdaloue; and a literary critic who
+does not love him has expressed a doubt as to whether Pascal could be
+more eloquent or was so profound. And the ideal then realized in Geneva
+exercised an influence far beyond France. It extended into Holland,
+which in the strength of the reformed faith resisted Charles V and his
+son, achieved independence, and created the freest and best educated
+state on the continent of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>John Knox breathed for a while the atmosphere of Geneva, was subdued
+into the likeness of the man who had made it, and when he went home he
+copied its education and tried to repeat its reformation. English
+reformers, fleeing from martyrdom, found a refuge within its hospitable
+walls, and, returning to England, attempted to establish a Genevan
+discipline, and failed, but succeeded in forming the Puritan character.
+If the author of the <i>Ordonnances eccl&eacute;siastiques</i> accomplished, whether
+directly or indirectly, so much, we need not hesitate to term him a
+notable friend to civilization.</p>
+
+
+<h4>JEAN M. V. AUDIN</h4>
+
+<p>When the sword of the law fell upon one of his followers, the voice of
+Luther was magnificent; it exclaimed, in the ears of emperors, kings,
+and dukes, "You have shed the blood of the just," and then the Saxon, in
+honor of the martyr, extemporized a hymn which was chanted in the very
+face of the civil power:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"In the Low Countries, at Brussels,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Lord his greatness hath displayed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In the death of two of his loved children<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On whom grand gifts he had bestowed."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Calvin had not the courage to imitate Luther. He has told us that he
+wanted courage; he again repeats it: he says that he, a plebeian,
+trifling as a man, and having but little learning, has nothing in him
+which could deserve celebrity. And yet he essayed a timid protest in
+favor of certain Huguenots who had been burned on the public square.
+"The work," says Prince Masson, "of a double-faced writer, a Catholic in
+his writings and a Lutheran in his bedchamber."</p>
+
+<p>This is his first book. It is entitled <i>de Clementia</i> (or <i>Treatise on
+Clemency</i>), and is a paraphrase of some Latin writer of the decline.
+Moreover, this is the first time that a commentator is ignorant of the
+life of him whose work he publishes. Calvin has confounded the two
+Senecas, the father and the son; the rhetorician and the philosopher, of
+both of whom he makes but one literary personage, living the very
+patriarchal life of more than one hundred fifteen years.</p>
+
+<p>We must pardon Varillas for having, with sufficient acrimony, brought
+into relief this mistake of the biographer of Seneca the philosopher,
+and not, like the historians of the Reformation, become vexed at the
+proud tone of the French historian. Had the fault been committed by a
+Catholic, where is the Protestant who would not have done the same thing
+as Varillas?</p>
+
+<p>The literary work which Calvin, in the shape of a commentary, has
+interwoven with the treatise of Seneca is a production not unworthy a
+literator of the revival; it is an amplification, which one would have
+supposed to have been written in the cell of a Benedictine monk, so
+numerous are the citations, so great is the display of erudition, so
+replete is it with the names, Greek and Latin, of poets, historians,
+moralists, rhetoricians, philosophers, and philologists.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin is a coquettish student, who loves to parade his reading and his
+memory. His work is a gallery, open to all the modern and ancient
+glories of literature, whom the commentator calls to his aid, often for
+the elucidation of a doubtful passage. The young rhetorician glorifies
+his country, and when upon his march he encounters some historic name,
+by which his idea can be illustrated, he hastens to proclaim it, with
+all its titles to admiration. He there salutes Bud&eacute; in magnificent
+terms: "Bud&eacute;, the glory and pillar of human learning, thanks to whom,
+at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> this day, France can claim the palm of erudition." The portrait
+which he draws of Seneca is the production of a practised pen: "Seneca,
+whose pure and polished phrase savors, in some sort, of his age; his
+diction florid and elegant; his style, without labor or restraint, moves
+on, free and unembarrassed." It may be seen that the student had the
+honor to study under Mathurin Cordier and to attend the lectures of
+Alciati; but, after all, his book is but a defective allegory; for what
+reader could have divined that the writer designed to represent Francis
+I, under the name of Nero, as addressed by the Cordovan? The treatise
+could produce no sensation, and, like the work of Seneca, must be
+shipwrecked in that sea of the passions which, at the two epochs, raged
+around both writers.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin experienced much trouble in having his Latin commentary printed;
+he was in need of funds, and the revenues of his benefice of Pont
+l'Ev&ecirc;que were insufficient to defray the expense of printing. How could
+he apply to the Mommor family? Moreover, he was in dread that his book
+should prove a failure and thereby injure his budding reputation. All
+these alarms of a maiden author are set forth in various letters which
+he addressed on this subject to the dear friends of his bosom.</p>
+
+<p>"Behold my books of Seneca concerning clemency, printed at my own
+expense and labor! They must now be sold, in order that I may again
+obtain the money which I have expended. I must also watch that my
+reputation does not suffer. You will oblige me, then, by informing me
+how the work has been received, whether with favor or indifference." The
+whole anxiety of the poor author is to lose nothing by the enterprise;
+his purse is empty; it needs replenishing; and he urges the professors
+to give circulation to the treatise; he solicits one of his friends at
+Bourges, a member of the university, to bring it forward in his
+lectures; and appeals to the aid of Daniel, to whom he sent a hundred
+copies. Papire Masson was mistaken: the commentary on clemency did not
+first appear, as he supposes, under the title of <i>Lucius Calvinus, civis
+Romanus</i>, but under that of <i>Calvinus</i>, a name ever after retained by
+the reformer.</p>
+
+<p>This treatise introduced Calvin to the notice of the learned world:
+Bucer, Capito, Padius, sent congratulations to the writer; Calvin, in
+September, 1532, had sent a copy of his work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> to Bucer, who was then at
+Strasburg. The person commissioned to present it was a poor young man,
+suspected of Anabaptism, and a refugee from France. Calvin's letter of
+recommendation is replete with tender compassion for the miseries of the
+sinner. "My dear Bucer," he writes, "you will not be deaf to my
+entreaties, you will not disregard my tears; I implore you, to come to
+the aid of the proscribed, be a father to the orphan."</p>
+
+<p>This was sending the sick man to a sad physician. Bucer, by turns
+Catholic, Lutheran, Anabaptist, Zwinglian! Besides, why this proselytism
+of a moral <i>cur&eacute;</i>? The exile was Anabaptist by the same title as Calvin
+was predestinarian, in virtue of a text of Scripture: "Go; whoever shall
+believe and be baptized will be saved." The Anabaptist believed in the
+inefficacy of baptism without faith manifested by an external act; but
+is not Calvin, at this very hour, as much to be pitied as the
+Anabaptist? He also doubted, searched, and interrogated his Bible, and
+imagined that he had caught the meaning of a letter which no
+intelligence before him had been able to seize. And what was this truth,
+the conquest of which infused such fear into his soul that, before he
+could announce it to the world, he sold his charge of Pont l'Ev&ecirc;que and
+even his paternal inheritance?</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1531 John Calvin presented himself before Simon Legendre and
+Peter le Roy, royal notaries at Paris, to invest his brothers with
+powers of attorney to sell what had been left him by his father and
+mother.</p>
+
+<p>"To all to whom these present letters shall come; John de la Barre,
+Chevalier Count d'Estampes, Governor of Paris and chief of the judicial
+tribunal of said city, greeting: We make known that before Simon
+Legendre and Peter le Roy, notaries of our lord the King, at Paris, came
+in person Master John Calvin, licentiate at law, and Anthony Cauvin, his
+brother, clerk, living at Paris, and sons of G&eacute;rard Cauvin&mdash;while yet
+alive, secretary of M. the Bishop of Noyon&mdash;and of Jeanne le Franc, his
+wife; who jointly and severally make, name, ordain, appoint, and
+establish as their general agent and special attorney Master Charles
+Cauvin, their brother, to whom bearing these present letters they grant,
+and by these presents do give, full power and right to sell, concede,
+and alienate, to whatever person or persons the two undivided thirds
+belonging to the aforesaid constituents,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> coming to them in proper right
+of succession by the demise of the aforesaid deceased Jeanne le Franc,
+their mother; also the fourth undivided part of a piece of meadow,
+containing fourteen acres or thereabouts, situated in the territory of
+Noyon, and pertaining on one part to the wood of Chastelain; on another,
+to the monks and sisters of the H&ocirc;tel-Dieu of St. John, at Noyon; on
+another, to the nuns and abbess of the French convent, the Abbey aux
+Bois, and to the chapter of the church of Notre Dame, of the said city,
+and running up to the highway passing from Noyon to Genury; to make sale
+and alienation of the same, for such price and at such costs as the
+aforesaid Master Charles Cauvin, their brother, shall judge for the
+better; to collect the money and give security, with lien upon all their
+future possessions.</p>
+
+<p>"Done, and passed, on Wednesday, the fifteenth day of February, in the
+year 1531."</p>
+
+<p>Some short time after this, Calvin resigned his charge of the Chapel de
+la Gesine to Anthony de la Marli&egrave;re, <i>Mediante pretio conventionis</i>, for
+the sum agreed on, says the act of transfer, and also surrendered his
+benefice of Pont l'Ev&ecirc;que for a similar consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The storm was gathering. Calvin wished to expose to its fury some other
+head than his own, and chose that of Nicolas Cop, rector of the
+Sorbonne, at Paris. Cop was a German of Basel, who was captivated with
+the student because of his ready speech, his airs of virtue, his
+scriptural knowledge, his railleries against the monks, and his ridicule
+of the university. As to the rest, he was a man of a dull, heavy mind,
+understood nothing of theological subjects, and would have been much
+better placed in a refectory than in a learned body; at table than in
+the professor's chair. Cop had to pronounce his usual discourse on All
+Saints' Day, in presence of the Sorbonne and the university. He had
+recourse to Calvin, who set to work and "built him up a discourse," says
+Beza&mdash;"an oration quite different from those which were customary." The
+Sorbonne and university did not assist at the discourse, but only some
+Franciscans, who appeared to be scandalized at certain propositions of
+the orator, and among others at one concerning justification by faith
+alone in Christ&mdash;an old error, which, for many ages,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> has been trailed
+along in all the writings of heretics; often dead and resuscitated&mdash;and
+which Calvin, in Cop's discourse, dressed out in tinsel in order to give
+it some appearance of novelty. But our Franciscans had sight and hearing
+equally as good; they detected the heresy easily, and denounced to the
+parliament the evil-sounding propositions, which they had taken pains to
+note down in writing. Cop was greatly embarrassed by his new glory; he
+had not expected so much fame. He, however, held up well and convoked
+the university at the Mathurins. The university assembled in a body in
+order to judge the cause. The rector there commenced a discourse, drawn
+up by Calvin, in which he formally denied having preached the
+propositions denounced, with the exception of one only, precisely the
+worst, that concerning justification. Imagine the tumult which the
+orator excited! Scarcely could he make himself heard, and ask mercy. The
+old Sorbonnists shuddered on their benches. The unfortunate Cop would
+have been seized had he not made his escape, to return no more.</p>
+
+<p>The student kept himself concealed at the Coll&egrave;ge du Forbet, which was
+already surrounded by a body of archers headed by John Morin. Calvin was
+warned of their approach. "He escaped through a window, concealed
+himself in the suburb St. Victor, at the house of a vine-dresser,
+changed his clothes, assumed the long gown of the vine-dresser, and,
+placing a wallet of white linen and a rake on his shoulders, he took the
+road to Noyon." A canon of that city, who was on his way to Paris, met
+the <i>cur&eacute;</i> of Pont l'Ev&ecirc;que and recognized him.</p>
+
+<p>"Where are you going, Master John," he demanded, "in this fine
+disguise?"</p>
+
+<p>"Where God shall please," answered Calvin, who then began to explain the
+motive and reasons of his disguise. "And would you not do better to
+return to Noyon and to God?" asked the canon, looking at him sadly.
+Calvin was a moment silent, then, taking the priest's hand&mdash;"Thank you,"
+said he, "but it is too late."</p>
+
+<p>During this colloquy the lieutenant was searching Calvin's papers, and
+secured those which might have compromised the friends of the fugitive.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin found a refuge with the Queen of Navarre, who was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> fortunate
+enough to reconcile her <i>prot&eacute;g&eacute;</i> with the court and the university. The
+person whom she employed to effect this was an adroit man who had
+succeeded in deceiving the government. Francis I based his glory upon
+the patronage and encouragement which he accorded to learning, and
+Calvin, as a man of letters, merited consideration. The King needed some
+forgiveness for serious political faults, and, with reason, he believed
+that the humanists would redeem his character before the people. He was
+at once the protector and the slave of the <i>literati</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At that period the little court of N&eacute;rac was the asylum of writers, who,
+like Desperriers, there prepared their <i>Cymbalum Mundi</i>; of gallant
+ladies, who composed love-tales, of which they were often the heroines
+themselves; of poets, who extemporized odes after Beza's model; of
+clerics and other gentry of the Church, who entertained packs of
+hunting-dogs, and courtesans; of Italian play-actors, who, in the
+Queen's theatre, presented comedies taken from the New Testament, in
+which Jesus was made to utter horrible things against monks and nuns; or
+of princes, who, like the Queen's husband, scarcely knew how to read,
+and yet discoursed, like doctors, about doctrine and discipline.</p>
+
+<p>It was against Roussel, the confessor of Margaret, that Calvin, at a
+later date, composed his <i>Adversus Nicodemitas</i>. At N&eacute;rac he found Le
+Fevre d'Etaples, who had fled the wrath of the Sorbonne, and who
+"regarded the young man with a benignant eye, predicting that he was to
+become the author of the restoration of the Church in France." Le Fevre
+recalls to our mind that priest about whom Mathesius tells us, who said
+to Luther, when sick: "My child, you will not die; God has great designs
+in your regard." As to the rest, James le Fevre d'Etaples was a
+sufficiently charitable and honest man. He died a Catholic, and very
+probably without ever having prophesied in the terms mentioned by Beza.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear that Margaret enjoined the law of silence upon her
+guest of Noyon, for we find him disseminating his errors in Saintonge,
+where many laborers flocked to hear him and abandoned Catholicism to
+embrace the Reformation. It was while on one of his excursions that the
+missionary encountered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> Louis du Tillet, clerk of the Parliament of
+Paris and secretary of Du Tillet, Bishop of Meaux. Louis possessed a
+beautiful dwelling at Claix, a sort of Thebais, retired and pleasant,
+where Calvin commenced his most serious work, <i>Institutes of the
+Christian Religion</i>. The time he could spare from this literary
+occupation he devoted to preaching in the neighboring cities, and
+especially at Angoul&ecirc;me. A vine, beneath which he loved to recline and
+muse, may still be seen; it was for a long time called "Calvin's vine."
+He was still living on the last bounties of a church which he had
+renounced, and which he called "a stepmother and a prostitute"; and on
+the presents of a queen gallant, whose morals and piety he lauded,
+continuing to assist at the Catholic service, and composing Latin
+orations, which were delivered out of the assembly of the synod, at the
+temple of St. Peter. He left the court of Margaret and reappeared at
+Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation in France, as in Germany, wherever it showed itself,
+produced, on all sides, disorder and trouble. In place of a uniform
+symbol, it brought contradictory confessions, which gave rise to
+interminable disputes. In Germany the Lutheran word caused a thousand
+sects to spring up&mdash;each of which wished to establish a Christian
+republic on the ruins of Catholicism. Carlstadt, Schwenkfield,
+&#338;colampadius, Zwingli, Munzer, Boskold, begotten by Luther, had
+denied their father, and taught heterogeneous dogmas, of which every one
+passed for the production of the Holy Ghost. Luther, who no longer
+concealed himself beneath a monk's robe, but borrowed the ducal sword,
+drove before him all these rebel angels, and, at the gate of Wittenberg,
+stationed an executioner to prohibit their entrance; driven back into
+the provinces, the dissenters appealed to open force. Germany was then
+inundated with the blood of her noble intelligences, who had been born
+for her glory.</p>
+
+<p>Munzer died on the scaffold, and the Anabaptists marched to punishment,
+denying and cursing the Saxon who did violence to their faith.
+Everything was perishing&mdash;painting, sculpture, poesy, letters. The
+Reformation imitated Nero, and sang its triumphs amid ruins and blood.</p>
+
+<p>In France it was destined soon to excite similar tempests. It had
+already troubled the Church. It no longer, as before,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> sheltered itself
+beneath the shades of night to propagate its doctrines. It erected, by
+the side of the Catholic pulpit, another pulpit, from which its dogmas
+were defended by its disciples; it led its partisans at court, among the
+clergy, in the universities and in the parliaments. Calvin's book, <i>de
+Clementia</i>, gained him a large number of proselytes: his disciples had
+an austere air, downcast eyes, pale faces, emaciated cheeks&mdash;all the
+signs of labor and sufferings. They mingled little with the world,
+avoided female conversation, the court, and shows; the Bible was their
+book of predilection; they spoke, like the Saviour, in apologues. They
+were termed Christians of the primitive Church. To resemble these, they
+only needed the very essence of Christianity; namely, faith, hope, and
+charity.</p>
+
+<p>To be convinced that their symbol was as diversified as their faces, it
+was only necessary to hear them speak; some taught the sleep of the
+soul, after this life, till the day of the last judgment; others, the
+necessity of a second baptism. Among them there were Lutherans, who
+believed in the real presence, and Zwinglians, who rejected it; apostles
+of free-will, and defenders of fatalism; Melanchthonians, who admitted
+an ecclesiastical hierarchy; Carlstadians, who maintained that every
+Christian is a priest; realists, chained to the letter; idealists, who
+bent the letter to the thought; rationalists, who rejected every
+mystery; mystics, who lost themselves in the clouds; and
+Antitrinitarians, who, like Servetus, admitted but two persons in God.
+These doctors all carried with them the same book&mdash;the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Servetus,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> a Spanish physician, had left his own country, and
+established himself, in 1531, at Hagenau, where he had published
+different treatises against the Trinity. He had disputed at Basel with
+&#338;colampadius, some time before this renegade from the Lutheran faith
+"was strangled by the devil," if we are to believe the account given by
+Doctor Martin Luther. Servetus boasted that he triumphed over the
+theologian. Having left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> Basel in 1532, and crossed the Rhine, he came
+to hurl a solemn defiance at Calvin; the gauntlet was taken up by the
+<i>cur&eacute;</i> of Pont l'Ev&ecirc;que, the place of combat indicated, the day for the
+tournament named, but at the appointed hour "the heart of this unhappy
+wretch failed," says Beza, "who having agreed to dispute, did not dare
+appear." Calvin, on his part&mdash;in his refutations of the errors of
+Servetus, published in 1554&mdash;boasts of having in vain offered the
+Spanish physician remedies suitable to cure his malady. Servetus
+pretends that his adversary was laying snares for him, which he had the
+good-fortune to avoid. At a later period he forgot his part, and came to
+throw himself into the ambuscade of his enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The parliaments redoubled their severity: Calvin was narrowly watched,
+his liberty might be compromised, and even his life put in peril. He
+resolved to abandon France, either from fear or spite&mdash;if we are to
+credit an ecclesiastical historian&mdash;not being able to forgive Francis I
+for the preference manifested by this Prince toward a relation of the
+Constable, "of moderate circumstances," who was promoted to a benefice,
+for which the author of the <i>Commentary on Seneca</i> had condescended to
+make solicitation. The testimony of the historian is weighty. Soulier
+knows neither hatred, passion, nor anger; he seeks after the truth, and
+he believes that he has found it in the recital which we are about to
+peruse.</p>
+
+<p>"We, the undersigned&mdash;Louis Charreton, counsellor of the King, dean of
+the presidents of the parliaments of Paris, son of the late Andrew
+Charreton, who was first Baron of Champagne, and counsellor to the high
+chamber of the Parliament of Paris; Madam Antoinette Charreton, widow of
+Noel Renouard, former master in the chamber of the courts of Paris, and
+daughter of the late Hugh Charreton, Lord of Montauzon; and John
+Charreton, Sieur de la Terri&egrave;re; all three cousins, and grandchildren of
+Hugh Charreton&mdash;certify that we have frequently heard from our fathers
+that the aforesaid Sieur Hugh Charreton had several times told them that
+under the reign of Francis I, while the court was at Fontainebleau,
+Calvin, who had a benefice at Noyon, came there and took lodgings in the
+hotel where the aforesaid Sieur Charreton was lodging, who,
+understanding that Calvin was a man of letters and of great erudition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+and being very fond of the society of learned men, informed him that he
+would be delighted to have some interviews with him; to this Calvin the
+more willingly consented under the belief that the aforesaid Sieur de
+Charreton might be able to assist him in the affair which had brought
+him to Fontainebleau; that after several interviews the aforesaid Sieur
+de Charreton demanded from Calvin the object of his journey, to which he
+answered that he had come to solicit a priory from the King, for which
+there was but one rival, who was a relative of the Constable.</p>
+
+<p>"The Sieur de Charreton asked him if he thought this nothing. He replied
+that he was aware of the high consideration enjoyed by the Constable,
+but he also knew that the King, in disposing of benefices, was wont to
+choose the most proper persons, and that the relative of the Constable
+was of very poor capacity. To which the aforesaid Sieur de Charreton
+rejoined that this was no obstacle, since no great capacity was needed
+to hold a simple benefice; whereupon Calvin exclaimed and cried out that
+if such wrong was done him he would find means to make them speak of him
+for five hundred years; and the aforesaid Sieur de Charreton having
+urged him strongly to tell him how he would do this, Calvin conducted
+him to his room and showed him the commencement of his <i>Institutes</i>; and
+after having read a portion of them, Calvin demanded his opinion; he
+answered <i>that it was poison well put in sugar</i>, and advised him not to
+continue a work which was only a false interpretation of the Scriptures
+and of everything which the holy fathers had written; and as he
+perceived that Calvin remained firm in his wicked purpose, he gave
+notice thereof to the Constable, who declared that Calvin was a fool and
+should soon be brought to his senses. But two days after, the benefice
+having been bestowed on the relative of the Constable, Calvin departed
+and began to propagate his sect, which, being very convenient, was
+embraced by many persons, some through libertinism, others from weakness
+of mind.</p>
+
+<p>"That some time after, the Constable was going to his government of
+Languedoc, and passed through Lyons, where the aforesaid Sieur de
+Charreton paid him a visit, and was asked if he did not belong to the
+sect of Calvin, with whom he had lodged. He answered that he would be
+very sorry to embrace a religion the father and founder of which he had
+seen born.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"In testimony whereof we have given our signatures, at Paris, this 20th
+of September, 1682.</p>
+
+<p>"Signed: Charreton, President; A. Charreton, Widow Renouard; and
+Charreton de la Terri&egrave;re."</p>
+
+<p>After having published his <i>Psychopannychia</i>, in 1534, at Orleans,
+Calvin left that city. He felt a desire to visit Basel, at that time the
+Athens of Switzerland, a city of renown, so long the abode of Erasmus,
+famous for its <i>literati</i>, its celebrated printers, and its theologians
+amorous of novelties; where Froben had published his fine edition of the
+works of St. Jerome; where Holbein had painted his picture of Christ
+ready for the sepulchre, where Capito taught Hebrew, and &#338;colampadius
+commented on the Psalms.</p>
+
+<p>He set out from Orleans in company with his friend Du Tillet; near Metz
+their domestic robbed them and fled with their sacks and valises, and
+they were forced to seek Strasburg on foot, nearly destitute of
+clothing, and with but ten crowns in their pockets. Calvin spent some
+time in Strasburg, studying the different transformations which the
+reformed gospel had undergone during the brief space of fifteen years.
+He entered into intimate relations with some of the most celebrated
+representatives of Protestantism. Anyone else, who had arrived there
+free from prejudices against Catholicism, would have found salutary
+instruction in the ceaseless agitations of that city, which knew not
+where to poise itself in order to find repose, and which, since 1521,
+had become Lutheran, Anabaptist, Zwinglian, and, at that very moment,
+was dreaming of a new transfiguration, to be accomplished by the aid of
+Bucer, one of its new guests.</p>
+
+<p>At Basel, Calvin found Simon Gryn&aelig;us and Erasmus. Calvin could not
+neglect this opportunity of visiting the Batavian philologist, whose
+fame was European. After a short interview they separated. Bucer, who
+had assisted at the meeting, was solicitous to know the opinion of the
+caustic old man. "Master," said he, "what think you of the new-comer?"
+Erasmus smiled, without answering. Bucer insisted. "I behold," said the
+author of the <i>Colloquies</i>, "a great pest, which is springing up in the
+Church, against the Church."</p>
+
+<p>On the next day Du Tillet, clerk of the Parliament of Paris, arrived at
+Basel and, by dint of tears and entreaties, brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> with him his
+brother Louis, who repented, made his abjuration, and was shortly after
+elected archdeacon, a dignity disputed with him by Renaudie, who was to
+be used by the Reformation for the execution of the plot of Amboise.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Psychopannychia</i>, the first controversial work of Calvin, is a
+pamphlet directed against the sect of Anabaptists, whom the bloody day
+of Frankenhausen had conquered, but not subdued. The spirit of Munzer
+lived again in his disciples, who were parading their mystic reveries
+through Holland, Flanders, and France. Luther had essayed his powers
+against Munzer, imagining that by his fiery language, his Pindaric
+wrath, his flames and thunders, he would soon overwhelm the chief of the
+miners, as he had defeated, it is said, those theological dwarfs who
+were unable to stand before him. From the summit of the mountain he had
+appeared to Munzer in the midst of lightnings, but those lightnings did
+not alarm his adversary, who was bold enough to face him with unquailing
+eye.</p>
+
+<p>Munzer also possessed a fiery tongue, which he used with admirable
+skill, to inflame and arouse the peasants; this time victory remained
+with the man of the sledge-hammer. And Luther, who wished to terminate
+the affair at any cost, was reduced, as is well known, to avail himself
+of the sword of one of his electors. The wrecks which escaped from the
+funeral obsequies of Thuringia took refuge in a new land. France
+received and listened to the prophets of Anabaptism.</p>
+
+<p>These Anabaptists maintained seducing doctrines. They dreamed of a sort
+of Jerusalem, very different from the Jewish Jerusalem; a Jerusalem
+quite spiritual, without swords, soldiers, or civil magistracy: the true
+city of the elect. Their speech was infected with Pelagianism and
+Arianism; on several points of dogma they agreed with Catholics&mdash;on
+predestination, for example, and on the merit of works. Some of them
+taught the sleep of the soul till the day of judgment. It was against
+these "sleepers" that Calvin determined to measure himself.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Commentary on Seneca</i> is a philological work, a book of the
+revival, a rhetorical declamation, in which Calvin is evidently aspiring
+to a place among the humanists, and making his court, in sufficiently
+fine Latin, to all the Ciceronians of the age: this was bringing himself
+forward with skill and tact. The Latin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> language was the idiom of the
+Church, of the convents, colleges, universities, and parliaments. The
+<i>Psychopannychia</i> is a religious pamphlet, and now Calvin must expect a
+rival in the first pamphleteer of Germany, Luther himself. It is certain
+that Calvin was acquainted with the writings of the Saxon monk against
+Eck, Tetzel, Prierias, Latomus, and the Sorbonnists. He must be praised
+for not having dreamed of entering the lists against a spirit of such a
+temper as his rival. Had he desired, after Luther's manner, to deal in
+caricature, he would certainly have failed. Sallies, play upon words,
+and conceits did not suit a mind like his, whose forte was finesse. By
+nature sober, he could not, like the Saxon monk, fertilize his brain in
+enormous pots of beer; moreover, beer was not as yet in use beyond the
+Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>Nor had he at his service those German smoking-houses, where, of an
+evening, among the companions of gay science, his weary mind might have
+revived its energies. In France the monks did not resort to taverns.
+Calvin was, therefore, everything he was destined to become: an adroit,
+biting disputant, ready at retort, but without warmth or enthusiasm. He
+loves to bear testimony in his own behalf, that "he did not indulge his
+wrath, except modestly; that he always made it a rule to set aside
+outrageous or biting expressions; that he almost always moderated his
+style, which was better adapted to instruct than to drive forcibly, in
+such sort, however, that it may ever attract those who would not be
+led." One must see that, with such humor and style, Calvin might have
+died forgotten, in some little benefice of Swabia, and that he was never
+formed for raising storms, but only for using them.</p>
+
+<p>At this epoch the grand agitator of society was first, society itself,
+and then Luther, that great pamphleteer, "whose books are quite full of
+demons," who drove humanity into the paths of a revolution, for which
+all the elements had been prepared years before. Luther had sown the
+wind, Calvin came to reap the whirlwind. Not that the latter does not
+sometimes rise even to wrath, but it is a wrath which savors of labor
+and which he pursues as a rhymester would a rebellious epithet. Besides,
+he is good enough to repent for it, as if this wrath burned the face
+over which it glowed. "I have presented some things," he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> murmurs, "a
+little sharply, even roughly said, which, peradventure, may offend the
+delicate ears of some. But, as I am aware there are some good persons
+who have conceived such affection for this dream of the sleep of souls,
+I would not have them offended with me." Where Calvin is concerned we
+must not allow our admiration to be too easily awaked; we must note that
+he is speaking of an Anabaptist, that is, of a soul which has thrown off
+the "papism." But let a Catholic appear&mdash;a priest unknown to fame, who,
+as editor, shall have reprinted a new edition of the work of Henry VIII,
+"<i>Assertio Septem Sacramentorum</i>"&mdash;for instance, Gabriel de Sacconay,
+precentor of Lyons, and you shall then behold Calvin, under the form of
+a dithyrambic or congratulatory epistle, without the least regard for
+delicate ears, throw into the face of the Catholic the most filthy
+expressions of offence.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin has himself given a correct estimate of the value of his
+<i>Psychopannychia</i>, and of his treatise against the Anabaptists, which
+one of his historians desires to have reprinted in our time, purged of
+all its bitterness of style. He was right in saying, "I have reproved
+the foolish curiosity of those who were debating these questions, which,
+in fact, are but vexations of mind."</p>
+
+<p>One day this question, about the sleep of souls&mdash;one that in the ancient
+Church had long since been examined, by Metito&mdash;was presented to Luther,
+who disposed of it in few words. "These," said he, "are picked
+nutshells."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Michael Servetus was a controversialist in matters of
+philosophy and religion. For many years he was the object of attack by
+the different orthodox schools on account of his heretical speeches and
+writings. In 1553 he published a work which led to his arrest by order
+of the inquisitor-general at Lyons. Servetus escaped, but was again
+taken, at the instance of Calvin, and was burned at Geneva, October 27,
+1553.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ENGLAND BREAKS WITH THE ROMAN CHURCH</h2>
+
+<h3>DESTRUCTION OF THE MONASTERIES</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1534</h4>
+
+<h3>JOHN RICHARD GREEN</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Following the fall of Wolsey, Sir Thomas More became lord
+chancellor of England, but the real power of Wolsey passed
+to another and perhaps even more able minister, Thomas
+Cromwell. Henry VIII needed always some strong, able, crafty
+guide to show him a path through the intricacies of European
+politics, and enable him at the same time to follow the
+savage dictates of his passion and his whims.</p>
+
+<p>Such a helper he found now in Cromwell. Few men have ever
+been so daring or so ruthless as this great statesman. He
+helped Henry in all his evil schemes, though Green and other
+critics as well have thought to discern a larger, wiser
+policy in the impenetrable mind of the subtle minister. As
+secretary of state he drove England at his own pace through
+the vast religious changes of the period. For the ruin he
+brought upon Catholicism, and more especially for his
+destruction of the thousand monasteries that dotted England,
+he has been called the "hammer of the monks." Of even lower
+birth than Wolsey, and rising to almost equal power,
+Cromwell began life as a son of a blacksmith.</p>
+
+<p>He wandered over Europe and especially Italy as a soldier,
+merchant, and general adventurer of the lower and wilder
+type. He became Wolsey's right-hand man, and held loyally by
+his chief even after the latter's overthrow.</p>
+
+<p>It had been Henry's passion for Anne Boleyn, and the
+resulting necessity for divorce from his wife Catherine,
+that caused Wolsey's fall. On the same passion did Cromwell
+build his rise. He secretly urged the King to break with
+Rome entirely and declare himself sole head of the English
+Church. Thus he could divorce himself. Henry first tried a
+last negotiation with the Pope; that failing, he turned to
+his new adviser.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Cromwell was again ready with his suggestion that the King should
+disavow the papal jurisdiction, declare himself head of the Church
+within its realm, and obtain a divorce from his own ecclesiastical
+courts. But the new minister looked on the divorce as simply the prelude
+to a series of changes which he was bent upon accomplishing. In all his
+checkered life, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> had left its deepest stamp on him in Italy. Not
+only in the rapidity and ruthlessness of his designs, but in their
+larger scope, their admirable combination, the Italian statecraft
+entered with Cromwell into English politics. He is in fact the first
+English minister in whom we can trace through the whole period of his
+rule the steady working out of a great and definite aim, that of raising
+the King to absolute authority on the ruins of every rival power within
+his realm.</p>
+
+<p>It was not that Cromwell was a mere slave of tyranny. Whether we may
+trust the tale that carries him in his youth to Florence or not, his
+statesmanship was closely modelled on the ideal of the Florentine
+thinker whose book was constantly in his hand. Even as a servant of
+Wolsey he startled the future Cardinal, Reginald Pole, by bidding him
+take for his manual in politics the <i>Prince</i> of Machiavelli. Machiavelli
+hoped to find in C&aelig;sar Borgia or in the later Lorenzo de' Medici a
+tyrant who, after crushing all rival tyrannies, might unite and
+regenerate Italy; and, terrible and ruthless as his policy was, the
+final aim of Cromwell seems to have been that of Machiavelli, an aim of
+securing enlightenment and order for England by the concentration of all
+authority in the Crown.</p>
+
+<p>The first step toward such an end was the freeing the monarchy from its
+spiritual obedience to Rome. What the first of the Tudors had done for
+the political independence of the kingdom, the second was to do for its
+ecclesiastical independence. Henry VII had freed England from the
+interference of France or the house of Burgundy; and in the question of
+the divorce Cromwell saw the means of bringing Henry VIII to free it
+from the interference of the papacy. In such an effort resistance could
+be looked for only from the clergy. But their resistance was what
+Cromwell desired. The last check on royal absolutism which had survived
+the Wars of the Roses lay in the wealth, the independent synods and
+jurisdiction, and the religious claims of the Church; and for the
+success of the new policy it was necessary to reduce the great
+ecclesiastical body to a mere department of the state in which all
+authority should flow from the sovereign alone, his will be the only
+law, his decision the only test of truth.</p>
+
+<p>Such a change, however, was hardly to be wrought without a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> struggle;
+and the question of national independence in all ecclesiastical matters
+furnished ground on which the Crown could conduct this struggle to the
+best advantage. The secretary's first blow showed how unscrupulously the
+struggle was to be waged. A year had passed since Wolsey had been
+convicted of a breach of the Statute of Provisors. The pedantry of the
+judges declared the whole nation to have been formally involved in the
+same charge by its acceptance of his authority. The legal absurdity was
+now redressed by a general pardon, but from this pardon the clergy found
+themselves omitted. In the spring of 1531 a convocation was assembled to
+be told that forgiveness could be bought at no less a price than the
+payment of a fine amounting to a million of our present money, and the
+acknowledgment of the King as "the chief protector, the only and supreme
+lord, and head of the Church and clergy of England."</p>
+
+<p>Unjust as was the first demand, they at once submitted to it; against
+the second they struggled hard. But their appeals to Henry and Cromwell
+met only with demands for instant obedience. A compromise was at last
+arrived at by the insertion of a qualifying phrase, "So far as the law
+of Christ will allow"; and with this addition the words were again
+submitted by Warham to the convocation. There was a general silence.
+"Whoever is silent seems to consent," said the Archbishop. "Then are we
+all silent," replied a voice from among the crowd.</p>
+
+<p>There is no ground for thinking that the "headship of the Church" which
+Henry claimed in this submission was more than a warning addressed to
+the independent spirit of the clergy, or that it bore as yet the meaning
+which was afterward attached to it. It certainly implied no independence
+of Rome, for negotiations were still being carried on with the papal
+court. But it told Clement plainly that in any strife that might come
+between himself and Henry the clergy were in the King's hand, and that
+he must look for no aid from them in any struggle with the Crown. The
+warning was backed by an address to the Pope from the lords and some of
+the commons who assembled after a fresh prorogation of the houses in the
+spring.</p>
+
+<p>"The cause of his majesty," the peers were made to say, "is the cause of
+each of ourselves." They laid before the Pope what they represented as
+the judgment of the universities in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> favor of the divorce; but they
+faced boldly the event of its rejection. "Our condition," they ended,
+"will not be wholly irremediable. Extreme remedies are ever harsh of
+application; but he that is sick will by all means be rid of his
+distemper." In the summer the banishment of Catherine from the King's
+palace to a house at Ampthill showed the firmness of Henry's resolve.
+Each of these acts was no doubt intended to tell on the Pope's decision,
+for Henry still clung to the hope of extorting from Clement a favorable
+answer; and at the close of the year a fresh embassy, with Gardiner, now
+Bishop of Winchester, at its head, was despatched to the papal court.
+But the embassy failed like its predecessors, and at the opening of 1532
+Cromwell was free to take more decisive steps in the course on which he
+had entered.</p>
+
+<p>What the nature of his policy was to be, had already been detected by
+eyes as keen as his own. More had seen in Wolsey's fall an opening for
+the realization of those schemes of religious and even of political
+reform on which the scholars of the New Learning had long been brooding.
+The substitution of the lords of the council for the autocratic rule of
+the cardinal-minister, the break-up of the great mass of powers which
+had been gathered into a single hand, the summons of a parliament, the
+ecclesiastical reforms which it at once sanctioned, were measures which
+promised a more legal and constitutional system of government. The
+question of the divorce presented to More no serious difficulty.
+Untenable as Henry's claim seemed to the new Chancellor, his faith in
+the omnipotence of parliament would have enabled him to submit to any
+statute which named a new spouse as queen and her children as heirs to
+the crown. But as Cromwell's policy unfolded itself he saw that more
+than this was impending.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic instinct of his mind, the dread of a rent Christendom and
+of the wars and bigotry that must come of its rending, united with
+More's theological convictions to resist any spiritual severance of
+England from the papacy. His love for freedom, his revolt against the
+growing autocracy of the Crown, the very height and grandeur of his own
+spiritual convictions, all bent him to withstand a system which would
+concentrate in the king the whole power of church as of state, would
+leave him without the one check that remained on his despotism, and
+make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> him arbiter of the religious faith of his subjects. The later
+revolt of the Puritans against the king-worship which Cromwell
+established proved the justice of the provision which forced More in the
+spring of 1532 to resign the post of chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>But the revolution from which he shrank was an inevitable one. Till now
+every Englishman had practically owned a double life and a double
+allegiance. As citizen of a temporal state his life was bounded by
+English shores, and his loyalty due exclusively to his English King. But
+as citizen of the state spiritual, he belonged not to England, but to
+Christendom. The law which governed him was not a national law, but a
+law that embraced every European nation, and the ordinary course of
+judicial appeals in ecclesiastical cases proved to him that the
+sovereignty in all matters of conscience or religion lay, not at
+Westminster, but at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Such a distinction could scarcely fail to bring embarrassment with it as
+the sense of national life and national pride waxed stronger; and from
+the reign of the Edwards the problem of reconciling the spiritual and
+temporal relations of the realm grew daily more difficult. Parliament
+had hardly risen into life when it became the organ of the national
+jealousy, whether of any papal jurisdiction without the realm or of the
+separate life and separate jurisdiction of the clergy within it. The
+movement was long arrested by religious reaction and civil war. But the
+fresh sense of national greatness which sprang from the policy of Henry
+VIII, the fresh sense of national unity as the monarchy gathered all
+power into its single hand, would have itself revived the contest even
+without the spur of the divorce.</p>
+
+<p>What the question of the divorce really did was to stimulate the
+movement by bringing into clearer view the wreck of the great Christian
+commonwealth of which England had till now formed a part, and the
+impossibility of any real exercise of a spiritual sovereignty over it by
+the weakened papacy, as well as by outraging the national pride through
+the summons of the King to a foreign bar and the submission of English
+interests to the will of a foreign emperor.</p>
+
+<p>With such a spur as this the movement, which More dreaded, moved forward
+as quickly as Cromwell desired. The time had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> come when England was to
+claim for herself the fulness of power, ecclesiastical as well as
+temporal, within her bounds; and, in the concentration of all authority
+within the hands of the sovereign which was the political characteristic
+of the time, to claim this power for the nation was to claim it for the
+king. The import of that headship of the Church which Henry had assumed
+in the preceding year was brought fully out in one of the propositions
+laid before the convocation of 1532.</p>
+
+<p>"The King's majesty," runs this memorable clause, "hath as well the care
+of the souls of his subjects as their bodies; and may by the law of God
+by his parliament make laws touching and concerning as well the one as
+the other." The principle embodied in these words was carried out in a
+series of decisive measures. Under strong pressure the convocation was
+brought to pray that the power of independent legislation till now
+exercised by the church should come to an end, and to promise "that from
+henceforth we shall forbear to enact, promulge, or put into execution
+any such constitutions and ordinances so by us to be made in time
+coming, unless your highness by your royal assent shall license us to
+make, promulge, and execute them, and the same so made be approved by
+your highness' authority."</p>
+
+<p>Rome was dealt with in the same unsparing fashion. The parliament
+forbade by statute any further appeals to the papal court; and on a
+petition from the clergy in convocation the houses granted power to the
+King to suspend the payments of first-fruits, or the year's revenue
+which each bishop paid to Rome on his election to a see. All judicial,
+all financial connection with the papacy was broken by these two
+measures. The last, indeed, was as yet but a menace which Henry might
+use in his negotiations with Clement. The hope which had been
+entertained of aid from Charles was now abandoned; and the overthrow of
+Norfolk and his policy of alliance with the Empire was seen at the
+midsummer of 1532 in the conclusion of a league with France. Cromwell
+had fallen back on Wolsey's system; and the divorce was now to be looked
+for from the united pressure of the French and English kings on the
+papal court.</p>
+
+<p>But the pressure was as unsuccessful as before. In November Clement
+threatened the King with excommunication if he did not restore Catherine
+to her place as queen and abstain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> from all intercourse with Anne Boleyn
+till the case was tried. But Henry still refused to submit to the
+judgment of any court outside his realm; and the Pope, ready as he was
+with evasion and delay, dared not alienate Charles by consenting to a
+trial within it. The lavish pledges which Francis had given in an
+interview during the preceding summer may have aided to spur the King to
+a decisive step which closed the long debate. At the opening of 1533
+Henry was privately married to Anne Boleyn. The match, however, was
+carefully kept secret while the papal sanction was being gained for the
+appointment of Cranmer to the see of Canterbury, which had become vacant
+by Archbishop Warham's death in the preceding year. But Cranmer's
+consecration at the close of March was the signal for more open action,
+and Cromwell's policy was at last brought fairly into play.</p>
+
+<p>The new primate at once laid the question of the King's marriage before
+the two houses of convocation, and both voted that the license of Pope
+Julius had been beyond the papal powers and that the marriage which it
+authorized was void. In May the King's suit was brought before the
+Archbishop in his court at Dunstable; his judgment annulled the marriage
+with Catherine as void from the beginning, and pronounced the marriage
+with Anne Boleyn, which her pregnancy had forced Henry to reveal, a
+lawful marriage. A week later the hand of Cranmer placed upon Anne's
+brow the crown which she had coveted so long.</p>
+
+<p>"There was much murmuring" at measures such as these. Many thought "that
+the Bishop of Rome would curse all Englishmen, and that the Emperor and
+he would destroy all the people." Fears of the overthrow of religion
+told on the clergy; the merchants dreaded an interruption of the trade
+with Flanders, Italy, and Spain. But Charles, though still loyal to his
+aunt's cause, had no mind to incur risks for her; and Clement, though he
+annulled Cranmer's proceedings, hesitated as yet to take sterner action.
+Henry, on the other hand, conscious that the die was thrown, moved
+rapidly forward in the path that Cromwell had opened. The Pope's
+reversal of the primate's judgment was answered by an appeal to a
+general council. The decision of the cardinals to whom the case was
+referred in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> spring of 1534, a decision which asserted the
+lawfulness of Catherine's marriage, was met by the enforcement of the
+long-suspended statute forbidding the payment of first-fruits to the
+Pope.</p>
+
+<p>Though the King was still firm in his resistance to Lutheran opinions,
+and at this moment endeavored to prevent by statute the importation of
+Lutheran books, the less scrupulous hand of his minister was seen
+already striving to find a counterpoise to the hostility of the Emperor
+in an alliance with the Lutheran princes of North Germany. Cromwell was
+now fast rising to a power which rivalled Wolsey's. His elevation to the
+post of lord privy seal placed him on a level with the great nobles of
+the council board; and Norfolk, constant in his hopes of reconciliation
+with Charles and the papacy, saw his plans set aside for the wider and
+more daring projects of "the black-smith's son." Cromwell still clung to
+the political engine whose powers he had turned to the service of the
+Crown. The parliament which had been summoned at Wolsey's fall met
+steadily year after year; and measure after measure had shown its
+accordance with the royal will in the strife with Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It was now called to deal a final blow. Step by step the ground had been
+cleared for the great statute by which the new character of the English
+Church was defined in the session of 1534. By the Act of Supremacy
+authority in all matters ecclesiastical was vested solely in the Crown.
+The courts spiritual became as thoroughly the king's courts as the
+temporal courts at Westminster. The statute ordered that the King "shall
+be taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the
+Church of England, and shall have and enjoy, annexed and united to the
+imperial crown of this realm, as well the title and state thereof as all
+the honors, jurisdictions, authorities, immunities, profits, and
+commodities to the said dignity belonging, with full power to visit,
+repress, redress, reform, and amend all such errors, heresies, abuses,
+contempts, and enormities which by any manner of spiritual authority or
+jurisdiction might or may lawfully be reformed."</p>
+
+<p>The full import of the Act of Supremacy was only seen in the following
+year. At the opening of 1535 Henry formally took the title of "on earth
+Supreme Head of the Church of England,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> and some months later Cromwell
+was raised to the post of vicar-general, or vicegerent of the King in
+all matters ecclesiastical. His title, like his office, recalled the
+system of Wolsey. It was not only as legate, but in later years as
+vicar-general, of the Pope, that Wolsey had brought all spiritual causes
+in England to an English court. The supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction
+in the realm passed into the hands of a minister who as chancellor
+already exercised its supreme civil jurisdiction. The papal power had
+therefore long seemed transferred to the crown before the legislative
+measures which followed the divorce actually transferred it.</p>
+
+<p>It was in fact the system of Catholicism itself that trained men to look
+without surprise on the concentration of all spiritual and secular
+authority in Cromwell. Successor to Wolsey as keeper of the great seal,
+it seemed natural enough that Cromwell should succeed him also as
+vicar-general of the Church, and that the union of the two powers should
+be restored in the hands of a minister of the King. But the mere fact
+that these powers were united in the hands, not of a priest, but of a
+layman, showed the new drift of the royal policy. The Church was no
+longer to be brought indirectly under the royal power; in the policy of
+Cromwell it was to be openly laid prostrate at the foot of the throne.</p>
+
+<p>And this policy his position enabled him to carry out with a terrible
+thoroughness. One great step toward its realization had already been
+taken in the statute which annihilated the free legislative powers of
+the convocations of the clergy. Another followed in an act which, under
+the pretext of restoring the free election of bishops, turned every
+prelate into a nominee of the King. The election of bishops by the
+chapters of their cathedral churches had long become formal, and their
+appointment had since the time of the Edwards been practically made by
+the papacy on the nomination of the crown. The privilege of free
+election was now with bitter irony restored to the chapters, but they
+were compelled on pain of pr&aelig;munire to choose whatever candidate was
+recommended by the king. This strange expedient has lasted till the
+present time, though its character has wholly changed with the
+development of constitutional rule.</p>
+
+<p>The nomination of bishops has ever since the accession of the Georges
+passed from the king in person to the minister, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> represents the will
+of the people. Practically, therefore, an English prelate, alone among
+all the prelates of the world, is now raised to his episcopal throne by
+the same popular election which raised Ambrose to his episcopal chair at
+Milan. But at the moment of the change Cromwell's measure reduced the
+English bishops to absolute dependence on the crown. Their dependence
+would have been complete had his policy been thoroughly carried out, and
+the royal power of deposition put in force, as well as that of
+appointment. As it was, Henry could warn the Archbishop of Dublin that,
+if he persevered in his "proud folly, we be able to remove you again and
+to put another man of more virtue and honesty in your place." By the
+more ardent partisans of the Reformation this dependence of the bishops
+on the crown was fully recognized. On the death of Henry VIII Cranmer
+took out a new commission from Edward for the exercise of his office.
+Latimer, when the royal policy clashed with his belief, felt bound to
+resign the see of Worcester. If the power of deposition was quietly
+abandoned by Elizabeth, the abandonment was due, not so much to any
+deference for the religious instincts of the nation as to the fact that
+the steady servility of the bishops rendered its exercise unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>A second step in Cromwell's policy followed hard on this enslavement of
+the episcopate. Master of convocation, absolute master of the bishops,
+Henry had become master of the monastic orders through the right of
+visitation over them, which had been transferred by the Act of Supremacy
+from the papacy to the crown. The monks were soon to know what this
+right of visitation implied in the hands of the vicar-general. As an
+outlet for religious enthusiasm, monasticism was practically dead. The
+friar, now that his fervor of devotion and his intellectual energy had
+passed away, had sunk into a mere beggar. The monks had become mere
+landowners. Most of the religious houses were anxious only to enlarge
+their revenues and to diminish the number of those who shared them.</p>
+
+<p>In the general carelessness which prevailed as to the spiritual objects
+of their trust, in the wasteful management of their estates, in the
+indolence and self-indulgence which for the most part characterized
+them, the monastic establishments simply exhibited the faults of all
+corporate bodies that have outlived the work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> which they were created to
+perform. They were no more unpopular, however, than such corporate
+bodies generally are. The Lollard cry for their suppression had died
+away. In the north, where some of the greatest abbeys were situated, the
+monks were on good terms with the country gentry, and their houses
+served as schools for their children; nor is there any sign of a
+different feeling elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>But they had drawn on themselves at once the hatred of the New Learning
+and of the monarchy. In the early days of the revival of letters, popes
+and bishops had joined with princes and scholars in welcoming the
+diffusion of culture and the hopes of religious reform. But, though an
+abbot or a prior here or there might be found among the supporters of
+the movement, the monastic orders as a whole repelled it with unswerving
+obstinacy. The quarrel only became more bitter as years went on. The
+keen sarcasms of Erasmus, the insolent buffoonery of Hutten, were
+lavished on the "lovers of darkness" and of the cloister.</p>
+
+<p>In England Colet and More echoed with greater reserve the scorn and
+invective of their friends. The monarchy had other causes for its hate.
+In Cromwell's system there was no room for either the virtues or the
+vices of monasticism, for its indolence and superstition, or for its
+independence of the throne. The bold stand which the monastic orders had
+made against benevolences had never been forgiven, while the revenues of
+their foundations offered spoil vast enough to fill the royal treasury
+and secure a host of friends for the new reforms. Two royal
+commissioners, therefore, were despatched on a general visitation of the
+religious houses, and their reports formed a "Black Book" which was laid
+before parliament in 1536.</p>
+
+<p>It was acknowledged that about a third of the houses, including the bulk
+of the larger abbeys, were fairly and decently conducted. The rest were
+charged with drunkenness, with simony, and with the foulest and most
+revolting crimes. The character of the visitors, the sweeping nature of
+their report, and the long debate which followed on its reception leave
+little doubt that these charges were grossly exaggerated. But the want
+of any effective discipline which had resulted from their exemption from
+all but papal supervision told fatally against monastic morality even in
+abbeys like St. Albans; and the acknowledgment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> of Warham, as well as a
+partial measure of suppression begun by Wolsey, goes some way to prove
+that, in the smaller houses at least, indolence had passed into crime.</p>
+
+<p>A cry of "down with them" broke from the commons as the report was read.
+The country, however, was still far from desiring the utter downfall of
+the monastic system, and a long and bitter debate was followed by a
+compromise which suppressed all houses whose income fell below two
+hundred pounds a year. Of the thousand religious houses which then
+existed in England, nearly four hundred were dissolved under this act
+and their revenues granted to the crown.</p>
+
+<p>The secular clergy alone remained; and injunction after injunction from
+the vicar-general taught rector and vicar that they must learn to regard
+themselves as mere mouth-pieces of the royal will. The Church was
+gagged. With the instinct of genius, Cromwell discerned the part which
+the pulpit, as the one means which then existed of speaking to the
+people at large, was to play in the religious and political struggle
+that was at hand; and he resolved to turn it to the profit of the
+monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>The restriction of the right of preaching to priests who received
+licenses from the Crown silenced every voice of opposition. Even to
+those who received these licenses theological controversy was forbidden;
+and a high-handed process of "tuning the pulpits," by express directions
+as to the subject and tenor of each special discourse, made the
+preachers at every crisis mere means of diffusing the royal will. As a
+first step in this process every bishop, abbot, and parish priest was
+required by the new vicar-general to preach against the usurpation of
+the papacy, and to proclaim the King as supreme head of the Church on
+earth. The very topics of the sermon were carefully prescribed; the
+bishops were held responsible for the compliance of the clergy with
+these orders; and the sheriffs were held responsible for the obedience
+of the bishops.</p>
+
+<p>While the great revolution which struck down the Church was in progress,
+England looked silently on. In all the earlier ecclesiastical changes,
+in the contest over the papal jurisdiction and papal exactions, in the
+reform of the church courts, even in the curtailment of the legislative
+independence of the clergy, the nation as a whole had gone with the
+King. But from the enslavement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> of the priesthood, from the gagging of
+the pulpits, from the suppression of the monasteries, the bulk of the
+nation stood aloof. There were few voices, indeed, of protest. As the
+royal policy disclosed itself, as the monarchy trampled under foot the
+tradition and reverence of ages gone by, as its figure rose bare and
+terrible out of the wreck of old institutions, England simply held her
+breath.</p>
+
+<p>It is only through the stray depositions of royal spies that we catch a
+glimpse of the wrath and hate which lay seething under this silence of
+the people. For the silence was a silence of terror. Before Cromwell's
+rise, and after his fall from power, the reign of Henry VIII witnessed
+no more than the common tyranny and bloodshed of the time. But the years
+of Cromwell's administration form the one period in our history which
+deserves the name that men have given to the rule of Robespierre. It was
+the English "Terror." It was by terror that Cromwell mastered the King.
+Cranmer could plead for him at a later time with Henry as "one whose
+surety was only by your majesty, who loved your majesty, as I ever
+thought, no less than God." But the attitude of Cromwell toward the King
+was something more than that of absolute dependence and unquestioning
+devotion.</p>
+
+<p>He was "so vigilant to preserve your majesty from all treasons," adds
+the primate, "that few could be so secretly conceived but he detected
+the same from the beginning." Henry, like every Tudor, was fearless of
+open danger, but tremulously sensitive to the lightest breath of hidden
+disloyalty; and it was on this dread that Cromwell based the fabric of
+his power. He was hardly secretary before spies were scattered broadcast
+over the land. Secret denunciations poured into the open ear of the
+minister. The air was thick with tales of plots and conspiracies; and
+with the detection and suppression of each, Cromwell tightened his hold
+on the King.</p>
+
+<p>As it was by terror that he mastered the King, so it was by terror that
+he mastered the people. Men felt in England, to use the figure by which
+Erasmus paints the time, "as if a scorpion lay sleeping under every
+stone." The confessional had no secrets for Cromwell. Men's talk with
+their closest friends found its way to his ear. "Words idly spoken," the
+murmurs of a petulant abbot, the ravings of a moon-struck nun, were, as
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> nobles cried passionately at his fall, "tortured into treason." The
+only chance of safety lay in silence.</p>
+
+<p>"Friends who used to write and send me presents," Erasmus tells us, "now
+send neither letter nor gifts, nor receive any from anyone, and this
+through fear." But even the refuge of silence was closed by a law more
+infamous than any that has ever blotted the statute-book of England. Not
+only was thought made treason, but men were forced to reveal their
+thoughts on pain of their very silence being punished with the penalties
+of treason. All trust in the older bulwarks of liberty was destroyed by
+a policy as daring as it was unscrupulous. The noblest institutions were
+degraded into instruments of terror. Though Wolsey had strained the law
+to the utmost, he had made no open attack on the freedom of justice. If
+he shrank from assembling parliaments, it was from his sense that they
+were the bulwarks of liberty.</p>
+
+<p>But under Cromwell the coercion of juries and the management of judges
+rendered the courts mere mouth-pieces of the royal will; and where even
+this shadow of justice proved an obstacle to bloodshed, parliament was
+brought into play to pass bill after bill of attainder. "He shall be
+judged by the bloody laws he has himself made," was the cry of the
+council at the moment of his fall, and by a singular retribution the
+crowning injustice which he sought to introduce even into the practice
+of attainder, the condemnation of a man without hearing his defence, was
+only practised on himself.</p>
+
+<p>But, ruthless as was the "Terror" of Cromwell, it was of a nobler type
+than the Terror of France. He never struck uselessly or capriciously, or
+stooped to the meaner victims of the guillotine. His blows were
+effective just because he chose his victims from among the noblest and
+the best. If he struck at the Church, it was through the Carthusians,
+the holiest and the most renowned of English churchmen. If he struck at
+the baronage, it was through Lady Salisbury, in whose veins flowed the
+blood of kings. If he struck at the New Learning, it was through the
+murder of Sir Thomas More. But no personal vindictiveness mingled with
+his crime.</p>
+
+<p>In temper, indeed, so far as we can judge from the few stories which
+lingered among his friends, he was a generous, kindly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> hearted man, with
+pleasant and winning manners which atoned for a certain awkwardness of
+person, and with a constancy of friendship which won him a host of
+devoted adherents. But no touch either of love or hate swayed him from
+his course. The student of Machiavelli had not studied the <i>Prince</i> in
+vain. He had reduced bloodshed to a system. Fragments of his papers
+still show us with what a business-like brevity he ticked off human
+lives among the casual "remembrances" of the day.</p>
+
+<p>"Item, the Abbot of Reading to be sent down to be tried and executed at
+Reading." "Item, to know the King's pleasure touching Master More."
+"Item, when Master Fisher shall go to his execution, and the other." It
+is indeed this utter absence of all passion, of all personal feeling,
+that makes the figure of Cromwell the most terrible in our history. He
+has an absolute faith in the end he is pursuing, and he simply hews his
+way to it as a woodman hews his way through the forest, axe in hand.</p>
+
+<p>The choice of his first victim showed the ruthless precision with which
+Cromwell was to strike. In the general opinion of Europe, the foremost
+Englishman of the time was Sir Thomas More. As the policy of the divorce
+ended in an open rupture with Rome, he had withdrawn silently from the
+ministry, but his silent disapproval of the new policy was more telling
+than the opposition of obscurer foes. To Cromwell there must have been
+something specially galling in More's attitude of reserve. The religious
+reforms of the New Learning were being rapidly carried out, but it was
+plain that the man who represented the very life of the New Learning
+believed that the sacrifice of liberty and justice was too dear a price
+to pay even for religious reform.</p>
+
+<p>In the actual changes which the divorce brought about, there was nothing
+to move More to active or open opposition. Though he looked on the
+divorce and remarriage as without religious warrant, he found no
+difficulty in accepting an act of succession passed in 1534 which
+declared the marriage of Anne Boleyn valid, annulled the title of
+Catherine's child, Mary, and declared the children of Anne the only
+lawful heirs to the crown. His faith in the power of parliament over all
+civil matters was too complete to admit a doubt of its competence to
+regulate the succession to the throne. But by the same act an oath
+recognizing the succession as then arranged was ordered to be taken by
+all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> persons; and this oath contained an acknowledgment that the
+marriage with Catherine was against Scripture, and invalid from the
+beginning.</p>
+
+<p>Henry had long known More's belief on this point; and the summons to
+take this oath was simply a summons to death. More was at his house at
+Chelsea when the summons called him to Lambeth, to the house where he
+had bandied fun with Warham and Erasmus or bent over the easel of
+Holbein. For a moment there may have been some passing impulse to yield.
+But it was soon over. Triumphant in all else, the monarchy was to find
+its power stop short at the conscience of man. The great battle of
+spiritual freedom, the battle of the Protestant against Mary, of the
+Catholic against Elizabeth, of the Puritan against Charles, of the
+Independent against the Presbyterian, began at the moment when More
+refused to bend or to deny his convictions at a king's bidding.</p>
+
+<p>"I thank the Lord," More said with a sudden start as the boat dropped
+silently down the river from his garden steps in the early morning, "I
+thank the Lord that the field is won." At Lambeth, Cranmer and his
+fellow-commissioners tendered to him the new oath of allegiance; but, as
+they expected, it was refused. They bade him walk in the garden, that he
+might reconsider his reply. The day was hot, and More seated himself in
+a window from which he could look down into the crowded court. Even in
+the presence of death, the quick sympathy of his nature could enjoy the
+humor and life of the throng below.</p>
+
+<p>"I saw," he said afterward, "Master Latimer very merry in the court, for
+he laughed and took one or twain by the neck so handsomely that if they
+had been women I should have weened that he waxed wanton." The crowd
+below was chiefly of priests, rectors, and vicars, pressing to take the
+oath that More found harder than death. He bore them no grudge for it.
+When he heard the voice of one who was known to have boggled hard at the
+oath, a little while before, calling loudly and ostentatiously for
+drink, he only noted him with his peculiar humor. "He drank," More
+supposed, "either from dryness or from gladness," or "to show <i>quod ille
+notus erat Pontifici</i>."</p>
+
+<p>He was called in again at last, but only repeated his refusal. It was in
+vain that Cranmer plied him with distinctions which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> perplexed even the
+subtle wit of the ex-chancellor; More remained unshaken and passed to
+the Tower. He was followed there by Bishop Fisher of Rochester, the most
+aged and venerable of the English prelates, who was charged with
+countenancing treason by listening to the prophecies of a religious
+fanatic called the "Nun of Kent." But for the moment even Cromwell
+shrank from their blood. They remained prisoners, while a new and more
+terrible engine was devised to crush out the silent but widespread
+opposition to the religious changes.</p>
+
+<p>By a statute passed at the close of 1534 a new treason was created in
+the denial of the King's titles; and in the opening of 1535 Henry
+assumed, as we have seen, the title of "on earth supreme head of the
+Church of England." The measure was at once followed up by a blow at
+victims hardly less venerable than More. In the general relaxation of
+the religious life, the charity and devotion of the brethren of the
+Charter-house had won the reverence even of those who condemned
+monasticism. After a stubborn resistance they had acknowledged the royal
+supremacy and taken the oath of submission prescribed by the act. But,
+by an infamous construction of the statute which made the denial of the
+supremacy treason, the refusal of satisfactory answers to official
+questions, as to a conscientious belief in it, was held to be equivalent
+to open denial.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of the new measure was well known, and the brethren prepared to
+die. In the agony of waiting, enthusiasm brought its imaginative
+consolations; "when the host was lifted up, there came as it were a
+whisper of air which breathed upon our faces as we knelt; and there came
+a sweet, soft sound of music." They had not long, however, to wait, for
+their refusal to answer was the signal for their doom. Three of the
+brethren went to the gallows; the rest were flung into Newgate, chained
+to posts in a noisome dungeon, where, "tied and not able to stir," they
+were left to perish of jail fever and starvation. In a fortnight five
+were dead and the rest at the point of death, "almost despatched,"
+Cromwell's envoy wrote to him, "by the hand of God, of which,
+considering their behavior, I am not sorry."</p>
+
+<p>Their death was soon followed by that of More. The interval of
+imprisonment had failed to break his resolution, and the new statute
+sufficed to bring him to the block. With Fisher he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> was convicted of
+denying the King's title as only supreme head of the Church. The old
+bishop approached the scaffold with a book of the New Testament in his
+hand. He opened it at a venture ere he knelt, and read, "This is life
+eternal to know thee, the only true God." In July More followed his
+fellow-prisoners to the block. On the eve of the fatal blow he moved his
+beard carefully from the reach of the doomsman's axe. "Pity that should
+be cut," he was heard to mutter with a touch of the old sad irony, "that
+has never committed treason."</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell had at last reached his aim. England lay panic-stricken at the
+feet of the "low-born knave," as the nobles called him, who represented
+the omnipotence of the crown. Like Wolsey he concentrated in his hands
+the whole administration of the state; he was at once foreign minister
+and home minister, and vicar-general of the Church, the creator of a new
+fleet, the organizer of armies, the president of the terrible star
+chamber. His Italian indifference to the mere show of power stood out in
+strong contrast with the pomp of the Cardinal. Cromwell's personal
+habits were simple and unostentatious; if he clutched at money, it was
+to feed the army of spies whom he maintained at his own expense, and
+whose work he surveyed with a ceaseless vigilance. For his activity was
+boundless.</p>
+
+<p>More than fifty volumes remain of the gigantic mass of his
+correspondence. Thousands of letters from "poor bedesmen," from outraged
+wives and wronged laborers and persecuted heretics, flowed in to the
+all-powerful minister, whose system of personal government turned him
+into the universal court of appeal. But powerful as he was, and mighty
+as was the work which he had accomplished, he knew that harder blows had
+to be struck before his position was secure.</p>
+
+<p>The new changes, above all the irritation which had been caused by the
+outrages with which the dissolution of the monasteries was accompanied,
+gave point to the mutinous temper that prevailed throughout the country;
+for the revolution in agriculture was still going on, and evictions
+furnished embittered outcasts to swell the ranks of any rising. Nor did
+it seem as though revolt, if it once broke out, would want leaders to
+head it. The nobles, who had writhed under the rule of the Cardinal,
+writhed yet more bitterly under the rule of one whom they looked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> upon
+not only as Wolsey's tool, but as a low-born upstart. "The world will
+never mend," Lord Hussey had been heard to say, "till we fight for it."</p>
+
+<p>"Knaves rule about the King!" cried Lord Exeter; "I trust some day to
+give them a buffet!" At this moment, too, the hopes of political
+reaction were stirred by the fate of one whom the friends of the old
+order looked upon as the source of all their troubles. In the spring of
+1536, while the dissolution of the monasteries was marking the triumph
+of the new policy, Anne Boleyn was suddenly charged with adultery and
+sent to the Tower. A few days later she was tried, condemned, and
+brought to the block. The Queen's ruin was everywhere taken as an omen
+of ruin to the cause which had become identified with her own, and the
+old nobility mustered courage to face the minister who held them at his
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>They found their opportunity in the discontent of the North, where the
+monasteries had been popular, and where the rougher mood of the people
+turned easily to resistance. In the autumn of 1536 a rising broke out in
+Lincolnshire, and this was hardly quelled when all Yorkshire rose in
+arms. From every parish the farmers marched with the parish priest at
+their head upon York, and the surrender of this city determined the
+waverers. In a few days Skipton castle, where the Earl of Cumberland
+held out with a handful of men, was the only spot north of the Humber
+which remained true to the King. Durham rose at the call of the chiefs
+of the house of Neville, Lords Westmoreland and Latimer. Though the Earl
+of Northumberland feigned sickness, the Percies joined the revolt. Lord
+Dacre, the chief of the Yorkshire nobles, surrendered Pomfret, and was
+acknowledged as their chief by the insurgents.</p>
+
+<p>The whole nobility of the North were now enlisted in the "Pilgrimage of
+Grace," as the rising called itself, and thirty thousand "tall men and
+well horsed" moved on the Don demanding the reversal of the royal
+policy, a reunion with Rome, the restoration of Catherine's daughter,
+Mary, to her rights as heiress of the crown, redress for the wrongs done
+to the Church, and above all the driving away of base-born councillors,
+or, in other words, the fall of Cromwell. Though their advance was
+checked by negotiation, the organization of the revolt went steadily on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+throughout the winter, and a parliament of the North, which gathered at
+Pomfret, formally adopted the demands of the insurgents. Only six
+thousand men under Norfolk barred their way southward, and the Midland
+counties were known to be disaffected.</p>
+
+<p>But Cromwell remained undaunted by the peril. He suffered, indeed,
+Norfolk to negotiate; and allowed Henry under pressure from his council
+to promise pardon and a free parliament at York, a pledge which Norfolk
+and Dacre alike construed into an acceptance of the demands made by the
+insurgents. Their leaders at once flung aside the badge of the "Five
+Wounds" which they had worn, with a cry, "We will wear no badge but that
+of our lord the King," and nobles and farmers dispersed to their homes
+in triumph. But the towns of the North were no sooner garrisoned and
+Norfolk's army in the heart of Yorkshire than the veil was flung aside.
+A few isolated outbreaks in the spring of 1537 gave a pretext for the
+withdrawal of every concession.</p>
+
+<p>The arrest of the leaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace was followed by
+ruthless severities. The country was covered with gibbets. Whole
+districts were given up to military execution. But it was on the leaders
+of the rising that Cromwell's hand fell heaviest. He seized his
+opportunity for dealing at the northern nobles a fatal blow. "Cromwell,"
+one of the chief among them broke fiercely out as he stood at the
+council board, "it is thou that art the very special and chief cause of
+all this rebellion and wickedness, and dost daily travail to bring us to
+our ends and strike off our heads. I trust that ere thou die, though
+thou wouldst procure all the noblest heads within the realm to be
+stricken off, yet there shall one head remain that shall strike off thy
+head."</p>
+
+<p>But the warning was unheeded. Lord Darcy, who stood first among the
+nobles of Yorkshire, and Lord Hussey, who stood first among the nobles
+of Lincolnshire, went alike to the block. The Abbot of Barlings, who had
+ridden into Lincoln with his canons in full armor, swung with his
+brother-abbots of Whalley, Woburn, and Sawley from the gallows. The
+abbots of Fountains and of Jervaulx were hanged at Tyburn side by side
+with the representative of the great line of Percy. Lady<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> Bulmer was
+burned at the stake. Sir Robert Constable was hanged in chains before
+the gate of Hull.</p>
+
+<p>The defeat of the northern revolt showed the immense force which the
+monarchy had gained. Even among the rebels themselves not a voice had
+threatened Henry's throne. It was not at the King that they aimed these
+blows, but at the "low-born knaves" who stood about the King. At this
+moment, too, Henry's position was strengthened by the birth of an heir.
+On the death of Anne Boleyn he had married Jane Seymour, the daughter of
+a Wiltshire knight; and in 1537 this Queen died in giving birth to a
+boy, the future Edward VI. The triumph of the Crown at home was doubled
+by its triumph in the great dependency which had so long held the
+English authority at bay across St. George's Channel.</p>
+
+<p>With England and Ireland alike at his feet, Cromwell could venture on a
+last and crowning change. He could claim for the monarchy the right of
+dictating at its pleasure the form of faith and doctrine to be taught
+throughout the land. Henry had remained true to the standpoint of the
+New Learning; and the sympathies of Cromwell were mainly with those of
+his master. They had no wish for any violent break with the
+ecclesiastical forms of the past. They desired religious reform rather
+than religious revolution, a simplification of doctrine rather than any
+radical change in it, the purification of worship rather than the
+introduction of any wholly new ritual. Their theology remained, as they
+believed, a Catholic theology, but a theology cleared of the
+superstitious growths which obscured the true Catholicism of the early
+Church.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, their dream was the dream of Erasmus and Colet. The spirit of
+Erasmus was seen in the articles of religion which were laid before
+convocation in 1536; in the acknowledgment of justification by faith, a
+doctrine for which the founders of the New Learning, such as Contarini
+and Pole, were struggling at Rome itself; in the condemnation of
+purgatory, of pardons, and of masses for the dead, as it was seen in the
+admission of prayers for the dead and in the retention of the ceremonies
+of the Church without material change.</p>
+
+<p>A series of royal injunctions which followed carried out the same policy
+of reform. Pilgrimages were suppressed; the excessive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> number of holy
+days was curtailed; the worship of images and relics was discouraged in
+words which seemed almost copied from the protest of Erasmus. His appeal
+for a translation of the Bible which weavers might repeat at their
+shuttle and ploughmen sing at their plough received at last a reply. At
+the outset of the ministry of Norfolk and More, the King had promised an
+English version of the Scriptures, while prohibiting the circulation of
+Tyndale's Lutheran translation. The work, however, lagged in the hands
+of the bishops; and as a preliminary measure the Creed, the Lord's
+Prayer, and the Ten Commandments were now rendered into English, and
+ordered to be taught by every schoolmaster and father of a family to his
+children and pupils. But the bishops' version still hung on hand; till,
+in despair of its appearance, a friend of Archbishop Cranmer, Miles
+Coverdale, was employed to correct and revise the translation of
+Tyndale; and the Bible which he edited was published in 1538 under the
+avowed patronage of Henry himself.</p>
+
+<p>But the force of events was already carrying England far from the
+standpoint of Erasmus or More. The dream of the New Learning was to be
+wrought out through the progress of education and piety. In the policy
+of Cromwell, reform was to be brought about by the brute force of the
+monarchy. The story of the royal supremacy was graven even on the
+title-page of the new Bible. It is Henry on his throne who gives the
+sacred volume to Cranmer, ere Cranmer and Cromwell can distribute it to
+the throng of priests and laymen below. Hitherto men had looked on
+religious truth as a gift from the Church. They were now to look on it
+as a gift from the King. The very gratitude of Englishmen for fresh
+spiritual enlightenment was to tell to the profit of the royal power. No
+conception could be further from that of the New Learning, from the plea
+for intellectual freedom which runs through the life of Erasmus, or the
+craving for political liberty which gives nobleness to the speculations
+of More. Nor was it possible for Henry himself to avoid drifting from
+the standpoint he had chosen. He had written against Luther; he had
+persisted in opposing Lutheran doctrine; he had passed new laws to
+hinder the circulation of Lutheran books in his realm. But influences
+from without as from within drove him nearer to Lutheranism. If the
+encouragement of Francis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> had done somewhat to bring about his final
+breach with the papacy, he soon found little will in the French King to
+follow him in any course of separation from Rome; and the French
+alliance threatened to become useless as a shelter against the wrath of
+the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Charles was goaded into action by the bill annulling Mary's right of
+succession; and in 1535 he proposed to unite his house with that of
+Francis by close intermarriage, and to sanction Mary's marriage with a
+son of the French King if Francis would join in an attack on England.
+Whether such a proposal was serious or no, Henry had to dread attack
+from Charles himself and to look for new allies against it. He was
+driven to offer his alliance to the Lutheran princes of North Germany,
+who dreaded like himself the power of the Emperor, and who were now
+gathering in the League of Smalkald.</p>
+
+<p>But the German princes made agreement as to doctrine a condition of
+their alliance; and their pressure was backed by Henry's partisans among
+the clergy at home. In Cromwell's scheme for mastering the priesthood it
+had been needful to place men on whom the King could rely at their head.
+Cranmer became primate, Latimer became Bishop of Worcester, Shaxton and
+Barlow were raised to the sees of Salisbury and St. David's, Hilsey to
+that of Rochester, Goodrich to that of Ely, Fox to that of Hereford. But
+it was hard to find men among the clergy who paused at Henry's
+theological resting-place; and of these prelates all except Latimer were
+known to sympathize with Lutheranism, though Cranmer lagged far behind
+his fellows in their zeal for reform.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of these men, as well as of an attempt to comply at least
+partly with the demand of the German princes, left its stamp on the
+articles of 1536. For the principle of Catholicism, of a universal form
+of faith overspreading all temporal dominions, the Lutheran states had
+substituted the principle of territorial religion, of the right of each
+sovereign or people to determine the form of belief which should be held
+within their bounds. The severance from Rome had already brought Henry
+to this principle, and the Act of Supremacy was its emphatic assertion.</p>
+
+<p>In England, too, as in North Germany, the repudiation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> the papal
+authority as a ground of faith, of the voice of the Pope as a
+declaration of truth, had driven men to find such a ground and
+declaration in the Bible; and the articles expressly based the faith of
+the Church of England on the Bible and the three creeds. With such
+fundamental principles of agreement it was possible to borrow from the
+Augsburg Confession five of the ten articles which Henry laid before the
+convocation. If penance was still retained as a sacrament, baptism and
+the Lord's Supper were alone maintained to be sacraments with it; the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, which Henry stubbornly maintained,
+differed so little from the doctrine maintained by Luther that the words
+of Lutheran formularies were borrowed to explain it; confession was
+admitted by the Lutheran churches as well as by the English. The
+veneration of saints and the doctrine of prayer to them, though still
+retained, were so modified as to present little difficulty even to a
+Lutheran.</p>
+
+<p>However disguised in form, the doctrinal advance made in the articles of
+1536 was an immense one; and a vehement opposition might have been
+looked for from those of the bishops like Gardiner, who, while they
+agreed with Henry's policy of establishing a national church, remained
+opposed to any change in faith. But the articles had been drawn up by
+Henry's own hand, and all whisper of opposition was hushed. Bishops,
+abbots, clergy, not only subscribed to them, but carried out with
+implicit obedience the injunctions which put their doctrine roughly into
+practice; and the failure of the Pilgrimage of Grace in the following
+autumn ended all thought of resistance among the laity.</p>
+
+<p>But Cromwell found a different reception for his reforms when he turned
+to extend them to the sister-island. The religious aspect of Ireland was
+hardly less chaotic than its political aspect had been. Ever since
+Strongbow's landing, there had been no one Irish church, simply because
+there had been no one Irish nation. There was not the slightest
+difference in doctrine or discipline between the Church without the pale
+and the Church within it. But within the pale the clergy were
+exclusively of English blood and speech, and without it they were
+exclusively of Irish. Irishmen were shut out by law from abbeys and
+churches within the English boundary; and the ill-will of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> natives
+shut out Englishmen from churches and abbeys outside it.</p>
+
+<p>As to the religious state of the country, it was much on a level with
+its political condition. Feuds and misrule told fatally on
+ecclesiastical discipline. The bishops were political officers, or hard
+fighters, like the chiefs around them; their sees were neglected, their
+cathedrals abandoned to decay. Through whole dioceses the churches lay
+in ruins and without priests. The only preaching done in the country was
+done by the begging friars, and the results of the friars' preaching
+were small. "If the King do not provide a remedy," it was said in 1525,
+"there will be no more Christentie than in the middle of Turkey."</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the remedy which Henry provided was worse than the
+disease. Politically Ireland was one with England, and the great
+revolution which was severing the one country from the papacy extended
+itself naturally to the other. The results of it indeed at first seemed
+small enough. The supremacy, a question which had convulsed England,
+passed over into Ireland to meet its only obstacle in a general
+indifference. Everybody was ready to accept it without a thought of the
+consequences. The bishops and clergy within the pale bent to the King's
+will as easily as their fellows in England, and their example was
+followed by at least four prelates of dioceses without the pale.</p>
+
+<p>The native chieftains made no more scruple than the lords of the council
+in renouncing obedience to the Bishop of Rome, and in acknowledging
+Henry as the "supreme head of the Church of England and Ireland under
+Christ." There was none of the resistance to the dissolution of the
+abbeys which had been witnessed on the other side of the channel, and
+the greedy chieftains showed themselves perfectly willing to share the
+plunder of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>But the results of the measure were fatal to the little culture and
+religion which even the past centuries of disorder had spared. Such as
+they were, the religious houses were the only schools that Ireland
+contained. The system of vicars, so general in England, was rare in
+Ireland; churches in the patronage of the abbeys were for the most part
+served by the religious themselves, and the dissolution of their houses
+suspended public worship over large districts of the country. The
+friars, hitherto the only preachers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> and who continued to labor and
+teach in spite of the efforts of the government, were thrown necessarily
+into a position of antagonism to the English rule.</p>
+
+<p>Had the ecclesiastical changes which were forced on the country ended
+here, however, in the end little harm would have been done. But in
+England the breach with Rome, the destruction of the monastic orders,
+and the establishment of the supremacy had aroused in a portion of the
+people itself a desire for theological change which Henry shared and was
+cautiously satisfying. In Ireland the spirit of the Reformation never
+existed among the people at all. They accepted the legislative measures
+passed in the English Parliament without any dream of theological
+consequences, or of any change in the doctrine or ceremonies of the
+Church. Not a single voice demanded the abolition of pilgrimages or the
+destruction of images or the reform of public worship.</p>
+
+<p>The mission of Archbishop Browne in 1535 "for the plucking down of idols
+and extinguishing of idolatry" was a first step in the long effort of
+the English government to force a new faith on a people who to a man
+clung passionately to their old religion. Browne's attempts at "tuning
+the pulpits" were met by a sullen and significant opposition. "Neither
+by gentle exhortation," the Archbishop wrote to Cromwell, "nor by
+evangelical instruction, neither by oath of them solemnly taken nor yet
+by threats of sharp correction, may I persuade or induce any, whether
+religious or secular, since my coming over once to preach the Word of
+God, nor the just title of our illustrious Prince."</p>
+
+<p>Even the acceptance of the supremacy, which had been so quietly
+effected, was brought into question when its results became clear. The
+bishops abstained from compliance with the order to erase the Pope's
+name out of their mass-books. The pulpits remained steadily silent. When
+Browne ordered the destruction of the images and relics in his own
+cathedral, he had to report that the prior and canons "find them so
+sweet for their gain that they heed not my words."</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell, however, was resolute for a religious uniformity between the
+two islands, and the primate borrowed some of his patron's vigor.
+Recalcitrant priests were thrown into prison, images were plucked down
+from the rood-loft, and the most venerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> of Irish relics, the staff
+of St. Patrick, was burned in the market-place. But he found no support
+in his vigor save from across the channel. The Irish council looked
+coldly on; even the Lord Deputy still knelt to say prayers before an
+image at Trim. A sullen, dogged opposition baffled Cromwell's efforts,
+and their only result was to unite all Ireland against the Crown.</p>
+
+<p>But Cromwell found it easier to deal with Irish inaction than with the
+feverish activity which his reforms stirred in England itself. It was
+impossible to strike blow after blow at the Church without rousing wild
+hopes in the party who sympathized with the work which Luther was doing
+oversea. Few as these "Lutherans" or "Protestants" still were in
+numbers, their new hopes made them a formidable force; and in the school
+of persecution they had learned a violence which delighted in outrages
+on the faith which had so long trampled them under foot. At the very
+outset of Cromwell's changes, four Suffolk youths broke into a church at
+Dovercourt, tore down a wonder-working crucifix, and burned it in the
+fields.</p>
+
+<p>The suppression of the lesser monasteries was the signal for a new
+outburst of ribald insult to the old religion. The roughness, insolence,
+and extortion of the commissioners sent to effect it drove the whole
+monastic body to despair. Their servants rode along the road with copes
+for doublets or tunicles for saddle-cloths, and scattered panic among
+the larger houses which were left. Some sold their jewels and relics to
+provide for the evil day they saw approaching. Some begged of their own
+will for dissolution. It was worse when fresh ordinances of the
+vicar-general ordered the removal of objects of superstitious
+veneration. Their removal, bitter enough to those whose religion twined
+itself around the image or the relic which was taken away, was
+embittered yet more by the insults with which it was accompanied.</p>
+
+<p>A miraculous rood at Boxley, which bowed its head and stirred its eyes,
+was paraded from market to market and exhibited as a juggle before the
+court. Images of the Virgin were stripped of their costly vestments and
+sent to be publicly burned at London. Latimer forwarded to the capital
+the figure of Our Lady, which he had thrust out of his cathedral church
+at Worcester<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> with rough words of scorn: "She with her old sister of
+Walsingham, her younger sister of Ipswich, and their two other sisters
+of Doncaster and Penrice, would make a jolly muster at Smithfield."
+Fresh orders were given to fling all relics from their reliquaries, and
+to level every shrine with the ground. In 1538 the bones of St. Thomas
+of Canterbury were torn from the stately shrine which had been the glory
+of his metropolitan church, and his name was erased from the
+service-books as that of a traitor.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the English Bible into churches gave a new opening
+for the zeal of the Protestants. In spite of royal injunctions that it
+should be read decently and without comment, the young zealots of the
+party prided themselves on shouting it out to a circle of excited
+hearers during the service of mass, and accompanied their reading with
+violent expositions. Protestant maidens took the new English primer to
+church with them and studied it ostentatiously during matins. Insult
+passed into open violence when the bishops' courts were invaded and
+broken up by Protestant mobs; and law and public opinion were outraged
+at once when priests who favored the new doctrines began openly to bring
+home wives to their vicarages.</p>
+
+<p>A fiery outburst of popular discussion compensated for the silence of
+the pulpits. The new Scriptures, in Henry's bitter words of complaint,
+were "disputed, rhymed, sung, and jangled in every tavern and alehouse."
+The articles which dictated the belief of the English Church roused a
+furious controversy. Above all, the sacrament of the mass, the centre of
+the Catholic system of faith and worship, and which still remained
+sacred to the bulk of Englishmen, was attacked with a scurrility and
+profaneness which pass belief. The doctrine of transubstantiation, which
+was as yet recognized by law, was held up in scorn in ballads and
+mystery plays. In one church a Protestant lawyer raised a dog in his
+hands when the priest elevated the host. The most sacred words of the
+old worship, the words of consecration, "<i>Hoc est corpus</i>," were
+travestied into a nickname for jugglery as "Hocus-pocus."</p>
+
+<p>It was by this attack on the mass, even more than by the other outrages,
+that the temper both of Henry and the nation was stirred to a deep
+resentment. With the Protestants Henry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> had no sympathy whatever. He was
+a man of the New Learning; he was proud of his orthodoxy and of his
+title of "Defender of the Faith." And above all he shared to the utmost
+his people's love of order, their clinging to the past, their hatred of
+extravagance and excess. The first sign of reaction was seen in the
+parliament of 1539. Never had the houses shown so little care for
+political liberty. The monarchy seemed to free itself from all
+parliamentary restrictions whatever when a formal statute gave the
+King's proclamations the force of parliamentary laws.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did the Church find favor with them. No word of the old opposition
+was heard when a bill was introduced granting to the King the greater
+monasteries which had been saved in 1536. More than six hundred
+religious houses fell at a blow, and so great was the spoil that the
+King promised never again to call on his people for subsidies. But the
+houses were equally at one in withstanding the new innovations of
+religion, and an act for "abolishing diversity of opinions in certain
+articles concerning Christian religion" passed with general assent. On
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, which was reasserted by the first of
+six articles to which the act owes its usual name, there was no
+difference of feeling or belief between the men of the New Learning and
+the older Catholics. But the road to a further instalment of even
+moderate reform seemed closed by the five other articles which
+sanctioned communion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monastic
+vows, private masses, and auricular confession.</p>
+
+<p>A more terrible feature of the reaction was the revival of persecution.
+Burning was denounced as the penalty for a denial of transubstantiation;
+on a second offence it became the penalty for an infraction of the other
+five doctrines. A refusal to confess or to attend mass was made felony.
+It was in vain that Cranmer, with the five bishops who partially
+sympathized with the Protestants, struggled against the bill in the
+lords: the commons were "all of one opinion," and Henry himself acted as
+spokesman on the side of the articles. In London alone five hundred
+Protestants were indicted under the new act. Latimer and Shaxton were
+imprisoned, and the former forced into a resignation of his see. Cranmer
+himself was only saved by Henry's personal favor.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> But the first burst
+of triumph was no sooner spent than the hand of Cromwell made itself
+felt. Though his opinions remained those of the New Learning and
+differed little from the general sentiment which found itself
+represented in the act, he leaned instinctively to the one party which
+did not long for his fall. His wish was to restrain the Protestant
+excesses, but he had no mind to ruin the Protestants. In a little time
+therefore the bishops were quietly released. The London indictments were
+quashed. The magistrates were checked in their enforcement of the law,
+while a general pardon cleared the prisons of the heretics who had been
+arrested under its provisions.</p>
+
+<p>A few months after the enactment of the Six Articles we find from a
+Protestant letter that persecution had wholly ceased, "the Word is
+powerfully preached and books of every kind may safely be exposed for
+sale." Never indeed had Cromwell shown such greatness as in his last
+struggle against fate. "Beknaved" by the King, whose confidence in him
+waned as he discerned the full meaning of the religious changes which
+Cromwell had brought about, met too by a growing opposition in the
+council as his favor declined, the temper of the man remained
+indomitable as ever. He stood absolutely alone. Wolsey, hated as he had
+been by the nobles, had been supported by the Church; but churchmen
+hated Cromwell with an even fiercer hate than the nobles themselves. His
+only friends were the Protestants, and their friendship was more fatal
+than the hatred of his foes. But he showed no signs of fear or of
+halting in the course he had entered on. So long as Henry supported him,
+however reluctant his support might be, he was more than a match for his
+foes.</p>
+
+<p>He was strong enough to expel his chief opponent, Bishop Gardiner of
+Winchester, from the royal council. He met the hostility of the nobles
+with a threat which marked his power. "If the lords would handle him so,
+he would give them such a breakfast as never was made in England, and
+that the proudest of them should know."</p>
+
+<p>He soon gave a terrible earnest of the way in which he could fulfil his
+threat. The opposition to his system gathered, above all, round two
+houses which represented what yet lingered of the Yorkist tradition, the
+Courtenays and the Poles. Courtenay, the Marquis of Exeter, was of royal
+blood, a grandson through his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> mother of Edward IV. He was known to have
+bitterly denounced the "knaves that ruled about the King"; and his
+threats to "give them some day a buffet" were formidable in the mouth of
+one whose influence in the western counties was supreme.</p>
+
+<p>Margaret, the Countess of Salisbury, a daughter of the Duke of Clarence
+by the heiress of the Earl of Warwick, and a niece of Edward IV, had
+married Sir Richard Pole, and became mother of Lord Montacute as of Sir
+Geoffry and Reginald Pole. The temper of her house might be guessed from
+the conduct of the younger of the three brothers. After refusing the
+highest favors from Henry as the price of his approval of the divorce,
+Reginald Pole had taken refuge at Rome, where he had bitterly attacked
+the King in a book, <i>The Unity of the Church</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"There may be found ways enough in Italy," Cromwell wrote to him in
+significant words, "to rid a treacherous subject. When Justice can take
+no place by process of law at home, sometimes she may be enforced to
+take new means abroad." But he had left hostages in Henry's hands. "Pity
+that the folly of one witless fool," Cromwell wrote ominously, "should
+be the ruin of so great a family. Let him follow ambition as fast as he
+can, those that little have offended (saving that he is of their kin),
+were it not for the great mercy and benignity of the Prince, should and
+might feel what it is to have such a traitor as their kinsman." The
+"great mercy and benignity of the Prince" was no longer to shelter them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1538 the Pope, Paul III, published a bull of excommunication and
+deposition against Henry, and Pole pressed the Emperor vigorously,
+though ineffectually, to carry the bull into execution. His efforts only
+brought about, as Cromwell had threatened, the ruin of his house. His
+brother, Lord Montacute, and the Marquis of Exeter, with other friends
+of the two great families, were arrested on a charge of treason and
+executed in the opening of 1539, while the Countess of Salisbury was
+attainted in parliament and sent to the Tower.</p>
+
+<p>Almost as terrible an act of bloodshed closed the year. The abbots of
+Glastonbury, Reading, and Colchester, men who had sat as mitred abbots
+among the lords, were charged with a denial of the King's supremacy and
+hanged as traitors. But Cromwell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> relied for success on more than
+terror. His single will forced on a scheme of foreign policy whose aim
+was to bind England to the cause of the Reformation while it bound Henry
+helplessly to his minister. The daring boast which his enemies laid
+afterward to Cromwell's charge, whether uttered or not, is but the
+expression of his system&mdash;"In brief time he would bring things to such a
+pass that the King with all his power should not be able to hinder him."</p>
+
+<p>His plans rested, like the plan which proved fatal to Wolsey, on a fresh
+marriage of his master; Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, had died in
+childbirth; and in the opening of 1540 Cromwell replaced her by a German
+consort, Anne of Cleves, a sister-in-law of the Lutheran Elector of
+Saxony. He dared even to resist Henry's caprice when the King revolted
+on their first interview from the coarse features and unwieldy form of
+his new bride. For the moment Cromwell had brought matters "to such a
+pass" that it was impossible to recoil from the marriage, and the
+minister's elevation to the earldom of Essex seemed to proclaim his
+success.</p>
+
+<p>The marriage of Anne of Cleves, however, was but the first step in a
+policy which, had it been carried out as he designed it, would have
+anticipated the triumphs of Richelieu. Charles and the house of Austria
+could alone bring about a Catholic reaction strong enough to arrest and
+roll back the Reformation; and Cromwell was no sooner united with the
+princes of North Germany than he sought to league them with France for
+the overthrow of the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Had he succeeded, the whole face of Europe would have been changed,
+Southern Germany would have been secured for Protestantism, and the
+Thirty Years' War averted. But he failed as men fail who stand ahead of
+their age. The German princes shrank from a contest with the Emperor,
+France from a struggle which would be fatal to Catholicism; and Henry,
+left alone to bear the resentment of the house of Austria and chained to
+a wife he loathed, turned savagely on his minister.</p>
+
+<p>In June the long struggle came to an end. The nobles sprang on Cromwell
+with a fierceness that told of their long-hoarded hate. Taunts and
+execrations burst from the Lords at the council table as the Duke of
+Norfolk, who had been intrusted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> with the minister's arrest, tore the
+ensign of the garter from his neck. At the charge of treason Cromwell
+flung his cap on the ground with a passionate cry of despair. "This,
+then," he exclaimed, "is my guerdon for the services I have done! On
+your consciences, I ask you, am I a traitor?" Then, with a sudden sense
+that all was over, he bade his foes make quick work, and not leave him
+to languish in prison.</p>
+
+<p>Quick work was made. A few days after his arrest he was attainted in
+parliament, and at the close of July a burst of popular applause hailed
+his death on the scaffold.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CARTIER EXPLORES CANADA</h2>
+
+<h3>FRENCH ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1534</h4>
+
+<h3>H. H. MILES</h3>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Early in the sixteenth century, when France, after the
+Hundred Years' War with England, had begun to be a notable
+European power, the nation, under the young and brilliant
+Francis I, took up the project of prosecuting New World
+discovery and obtaining a firm footing on the mainland of
+America. The French King's attention had been directed to
+the enterprise by his grand admiral, Philip de Chabot, who
+seems to have been interested in the hardy mariner and
+skilled navigator, Jacques Cartier, and wished to place him
+at the head of an expedition to the New World, to prosecute
+discovery on the northeastern coast of America. This was in
+the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1534, ten year after Verrazano had been in the
+region and named it New France, in honor of the French King.
+On April 20, 1534, Cartier, with two small vessels of about
+sixty tons each, set sail from the Britanny port of St. Malo
+for Newfoundland, on the banks of which Cartier's Breton and
+Norman countrymen had long been accustomed to fish. The
+incidents of this and the subsequent voyages of the St. Malo
+mariner, with an account of the expedition under the Viceroy
+of Canada, the Sieur de Roberval, will be found appended in
+Dr. Miles' interesting narrative.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Canada was discovered in the year 1534, by Jacques Cartier (or
+Quartier), a mariner belonging to the small French seaport St. Malo. He
+was a man in whom were combined the qualities of prudence, industry,
+skill, perseverance, courage, and a deep sense of religion. Commissioned
+by the King of France, Francis I, he conducted three successive
+expeditions across the Atlantic for the purpose of prosecuting discovery
+in the western hemisphere; and it is well understood that he had
+previously gained experience in seamanship on board fishing-vessels
+trading between Europe and the Banks of Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p>He was selected and recommended to the King for appointment as one who
+might be expected to realize, for the benefit of France, some of the
+discoveries of his predecessor, Verrazano,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> which had been attended with
+no substantial result, since this navigator and his companions had
+scarcely done more than view, from a distance, the coasts of the
+extensive regions to which the name of New France had been given. It was
+also expected of Cartier that, through his endeavors, valuable lands
+would be taken possession of in the King's name, and that places
+suitable for settlement, and stations for carrying on traffic, would be
+established. Moreover, it was hoped that the precious metals would be
+procured in those parts, and that a passage onward to China (Cathay) and
+the East Indies would be found out. And, finally, the ambitious
+sovereign of France was induced to believe that, in spite of the
+pretensions of Portugal and Spain,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> he might make good his own claim
+to a share in transatlantic territories.</p>
+
+<p>With such objects in view, Jacques Cartier set sail from St. Malo, on
+Monday, April 20, 1534.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> His command consisted of two small vessels,
+with crews amounting to about one hundred twenty men, and provisioned
+for four or five months.</p>
+
+<p>On May 10th the little squadron arrived off Cape Bonavista,
+Newfoundland; but, as the ice and snow of the previous winter had not
+yet disappeared, the vessels were laid up for ten days in a harbor near
+by, named St. Catherine's. From this, on the 21st, they sailed northward
+to an island northeast of Cape Bonavista, situated about forty miles
+from the mainland, which had been called by the Portuguese the "Isle of
+Birds." Here were found several species of birds which, it appears,
+frequented the island at that season of the year in prodigious numbers,
+so that, according to Cartier's own narrative, the crews had no
+difficulty in capturing enough of them, both for their immediate use and
+to fill eight or ten large barrels (<i>pippes</i>) for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> future consumption.
+Bears and foxes are described as passing from the mainland, in order to
+feed upon the birds as well as their eggs and young.</p>
+
+<p>From the Isle of Birds the ships proceeded northward and westward until
+they came to the Straits of Belle-Isle, when they were detained by foul
+weather, and by ice, in a harbor, from May 27th until June 9th. The
+ensuing fifteen days were spent in exploring the coast of Labrador as
+far as Blanc Sablon and the western coast of Newfoundland. For the most
+part these regions, including contiguous islands, were pronounced by
+Cartier to be unfit for settlement, especially Labrador, of which he
+remarks, "it might, as well as not, be taken for the country assigned by
+God to Cain." From the shore of Newfoundland the vessels were steered
+westward across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and about June 25th arrived in
+the vicinity of the Magdalen Islands. Of an island named "Isle Bryon,"
+Cartier says it contained the best land they had yet seen, and that "one
+acre of it was worth the whole of Newfoundland." Birds were plentiful,
+and on its shores were to be seen "beasts as large as oxen and
+possessing great tusks like elephants, which, when approached, leaped
+suddenly into the sea." There were very fine trees and rich tracts of
+ground, on which were seen growing quantities of "wild corn, peas in
+flower, currants, strawberries, roses, and sweet herbs." Cartier noticed
+the character of the tides and waves, which swept high and strong among
+the islands, and which suggested to his mind the existence of an opening
+between the south of Newfoundland and Cape Breton.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the end of June the islands and mainland of the northwest part of
+the territory now called New Brunswick came in sight, and, as land was
+approached, Cartier began at once to search for a passage through which
+he might sail farther westward.</p>
+
+<p>The ships' boats were several times lowered, and the crews made to row
+close inshore in the bays and inlets, for the purpose of discovering an
+opening. On these occasions natives were sometimes seen upon the beach,
+or moving about in bark canoes, with whom the French contrived to
+establish a friendly intercourse and traffic, by means of signs and
+presents of hatchets,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> knives, small crucifixes, beads, and toys. On one
+occasion they had in sight from forty to fifty canoes full of savages,
+of which seven paddled close up to the French boats, so as to surround
+them, and were driven away only by demonstrations of force. Cartier
+learned afterward that it was customary for these savages to come down
+from parts more inland, in great numbers, to the coast, during the
+fishing season, and that this was the cause of his finding so many of
+them at that time. On the 7th day of the month a considerable body of
+the same savages came about the ships, and some traffic occurred. Gifts,
+consisting of knives, hatchets, and toys, along with a red cap for their
+head chief, caused them to depart in great joy.</p>
+
+<p>Early in July, Cartier found that he was in a considerable bay, which he
+named "La Baie des Chaleurs." He continued to employ his boats in the
+examination of the smaller inlets and mouths of the rivers flowing into
+the bay, hoping that an opening might be discovered similar to that by
+which, a month before, he had passed round the north of Newfoundland
+into the gulf. After the 16th the weather was boisterous, and the ships
+were anchored for shelter close to the shore several days. During this
+time the savages came there to fish for mackerel, which were abundant,
+and held friendly intercourse with Cartier and his people. They were
+very poor and miserably clad in old skins, and sang and danced to
+testify their pleasure on receiving the presents which the French
+distributed among them.</p>
+
+<p>Sailing eastward and northward, the vessels next passed along the coast
+of Gasp&eacute;, upon which the French landed and held intercourse with the
+natives. Cartier resolved to take formal possession of the country, and
+to indicate, in a conspicuous manner, that he did so in the name of the
+King, his master, and in the interests of religion. With these objects
+in view, on Friday, July 24th, a huge wooden cross, thirty feet in
+height, was constructed, and was raised with much ceremony, in sight of
+many of the Indians, close to the entrance of the harbor; three
+<i>fleurs-de-lys</i> being carved under the cross, and an inscription, "<i>Vive
+le Roy de France</i>." The French formed a circle on their knees around it,
+and made signs to attract the attention of the savages, pointing up to
+the heavens,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> "as if to show that by the cross came their redemption."
+These ceremonies being ended, Cartier and his people went on board,
+followed from the shore by many of the Indians. Among these the
+principal chief, with his brother and three sons, in one canoe, came
+near Cartier's ship. He made an oration, in course of which he pointed
+toward the high cross, and then to the surrounding territory, as much as
+to say that it all belonged to him, and that the French ought not to
+have planted it there without his permission. The sight of hatchets and
+knives displayed before him, in such a manner as to show a desire to
+trade with him, made him approach nearer, and, at the same time, several
+sailors, entering his canoe, easily induced him and his companions to
+pass into the ship. Cartier, by signs, endeavored to persuade the chief
+that the cross had been erected as a beacon to mark the way into the
+harbor; that he would revisit the place and bring hatchets, knives, and
+other things made of iron, and that he desired the friendship of his
+people. Food and drink were offered, of which they partook freely, when
+Cartier made known to the chief his wish to take two of his sons away
+with him for a time. The chief and his sons appear to have readily
+assented. The young men at once put on colored garments, supplied by
+Cartier, throwing out their old clothing to others near the ship. The
+chief, with his brother and remaining son, were then dismissed with
+presents. About midday, however, just as the ships were about to move
+farther from shore, six canoes, full of Indians, came to them, bringing
+presents of fish, and to enable the friends of the chief's sons to bid
+them adieu. Cartier took occasion to enjoin upon the savages the
+necessity of guarding the cross which had been erected, upon which the
+Indians replied in unintelligible language. Next day, July 25th, the
+vessels left the harbor with a fair wind, making sail northward to 50&deg;
+latitude. It was intended to prosecute the voyage farther westward, if
+possible; but adverse winds, and the appearance of the distant
+headlands, discouraged Cartier's hopes so much that on Wednesday, August
+5th, after taking counsel with his officers and pilots, he decided that
+it was not safe to attempt more that season. The little squadron,
+therefore, bore off toward the east and northeast, and made Blanc Sablon
+on the 9th. Continuing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> thence their passage into the Atlantic, they
+were favored with fair winds, which carried them to the middle of the
+ocean, between Newfoundland and Bretagne. They then encountered storms
+and adverse winds, respecting which Cartier piously remarks: "We
+suffered and endured these with the aid of God, and after that we had
+good weather and arrived at the harbor of St. Malo, whence we had set
+out, on September 5, 1534." Thus ended Jacques Cartier's first voyage to
+Canada. As a French-Canadian historian of Canada has observed, this
+first expedition was not "sterile in results"; for, in addition to the
+other notable incidents of the voyage, the two natives whom he carried
+with him to France are understood to have been the first to inform him
+of the existence of the great river St. Lawrence, which he was destined
+to discover the following year.</p>
+
+<p>It is not certainly known how nearly he advanced to the mouth of that
+river on his passage from Gasp&eacute; Bay. But it is believed that he passed
+round the western point of Anticosti, subsequently named by him Isle de
+l'Assumption, and that he then turned to the east, leaving behind the
+entrance into the great river, which he then supposed to be an extensive
+bay, and, coasting along the shore of Labrador, came to the river
+Natachquoin, near Mount Joli, whence, as already stated, he passed
+eastward and northward to Blanc Sablon.</p>
+
+<p>Cartier and his companions were favorably received on their return to
+France. The expectations of his employers had been to a certain extent
+realized, while the narrative of the voyage, and the prospects which
+this afforded of greater results in future, inspired such feelings of
+hope and confidence that there seems to have been no hesitation in
+furnishing means for the equipment of another expedition. The Indians
+who had been brought to France were instructed in the French language,
+and served also as specimens of the people inhabiting his majesty's
+western dominions. During the winter the necessary preparations were
+made.</p>
+
+<p>On the May 19, 1535, Cartier took his departure from St. Malo on his
+second expedition. It was in every way better equipped than that of the
+preceding year, and consisted of three ships, manned by one hundred ten
+sailors. A number of gentlemen volunteers from France accompanied it.
+Cartier<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> himself embarked on board the largest vessel, which was named
+La Grande Hermine, along with his two interpreters. Adverse winds
+lengthened the voyage, so that seven weeks were occupied in sailing to
+the Straits of Belle-Isle. Thence the squadron made for the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence, so named by Cartier in honor of the day upon which he entered
+it. Emboldened by the information derived from his Indian interpreters,
+he sailed up the great river, at first named the River of Canada, or of
+Hochelaga. The mouth of the Saguenay was passed on September 1st, and
+the island of Orleans reached on the 9th. To this he gave the name "Isle
+of Bacchus," on account of the abundance of grape-vines upon it.</p>
+
+<p>On the 16th the ships arrived off the headland since known as Cape
+Diamond. Near to this, a small river, called by Cartier St. Croix, now
+the St. Charles, was observed flowing into the St. Lawrence,
+intercepting, at the confluence, a piece of lowland, which was the site
+of the Indian village Stadacona. Towering above this, on the left bank
+of the greater river, was Cape Diamond and the contiguous highland,
+which in after times became the site of the Upper Town of Quebec. A
+little way within the mouth of the St. Croix, Cartier selected stations
+suitable for mooring and laying up his vessels; for he seems, on his
+arrival at Stadacona, to have already decided upon wintering in the
+country. This design was favored, not only by the advanced period of the
+season, but also by the fact that the natives appeared to be friendly
+and in a position to supply his people abundantly with provisions. Many
+hundreds came off from the shore in bark canoes, bringing fish, maize,
+and fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Aided by the two interpreters, the French endeavored at once to
+establish a friendly intercourse. A chief, Donacona, made an oration,
+and expressed his desire for amicable relations between his own people
+and their visitors. Cartier, on his part, tried to allay apprehension,
+and to obtain information respecting the country higher up the great
+river. Wishing also to impress upon the minds of the savages a
+conviction of the French power, he caused several pieces of artillery to
+be discharged in the presence of the chief and a number of his warriors.
+Fear and astonishment were occasioned by the sight of the fire and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+smoke, followed by sounds such as they had never heard before. Presents,
+consisting of trinkets, small crosses, beads, pieces of glass, and other
+trifles, were distributed among them.</p>
+
+<p>Cartier allowed himself a rest of only three days at Stadacona, deeming
+it expedient to proceed at once up the river with an exploring party.
+For this purpose he manned his smallest ship, the Ermerillon, and two
+boats, and departed on the 19th of September, leaving the other ships
+safely moored at the mouth of the St. Charles. He had learned from the
+Indians that there was another town, called Hochelaga, situated about
+sixty leagues above. Cartier and his companions, the first European
+navigators of the St. Lawrence, and the earliest pioneers of
+civilization and Christianity in those regions, moved very slowly up the
+river. At the part since called Lake St. Peter the water seemed to
+become more and more shallow. The Ermerillon, was therefore left as well
+secured as possible, and the remainder of the passage made in the two
+boats. Frequent meetings, of a friendly nature, with Indians on the
+river bank, caused delays, so that they did not arrive at Hochelaga
+until October 2d.</p>
+
+<p>As described by Cartier himself, this town consisted of about fifty
+large huts or cabins, which, for purposes of defence, were surrounded by
+wooden palisades. There were upward of twelve hundred inhabitants,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
+belonging to some Algonquin tribe.</p>
+
+<p>At Hochelaga, as previously at Stadacona, the French were received by
+the natives in a friendly manner. Supplies of fish and maize were freely
+offered, and, in return, presents of beads,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> knives, small mirrors, and
+crucifixes were distributed. Entering into communication with them,
+Cartier sought information respecting the country higher up the river.
+From their imperfect intelligence it appears he learned the existence of
+several great lakes, and that beyond the largest and most remote of
+these there was another great river which flowed southward. They
+conducted him to the summit of a mountain behind the town, whence he
+surveyed the prospect of a wilderness stretching to the south and west
+as far as the eye could reach, and beautifully diversified by elevations
+of land and by water. Whatever credit Cartier attached to their vague
+statements about the geography of their country, he was certainly struck
+by the grandeur of the neighboring scenery as viewed from the eminence
+on which he stood. To this he gave the name of Mount Royal, whence the
+name of Montreal was conferred on the city which has grown up on the
+site of the ancient Indian town Hochelaga.</p>
+
+<p>According to some accounts, Hochelaga was, even in those days, a place
+of importance, having subject to it eight or ten outlying settlements or
+villages.</p>
+
+<p>Anxious to return to Stadacona, and probably placing little confidence
+in the friendly professions of the natives, Cartier remained at
+Hochelaga only two days, and commenced his passage down the river on
+October 4th. His wary mistrust of the Indian character was not
+groundless, for bands of savages followed along the banks and watched
+all the proceedings of his party. On one occasion he was attacked by
+them and narrowly escaped massacre.</p>
+
+<p>Arriving at Stadacona on the 11th, measures were taken for maintenance
+and security during the approaching winter. Abundant provisions had been
+already stored up by the natives and assigned for the use of the
+strangers. A fence or palisade was constructed round the ships, and made
+as strong as possible, and cannon so placed as to be available in case
+of any attack. Notwithstanding these precautions, it turned out that, in
+one essential particular, the preparations for winter were defective.
+Jacques Cartier and his companions being the first of Europeans to
+experience the rigors of a Canadian winter, the necessity for warm
+clothing had not been foreseen when the expedition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> left France, and
+now, when winter was upon them, the procuring of a supply was simply
+impossible. The winter proved long and severe. Masses of ice began to
+come down the St. Lawrence on November 15th, and, not long afterward, a
+bridge of ice was formed opposite to Stadacona. Soon the intensity of
+the cold&mdash;such as Cartier's people had never before experienced&mdash;and the
+want of suitable clothing occasioned much suffering. Then, in December,
+a disease, but little known to Europeans, broke out among the crew. It
+was the scurvy, named by the French <i>mal-de-terre</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As described by Cartier, it was very painful, loathsome in its symptoms
+and effects, as well as contagious. The legs and thighs of the patients
+swelled, the sinews contracted, and the skin became black. In some cases
+the whole body was covered with purple spots and sore tumors. After a
+time the upper parts of the body&mdash;the back, arms, shoulders, neck, and
+face&mdash;were all painfully affected. The roof of the mouth, gums, and
+teeth fell out. Altogether, the sufferers presented a deplorable
+spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>Many died between December and April, during which period the greatest
+care was taken to conceal their true condition from the natives. Had
+this not been done, it is to be feared that Donacona's people would have
+forced an entrance and put all to death for the purpose of obtaining the
+property of the French. In fact, the two interpreters were, on the
+whole, unfaithful, living entirely at Stadacona; while Donacona, and the
+Indians generally, showed, in many ways, that, under a friendly
+exterior, unfavorable feelings reigned in their hearts.</p>
+
+<p>But the attempts to hide their condition from the natives might have
+been fatal, for the Indians, who also suffered from scurvy, were
+acquainted with means of curing the disease. It was only by accident
+that Cartier found out what those means were. He had forbidden the
+savages to come on board the ships, and when any of them came near the
+only men allowed to be seen by them were those who were in health. One
+day, Domagaya was observed approaching. This man, the younger of the two
+interpreters, was known to have been sick of the scurvy at Stadacona, so
+that Cartier was much surprised to see him out and well. He contrived to
+make him relate the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> particulars of his recovery, and thus found out
+that a decoction of the bark and foliage of the white spruce-tree
+furnished the savages with a remedy. Having recourse to this enabled the
+French captain to arrest the progress of the disease among his own
+people, and, in a short time, to bring about their restoration to
+health.</p>
+
+<p>The meeting with Domagaya occurred at a time when the French were in a
+very sad state&mdash;reduced to the brink of despair. Twenty-five of the
+number had died, while forty more were in expectation of soon following
+their deceased comrades. Of the remaining forty-five, including Cartier
+and all the surviving officers, only three or four were really free from
+disease. The dead could not be buried, nor was it possible for the sick
+to be properly cared for.</p>
+
+<p>In this extremity, the stout-hearted French captain could think of no
+other remedy than a recourse to prayers and the setting up of an image
+of the Virgin Mary in sight of the sufferers. "But," he piously
+exclaimed, "God, in his holy grace, looked down in pity upon us, and
+sent to us a knowledge of the means of cure." He had great apprehensions
+of an attack from the savages, for he says in his narrative: "We were in
+a marvellous state of terror lest the people of the country should
+ascertain our pitiable condition and our weakness," and then goes on to
+relate artifices by which he contrived to deceive them.</p>
+
+<p>One of the ships had to be abandoned in course of the winter, her crew
+and contents being removed into the other two vessels. The deserted hull
+was visited by the savages in search of pieces of iron and other things.
+Had they known the cause for abandoning her, and the desperate condition
+of the French, they would have soon forced their way into the other
+ships. They were, in fact, too numerous to be resisted if they had made
+the attempt.</p>
+
+<p>At length the protracted winter came to an end. As soon as the ships
+were clear of ice, Cartier made preparations for returning at once to
+France.</p>
+
+<p>On May 3, 1536, a wooden cross, thirty-five feet high, was raised upon
+the river bank. Donacona was invited to approach, along with his people.
+When he did so, Cartier<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> caused him, together with the two interpreters
+and seven warriors, to be seized and taken on board his ship. His object
+was to convey them to France and present them to the King. On the 6th,
+the two vessels departed. Upward of six weeks were spent in descending
+the St. Lawrence and traversing the gulf. Instead of passing through the
+Straits of Belle-Isle, Cartier this time made for the south coast of
+Newfoundland, along which he sailed out into the Atlantic Ocean. On
+Sunday, July 17, 1536, he arrived at St. Malo.</p>
+
+<p>By the results of this second voyage, Jacques Cartier established for
+himself a reputation and a name in history which will never cease to be
+remembered with respect. He had discovered one of the largest rivers in
+the world, had explored its banks, and navigated its difficult channel
+more than eight hundred miles, with a degree of skill and courage which
+has never been surpassed; for it was a great matter in those days to
+penetrate so far into unknown regions, to encounter the hazards of an
+unknown navigation, and to risk his own safety and that of his followers
+among an unknown people. Moreover, his accounts of the incidents of his
+sojourn of eight months, and of the features of the country, as well as
+his estimate of the two principal sites upon which, in after times, the
+two cities, Quebec and Montreal, have grown up, illustrate both his
+fidelity and his sagacity. His dealings with the natives appear to have
+been such as to prove his tact, prudence, and sense of justice,
+notwithstanding the objectionable procedure of capturing and carrying
+off Donacona with other chiefs and warriors. This latter measure,
+however indefensible in itself, was consistent with the almost universal
+practice of navigators of that period and long afterward. Doubtless
+Cartier's expectation was that their abduction could not but result in
+their own benefit by leading to their instruction in civilization and
+Christianity, and that it might be afterward instrumental in producing
+the rapid conversion of large numbers of their people. However this may
+be, considering the inherent viciousness of the Indian character,
+Cartier's intercourse with the Indians was conducted with dignity and
+benevolence, and was marked by the total absence of bloodshed&mdash;which is
+more than can be urged in behalf of other eminent discoverers and
+navigators of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> those days or during the ensuing two centuries. Cartier
+was undoubtedly one of the greatest sea-captains of his own or any other
+country, and one who provided carefully for the safety and welfare of
+his followers, and, so far as we know, enjoyed their respect and
+confidence; nor were his plans hindered or his proceedings embarrassed
+by disobedience on their part or the display of mutinous conduct
+calculated to mar the success of a maritime expedition. In fine, Jacques
+Cartier was a noble specimen of a mariner, in an age when a maritime
+spirit prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>A severe disappointment awaited Cartier on his return home from his
+second voyage. France was now engaged in a foreign war; and at the same
+time the minds of the people were distracted by religious dissensions.
+In consequence of these untoward circumstances, both the court and the
+people had ceased to give heed to the objects which he had been so
+faithfully engaged in prosecuting in the western hemisphere. Neither he
+nor his friends could obtain even a hearing in behalf of the fitting out
+of another expedition, for the attention of the King and his advisers
+was now absorbed by weightier cares at home. Nevertheless, from time to
+time, as occasion offered, several unsuccessful attempts were made to
+introduce the project of establishing a French colony on the banks of
+the St. Lawrence. Meanwhile, Donacona, and the other Indian warriors who
+had been brought captives to France, pined away and died.</p>
+
+<p>At length, after an interval of about four years, proposals for another
+voyage westward, and for colonizing the country, came to be so far
+entertained that plans of an expedition were permitted to be discussed.
+But now, instead of receiving the unanimous support which had been
+accorded to previous undertakings, the project was opposed by a powerful
+party at court, consisting of persons who tried to dissuade the King
+from granting his assent. These alleged that enough had already been
+done for the honor of their country; that it was not expedient to take
+in hand the subjugation and settlement of those far-distant regions,
+tenanted only by savages and wild animals; that the intensely severe
+climate and hardships such as had proved fatal to one-fourth of
+Cartier's people in 1535,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> were certain evils, which there was no
+prospect of advantage to outweigh; that the newly discovered country had
+not been shown to possess mines of gold and silver; and, finally, that
+such extensive territories could not be effectively settled without
+transporting thither a considerable part of the population of the
+kingdom of France.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the apparent force of these objections, the French King
+did eventually sanction the project of another transatlantic enterprise
+on a larger scale than heretofore.</p>
+
+<p>A sum of money was granted by the King toward the purchase and equipment
+of ships, to be placed under the command of Jacques Cartier, having the
+commission of captain-general.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> Apart from the navigation of the
+fleet, the chief command in the undertaking was assigned to M. de
+Roberval, who, in a commission dated January 15, 1540, was named viceroy
+and lieutenant-general over Newfoundland, Labrador, and Canada. Roberval
+was empowered to engage volunteers and emigrants, and to supply the lack
+of these by means of prisoners to be taken from the jails and hulks.
+Thus, in about five years from the discovery of the river St. Lawrence,
+and, six years after, of Canada, measures were taken for founding a
+colony. But from the very commencement of the undertaking, which, it
+will be seen, proved an entire failure, difficulties presented
+themselves. Roberval was unable to provide all the requisite supplies of
+small arms, ammunition, and other stores, as he had engaged to do,
+during the winter of 1540. It also was found difficult to induce
+volunteers and emigrants to embark. It was, therefore, settled that
+Roberval should remain behind to complete his preparations, while
+Cartier, with five vessels, provisioned for two years, should set sail
+at once for the St. Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p>On May 23, 1541, Cartier departed from St. Malo on his third voyage to
+Canada. After a protracted passage of twelve weeks, the fleet arrived at
+Stadacona. Cartier and some of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> his people landed and entered into
+communication with the natives, who flocked round him as they had done
+in 1535. They desired to know what had become of their chief, Donacona,
+and the warriors who had been carried off to France five years before.
+On being made aware that all had died, they became distant and sullen in
+their behavior. They held out no inducements to the French to
+re&euml;stablish their quarters at Stadacona. Perceiving this, as well as
+signs of dissimulation, Cartier determined to take such steps as might
+secure himself and followers from suffering through their resentment.
+Two of his ships he sent back at once to France, with letters for the
+King and for Roberval, reporting his movements, and soliciting such
+supplies as were needed. With the remaining ships he ascended the St.
+Lawrence as far as Cap-Rouge, where a station was chosen close to the
+mouth of a stream which flowed into the great river. Here it was
+determined to moor the ships and to erect such storehouses and other
+works as might be necessary for security and convenience. It was also
+decided to raise a small fort or forts on the highland above, so as to
+command the station and protect themselves from any attack which the
+Indians might be disposed to make. While some of the people were
+employed upon the building of the fort, others were set at work
+preparing ground for cultivation. Cartier himself, in his report, bore
+ample testimony to the excellent qualities of the soil, as well as the
+general fitness of the country for settlement.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>Having made all the dispositions necessary for the security of the
+station at Cap-Rouge, and for continuing, during his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> absence, the works
+already commenced, Cartier departed for Hochelaga on September 7th, with
+a party of men, in two barges. On the passage up he found the Indians
+whom he had met in 1535 as friendly as before. The natives of Hochelaga
+seemed also well disposed, and rendered all the assistance he sought in
+enabling him to attempt the passage up the rapids situated above that
+town. Failing to accomplish this, he remained but a short time among
+them, gathering all the information they could furnish about the regions
+bordering on the Upper St. Lawrence. He then hastened back to Cap-Rouge.
+On his way down he found the Indians, who a short time before were so
+friendly, changed and cold in their demeanor, if not actually hostile.
+Arrived at Cap-Rouge, the first thing he learned was that the Indians
+had ceased to visit the station as at first, and, instead of coming
+daily with supplies of fish and fruit, that they only approached near
+enough to manifest, by their demeanor and gestures, feelings decidedly
+hostile toward the French. In fact, during Cartier's absence, former
+causes of enmity had been heightened by a quarrel, in which, although
+some of his own people had, in the first instance, been the aggressors,
+a powerful savage had killed a Frenchman, and threatened to deal with
+another in like manner.</p>
+
+<p>Winter came, but not Roberval with the expected supplies of warlike
+stores and men, now so much needed, in order to curb the insolence of
+the natives. Of the incidents of that winter passed at Cap-Rouge, there
+is but little reliable information extant. It is understood, however,
+that the Indians continued to harass and molest the French throughout
+the period of their stay, and that Cartier, with his inadequate force,
+found it difficult to repel their attacks. When spring came round, the
+inconveniences to which they had been exposed, and the discouraging
+character of their prospects, led to a unanimous determination to
+abandon the station and return to France as soon as possible.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>At the very time that Cartier, in Canada, was occupied in preparations
+for the re&euml;mbarkation of the people who had wintered at Cap-Rouge,
+Roberval, in France, was completing his arrangements for departure from
+Rochelle with three considerable ships. In these were embarked two
+hundred persons, consisting of gentlemen, soldiers, sailors, and
+colonists, male and female, among whom was a considerable number of
+criminals taken out of the public prisons. The two squadrons met in the
+harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland, when Cartier, after making his
+report to Roberval, was desired to return with the outward-bound
+expedition to Canada. Foreseeing the failure of the undertaking, or, as
+some have alleged, unwilling to allow another to participate in the
+credit of his discoveries, Cartier disobeyed the orders of his superior
+officer. Various accounts have been given of this transaction, according
+to some of which, Cartier, to avoid detention or importunity, weighed
+anchor in the night-time and set sail for France.</p>
+
+<p>Roberval resumed his voyage westward, and by the close of July had
+ascended the St. Lawrence to Cap-Rouge, where he at once established his
+colonists in the quarters recently vacated by Cartier.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to narrate in detail the incidents which transpired in
+connection with Roberval's expedition, as this proved a signal failure,
+and produced no results of consequence to the future fortunes of the
+country. It is sufficient to state that, although Roberval himself was a
+man endowed with courage and perseverance, he found himself powerless to
+cope with the difficulties of his position, which included
+insubordination that could be repressed only by means of the gallows and
+other extreme modes of punishment; disease, which carried off a quarter
+of his followers in the course of the ensuing winter; unsuccessful
+attempts at exploration, attended with considerable loss of life; and
+finally famine, which reduced the surviving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> French to a state of abject
+dependence upon the natives for the salvation of their lives. Roberval
+had sent one of his vessels back to France, with urgent demands for
+succor; but the King, instead of acceding to his petition, despatched
+orders for him to return home. It is stated, on somewhat doubtful
+authority, that Cartier himself was deputed to bring home the relics of
+the expedition; and, if so, this distinguished navigator must have made
+a fourth voyage out to the regions which he had been the first to make
+known to the world. Thus ended Roberval's abortive attempt to establish
+a French colony on the banks of the St. Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p>Of the principal actors in the scenes which have been described, but
+little remains to be recorded. Roberval, after having distinguished
+himself in the European wars carried on by Francis I, is stated to have
+fitted out another expedition, in conjunction with his brother, in the
+year 1549, for the purpose of making a second attempt to found a colony
+in Canada; but he and all with him perished at sea. The intrepid
+Cartier, by whose services in the western hemisphere so extensive an
+addition had been made to the dominions of the King of France, was
+suffered to retire into obscurity, and is supposed to have passed the
+remainder of his days on a small estate possessed by him in the
+neighborhood of his native place, St. Malo. The date of his decease is
+unknown.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The courts of Spain and Portugal had protested against any
+fresh expedition from France to the west, alleging that, by right of
+prior discovery, as well as the Pope's grant of all the western regions
+to themselves, the French could not go there without invading their
+privileges. Francis, on the other hand, treated these pretensions with
+derision, observing sarcastically that he would "like to see the clause
+in old Father Adam's will by which an inheritance so vast was bequeathed
+to his brothers of Spain and Portugal."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> The dates in this and subsequent pages are in accordance
+with the "old style" of reckoning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> It has not been satisfactorily settled to what tribe the
+Indians belonged who were found by Cartier at Hochelaga. Some have even
+doubted the accuracy of his description in relation to their numbers,
+the character of their habitations, and other circumstances, under the
+belief that allowance must be made for exaggeration in the accounts of
+the first European visitors, who were desirous that their adventures
+should rival those of Cort&eacute;s and Pizarro. It has also been suggested
+that the people were not Hurons, but remnants of the Iroquois tribes,
+who might have lingered there on their way southward. At any rate, when
+the place was revisited by Frenchmen more than half a century afterward,
+very few savages were seen in the neighborhood, and these different from
+those met by Cartier, while the town itself was no longer in existence.
+Champlain, upward of seventy years after Jacques Cartier, visited
+Hochelaga, but made no mention in his narrative either of the town or of
+inhabitants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Commission dated October 20, 1540. In this document the
+French King's appreciation of Cartier's merits is strongly shown in the
+terms employed to express his royal confidence "in the character,
+judgment, ability, loyalty, dignity, hardihood, great diligence, and
+experience of the said Jacques Cartier." Cartier was also authorized to
+select fifty prisoners "whom he might judge useful," etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> His description is substantially as follows: "On both
+sides of the river were very good lands filled with as beautiful and
+vigorous trees as are to be seen in the world, and of various sorts. A
+great many oaks, the finest I have ever seen in my life, and so full of
+acorns that they seemed like to break down with their weight. Besides
+these there were the most beautiful maples, cedars, birches, and other
+kinds of trees not to be seen in France. The forest land toward the
+south is covered with vines, which are found loaded with grapes as black
+as brambleberries. There were also many hawthorn-trees, with leaves as
+large as those of the oak, and fruit like that of the medlar-tree. In
+short, the country is as fit for cultivation as one could find or
+desire. We sowed seeds of cabbage, lettuce, turnips, and others of our
+country, which came up in eight days."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Early in the spring of 1542 Cartier seems to have made
+several small excursions in search of gold and silver. That these
+existed in the country, especially in the region of the Saguenay, was
+intimated to him by the Indians; and this information probably led
+Roberval afterward to undertake his unfortunate excursion to Tadousac.
+Cartier did find a yellowish material, which he styled "<i>poudre d'or</i>,"
+and which he took to France, after exhibiting it to Roberval when he met
+him at Newfoundland. It is likely that this was merely fine sand
+intermixed with particles of mica. He also took with him small
+transparent stones, which he supposed to be diamonds, but which could
+have been no other than transparent crystals of quartz.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Cartier was born December 31, 1494. He was therefore in
+the prime of life when he discovered Canada, and not more than
+forty-nine years of age at the time when he returned home from his last
+trip to the west.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+<h2>MENDOZA SETTLES BUENOS AIRES</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1535</h4>
+
+<h3>ROBERT SOUTHEY</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By the discovery in 1515 of the Rio de la Plata ("River of
+Silver"), the Spaniards opened for themselves a way to
+colonization in South America. The first explorer, Juan Diaz
+de Solis, was killed by the Indians on landing from the
+river. But in 1519 Magellan, while on his great voyage of
+circumnavigation, visited the Plata, and in 1526 Sebastian
+Cabot, in the service of Charles I of Spain (the emperor
+Charles V), ascended the river to the junction of the
+Paraguay and the Parana, both of which he then explored for
+a long distance.</p>
+
+<p>Among the natives, whose silver ornaments, it is said, gave
+origin to the name La Plata, as well as to that of
+Argentina, Cabot passed two years in friendly intercourse.
+He then sent to Spain an account of Paraguay, and a request
+for authority and re&euml;nforcements to take possession of the
+country with its rich resources. Although his request was
+favorably received, no efficient action was taken upon it,
+and, after waiting for five years, Cabot, despairing of the
+necessary assistance, left the region.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long, however, before a somewhat extensive
+settlement in those parts was projected. Don Pedro Mendoza,
+a knight of Guadix, Granada, one of the royal household,
+undertook the colonization of the country, and September 1,
+1534, he sailed from San Lucar.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Mendoza had enriched himself at the sackage of Rome by the Constable de
+Bourbon in 1527. Ill-gotten wealth has been so often ill-expended as to
+have occasioned proverbs in all languages; the plunder of Rome did not
+satisfy him, and, dreaming of other Mexicos and Cuzcos, he obtained a
+grant of all the country from the river Plata to the straits, to be his
+government, with permission to proceed across the continent to the South
+Sea.</p>
+
+<p>He undertook to carry out in two voyages, and within two years, a
+thousand men, a hundred horses, and stores for one year at his own
+expense, the King<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> granting him the title of <i>adelantado</i>, and a
+salary of two thousand ducats for life, with two thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> more from the
+fruits of the conquest in aid of his expenses. He was to build three
+fortresses, and be perpetual alcaid of the first; his heirs after him
+were to be first alguazils of the place where he fixed his residence,
+and after he had remained three years he might transfer the task of
+completing the colonization and conquest either to his heir or any other
+person whom it might please him to appoint&mdash;and with it the privileges
+annexed&mdash;if within two years the King approved the choice.</p>
+
+<p>A king's ransom was now understood to belong to the crown; but as a
+further inducement this prerogative was waived in favor of Mendoza and
+his soldiers, who were to share it, first having deduced the royal
+fifth, and then a sixth. If, however, the King in question were slain in
+battle, half the spoils should go to the crown. These terms were made in
+wishful remembrance of the ransom of Atabalipa.</p>
+
+<p>He was to take with him a physician, an apothecary, and a surgeon, and
+especially eight "religioners." Life is lightly hazarded by those who
+have nothing more to stake, but that a man should, like Mendoza, stake
+such riches as would content the most desperate life-gambler for his
+winnings is one of the many indications how generally and how strongly
+the contagious spirit of adventure was at that time prevailing.</p>
+
+<p>Mendoza had covenanted to carry five hundred men in his first voyage.
+Such was his reputation, and such the ardor for going to the Silver
+River, that more adventurers offered than it was possible for him to
+take, and he accelerated his departure on account of the enormous
+expense which such a host occasioned. The force with which he set forth
+consisted of eleven ships and eight hundred men. So fine an armament had
+never yet sailed from Europe for America: but they who beheld its
+departure are said to have remarked that the service of the dead ought
+to be performed for the adventurers. They reached Rio de Janeiro after a
+prosperous voyage, and remained there a fortnight, during which time the
+Adelantado, being crippled by a contraction of the sinews, appointed
+Juan Osorio to command in his stead. Having made this arrangement they
+proceeded to their place of destination, anchored at Isle St. Gabriel
+within the Plata, and then on its southern shore and beside a little
+river. There Don Pedro de Mendoza laid the foundation of a town<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> which
+because of its healthy climate he named "Nuestra Se&ntilde;ora de Buenos Aires"
+("Our Lady of Good Air"). It was not long before he was made jealous of
+Osorio by certain envious officers, and, weakly lending ear to wicked
+accusations, he ordered them to fall upon him and kill him, then drag
+his body into the plaza, or public market-place, and proclaim him a
+traitor. The murder was perpetrated, and thus was the expedition
+deprived of one who is described as an honest and generous good soldier.</p>
+
+<p>Experience had not yet taught the Spaniards that any large body of
+settlers in a land of savages must starve unless well supplied with food
+from other sources until they can raise it for themselves. The
+Quirandies, who possessed the country round about this new settlement,
+were a wandering tribe who, in places where there was no water, quenched
+their thirst by eating a root which they called <i>cardes</i>, or by sucking
+the blood of the animals which they slew.</p>
+
+<p>About three thousand of these savages had pitched their movable
+dwellings some four leagues from the spot which Mendoza had chosen for
+the site of his city. They were well pleased with their visitors, and
+during fourteen days brought fish and meat to the camp; on the fifteenth
+day they failed, and Mendoza sent a few Spaniards to them to look for
+provisions, who came back empty-handed and wounded. Upon this, he
+ordered his brother Don Diego, with three hundred soldiers and thirty
+horsemen, to storm their town, and kill or take prisoner the whole
+horde. The Quirandies had sent away their women and children, collected
+a body of allies, and were ready for the attack. Their weapons were bows
+and arrows and <i>tardes</i>&mdash;stone-headed tridents about half the length of
+a lance. Against the horsemen they used a long thong, having a ball of
+stone at either end. With this they were wont to catch their game;
+throwing it with practised aim at the legs of the animal it coiled round
+and brought it to the ground. In all former wars with the Indians the
+horsemen had been the main strength and often the salvation of the
+Spaniards. This excellent mode of attack made them altogether useless;
+they could not defend themselves. The commander and six hidalgos were
+thrown and killed, and the whole body of horse must have been cut off if
+the rest had not fled in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> time and been protected by the infantry. About
+twenty foot-soldiers were slain with tardes. But it was not possible
+that these people, brave as they were, could stand against European
+weapons and such soldiers as the Spaniards: they gave way at last,
+leaving many of their brethren dead, but not a single prisoner. The
+conquerors found in their town plenty of flour, fish, what is called
+"fish-butter"&mdash;which probably means inspissated oil&mdash;otter-skins, and
+fishing-nets. They left a hundred men to fish with these nets, and the
+others returned to the camp.</p>
+
+<p>Mendoza was a wretched leader for such an expedition. He seems,
+improvidently, to have trusted to the natives for provision and to have
+quarrelled with them unnecessarily. Very soon after his arrival six
+ounces of bread had been the daily allowance; it was now reduced to
+three ounces of flour, and, every third day, a fish. They marked out the
+city and began a mud wall for its defence, the height of a lance and
+three feet thick. It was badly constructed: what was built up one day,
+fell down the next; the soldiers had not as yet learned this part of
+their duties.</p>
+
+<p>A strong house was built within the circuit for the Adelantado; meantime
+their strength began to fail for want of food. Rats, snakes, and vermin
+of every eatable size were soon exterminated from the environs. Three
+men stole a horse and ate it; they were tortured to make them confess
+the fact and then hanged for it; their bodies were left upon the
+gallows, and in the night all the flesh below the waist was cut away.
+One man ate the corpse of his brother; some murdered their messmates for
+the sake of receiving their rations as long as they could conceal their
+death by saying they were ill. The mortality was very great. Mendoza,
+seeing that all must perish if they remained here, sent George Luchsan,
+one of his German or Flemish adventurers, up the river, with four
+brigantines, to seek for food. Wherever they came the natives fled
+before them and burned what they could not carry away. Half the men were
+famished to death, and all must have perished if they had not fallen in
+with a tribe who gave them barely enough maize to support them during
+their return.</p>
+
+<p>The Quirandies had not been dismayed by one defeat: they prevailed upon
+the Bartenes, the Zechuruas, and the Timbues to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> join them, and with a
+force which the besieged in their fear estimated at three-and-twenty
+thousand&mdash;though it did not probably amount to a third of that
+number&mdash;suddenly attacked the new city. The weapons which they used were
+not less ingeniously adapted to their present purpose than those which
+had proved so effectual against the horse. They are said to have had
+arrows which took fire at the point as soon as they were discharged,
+which were not extinguished until they had burned out, and which kindled
+whatever they touched. With these devilish instruments they set fire to
+the thatched huts of the settlers and consumed them all. The stone house
+of the Adelantado was the only dwelling which escaped destruction. At
+the same time, and with the same weapons, they attacked the ships and
+burned four; the other three got to a safe distance in time and at
+length drove them off with their artillery. About thirty Spaniards were
+slain.</p>
+
+<p>The Adelantado now left a part of his diminished force in the ships to
+repair the settlement, giving them stores enough to keep them from
+starving for a year, which they were to eke out as best they could; he
+himself advancing up the river with the rest in the brigantines and
+smaller vessels. But he deputed his authority to Juan de Ayolas, being
+utterly unequal to the fatigue of command&mdash;in fact he was, at this time,
+dying of the most loathsome and dreadful malady that human vices have
+ever yet brought upon human nature.</p>
+
+<p>About eighty-four leagues up the river they came to an island inhabited
+by the Timbues, who received them well. Mendoza presented their chief,
+Zchera Wasu, with a shirt, a red cap, an axe, and a few other trifles,
+in return for which he received fish and game enough to save the lives
+of his people. This tribe trusted wholly to fishing and to the chase for
+food. They used long canoes. The men were naked, and ornamented both
+nostrils with stones. The women wore a cotton cloth from the waist to
+the knee, and cut beauty-slashes in their faces. Here the Spaniards took
+up their abode, and named the place "Buena Esperanza," signifying "Good
+Hope." One Gonzalo Romero, who had been one of Cabot's people and had
+been living among the savages, joined them here. He told them there were
+large and rich settlements up the country, and it was thought advisable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+that Ayolas should proceed with the brigantines in search of them.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime Mendoza, who was now become completely crippled, returned to
+Buenos Aires, where he found a great part of his people dead, and the
+survivors struggling with famine and every species of wretchedness. They
+were relieved by the arrival of Gonzalo Mendoza, who, at the beginning
+of their distresses, had been despatched to the coast of Brazil in quest
+of supplies. Part of Cabot's people, after the destruction of his
+settlement, had sailed for Brazil and established themselves in a bay
+called Ygua, four-and-twenty leagues from St. Vicente. There they began
+to form plantations, and continued two years on friendly terms with the
+adjoining natives and with the Portuguese. Disputes then arose, and,
+according to the Castilian account (for no other remains), the
+Portuguese resolved to fall upon them and drive them out of the country;
+of this they obtained intelligence, surprised the intended invaders,
+plundered the town of St. Vicente, and, being joined by some
+discontented Portuguese from that infant colony, sailed in two ships for
+the island of St. Catalina. There these adventurers began a new
+settlement, but such was their restless spirit that, when Gonzalo
+Mendoza arrived there, they were easily persuaded to abandon the houses
+which they had just constructed, and the fields which were now beginning
+to afford them comfortable subsistence; and the whole colony, with their
+two ships, joined him and made for the Plata, to partake in the conquest
+and spoils of the Silver River.</p>
+
+<p>They brought a considerable supply of stores, and were themselves well
+armed and well supplied with ammunition. Some Brazilian Indians with
+their families accompanied them, and they themselves, being accustomed
+to the language and manners of the natives, were of the most essential
+service to the adventurers with whom they joined company. At sight of
+this seasonable relief Mendoza returned thanks to God, shedding tears of
+joy. He waited awhile in hopes of hearing good tidings from Ayolas, and
+at length sent Juan de Salazar with a second detachment in quest of him.
+His health grew daily worse and his hopes fainter; he had lost his
+brother in this expedition, and expended above forty thousand ducats of
+his substance; nor did there appear much probability of any eventual
+success to reimburse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> him, so he determined to sail for Spain, leaving
+Francisco Ruyz to command at Buenos Aires, and appointing Ayolas
+governor if he should return; and Salazar, in case of his death. His
+instructions were that, as soon as either of them should return, he was
+to examine what provisions were left, and allow no rations to any
+persons who could support themselves, nor to any women who were not
+employed in either washing or in some other such necessary service; that
+he should sink the ships, or dispose of them in some other manner, and,
+if he thought fit, proceed across the continent to Peru, where, if he
+met with Pizarro and Almagro, he was to procure their friendship in the
+Adelantado's name; and if Almagro should be disposed to give him one
+hundred fifty thousand ducats for a resignation of his government&mdash;as he
+had given to Pedro de Alvarado&mdash;he was to accept it&mdash;or even one hundred
+thousand&mdash;unless it should appear more profitable not to close with such
+an offer. How strong must his hope of plunder have been after four years
+of continued disappointment and misery!</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, he charged his successor, if it should please God to give him
+any jewel or precious stone, not to omit sending it him, as some help in
+his trouble, and he instructed him to form a settlement on the way to
+Peru, either upon the Paraguay or elsewhere, from whence tidings of his
+proceedings might be transmitted. Having left these directions Mendoza
+embarked, still dreaming of gold and jewels. On the voyage they were so
+distressed for provisions that he was obliged to kill a favorite bitch
+which had accompanied him through all his troubles. While he was eating
+this wretched meal his senses failed him&mdash;he began to rave, and died in
+the course of two days.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Charles I of Spain, who was also the emperor Charles V.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+<h2>FOUNDING OF THE JESUITS</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1540</h4>
+
+<h3>ISAAC TAYLOR</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Toward the middle of the sixteenth century definite
+utterance began to be given to a widespread feeling in the
+Church that the old monastic orders were no longer
+fulfilling their purpose. Suggestions of new orders were
+entertained by the church authorities, and plans for their
+formation&mdash;not to supersede but to supplement the old&mdash;began
+to assume shape.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile an enthusiastic Spanish soldier, who had renounced
+the profession of arms, independently gathered about himself
+the nucleus of what was to be one of the most famous orders
+in the history of the Church. This organization, called the
+Company (or Society) of Jesus, but better known to many as
+the Order of Jesuits, owes its foundation primarily to
+Ignatius de Loyola (Inigo Lopez de Recalde), who was born at
+the castle of Loyola, Guipuzcoa, Spain, in 1491. After being
+educated as a page at the court of Ferdinand, he joined the
+army, and during his recovery from a wound received at
+Pamplona in 1521, he became imbued with spiritual ardor and
+dedicated himself to the service of the Virgin. Henceforth
+the "fiery Ignatius" devoted himself to the pursuit and, as
+he believed, the purification of religion.</p>
+
+<p>In 1528 he entered the University of Paris, and there, with
+a few associates, in 1534 he projected the new religious
+order, which in 1540 was confirmed by the Pope. <i>The
+Constitution of the Order</i> and <i>Spiritual Exercises</i> were
+written by him in Spanish. The object of these comrades was
+to battle for the Church in that time of religious warfare,
+to stop the spread of heresy, and especially to stay the
+progress of Protestantism and win back those who had
+abandoned the old faith. Exempting themselves from the
+routine of monastic duties, the members of the new order
+were to have freedom for preaching, hearing confessions, and
+educating the young.</p>
+
+<p>After considering and abandoning various plans for work
+abroad, the band of fathers at last decided to devote
+themselves to serving the Church within its own domains, and
+the first step was a visit of some members of the fraternity
+to Rome for the purpose of obtaining papal confirmation.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Loyola himself, with his chosen colleagues, Faber and Lainez, undertook
+the mission to Rome, while the eight others were to disperse themselves
+throughout Northern Italy, and especially to gain a footing, if they
+could, and to acquire influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> at those seats of learning where the
+youth of Italy were to be met with; such as Padua, Ferrara, Bologna,
+Siena, and Vicenza. Surprising effects resulted, it is said, from these
+labors; but we turn toward the three fathers, Ignatius, Lainez, and
+Faber, who were now making their way on foot to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>If Loyola's course of secular study, and if his various engagements as
+evangelist and as chief of a society, had at all chilled his devotional
+ardor, or had drawn his thoughts away from the unseen world, this fervor
+and this upward direction of the mind now returned to him in full force:
+we are assured that, on this pilgrimage, and "through favor of the
+Virgin," his days and nights were passed in a sort of continuous
+ecstasy. As they drew toward the city, and while upon the Siena road, he
+turned aside to a chapel, then in a ruinous condition, and which he
+entered alone. Here ecstasy became more ecstatic still; and, in a
+trance, he believed himself very distinctly to see Him whom, as holy
+Scripture affirms, "no man hath seen at any time." By the side of this
+vision of the invisible appeared Jesus, bearing a huge cross. The Father
+presents Ignatius to the Son, who utters the words, so full of meaning,
+"I will be favorable to you at Rome."</p>
+
+<p>It is no agreeable task thus to compromise the awful realities of
+religion, and thus to perplex the distinctions which a religious mind
+wishes to observe between truth and illusion; yet it seems inevitable to
+narrate that which comes before us, as an integral and important portion
+of the history we have to do with. And yet incidents such as these,
+while they will be very far from availing to bring us over as converts
+to the system which they are supposed supernaturally to authenticate,
+need not generate any extreme revulsion of feeling in an opposite
+direction. Good men, ill-trained, or trained under a system which to so
+great an extent is factitious, demand from us often, we do not say that
+which an enlightened Christian charity does not include, but a something
+which is logically distinguishable from it; we mean a philosophic habit
+of mind, accustomed to deal with human nature, and with its wonderful
+inconsistencies, on the broadest principles.</p>
+
+<p>Some diversities of language present themselves in the narratives that
+have come down to us of this vision. In that which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> perhaps, is worthy
+of the most regard, the phraseology is such as to suggest the belief
+that its <i>exact</i> meaning should not easily be gathered from the words.
+Loyola had asked of the blessed Virgin, "<i>ut eum cum filio suo
+poneret</i>"; and during this trance this request, whatever it might mean,
+was manifestly granted.</p>
+
+<p>From this vision, and from the memorable words "<i>Ego vobis Rom&aelig;
+propitius ero</i>," the society may be said to have taken its formal
+commencement, and to have drawn its appellation. Henceforward it was the
+"Society of Jesus," for its founder, introduced to the Son of God by the
+eternal Father, had been orally assured of the divine favor&mdash;favor
+consequent upon his present visit to Rome. Here, then, we have exposed
+to our view the inner economy or divine machinery of the Jesuit
+Institute. The Mother of God is the primary mediatrix; the Father, at
+her intercession, obtains for the founder an auspicious audience of the
+Son; and the Son authenticates the use to be made of his name in this
+instance; and so it is that the inchoate order is to be the "Society of
+Jesus."</p>
+
+<p>An inquiry, to which in fact no certain reply could be given, obtrudes
+itself upon the mind on an occasion like this; namely, how far the
+infidelity and atheism which pervaded Europe in the next and the
+following century sprung directly out of profanation such as this?
+Merely to narrate them, and to do so in the briefest manner, does
+violence to every genuine sentiment of piety. What must have been the
+effect produced upon frivolous and sceptical tempers when with sedulous
+art such things were put forward as solemn verities not to be
+distinguished from the primary truths of religion, and entitled to the
+same reverential regard in our minds!</p>
+
+<p>Loyola, although thus warranted, as he thought, in assuming for his
+order so peculiar and exclusive a designation, used a discreet reserve
+at the first in bringing it forward, lest he should wound the self-love
+of rival bodies, or seem to be challenging for his company a superiority
+over other religious orders. So much caution as this his experience
+would naturally suggest to him; and that he felt the need of it is
+indicated by what he is reported to have said as he entered Rome.
+Although the words so recently pronounced still sounded in his ear,
+"<i>Ego vobis Rom&aelig; propitius ero</i>," yet as he set foot within the city he
+turned to his companions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> and said, with a solemn significance of tone,
+"I see the windows shut!"&mdash;meaning that they should there meet much
+opposition, and find occasion for the exercise of prudence and of
+patient endurance of sufferings; of prudence, not less than of patience.</p>
+
+<p>But while care was to be taken not to draw toward themselves the envious
+or suspicious regards of the religious orders or of ecclesiastical
+potentates, there was even a more urgent need of discretion in avoiding
+those occasions of scandal which might spring from their undertaking the
+cure of the souls of the other sex. Into what jeopardy of their saintly
+reputation had certain eminent men fallen in this very manner; and how
+narrowly had they escaped the heaviest imputations! The fathers were not
+to take upon themselves the office of confessors to women&mdash;"<i>nisi essent
+admodum illustres</i>." That the risk must necessarily be less, or that
+there would be none in the instance of ladies of high rank, is not
+conspicuously certain; but if not, what were those special motives which
+should warrant the fathers in incurring this peril in such cases? Mere
+Christian charity would undoubtedly impel a man to meet danger for the
+welfare of the soul of a poor sempstress as readily as for that of a
+duchess or the mistress of a monarch. If, therefore, the peril is to be
+braved in the one case which ought to be evaded in the other, there must
+be present some motive of which Christian charity knows nothing. So
+acutely alive was Loyola to the evils that might spring to his order
+from this source that we find him at a later period not merely rejecting
+ladies, "<i>admodum illustres</i>," but bearding the Pope and the cardinals,
+and glaringly contravening his own vow of unconditional obedience to the
+Vicar of Christ, rather than give way to the solicitations of fair and
+noble penitents.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the arrival of the three&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, Loyola, Faber, and
+Lainez&mdash;at Rome, in the year 1537, they obtained an audience of the
+Pope, who welcomed their return, and gave anew his sanction to their
+endeavors. Faber and Lainez received appointments as theological
+professors in the gymnasium; while Loyola addressed himself wholly to
+the care of souls and to the reform of abuses. To several persons of
+distinction and to some dignitaries of the Church he administered the
+discipline of the <i>Spiritual Exercises</i>, they, for this purpose,
+withdrawing to solitudes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> in the neighborhood of Rome, where they were
+daily conversed with and instructed by himself. At the same time he
+labored in hospitals, schools, and private houses to induce repentance
+and to cherish the languishing piety of those who would listen to him.
+Among such, who fully surrendered their souls to his guidance, were the
+Spanish procurator Peter Ortiz and Cardinal Gaspar Contarini, both of
+whom were led by him into a course of fervent devotion in which they
+persisted, and they, moreover, continued to use their powerful influence
+in favor of the infant society.</p>
+
+<p>The pulpits of many of the churches in the several cities where the
+fathers had stationed themselves, and some in Rome, had been opened to
+their use, and the energy and the freshness of their eloquence affected
+the popular mind in an extraordinary manner; sometimes, indeed, they
+brought upon themselves violent opposition, but in more frequent
+instances, their zeal and patient assiduity triumphing over prejudice,
+jealousy, ecclesiastical inertness, and voluptuousness, the tide of
+feeling set in with this new impulse, and a commencement was effectively
+made of that Catholic revival which spread itself throughout Southern
+Europe, turned back the Reformation wave, saved the papacy, and secured
+for Christendom the still needed antagonist influence of the Romish and
+of the reformed systems of doctrine, worship, and polity.</p>
+
+<p>At Rome, Loyola, by his personal exertions, effected great reforms in
+liturgical services&mdash;induced a more frequent and devout attention to the
+sacraments of confession and the eucharist; established and promoted the
+catechetical instruction of youth; and, in a word, restored to Romanism
+much of its vitality.</p>
+
+<p>The author and mover of so much healthful change did not escape the
+persecutions that are the lot of reformers. Such trials Loyola
+encountered, and passed through triumphantly&mdash;so we are assured; but in
+listening to the Jesuit writers, when telling their own story, where the
+credit of the order and the reputation of its founder are deeply
+implicated, it is with reservation that we follow them.</p>
+
+<p>So fearful a storm&mdash;yet a storm long before descried, it is said, by
+Loyola&mdash;fell suddenly upon him and his colleagues that it seemed as if
+the infant society could by no means resist the impetuous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> torrent that
+assailed it. The populace, as well as persons in authority, suddenly
+gave heed to rumors most startling which came in at once from Spain,
+from France, and from the North of Italy, and the purport of which was
+to throw upon the fathers the most grievous imputations affecting their
+personal character as well as their doctrine. These men were reported to
+be heretics, Lutherans in disguise, seducers of youth, and men of
+flagitious life.</p>
+
+<p>The author or secret mover of this assault is said to have been a
+Piedmontese monk of the Augustinian order, himself a secret favorer of
+the Lutheran heresy and "a tool of Satan," and who at last, throwing off
+the mask, avowed himself a Lutheran. This man, for the purpose of
+diverting from himself the suspicions of which his mode of preaching had
+made him the object at Rome, raised this outcry against Loyola and his
+companions, affirming of them slanderously and falsely what was quite
+true as to himself.</p>
+
+<p>The Pope and the court having been absent for some time from Rome, this
+disguised heresiarch had seized the opportunity for gaining the ear of
+the populace by inveighing against the vices of ecclesiastics, and
+insinuating opinions to which he gave a color of truth by citations from
+Scripture and the early fathers. Two of Loyola's colleagues, Salmeron
+and Lainez, who in their passage through Germany had become skilled in
+detecting Lutheran pravity, were deputed to listen to this noisy
+preacher; they did so, and reported that the audacious man was, under
+some disguise of terms, broaching rank Lutheranism in the very heart of
+Rome. Loyola, however, determined to treat the heresiarch courteously,
+and therefore sent him privately an admonition to abstain from a course
+which occasioned so much scandal, and which could not but afflict
+Catholic ears. The preacher took fire at this remonstrance, and openly
+attacked those who had dared thus to rebuke him.</p>
+
+<p>Thus attacked, Loyola and his colleagues, on their side, loudly
+maintained the great points of Catholic doctrine impugned by this
+preacher, such as the merit and necessity of good works, the validity of
+religious vows, and the supreme authority of the Church; and in
+consequence it became extremely difficult on his part to ward off the
+imputation of Lutheranism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> or to make it appear that he was anything
+else than a self-condemned heretic. He, however, so far commanded the
+popular mind that he maintained his reputation and his influence, and
+actually succeeded in rendering his accusers the objects of almost
+universal suspicion or hatred. Their powerful friends forsook them; all
+stood aloof, or all but a Spaniard named Garzonio, who, having lodged
+Loyola and some of his companions under his roof, knew well their
+soundness in the faith and their personal piety. Through his timely
+intervention the cardinal-dean of the sacred college was induced to
+inform himself, by a personal interview, of their doctrine and life.</p>
+
+<p>This dignitary was satisfied, and more than satisfied, of the innocence
+and piety of the fathers. Nevertheless, Loyola, looking far forward, and
+knowing well what detriment to his order might arise in remote quarters
+from slanders not authoritatively refuted and disallowed, demanded to be
+confronted with his accusers before the ecclesiastical authorities. He
+would be content with no vague and irregular expression of approval&mdash;he
+would accept no half acquittal. He sought, and at length obtained, an
+official exculpation in the amplest terms, with an acknowledgment of his
+orthodoxy on the part of the highest authority on earth, and this was
+granted under circumstances that gave it universal notoriety.</p>
+
+<p>In court the principal witness was confounded by proof, under his own
+hand, of the falseness of the allegation he had advanced; and at the
+same time testimonials from the highest quarters in favor of the
+fathers, severally and individually, arrived opportunely; in a word, the
+society, in this early and signal instance, triumphed over its
+assailants, and thenceforward it occupied a position the most lofty and
+commanding in the view of the Catholic world. Loyola and his colleagues
+saw the ruin of their adversaries, two of whom, falling into the hands
+of the inquisitors, were burned as heretics.</p>
+
+<p>The time was now come for effecting a permanent organization of the
+society and for installing a chief at its head. With these purposes in
+view, Loyola summoned his colleagues to Rome from the cities of Italy
+where they were severally laboring. The fathers being assembled, he
+commended to them anew the proposal which they had already accepted, but
+which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> he seemed anxious to fix irrevocably upon their consciences by
+often-repeated challenges of the most solemn kind. To impart the more
+solemnity to this repetition of their mutual engagements, and to
+preclude, by all means, the possibility of retraction, he advised that
+several days should be devoted to preliminary prayer and fasting, during
+which season each should, with an absolute surrender of himself to the
+will of God, await passively the manifestation of that will.</p>
+
+<p>"Heaven," said Loyola to his companions, "heaven has forbidden Palestine
+to our zeal&mdash;nevertheless that zeal burns with increasing intensity from
+day to day. Should we not hence infer that God has called us&mdash;not,
+indeed, to undertake the conversion of one nation or of a country, but
+of all the people and of all the kingdoms of the world?"</p>
+
+<p>Such was the founder's profession and such the limits of his ambition.
+The spiritual mechanism which he had devised, and which he was now
+putting in movement, intends nothing that is partial or circumscribed;
+its very purport is universality; it is absolutism carried out until it
+has embraced the human family and has brought every human spirit into
+its toils.</p>
+
+<p>But so small a band could hope for no success that should be indicative
+of ultimate triumph unless they would surrender themselves individually
+to a common will, which should be to each of them as the will of God,
+articulately pronounced. After renewing, therefore, the vows of poverty,
+of chastity, and of unconditional obedience to the Pope, the fathers
+assented to the proposal that one of their number should, by the
+suffrages of all, be constituted the superior or general of the order,
+and as such be invested with an authority as absolute as it was possible
+for man to exercise or for men to submit to. Yet to whose hands should
+be assigned&mdash;and for life&mdash;this irresponsible power over the bodies,
+souls, and understandings of his companions?</p>
+
+<p>It had not been until after a lengthened preparation of fasting, prayer,
+and night-watching that a resolution so appalling had been formed. Yet
+it was easier to consent to the proposal, abstractedly placed before
+them, than to yield themselves to all its undefined and irrevocable
+consequences, when the awful surrender of what is most precious to
+man&mdash;his individuality&mdash;was to be made, not to a chief unnamed, but to
+this or that one among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> themselves. To whose hands could the ten consign
+the irresponsible disposal of their souls and bodies? They had, however,
+already advanced too far to recede. They had, as they believed, in
+humble imitation of Christ the Lord, offered themselves as a living
+sacrifice to God&mdash;so far as concerned the body&mdash;by the vow of poverty
+and the vow of chastity. They had thus immolated the flesh, and had
+reserved to themselves nothing of worldly possessions, nothing of
+earthly solaces; all had been laid upon the altar. They, had, moreover
+professed their willingness to deposit there their very souls. The vow
+of unconditional obedience, as thus understood, was a holocaust of the
+immortal well-being. Each now, as an offering acceptable to God, was to
+pawn his interest in time and eternity, putting the pledge into the
+hands of one to be chosen by themselves. It was debated whether this
+absolute power should be conferred upon the holder of it for life or for
+a term of years only, and whether in the fullest sense it should be
+without conditions, or whether it should be limited by constitutional
+forms. At length, however, the election of a general for life was
+assented to, and especially for this reason&mdash;and it is well to note
+it&mdash;that the new society had been devised and formed for the very
+purpose of carrying forward vast designs which must demand a long course
+of years for their development and execution; and that no one who must
+look forward to the probable termination of his generalship at the
+expiration of a few years could be expected to undertake, or to
+prosecute with energy, any such far-reaching project. On the contrary,
+he should be allowed to believe that the limits of his life alone need
+be thought of as bounding his holy ambition. Provisions were made,
+however, for holding some sort of control over the individual to whom so
+much power was to be intrusted. The actual election of Loyola to the
+generalship did not formally take place until after the time when the
+order had received pontifical authentication. Meantime, all implicitly
+regarded him as their master; from him emanated the acts of the body;
+and to him was assigned the task&mdash;aided by Lainez&mdash;of preparing what
+should be the constitutions of the society.</p>
+
+<p>During the interval between the concerted organization of the order and
+the formal recognition of Loyola as the general he found several
+occasions highly favorable for extending and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> for enhancing his
+influence, as well among the common people as among ecclesiastical
+dignitaries. One such opportunity was afforded, soon after the
+above-mentioned exculpation of the fathers, by the occurrence of a
+famine during an unusually severe winter. The streets of Rome presented
+the spectacle of hundreds of half-naked and starving wretches who
+fruitlessly implored aid or who silently expired unaided. Loyola and his
+colleagues, themselves subsisting from day to day on alms, felt
+often&mdash;we are told&mdash;the nip of hunger, yet they needed no incitement
+which these scenes of woe did not spontaneously supply. They were at
+once alive to the claims of humanity and to the requirements of
+Christian duty. They begged for the perishing, took them to such shelter
+as was at their command, carefully and tenderly ministered to the sick,
+and, withal, used the advantage which these offices of kindness afforded
+them for purposes of religious instruction. Hundreds, rescued from death
+through cold and hunger, were thus brought to repentance on the path
+which the Church prescribes. A great impression in favor of the Jesuit
+fathers was made upon all classes by this course of conduct. In
+humanity, self-denying assiduity, and Christian zeal they had
+immeasurably surpassed any who might have pretended rivalry with them.</p>
+
+<p>It was now, therefore, that Loyola sought from the Pontiff that formal
+recognition which his personal assurances of regard and approval seemed
+to show he could not refuse. Paul III was, however, cautious in this
+instance, and seemed unwilling to commit himself and the Church at this
+critical moment, except so far as he knew himself to be supported by the
+feeling and opinion of those of the cardinals whom he most regarded. He
+referred Loyola's petition to three of them. The first of these was
+Barthelemi Guidiccioni, who had often declared himself to be decisively
+opposed to the multiplication of religious orders. The Church, he
+thought, had too many of these excrescences already, and, instead of
+adding another to the number, he would gladly have reduced them all to
+four. His two colleagues were easily induced to concur with him in this
+opinion, and thus it appeared as if the infant society, notwithstanding
+the advances it had lately made in securing the good opinion of persons
+of high rank, as well as in winning popular applause, was little likely
+to receive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> what was indispensable to its permanent establishment&mdash;a
+papal bull in its favor.</p>
+
+<p>Personally, however, the Pope did not conceal his cordial feeling toward
+Loyola and his companions. He seems to have perceived clearly that these
+men, resolute in their punctilious adherence to the doctrine and ritual
+of the Church, and committed by the most solemn engagements to its
+service&mdash;deep-purposed as they were, full of a well-governed energy,
+resolute in the performance of the most arduous duties, and, moreover,
+highly accomplished in secular and sacred learning&mdash;were the very
+instruments which the Church had need of in this crisis of its fate.
+Northern Europe was irrecoverably lost; Germany and Switzerland were
+held to Catholicism at points only; while France and Northern Italy were
+listening to the seductions of heresy. Scarcely could it be said, even
+of Spain, that it was clear of the same infection. The Church ought
+then, at such a moment, to embrace cordially, and by all means to favor,
+the efforts of men like Loyola and his distinguished companions.</p>
+
+<p>It was with this feeling that Paul III, while held back by his advisers
+from the course he would have adopted, went as far as he could in
+promoting and extending the influence of the society. At the same moment
+application had been made, on the part of several potentates, for the
+services of the fathers, who had already gained a high reputation at the
+courts near to which they had exercised their ministry. It was seen and
+understood by princes that these were the men&mdash;and these almost
+alone&mdash;to whom might be confided those arduous tasks which the perils of
+the times continually presented: none so well furnished as these
+fathers; none so self-denying and laborious; none so uncompromising in
+the maintenance of their principles. They were, therefore, despatched in
+various directions, and with the papal sanction, to undertake offices
+more or less spiritual, and in some instances purely secular. It was
+thus that a commencement was made in that course which has thrown
+unlimited power into the hands of the society, and which again has
+brought upon it suspicion, hatred, and reiterated ruin.</p>
+
+<p>But the most noted of these appointments was that which, in sending, as
+by an accident, Francis Xavier to India, detached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> from the Jesuit
+society the man who, had he remained at home, must have imparted his own
+character to its constitutions, and have guided its movements, and who
+probably would have dislodged Loyola from the generalship, and have held
+Lainez and Faber in a subordinate position. Not merely did Xavier's
+departure allow Jesuitism to take its form from the hands of these
+three, but it conferred upon the society, from a very early date, the
+incalculable advantage of that reflected power and reputation which the
+Indian missions secured for it. Xavier's apostleship in the East, with
+its real and with its romantic and exaggerated glories, was a fund upon
+which the society at home allowed itself to draw without limit. If it be
+admitted that Xavier effected something real for Christianity in pagan
+India, it may be affirmed that he accomplished at the same time, though
+indirectly, far more for Jesuitism throughout Europe. This course of
+events, so signal in its consequences as favoring the development and
+rapid extension of the Jesuit scheme throughout Christendom, and which
+yet could not be attributed to any forethought or machination on the
+part of Loyola, is well deserving of a distinct notice.</p>
+
+<p>The train of circumstances, as related and affirmed by the Jesuit
+writers, excludes the supposition of its taking its rise in any plot or
+intention. John III of Portugal&mdash;a religious prince&mdash;had long
+entertained the project of stretching the empire of the Church over
+those regions which his valiant and enterprising people were subjecting
+to his secular sway. In modern phraseology, he piously desired to
+consecrate his military triumphs in the East by spreading the Gospel
+among the subjugated heathen. His royal wish and intention had become
+known to Loyola's friend Govea, who wrote to him from Paris on the
+subject. This letter was as a spark at contact with which Loyola's zeal
+burst forth in a flame. He replied, however, that, as he and his
+companions had now solemnly surrendered themselves to the absolute and
+unconditional disposal of the Vicar of Christ, they could attempt
+nothing spontaneously. It is easy to imagine how speedily this
+declaration, conveyed to Govea, would produce its effect, would come
+round to its destination, and would assume the form of a pontifical
+injunction addressed to Loyola to despatch some of the fathers to the
+court of John, there to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> await the pleasure of so religious a prince.
+Six missionaries had been asked for. Loyola, with the consent of the
+Pope, assigned two&mdash;Rodriquez and Bobadilla&mdash;to his service. The latter,
+however, falling ill&mdash;so it is affirmed&mdash;Francis Xavier was appointed in
+his place. Xavier, it is said, leaped for joy when summoned, at a
+moment, to set out toward Portugal commissioned to convert India to the
+Christian faith. A few hours sufficed for his preparations; by noon of
+the next day he had sewed the tatters of his attire with his own hand,
+had packed his bundle, had bid adieu to his friends, and was forward on
+the road to Lisbon. Upon this desperate enterprise he set forward with
+his eye steadily fixed upon objects far more remote and more dazzling
+than the sunny plains of Hindostan. The immeasurable difficulty of his
+mission was to him its excitement; its dangers brightened in his view
+into martyrdom; its toils were to be his ease; its privations his
+solace, and despair the aliment of his hope. But at this initial point
+of his course we must take leave of Francis Xavier&mdash;the prince of
+missionaries. Bobadilla, with Loyola's consent, remained in Portugal,
+where his zeal found scope enough.</p>
+
+<p>At length&mdash;but it does not appear in what manner this change of opinion
+had been brought about&mdash;Cardinal Guidiccioni professed himself favorable
+to the suit of Loyola; probably an enhanced conviction that the Romish
+hierarchy was encountering a peril which called for extraordinary
+measures, and that the new order was likely to meet the occasion, had
+prevailed over considerations less urgent and of a more general kind.
+This opponent gained, no obstacle remained to be overcome. On October 3,
+1540 (or September 27th), was issued the bull which gave ecclesiastical
+existence to the new order under the name of the "Company of Jesus." At
+the first the society was forbidden to admit more than sixty professed
+members, but three years later another bull removed entirely this
+restriction.</p>
+
+<p>The time was now come when the decisive step must be taken which should
+enable the new institute to realize its intention, which should render
+Jesuitism <i>Jesuitism</i> indeed. This was the election of a chief,
+individually, who thenceforward should be absolute lord of the bodies
+and souls, the will and well-being, of all the members. Until this
+election should be made and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> ratified, the society was a <i>project</i> only;
+it would then become a dread reality.</p>
+
+<p>Those of the fathers who could leave their functions at foreign
+courts&mdash;and these were three only&mdash;were summoned to Rome; those who
+could not attend there sent forward their votes. But in what manner are
+we to deal with the account that is presented to us of that which took
+place on this occasion? How is it to be made to consist either with the
+straightforwardness and simplicity of intention that are the
+characteristics of great and noble natures, or how with those maxims of
+guilelessness which Christianity so much approves? The problem admits of
+only a partial and unsatisfactory solution; nor can we advance even so
+far as this unless we make a very large allowance in favor of Loyola
+personally, on the ground of the ill influence of the system within
+which he had received his moral and religious training. He conducted
+himself after the fashion of his Church: this must be his apology.</p>
+
+<p>It was he, unquestionably, who had conceived the primary idea of the
+society. He was author of the book which constitutes its germ and law,
+the <i>Spiritual Exercises</i>. He had been principal in digesting the
+constitutions, or actual code, of the society. It was he, individually,
+whom the others had always regarded as their leader and teacher. His
+personal influence was the cement which held the parts in union. It was
+Loyola who, while his colleagues dispersed themselves throughout Europe,
+remained in Rome, there to manage the common interests of all, and to
+carry forward those negotiations with the papal court which were of
+vital importance and of the highest difficulty. In a word, it was he who
+had convoked this meeting to elect a chief and who asked the proxies of
+the absent. Are we then to believe that this bold spirit, this
+far-seeing mind, this astute, inventive, and politic Ignatius, born to
+rule other minds, and able always to subjugate his own will; that this
+contriver of a despotism, after having carried the principle of
+unconditional obedience, after having won the consent of his companions
+to the proposal that their master should be their master <i>for life</i>&mdash;are
+we to believe that he had never imagined it as probable (much less
+wished) that the choice of his compeers should fall upon himself, or
+that he had peremptorily resolved, in such a case, to reject the
+proffered sovereignty?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> Surely those writers&mdash;the champions of the
+society&mdash;use us cruelly who demand that we should believe so much as
+this.</p>
+
+<p>Le Jay, Brouet, Lainez, and Loyola were those who personally appeared on
+this occasion. The absent members sent their votes in sealed letters.
+Three days having passed in prayer and silence, the four assembled on
+the fourth day, when the votes were ascertained. All but Loyola's own
+were in his favor; he voted for the one who should carry the majority of
+votes.</p>
+
+<p>Loyola, we are told, was in an equal degree distressed and amazed in
+discovering what was in the minds of his colleagues. <i>He</i>, indeed, to be
+general of the Society of Jesus!&mdash;how strange and preposterous a
+supposition! Positively he could think of no such thing. What a life had
+he led before his conversion! How abounding in weaknesses had been his
+course since! How could he aspire to rule others, who so poorly could
+rule himself? Days of prayer must yet be devoted to the purpose of
+imploring the divine aid in directing the minds of all toward one who
+should indeed be qualified for so arduous an office. At the end of this
+term Loyola was a second time elected, and again refused to comply with
+the wishes of his friends. He would barely admit their importunities;
+they could scarcely bring themselves to listen to his contrary reasons.
+Time passed on, and there seemed a danger lest the society should go
+adrift upon the rocks even in its first attempt to reach deep water. At
+length Loyola agreed to submit himself to the direction of his
+confessor. He might thus, perhaps, find it possible to thrust himself
+through his scruples by the loophole of passive obedience, for he
+already held himself bound to comply with the injunctions of his
+spiritual guide, be they what they might.</p>
+
+<p>This good man, therefore, a father Theodosius of the communion of Minor
+Brethren, is constituted arbiter of the destinies of the Society of
+Jesus. To his ear Loyola confides all the reasons, irresistible as they
+were, which forbade his compliance with the will of his friends. The
+confessor listens patiently to the long argument, but sets the whole of
+it at naught. In a word he declares that Loyola, in declining the
+proffered generalship, is fighting against God. Further resistance would
+have been a flagrant impiety.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The installation of the general was carried forward in a course of
+services held in the seven principal churches of Rome, and with
+extraordinary solemnity in the Church of St. Paul without the city,
+April 23, 1541. On this occasion the vows of perpetual poverty,
+chastity, and obedience were renewed before the altar of the Virgin,
+where Loyola administered the communion to his brethren, they having
+vowed absolute obedience to him, and he the same to the Pope.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p>
+<h2>DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1541</h4>
+
+<h3>JOHN S. C. ABBOTT</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>From the eastern coast of Florida the Spaniards made early
+explorations of the interior until they reached the
+Mississippi River. Florida, which was discovered by Juan
+Ponce de Leon in 1513, was soon visited by other voyagers,
+and in 1528 Panfilo Narvaez made a disastrous march into the
+forests. One survivor of his party, Caba&ccedil;a de Vaca,
+afterward crossed the Mississippi, near the site of Memphis,
+and made his way to the Spanish settlements in Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Still the vast Florida region was unexplored, but in 1539
+Hernando de Soto, the companion of Pizarro in the conquest
+of Peru (1532) landed, with upward of six hundred men, at
+what is now called Tampa Bay, on the west coast, in search
+of the fabulous wealth believed to await him. "For month
+after month and year after year the procession of priests
+and cavaliers, cross-bowmen, arquebusiers, and Indian
+captives laden with the baggage, wandered on through wild
+and boundless wastes, lured hither and thither by the <i>ignis
+fatuus</i> of their hopes." Through untold hardships, increased
+by fierce battles with the Indians, they traversed wide
+regions now embraced in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi,
+reaching the great river probably in the spring of 1541, and
+still looking for the "phantom El Dorado."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>De Soto directed his footsteps in a westerly direction, carefully
+avoiding an approach to the sea, lest his troops should rise in mutiny,
+send for the ships, and escape from the ill-starred enterprise. This
+certainly indicates, under the circumstances, an unsound, if not a
+deranged, mind. For four days the troops toiled along through a dismal
+region, uninhabited, and encumbered with tangled forests and almost
+impassable swamps.</p>
+
+<p>At length they came to a small village called Chisca, upon the banks of
+the most majestic stream they had yet discovered. Sublimely the mighty
+flood, a mile and a half in width, rolled by them. The current was rapid
+and bore upon its bosom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> a vast amount of trees, logs, and driftwood,
+showing that its sources must be hundreds of leagues far away in the
+unknown interior. This was the mighty Mississippi, the "Father of
+Waters." The Indians at that point called it Chucagua. Its source and
+its embouchure were alike unknown to De Soto. Little was he then aware
+of the magnitude of the discovery he had made.</p>
+
+<p>"De Soto," says Irving, "was the first European who looked out upon the
+turbid waters of this magnificent river; and that event has more surely
+enrolled his name among those who will ever live in American history
+than if he had discovered mines of silver and gold."</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards had reached the river after a four days' march through an
+unpeopled wilderness. The Indians of Chisca knew nothing of their
+approach, and probably had never heard of their being in the country.
+The tribe inhabiting the region of which Chisca was the metropolis was
+by no means as formidable as many whom they had already encountered. The
+dwelling of the cacique stood on a large artificial mound from eighteen
+to twenty feet in height. It was ascended by two ladders, which could of
+course be easily drawn up, leaving the royal family thus quite isolated
+from the people below.</p>
+
+<p>Chisca, the chieftain, was far advanced in years, a feeble, emaciated
+old man of very diminutive stature. In the days of his prime he had been
+a renowned warrior. Hearing of the arrival of the Spaniards he was
+disposed to regard them as enemies, and, seizing his tomahawk, he was
+eager to descend from his castle and lead his warriors to battle.</p>
+
+<p>The contradictory statements are made that De Soto, weary of the
+harassing warfare of the winter, was very anxious to secure the
+friendship of these Indians. Unless he were crazed, it must have been
+so; for there was absolutely nothing to be gained, but everything to be
+imperilled, by war. On the other hand, it is said that the moment the
+Spaniards descried the village they rushed into it, plundering the
+houses, seizing men and women as captives. Both statements may have been
+partially true. It is not improbable that the disorderly troops of De
+Soto, to his great regret, were guilty of some outrages, while he
+personally might have been intensely anxious to repress this violence
+and cultivate only friendly relations with the natives.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But, whatever may have been the hostile or friendly attitude assumed by
+the Spaniards, it is admitted that the cacique was disposed to wage war
+against the new-comers. The more prudent of his warriors urged that he
+should delay his attack upon them until he had made such preparations as
+would secure successful results.</p>
+
+<p>"It will be best first," said they, "to assemble all the warriors of our
+nation, for these men are well armed. In the mean time let us pretend
+friendship, and not provoke an attack until we are strong enough to be
+sure of victory."</p>
+
+<p>The irascible old chief was willing only partially to listen to this
+advice. He delayed the conflict, but did not disguise his hostility. De
+Soto sent to him a very kindly message declaring that he came in peace,
+and wished only for an unmolested march through his country. The cacique
+returned an angry reply refusing all courteous intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards had been but three hours in the village when, to their
+surprise, they perceived an army of four thousand warriors, thoroughly
+prepared for battle, gathered around the mound upon which was reared the
+dwelling of their chief. If so many warriors could be assembled in so
+short a time, they feared there must be a large number in reserve who
+could soon be drawn in. The Spaniards, in their long marches and many
+battles, had dwindled away to less than five hundred men. Four thousand
+against five hundred were fearful odds; and yet the number of their foes
+might speedily be doubled or even quadrupled. In addition to this, the
+plains around the city were exceedingly unfavorable for the movements of
+the Spanish army, while they presented great advantages to the
+nimble-footed natives; for their region was covered with forests,
+sluggish streams, and bogs.</p>
+
+<p>By great exertions, De Soto succeeded in effecting a sort of compromise.
+The cacique consented to allow the Spaniards to remain for six days in
+the village to nurse the sick and the wounded. Food was to be furnished
+them by the cacique. At the end of six days the Spaniards were to leave,
+abstaining entirely from pillage, from injuring the crops, and from all
+other acts of violence.</p>
+
+<p>The cacique and all the inhabitants of the village abandoned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> the place,
+leaving it to the sole occupancy of the Spaniards. April, in that sunny
+clime, was mild as genial summer. The natives, with their simple habits,
+probably found little inconvenience in encamping in the groves around.
+On the last day of his stay, De Soto obtained permission to visit the
+cacique. He thanked the chief cordially for his hospitality, and, taking
+an affectionate leave, continued his journey into the unknown regions
+beyond.</p>
+
+<p>Ascending the tortuous windings of the river on the eastern bank, the
+Spaniards found themselves, for four days, in almost impenetrable
+thickets, where there were no signs of inhabitants. At length they came
+to quite an opening in the forest. A treeless plain, waving with grass,
+spread far and wide around them. The Mississippi River here was about
+half a league in width. On the opposite bank large numbers of Indians
+were seen, many of them warriors in battle array, while a fleet of
+canoes lined the shore.</p>
+
+<p>De Soto decided, for some unexplained reason, to cross the river at that
+point, though it was evident that the Indians had in some way received
+tidings of his approach, and were assembled there to dispute his
+passage. The natives could easily cross the river in their canoes, but
+they would hardly venture to attack the Spaniards upon the open plain,
+where there was such a fine opportunity for the charges of their
+cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>Here De Soto encamped for twenty days, while all who could handle tools
+were employed in building four large flat-boats for the transportation
+of the troops across the stream. On the second day of the encampment
+several natives from some tribe disposed to be friendly, on the eastern
+side of the river, visited the Spaniards. With very much ceremony of
+bowing and semibarbaric parade they approached De Soto and informed him
+that they were commissioned by their chief to bid him welcome to his
+territory, and to assure him of his friendly services. De Soto, much
+gratified by this message, received the envoys with the greatest
+kindness, and dismissed them highly pleased with their reception.</p>
+
+<p>Though this chief sent De Soto repeated messages of kindness, he did not
+himself visit the Spanish camp, the alleged reason being&mdash;and perhaps
+the true one&mdash;that he was on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> sick-bed. He, however, sent large
+numbers of his subjects with supplies of food, and to assist the
+Spaniards in drawing the timber to construct their barges. The hostile
+Indians on the opposite bank frequently crossed in their canoes, and,
+attacking small bands of workmen, showered upon them volleys of arrows,
+and fled again to their boats.</p>
+
+<p>One day the Spaniards, while at work, saw two hundred canoes filled with
+natives, in one united squadron, descending the river. It was a
+beautiful sight to witness this fleet, crowded with decorated and plumed
+warriors, their paddles, ornaments, and burnished weapons flashing in
+the sunlight. They came in true military style; several warriors
+standing at the bow and stern of each boat, with large shields of
+buffalo-hide on their left arms, and with bows and arrows in their
+hands. De Soto advanced to the shore to meet them, where he stood
+surrounded by his staff. The royal barge containing the chief paddled
+within a few rods of the bank. The cacique then rose, and addressed De
+Soto in words which, translated by the interpreter, were as follows: "I
+am informed that you are the envoy of the most powerful monarch of the
+globe. I have come to proffer to you friendship and homage, and to
+assure you of my assistance in any way in which I can be of service."</p>
+
+<p>De Soto thanked him heartily for his offer and entreated him to land,
+assuring him that he should meet only with the kindest reception. The
+boats immediately returned for another load. Rapidly they passed to and
+fro, and the whole army was transported to the western bank of the
+Mississippi. The point where De Soto and his army crossed, it is
+supposed, was at what is called the lowest Chickasaw Bluff.</p>
+
+<p>"The river in this place," says the Portuguese narrative, "was a mile
+and a half in breadth, so that a man standing still could scarcely be
+discerned from the opposite shore. It was of great depth, of wonderful
+rapidity, and very turbid, and was always filled with floating trees and
+timber carried down by the force of the current."</p>
+
+<p>The army having all crossed, the boats were broken up, as usual, to
+preserve the nails. It would seem that the hostile Indians had all
+vanished, for the Spaniards advanced four days in a westerly direction,
+through an uninhabited wilderness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> encountering no opposition. On the
+fifth day they toiled up a heavy swell of land, from whose summit they
+discerned, in a valley on the other side, a large village of about four
+hundred dwellings. It was situated on the fertile banks of a stream
+which is supposed to have been the St. Francis.</p>
+
+<p>The extended valley, watered by this river, presented a lovely view as
+far as the eye could reach, with luxuriant fields of Indian corn and
+with groves of fruit and trees. The natives had received some intimation
+of the approach of the Spaniards, and in friendly crowds gathered around
+them, offering food and the occupancy of their houses. Two of the
+highest chieftains subordinate to the cacique soon came, with an
+imposing train of warriors, bearing a welcome from their chief and the
+offer of his services.</p>
+
+<p>De Soto received them with the utmost courtesy, and, in the interchange
+of these friendly offices, both Spaniards and natives became alike
+pleased with each other. The adventurers remained in this village for
+six days, finding abundant food for themselves and their horses, and
+experiencing, in the friendship and hospitality of the natives, joys
+which certainly never were found in the horrors of war. The province was
+called by the name of Kaski, and was probably the same as that occupied
+by the Kaskaskia Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Upon commencing anew their march they passed through a populous and
+well-cultivated country, where peace, prosperity, and abundance seemed
+to reign. In two days, having journeyed about twenty miles up the
+western bank of the Mississippi, they approached the chief town of the
+province, where the cacique lived. It was situated, as is supposed, in
+the region now called Little Prairie, in the extreme southern part of
+the State of Missouri, not far from New Madrid. Here they found the
+hospitable hands of the cacique and his people extended to greet them.</p>
+
+<p>The residence of the chief stood upon a broad artificial mound,
+sufficiently capacious for twelve or thirteen houses, which were
+occupied by his numerous family and attendants. He made De Soto a
+present of a rich fur mantle, and invited him, with his suite, to occupy
+the royal dwellings for their residence. De Soto politely declined this
+offer, as he was unwilling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> thus to incommode his kind entertainer. He,
+however, accepted the accommodation of several houses in the village.
+The remainder of the army were lodged in exceedingly pleasant bowers,
+skilfully and very expeditiously constructed by the natives of bark and
+the green boughs of trees, outside the village.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the month of May. The weather was intensely hot, and these
+rustic bowers were found to be refreshingly cool and grateful. The name
+of the friendly chief was Casquin. Here the army remained for three
+days, without a ripple of unfriendly feeling arising between the
+Spaniards and the natives.</p>
+
+<p>It was a season of unusual drouth in the country, and, on the fourth day
+following, an extraordinary incident occurred. Casquin, accompanied by
+quite an imposing retinue of his most distinguished men, came into the
+presence of De Soto, and, stepping forward with great solemnity of
+manner, said to him: "Se&ntilde;or, as you are superior to us in prowess and
+surpass us in arms, we likewise believe that your God is better than our
+God. These you behold before you are the chief warriors of my dominions.
+We supplicate you to pray to your God to send us rain, for our fields
+are parched for the want of water." De Soto, who was a reflective man,
+of pensive temperament and devoutly inclined, responded: "We are all
+alike sinners, but we will pray to God, the Father of Mercies, to show
+his kindness to you."</p>
+
+<p>He then ordered the carpenter to cut down one of the tallest pine trees
+in the vicinity. It was carefully trimmed and formed into a perfect but
+gigantic cross. Its dimensions were such that it required the strength
+of one hundred men to raise and plant it in the ground. Two days were
+employed in this operation. The cross stood upon a bluff on the western
+bank of the Mississippi. The next morning after it was reared the whole
+Spanish army was called out to celebrate the erection of the cross by a
+solemn religious procession. A large number of the natives, with
+apparent devoutness, joined in the festival. Casquin and De Soto took
+the lead, walking side by side. The Spanish soldiers and the native
+warriors, composing a procession of more than a thousand, persons,
+walked harmoniously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> along as brothers to commemorate the erection of
+the cross&mdash;the symbol of the Christian's faith.</p>
+
+<p>The cross! It should be the emblem of peace on earth and good-will among
+men. Alas! how often has it been the badge of cruelty and crime!</p>
+
+<p>The priests&mdash;for there were several in the army&mdash;chanted their Christian
+hymns and offered fervent prayers. The Mississippi at this point is not
+very broad, and it is said that upon the opposite bank twenty thousand
+natives were assembled, watching with intensest interest the imposing
+ceremony, and apparently at times taking part in the exercises. When the
+priests raised their hands in prayer, they too extended their arms and
+raised their eyes, as if imploring the aid of the God of heaven and
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally a low moan was heard wafted across the river&mdash;a wailing
+cry, as if woe-stricken children were imploring the aid of an almighty
+father. The spirit of De Soto was deeply moved to tenderness and
+sympathy as he witnessed this benighted people paying such homage to the
+emblem of man's redemption. After several prayers were offered, the
+whole procession, slowly advancing two by two, knelt before the cross,
+as if in brief ejaculatory prayer, and kissed it. All then returned with
+the same solemnity to the village, the priests chanting the grand
+anthem, <i>Te Deum Laudamus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Thus more than three hundred years ago the cross, significant of the
+religion of Jesus, was planted upon the banks of the Mississippi, and
+the melody of Christian hymns was wafted across the silent waters and
+blended with the sighing of the breeze through the tree-tops. It is sad
+to reflect how little of the spirit of that religion has since been
+manifested in those realms in man's treatment of his brother-man.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of especial notice that upon the night succeeding this
+eventful day clouds gathered, and the long-looked-for rain fell
+abundantly. The devout Las Casas writes: "God, in his mercy, willing to
+show these heathen that he listeneth to those who call upon him in
+truth, sent down in the middle of the ensuing night a plenteous rain, to
+the great joy of the Indians."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> By permission of the executor of the estate of the late
+John S. C. Abbott.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+<h2>REVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMY BY COPERNICUS</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1543</h4>
+
+<h3>SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The promulgation of the accepted system of astronomy, called
+the Copernican system, which represents the earth as
+revolving on its axis and considers the sun as the centre of
+motion for the earth and other planets, marked the greatest
+of scientific revolutions.</p>
+
+<p>Copernicus, whose name, thus Latinized, was Koppernigk or
+Kopernik, was born at Thorn, Prussia, February 19, 1473, and
+died at Frauenburg, Prussia, May 24, 1543. The founder of
+modern astronomy was probably of German descent: according
+to some authorities his father was a Germanized Slav, his
+mother a German; and the honor of producing him is claimed
+by both Germany and Poland.</p>
+
+<p>With equal conciseness and lucidity, in the following pages
+the eminent British astronomer furnishes important
+particulars concerning the life of Copernicus; and he gives
+an account, no less interesting than instructive, of the
+evolution of the Copernican astronomy in its founder's mind.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Copernicus, the astronomer, whose discoveries make him the great
+predecessor of Kepler and Newton, did not come from a noble family, as
+certain other early astronomers have done, for his father was a
+tradesman. Chroniclers are, however, careful to tell us that one of his
+uncles was a bishop. We are not acquainted with any of those details of
+his childhood or youth which are often of such interest in other cases
+where men have risen to exalted fame. It would appear that the young
+Nicolaus, for such was his Christian name, received his education at
+home until such time as he was deemed sufficiently advanced to be sent
+to the University at Cracow. The education that he there obtained must
+have been in those days of very primitive description, but Copernicus
+seems to have availed himself of it to the utmost. He devoted himself
+more particularly to the study of medicine, with the view of adopting
+its practice as the profession of his life. The tendencies of the future
+astronomer were, however, revealed in the fact that he worked hard at
+mathematics,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> and for him, as for one of his illustrious successors,
+Galileo, the practice of the art of painting had a very great interest,
+and in it he obtained some measure of success.</p>
+
+<p>By the time he was twenty-seven years old, it would seem that Copernicus
+had given up the notion of becoming a medical practitioner, and had
+resolved to devote himself to science. He was engaged in teaching
+mathematics, and appears to have acquired some reputation. His growing
+fame attracted the notice of his uncle the Bishop, at whose suggestion
+Copernicus took holy orders, and he was presently appointed to a canonry
+in the Cathedral of Frauenburg, near the mouth of the Vistula.</p>
+
+<p>To Frauenburg, accordingly, this man of varied gifts retired. Possessing
+somewhat of the ascetic spirit, he resolved to devote his life to work
+of the most serious description. He eschewed all ordinary society,
+restricting his intimacies to very grave and learned companions, and
+refusing to engage in conversation of any useless kind. It would seem as
+if his gifts for painting were condemned as frivolous; at all events, we
+do not learn that he continued to practise them. In addition to the
+discharge of his theological duties, his life was occupied partly in
+ministering medically to the wants of the poor, and partly with his
+researches in astronomy and mathematics. His equipment in the matter of
+instruments for the study of the heavens seems to have been of a very
+meagre description. He arranged apertures in the walls of his house at
+Allenstein, so that he could observe in some fashion the passage of the
+stars across the meridian. That he possessed some talent for practical
+mechanics is proved by his construction of a contrivance for raising
+water from a stream, for the use of the inhabitants of Frauenburg.
+Relics of this machine are still to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual slumber of the Middle Ages was destined to be awakened
+by the revolutionary doctrines of Copernicus. It may be noted, as an
+interesting circumstance, that the time at which he discovered the
+scheme of the solar system coincided with a remarkable epoch in the
+world's history. The great astronomer had just reached manhood at the
+time when Columbus discovered the New World.</p>
+
+<p>Before the publication of the researches of Copernicus, the orthodox
+scientific creed averred that the earth was stationary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> and that the
+apparent movements of the heavenly bodies were real movements. Ptolemy
+had laid down this doctrine fourteen hundred years before. In his theory
+this huge error was associated with so much important truth, and the
+whole presented such a coherent scheme for the explanation of the
+heavenly movements, that the Ptolemaic theory was not seriously
+questioned until the great work of Copernicus appeared. No doubt others
+before Copernicus had from time to time in some vague fashion surmised,
+with more or less plausibility, that the sun, and not the earth, was the
+centre about which the system really revolved. It is, however, one thing
+to state a scientific fact; it is quite another thing to be in
+possession of the train of reasoning, founded on observation or
+experiment, by which that fact may be established. Pythagoras, it
+appears, had indeed told his disciples that it was the sun, and not the
+earth, which was the centre of movement, but it does not seem at all
+certain that Pythagoras had any grounds which science could recognize
+for the belief which is attributed to him. So far as information is
+available to us, it would seem that Pythagoras associated his scheme of
+things celestial with a number of preposterous notions in natural
+philosophy. He may certainly have made a correct statement as to which
+was the most important body in the solar system, but he certainly did
+not provide any rational demonstration of the fact. Copernicus, by a
+strict train of reasoning, convinced those who would listen to him that
+the sun was the centre of the system. It is useful for us to consider
+the arguments which he urged and by which he effected that intellectual
+revolution which is always connected with his name.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the great discoveries which Copernicus made relates to the
+rotation of the earth on its axis. That general diurnal movement, by
+which the stars and all other celestial bodies appear to be carried
+completely round the heavens once every twenty-four hours, had been
+accounted for by Ptolemy on the supposition that the apparent movements
+were the real movements. Ptolemy himself felt the extraordinary
+difficulty involved in the supposition that so stupendous a fabric as
+the celestial sphere should spin in the way supposed. Such movements
+required that many of the stars should travel with almost inconceivable
+velocity. Copernicus also saw that the daily rising and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> setting of the
+heavenly bodies could be accounted for either by the supposition that
+the celestial sphere moved round and that the earth remained at rest, or
+by the supposition that the celestial sphere was at rest while the earth
+turned round in the opposite direction. He weighed the arguments on both
+sides as Ptolemy had done, and as the result of his deliberation
+Copernicus came to an opposite conclusion from Ptolemy. To Copernicus it
+appeared that the difficulties attending the supposition that the
+celestial sphere revolved were vastly greater than those which appeared
+so weighty to Ptolemy as to force him to deny the earth's rotation.</p>
+
+<p>Copernicus shows clearly how the observed phenomena could be accounted
+for just as completely by a rotation of the earth as by a rotation of
+the heavens. He alludes to the fact that, to those on board a vessel
+which is moving through smooth water, the vessel itself appears to be at
+rest, while the objects on shore appear to be moving past. If,
+therefore, the earth were rotating uniformly, we dwellers upon the
+earth, oblivious of our own movement, would wrongly attribute to the
+stars the displacement which was actually the consequence of our own
+motion.</p>
+
+<p>Copernicus saw the futility of the arguments by which Ptolemy had
+endeavored to demonstrate that a revolution of the earth was impossible.
+It was plain to him that there was nothing whatever to warrant refusal
+to believe in the rotation of the earth. In his clear-sightedness on
+this matter we have specially to admire the sagacity of Copernicus as a
+natural philosopher. It had been urged that, if the earth moved round,
+its motion would not be imparted to the air, and that therefore the
+earth would be uninhabitable by the terrific winds which would be the
+result of our being carried through the air. Copernicus convinced
+himself that this deduction was preposterous. He proved that the air
+must accompany the earth, just as one's coat remains round him,
+notwithstanding the fact that he is walking down the street. In this way
+he was able to show that all <i>a priori</i> objections to the earth's
+movements were absurd, and therefore he was able to compare together the
+plausibilities of the two rival schemes for explaining the diurnal
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>Once the issue had been placed in this form, the result could not be
+long in doubt. Here is the question: Which is it more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> likely&mdash;that the
+earth, like a grain of sand at the centre of a mighty globe, should turn
+round once in twenty-four hours, or that the whole of that vast globe
+should complete a rotation in the opposite direction in the same time?
+Obviously, the former is far the more simple supposition. But the case
+is really much stronger than this. Ptolemy had supposed that all the
+stars were attached to the surface of a sphere. He had no ground
+whatever for this supposition, except that otherwise it would have been
+wellnigh impossible to devise a scheme by which the rotation of the
+heavens around a fixed earth could have been arranged. Copernicus,
+however, with the just instinct of a philosopher, considered that the
+celestial sphere, however convenient, from a geometrical point of view,
+as a means of representing apparent phenomena, could not actually have a
+material existence. In the first place, the existence of a material
+celestial sphere would require that all the myriad stars should be at
+exactly the same distances from the earth. Of course, no one will say
+that this or any other arbitrary disposition of the stars is actually
+impossible; but as there was no conceivable physical reason why the
+distances of all the stars from the earth should be identical, it seemed
+in the very highest degree improbable that the stars should be so
+placed.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless, also, Copernicus felt a considerable difficulty as to the
+nature of the materials from which Ptolemy's wonderful sphere was to be
+constructed. Nor could a philosopher of his penetration have failed to
+observe that, unless that sphere were infinitely large, there must have
+been space outside it, a consideration which would open up other
+difficult questions. Whether infinite or not, it was obvious that the
+celestial sphere must have a diameter at least many thousands of times
+as great as that of the earth. From these considerations Copernicus
+deduced the important fact that the stars and other important celestial
+bodies must all be vast objects. He was thus enabled to put the question
+in such a form that it would hardly receive any answer but the correct
+one: Which is it more rational to suppose, that the earth should turn
+round on its axis once in twenty-four hours, or that thousands of mighty
+stars should circle round the earth in the same time, many of them
+having to describe circles many thousands of times greater in
+circumference than the circuit of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> the earth at the equator? The obvious
+answer pressed upon Copernicus with so much force that he was compelled
+to reject Ptolemy's theory of the stationary earth, and to attribute the
+diurnal rotation of the heavens to the revolution of the earth on its
+axis.</p>
+
+<p>Once this tremendous step had been taken, the great difficulties which
+beset the monstrous conception of the celestial sphere vanished, for the
+stars need no longer be regarded as situated at equal distances from the
+earth. Copernicus saw that they might lie at the most varied degrees of
+remoteness, some being hundreds or thousands of times farther away than
+others. The complicated structure of the celestial sphere as a material
+object disappeared altogether; it remained only as a geometrical
+conception, whereon we find it convenient to indicate the places of the
+stars. Once the Copernican doctrine had been fully set forth, it was
+impossible for anyone, who had both the inclination and the capacity to
+understand it, to withhold acceptance of its truth. The doctrine of a
+stationary earth had gone forever.</p>
+
+<p>Copernicus having established a theory of the celestial movements which
+deliberately set aside the stability of the earth, it seemed natural
+that he should inquire whether the doctrine of a moving earth might not
+remove the difficulties presented in other celestial phenomena. It had
+been universally admitted that the earth lay unsupported in space.
+Copernicus had further shown that it possessed a movement of rotation.
+Its want of stability being thus recognized, it seemed reasonable to
+suppose that the earth might also have some other kinds of movements as
+well. In this, Copernicus essayed to solve a problem far more difficult
+than that which hitherto occupied his attention. It was a comparatively
+easy task to show how the diurnal rising and setting could be accounted
+for by the rotation of the earth. It was a much more difficult
+undertaking to demonstrate that the planetary movements, which Ptolemy
+had represented with so much success, could be completely explained by
+the supposition that each of these planets revolved uniformly round the
+sun, and that the earth was also a planet, accomplishing a complete
+circuit of the sun once in the course of a year.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible, in a sketch like the present, to enter into any
+detail as to the geometrical propositions on which this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> beautiful
+investigation of Copernicus depended. We can only mention a few of the
+leading principles. It may be laid down in general that, if an observer
+is in movement, he will, if unconscious of the fact, attribute to the
+fixed objects around him a movement equal and opposite to that which he
+actually possesses. A passenger on a canal-boat sees the objects on the
+banks apparently moving backward with a speed equal to that by which he
+himself is advancing forward. By an application of this principle, we
+can account for all the phenomena of the movements of the planets, which
+Ptolemy had so ingeniously represented by his circles. Let us take, for
+instance, the most characteristic feature in the irregularities of the
+outer planets. Mars, though generally advancing from west to east among
+the stars, occasionally pauses, retraces his steps for a while, again
+pauses, and then resumes his ordinary onward progress. Copernicus showed
+clearly how this effect was produced by the real motion of the earth,
+combined with the real motion of Mars. When the earth comes directly
+between Mars and the sun, the retrograde movement of Mars is at its
+highest. Mars and the earth are then advancing in the same direction.
+We, on the earth, however, being unconscious of our own motion,
+attribute, by the principle I have already explained, an equal and
+opposite motion to Mars. The visible effect upon the planet is that Mars
+has two movements, a real onward movement in one direction, and an
+apparent movement in the opposite direction. If it so happened that the
+earth was moving with the same speed as Mars, then the apparent movement
+would exactly neutralize the real movement, and Mars would seem to be at
+rest relatively to the surrounding stars. Under the actual circumstances
+considered, however, the earth is moving faster than Mars, and the
+consequence is that the apparent movement of the planet backward exceeds
+the real movement forward, the net result being an apparent retrograde
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>With consummate skill, Copernicus showed how the applications of the
+same principles could account for the characteristic movements of the
+planets. His reasoning in due time bore down all opposition. The supreme
+importance of the earth in the system vanished. It had now merely to
+take rank as one of the planets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The same great astronomer now, for the first time, rendered something
+like a rational account of the changes of the seasons. Nor did certain
+of the more obscure astronomical phenomena escape his attention.</p>
+
+<p>He delayed publishing his wonderful discoveries to the world until he
+was quite an old man. He had a well-founded apprehension of the storm of
+opposition which they would arouse. However, he yielded at last to the
+entreaties of his friends, and his book<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> was sent to the press. But
+ere it made its appearance to the world, Copernicus was seized with
+mortal illness. A copy of the book was brought to him on May 23, 1543.
+We are told that he was able to see it and to touch it, but no more; and
+he died a few hours afterward.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>De Orbium C&oelig;lestium Revolutionibus.</i></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
+<h2>COUNCIL OF TRENT AND THE COUNTER-REFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1545</h4>
+
+<h3>ADOLPHUS W. WARD</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>An important phase of history in the sixteenth century is
+summarized by Macaulay when he says that "the Church of
+Rome, having lost a large part of Europe, not only ceased to
+lose, but actually regained nearly half of what she had
+lost." Macaulay is speaking of what is known as the
+"Counter-reformation," a reaction against the Protestant
+movement, which was rapidly spreading in Europe. By the
+Counter-reformation not only were the Roman Catholic losses
+largely recovered, but an increased zeal for the
+regeneration of the Church of Rome became fruitful of
+results.</p>
+
+<p>The reformation of the Church from within had been often
+attempted by the ecclesiastical leaders. Several "reforming
+councils" had been held, but the desired object had not been
+accomplished. During the pontificate of Paul III (1534-1549)
+the movement for regenerating the Church, as well as for
+opposing the progress of Protestantism, was effectually
+inaugurated. At the Council of Trent the new policy was
+definitely set forth.</p>
+
+<p>A general council had long been demanded by the Germans.
+Even many of the leading Italians had come to desire it.
+Charles V, who had his own reasons for temporizing with the
+Protestants, had urged it year after year. Much as the
+domination of the Emperor might be feared in such an
+assembly, Paul at length decided to comply. Twice he ordered
+the assembling of a council (1536 and 1538), but the
+distracted state of Europe caused postponement. Meanwhile,
+owing to the continued progress of the Protestants, Paul and
+Charles came to an agreement that another summons should be
+issued. A few prelates were gathered at Trent in 1542, but,
+owing to the Emperor's war with France and the Turks, the
+Pope next year dispersed them.</p>
+
+<p>Finally a papal bull summoned all the bishops of Christendom
+to Trent for March 15, 1545. The Pope showed much sagacity
+in calling this council at the moment when Charles and his
+inveterate enemy, Francis I, were concerting the suppression
+of the Protestants.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>On December 13, 1545, three legates appointed by the Pope held their
+public entry into Trent, and the council was formally opened. Paul III's
+continued desire to conciliate the Emperor was shown by his adherence to
+Trent as the locality of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> the council, when the legates again urged the
+choice of a town on Italian soil. Yet the very Bishop of Trent, Cardinal
+Madruccio, was a prince of the Empire, and by descent attached to the
+house of Austria, whose interests he consistently represented during the
+first series of sessions. The papal legates, with whose control over the
+council the Emperor at the outset showed no intention of interfering,
+typified the different elements in the ecclesiastical policy of Paul
+III. The presiding legate, Cardinal del Monte&mdash;afterward Pope Julius
+III&mdash;while notable neither for religious zeal nor for wise self-control,
+was a thoroughgoing supporter of the interests of the Curia. Cardinal
+Cervino, afterward Pope Marcellus II, a prelate of blameless life, was
+animated by those ideas of ecclesiastical reform of which Pope Paul had
+encouraged the open expression; but he was more especially eager for the
+extirpation of heresy, and not over-scrupulous in the choice of means
+for reaching his ends. Lastly, Cardinal Pole's<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> presence at Trent, in
+which some have seen a mere papal ruse, must have surrounded the early
+proceedings of the council with a hopeful glamour in the eyes of those
+who, like himself, expected from it the reunion as well as the
+reinvigoration of Western Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing, as had probably been foreseen at Rome, could have better
+facilitated the immediate establishment of the ascendency in the council
+of the papal policy than the composition of its opening meeting. Of the
+thirty-four ecclesiastics present, only five were Spanish and two French
+bishops, and no German bishop had crossed the Alps. Nor had any secular
+power except the Emperor and King Ferdinand sent their ambassadors. The
+business machinery of the council, which the legates lost no time in
+getting into order, was altogether in favor of their influence as
+managers. Learned doctors, without being, as in former councils, allowed
+to take part in the debates, prepared the work of the three committees
+or congregations, who in their turn brought it up for discussion to the
+general congregations.</p>
+
+<p>The sessions in which the decrees thus prepared were actually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> passed
+had a purely formal character, but before they were successively held
+opportunity enough was given for manipulation and delay. The voting in
+the council was by heads, instead of by nations, as at Constance and
+Basel; and care was taken to refresh by occasional additions the working
+majority of Italian bishops, mostly, in comparison with the
+"ultramontane" prelates, holders of petty sees. Some of these are even
+stated to have bound themselves by a sworn engagement to uphold the
+interests of the holy see, though by no means all of the Italian bishops
+were servile Curialists; witness those of Chioggia and of Fiesole. The
+council in its second session (January 7, 1546) waived the form of title
+by which previous councils had implicitly declared their representative
+authority paramount. On the other hand, it boded well for the cause of
+reform that, by an early resolution, virtually all abbots and members of
+the monastic orders except five generals were excluded.</p>
+
+<p>Clearly, episcopal interest was resolved upon asserting itself. So long,
+however, as the German bishops were detained in their dioceses by the
+duty of repressing heresy there, while the great body of the French were
+kept away by the vigilant jealousy of their government, the episcopal
+interest and the episcopal principle were mainly represented in the
+council by the Spanish prelates, the loyal subjects of Charles. Their
+leader was Pacheco, Cardinal of Ja&euml;n. With him came eminent theological
+professors, who in the early period of the council at least were without
+rivals&mdash;Dominico de Soto, whom Queen Mary afterward placed in Peter
+Martyr's chair at Oxford, and Bartolomeo Carranza, afterward primate of
+all Spain and for many years a prisoner of the Inquisition. Through the
+Emperor's ambassador, the accomplished and indefatigable but not
+invariably discreet Mendoza, the Spanish bishops were carefully apprised
+of the wishes of their sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>The crucial question as to the order in which the council should debate
+the two divisions of subjects which it had met to settle had to be
+decided at once; and the compromise arrived at showed both the strength
+of the minority and the unwillingness of the leaders of the majority,
+the presiding legates, to push matters to an extreme. Their instructions
+from the Pope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> were to give the declaration of dogma the preference over
+the announcement of disciplinary reforms; for it seemed to him of
+primary necessity to draw, while there was time, a clear line of
+demarcation between the Church and heresy; and for this, as he correctly
+judged, the assistance of the council was absolutely indispensable. The
+Emperor, on the other hand, was still unwilling to shut the door
+completely against the Protestants, while both he and the episcopal
+party at the council were eager for that reformation of the life and
+government of the Church which seemed to them her most crying need.</p>
+
+<p>Ultimately it was agreed that the declaration of dogma and the
+reformation of abuses should be treated <i>pari passu</i>, the decrees
+formulated in each case being from time to time announced
+simultaneously. Taking into account the subsequent history of the
+council, one can hardly deny that this arrangement saved the work of the
+assembly from being left half done. Nor was the progress made in the
+period ending with the eighth session of the council (March 11, 1547),
+intrigues and quarrels notwithstanding, by any means trifling. On the
+doctrinal side, the foundations of the faith were in the first instance
+examined, and the whole character of the doctrinal decrees of the
+council was in point of fact determined, when the authority of the
+tradition of the Church, including of course the decrees of her
+ecumenical councils, was acknowledged by the side of that of Scripture.
+Little to the credit of the council's capacity for taking pains, the
+authenticity of the Vulgate was proclaimed, a pious wish being added
+that it should be henceforth printed as correctly as possible. At first,
+Pope Paul III hesitated about giving his assent to these decrees, which
+had been passed before receiving his approval, and showed some anxiety
+to prevent a similar course being taken in the matter of discipline by
+publishing a regulatory bull on his own authority. But on being more
+fully advised by the legates of the nature of the situation, he
+consented to allow the debates to proceed, provided always that the
+decrees should be submitted to him before publication.</p>
+
+<p>During the next months (April to June, 1546) the work of the council was
+accordingly vigorously continued in both its branches. In that of
+discipline, the episcopal and the monastic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> interests at once came into
+conflict on the subject of the license for preaching; and still more
+excitement was aroused by the question of episcopal residence, which
+brought into conflict the highest purposes of the episcopal office and
+the selfish profits of the Roman Curia. The discussions on preaching
+ended with a reasonable compromise, monks being henceforth prohibited
+from preaching without the bishop's license in any churches but those of
+their own order. The question of residence was by the Pope's wish
+adjourned.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the council, now augmented by Swiss and many other bishops, while
+all the chief Catholic powers except Poland were represented by
+ambassadors, could venture to approach those questions of dogma which
+the Emperor would gladly have seen postponed, so long as he was still
+pausing on the brink of his conflict with the German Protestants. The
+Pope, on the contrary, while ostentatiously displaying on the frontier
+the auxiliary forces which he had promised to the Emperor, was eager to
+proclaim through the council as distinctly as possible the solid unity
+of the orthodox Church. The doctrine concerning original sin having been
+promulgated in the teeth of imperial opposition, the legates pressed for
+the issue of the decree concerning justification. In the midst of the
+debates the Smalkaldic War broke out (July, 1546).</p>
+
+<p>For a time it seemed as if at Trent, too, the opposing interests would
+have proved irreconcilable. Pole, as the justification decree began to
+shape itself, had, "for reasons of health," withdrawn to Padua;
+Madruccio and Del Monte exchanged personal insults; Pacheco accused the
+legates of gross chicanery, and they in their turn threatened a removal
+of the council to an Italian city, where, in accordance with what they
+knew to be the papal wish, the council might deliberate without being
+either overawed by the Emperor or menaced by his Protestant adversaries.
+Soon, however, the case was altered by the manifest collapse of the
+latter, notwithstanding their expectations of support from England,
+Denmark, and France, long before their final catastrophe in the battle
+of Muhlberg, April 24, 1547. The Emperor would not hear of the removal
+of the council to Lucca, Ferrara, or any other Italian town, and in
+consequence the plan of campaign at Trent was modified, in order at all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+events to make the breach with the Protestants impassable. The debates
+on justification were eagerly pushed on, and, after some further trials
+of <i>finesse</i>, the decree on the subject which anathematized the
+fundamental doctrines of the Lutheran Reformation was passed in the
+sixth session of the council, January 13, 1547.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the decree on residence was again postponed, and a
+very high tone was taken toward the prelates absent from the
+council&mdash;the Germans being, of course, those principally glanced at. In
+the next session (March 5th) decrees followed asserting the orthodox
+doctrine of the Church concerning the sacraments, and baptism and
+confirmation in particular, and with these was at last issued the decree
+concerning residence. It avoided pronouncing on the view which had been
+so ardently advocated by the Spanish bishops and argued by the pen of
+Archbishop Carranza, that the duty of residence was imposed by divine
+law, and it took care to safeguard the dispensing authority of the Roman
+see. Yet, though at times evaded or overridden, the prohibition of
+pluralism contained in this decree, together with certain other
+provisions for the <i>bona-fide</i> execution of bishops' functions, has
+indisputably proved most advantageous to the vigor and vitality of the
+episcopacy of the Church of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Paul III's attitude toward the Emperor had meanwhile grown more and more
+suspicious. Partly they had become antagonists on the great question of
+Church reorganization; partly the Emperor was becoming disposed to
+thwart the dynastic policy of the Farnese; partly, again, the Pope now
+thought himself able to fall back on the alliance of France. In January
+Paul III recalled the auxiliaries and stopped the subsidies which he had
+furnished to Charles V; and in March Henry II succeeded to the French
+throne, whose intrigues with the German Protestants, though leaving
+unaffected his fanatical rigor against his own heretics at home, seemed
+likely to break the current of imperial success. Thus at Trent the
+struggle against the Spanish bishops acquired an intense significance;
+and in the eighth session, March 11th, the legates at last made use of
+the power intrusted to them, it was said, eighteen months before, and
+carried, against the votes of Spain, the removal of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> the council to
+Bologna, on the plea of an outbreak of the plague at Trent. By the
+Emperor's desire, the Spanish bishops, plague or no plague, remained in
+the city.</p>
+
+<p>"The obstinate old man," said Charles, "would end by ruining the
+Church;" and sanguine Protestants might dream of a renewal of the
+situation of 1526-1527. The progress of events widened the breach
+between the Emperor and the Pope. After Muhlberg Charles V seemed
+irresistible, and, as he would hear of no solution but a return of the
+council to Trent, there seemed no choice between submission and
+defiance. Gradually, however, it became clear that he had no wish again
+to drive things to extremes, and least of all to provoke anything of the
+nature of a schism. Moreover, France, where the Guises were now in the
+ascendant, was becoming more hostile to him; and the murder of the
+Pope's son at Piacenza, followed by the occupation of that city by
+Spanish troops, September, 1547, nearly brought about the conclusion of
+a Franco-Italian league against Charles. But though French bishops
+arrived at Bologna, their attitude there was by no means acceptable to
+the Pope, and Henry II had no real intention of making war upon the
+Emperor. Thus the latter thought himself able to take into his own hands
+the settlement of the religious difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of further disappointments and of fresh designs, the
+immediate purposes of which are not altogether clear, Pope Paul III
+died, November 15, 1549. That the most generous of the aspirations which
+had under his reign first found full opportunity for asserting
+themselves had survived his man&oelig;uvring, was shown by the favorable
+reception, both outside and inside the conclave, of the proposal that
+Reginald Pole should be his successor. But Pole refused to be elected by
+the impulsive method of adoration, and in the end the Farnese<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+interest, supported by the French, prevailed, and Cardinal del Monte was
+chosen.</p>
+
+<p>The papal government of Julius III (1550 to 1555) showed hardly more of
+temperate wisdom than had marked his conduct of the presidency at Trent;
+but he had the courage at the very outset to decide upon the safest
+course. After a few conditions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> most of them quite in the spirit of the
+imperial policy, had been proposed and accepted, the bull summoning the
+council to Trent for the following spring was issued without further ado
+(November).</p>
+
+<p>Yet even before the council actually reopened, <i>i.e.</i>, May 1, 1551, it
+had become evident that the papal view of its purposes remained as
+widely divergent from the Imperial as in the days of Paul III. The
+nomination of Cardinal Crescentio, a Roman by birth, as president of the
+council, with two Italian prelates, Pighino of Siponto and Lippomano of
+Verona, by his side, was in itself ominous; and the German Protestants,
+upon whom the Emperor pressed safe-conducts at Augsburg (1551),
+perceived the papal intention of treating the council as a mere
+continuation of that which had previously sat at Trent. Still, several
+of them, as well as the Catholic electors, finally promised to attend.
+On the other hand, Henry II of France prohibited the appearance of a
+single French prelate, and began to talk of a Gallican council. Thus the
+brief series of sessions held at Trent from May, 1551, to April, 1552,
+proved in the main, though not altogether, barren of results. Unless the
+assembled fathers were prepared to reconsider the decrees already
+passed, and to force the assent of the Pope to a religious policy of
+quite unprecedented breadth, another deadlock was at hand; and already,
+in the early months of 1552, the council, this time with the manifest
+connivance of Rome, began to thin. When, in April, Maurice of Saxony,
+now the ally of France, approached the southern frontier of the Empire,
+the Pope, whose own French war had taken a disastrous turn, had reason
+enough for shunning further co&ouml;peration with the Emperor. The council
+dwindled apace in spite of the efforts of Charles V, who had never
+ceased to believe in his schemes. Finally, however, he could not prevent
+the remnants of the council from passing a decree suspending its
+sessions for two years, which was opposed by not more than a dozen loyal
+Spanish votes, April 28, 1552.</p>
+
+<p>Charles V's resignation of his thrones (1554-1556) resulted, though far
+from being so intended, in a confession of his failure. While it was in
+progress, Julius III died (March 23, 1555), leaving behind him scant
+evidence to support the rumor of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> his having indulged, at all events in
+the last period of his reign, in ideas of church reformation. But the
+choice of his successor, Marcellus II (April-May, 1555), shows that
+these ideas were not yet extinct in the sacred college, notwithstanding
+the simultaneous creation by Julius III of fourteen cardinals; for
+Cervino had always been reckoned a member, though a moderate one, of the
+reforming party. Far greater, however, was the significance attaching to
+the election of the Pope who speedily took the place of Marcellus.</p>
+
+<p>The pontificate of Paul IV (Gian Pietro Caraffa, May, 1555-August, 1559)
+forms one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of the
+Counter-reformation, which in him seemed under both its aspects to have
+secured the mastery of the Church. God's will alone, he was convinced,
+had placed him where he stood; for he was unconscious of having achieved
+anything through the favor of man. He was now seventy-nine years of age,
+but he had never been more eager to devote himself to his chosen
+purpose&mdash;the establishment in the eyes of all peoples of a pure and
+spiritually active church, free from all impediments of corruptions and
+abuses, and purged of all poison of heresy and schism.</p>
+
+<p>Fully aware&mdash;though he had belonged to it himself&mdash;of the virtual
+failure of Paul III's commission of reform, Paul IV, in his first bull,
+solemnly promised an effectual reform of the Church and the Roman Curia,
+and lost no time in instituting a congregation for the purpose. The
+commission, which consisted of three divisions, each of them composed
+jointly of cardinals, bishops, and doctors, wisely addressed itself in
+the first instance to the question of ecclesiastical appointments. The
+new Pope likewise issued orders for the specific reform of monastic
+establishments, and his energy seemed to stand in striking contrast with
+the hesitations and delays of the recently suspended council.</p>
+
+<p>But once more the seductions of the temporal power overcame its holder.
+Caraffa's residence in Spain, and enthusiasm for the religious ideals
+and methods prevalent there, had not eradicated the bitterly
+anti-Spanish feeling inborn in him as a Neapolitan, and Charles V,
+returning hatred for hatred, had done his utmost to offend the dignity
+and damage the interests<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> of the Cardinal. To these personal and
+national sentiments had been added the conviction that the Emperor's
+dealings with the German Protestants had encouraged them to deal a
+deadly blow to the unity and strength of the Church; and thus Paul IV
+allowed himself to be borne away by passion. His fiery temperament,
+fretted rather than soothed by old age, left him and those around him no
+peace; he maltreated the imperialist cardinals and the dependents of the
+Emperor within his reach, and sought to instigate the French government
+to take up arms once more.</p>
+
+<p>Of a sudden, as if in another gust of passion, he made a clean sweep of
+the obstacles which his own perversity had placed in his path, and then
+took up in terrible earnest the work of church reform. He would allow no
+appointment savoring of corruption to any spiritual office; he would
+hear of no exception to the duty of residence; he completely abolished
+dispensations for marriages within prohibited degrees. Into the general
+management of the churches of the city, as well as into that of his own
+papal court, he introduced so strict a discipline that Rome was likened
+to a well-conducted monastery. But the agency which above all others he
+encouraged was that which his own advice had established in the centre
+of the Catholic world&mdash;the Inquisition. From the sacred college
+downward, no sphere of life was exempted from its control; and his
+intolerance extended itself to the very Jews whose privileges in the
+papal states he ruthlessly revoked. On his death-bed he recommended the
+Inquisition with the holy see itself to the pious cardinals surrounding
+him. It was afterward observed that many reforms decreed in its third
+period by the Council of Trent were copied from the ordinances issued by
+Paul IV in this memorable <i>biennium</i>. But inasmuch as during his
+pontificate the Church of Rome had lost ground in almost every country
+of Europe except Italy and Spain, his death (August 18, 1559) naturally
+brought with it a widespread renewal of the demand for remedies more
+effective than those supplied by his feverish activity and by the
+operations of his favorite institution.</p>
+
+<p>Personally, Pius IV (1559-1566) was regarded, and probably chosen, as an
+opponent of the late Pope; his family history inclined him to the
+Imperial interest, and he was understood to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> favor concessions to
+Germany with a view of bringing her stray sheep back into the fold. But
+in general he furthered rather than arrested the religious reaction.
+Above all, the Inquisition, though he is not known to have done anything
+to intensify its rigor or augment its authority, went on as before.
+Carlo Borromeo,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> the nephew of Pius IV, served the holy see in a
+spirit of unselfish devotion, and began those efforts on behalf of
+religion which in the end obtained for him a place among the saints of
+the Church&mdash;a position not reached by many popes' nephews. With the aid
+of this influence, Pius IV came to perceive that the future, both of the
+Church and of the papacy, depended on the spirit of confidence and
+cohesion which could be infused into the former; nor had he from the
+very outset of his pontificate ever doubted the expediency of
+reassembling the council at Trent.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor Ferdinand and the French Government, who persisted in
+treating the reunion of the Church as the primary object of the council,
+at first strongly urged the substitution for Trent of a genuinely German
+or French town, where the German bishops, and perhaps even the
+Protestants, would feel no scruple about attending. But a totally free
+and <i>new</i> council of this description lay outside the horizon of the
+papacy; and Pius IV might have let fall the plan altogether but for the
+fear of the entire separation in that event of the Gallican Church from
+Rome. In France, Protestantism had made considerable strides during the
+reign of Henry II (1547-1559). About six weeks before the death of Henry
+the first national synod of Protestants was held at Paris (May, 1559).
+Under Francis II the Guise influence became paramount, and the
+persecution of the Protestants continued. But though the suppression,
+just before this, of the so-called conspiracy of Amboise had temporarily
+added to the power of the Guises, it had also made the Queen-mother,
+Catherine de' Medici, resolve not to let the power of the state pass
+wholly out of her hands. Hence the appointment of the large-hearted
+L'H&ocirc;pital as chancellor, and the assembly of notables at Fontainebleau
+(August),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> where the grievances against Rome found full expression, and
+where arrangements were made for a meeting of the States-general and a
+national council of the French Church. This resolution determined Pius
+IV to lose no further time. On November 29, 1560, he issued a bull
+summoning all the prelates and princes of Christendom to Trent for the
+following Easter. The invitation included both Eastern schismatics and
+Western heretics, Elizabeth of England among the rest; but neither she
+nor the German Protestant princes assembled at Naumburg, nor the kings
+of the Scandinavian North, would so much as receive the papal summons.
+In France the death of Francis II (December 5, 1560) further depressed
+the Guise influence; and Catherine entered into negotiations with the
+Pope with a view to concessions such as would satisfy the Huguenots
+while approved by the French bishops. The "Edict of January" (1562),
+which followed, long remained a sort of standard of fair concessions to
+the Huguenots.</p>
+
+<p>The first deliberations of the reassembled council were barren. The
+question which really came home to the fathers of the Church assembled
+at Trent presented itself again when the sacrament of orders had in due
+course to be debated. The imperial and French ambassadors still
+co&ouml;perated as actively as ever, and the episcopal party, the Spanish
+prelates in particular, entered upon the struggle with a full sense of
+its critical importance. If the right divine of episcopacy could be
+declared, with it would be established the divine obligation of
+residence. Pius IV accordingly showed considerable shrewdness in
+instructing the legates at once to formulate a decree on residence,
+which, while leaving the question of divine obligation open, imposed
+penalties on nonresidence&mdash;except for lawful reasons&mdash;sufficient to meet
+practical requirements. But though such a decree was passed by the
+council, the debates on the origin of the episcopal office, which
+involved nothing less than the origin and nature of the papal supremacy,
+continued (November); and the critical nature of the discussion was the
+more apparent when in the midst of it there at last arrived nearly a
+score of French bishops, headed by the Cardinal of Lorraine. Hitherto
+France had been represented at the council by spokesmen of the French
+court and of the Parliament<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> of Paris; now the foremost among the
+prelates of the monarchy, whose abilities, however, unfortunately fell
+far short of his pretensions, announced in full conciliar assembly the
+demands of his branch of the Church. The recent January edict proved the
+strength of the Huguenots in France; and though the Cardinal's first
+speech at Trent breathed nothing but condemnation of these heretics, it
+suited him to pose as the advocate of as extensive a series of reforms
+as had yet been urged upon the council.</p>
+
+<p>Further additions were made in the "libel," which was shortly afterward
+(January, 1563) presented by the French ambassador, and perfect harmony
+existed between the French and the imperial policy at the council. What
+decision, then, was to be expected on the crucial question as to the
+relations between papal and episcopal authority? How could a recognition
+of the Pope's claim to be regarded as <i>rector universalis ecclesi&aelig;</i> be
+expected from such a union of the ultramontane forces? The current was
+not likely to be stopped by the papal court, which about this time Pius
+IV announced on his own account at Rome; it seemed on the point of
+rising higher than ever when (February, 1563) the Cardinal of Lorraine
+and some other prelates waited upon the Emperor at Innsbruck. In truth,
+however, a turning-point in the history of the council was close at
+hand. The Cardinal of Lorraine had left Trent for Innsbruck with threats
+of a Gallican synod on his lips. Ferdinand I had arrived there very
+wroth with the council, and had received the Bishop of Zante
+(Commendone), whom the legates sent to deprecate his vexation, with
+marked coolness. The remedies proposed to the Emperor by the Cardinal
+were drastic enough; the council was to be swamped by French, German,
+and Spanish bishops, and the Emperor, by repairing to Trent in person,
+was to awe the assembly into discussing the desired reforms, whether
+with or without the approval of the legates. But Ferdinand I, by nature
+moderate in action, and taught by the example of his brother, Charles V,
+the danger of violent courses, preferred to resort to a series of direct
+and by no means tame appeals to the Pope. The latter, indisposed as he
+was to support a fresh proposition for the removal of the council to
+some German town, urged by France, but resisted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> by Spain, which at the
+same time persistently opposed the concession of the cup demanded by
+both France and the Emperor, saw his opportunity for taking his
+adversaries singly. The deaths about this time (March, 1563) of the
+presiding legate, Cardinal Gonzaga, and of his colleague Cardinal
+Seripando, both of whom had occasionally shown themselves inclined to
+yield to the reforming party, were likewise in his favor. Their places
+were filled by Cardinals Morone, formerly a prisoner indicted by the
+Inquisition, now an eager champion of papal claims, and Navagero, a
+Venetian by birth, but not in his political sentiments. Morone, though
+he had left Rome almost despairing of any favorable issue of the
+council, at once began to negotiate with the Emperor through the Jesuit
+Canisius. The leverage employed may, in addition to the distrust between
+Ferdinand and his Spanish nephew, and the ancient jealousy between
+Austria and France, have included some reference to the heterodox
+opinions and the consequently doubtful prospects of the Emperor's eldest
+son, Maximilian.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, the papal government about this time formed and carried out a
+definite plan for inducing the Emperor to abandon his conciliar policy.
+The consideration offered for his assenting to a speedy termination of
+the council was the promise that, so soon as that event should have
+taken place, the desired concession of the cup should be made to his
+subjects. Ferdinand I, without becoming a thoroughgoing partisan of the
+papal policy, accepted the bargain as seemingly the shortest road to the
+end which, for the sake of the peace of the empire, he had at heart.
+Thus, notwithstanding the continued opposition of the French bishops,
+the decrees concerning the episcopate began to shape themselves more
+easily, and the Pope of his own accord submitted to the council certain
+canons of a stringent kind reforming in a similar way the discipline of
+the cardinalate (June). And when, in the course of a violent quarrel
+about precedence between the kings of France and Spain, the latter,
+enraged at his demands not being enforced by the Pope, had threatened,
+by insisting on the admission of Protestants to the council,
+indefinitely to prolong it, the Emperor intervened against the proposal.
+But the conflict between the papal and the episcopal authority seemed
+still incapable of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> solution, and, though Lainez audaciously demanded
+the reference of all questions of reform to the sole decision of the
+Pope, and denounced the opposition of the French bishops as proceeding
+from members of a schismatic church, this opposition steadily continued
+in conjunction with that of the Spaniards, and still found a leader in
+the Cardinal of Lorraine.</p>
+
+<p>Yet at this very time a change began to be perceptible in the conduct of
+this versatile and ambitious prelate. The Cardinal was supposed to have
+himself aspired to the office of presiding legate, and, though he had
+missed this place of honor and power, the condition of things in France
+was such as naturally to incline him in the direction of Rome. The
+assassination of his brother Francis, Duke of Guise (February, 1563),
+deprived his family and interest of their natural chief, and inclined
+Catherine de' Medici to transact with the Huguenots. The Cardinal
+accordingly became anxious at the same time to return to France and
+prevent the total eclipse of the influence he had hitherto exercised at
+court, and to secure himself by an understanding with the Pope.</p>
+
+<p>A letter which about this time arrived from Mary, Queen of Scots,
+declaring her readiness to submit to the decrees of the council, and,
+should she ascend the throne of England, to reduce that country to
+obedience to the holy see, may perhaps be connected with these
+overtures. Pius IV, delighted to meet the Cardinal half way, sent
+instructions in this sense to the legates, whom the recent display of
+Spanish arrogance had already disposed favorably toward France. Thus the
+decree on the sacrament of orders was passed in the colorless condition
+desired by the papal party, in a session held on July 15th, the Spanish
+bishops angrily declaring themselves betrayed by the French Cardinal.
+Other decrees were passed in this memorable session, among them one of
+substantial importance for the establishment of diocesan seminaries for
+priests. Clearly, the council had now become tractable and might
+speedily be brought to an end. In this sense the Pope addressed urgent
+letters to the three great Catholic monarchs, and found willing
+listeners except in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the remaining decrees, both of doctrine and of discipline,
+were eagerly pushed on. The sacrament of marriage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> gave rise to much
+discussion; but the proposal that the marriage of priests should be
+permitted, though formerly included in both the imperial and the French
+libel, was now advocated only by the two prelates who spoke directly in
+the name of the Emperor. But in the decree proposed on the all-important
+subject of the reformation of the life and morals of the clergy, the
+legates presumed too far on the yielding mood of the governments. It not
+only contained many admirable reforms as to the conditions under which
+spiritual offices, from the cardinalate downward, were to be held or
+conferred, but the papacy had wisely and generously surrendered many
+existing usages profitable to itself. At the same time, however, it was
+proposed not only to deprive the royal authority in the several states
+of a series of analogous profits, but to take away from it the
+nomination of bishops and the right of citing ecclesiastics before a
+secular tribunal. To the protest which the ambassadors of the powers
+inevitably raised against these proposals, the legates replied by
+raising a cry that the "reformation of the princes" should be
+comprehended in the decrees. It became necessary to postpone the
+objectionable article; but now the fears of the supporters of the
+existing system began to be excited, both at Rome and at Trent, and it
+was contrived to introduce so many modifications into the proposed
+decree as seriously to impair its value. Then, though the Cardinal of
+Lorraine himself, during a visit to Rome (September), showed his
+readiness to support the papal policy, the French ambassadors at the
+council carried their opposition to its encroachments upon the claims of
+their sovereign so far as to withdraw to Venice. And above all, the
+Spanish bishops, upheld by the persistency of their King, stood firmly
+by the original form of the reformation decree, and finally obtained its
+restoration to a very considerable extent. Thus the greater portion of
+the decree was at last passed in the penultimate session of the council
+(November 11th).</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Spain, all the powers now made known their consent
+to winding up the business of the council without further loss of time.
+But Count Luna still immovably resisted the closing of the council
+before the express assent of King Philip should have been received; nor
+was it till the news&mdash;authentic or not&mdash;arrived of a serious illness
+having befallen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> the Pope that the fear of the complications which might
+arise in the event of his death put an end to further delay.</p>
+
+<p>Summoned in all haste, the fathers met on December 3d for their
+five-and-twentieth session, and on this and the following day rapidly
+discussed a series of decrees, some of which were by no means devoid of
+intrinsic importance. In the doctrinal decrees concerning purgatory and
+indulgences, as in those concerning the invocation of saints and the
+respect due to their relics and images, it was sought to preclude a
+reckless exaggeration or distortion of the doctrines of the Church on
+these heads, and a corrupt perversion of the usages connected with them.</p>
+
+<p>Of the disciplinary decrees, the most important and elaborate related to
+the religious of both sexes. It contained a clause, inserted on the
+motion of Lainez, which the Jesuits afterward interpreted as generally
+exempting their society from the operation of this decree. Another
+decree enjoined sobriety and moderation in the use of the ecclesiastical
+penalty of excommunication. For the rest, all possible expedition was
+used in gathering up the threads of the work done or attempted by the
+council. The determination of the Index, as well as the revision of
+missal, breviary, ritual, and catechism, was remitted to the Pope. Then
+the decrees debated in the last session and at its adjourned meeting
+were adopted, being subscribed by 234 (or 255?) ecclesiastics; and the
+decrees passed in the sessions of the council before its reassembling
+under Pope Pius IV were read over again, and thus its continuity
+(1545-1563) was established without any use being made of the terms
+"approbation" and "confirmation." A decree followed, composed by the
+Cardinal of Lorraine and Cardinal Madruccio, solemnly commending the
+ordinances of the council to the Church and to the princes of
+Christendom, and remitting any difficulties concerning the execution of
+the decrees to the Pope, who would provide for it either by summoning
+another general council or as he might determine. A concluding decree
+put an end to the council itself, which closed with a kind of general
+thanksgiving intoned by the Cardinal of Lorraine.</p>
+
+<p>The decrees of the council were shortly afterward (January 26, 1564)
+ratified by Pius IV, against the wish of the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> determined
+Curialists, while others would have wished him to guard himself by
+certain restrictions. These were, however, unnecessary, as he reserved
+to himself the interpretation of doubtful or disputed decrees. This
+reservation remained absolute as to decrees concerning dogma; for the
+interpretation of those concerning discipline, Sixtus V afterward
+appointed a special commission under the name of the "congregation of
+the Council of Trent." While the former became <i>ipso facto</i> binding on
+the entire Church, the decrees on discipline and reformation could not
+become valid in any particular state till after they had been published
+in it with the consent of its government. This distinction is of the
+greatest importance. The doctrinal system of the Church of Rome was now
+enduringly fixed; the area which the Church had lost she could
+henceforth only recover if she reconquered it.</p>
+
+<p>Many attempts at reunion by compromise have since been made from the
+Protestant side, and some of these have perhaps been met half way by the
+generous wishes of not a few Catholics; but the Council of Trent has
+doomed all these projects to inevitable sterility. The gain of the
+Church of Rome from her acquisition at Trent of a clearly and sharply
+defined "body of doctrine" is not open to dispute, except from a point
+of view which her doctors have steadily repudiated. And it is difficult
+to suppose but that, in her conflict with the spirit of criticism which
+from the first in some measure animated the Protestant Reformation and
+afterward urged it far beyond its original scope, the Church of Rome
+must have proved an unequal combatant had not the Council of Trent
+renewed the foundations of the authority claimed by herself and of that
+claimed by her head on earth.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the disciplinary decrees of the council, though more
+far-reaching and enduring than has been on all sides acknowledged, was
+necessarily in the first instance dependent on the reception given to
+them by the several Catholic powers. The representatives of the Emperor
+at once signed the whole of the decrees of the council, though only on
+behalf of his hereditary dominions; and he had his promised reward when,
+a few months afterward (April), the German bishops were, under certain
+restrictions, empowered to accord the cup in the eucharist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> to the
+laity. But neither the Empire through its diet, nor Hungary, ever
+accepted the Tridentine decrees, though several of the Catholic estates
+of the Empire, both spiritual and temporal, individually accepted them
+with modifications. The example of Ferdinand was followed by several
+other powers; but in Poland the diet, to which the decrees were twice
+(1564 and 1578) presented as having been accepted by King Sigismund
+Augustus, refused to accord its own acceptance, maintaining that the
+Polish Church, as such, had never been represented at the council.</p>
+
+<p>In Portugal and in the Swiss Catholic cantons the decrees were received
+without hesitation, as also by the Seigniory of Venice, whose
+representatives at Trent had rarely departed from an attitude of studied
+moderation, and who now merely safeguarded the rights of the republic.
+True to the part recently played by him, the Cardinal of Lorraine, on
+his own responsibility, subscribed to the decrees in the name of the
+King of France. But the Parliament of Paris was on the alert, and on his
+return home the Cardinal had to withdraw in disgrace to Rheims. Neither
+the doctrinal decrees of the council nor the disciplinary, which in part
+clashed with the customs of the kingdom and the privileges of the
+Gallican Church, were ever published in France. The ambassador of Spain,
+whose King and prelates had so consistently held out against the closing
+of the council, refused his signature till he had received express
+instructions. Yet as it was Spain which had hoped and toiled for the
+achievement at the council of solid results, so it was here that the
+decrees fell on the most grateful soil, when, after considerable
+deliberation and delay, their publication at last took place,
+accompanied by stringent safeguards as to the rights of the King and the
+usages of his subjects (1565). The same course was adopted in the
+Italian and Flemish dependencies of the Spanish monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>The disciplinary decrees of the council, on the whole, fell short in
+completeness of the doctrinal. But while they consistently maintained
+the papal authority and confirmed its formal pretensions, the episcopal
+authority, too, was strengthened by them, not only as against the
+monastic orders, but in its own moral foundations. More than this, the
+whole priesthood,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> from the Pope downward, benefited by the warnings
+that had been administered, by the sacrifices that had been made, and by
+the reforms that had been agreed upon. The Church became more united,
+less worldly, and more dependent on herself. These results outlasted the
+movement known as the Counter-reformation, and should be ignored by no
+candid mind.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Pole became archbishop of Canterbury (1556) and chief
+adviser to Queen Mary, under whom he was largely responsible for the
+persecution of English Protestants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> The Farnese were an illustrious Italian family. Alessandro
+Farnese was Pope Paul III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Count Carlo Borromeo, Italian cardinal, Archbishop of
+Milan, was one of the most noted of the ecclesiastical reformers. He was
+canonized in 1610.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PROTESTANT STRUGGLE AGAINST CHARLES V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SMALKALDIC WAR</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1546</h4>
+
+<h3>EDWARD ARMSTRONG</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In 1530 Charles V convened a diet at Augsburg for the
+settlement of religious disputes in Germany and preparation
+for war against the Turks, who were advancing into the
+empire. The diet issued a decree condemning most of the
+Protestant tenets. In consequence of this the Protestant
+princes of Germany at once entered into a league, known as
+the Smalkaldic League, from Smalkald, Germany, where it was
+formed. They bound themselves to assist each other by arms
+and money in defence of their faith against the Emperor, and
+to act together in all religious matters. They concluded an
+alliance with Francis I, King of France, and from Henry VIII
+of England they received moral support and some material
+assistance.</p>
+
+<p>Charles was not yet ready to proceed to extremities. In 1531
+terms of pacification were agreed upon, and the Emperor
+received earnest support from Protestant Germany in his
+preparations against the Turks, who after all withdrew
+without a battle. During the next few years there was no
+open hostility between the two religious parties, but all
+attempts at reconciliation failed. In 1538 the Catholic
+princes formed a counter-league, called the Holy League, and
+violent disputes continued.</p>
+
+<p>At last Charles determined to crush the Reformation in
+Germany by military force. The German Protestants refused to
+be bound by the decrees of the Council of Trent (1545),
+because it was held in a foreign country and presided over
+by the Pope. Their attitude confirmed the Emperor in his
+resolve, and in 1546 began the conflict known as the
+Smalkaldic War, of which Armstrong gives us a spirited and
+impartial account.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>War was actually opened neither by Emperor nor princes, but by the
+Protestant towns. The capable <i>condottiere</i> Sebastian Schartlin von
+Burtenbach led the forces of Augsburg and Ulm briskly southward, seized
+Fussen in the Bishop of Augsburg's territory on July 9th, and then
+surprised the small force guarding the pass of Ehrenberg, which gave
+access to the Inn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> valley. The religious character of the war was
+emphasized by plunder of churches and ill usage of monks and clergy. Two
+obvious courses were now open to the insurgent princes. Either they
+could march direct on Regensburg, where a mere handful of troops
+protected Charles from a strongly Protestant population, or in support
+of Schartlin they could clear Tyrol of imperialists, close the passes to
+Spanish and Italian re&euml;nforcements, and even pay a domiciliary visit to
+the Council of Trent. This latter was Schartlin's programme; the
+Tyrolese had Protestant sympathies and dreaded the advent of the foreign
+troops; Charles averred that even their government was ill-affected.
+Schartlin would even have persuaded the Venetians and Grisons to forbid
+passage to the Emperor's troops, and have enlisted the services of
+Ercole of Ferrara, the enemy of the Pope. But either of the two
+strategic movements was too bold for the Smalkaldic council of war. The
+first would have violated the neutrality of Bavaria, in which the league
+still believed, while it had no quarrel with Ferdinand, who was
+ostensibly conciliatory. The towns, moreover, wished to keep their
+captain within hail, for they feared the possibility of attack either
+from Regensburg or from Ferdinand's paltry forces in the Vorarlberg.</p>
+
+<p>Schartlin retired on Augsburg, but on July 20th, re&euml;nforced by a
+Wuertemberg contingent, occupied Donauworth, and was here joined on
+August 4th by the Elector and Landgrave. The insurgent army now numbered
+fifty thousand foot and seven thousand horse. The very size of this
+force, by far the largest that Germany could remember, is a disproof of
+the not uncommon assertion that Charles took the Lutherans by surprise.</p>
+
+<p>On a rumor that the enemy were crossing the Danube to separate him from
+the troops on the march from Italy, Charles moved on Landshut with some
+six thousand men, not much more than a tenth of the opposing force. He
+was determined, he wrote, to remain in Germany alive or dead, rejecting
+as idle vanity the notion that it was beneath his dignity to lead a
+small force. At Landshut he met papal auxiliaries under Ottavio Farnese
+and Alessandro Vitelli, with detachments of light horse sent by the
+Dukes of Florence and Ferrara. When the Spanish foot and Neapolitan
+cavalry had joined, he could muster at Regensburg twenty-eight thousand
+men, over whom he placed Alba<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> in command. The Elector and Landgrave, in
+renunciation of their fealty, had sent in a herald with a broken staff
+addressed to Charles self-styled the Fifth and Roman Emperor. To him was
+delivered the ban of the empire against his masters, condemning them,
+not for heresy, but for acts of violence and rebellion, for the Pack
+plot, the attack on Wuertemberg, and the seizure of Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign now began in earnest. While the Lutherans timidly wasted
+their opportunities, Charles with his greatly inferior force made a
+hazardous night march on Ingolstadt. The movement was executed with much
+disorder, resembling a flight rather than an advance. The league
+neglected the chance of making a flank attack on the hurrying,
+straggling line as it followed the right bank of the Danube until it was
+conveyed across the river at Neustadt. To add to the Emperor's danger,
+his German troops were mostly Lutherans, hating the priests and the
+Spanish and Italian regiments. Many had early deserted from their
+general, the Marquis of Marignano; all cherished ill-feeling against
+Charles' confessor as being the cause of the civil war. Even the
+population of Bavaria, professedly a friendly territory, was in great
+part a Lutheran.</p>
+
+<p>At Ingolstadt Charles could draw supplies from Bavaria, whose neutrality
+the league had foolishly respected, and thither the Count of Buren with
+the Netherland army might find his way. He was by no means out of
+danger, encamped as he was with but feeble artillery outside the city
+walls. But the Lutheran princes with all their bluster had little
+stomach for stand-up fights. From August 31st to September 3d they
+bombarded the city with one hundred ten guns, to which Charles'
+thirty-two pieces could make scant reply. They did not dare attack the
+impoverished trenches. "I would have done it," wrote the Landgrave, "had
+I been alone." On the other hand it was reported that the Lutherans laid
+the blame on Philip, that he had refused to move, "for every fox must
+save his own skin." The Cockerel, as the confessor, De Soto, had
+contemptuously prophesied, had crowed better than he fought. Charles, on
+the other hand, was at his best. He rode round the trenches, exhorting
+his soldiers to stand firm, with the assurance that artillery made more
+noise than mischief. In vain Granvelle sent the confessor to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> persuade
+him that Christianity needed an emperor less gallant and more sensible.
+He answered that no king nor emperor had ever been killed by a
+cannon-ball, and, if he were so unfortunate as to make a start, it would
+be better so to die than to live. When Ferdinand afterward expostulated
+with his brother, Charles assured him that his self-exposure had been
+exaggerated, but that they were short of hands, and it was not a time to
+set bad example.</p>
+
+<p>The division of Lutheran command was already giving Charles the expected
+opportunities. The princes withdrew westward, a palpable confession of
+weakness. They had been the aggressors, and yet they now surrendered the
+initiative to Charles. Their retirement enabled the Count of Buren to
+march in with his Netherland division, and with him the troops of Albert
+and Hans of Hohenzollern. This march of Buren was the strategic feat of
+the war. He had led the hostile forces which were watching him a dance
+up and down the Rhine, and slipped across it unopposed. He had brought
+his troops three hundred miles, mainly through the heart of Protestant
+Germany, with no certain knowledge where he should find the Emperor, for
+communications could only be maintained by means of long detours.
+Finally he marched boldly past the vastly superior army of the league,
+which had professedly retired from Ingolstadt to bar his passage.</p>
+
+<p>Charles now took the offensive, pushing the enemy slowly up the Danube,
+and steadily forcing his way toward Ulm. The strongly Protestant Count
+Palatine of Neuburg, Otto Henry, was the first prince to lose his
+territory, which, indeed, his debts had already forced him to desert.</p>
+
+<p>The Lutherans now showed more fight, and during the last fortnight of
+October the advance came almost to a standstill. Charles was ill, money
+and supplies were falling short, Spaniards and Italians were suffering
+from the cold rains of the Danube valley. The papal contingent was
+demoralized for want of pay; three thousand men deserted in a day,
+whereas the Lutherans were re&euml;nforced. Yet Charles, in spite of
+professional advice, refused to go into winter quarters. He counted on
+divisions in the League, on the selfish interests of the towns, on the
+penury of the princes, and reckoned aright. The fighting was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> never more
+than skirmishing; not arms but ducats were deciding the issue; the fate
+of war was literally hanging on a fortnight's pay.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor had said that a league between towns and princes could never
+last. The financial burden pressed mainly on the cities, and they
+refused to raise further subsidies. The richer classes had always
+disliked the war; the great merchants were often, as the Fuggers of
+Augsburg, zealous Catholics. Trade was at a standstill, and they could
+protest that all their capital was at the Emperor's mercy, at Antwerp,
+at Seville, in the Indies, or else in Portugal. It was convenient to
+forget the brisk traffic which still continued with friendly Lyons. Zeal
+for the Lutheran cause seemed limited to a Catholic, Piero Strozzi the
+Florentine exile, who in his hatred for the Hapsburgs was vainly
+spending his fortune on revenge, striving for aid from Venice,
+negotiating loans from France. There was, moreover, no real solidarity
+between Northern and Southern Germany. Neither the Protestant princes
+nor the wealthy cities of the Baltic had as yet stirred a finger for the
+cause. Under any circumstances the Lutheran army must have broken up.
+The leaders had resolved to retire to the Rhineland for the winter, live
+at free quarters on the ecclesiastical princes, and renew the struggle
+in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>At this critical moment Maurice of Saxony came into action. Hitherto his
+conduct had been ambiguous. This was probably due less to deliberate
+deceit than to genuine hesitation. The incompetence of the Lutheran
+leaders and Ferdinand's expressed intention of invading Ernestine Saxony
+determined him. Persuading his estates with difficulty that it was
+necessary to save the Electorate for the house of Wettin, he undertook
+to execute the ban in his cousin's state. His reward was the title of
+elector and the Ernestine territories. The correspondence of Charles and
+his brother on the subject was characteristic of both. Ferdinand, always
+greedy of territory, had bargained for partition, but Charles persuaded
+him to be content with John Frederick's Bohemian fiefs.</p>
+
+<p>Charles, cautious and suspicious, was unwilling to grant the title until
+Maurice had proved his loyalty; Ferdinand, more impetuous, induced him
+to pay the bribe and give credit for the service.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> The Albertine and
+Austrian troops soon overran the defenceless land. This determined the
+manner of the Danubian campaign, and the Saxon phase of the war began.
+John Frederick must withdraw his troops to defend their homes, and he
+plundered <i>en route</i> the neutral ecclesiastical territories through
+which he passed. "In a papal country," he told the burgomaster of
+Aschaffenburg, "there is nothing neutral." The campaign of the Danube
+was suddenly over. Philip of Hesse retired sullenly to his two wives, as
+Schartlin put it. As he passed through Frankfurt he hoisted banners with
+the crucifix, flails, and mattocks, to incite the lower classes to
+revolt; he had failed to bend the powers above him, he would fain stir
+Acheron.</p>
+
+<p>Charles could now complete the subjection of Southern Germany.
+Granvelle, the last to be convinced of the necessity of war, was the
+first convert to the policy of peace, which the Landgrave and the towns
+desired. Peace would relieve the financial strain and prevent the
+Germans from becoming desperate; peace would enable Charles to turn his
+arms against the Turks. Charles thought it undignified to negotiate with
+an army in the field: peace entailed the abandonment of Maurice, and
+henceforth no other prince would dare serve him; Augsburg and Ulm, if
+they were persuaded that he had no wish to establish a tyranny in
+Germany, were likely to capitulate, and after a victory his generosity
+in leaving Germany her liberty would appear the greater. Charles did not
+at this moment fear the Turk, and it was in his power at any moment to
+propitiate the French. Pedro de Soto urged the continuance of the war,
+to avert the danger of a papal-French combination, which would be the
+natural result of Paul's indignation at a compromise with heretics.</p>
+
+<p>The deserted princes and towns of South Germany now one by one made
+submission. Very pathetic was the Emperor's meeting with the Elector
+Palatine, the friend of his youth, the whilom lover of his sister, the
+husband of his niece. Charles did not extend his hand: the Elector made
+three low bows, after which Charles drew out a paper which he read and
+then spoke to him in French&mdash;"It has grieved me most of all that you in
+your old age should have been my enemies' companion, when we have been
+brought up together in our youth." The Elector<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> answered almost in a
+whisper, and left "like a skinned cat," the Emperor half raising his
+cap, but no one else. He was ordered to go to Granvelle, and the
+minister played the doctor and healed the wound. He returned with tears
+in his eyes, and then Charles forgave him. "My cousin, I am content that
+your past deserts toward me should cancel the errors which you have
+recently committed." Henceforth the old friendship was renewed.</p>
+
+<p>Ulrich of Wuertemberg escaped less lightly. He paid a large indemnity,
+received Spanish garrisons in his fortresses, and engaged to serve
+against his late allies. He had no resource, for his subjects hated him;
+from the windows of the cottages fluttered the red and white Burgundian
+colors as a token of what was in the peasants' hearts. Ferdinand pressed
+warmly for the restoration of the duchy to Austria, but Charles replied
+that the aim of the war was the service of God and the revival of
+imperial authority: to seek their private advantage would only quicken
+the envy with which neighboring powers regarded the house of Hapsburg.
+Farther north the octogenarian of the Elector of Cologne resigned his
+see, and the evangelization of the Middle Rhine was at an end. Ulm gave
+in with a good grace, but Augsburg long delayed. Charles' original
+intention was, apparently, to garrison these towns, as Milan and Naples,
+with reliable Spanish troops, and perhaps to destroy their walls and
+dominate them by fortresses. But he treated the cities leniently. He
+left here and there companies of imperial troops, levied moderate
+contributions, replaced at Ulm and Augsburg the democratic constitution
+of the trades by the old wealthy aristocracies, but promised to respect
+the existing religion. Strasburg, which, in spite of French entreaties,
+capitulated in February, 1547, was almost exempt from punishment; it was
+feared that the distant, wealthy, and headstrong city might hold out a
+hand to the Swiss and become a canton.</p>
+
+<p>In Southern and Western Germany there was no longer an enemy in the
+field, but, in the North, Maurice's treachery had brought its penalty.
+John Frederick, acting with unusual vigor, recovered his dominions,
+received homage from the feudatories of Halberstadt and Magdeburg, and
+overran Maurice's territories, until he was checked before the walls of
+Leipsic. When<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> Ferdinand prepared to aid Maurice, the German Protestants
+of Lusatia and Silesia refused their contingents, and the Bohemian
+Utraquists made common cause with the Lutherans. The Utraquist nobility
+and towns formed a league in defence of national and religious
+liberties; they convoked a diet and raised an army. Ferdinand was faced
+by a general Bohemian revolt. His position was weakened by his wife's
+death in February, for it was pretended that he was merely consort. Only
+the Catholic nobles were for the Hapsburg King; the roads were
+barricaded to prevent the passage of his artillery; and John Frederick,
+entering Bohemia, received a hearty welcome. The North German maritime
+and inland cities were now in arms, and the Lutheran princes of
+Oldenburg and Mansfield were threatening the Netherlands. Charles sent
+his best troops to Ferdinand's aid, and despatched Hans and Albert
+Hohenzollern in support of Maurice. But Germans could still beat
+Germans. Albert was surprised and taken at Rochlitz. Ferdinand eagerly
+pressed Charles to march north in person. The Emperor was unwilling, and
+Granvelle strongly dissuaded it. The despatch of Alba was the
+alternative, but Charles did not trust his generalship. He was delayed,
+partly by gout, and partly by fear of a fresh rising in the Swabian
+towns. Here he had left seven thousand men, but he could not himself
+safely stay in Nuremberg without a garrison of three thousand, and could
+not afford to lock these up. His sole presence in the North, wrote Piero
+Colonna, was worth twenty-five thousand foot, and Charles, ill as he
+was, must march.</p>
+
+<p>The unexpected turn which the war had taken in Saxony was not Charles'
+only trouble. Paul III had been alarmed by the Emperor's progress, which
+had been more rapid and complete than he expected, and at the end of six
+months, for which he had promised his contingent, he withdrew it. The
+material loss was slight, but the whole aspect of the war was altered.
+Charles could scarcely now profess to be fighting for submission to Pope
+and council, for the council in March transferred itself, after violent
+altercations with the Spanish bishops and imperial envoys, to Bologna.
+Rome rejoiced at the successes of John Frederick. In the late French war
+the Turks had figured as the Pope's friends and had spared his shores;
+it now seemed possible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> that the Lutherans might be the Pope's allies.
+It was certain that, if time were given, the Pope's defection would
+stimulate the active hostility of France. Charles must have done with
+the rebellion, and that quickly.</p>
+
+<p>Tortured by gout and fearing that his forces would prove inferior to the
+Saxons, Charles moved painfully from Nordlingen to Regensburg and thence
+to Eger, where he was joined by Ferdinand, Maurice, and the electoral
+prince of Brandenburg. Spending Easter at Eger, he crossed the Saxon
+frontier on April 13, 1547, with eighteen thousand foot and eight
+thousand horse. Ten days of incessant marching brought him within touch
+of the Elector, who was guarding the bridge of Meissen. John Frederick
+had foolishly frittered away his forces in Saxon and Bohemian garrisons.
+He now burned the bridge and retired down the Elbe to Muehlberg, hoping
+to concentrate his scattered forces under the walls of Wittenberg, while
+his bridge of boats would keep open communications with the left bank.</p>
+
+<p>Charles was too quick for the ponderous Elector. He marched at midnight
+on April 23-24, and at 9 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> reached the Elbe, nearly opposite
+Muehlberg. As the mist cleared, Alba's light horse descried the bridge
+of boats swinging from the farther bank, and a dozen Spaniards, covered
+by an arquebuse fire, swam the river with swords between their teeth,
+routed the guard, and brought the boats across. Meanwhile Alba and
+Maurice found a ford by which the light horse crossed with arquebusiers
+<i>en croupe</i>. Charles and Ferdinand followed, with the water up to the
+girths, the Emperor pale as death and thin as a skeleton. The Elector,
+after attending his Sunday sermon, was enjoying his breakfast; he made
+no attempt to defend his strong position on the higher bank, but
+withdrew his guns and infantry, covering the retreat in person with his
+cavalry. The bulk of the imperial forces had crossed by the bridge of
+boats, and the day was passed in a running rear-guard action. It was a
+long-drawn sunset, and not till between six and seven did Alba, as ever
+making sure, deliver his decisive attack. The Saxon horse had turned
+fiercely on the pursuing light cavalry some nine miles from Muehlberg,
+and then the imperialists, striking home, converted the retreat into a
+headlong flight. More than a third of the Saxon forces were left upon
+the field; the whole of their artillery and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> baggage train was taken.
+John Frederick regained his timid generalship by his personal bravery.
+Left almost single-handed in the wood through which his troops retired,
+he slashed at the Neapolitan light-horsemen and Hungarian hussars who
+surrounded him, but at length surrendered to Ippolito da Porto of
+Vicenza, who led him, his forehead streaming with blood, to Charles.</p>
+
+<p>Of the interview between the Emperor and his enemy there are several
+versions, but none inconsistent. "Most powerful and gracious Emperor,"
+said the Elector, vainly endeavoring to dismount, "I am your prisoner."
+"You recognize me as Emperor now?" rejoined Charles. "I am to-day a poor
+prisoner; may it please your majesty to treat me as a born prince." "I
+will treat you as you deserve," said Charles. Then broke in Ferdinand,
+"You have tried to drive me and my children from our lands."</p>
+
+<p>The evidence as to the angry scene seems conclusive. Charles had been
+twenty-one hours in the saddle; he had been exasperated by the insolence
+of the Princess, who had addressed him as "Charles of Ghent, self-styled
+Emperor." Yet his harsh reception of a wounded prisoner contrasts
+unpleasantly with the generosity which his biographers have ascribed to
+him.</p>
+
+<p>Muehlberg was little more than a skirmish, and yet it was decisive. In a
+far more murderous battle the imperialists were beaten. The forces of
+the maritime towns had compelled Eric of Brunswick to raise the siege of
+Bremen, and on his retreat had defeated him near Drakenberg with a heavy
+loss. But victories belated or premature do not turn the scale against
+an opportune success. The sole result of the battle was to delay the
+Landgrave's surrender a little longer. Philip had sworn to die like a
+mad-dog before he would surrender his fortresses, but he yielded
+ultimately without a blow. He found discontent rife among his nobles; he
+was threatened alike from the Netherlands and by the Count of Buren; for
+months he wavered between capitulation and resistance. Arras assured the
+nuncio that he was a scoundrel and a coward; that he had implored
+Maurice to intercede, first for all Lutheran Germany, then for John
+Frederick and himself, and finally for himself alone. "See what men
+these are," added the Bishop later. "Philip has even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> offered to march
+against the Duke of Saxony; he is a sorry fellow and of evil nature: he
+is such a scoundrel that his majesty cannot trust him in any promise
+that he may make, for he has never kept one yet."</p>
+
+<p>The imperial minister's judgment upon the Landgrave was too severe. He
+long struggled for honor against fear, and, but for his son-in-law,
+Maurice's influence might have made a better fight. Maurice had from the
+first striven to detach Philip from John Frederick, while in turn he was
+expected by the Landgrave to strike in for a free Germany and a free
+gospel against the Hungarian hussars and the black Spanish devils. When
+the two Lutheran leaders parted in November, 1546, on no good terms,
+Philip warned his son-in-law that the Elector was on the march against
+him, but begged to intercede with Charles for a general peace. Maurice
+would have no peace with his Ernestine cousins, but offered to use all
+his influence on behalf of Philip, who must hasten to decide, for Buren
+was "on his legs" and the Emperor was an obstinate man. From this moment
+the Landgrave's irresolution was piteous; the negotiations crippled all
+enterprise, and yet he could not persuade himself to abandon his ally,
+although the natural expiry of the League of Smalkald on February 27,
+1547, gave him a tolerable pretext. Maurice waxed impatient at the
+recurring hesitation, at the perpetual amendment of all suggested terms:
+Philip could not bargain with Charles as though he were a tradesman; he
+need have no fear for religion, but he must make it clear to the Emperor
+and Ferdinand that he was against John Frederick. Then came the defeat
+of Muehlberg, which at least relieved Philip from obligations to his
+late ally. It was now the surrender of his fortresses and his artillery
+that he could not stomach, and the victory of Drakenberg raised his once
+martial ardor to a final flicker.</p>
+
+<p>The flicker died away, and at length Philip yielded to the pressure of
+Maurice and Joachim of Brandenburg. Charles insisted on unconditional
+surrender, but promised the mediators that punishment should not extend
+to personal injury or perpetual imprisonment&mdash;this only, however, on
+their pledge that Philip should not be informed of these limitations. It
+was agreed that he should dismantle his fortresses with one exception,
+surrender his artillery, and pay an indemnity, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> that his territory
+should remain intact and its religion undisturbed.</p>
+
+<p>With Philip's surrender the war seemed virtually at an end. Magdeburg,
+indeed, still held out, for fear of falling again under its Catholic
+Hohenzollern Archbishop. There was no reason to believe that the city
+would prove more courageous than its fellows. Charles did not dare spend
+his four thousand Spaniards in the assault, but in this case
+extravagance would have proved to be economy. When he knew his subject,
+his opinion was usually well founded; he had little knowledge, however,
+of North Germany, and confused Magdeburg with Ulm or Augsburg. It were
+better for Charles had his Spaniards been decimated on its parapet than
+that they should lord it in security over the churches and taverns of
+Southern Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from his two last mistakes, in the campaign against the league,
+Charles, whether as a soldier or statesman, is seen at his best. When
+once the drums beat to arms there was an end to irresolution. He had
+that reserve of energy upon which an indolent, lethargic nature can
+sometimes at a crisis draw. The Netherlands seemed threatened from east
+to west; yet in perfect calm he ordered his agitated sister Mary to
+watch her frontiers, but to send every man and gun that could be spared
+under Buren to the front. Taking advantage of his enemies' delays, he
+made with greatly inferior forces the forward move on Ingolstadt, and
+was there seen under heavy fire "steady as a rock and smiling." Racked
+by gout he now sought sleep in his litter behind a bastion, now warmed
+his aching limbs in a little movable wooden room heated by a stove. In
+the cold, wet November, when generals and ministers fell sick, and
+soldiers of every nationality deserted, he resolutely rejected expert
+advice to withdraw into winter quarters. He would not give his enemies,
+he said, the least chance of outstaying him. All success, wrote the
+Marquis of Marignano, was due to the Emperor's resolution to keep the
+field. Charles vexed the fiery Buren by shrinking from a general
+engagement, because he knew that his combinations would break up the
+league without the risk of a battle. But when once danger really
+pressed, ill as he was, he marched across Germany, and followed fast
+upon the Elector's heels until he tripped and took him.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO JAPAN</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1549</h4>
+
+<h3>JOHN H. GUBBINS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Lands discovered or settled by Europeans after the founding
+of the Jesuits were quickly chosen by the zealous members of
+that order as scenes of missionary work. In the case of
+Japan, missions followed discovery with unusual rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting what was told by Marco Polo, who visited the coast
+of Japan in the thirteenth century, nothing was learned of
+that country by the Western World until its discovery by the
+Portuguese. In 1541 King John III requested Francis Xavier,
+one of the Jesuit founders, with other members of his order,
+to undertake missionary work in the Portuguese colonies.
+Through his labors in India, Xavier became known as the
+"Apostle of the Indies." Before sailing to Japan he had
+established a flourishing mission with a school, called the
+Seminary of the Holy Faith, at Goa, on the Malabar coast of
+India.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>It was to Portuguese enterprise that Christianity owed its introduction
+into Japan in the sixteenth century. As early as 1542 Portuguese trading
+vessels began to visit Japan, where they exchanged Western commodities
+for the then little-known products of the Japanese islands; and seven
+years afterward three Portuguese missionaries (Xavier, Torres, and
+Fernandez) took passage in one of these merchant ships and landed at
+Kagoshima.</p>
+
+<p>The leading spirit of the three, it need scarcely be said, was Xavier,
+who had already acquired considerable reputation by his missionary
+labors in India. After a short residence the missionaries were forced to
+leave Satsuma, and after as short a stay in the island of Hirado, which
+appears to have been then the rendezvous of trade between the Portuguese
+merchants and the Japanese, they crossed over to the mainland and
+settled down in Yamaguchi in Nagato, the chief town of the territories
+of the Prince of Choshiu. After a visit to the capital, which was
+productive of no result, owing to the disturbed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> state of the country,
+Xavier (November, 1551) left Japan with the intention of founding a
+Jesuit mission in China, but died on his way in the island of Sancian.</p>
+
+<p>In 1553 fresh missionaries arrived, some of whom remained in Bungo,
+where Xavier had made a favorable impression before his departure, while
+others joined their fellow-missionaries in Yamaguchi. After having been
+driven from the latter place by the outbreak of disturbances, and having
+failed to establish a footing in Hizen, we find the missionaries in 1557
+collected in Bungo, and this province appears to have become their
+headquarters from that time. In the course of the next year but one,
+Vilela made a visit to Kioto, Sakai, and other places, during which he
+is said to have gained a convert in the person of the <i>daimio</i>, of the
+small principality of Omura, who displayed an imprudent excess of
+religious zeal in the destruction of idols and other extreme measures,
+which could only tend to provoke the hostility of the Buddhist
+priesthood. The conversion of this prince was followed by that of
+Arima-no-Kami (mistakenly called the Prince of Arima by the Jesuits).</p>
+
+<p>Other missionaries arriving in 1560, the circle of operations was
+extended; but shortly afterward the revolution, headed by Mori,
+compelled Vilela to leave Kioto, where he had settled, and a
+simultaneous outbreak in Omura necessitated the withdrawal of the
+missionaries stationed there. Mori, of Choshiu, was perhaps the most
+powerful noble of the day, possessing no fewer than ten provinces, and,
+as he was throughout an open enemy to Christianity, his influence was
+exercised against it with much ill result.</p>
+
+<p>On Vilela's return to Kioto from Sakai, where a branch mission had been
+established, he succeeded in gaining several distinguished converts.
+Among these were Takayama, a leading general of the time, and his
+nephew. He did not, however, remain long in the capital. The recurrence
+of troubles in 1568 made it necessary for him to withdraw, and he then
+proceeded to Nagasaki, where he met with considerable success. In this
+same year we come across Valegnani preaching in the Goto Isles, and
+Torres in the island of Seki, where he died. Almeida, too, about this
+time founded a Christian community at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> Shimabara, afterward notorious as
+the scene of the revolt and massacre of the Christians.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto we find little mention of Christianity in Japanese books. This
+may partly be explained by the fact that the labors of the missionaries
+were chiefly confined to the southern provinces, Christianity having as
+yet made little progress at Kioto, the seat of literature. But the
+scarcity of Japanese records can scarcely be wondered at in the face of
+the edict issued later in the next century, which interdicted not only
+books on the subject of Christianity, but any book in which even the
+name of <i>Christian</i> or the word <i>Foreign</i> should be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Short notices occur in several native works of the arrival in Kioto at
+this date of the Jesuit missionary Organtin, and some curious details
+are furnished respecting the progress of Christianity in the capital and
+the attitude of Nobunaga in regard to it.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Saikoku Kirishitan Bateren Jitsu Roku</i>, or "True Record of
+Christian Padres in Kiushiu," gives a minute account of the appearance
+and dress of Organtin, and goes on to say: "He was asked his name and
+why he had come to Japan, and replied that he was the Padre Organtin and
+had come to spread his religion. He was told that he could not be
+allowed at once to preach his religion, but would be informed later on.
+Nobunaga accordingly took counsel with his retainers as to whether he
+should allow Christianity to be preached or not. One of these strongly
+advised him not to do so, on the ground that there were already enough
+religions in the country. But Nobunaga replied that Buddhism had been
+introduced from abroad and had done good in the country, and he
+therefore did not see why Christianity should not be granted a trial.
+Organtin was consequently allowed to erect a church and to send for
+others of his order, who, when they came, were found to be like him in
+appearance. Their plan of action was to tend the sick and relieve the
+poor, and so prepare the way for the reception of Christianity, and then
+to convert everyone and make the sixty-six provinces of Japan subject to
+Portugal."</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ibuki Mogusa</i> gives further details of this subject, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> says that
+the Jesuits called their church <i>Yierokuji</i>, after the name of the
+period in which it was built, but that Nobunaga changed the name to
+<i>Nambanji</i>, or "Temple of the Southern Savages." The word <i>Namban</i> was
+the term usually applied to the Portuguese and Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>During the next ten years Organtin and other missionaries worked with
+considerable success in Kioto under Nobunaga's immediate protection.
+This period is also remarkable for the conversion of the Prince of
+Bungo, who made open profession of Christianity and retired into private
+life, and for the rapid progress which the new doctrine made among the
+subjects of Arima-no-Kami. This good fortune was again counterbalanced
+by the course of events in the Goto Islands, where Christianity lost
+much ground owing to a change of rulers.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years thus passed away, when the Christian communities sustained
+great loss in the disgrace of Takayama, who was banished to Kaga for
+taking part in an unsuccessful intrigue against Nobunaga which was
+headed by the Prince of Choshiu. Takayama's nephew, Ukon, however,
+declared for Nobunaga, and the latter gave a further proof of his
+friendly feeling toward Christianity by establishing a church in
+Adzuchi-no-Shiro, the castle town which he had built for himself in his
+native province of Omi.</p>
+
+<p>In 1582 a mission was sent to the papal see on the part of the Princes
+of Bungo and Omura, and Arima-no-Kami. This mission was accompanied by
+Valegnani, and reached Rome in 1585, returning five years later to
+Japan.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year Nobunaga was assassinated and Hideyoshi, who
+succeeded him in the chief power, was content, for the first three or
+four years of his administration, to follow in the line of policy marked
+out by his predecessor. Christianity, therefore, progressed in spite of
+the drawbacks caused by the frequent feuds between the southern
+<i>daimios</i>, and seminaries were established under Hideyoshi's auspices at
+Osaka and Sakai. During this period Martinez arrived in the capacity of
+bishop; he was charged with costly presents from the Viceroy of Goa to
+Hideyoshi, and received a favorable audience.</p>
+
+<p>Hideyoshi's attitude toward Christianity at this time is easily
+explained. The powerful southern barons were not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> willing to accept him
+as Nobunaga's successor without a struggle, and there were other reasons
+against the adoption of too hasty measures. Two of his generals, Kondera
+and Konishi Setsu-no-Kami, who afterward commanded the second division
+of the army sent against Corea, the Governor of Osaka, and numerous
+other officers of state and nobles of rank and influence, had embraced
+Christianity, and the Christians were therefore not without influential
+supporters. Hideyoshi's first act was to secure his position. For this
+purpose he marched into Kiushiu at the head of a large force and was
+everywhere victorious. This done, he threw off the mask he had been
+wearing up to this time, and in 1587 took the first step in his new
+course of action by ordering the destruction of the Christian church at
+Kioto&mdash;which had been in existence for a period of eighteen years&mdash;and
+the expulsion of the missionaries from the capital.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen by the following extract from the <i>Ibuki Mogusa</i> that
+Nobunaga at one time entertained designs for the destruction of
+Nambanji.</p>
+
+<p>"Nobunaga," we read, "now began to regret his previous policy in
+permitting the introduction of Christianity. He accordingly assembled
+his retainers and said to them: 'The conduct of these missionaries in
+persuading people to join them by giving money does not please me. It
+must be, I think, that they harbor the design of seizing the country.
+How would it be, think you, if we were to demolish Nambanji?' To this
+Mayeda Tokuzenin replied: 'It is now too late to demolish the temple of
+Nambanji. To endeavor to arrest the power of this religion now is like
+trying to arrest the current of the ocean. Nobles both great and small
+have become adherents of it. If you would exterminate this religion now,
+there is fear lest disturbances be created even among your own
+retainers. I am, therefore, of opinion that you should abandon your
+intention of destroying Nambanji.' Nobunaga in consequence regretted
+exceedingly his previous action with regard to the Christian religion,
+and set about thinking how he could root it out."</p>
+
+<p>The Jesuit writers attribute Hideyoshi's sudden change of attitude to
+three different causes, but it is clear that Hideyoshi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> was never
+favorable to Christianity, and that he only waited for his power to be
+secure before taking decided measures of hostility. His real feeling in
+regard to the Christians and their teachers is explained in the <i>Life of
+Hideyoshi</i>, from which work we learn that even before his accession to
+power he had ventured to remonstrate with Nobunaga for his policy toward
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Hideyoshi's next act was to banish Takayama Ukon to Kaga, where his
+uncle already was, and he then in 1588 issued a decree ordering the
+missionaries to assemble at Hirado and prepare to leave Japan. They did
+so, but finding that measures were not pushed to extremity they
+dispersed and placed themselves under the protection of various nobles
+who had embraced Christianity. The territories of these princes offered
+safe asylums, and in these scattered districts the work of Christianity
+progressed secretly while openly interdicted.</p>
+
+<p>In 1591 Valegnani had a favorable audience of Hideyoshi, but he was
+received entirely in an official capacity, namely, in the character of
+envoy of the Viceroy of Goa.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity was at its most flourishing stage during the first few
+years of Hideyoshi's administration. We can discern the existence at
+this date of a strong Christian party in the country, though the
+turning-point had been reached, and the tide of progress was on the ebb.
+It is to this influence probably, coupled with the fact that his many
+warlike expeditions left him little leisure to devote to religious
+questions, that we must attribute the slight relaxation observable in
+his policy toward Christianity at this time.</p>
+
+<p>"Up to this date," says Charlevoix, "Hideyoshi had not evinced any
+special bitterness against Christianity, and had not proceeded to
+rigorous measures in regard to Christians. The condition of Christianity
+was reassuring. Rodriguez was well in favor at court, and Organtin had
+returned to Kioto along with several other missionaries, and found means
+to render as much assistance to the Christians in that part of the
+country as he had been able to do before the issue of the edict against
+Christianity by Hideyoshi."</p>
+
+<p>The inference which it is intended should be drawn from these remarks,
+taken with the context, is clear; namely, that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> had the Jesuits been
+left alone to prosecute the work of evangelizing Japan, the ultimate
+result might have been very different. However, this was not to be.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto, for a period of forty-four years, the Jesuits had it all their
+own way in Japan; latterly, by virtue of a bull issued by Pope Gregory
+XIII in 1585&mdash;the date of the appointment of the first bishop and of the
+arrival at Rome of the Japanese mission&mdash;and subsequently confirmed by
+the bull of Clement III in 1600, by which the <i>r&eacute;ligieux</i> of other
+orders were excluded from missionary work in Japan. The object of these
+papal decrees was, it seems, to insure the propagation of Christianity
+on a uniform system. They were, however, disregarded when the time came,
+and therefore, for a new influence which was brought to bear upon
+Christianity at this date&mdash;not altogether for its good, if the Jesuit
+accounts may be credited&mdash;we must look to the arrival of an embassy from
+the Governor of the Philippines, whose ambassador was accompanied by
+four Franciscan priests.</p>
+
+<p>These new arrivals, when confronted by the Jesuits with the papal bull,
+declared that they had not transgressed it, and defended their action on
+the ground that they had come attached to an embassy and not in the
+character of missionaries; but they argued at the same time, with a
+casuistry only equalled by their opponents, that, having once arrived in
+Japan, there was nothing to hinder them from exercising their calling as
+preachers of Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>The embassy was successful, and Baptiste, who appears to have conducted
+the negotiations in place of the real envoy, obtained Hideyoshi's
+consent to his shrewd proposal that, pending the reference to Manila of
+Hideyoshi's claim to the sovereignty of the Philippines, he and his
+brother missionaries should remain as hostages. Hideyoshi, while
+consenting, made their residence conditional on their not preaching
+Christianity&mdash;a condition which it is needless to say was never
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, at one and the same time, the Spaniards, who had long been
+watching with their jealous eyes the exclusive right of trade enjoyed by
+the Portuguese, obtained an opening for commerce, and the Franciscans a
+footing for their religious mission.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was not long before the newly-arrived missionaries were called upon
+to prove their devotion to their cause. In 1593, in consequence of the
+indiscreet statements of the pilot of a Spanish galleon, which, being
+driven by stress of weather into a port of Tosa, was seized by
+Hideyoshi, nine missionaries&mdash;namely, six Franciscans and three
+Jesuits&mdash;were arrested in Kioto and Osaka, and, having been taken to
+Nagasaki, were there burned. This was the first execution carried out by
+the government.</p>
+
+<p>Hideyoshi died in the following year (1594), and the civil troubles
+which preceded the succession of Iyeyasu to the post of administrator,
+in which the Christians lost their chief supporter, Konishi, who took
+part against Iyeyasu, favored the progress of Christianity in so far as
+diverting attention from it to matters of more pressing moment.</p>
+
+<p>Iyeyasu's policy toward Christianity was a repetition of his
+predecessor's. Occupied entirely with military campaigns against those
+who refused to acknowledge his supremacy, he permitted the Jesuits, who
+now numbered one hundred, to establish themselves in force at Kioto,
+Osaka, and Nagasaki. But as soon as tranquillity was restored, and he
+felt himself secure in the seat of power, he at once gave proof of the
+policy he intended to follow by the issue of a decree of expulsion
+against the missionaries. This was in 1600. The Jesuit writers affirm
+that he was induced to withdraw his edict in consequence of the
+threatening attitude adopted by certain Christian nobles who had
+espoused his cause in the late civil war, but no mention is made of this
+in the Japanese accounts.</p>
+
+<p>So varying, and indeed so altogether unintelligible, was the action of
+the different nobles throughout Kiushiu in regard to Christianity during
+the next few years, that we see one who was not a Christian offering an
+asylum in his dominions to several hundred native converts who were
+expelled from a neighboring province; another who had systematically
+opposed the introduction of Christianity actually sending a mission to
+the Philippines to ask for missionaries; while a third, who had hitherto
+made himself conspicuous by his almost fanatical zeal in the Christian
+cause, suddenly abandoned his new faith,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> and, from having been one of
+its most ardent supporters, became one of its most bitter foes.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1602 is remarkable for the despatch of an embassy by Iyeyasu to
+the Philippines, and for the large number of <i>r&eacute;ligieux</i> of all orders
+who flocked to Japan.</p>
+
+<p>Affairs remained <i>in statu quo</i> for the next two or three years, during
+which the Christian cause was weakened by the death of two men which it
+could ill afford to lose. One of these was the noble called Kondera by
+Charlevoix, but whose name we have been unable to trace in Japanese
+records. The other was Organtin, who had deservedly the reputation of
+being the most energetic member of the Jesuit body.</p>
+
+<p>The number of Christians in Japan at this time is stated to have been
+one million eight hundred thousand. The number of missionaries was of
+course proportionally large, and was increased by the issue in 1608 of a
+new bull by Pope Paul V allowing to <i>r&eacute;ligieux</i> of all orders free
+access to Japan.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1610 is remarkable for the arrival of the Dutch, who settled in
+Hirado, and for the destruction in the harbor of Nagasaki of the annual
+Portuguese galleon sent by the traders of Macao. In this latter affair,
+which rose out of a dispute between the natives and the people of the
+ship, Arima-no-Kami was concerned, and his alliance with the
+missionaries was thus terminated.</p>
+
+<p>In 1611 no less than three embassies arrived in Japan from the Dutch,
+Spanish, and Portuguese respectively, and in 1613 Saris succeeded in
+founding an English factory in Hirado, where the Dutch had already
+established themselves. It was early in the following year that
+Christianity was finally proscribed by Iyeyasu. The decree of expulsion
+directed against the missionaries was followed by a fierce outbreak of
+persecution in all the provinces in which Christians were to be found,
+which was conducted with systematic and relentless severity.</p>
+
+<p>The Jesuit accounts attribute this resolution on the part of Iyeyasu to
+the intrigues of the English and Dutch traders. Two stories, by one of
+which it was sought to fix the blame on the former and by the other on
+the latter, were circulated, and will be found at length in Charlevoix's
+history.</p>
+
+<p>We have no wish to enter upon a defence either of our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> countrymen or of
+the Dutch, and fully admit the possibility of such intrigues having
+occurred. Indeed, considering in what relations both Spanish and
+Portuguese stood at that time to both of the other nations, and how high
+religious feeling ran in the seventeenth century, it would be strange if
+some intrigue had not taken place. Still we should like to point out
+that there were, we think, causes, other than those to which the Jesuit
+writers confine themselves, quite sufficient in themselves to account
+for the extreme measures taken against Christianity at this date.</p>
+
+<p>There was the predetermination against Christianity already shown by
+Iyeyasu; there were the new avenues of trade opened up by the arrival of
+the English and Dutch; there was the increased activity displayed by the
+missionaries at a time when Christianity was in a weak state, and lastly
+there was the influence of the Buddhist priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>That this edict of expulsion issued by Iyeyasu was the effect of no
+sudden caprice on his part, is clear from the general view which we have
+of his whole policy, which was similar to that of his predecessor. His
+early tolerance of Christianity is susceptible of the same explanation
+as that shown by Hideyoshi. His mind was evidently made up, and he was
+only biding his time.</p>
+
+<p>It is also highly probable that the new facilities for trade offered by
+the advent of the Dutch and English may have had some influence upon the
+action of Iyeyasu. It is impossible that he can have been altogether
+blind to the fact that the teaching of Christianity had not been
+unattended with certain evils, dangerous, to say the least, to the
+tranquillity of the country; and it cannot have escaped his notice that,
+whereas the respective admissions of Portuguese and Spaniards had been
+followed by the introduction of Christian missionaries, who in numbers
+far exceeded the traders, the same feature was not a part of the policy
+of the two other nations, whose proceedings had no connection whatsoever
+with religion. Possibly, too, reports may have reached his ears of the
+growing supremacy of the Dutch in the East, and have induced him to
+transfer his favor from the Portuguese and Spaniards to the new
+arrivals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As regards the condition of Christianity at this time, the Jesuit
+accounts supply us with facts which show that, numerically speaking, the
+Christian cause was never so strong as at this period. There were some
+two millions of converts, whose spiritual concerns were administered by
+no fewer than two hundred missionaries, three-fourths of whom were
+Jesuits. According to the <i>Kerisuto-Ki</i>, a native work, there were
+Christian churches in every province of Kiushiu except Hiuga and Osumi,
+and also in Kioto, Osaka, Sendai, and Kanagawa in Kaga; and it was only
+in eight provinces of Japan that Christianity had gained no footing. An
+increased activity in the operations of the missionaries is discernible
+about this time. The Dominicans in Satsuma, the Franciscans in Yedo
+(Tokio), and the Jesuits in the capital and southern provinces, seem to
+have been vying with each other which should gain most converts; and the
+circuit made by Cerqueyra, in which he visited all the Jesuit
+establishments throughout the country, was probably not without effect
+in exciting fresh enthusiasm among the converts everywhere, which,
+again, would naturally draw attention to the progress of Christianity.
+But, strong as the position of the Christians was numerically, we must
+not judge of the strength of their cause merely by the number of
+converts, or by the number of missionaries resident in Japan. If we
+consider the facts before us, we find that Christianity lacked the best
+of all strength&mdash;influence in the state. All its principal supporters
+among the aristocracy were either dead, had renounced their new faith,
+or were in exile; and here we have the real weakness of the Christian
+cause. While, therefore, circumstances combined to draw attention to its
+progress, it was in a state which could ill resist any renewed activity
+of persecution which might be the result of the increased interest which
+it excited. Without influence at the court and without influence in the
+country, beyond what slight influence the mass of common people
+scattered through various provinces, who were Christians, might be said
+to possess, Christianity presented itself assailable with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>The last cause we have mentioned, as being probably connected with the
+decisive measures adopted by Iyeyasu, is the influence of the Buddhist
+priesthood. Japanese history mentions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> the great power attained by the
+priesthood prior to Nobunaga's administration. Although that power was
+broken by Nobunaga, Hideyoshi did not inherit the former's animosity
+toward the priests, and Iyeyasu from the first came forward as their
+patron. And, again, we must not lose sight of the fact that a
+deep-rooted suspicion of foreigners was ever present in the minds of the
+Japanese Government; a suspicion which the course of events in China, of
+which we may presume the Japanese were not altogether ignorant&mdash;the
+jealousy of the native priests; the control of their converts exercised
+by the missionaries, which doubtless extended to secular matters; the
+connection of Christianity with trade; and the astounding progress made
+by it in the space of half a century&mdash;all tended to confirm. Enough has
+been said to show that we need not go so far as the intrigues, real or
+imaginary, of the English and Dutch, to look for causes for the renewed
+stimulus given at this date to the measures against Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>In 1614 the edict was carried into effect, and the missionaries,
+accompanied by the Japanese princes who had been in exile in Kaga, and a
+number of native Christians, were made to embark from Nagasaki. Several
+missionaries remained concealed in the country, and in subsequent years
+not a few contrived to elude the vigilance of the authorities and to
+re&euml;nter Japan. But they were all detected sooner or later, and suffered
+for their temerity by their deaths.</p>
+
+<p>Persecution did not stop with the expulsion of the missionaries, nor at
+the death of Iyeyasu was any respite given to the native Christians. And
+this brings us to the closing scene of this history&mdash;the tragedy of
+Shimabara. In the autumn of 1637 the peasantry of a convert district in
+Hizen, driven past endurance by the fierce ferocity of the persecution,
+assembled to the number of thirty thousand, and, fortifying the castle
+of Shimabara, declared open defiance to the Government; their opposition
+was soon overborne; troops were sent against them, and after a short but
+desperate resistance all the Christians were put to the sword. With the
+rising of Shimabara, and its sanguinary suppression by the Government,
+the curtain falls on the early history of Christianity in Japan.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></p>
+<h2>COLLAPSE OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V</h2>
+
+<h3>FRANCE SEIZES GERMAN BISHOPRICS</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1552</h4>
+
+<h3>LADY C. C. JACKSON</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Henry II, son of Francis I, ascended the throne of France in
+1547. It had been the ambition of the French to establish
+the eastern boundary of their country on the Rhine, and
+thence along the summit of the Alps to the Mediterranean
+Sea. Jealousy of the growing power of his father's old
+enemy, the emperor Charles V, probably added to the French
+King's eagerness to fulfil the desire of his people for
+extension of their borders.</p>
+
+<p>Charles was now occupied with the religious wars in Germany,
+and Henry prepared to improve his opportunity by taking full
+advantage of the Emperor's situation. The fact that the
+Protestants among his own subjects were cruelly persecuted
+did not deter the French monarch from furthering his
+ambition by consenting to assist the German Protestants
+against their own sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>In 1551, when for six years there had been no actual war
+between France and the empire, Henry entered into an
+alliance with German princes against the Emperor. Several of
+those princes, headed by Maurice of Saxony, had secretly
+formed a league to resist by force of arms the "measures
+employed by Charles to reduce Germany to insupportable and
+perpetual servitude."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Charles V was on the point of becoming as despotic in Germany as he was
+in Spain. The long interval of peace, though not very profound&mdash;war
+being always threatened and attempts to provoke it frequent&mdash;yet was
+sufficiently so to enable him to devote himself to his favorite scheme
+of humbling the princes and free states of the empire. He had sown
+dissension among them, succeeded in breaking up the League of Smalkald,
+and detained in prison, threatened with perpetual captivity, the
+Landgrave of Hesse and the elector John Frederick of Saxony. They had
+been sentenced to death, having taken up arms against him. Frequently
+appealed to to release them, Charles declared that to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> trouble him
+further on their account would be to bring on them the execution of the
+sentence they so richly merited.</p>
+
+<p>His political aims he believed to be now accomplished, and the spirit of
+German independence nearly, if not wholly, extinguished. But with this
+he was not content. The time had arrived, he thought, for the full and
+final extirpation of heresy, and the carrying out of his grand scheme of
+"establishing uniformity of religion in the empire." The formula of
+faith, called the "Interim," which he had drawn up for general
+observance until the council reassembled, had been for the sake of peace
+accepted with slight resistance, except at Magdeburg, which, for its
+obstinate rejection of it, was placed under the ban of the empire. But
+the prelates were assembling at Trent, and the full acquiescence of all
+parties in their decisions&mdash;given, of course, in conformity with the
+views of Charles V&mdash;was to be made imperative.</p>
+
+<p>Henry II had already renewed the French alliance with Sultan Solyman,
+and was urged to send his lieutenants to ravage the coast of Sicily&mdash;a
+suggestion he was not at all loath to follow. Yet the proposal of an
+alliance with the heretic German princes&mdash;though the league was not
+simply a Protestant one&mdash;met with strenuous opposition from that
+excellent Catholic, Anne de Montmorency. The persecuting King, too,
+anxious as he was to oppose his arms to those of the Emperor, feared to
+do so in alliance with heretics, lest he should compromise his soul's
+salvation.</p>
+
+<p>But the princes had offered him an irresistible bribe. They
+proposed&mdash;even declared they thought it right&mdash;that the seigneur King
+should take possession of those imperial cities which were not Germanic
+in language&mdash;as Metz, Cambray, Toul, Verdun, and similar ones&mdash;and
+retain them in quality of vicar of the Holy Empire. As a further
+inducement, they promised&mdash;having accomplished their own objects&mdash;to aid
+him with their troops to recover from Charles his heritage of Milan.
+This was decisive.</p>
+
+<p>On October 5th a pact was signed with France by the Lutheran elector
+Maurice, in his own name and that of the confederate princes, Henry's
+ambassador being the Catholic Bishop of Bayonne. Extensive preparations
+for war were immediately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> set on foot and new taxes levied; for the King
+had promised aid in money also&mdash;a considerable sum monthly as long as
+hostilities continued.</p>
+
+<p>He, however, deemed it expedient, before joining his army, to give some
+striking proof of his continued orthodoxy; first, by way of
+counterbalancing his heretical alliance with the Lutherans and his
+infidel one with the Mussulmans; next, to destroy the false hopes
+founded on them by French reformers. The heretics, during his absence,
+were therefore to be hunted down with the utmost rigor. The Sorbonne was
+charged "to examine minutely all books from Geneva, and no unlettered
+person was permitted to discuss matters of faith." All cities and
+municipalities were strictly enjoined to elect none but good Catholics
+to the office of mayor or sheriff, exacting from them a certificate of
+Catholicism before entering on the duties of their office. Neglect of
+this would subject the electors themselves to the pains and penalties
+inflicted on heretics.</p>
+
+<p>A grand inquisitor was appointed to take care of the faith in Lyons, and
+the daily burnings on the Place de Gr&egrave;ve went on simultaneously with the
+preparations in the arsenals, and no less vigorously. Thus the King was
+enabled to enter on this war with a safe conscience. Montmorency,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
+unwilling always to oppose the Emperor, was compelled, lest he should
+seem less patriotic than his rivals, to add his voice also in favor of
+the project that promised the realization of the views of Charles VII
+and Francis I that the natural boundary of France was the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>To return to Germany and the Emperor&mdash;whose complicated affairs are so
+entangled with those of France that they cannot be wholly separated,
+each in some measure forming the complement of the other. The
+command-in-chief of the German army was given to Maurice of Saxony&mdash;an
+able general, full of resource, daring and dauntless in the field,
+crafty and cautious in the cabinet as Charles himself. Throughout the
+winter he secretly assembled troops, preparing to take the field early
+in the spring, yet adroitly concealing his projects, and lulling into
+security "the most artful monarch in Europe."</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor had left Augsburg for Innspruck that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> might at the same
+time watch over the council and the affairs of Germany and Italy. He was
+suffering from asthma, gout, and other maladies, chiefly brought on by
+his excesses at table, and rendered incurable by his inability to put
+any restraint on his immoderate appetite.</p>
+
+<p>In his retreat some rumors had reached him that the movements of Maurice
+of Saxony were suspicious, and that he was raising troops in
+Transylvania. But he gave little heed to this, or to warnings pressed on
+him by some of his partisans. For Maurice, to serve his own ambitious
+views, had in fact, though professing the reformed faith, aided Charles
+to acquire that power and ascendency, that almost unlimited despotism in
+Germany he now proposed to overthrow. For his services he had obtained
+the larger part of the electoral dominions of his unfortunate relative,
+John Frederick of Saxony, whose release, as also that of the Landgrave,
+now formed part of his programme for delivering Germany from her fetters
+ere the imperial despot could&mdash;as Maurice saw he was prepared to
+do&mdash;rivet them on her. To renew the Protestant league, to place himself
+at its head and defy the despot, was more congenial to Maurice's
+restless, aspiring mind than to play the part of his lieutenant.</p>
+
+<p>The winter passed away without any serious suspicions on Charles' part.
+To throw him off his guard Maurice had undertaken to subdue the
+Magdeburgers. The leniency of his conduct toward "those rebels" with
+whom he was secretly in league did at last excite a doubt in Charles'
+mind. Maurice was summoned to Innspruck, ostensibly to confer with him
+respecting the liberation of his father-in-law, the Landgrave of Hesse.
+But Maurice was far too wary to put himself in his power, and readily
+found some plausible excuse to delay his journey from time to time. But
+when, early in March, at the head of twenty-five thousand men,
+thoroughly equipped, he announced that he was about to set out on his
+journey, the information was accompanied with a declaration of war. "It
+was a war," he said, "for the defence of the true religion, its
+ministers and preachers; for the deliverance of prisoners detained
+against all faith and justice; to free Germany from her wretched
+condition, and to oppose the Emperor's completion of that absolute
+monarchy toward which he had so long been aiming."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To this manifesto was appended another from the King of France. Therein
+Henry announced himself the "defender of the liberties of Germany, and
+protector of her captive princes"; further stating "that, broken-hearted
+[<i>le c&oelig;ur navre</i>] at the condition of Germany, he could not refuse to
+aid her, but had determined to do so to the utmost power of his ability,
+even to personally engaging in this war, undertaken for liberty and not
+for his personal benefit." This document&mdash;written in French&mdash;was headed
+by the representation of a cap between two poniards, and around it the
+inscription "The Emblem of Liberty." It is said to have been copied from
+some ancient coins, and to have been appropriated as the symbol of
+freedom by C&aelig;sar's assassins. Thus singularly was brought to light by a
+king of the French Renaissance that terrible cap of liberty, before
+which the ancient crown of France was one day destined to fall.</p>
+
+<p>The declaration of the German princes and that of their ally, the King
+of France, fell like a thunderbolt on the Emperor&mdash;so great was his
+astonishment and consternation at the events so unexpected. With rapid
+marches Maurice advanced on Upper Germany, while other divisions of the
+army, headed by the confederate princes, hastened on toward Tyrol, by
+way of Franconia and Swabia, everywhere being received with open arms as
+"Germany's liberators." Maurice reached Augsburg on April 1st, and took
+possession of that important city&mdash;the garrison offering no resistance,
+and the inhabitants receiving him joyfully. There, as in other towns on
+his march which had willingly opened their gates to him, the Interim was
+abolished; the churches restored to the Protestants; the magistrates
+appointed by the Emperor displaced, and those he had rejected
+reinstated. Money, too, was freely offered him, and the deficiency in
+his artillery supplied. At Trent the news that the Protestant princes,
+joined by several of the Catholics and free states, "had taken up arms
+for liberty," caused a terrible panic. The fathers of the council,
+Italian, Spanish, and German, at once made a precipitate retreat, and
+this famous council, without authority from pope or emperor, dissolved
+itself, to reassemble only after even a longer interval than before.
+When Maurice began his march Henry II had joined his army at Ch&acirc;lons,
+and was on his way to Lorraine. Toul, on his approach, presented the
+keys of the city<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> to the constable commanding the vanguard&mdash;the King
+afterward making his entry, and receiving the oath of fidelity from the
+inhabitants, having previously sworn to maintain their rights and
+privileges inviolate. After this easy conquest the French army continued
+its march toward Metz. This old free republican city did not so readily
+as Toul yield to the French. The municipal authorities very politely
+offered provisions to the army, but declined to deliver the keys of the
+city to the constable. They were, however, willing to admit the King and
+the princes who accompanied him within their walls. "Troops were not
+permitted to enter Metz, whatever their nation." This was one of their
+privileges.</p>
+
+<p>Montmorency cared little for privileges, and violence would probably
+have been used but that the Bishop of Metz, who was a Frenchman,
+prevailed on the principal burgesses to allow the constable to enter
+with an escort of two ensigns, each with his company of infantry.
+Montmorency availed himself of this permission to give his ensigns
+fifteen hundred of his best troops. The city gates were thrown open, and
+the burgesses then perceived their error, but too late to remedy it.
+They were firmly repulsed when attempting to exclude the unwelcome
+visitors; there was, however, no bloodshed. The people were soon
+reconciled to the change; and the chief sheriff and town council on the
+King's entry having assembled on the cathedral porch, Henry there, in
+the presence of an anxious multitude who crowded around him to hear him,
+made oath strictly to maintain their franchises and immunities. Thus
+easily was captured the former capital of the ancient Austrian kings,
+which remained under the dominion of France until separated from her by
+the misfortunes of the second empire.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Verdun followed the example of Toul; so that Henry's defence
+of the liberties of Germany was thus far nothing more than a military
+promenade, with grand public entries, banquets, and general festivity.
+The inhabitants of Metz&mdash;like the rest of his conquests, French in
+language and manners&mdash;petitioned the King not to restore their city to
+the empire, of which it had been a vassal republic from the beginning of
+the feudal era; they feared the Emperor's revenge. Henry, however, had
+no thought of relinquishing Metz; he was too well pleased with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> his new
+possession, and "proposed to make it one of the ramparts of France."</p>
+
+<p>But while Henry for the defence of German independence was making
+conquests and annexing them to his dominions, Charles V had fled before
+Maurice's vigorous pursuit, and had only escaped capture by a mere
+mischance that briefly retarded his pursuers' progress. When Augsburg
+was taken, Charles felt that he was not safe at Innspruck. He was
+neither in a position to crush the rebellious princes nor to resist the
+invasion of the King of France. Want of means had induced him to disband
+a large part of his army; Mexico and Peru for some time had failed to
+make any remittances to his treasury; the bankers of Venice and Genoa
+were not willing to lend him money, and it was only by placing Piombino
+in the hands of Cosmo de' Medici that he obtained from him the small sum
+of two hundred thousand crowns.</p>
+
+<p>His first impulse was to endeavor to pass over the route of the
+Netherlands by the valleys of the Inn and the Rhine; but as he could
+only move, owing to his gout, from place to place in a litter, he was
+compelled, from physical suffering, after proceeding a very short
+distance on his journey, to return to Innspruck. There he remained with
+a small body of soldiers sufficient to guard himself personally&mdash;having
+sent all he could possibly spare to hold the mountain pass leading to
+the almost inaccessible castle of Ehrenberg. But, guided by a shepherd,
+the heights of Ehrenberg were reached by the troops under George of
+Brandenburg, after infinite fatigue and danger. The walls were scaled,
+and the garrison, terrified by the appearance of this unlooked-for
+enemy, threw down their arms and surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>A few hours only separated Innspruck from Ehrenberg, and Maurice
+proposed to push on rapidly so as to anticipate the arrival there of any
+accounts of the loss of the castle, hoping to surprise the Emperor and
+his attendants in an open, defenceless town, and there to dictate
+conditions of peace. The dissatisfaction of a portion of the troops at
+not immediately receiving the usual gratuity for taking a place by
+assault occasioned a short delay in the advance of Maurice's army. He
+arrived at Innspruck in the middle of the night, and learned that the
+Emperor had fled only two hours before to Carinthia, followed by his
+ministers and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> attendants, on foot, on horses, in litters, as they
+could, but in the greatest hurry and confusion.</p>
+
+<p>The night was stormy; rain was falling in torrents when the modern
+Charlemagne, unable to move, was borne in a litter by the light of
+torches across steep mountain paths with a swiftness most surprising;
+terror adding wings to the footsteps of his bearers, lest they and their
+gouty burden should fall into the hands of the heretic army, said to be
+in pursuit. But pursuit was soon given up, for the troops were worn and
+weary with forced marches and climbing the heights of Ehrenberg; they
+needed rest, and there was the imperial palace of Innspruck to pillage,
+Maurice having given it up to them.</p>
+
+<p>Negotiations for peace were opened on May 20th at Passau on the Danube.
+The King of France was informed of this, it being found necessary to put
+some check on his proceedings; to remind him that he was the "defender
+of the liberties of Germany," not Germany's oppressor. He and his army
+had advanced into Alsace, and Montmorency had assured him that it would
+be "as easy to enter Strasburg and other cities of the Rhine as to
+penetrate butter." However, when they knocked at the gates of Strasburg
+and courteously requested that the Venetian, Florentine, and other
+ambassadors might be permitted to enter and admire the beautiful city,
+they found the Strasburgers insensible to these amenities&mdash;butter by no
+means easily melted; for not only they refused to gratify the
+<i>soi-disant</i> ambassadors with a sight of their fine city, but mounted
+and pointed their cannon, as a hint to their visitors that they would do
+well to withdraw.</p>
+
+<p>Henry, perceiving that he would be unable in the present campaign to
+extend his dominions to the banks of the Rhine, contented himself,
+"before turning his back on it, with the fact that the horses of his
+army had drunk of the waters of that stream." The Austrasian expedition
+was less brilliant in its results than he had expected; nevertheless,
+whether he was to be included in the peace then negotiating or not, he
+resolved to retain the three bishoprics&mdash;Toul, Metz, and Verdun.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the conference of Passau, between Maurice with his princes of
+the league on the one part; Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and the
+Emperor's plenipotentiaries on the other,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> proceeded less rapidly than
+Maurice desired. By prolonging the negotiation Charles hoped to gain
+time to assemble an army, when the Catholic princes might rally around
+him. But even those who had joined the league were exceedingly lukewarm
+toward their Emperor; his despotism, they considered, being as dangerous
+to them as to the Protestants. Even his brother Ferdinand&mdash;who was on
+such excellent terms with Maurice that it would almost seem that he had
+connived at an enterprise he could not openly join in&mdash;is said to have
+seen with satisfaction the check put on Charles by the dauntless leader
+of the league.</p>
+
+<p>But Maurice's propositions being at first rejected, and no counter ones
+proposed, he at once set off for his army to renew hostilities, as
+though the negotiations were closed. Charles doubtless renounced the
+realization of the dream of his life with a pang of despair. That it
+should vanish at the very moment when he looked for its fulfilment was
+anguish to him. But pressed by Ferdinand, convinced, too, that
+resistance is useless, Charles yields an unwilling assent to the demands
+of the princes, and the "Treaty of Public Peace" is signed on August 2d.
+Henceforth "the two religions are to be on a footing of equality in the
+empire"; Germany divided between Luther and the Pope, who are to live
+side by side in peace, neither interrupting the other. The ban of the
+empire to be withdrawn from all persons and places; the captive princes,
+detained for five years in prison if not in fetters, released; while
+many other matters relating to imperial encroachments are to be
+satisfactorily settled within six months.</p>
+
+<p>"The defender of German liberty" was not included in this treaty. As he
+proposed to keep the cities he was to occupy but as vicar of the empire,
+he would have to fight a battle for them with Charles himself. Though
+compelled to renounce absolute sway over Germany, he yet thought it
+incumbent on him to re&euml;stablish the territory of the empire in its full
+integrity. His valiant sister, the Dowager-queen of Hungary, who
+governed the Netherlands so ably for him, was diligently collecting an
+army for the destitute monarch of many kingdoms, and troops were on
+their way from Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of his infirmities, Charles was in such haste to chastise the
+French, and revenge himself on Henry&mdash;having succeeded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> in raising an
+army sixty thousand strong, besides seven thousand pioneers&mdash;that he
+rejected the prudent counsels of his generals, who begged him to wait
+until the spring, when Metz might be attacked with much greater
+advantage. But his excessive obstinacy, which had led to so many of his
+disasters, again prevailed. The Duc de Guise, now Governor of Metz, had
+put the citadel into a state of defence. The garrison was numerous, and,
+as was usual wherever he commanded, thither followed all the young,
+ardent spirits among the great families of France.</p>
+
+<p>The siege of Metz was a terrible disaster for the Emperor. The extreme
+severity of the winter, a scant supply of clothing and other
+necessaries, were soon followed by sickness, typhus, and many deaths.
+Desertions were numerous; for the sufferings of the troops had quenched
+all war and subverted all discipline. Desperate efforts to take Metz
+were continued for nearly three months without avail, when Charles,
+thoroughly disheartened, and unable to rise from his couch except for
+removal to his litter, raised the siege&mdash;abandoning the greater part of
+his artillery, which was half buried in the mud. "Fortune," he
+exclaimed, "I perceive is indeed a woman; she prefers a young king to an
+old emperor." The spectacle that met the eyes of the victorious
+defenders of Metz, on issuing forth in pursuit of the enemy, is said to
+have been one of so harrowing a nature that even rough soldiers,
+accustomed to the horrors of war, looked on the misery around them with
+emotions of deepest pity. There lay the dying and the dead heaped up
+together; the wounded and those who had been stricken down by fever
+stretched side by side on the gory, muddy earth. Others had sunk into
+it, and, unable to extricate themselves, were frozen to their knees, and
+plaintively asked for death to put an end to their wretchedness.
+Scattered along the route of the retreat lay dead horses, tents, arms,
+portions of the baggage, and many sick soldiers who had fallen by the
+way in their efforts to keep up with the hasty march of the remnant of
+the army&mdash;a sad and terrible scene indeed in a career called one of
+glory.</p>
+
+<p>Fran&ccedil;ois de Guise greatly distinguished himself as a general, and added
+to his military renown by his defence of Metz; but far greater glory
+attaches to his name for his humane and generous conduct to the
+suffering, abandoned troops of Charles'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> army. All whose lives could be
+saved, or sufferings relieved, received every care and attention that he
+and the surgeons of his army could bestow on them. Following his
+example, instead of the savage brutality with which the victors were
+then accustomed to treat their fallen foes, kindness and good offices
+were rendered by all to the poor victims of the Emperor's revenge for
+the loss of Metz. So utterly contrary was such treatment to the practice
+of the age that the generosity and humanity of Fran&ccedil;ois de Guise toward
+an enemy's troops passed into a proverb as the "<i>Courtoisie de Metz</i>."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Anne de Montmorency, Marshal and Constable of France. He
+was distinguished in the wars against Charles V.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF AUGSBURG</h2>
+
+<h3>ABDICATION OF CHARLES V</h3>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1555</h4>
+
+<h3>WILLIAM ROBERTSON</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By the victory of Charles V at Muehlberg, in 1547, the
+Emperor obtained a decided advantage over the Smalkaldic
+League, and seemed to be master of the situation in Germany.
+He convened a diet at Augsburg, and promulgated an
+"interim," or provisional arrangement for peace, but it was
+imperfectly carried out. Later interims also proving
+unsatisfactory, various other attempts at settlement were
+made, and finally, by the Peace of Passau (1552), religious
+liberty was granted to the Protestants.</p>
+
+<p>Charles now appeared to be at the height of his power; but
+new danger threatened him from France. The alliance of King
+Henry II with Maurice of Saxony, and other Protestant
+princes, was followed by what is sometimes called the second
+Smalkaldic War. Charles was quickly worsted, and only
+escaped capture by fleeing into Switzerland. In a later
+attack upon France he gained but little success.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor was now more than ever anxious for peace, and
+only awaited the meeting of a diet which had been summoned
+soon after the Treaty of Passau. This meeting was delayed by
+violent commotions raised in Germany by Albert, Margrave of
+Brandenburg. It was further delayed by the engrossment in
+his own affairs of Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary.
+He was the brother of Charles, had exerted himself, though
+with slight success, to settle the religious disputes in
+Germany, and Charles needed his presence at the Diet,
+whereby he hoped to secure a final pacification.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>As a diet was now necessary on many accounts, Ferdinand, about the
+beginning of the year 1555, had repaired to Augsburg. Though few of the
+princes were present either in person or by their deputies, he opened
+the assembly by a speech, in which he proposed a termination of the
+dissensions to which the new tenets and controversies with regard to
+religion had given rise, not only as the first and great business of the
+diet, but as the point which both the Emperor and he had most at heart.
+He represented the innumerable obstacles which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> the Emperor had to
+surmount before he could procure the convocation of a general council,
+as well as the fatal accidents which had for some time retarded, and had
+at last suspended, the consultations of that assembly. He observed that
+experience had already taught them how vain it was to expect any remedy
+for evils which demanded immediate redress from a general council, the
+assembling of which would either be prevented, or its deliberations be
+interrupted, by the dissensions and hostilities of the princes of
+Christendom; that a national council in Germany, which, as some
+imagined, might be called with greater ease, and deliberate with more
+perfect security, was an assembly of an unprecedented nature, the
+jurisdiction of which was uncertain in its extent, and the form of its
+proceedings undefined; that in his opinion there remained but one method
+for composing their unhappy differences, which, though it had been often
+tried without success, might yet prove effectual if it were attempted
+with a better and more pacific spirit than had appeared on former
+occasions, and that was, to choose a few men of learning, abilities, and
+moderation, who, by discussing the disputed articles in an amicable
+conference, might explain them in such a manner as to bring the
+contending parties either to unite in sentiment, or to differ with
+charity.</p>
+
+<p>This speech being printed in common form, and dispersed over the empire,
+revived the fears and jealousies of the Protestants; Ferdinand, they
+observed with much surprise, had not once mentioned, in his address to
+the Diet, the Treaty of Passau, the stipulations of which they
+considered as the great security of their religious liberty. The
+suspicions to which this gave rise were confirmed by the accounts which
+were daily received of the extreme severity with which Ferdinand treated
+their Protestant brethren in his hereditary dominions; and as it was
+natural to consider his actions as the surest indication of his
+intentions, this diminished their confidence in those pompous
+professions of moderation, and of zeal for the re&euml;stablishment of
+concord, to which his practice seemed to be so repugnant.</p>
+
+<p>The arrival of the cardinal, Morone, whom the Pope had appointed to
+attend the Diet as his nuncio, completed their conviction, and left them
+no room to doubt that some dangerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> machination was forming against
+the peace or safety of the Protestant Church. Julius, elated with the
+unexpected return of the English nation from apostasy, began to flatter
+himself that, the spirit of mutiny and revolt having now spent its
+force, the happy period was come when the Church might resume its
+ancient authority, and be obeyed by the people with the same tame
+submission as formerly. Full of these hopes, he had sent Morone to
+Augsburg with instructions to employ his eloquence to excite the Germans
+to imitate the laudable example of the English, and his political
+address in order to prevent any decree of the Diet to the detriment of
+the Catholic faith. But Julius died, and as soon as Morone heard of this
+he set out abruptly from Augsburg, where he had resided only a few days,
+that he might be present at the election of the new pontiff.</p>
+
+<p>One cause of their suspicions and fears being thus removed, the
+Protestants soon became sensible that their conjectures concerning
+Ferdinand's intentions, however specious, were ill-founded, and that he
+had no thoughts of violating the articles favorable to them in the
+Treaty of Passau. Charles, from the time that Maurice had defeated all
+his schemes in the empire, and overturned the great system of religious
+and civil despotism which he had almost established there, gave little
+attention to the internal government of Germany, and permitted his
+brother to pursue whatever measures he judged most salutary and
+expedient. Ferdinand, less ambitious and enterprising than the Emperor,
+instead of resuming a plan which he, with power and resources so far
+superior, had failed of accomplishing, endeavored to attach the princes
+of the empire to his family by an administration uniformly moderate and
+equitable. To this he gave, at present, particular attention, because
+his situation at this juncture rendered it necessary to court their
+favor and support with more than usual assiduity.</p>
+
+<p>Charles had again resumed his favorite project of acquiring the imperial
+crown for his son Philip, the prosecution of which, the reception it had
+met with when first proposed had obliged him to suspend, but had not
+induced him to relinquish. This led him warmly to renew his request to
+his brother, that he would accept of some compensation for his prior
+right of succession, and sacrifice that to the grandeur of the house of
+Austria. Ferdinand,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> who was as little disposed as formerly to give such
+an extraordinary proof of self-denial, being sensible that, in order to
+defeat this scheme, not only the most inflexible firmness on his part,
+but a vigorous declaration from the princes of the empire in behalf of
+his title, were requisite, was willing to purchase their favor by
+gratifying them in every point that they deemed interesting or
+essential.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time he stood in need of immediate and extraordinary aid
+from the Germanic body, as the Turks, after having wrested from him a
+great part of his Hungarian territories, were ready to attack the
+provinces still subject to his authority with a formidable army, against
+which he could bring no equal force into the field. For this aid from
+Germany he could not hope, if the internal peace of the empire were not
+established on a foundation solid in itself, and which should appear,
+even to the Protestants, so secure and so permanent as might not only
+allow them to engage in a distant war with safety, but might encourage
+them to act in it with vigor.</p>
+
+<p>A step taken by the Protestants themselves, a short time after the
+opening of the Diet, rendered him still more cautious of giving them any
+new cause of offence. As soon as the publication of Ferdinand's speech
+awakened the fears and suspicions which have been mentioned, the
+electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, together with the Landgrave of
+Hesse, met at Naumburg, and, confirming the ancient treaty of
+confraternity which had long united their families, they added to it a
+new article, by which the contracting parties bound themselves to adhere
+to the Confession of Augsburg, and to maintain the doctrine which it
+contained in their respective dominions.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand, influenced by all these considerations, employed his utmost
+address in conducting the deliberations of the Diet, so as not to excite
+the jealousy of a party on whose friendship he depended, and whose
+enmity, as they had not only taken the alarm, but had begun to prepare
+for their defence, he had so much reason to dread. The members of the
+Diet readily agreed to Ferdinand's proposal of taking the state of
+religion into consideration previous to any other business. But, soon as
+they entered upon it, both parties discovered all the zeal and animosity
+which a subject so interesting naturally engenders,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> and which the
+rancor of controversy, together with the violence of civil war, had
+inflamed to the highest pitch.</p>
+
+<p>The Protestants contended that the security which they claimed in
+consequence of the Treaty of Passau should extend, without limitation,
+to all who had hitherto embraced the doctrine of Luther, or who should
+thereafter embrace it. The Catholics, having first of all asserted the
+Pope's right, as the supreme and final judge with respect to all
+articles of faith, declared that though, on account of the present
+situation of the empire, and for the sake of peace, they were willing to
+confirm the toleration granted by the Treaty of Passau to such as had
+already adopted the new opinions, they must insist that this indulgence
+should not be extended either to those cities which had conformed to the
+"interim," or to such ecclesiastics as should for the future apostatize
+from the Church of Rome. It was no easy matter to reconcile such
+opposite pretensions, which were supported, on each side, by the most
+elaborate arguments, and the greatest acrimony of expression, that the
+abilities or zeal of theologians long exercised in disputation could
+suggest. Ferdinand, however, by his address and perseverance; by
+softening some things on each side; by putting a favorable meaning upon
+others; by representing incessantly the necessity as well as the
+advantages of concord; and by threatening, on some occasions, when all
+other considerations were disregarded, to dissolve the Diet, brought
+them at length to a conclusion in which they all agreed.</p>
+
+<p>Conformably to this, a recess was framed, approved of, and published
+with the usual formalities. The following are the chief articles which
+it contained: That such princes and cities as have declared their
+approbation of the Confession of Augsburg shall be permitted to profess
+the doctrine and exercise the worship which it authorizes, without
+interruption or molestation from the Emperor, the King of the Romans, or
+any power or person whatsoever; that the Protestants, on their part,
+shall give no disquiet to the princes and states who adhere to the
+tenets and rites of the Church of Rome; that, for the future, no attempt
+shall be made toward terminating religious differences but by the gentle
+and pacific methods of persuasion and conference; that the Popish
+ecclesiastics shall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> claim no spiritual jurisdiction in such states as
+receive the Confession of Augsburg; that such as had seized the
+benefices or revenues of the Church, previous to the Treaty of Passau,
+shall retain possession of them, and be liable to no persecution in the
+imperial chamber on that account; that the supreme civil power in every
+state shall have right to establish what form of doctrine and worship it
+shall deem proper, and, if any of its subjects refuse to conform to
+these, shall permit them to remove with all their effects whithersoever
+they shall please; that if any prelate or ecclesiastic shall hereafter
+abandon the Romish religion, he shall instantly relinquish his diocese
+or benefice, and it shall be lawful for those in whom the right of
+nomination is vested to proceed immediately to an election, as if the
+office were vacant by death or translation, and to appoint a successor
+of undoubted attachment to the ancient system.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the capital articles in this famous recess, which is the basis
+of religious peace in Germany, and the bond of union among its various
+states, the sentiments of which are so extremely different with respect
+to points the most interesting as well as important. In our age and
+nation, to which the idea of toleration is familiar, and its beneficial
+effects well known, it may seem strange that a method of terminating
+their dissensions, so suitable to the mild and charitable spirit of the
+Christian religion, did not sooner occur to the contending parties. But
+this expedient, however salutary, was so repugnant to the sentiments and
+practice of Christians during many ages that it did not lie obvious to
+discovery. Among the ancient heathens, all whose deities were local and
+tutelary, diversity of sentiments concerning the object or rites of
+religious worship seems to have been no source of animosity, because the
+acknowledging veneration to be due to any one god did not imply denial
+of the existence or the power of any other god; nor were the modes and
+rites of worship established in one country incompatible with those
+which other nations approved of and observed. Thus the errors in their
+system of theology were of such a nature as to be productive of concord;
+and, notwithstanding the amazing number of their deities, as well as the
+infinite variety of their ceremonies, a sociable and tolerating spirit
+subsisted almost universally in the Pagan world.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But when the Christian revelation declared one Supreme Being to be the
+sole object of religious veneration, and prescribed the form of worship
+most acceptable to him, whoever admitted the truth of it held, of
+consequence, every other system of religion, as a deviation from what
+was established by divine authority, to be false and impious. Hence
+arose the zeal of the first converts to the Christian faith in
+propagating its doctrines, and the ardor with which they labored to
+overturn every other form of worship. They employed, however, for this
+purpose no methods but such as suited the nature of religion. By the
+force of powerful arguments, they convinced the understandings of men;
+by the charms of superior virtue, they allured and captivated their
+hearts. At length the civil power declared in favor of Christianity; and
+though numbers, imitating the example of their superiors, crowded into
+the church, many still adhered to their ancient superstitions. Enraged
+at their obstinacy, the ministers of religion, whose zeal was still
+unabated, though their sanctity and virtue were much diminished, forgot
+so far the nature of their own mission, and of the arguments which they
+ought to have employed, that they armed the imperial power against these
+unhappy men, and, as they could not persuade, they tried to compel them
+to believe.</p>
+
+<p>The Diet of Augsburg was soon followed by the Emperor's resignation of
+his hereditary dominions to his son Philip; together with his resolution
+to withdraw entirely from any concern in business or the affairs of this
+world, in order that he might spend the remainder of his days in
+retirement and solitude. Though it requires neither deep reflection nor
+extraordinary discernment to discover that the state of royalty is not
+exempt from cares and disappointment; though most of those who are
+exalted to a throne find solicitude, and satiety, and disgust to be
+their perpetual attendants in that envied pre&euml;minence, yet to descend
+voluntarily from the supreme to a subordinate station, and to relinquish
+the possession of power in order to attain the enjoyment of happiness,
+seems to be an effort too great for the human mind. Several instances,
+indeed, occur in history, of monarchs who have quitted a throne, and
+have ended their days in retirement. But they were either weak princes,
+who took this resolution rashly, and repented of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> it as soon as it was
+taken, or unfortunate princes, from whose hands some stronger rival had
+wrested their sceptre, and compelled them to descend with reluctance
+into a private station. Diocletian is perhaps the only prince capable of
+holding the reins of government who ever resigned them from deliberate
+choice, and who continued during many years to enjoy the tranquillity of
+retirement without fetching one penitent sigh, or casting back one look
+of desire toward the power or dignity which he had abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>No wonder, then, that Charles' resignation should fill all Europe with
+astonishment, and give rise, both among his contemporaries and among the
+historians of that period, to various conjectures concerning the motives
+which determined a prince, whose ruling passion had been uniformly the
+love of power, at the age of fifty-six, when objects of ambition
+continue to operate with full force on the mind, and are pursued with
+the greatest ardor, to take a resolution so singular and unexpected.
+But, while many authors have imputed it to motives so frivolous and
+fantastical as can hardly be supposed to influence any reasonable mind;
+while others have imagined it to be the result of some profound scheme
+of policy, historians more intelligent and better informed neither
+ascribe it to caprice, nor search for mysterious secrets of state, where
+simple and obvious causes will fully account for the Emperor's conduct.
+Charles had been attacked early in life with the gout; and,
+notwithstanding all the precautions of the most skilful physicians, the
+violence of the distemper increased as he advanced in age, and the fits
+became every year more frequent as well as more severe. Not only was the
+vigor of his constitution broken, but the faculties of his mind were
+impaired by the excruciating torments which he endured. During the
+continuance of the fits, he was altogether incapable of applying to
+business; and even when they began to abate, as it was only at intervals
+that he could attend to what was serious, he gave up a great part of his
+time to trifling and even childish occupations, which served to relieve
+or amuse his mind, enfeebled and worn out with excess of pain. Under
+these circumstances, the conduct of such affairs as occurred of course
+in governing so many kingdoms was a burden more than sufficient; but to
+push forward and complete the vast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> schemes which the ambition of his
+more active years had formed, or to keep in view and carry on the same
+great system of policy, extending to every nation in Europe, and
+connected with the operations of every different court, were functions
+which so far exceeded his strength that they oppressed and overwhelmed
+his mind. As he had been long accustomed to view the business of every
+department, whether civil or military or ecclesiastical, with his own
+eyes, and to decide concerning it according to his own ideas, it gave
+him the utmost pain, when he felt his infirmities increase so fast upon
+him, that he was obliged to commit the conduct of all his affairs to his
+ministers. He imputed every misfortune which befell him, and every
+miscarriage that happened, even when the former was unavoidable or the
+latter accidental, to his inability to take the inspection of business
+himself. He complained of his hard fortune in being opposed, in his
+declining years, to a rival who was in the full vigor of life; and that,
+while Henry could take and execute all his resolutions in person, he
+should now be reduced, both in counsel and in action, to rely on the
+talents and exertions of other men. Having thus grown old before his
+time, he wisely judged it more decent to conceal his infirmities in some
+solitude than to expose them any longer to the public eye, and prudently
+determined not to forfeit the fame or lose the acquisitions of his
+better years by struggling, with a vain obstinacy, to retain the reins
+of government, when he was no longer able to hold them with steadiness,
+or to guide them with address.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But though Charles had revolved this scheme in his mind for several
+years, and had communicated it to his sisters the dowager queens of
+France and Hungary, who not only approved of his intention, but offered
+to accompany him to whatever place of retreat he should choose, several
+things had hitherto prevented his carrying it into execution. He could
+not think of loading his son with the government of so many kingdoms
+until he should attain such maturity of age and of abilities as would
+enable him to sustain that weighty burden. But as Philip had now reached
+his twenty-eighth year, and had been early accustomed to business, for
+which he discovered both inclination and capacity, it can hardly be
+imputed to the partiality of paternal affection that his scruples with
+regard to this point were entirely removed; and that he thought he might
+place his son, without further hesitation or delay, on the throne which
+he himself was about to abandon. His mother's situation had been another
+obstruction in his way. For although she had continued almost fifty
+years in confinement, and under the same disorder of mind which concern
+for her husband's death had brought upon her, yet the government of
+Spain was still vested in her jointly with the Emperor; her name was
+inserted, together with his, in all the public instruments issued in
+that kingdom; and such was the fond attachment of the Spaniards to her,
+that they would probably have scrupled to recognize Philip as their
+sovereign, unless she had consented to assume him as her partner on the
+throne. Her utter incapacity for business rendered it impossible to
+obtain her consent. But her death, which happened this year, removed
+this difficulty; and as Charles, upon that event, became sole monarch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+of Spain, it left the succession open to his son. The war with France
+had likewise been a reason for retaining the administration of affairs
+in his own hands, as he was extremely solicitous to have terminated it,
+that he might have given up his kingdoms to his son at peace with all
+the world. But as Henry had discovered no disposition to close with any
+of his overtures, and had even rejected proposals of peace which were
+equal and moderate, in a tone that seemed to indicate a fixed purpose of
+continuing hostilities, he saw that it was vain to wait longer in
+expectation of an event which, however desirable, was altogether
+uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>As this, then, appeared to be the proper juncture for executing the
+scheme which he had long meditated, Charles resolved to resign his
+kingdoms to his son with a solemnity suitable to the importance of the
+transaction, and to perform this last act of sovereignty with such
+formal pomp as might leave a lasting impression on the minds not only of
+his subjects, but of his successor. With this view he called Philip out
+of England, where the peevish temper of his queen, which increased with
+her despair of having issue, rendered him extremely unhappy; and the
+jealousy of the English left him no hopes of obtaining the direction of
+their affairs. Having assembled the states of the Low Countries at
+Brussels, on October 25th, Charles seated himself for the last time in
+the chair of state, on one side of which was placed his son, and on the
+other his sister the Queen of Hungary, regent of the Netherlands, with a
+splendid retinue of the princes of the empire and grandees of Spain
+standing behind him. The president of the council of Flanders, by his
+command, explained in a few words his intention in calling this
+extraordinary meeting of the states. He then read the instrument of
+resignation, by which Charles surrendered to his son Philip all his
+territories, jurisdiction, and authority in the Low Countries, absolving
+his subjects there from their oath of allegiance to him, which he
+required them to transfer to Philip, his lawful heir, and to serve him
+with the same loyalty and zeal which they had manifested, during so long
+a course of years, in support of his government.</p>
+
+<p>Charles then rose from his seat, and leaning on the shoulder of the
+Prince of Orange, because he was unable to stand without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> support, he
+addressed himself to the audience, and from a paper which he held in his
+hand, in order to assist his memory, he recounted with dignity, but
+without ostentation, all the great things which he had undertaken and
+performed since the commencement of his administration. He observed
+that, from the seventeenth year of his age, he had dedicated all his
+thoughts and attention to public objects, reserving no portion of his
+time for the indulgence of his ease, and very little for the enjoyment
+of private pleasure; that, either in a pacific or hostile manner, he had
+visited Germany nine times, Spain six times, France four times, Italy
+seven times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice, Africa as
+often, and had made eleven voyages by sea; that while his health
+permitted him to discharge his duty, and the vigor of his constitution
+was equal, in any degree, to the arduous office of governing such
+extensive dominions, he had never shunned labor, nor repined under
+fatigue; that now, when his health was broken, and his vigor exhausted
+by the rage of an incurable distemper, his growing infirmities
+admonished him to retire; nor was he so fond of reigning as to retain
+the sceptre in an impotent hand, which was no longer able to protect his
+subjects, or to secure to them the happiness which he wished they should
+enjoy; that instead of a sovereign worn out with diseases, and scarcely
+half alive, he gave them one in the prime of life, accustomed already to
+govern, and who added to the vigor of youth all the attention and
+sagacity of maturer years; and if, during the course of a long
+administration, he had committed any material error of government, or
+if, under the pressure of so many and great affairs, and amid the
+attention which he had been obliged to give to them, he had either
+neglected or injured any of his subjects, he now implored their
+forgiveness; that, for his part, he should ever retain a grateful sense
+of their fidelity and attachment, and would carry the remembrance of it
+along with him to the place of his retreat, as his sweetest consolation,
+as well as the best reward for all his services, and in his last prayers
+to Almighty God would pour forth his most earnest petitions for their
+welfare.</p>
+
+<p>Then, turning toward Philip, who fell on his knees and kissed his
+father's hand&mdash;"If," said he, "I had left you by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> my death this rich
+inheritance, to which I have made such large additions, some regard
+would have been justly due to my memory on that account; but now, when I
+voluntarily resign to you what I might have still retained, I may well
+expect the warmest expression of thanks on your part. With these,
+however, I dispense, and shall consider your concern for the welfare of
+your subjects, and your love of them, as the best and most acceptable
+testimony of your gratitude to me. It is in your power, by a wise and
+virtuous administration, to justify the extraordinary proof which I this
+day give of my paternal affection, and to demonstrate that you are
+worthy of the confidence which I repose in you. Preserve an inviolable
+regard for religion; maintain the Catholic faith in its purity; let the
+laws of your country be sacred in your eyes; encroach not on the rights
+and privileges of your people; and if the time should ever come when you
+shall wish to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a son
+endowed with such qualities that you can resign your sceptre to him with
+as much satisfaction as I give up mine to you."</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Charles had finished this long address to his subjects and to
+their new sovereign, he sank into the chair, exhausted and ready to
+faint with the fatigue of such an extraordinary effort. During his
+discourse the whole audience melted into tears, some from admiration of
+his magnanimity, others softened by the expressions of tenderness toward
+his son, and of love to his people; and all were affected with the
+deepest sorrow at losing a sovereign who, during his administration, had
+distinguished the Netherlands, his native country, with particular marks
+of his regard and attachment.</p>
+
+<p>Philip then arose from his knees, and after returning thanks to his
+father, with a low and submissive voice, for the royal gift which his
+unexampled bounty had bestowed upon him, he addressed the assembly of
+the states, and, regretting his inability to speak the Flemish language
+with such facility as to express what he felt on this interesting
+occasion, as well as what he owed to his good subjects in the
+Netherlands, he begged that they would permit Granvelle, bishop of
+Arras, to deliver what he had given him in charge to speak in his name.
+Granvelle, in a long discourse, expatiated on the zeal with which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
+Philip was animated for the good of his subjects, on his resolution to
+devote all his time and talents to the promoting of their happiness, and
+on his intention to imitate his father's example in distinguishing the
+Netherlands with peculiar marks of his regard. Maes, a lawyer of great
+eloquence, replied in the name of the states, with large professions of
+their fidelity and affection to their new sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Then Mary, Queen dowager of Hungary, resigned the regency with which she
+had been intrusted by her brother during the space of twenty-five years.
+Next day Philip, in the presence of the states, took the usual oaths to
+maintain the rights and privileges of his subjects; and all the members,
+in their own name and in that of their constituents, swore allegiance to
+him.</p>
+
+<p>A few weeks after this transaction, Charles, in an assembly no less
+splendid and with a ceremonial equally pompous, resigned to his son the
+crowns of Spain, with all the territories depending on them, both in the
+Old and in the New world. Of all these vast possessions, he reserved
+nothing for himself but an annual pension of a hundred thousand crowns,
+to defray the charges of his family, and to afford him a small sum for
+acts of beneficence and charity.</p>
+
+<p>As he had fixed on a place of retreat in Spain, hoping that the dryness
+and the warmth of the climate in that country might mitigate the
+violence of his disease, which had been much increased by the moisture
+of the air and rigor of the winters in the Netherlands, he was extremely
+impatient to embark for that kingdom, and to disengage himself entirely
+from business, which he found to be impossible while he remained in
+Brussels. But his physicians remonstrated so strongly against his
+venturing to sea at that cold and boisterous season of the year, that he
+consented, though with reluctance, to put off his voyage for some
+months.</p>
+
+<p>He retained the imperial dignity, not from any unwillingness to
+relinquish it, for, after having resigned the real and extensive
+authority that he enjoyed in his hereditary dominions, to part with the
+limited and often ideal jurisdiction which belongs to an elective crown
+was no great sacrifice. His sole motive for delay was to gain a few
+months for making one trial more,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> in order to accomplish his favorite
+scheme in behalf of his son. At the very time Charles seemed to be most
+sensible of the vanity of worldly grandeur, and when he appeared to be
+quitting it not only with indifference but with contempt, the vast
+schemes of ambition, which had so long occupied and engrossed his mind,
+still kept possession of it. He could not think of leaving his son in a
+rank inferior to that which he himself had held among the princes of
+Europe. As he had, some years before, made a fruitless attempt to secure
+the imperial crown to Philip, that, by uniting it to the kingdoms of
+Spain and the dominions of the house of Burgundy, he might put it in his
+power to prosecute, with a better prospect of success, those great plans
+which his own infirmities had obliged him to abandon, he was still
+unwilling to relinquish this flattering project as chimerical or
+unattainable.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the repulse which he had formerly met with from his
+brother Ferdinand, he renewed his solicitations with fresh importunity,
+and during the summer had tried every art, and employed every argument,
+which he thought could induce him to quit the imperial throne to Philip,
+and to accept of the investiture of some province, either in Italy or in
+the Low Countries, as an equivalent. But Ferdinand, who was so firm and
+inflexible with regard to this point that he had paid no regard to the
+solicitations of the Emperor, even when they were enforced with all the
+weight of authority which accompanies supreme power, received the
+overture, that now came from him in the situation to which he had
+descended, with great indifference, and would hardly deign to listen to
+it. Charles, ashamed of his own credulity in having imagined that he
+might accomplish now that which he had attempted formerly without
+success, desisted finally from his scheme. He then resigned the
+government of the empire, and, having transferred all his claims of
+obedience and allegiance from the Germanic body to his brother the King
+of the Romans, he executed a deed to that effect, with all the
+formalities requisite in such an important transaction. The instrument
+of resignation he committed to William, Prince of Orange, and empowered
+him to lay it before the college of electors.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing now remained to detain Charles from that retreat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> for which he
+languished. The preparations for his voyage having been made for some
+time, he set out for Zuitburg, in Zealand, where the fleet which was to
+convoy him had orders to assemble. In his way thither he passed through
+Ghent, and after stopping there a few days, to indulge that tender and
+pleasing melancholy which arises in the mind of every man in the decline
+of life on visiting the place of his nativity, and viewing the scenes
+and objects familiar to him in his early youth, he pursued his journey,
+accompanied by his son Philip, his daughter the archduchess, his sisters
+the dowager Queens of France and Hungary, Maximilian his son-in-law, and
+a numerous retinue of the French nobility. Before he went on board he
+dismissed them with marks of his attention or regard, and, taking leave
+of Philip with all the tenderness of a father who embraced his son for
+the last time, he set sail on September 17th, under the convoy of a
+large fleet of Spanish, Flemish, and English ships. He declined a
+pressing invitation from the Queen of England to land in some part of
+her dominions, in order to refresh himself, and that she might have the
+comfort of seeing him once more. "It cannot, surely," said he, "be
+agreeable to a queen to receive a visit from a father-in-law who is now
+nothing more than a private gentleman."</p>
+
+<p>His voyage was prosperous, and he arrived at Laredo, in Biscay, on the
+eleventh day after he left Zealand. As soon as he landed he fell
+prostrate on the ground, and, considering himself now as dead to the
+world, he kissed the earth and said, "Naked came I out of my mother's
+womb, and naked I now return to thee, thou common mother of mankind."
+From Laredo he pursued his journey to Burgos, carried sometimes in a
+chair and sometimes in a horse-litter, suffering exquisite pain at every
+step, and advancing with the greatest difficulty. Some of the Spanish
+nobility repaired to Burgos, in order to pay court to him, but they were
+so few in number, and their attendance was so negligent, that Charles
+observed it, and felt, for the first time, that he was no longer a
+monarch. Accustomed from his early youth to the dutiful and officious
+respect with which those who possess sovereign power are attended, he
+had received it with the credulity common to princes, and was sensibly
+mortified when he now discovered that he had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> been indebted to his rank
+and power for much of that obsequious regard which he had fondly thought
+was paid to his personal qualities. But though he might have soon
+learned to view with unconcern the levity of his subjects, or to have
+despised their neglect, he was more deeply afflicted with the
+ingratitude of his son, who, forgetting already how much he owed to his
+father's bounty, obliged him to remain some weeks at Burgos before he
+paid him the first moiety of that small pension which was all that he
+had reserved of so many kingdoms. As, without this sum, Charles could
+not dismiss his domestics with such rewards as their services merited,
+or his generosity had destined for them, he could not help expressing
+both surprise and dissatisfaction. At last the money was paid, and
+Charles having dismissed a great number of his domestics, whose
+attendance he thought would be superfluous or cumbersome in his
+retirement, he proceeded to Valladolid. There he took a last and tender
+leave of his two sisters, whom he would not permit to accompany him to
+his solitude, though they requested him with tears, not only that they
+might have the consolation of contributing by their attendance and care
+to mitigate or to soothe his sufferings, but that they might reap
+instruction and benefit by joining with him in those pious exercises to
+which he had consecrated the remainder of his days.</p>
+
+<p>From Valladolid he continued his journey to Plazentia in Estremadura. He
+had passed through this place a great many years before, and having been
+struck at that time with the delightful situation of the monastery of
+St. Justus, belonging to the order of St. Jerome, not many miles distant
+from the town, he had then observed to some of his attendants that this
+was a spot to which Diocletian might have retired with pleasure. The
+impression had remained so strong in his mind that he pitched upon it as
+the place of his own retreat. It was seated in a vale of no great
+extent, watered by a small brook, and surrounded by rising grounds,
+covered with lofty trees; from the nature of the soil, as well as the
+temperature of the climate, it was esteemed the most healthful and
+delicious situation in Spain. Some months before his resignation he had
+sent an architect thither to add a new apartment to the monastery, for
+his accommodation; but he gave strict orders that the style<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> of the
+building should be such as suited his present station, rather than his
+former dignity. It consisted only of six rooms, four of them in the form
+of friars' cells, with naked walls; the other two, each twenty feet
+square, were hung with brown cloth, and furnished in the most simple
+manner. They were all on a level with the ground, with a door on one
+side into a garden, of which Charles himself had given the plan, and had
+filled it with various plants which he intended to cultivate with his
+own hands. On the other side, they communicated with the chapel of the
+monastery, in which he was to perform his devotions. Into this humble
+retreat, hardly sufficient for the comfortable accommodation of a
+private gentleman, did Charles enter, with twelve domestics only. He
+buried there, in solitude and silence, his grandeur, his ambition,
+together with all those vast projects which, during almost half a
+century, had alarmed and agitated Europe, filling every kingdom in it,
+by turns, with the terror of his arms, and the dread of being subdued by
+his power.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Don Levesque, in his memoirs of Cardinal Granvelle, gives
+a reason for the Emperor's resignation, which, as far as I recollect, is
+not mentioned by any other historian. He says that, the Emperor having
+ceded the government of the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of Milan to
+his son upon his marriage with the Queen of England, Philip,
+notwithstanding the advice and entreaties of his father, removed most of
+the ministers and officers whom he had employed in those countries, and
+appointed creatures of his own to fill the places which they held. That
+he aspired openly, and with little delicacy, to obtain a share in the
+administration of affairs in the Low Countries. That he endeavored to
+thwart the Emperor's measures and to limit his authority, behaving
+toward him sometimes with inattention, and sometimes with haughtiness.
+That Charles, finding that he must either yield on every occasion to his
+son, or openly contend with him, in order to avoid either of these,
+which were both disagreeable and mortifying to a father, he took the
+resolution of resigning his crowns, and of retiring from the world (vol.
+i. p. 24, etc.). Don Levesque derived his information concerning these
+curious facts, which he relates very briefly, from the original papers
+of Cardinal Granvelle. But as that vast collection of papers, which has
+been preserved and arranged by M. l'Abb&eacute; Boizot of Besan&ccedil;on, though one
+of the most valuable historical monuments of the sixteenth century, and
+which cannot fail of throwing much light on the transactions of Charles
+V, is not published, I cannot determine what degree of credit should be
+given to this account of Charles' resignation. I have, therefore, taken
+no notice of it in relating this event.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p>
+<h2>AKBAR ESTABLISHES THE MOGUL EMPIRE IN INDIA</h2>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1556</h4>
+
+<h3>J. TALBOYS WHEELER</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Between the years 1494 and 1526 Baber, great-grandson of
+Timur (Tamerlane), the Tartar conqueror, made extensive
+conquests in India. There he laid the first foundations of
+the Mahometan Tartar empire of the Moguls, as his followers
+are called. This empire reached its height under Akbar
+(Jel-al-eddin Mahomet), who succeeded his father Humayun,
+son of Baber, in 1556. Humayun did little toward uniting the
+various territories which Baber had conquered.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar was the contemporary of Queen Elizabeth of England,
+and his reign is as important in the history of India as is
+hers in the history of the western world. He ascended the
+throne at the age of fourteen. At the time of his accession
+he was in the Punjab warring against the revolted Afghans.
+The commander of the Mogul armies was Bairam Khan, and when
+Humayun died that general became Akbar's guardian.</p>
+
+<p>Wheeler's account of this great ruler's achievements
+presents throughout a most interesting portrayal of his
+personality and character, and is especially remarkable for
+its simplicity and its oriental atmosphere.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The reign of Akbar bears a strange resemblance to that of Asoka.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>
+Indeed, the likeness between Akbar and Asoka is one of the most
+remarkable phenomena in history. They were separated from each other by
+an interval of eighteen centuries; the main features of their respective
+lives were practically the same. Asoka was putting down revolt in the
+Punjab when his father died; so was Akbar. Asoka was occupied for years
+in conquering and consolidating his empire; so was Akbar. Asoka
+conquered India to the north of the Nerbudda; so did Akbar. Asoka was
+tolerant of other religions; so was Akbar. Asoka went against the
+priests; so did Akbar. Asoka taught a religion of his own; so did Akbar.
+Asoka abstained from flesh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> meat; so did Akbar. In the end Asoka took
+refuge in Buddha, the law, and the assembly. In the end Akbar recited
+the formula of Islam: "There is but one God, and Mahomet is his
+prophet."</p>
+
+<p>Some of these coincidents are mere accidents. Others reveal a similarity
+in the current of religious thought, a similarity in the stages of
+religious development; consequently they add a new chapter to the
+history of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The wars of Akbar are only interesting so far as they bring out types of
+character. When the news reached the Punjab that Humayun was dead, other
+news arrived. Hemu had recovered Agra and Delhi; he was advancing with a
+large army into the Punjab. The Mogul force was very small. The Mogul
+officers were in a panic; they advised a retreat into Kabul. Akbar and
+Bairam Khan resolved on a battle. The Afghans were routed. The Hindu
+general was wounded in the eye and taken prisoner. Bairam Khan bade
+Akbar slay the Hindu, and win the title of "champion of the faith."
+Akbar drew his sword, but shrunk back. He was as brave as a lion; he
+would not hack a wounded prisoner. Bairam Khan had no such sentiment. He
+beheaded Hemu with his own sword.</p>
+
+<p>This story marks the contrast between the prince and his guardian. Akbar
+was brave and skilful in the field; he was outwardly gracious and
+forgiving when the fight was over. Bairam Khan was loyal to the throne;
+he slaughtered enemies in cold blood without mercy. It was impossible
+that the two should agree. Akbar grew more and more impatient of his
+guardian; for years he was self-constrained at Rama. He thought a great
+deal, but did nothing; he bided his time.</p>
+
+<p>Within four years Bairam Khan had laid the foundations of the Mogul
+empire. Its limits were as yet restricted. The Mogul pale only covered
+the Punjab, the northwest provinces, and Oude; it is only extended from
+the Indus to the junction of the Jumna and Ganges. On the south it was
+bounded by Rajputana. It included the three capitals of Lahore, Delhi,
+and Agra. So far it coincided with the kingdom of Ala-ud-din, who
+conquered the Deccan and Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the four years Akbar was a young man of eighteen. He
+resolved to throw off the authority of his guardian. He carried out his
+designs with the artifice of an Asiatic. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> pretended that his mother
+was sick. He left the camp where Bairam Khan commanded, in order to pay
+her a visit. He proclaimed that he had assumed the authority of
+Padishah; that no orders were to be obeyed save his own. Bairam Khan was
+taken by surprise. Possibly, had he known what was coming, he would have
+put Akbar out of the way; but his power was gone. He tried to work upon
+the feelings of Abkar; he found that the Padishah was inflexible. He
+revolted, but was defeated and forgiven. Akbar offered him any post save
+that of minister; he would be minister or nothing. In the end he elected
+to go to Mecca, the last refuge for Mussulman statesmen. Everything was
+ready for his embarkation; suddenly he was assassinated by an Afghan. It
+was the old story of Afghan revenge. He had killed the father of the
+assassin in some battle: in revenge the son had stabbed him to death.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar was now free to act. The political situation was one of extreme
+peril. The Afghans were fighting one another in Kabul in the northwest;
+they were also fighting one another in Behar and Bengal in the
+southeast. When he marched against one, his territories were exposed to
+the raids of the other. Meantime his Mogul officers often set his
+sovereignty at defiance; when brought to task they broke out in mutiny
+and rebellion. Two events at this period will show the actual state of
+affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Far away in the south of Rajputana lies the remote territory of Malwa.
+It was originally conquered by Ala-ud-din. During the decline of the
+Tughlaks the governor Malwa became an independent ruler. At the
+beginning of the reign of Akbar, Baz Bahadur was ruler of Malwa. He was
+a type of the Mussulman princes of the time; no doubt he went to mosque;
+he surrounded himself with Hindu singing and dancing girls; he became
+more or less Hinduized. Akbar sent an officer named Adham Khan to
+conquer Malwa. Adham Khan had no difficulty. Baz Bahadur abandoned his
+treasures and harem and fled. Adham Khan distributed part of the spoil
+to the Padishah. Akbar could not brook such disobedience.
+Notwithstanding the distance he hurried to Malwa. He received his
+rightful share of the plunder; he professed to accept the excuses of the
+defaulter. When he returned to Agra he recalled Adham Khan to court; he
+sent another governor to Malwa. Adham Khan obeyed; he went to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> Agra; he
+found that he had lost favor. Commands were given to others. He could
+get nothing. He was driven mad by delay and disappointment. He did not
+suspect Akbar; he threw the blame upon the minister. One day he went to
+the palace; he stabbed the minister to death in the hall of audience; he
+ran up to an outer terrace. Akbar heard the uproar; he rushed in and
+beheld the bleeding corpse. He saw the stupefied murderer on the
+terrace; he half drew his sword, but remembered himself. Adham Khan
+seized his hands and begged for mercy. Akbar shook him off and ordered
+the servants to throw him from the terrace. The order was obeyed; Adham
+Khan was killed on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>Another officer, named Khan Zeman, played a similar game in Behar. He
+was warned that Akbar was on the move; he escaped punishment by making
+over the spoil before Akbar came up. This satisfied Akbar; he returned
+part of the spoil and went back to Agra. Henceforth Khan Zeman was a
+rebel at heart. Some Usbeg chiefs revolted in Oudh; they were joined by
+Khan Zeman. Akbar was called away to the Punjab by an Afghan invasion;
+on his return the rebels were in possession of Oudh and Allahabad. Akbar
+marched against them in the middle of the rains. He outstripped his
+army; he reached the Ganges with only his bodyguard. The rebels were
+encamped on the opposite bank; they had no fear; they expected Akbar to
+wait until his army came up. That night Akbar swam the river with his
+bodyguard. At daybreak he attacked the enemy. The rebels heard the
+thunder of the imperial kettle-drums; they could not believe their ears.
+They fled in all directions. Khan Zeman was slain in the pursuit. The
+other leaders were taken prisoners; they were trampled to death by
+elephants. Thus for a while the rebellion was stamped out.</p>
+
+<p>These incidents are only types of others. In plain truth, the Mussulman
+power in India had spent its force. The brotherhood of Islam had ceased
+to bind together conflicting races; it could not hold together men of
+the same race. The struggle between Shiah and Sunni was dividing the
+world of Islam. Moguls, Turks, and Afghans were fighting against each
+other; they were also fighting among themselves. Rebels of different
+races were combining against the Padishah. Meantime any scruples that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
+remained against fighting fellow-Mussulmans were a hinderance to Akbar
+in putting down revolts. The Mussulman power was crumbling to pieces.
+The dismemberment had begun two centuries earlier in the revolt of the
+Deccan. Since then the strength which remained in the scattered
+fragments was wasted in wars and revolts; the whole country was drifting
+into anarchy.</p>
+
+<p>No one could save the empire but a born statesman. Akbar had already
+proved himself a born soldier. Had he been only a soldier he might still
+have held his own against Afghans and Usbegs from Peshawur to Allahabad.
+Had he been bloodthirsty and merciless, like Bairam Khan, he might have
+stamped out revolt and mutiny by massacre and terrorism. But he would
+have left no mark in history, no lessons for posterity, no political
+ideas for the education of the world. He might have made a name like
+Genghis Khan or Timur; but the story of his life would have dropped into
+oblivion. After his death every evil that festered in the body politic
+would have broken out afresh. His successors would have inherited the
+same wars, the same revolts, and the same mutinies; unless they had
+inherited his capacity, they would have died out in anarchy and in
+revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar had never been educated. He had never learned to write, nor even
+to read. He had not gone with his father to Persia, where he might have
+been schooled in Mussulman learning. He had spent a joyless boyhood with
+a cruel uncle in Kabul; he had been schooled in nothing but war. But he
+had listened to histories, and pondered over histories, until grand
+ideas began to seethe in his brain.</p>
+
+<p>The problem before him was the resuscitation of the empire, or rather
+the creation of a new empire out of the existing chaos. Fresh blood was
+wanted to infuse life and strength into the body politic; to enable the
+Mogul Shiahs to subdue the Afghan Sunnis. Akbar saw with the eye of
+genius that the necessary force was latent in the Rajputs. Henceforth he
+devoted all the energies of his nature to bring that force into healthy
+play.</p>
+
+<p>In 1575 Akbar was about thirty-four years of age. Twenty years had
+passed away since the boy had been installed as padishah. He had not as
+yet conquered Kabul in the northwest, nor Bengal in the southeast; he
+had not made any sensible advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> into the Deccan. But he had gained a
+succession of victories. He had restored order in the Punjab and
+Hindustan. He had subdued Malwa, Guzerat, and Rajputana. Many Rajputs
+were still in arms against him; he had nothing to fear from them. He had
+fixed his capital at Agra; his favorite residence, however, was at
+Fathipur Sikri, about twelve miles from Agra.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to individualize Akbar. He was haughty, like all the Moguls;
+he was outwardly clement and affable. He was tall and handsome; broad in
+the chest and long in the arms. His complexion was ruddy, a nut-brown.
+He had a good appetite and a good digestion. His strength was
+prodigious. His courage was very remarkable. While yet a boy he
+displayed prodigies of valor in the battle against Hemu. He would spring
+on the backs of elephants who had killed their keepers; he would compel
+them to do his bidding. He kept a herd of dromedaries; he gained his
+victories by the rapidity of his marches. He was an admirable marksman.
+He had a favorite gun which had brought him thousands of game. With that
+same gun he shot Jeimal the Rajput at the siege of Chitor.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar, like his father and grandfather, professed to be a Mussulman. His
+mother was a Persian; he was a Persian in his thoughts and ways. He was
+imbued with the old Mogul instinct of toleration. He was lax and
+indifferent, without the semblance of zeal. He consulted soothsayers who
+divined with burned rams' bones. He celebrated the Persian festival of
+the Nau-roz, or new year, which had no connection with Islam. He
+reverenced the seven heavenly bodies by wearing a dress of different
+color every day in the week. He joined in the Brahmanical worship and
+sacrifices of his Rajput queens. Still he was outwardly a Mussulman. He
+had no sons; he vowed that if a son was born to him he would walk to the
+tomb of a Mussulman saint at Ajmir; it was more than two hundred miles
+from Fathipur. In 1570 his eldest son Seli was born; Akbar walked to
+Ajmir; he offered up his prayers at the tomb.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the Ulama were growing troublesome at Agra. The Ulama comprised
+the collective body of Mussulman doctors and lawyers who resided at the
+capital. The Ulama have always possessed great weight in a Mussulman
+state. Judges, magistrates, and law officers in general are chosen from
+their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> number. Consequently the opinion of the collective body was
+generally received as the final authority. The Ulama at Agra were
+bigoted Sunnis. They hated and persecuted the Shiahs. Especially they
+persecuted the teachers of the Sufi heresy, which had grown up in Persia
+and was spreading in India. They had grown in power under the Afghan
+sultans. They had been quiet in the days of Humayun and Bairam Khan;
+both were confessedly Shiahs; the Ulama were too courtly to offend the
+power which appointed the law officers. When, however, Akbar threw over
+Bairam Khan and asserted his own sovereignty, the Ulama became more
+active. They were anxious to keep the young Padishah in the right way.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar and his vizier Abul Fazl were certainly men of genius. They are
+still the bright lights of Indian history. They were the foremost men of
+their time. But each had a characteristic weakness. Akbar was a born
+Mogul. With all his good qualities he was proud, ignorant, inquisitive,
+and self-sufficient. Abul Fazl was a born courtier. With all his good
+qualities he was a flatterer, a time-server, and a eulogist; he made
+Akbar his idol; he bowed down and worshipped him. They became close
+friends; they were indeed necessary to each other. Akbar looked to his
+minister for praise; Abul Fazl looked to his master for advancement. It
+is difficult to admire the genius of Akbar without seeing that he has
+been worked upon by Abul Fazl. It is equally difficult to admire the
+genius of Abul Fazl without seeing that he is pandering to the vanity of
+Akbar.</p>
+
+<p>When Akbar made the acquaintance of Abul Fazl he was in sore perplexity.
+He was determined to rule men of all creeds with even hand. The Ulama
+were thwarting him. The chief justice at Agra had sentenced men to death
+for being Shiahs and heretics. The Ulama were urging the Padishah to do
+the same. He was reluctant to quarrel with them; he was still more
+reluctant to sanction their high-handed proceedings toward men who
+worshipped the same God, but after a different fashion.</p>
+
+<p>How far Akbar opened his soul to Abul Fazl is unknown. No doubt Abul
+Fazl read his thoughts. Indeed, he had his own wrongs to avenge. The
+Ulama had persecuted his father and driven him into exile. The Ulama
+were ignorant, bigoted, and puffed up with pride and orthodoxy. Their
+learning was confined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> to Arabic and the <i>Koran</i>. They ignored what they
+did not know and could not understand. Abul Fazl must have hated and
+despised them. He was far too courtly, too astute, to express his real
+sentiments. The Ulama were at variance with the Padishah; they were also
+at variance among themselves. Possibly he foresaw that if they disputed
+before Akbar they might excite his contempt. How far he worked upon
+Akbar can never be ascertained. In the end Akbar ordered that the Ulama
+should discuss all questions in his presence; he would then decide who
+was right and who was wrong.</p>
+
+<p>There is no evidence that Abul Fazl suggested this course. It was,
+however, the kind of incense that a courtier would offer to a sovereign
+like Akbar. The learned men were to lay their opinions before the
+Padishah; he was to sit and judge. If he needed help, Abul Fazl would be
+at his side. Indeed, Abul Fazl would ask questions and invite opinions.
+He, the Padishah, would only hear and decide. Accordingly, preparations
+were made for the coming debates.</p>
+
+<p>The discussions were held on Thursday evenings. They were carried on in
+a large pavilion; it was built for the purpose in the royal garden at
+Fathpur Sikri. All the learned men at Agra were invited to attend. The
+Padishah and all the grandees of the empire were present. Abul Fazl
+acted as a kind of director. He started questions; he expounded his
+master's policy of toleration. Akbar preserved his dignity as padishah.
+He listened with majestic gravity to all that was said. Occasionally he
+bestowed praises and presents upon the best speakers.</p>
+
+<p>For many evenings the proceedings were conducted with due decorum. As,
+however, the speakers grew accustomed to the presence of the Padishah,
+the spirit of dissension began to work. One evening it led to an uproar;
+learned men reviled each other before the Padishah. No doubt Abul Fazl
+did his best to make the Ulama uncomfortable. He shifted the discussion
+from one point to another. He started dangerous subjects. He placed them
+in dilemmas. If they sought to please the Padishah they sinned against
+the <i>Koran</i>; if they stuck to the <i>Koran</i> they offended the Padishah. A
+question was started as to Akbar's marriages. One orthodox magistrate
+was too conscientious to hold his tongue; he was removed from his post.
+The courtiers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> saw that the Padishah delighted in the discomfiture of
+the Ulama with inconsistency, trickery, and cheating. The law officers
+were unable to defend themselves. Their authority and orthodoxy was set
+at naught. They were fast drifting into disgrace and ruin. They had
+cursed one another in their speech; probably in their hearts they were
+all agreed in cursing Abul Fazl.</p>
+
+<p>By this time Akbar held the Ulama in small esteem. He was growing
+sceptical of their religion. He had listened to the history of the
+caliphate; he yearned toward Ali and his family; he became in heart a
+Shiah. Already he may have doubted Mahomet and the <i>Koran</i>. Still he was
+outwardly a Mussulman. His object now was to overthrow the Ulama
+altogether; to become himself the supreme spiritual head, the pope or
+caliph of Islam. Abul Fazl was laboring to invest him with the same
+authority. He mooted the question one Thursday evening. He raised a
+storm of opposition; for this he was prepared. He had started the idea;
+he exerted all his tact and skill to carry it out.</p>
+
+<p>The debates proved that there were differences of opinion among the
+Ulama. Abul Fazl urged that there were differences of opinion between
+the highest Mussulman authorities; between those who were accepted as
+infallible, and were known as Mujtahids. He thus inserted the thin edge
+of the wedge. He proposed that when the Mujtahids disagreed, the
+decision should be left to the Padishah. Weeks and months passed away in
+these discussions. Nothing could be said against the measure excepting
+that it would prove offensive to the Padishah.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime a document was drawn up in the names of the chief men among the
+Ulama. It gave the Padishah the power of deciding between the
+conflicting authorities. It gave him the still more dangerous power of
+issuing fresh decrees, provided they were in accordance with some verse
+of the <i>Koran</i> and were manifestly for the benefit of the people. The
+document was in the handwriting of Sheik Mubarak; Abul Fazl, Abdul Faiz,
+and probably Akbar himself had each a hand in the composition. The chief
+men among the Ulama were required to sign it. Perhaps if they had been
+priests or divines they might have resisted to the last. But they were
+magistrates and judges; their posts and emoluments were in danger. In
+the end they signed it in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> sheer desperation. From that day the power of
+the Ulama was gone; they had abdicated their authority to the padishah;
+they became mere ciphers in Islam. A worse lot befell their leaders. The
+head of the Ulama and the obnoxious chief justice were removed from
+their posts and forced to go to Mecca.</p>
+
+<p>The breaking up of the Ulama is an epoch in history of Mussulman India.
+The Ulama may have been ignorant and bigoted; they may have sought to
+keep religions and the government of the empire within the narrow
+grooves of orthodoxy. Nevertheless, they had played an important part
+throughout Mussulman rule. As exponents of the law of Mahomet they had
+often proved a salutary check upon despotism of the sovereign. They had
+forced every minister, governor, and magistrate to respect the
+fundamental principles of the <i>Koran</i>. They led and controlled public
+opinion among the Mussulman population. They formed the only body in the
+state that ever ventured to oppose the will of the sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>The Thursday evenings had done their work. Within four years they had
+broken up the power of the Ulama. Abul Fazl had another project in his
+brain; it combined the audacity of genius with the mendacity of a
+courtier. He declared that Akbar was himself the twelfth imam, the lord
+of the period, who was to reconcile the seventy-two sects of Islam, to
+regenerate the world, to usher in the millennium. The announcement took
+the court by surprise. It fitted, however, into current ideas; it paved
+the way for further assumptions. Akbar grasped the notion with
+eagerness; it fascinated him for the remainder of his life; it bound him
+in the closest ties of friendship and confidence with Abul Fazl.</p>
+
+<p>The religious life of Akbar had undergone a vast change. He was testing
+religion by morality and reason. His faith in Islam was fading away.
+Mahomet had married a girl of ten; he had taken another man's wife;
+therefore he could not have been a prophet sent by God. Akbar
+disbelieved the story of his night-journey to heaven. Meantime Akbar was
+eagerly learning the mysteries of other religions. He entertained
+Brahmans, Sufis, Parsis, and Christian fathers. He believed in the
+transmigration of the soul, in the supreme spirit, in the ecstatic
+reunion of the soul with God, in the deity of fire and the sun. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>
+leaned toward Christianity; he rejected the trinity and incarnation.</p>
+
+<p>The gravitations of Akbar toward Christianity are invested with singular
+interest. He had been impressed with what he heard of the Portuguese in
+India; their large ships, impregnable forts, and big guns. He sent a
+letter to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa inviting Christian fathers to
+come to his court at Fathpur Sikri and instruct him in the sacred books.
+The religious world at Goa was thrown into a ferment at the prospect of
+converting the Great Mogul. Every priest in Goa prayed that he might be
+sent on the mission. Three fathers were despatched to Fathpur, which was
+more than twelve hundred miles away. Akbar awaited their arrival with
+the utmost impatience. He received them with every mark of favor. They
+delivered their presents, consisting of a polyglot Bible in four
+languages and the images of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. To their
+unspeakable delight the Great Mogul placed the Bible on his head and
+kissed the images. So eager was he for instruction that he spent the
+whole night in conversation with the fathers. He provided them with
+lodgings in the precincts of his palace; he permitted them to set up a
+chapel and altar.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar had ceased to be a Mussulman; he still maintained appearances. He
+set apart Saturday evenings for controversies between the fathers and
+the mollahs. In the end the fathers convinced Akbar of the superiority
+of Christianity. They contrasted the sensualities of Mahomet with the
+pure morality of the Gospel; the wars of Mahomet and the caliphs with
+the preachings and sufferings of the Apostles. The Mussulman historian
+curses the fathers; he states that Akbar became a Christian. The
+fathers, however, could never induce Akbar to be baptized. He gave them
+his favorite son Amurath, a boy of thirteen, to be educated in
+Christianity and the European sciences. He directed Abul Fazl to prepare
+a translation of the Gospel. He entered the chapel of the fathers, and
+prostrated himself before the image of the Saviour. He permitted the
+fathers to preach Christianity in any part of his empire; to perform
+their rites in public, in opposition to Mussulman law. A Portuguese was
+buried at Fathpur with all the pomp of the Roman Catholic ritual; the
+cross was carried through the streets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> for the first time. But Akbar
+would not become a Christian; he waited, he said, for the divine
+illumination.</p>
+
+<p>"He hated the Mussulman religion. He overthrew the mosques and converted
+them into stables. He trusted and employed the Hindus more than the
+Mussulmans. Many of the Mussulmans rebelled against him; they stirred up
+his brother, the Governor of Kabul, to take up arms against him; but
+Akbar defeated the rebels and restored order.</p>
+
+<p>"It is uncertain what really was the religion of Akbar. Some said that
+he was a Hindu; others that he was a Christian. Some said that he
+belonged to a fourth sect, which was not connected with either of the
+three others. He acknowledged one God who was best content with a
+variety of sects and worshippings. Early in the morning, and again at
+noon, evening, and midnight, he worshipped the sun. He belonged to a new
+sect, of which the followers regarded him as their prophet."</p>
+
+<p>Akbar was no fanatic. He was not carried away by religious craze. His
+religion was the outcome of his policy; it was political rather than
+superstitious; it began with him and ended with him. Probably the lack
+of fanaticism caused its failure. Abul Fazl speaks of the numbers who
+joined it; the list which he has preserved only contains the names of
+eighteen courtiers, including himself, his father, and his brother. Only
+one Hindu is on the list; namely, Bir Bar, the Brahman.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar tried hard to improve the morals of his subjects, Hindus as well
+as Mussulmans. He placed restrictions upon prostitution; he severely
+punished seducers. He permitted the use of wine; he punished
+intoxication. He prohibited the slaughter of cows. He forbade the
+marriage of boys before they were sixteen, and of girls before they were
+fourteen. He permitted the marriage of Hindu widows. He tried to stop
+sati among the Hindus, and polygamy among the Mussulmans.</p>
+
+<p>There was much practical simplicity in Akbar's character. It showed
+itself in a variety of ways. It was not peculiar to Akbar; it was an
+instinct which shows itself in Moguls generally. His emirs cheated him
+by bringing borrowed horses to muster; he stopped them by branding every
+horse with the name of the emir to which it belonged as well as with the
+imperial mark. He appointed writers to record everything he said or
+did.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> He sent writers into every city and province to report to him
+everything that was going on. He hung up a bell at the palace; any man
+who had a grievance might ring the bell and obtain a hearing.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar was very inquisitive. He sent an expedition to discover the
+sources of the Ganges. He made a strange experiment to discover what
+language was first spoken by mankind. This experiment is typical of the
+man. The Mussulmans declared that the first language was Arabic; the
+Jews said it was Hebrew; the Brahmans said it was Sanskrit. Akbar
+ordered twelve infants to be brought up by dumb nurses; not a word was
+to be spoken in their presence until they were twelve years of age. When
+the time arrived the children were brought before Akbar. Proficients in
+the learned tongues were present to catch the first words, to decide
+upon the language to which it belonged. The children could not say a
+word; they spoke only by signs. The experiment was an utter failure.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Akbar had its dark side. He was sometimes harsh and
+cruel. His persecution of Mussulmans was unpardonable. He had another
+way of getting rid of his enemies which is revolting to civilization. He
+kept a prisoner in his pay. He carried a box with three
+compartments&mdash;one for betel; another for digestive pills; a third for
+poisoned pills. No one dared to refuse to eat what was offered him by
+the Padishah; the offer was esteemed an honor. How many were poisoned by
+Akbar is unknown. The practice was in full force during the reigns of
+his successors.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar required his emirs to prostrate themselves before him. This rule
+gave great offence to Mussulmans; prostration is worship; no strict
+Mussulman will perform worship except when offering his prayers to God.
+Abul Fazl says that Akbar ordered it to be discontinued. The point is
+doubtful. It was certainly performed by members of the "divine faith."
+It was also performed during the reign of his son and successor.</p>
+
+<p>The Mogul government was pure despotism. Every governor and viceroy was
+supreme within his province; the Padishah was supreme throughout his
+empire. There was nothing to check provincial rulers but fear of the
+Padishah; there was nothing to check the Padishah but fear of rebellion.
+All previous Mussulman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> sovereigns had been checked by the Ulama and the
+authority of the <i>Koran</i>. Akbar had broken up the Ulama and set aside
+the <i>Koran</i>; he governed the empire according to his will; his will was
+law. The old Mogul khans had held diets; no trace of a diet is to be
+found in the history of Mogul India prior to the reign of Aurungzeb.
+There may have been a semblance of a diet on the accession of a new
+padishah; all the emirs, rajas, and princes of the empire paid their
+homage, presented gifts, and received titles and honors. But there was
+no council or parliament of any sort or kind. The Padishah was one and
+supreme.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar dwelt many years at Lahore. There he seems to have reached the
+height of human felicity. A proverb became current, "As happy as Akbar."
+He established his authority in Kabul and Bengal. He added Cashmere to
+his dominions. His empire was as large as that of Asoka.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Burhan, Akbar sent ambassadors to the sultans of the
+Deccan to invite them to accept him as their suzerain. In return he
+would uphold them on their thrones; he would prevent all internecine
+wars. One and all refused to pay allegiance to the Mogul. Akbar was
+wroth at the refusal. He sent his son Amurath to command in Guzerat; he
+ordered Amurath to seize the first opportunity for interfering in the
+affairs of Ahmadnagar.</p>
+
+<p>The moment soon arrived. Burhan died in 1594. A war ensued between rival
+claimants for the throne. The minister invited Amurath to interfere.
+Amurath advanced to Ahmadnagar. Meantime the minister and queen came to
+terms; they united to resist the Moguls. The Queen dowager, known as
+Chand Bibi, arrayed herself in armor; she veiled her face and led the
+troops in person. The Moguls were driven back. At last a compromise was
+effected. Berar was ceded to the Padishah; Amurath retired from
+Ahmadnagar.</p>
+
+<p>About this time a strange event took place at Lahore. On Easter Sunday,
+1597, the Padishah was celebrating the Nau-roz, or feast of the new
+year, in honor of the sun. Tented pavilions were set up in a large
+plain. An image of the sun, fashioned of gold and jewels, was placed
+upon a throne. Suddenly a thunderbolt fell from the skies. The throne
+was overturned. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> royal pavilion was set on fire; the flames spread
+throughout the camp; the whole was burned to the ground. The fire
+reached the city and burned down the palace. Nearly everything was
+consumed. The imperial treasures were melted down, and molten gold and
+silver ran through the streets of Lahore.</p>
+
+<p>This portentous disaster made a deep impression on Akbar. He went away
+to Cashmere; he took one of the Christian fathers with him. He began to
+question the propriety of his new religion; he could not bring himself
+to retract, certainly not to become an open Christian. When the summer
+was over he returned to Lahore.</p>
+
+<p>In 1598 Akbar left Lahore and set out for Agra. He was displeased with
+the conduct of the war in the Deccan. His son Amurath was a drunkard.
+The commander-in-chief, known as the Khan Khanan, who accompanied
+Amurath, was intriguing and treacherous; he had probably been bribed by
+the Deccanis. Abul Fazl was still the trusted servant and friend; he had
+been raised to the rank of commander of two thousand five hundred. Akbar
+had already recalled the Khan Khanan. He now sent Abul Fazl into the
+Deccan to bring away Amurath, or to send him away, as should seem most
+expedient.</p>
+
+<p>Abul Fazl departed on his mission. He arrived at Burhanpur, the capital
+of Khandesh. He soon discovered the luke-warmness of Bahadur Khan, the
+ruler. He insisted that Bahadur Khan should join him and help the
+imperial cause. Bahadur Khan was disinclined to help Akbar to conquer
+the Deccan. He thought to back out by sending rich presents to Abul
+Fazl. Abul Fazl was too loyal to be bribed; he returned the presents and
+went alone toward Ahmadnagar.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Amurath was retreating from Ahmadnagar. He encamped in Berar;
+he drank more deeply than ever; he died very suddenly the very day that
+Abul Fazl came up. The death of Amurath removed one complication, but it
+led to the question of advance. The imperial officers urged a retreat.
+Abul Fazl had been bred in a cloister; he was approaching his fiftieth
+year; he had never before been in active service, but he had the spirit
+of a soldier; he refused to retreat from an enemy's country; he pushed
+manfully on for Ahmadnagar. His efforts were rewarded with success. The
+Queen-regent was assailed by other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> enemies, and yielded to her fate.
+She agreed that if Abul Fazl would punish her enemies, she would
+surrender the fortress of Ahmadnagar.</p>
+
+<p>Tidings had now reached Akbar that his son Amurath was dead. He resolved
+to go in person to the Deccan. He left his eldest son, Selim, in charge
+of the government. He sent an advance force under his other son, Danyal,
+associated with the Khan Khanan. The advance force reached Burhanpur.
+There the disloyalty of Bahadur Khan was manifest; he refused to pay
+respects to Danyal. Akbar was encamped at Ujain when the news reached
+him. He ordered Abul Fazl to join him; he ordered Danyal to go on to
+Ahmadnagar; he then prepared for the subjugation of Bahadur Khan.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the operations may be told in a few words. Danyal advanced
+to Ahmadnagar. Chand Bibi was slaughtered by her own soldiers.
+Ahmadnagar was occupied by the Moguls. Meanwhile Bahadur Khan abandoned
+Burhanpur and took refuge in the strong fortress of Asirghur. Akbar was
+joined by Abul Fazl and laid siege to Asirghur. The siege lasted six
+months. At last Bahadur Khan surrendered; his life was spared;
+henceforth he fades away from history.</p>
+
+<p>So far Akbar had prospered; he had conquered the great highway into the
+Deccan&mdash;Malwa, Khandesh, Berar, and Ahmadnagar. He raised Abul Fazl to
+the command of four thousand. He resolved on conquering the Deccan. He
+was about to strike when his arm was arrested. His eldest son Selim had
+broken out in revolt. He had gone to Allahabad and assumed the title of
+padishah.</p>
+
+<p>Akbar returned alone to Agra; he was falling on evil days. He effected a
+reconciliation with Selim; he saw that Selim was still rebellious at
+heart; that his best officers were inclining toward his undutiful son.
+In his perplexity he sent to the Deccan for Abul Fazl. The trusted
+servant hastened to join his imperial master. But Selim had always hated
+Abul Fazl. He instigated a Rajput chief of Bundelkund to waylay Abul
+Fazl. This chief was Bir Singh of Urchah. Bir Singh fell upon Abul Fazl
+near Nawar, killed him, and sent his head to Selim. Bir Singh fled from
+the wrath of the Padishah; he led the life of an outlaw in the jungle
+until he heard of the death of Akbar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Akbar was deeply wounded by the murder of Abul Fazl. He thereby lost his
+chief support, his best trusted friend. Henceforth he seemed to yield to
+circumstances rather than to struggle against the world. Other
+misfortunes befell him: his mother died; his youngest son, Danyal,
+killed himself with drink in the Deccan; his own life was beginning to
+draw to a close.</p>
+
+<p>The last events in the reign of Akbar are obscure. Outwardly he became
+reconciled to Selim. Outwardly he abandoned scepticism and heresy; he
+professed himself a Mussulman. At heart he was anxious that Selim should
+be set aside; that Khuzru, the eldest son of Selim, should succeed him
+to the throne. It is impossible to unravel the intrigues that filled the
+court at Agra. At last Akbar was smitten with mortal disease. For some
+days Selim was refused admittance to his father's chamber. In the end
+there was a compromise. Selim swore to maintain the Mussulman religion.
+He also swore to pardon his son Khuzru and all who had supported Khuzru.
+He was then brought into the presence of Akbar. The old Padishah was
+past all speech. He made a sign with his hand that Selim should take the
+imperial diadem and gird on the imperial sword. Selim obeyed. He
+prostrated himself upon the ground before the couch of his dying father;
+he touched the ground with his head. He then left the chamber. A few
+hours had passed away and Akbar was dead. He died in October, 1605, aged
+sixty-three.</p>
+
+<p>The burial of Akbar was performed after a simple fashion. His grave was
+prepared in a garden at Secundra, about four miles from Agra. The body
+was placed upon a bier. Selim and his three sons carried it out of the
+fortress. The young princes, assisted by the officers of the imperial
+household, carried it to Secundra. Seven days were spent in mourning
+over the grave. Provisions and sweetmeats were distributed among the
+poor every morning and evening throughout the mourning. Twenty readers
+were appointed to recite the <i>Koran</i> every night without ceasing.
+Finally, the foundations were laid of that splendid mausoleum which is
+known far and wide as the tomb of Akbar.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Asoka was an illustrious king of the Maurya dynasty in
+India, who died about <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 225. He did much for the advancement of
+Buddhism, and has been called the "Buddhist Constantine."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY</h2>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Embracing the Period covered in this Volume</span></h4>
+
+<h4>A.D. 1517-1557</h4>
+
+<h3>JOHN RUDD, LL.D.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Events treated at length are here indicated in large type; the numerals
+following give volume and page.</p>
+
+<p>Separate chronologies of the various nations, and of the careers of
+famous persons, will be found in the <span class="smcap">Index Volume</span>, with volume and page
+references showing where the several events are fully treated.</p>
+
+<p>* Denotes date uncertain.</p>
+
+<p><b>A.D.</b></p>
+
+<p><b>1517.</b> Protest of Luther against the sale of indulgences. See "<span class="smcap">Luther
+Begins the Reformation in Germany</span>," ix, 1.</p>
+
+<p>Overthrow of the mameluke power in Egypt, by Selim I, who annexes that
+country to the Ottoman empire.</p>
+
+<p>Balboa beheaded by Pedrarias Davila, the new Governor of Darien, on a
+charge of contemplated revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Negro slaves first introduced into America. See "<span class="smcap">Negro Slavery in
+America</span>," ix, 36.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1518.</b> First preaching of the reformed doctrines by Zwingli, in
+Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>Conquest of Arabia by the Ottomans.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1519.</b> Death of Maximilian I; his grandson, Charles I of Spain&mdash;jointly
+with Ferdinand his brother, in his hereditary realm&mdash;elected as Emperor
+Charles V. Union under one crown of the German Empire, Spain, the
+Netherlands, the Sicilies, Sardinia, and the Spanish Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Cort&eacute;s first enters Mexico. See "<span class="smcap">Cort&eacute;s Captures the City of Mexico</span>,"
+ix, 72.</p>
+
+<p>Mouth of the Mississippi discovered by Francisco de Garay.</p>
+
+<p>Magellan starts on his expedition to circumnavigate the world. See
+"<span class="smcap">First Circumnavigation of the Globe</span>," ix, 41.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1520.</b> Papal bull of Leo X against Luther, who publicly burns it. See
+"<span class="smcap">Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany</span>," ix, 1.</p>
+
+<p>Execution of nobles at Stockholm, following the successful invasion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> of
+Sweden by King Christian II of Denmark; Sten Sture, the Protector, is
+mortally wounded at Bogesund; Christian proclaimed king.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII of England agrees to meet Francis I of France. See "<span class="smcap">The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold</span>," ix, 59.</p>
+
+<p>Solyman the Magnificent, Sultan of the Ottomans, succeeds Selim I.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1521.</b> Conquest of Belgrade by the Ottoman Turks.</p>
+
+<p>Issue of the first of the Placards, edicts of Emperor Charles V against
+heresy, in the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>First of the wars between Charles V and Francis I; Navarre
+unsuccessfully invaded by the French; France invaded from the north;
+Milan lost to the French.</p>
+
+<p>Treaty of Bruges between Henry VIII and Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>Execution of the Duke of Buckingham for high treason; the office of
+constable of England, his inheritance, abolished.</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Cort&eacute;s Captures the City of Mexico</span>." See ix, 72.</p>
+
+<p>Magellan reaches the Ladrones and the Philippines; he is slain on an
+island of the latter group.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1522.</b> Conquest of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John by the Turks,
+under Solyman the Magnificent.</p>
+
+<p>Battle of La Biococca; the French defeated by the forces of Charles
+under Colonna.</p>
+
+<p>France invaded by the English under the Earl of Surrey.</p>
+
+<p>A ship belonging to Magellan's fleet completes the circumnavigation of
+the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Luther publishes his New Testament; he writes his Reply to Henry VIII,
+who had been dubbed "Defender of the Faith" by Pope Leo X, in
+acknowledgment of a book, <i>A Defence of the Seven Sacraments</i>, written
+against Luther.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1523.</b> Invasion of France by Henry VIII and Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>Italy invaded by the French.</p>
+
+<p>Abrogation of the mass and image-worship in Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden. See "<span class="smcap">Liberation of Sweden</span>," ix,
+79.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick I, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, succeeds to the throne of
+Christian II of Denmark, who is deposed by his subjects.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1524.</b> Retreat of Bonnivet; death of Bayard, "the knight without fear and
+without reproach." Italy invaded by Francis I; he occupies Milan and
+lays siege to Pavia.</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">The Peasants' War in Germany</span>." See ix, 93.</p>
+
+<p>Voyage to the North American coast by Verrazano, an Italian navigator,
+on behalf of France.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1525.</b> Defeat of Francis I at Pavia. See "<span class="smcap">France Loses Italy</span>," ix, 111.</p>
+
+<p>Bloody conclusion of the Peasants' War.</p>
+
+<p>A hereditary Protestant principality formed in East Prussia by the grand
+master of the Teutonic Knights; the suzerain being Sigismund, King of
+Poland.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>1526.</b> Treaty of Madrid; release of Francis I. See "<span class="smcap">France Loses Italy</span>,"
+ix, 111.</p>
+
+<p>Battle of Mohacs; the Hungarians are overwhelmed by Solyman; Louis II
+slain. Rival elections of John Zapolya and Ferdinand of Austria to the
+vacant throne.</p>
+
+<p>Foundation of the Mongol dynasty of India by Baber, who conquers Ibrahim
+Lodi of Delhi at Paniput.</p>
+
+<p>Tyndale's version of the English Bible printed at Worms.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1527.</b> Storming of Rome; it is pillaged by the troops of the Constable de
+Bourbon. See "<span class="smcap">Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops</span>," ix, 124.</p>
+
+<p>Restoration of the republic in Florence; the Medici expelled.</p>
+
+<p>Winning of the Hungarian crown by Ferdinand of Austria; Zapolya expelled
+the country.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1528.</b> War declared against Charles V by Henry VIII and Francis I.</p>
+
+<p>Deliverance of Genoa from the French yoke, by Andrea Doria.</p>
+
+<p>After tyrannizing over Scotland for more than two years, the Earl of
+Angus is driven out of the realm.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1529.</b> Fall of Cardinal Wolsey. See "<span class="smcap">Great Religious Movement in
+England</span>," ix, 137.</p>
+
+<p>Presentation of the Protest by the German reformers at the Diet of
+Spire; from this the reformers take the name of Protestants.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>Peace of Cambrai between Francis I and Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>Siege of Florence; united attempt of Charles V and Pope Clement VII to
+restore the rule of the Medici.</p>
+
+<p>Vienna unsuccessfully besieged by Solyman the Magnificent; he gives to
+Zapolya the rule in Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Establishment in Sweden of Lutheranism as the state church.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1530.</b> Coronation of Charles V, Pope Clement VII, at Bologna, performing
+the ceremony, the last crowning by any pope of a German emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Restoration of the Medici on the submission of Florence to the invaders.</p>
+
+<p>Malta ceded to the Knights of St. John by Charles V, who also hands over
+the Moluccas to the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>Formulation of the reform (Protestant) profession of faith at the Diet
+of Augsburg; prepared and read before the Diet by Melanchthon.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1531.</b> Breach between Henry VIII and Pope Clement VII.</p>
+
+<p>Battle of Kappel; defeat of the army of Zurich by Swiss Catholics; fall
+of Zwingli.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII of England first addressed as "supreme head of the Church."</p>
+
+<p>Publication of Michel Servetus' treatise on the <i>Errors of the Trinity</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1532.</b> Restoration of religious peace, with freedom of worship, in
+Germany, secured by the Pacification of Nuremberg.</p>
+
+<p>Conquest of Peru. See "<span class="smcap">Pizarro Conquers Peru</span>," ix, 156.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>1533.</b> Cranmer annuls the marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine of
+Aragon; he marries Anne Boleyn; her coronation.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage of the Dauphin Henry with Catherine de' Medici.</p>
+
+<p>Enforced flight of Calvin from Paris. See "<span class="smcap">Calvin is Driven from Paris</span>,"
+ix, 176.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I, avows heretical
+opinions; her mysteries, farces, and novels give a great impulse to
+literature in France.</p>
+
+<p>A taste for poetry and refinement of the English language follows the
+writings of Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, in England.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1534.</b> Throwing off of the papal authority in England. See "<span class="smcap">English Act
+of Supremacy</span>," ix, 203.</p>
+
+<p>Establishment of their disorderly reign of the Anabaptists, under the
+lead of John of Leyden, in Muenster.</p>
+
+<p>Unsuccessful attempt of the Bishop of Geneva and the Duke of Savoy to
+re&euml;stablish their authority over Geneva; it is henceforth free.</p>
+
+<p>First fierce persecution of the reformers in France begins.</p>
+
+<p>Discovery of the St. Lawrence by Jacques Cartier.* See "<span class="smcap">Cartier Explores
+Canada</span>," ix, 236.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1535.</b> Suppression of the monasteries in England.</p>
+
+<p>Publication in England by Tyndale and Coverdale of a new translation of
+the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Settlement of Paraguay and founding of Buenos Aires. See "<span class="smcap">Mendoza
+Settles Buenos Aires</span>," ix, 254.</p>
+
+<p>Downfall of the Anabaptists at Muenster; John of Leyden put to death.</p>
+
+<p>After being created a cardinal, Fisher is beheaded in England; the like
+befalls Sir Thomas More.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1536.</b> Completion of the union between England and Wales.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII, on the charge of infidelity, commits Anne Boleyn to the
+Tower of London; she is executed. Marriage of Henry to Jane Seymour.</p>
+
+<p>Francis I takes Turin and attempts the surprise of Genoa.</p>
+
+<p>Provence invaded by Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>Discovery of California by Cort&eacute;s.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1537.</b> Death of Jane Seymour, Queen of England.</p>
+
+<p>Further enslavement of the Indians forbidden by a brief of Pope Paul
+III.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1538.</b> General suppression of monasteries and destruction of relics in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Truce of Nice, for ten years, between France and Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage of Mary de Guise with James V of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>John Calvin expelled Geneva.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1539.</b> Publication of Cranmer's Bible in England.</p>
+
+<p>Calvin, head of the Reformers, founds the University of Geneva.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Beginning of the explorations of De Soto, after his landing in Florida.</p>
+
+<p>Emperor Charles V drives the citizens of Ghent into revolt against his
+exactions.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1540.</b> Marriage of Henry VIII to Anne of Cleves; she is divorced; the
+King marries Catherine Howard.</p>
+
+<p>Submission of Ghent to Charles V; he destroys its liberties; many of the
+citizens find refuge in England.</p>
+
+<p>Papal sanction given to the Society of Jesus. See "<span class="smcap">Founding of The
+Jesuits</span>," ix, 261.</p>
+
+<p>Cherry-trees, carried from Flanders, first planted in England.</p>
+
+<p>First known printing in America; done in Mexico. See "<span class="smcap">Origin and
+Progress of Printing</span>," viii, 1.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1541.</b> Charles V heads an unsuccessful expedition against Algiers.</p>
+
+<p>Hungary overrun by the Turks, under Solyman the Magnificent.</p>
+
+<p>King John III of Portugal requests Francis Xavier and other Jesuits to
+undertake missions to his colonies.</p>
+
+<p>De Soto reaches the Mississippi River. See "<span class="smcap">De Soto Discovers the
+Mississippi</span>," ix, 277.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1542.</b> Discovery of Japan by the Portuguese.*</p>
+
+<p>Execution of Catherine Howard, fifth queen-consort of Henry VIII. He
+assumes the title of king of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Battle of Solway Moss; successful invasion of Scotland by the English.</p>
+
+<p>War renewed between Francis I and Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>Trade with Japan by the Portuguese permitted.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1543.</b> Marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine Parr.</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus</span>." See ix, 285.</p>
+
+<p>Birth and accession of Mary Stuart to the throne of Scotland; Earl of
+Arran is regent.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1544.</b> Invasion of Scotland by the English under the Earl of Hertford;
+they burn Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>Mary and Elizabeth restored to the right of succession to the English
+throne.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1545.</b> Attempted invasion of England by the French.</p>
+
+<p>Nineteenth general council. See "<span class="smcap">Council of Trent and the
+Counter-reformation</span>," ix, 293.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish discovery of the silver mines of Potosi.</p>
+
+<p>Massacre of the Vaudois in Southern France.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1546.</b> Burning of George Wishart as a heretic, by order of Cardinal
+Beaton, the Scottish primate; he is assassinated.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning of the War of the Smalkald League. See "<span class="smcap">Protestant Struggle
+against Charles V</span>," ix, 313.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1547.</b> Death of Henry VIII; Edward VI succeeds his father on the English
+throne; the Duke of Somerset protector.</p>
+
+<p>Henry II succeeds to the throne of France, on the death of his father,
+Francis I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Capture of John Knox, the Scottish reformer; he is condemned to the
+French galleys.</p>
+
+<p>In Russia the Grand Prince of Moscow, Ivan IV (the Terrible), assumes
+the title of czar or tsar.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1548.</b> Publication of the Augsburg Interim. See "<span class="smcap">Protestant Struggle
+against Charles V</span>," ix, 313.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1549.</b> In England the Act of Uniformity, regulating public worship, is
+passed.</p>
+
+<p>Formal uniting of the Netherlands with the Spanish crown by Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>Francis Xavier lands in Japan. See "<span class="smcap">Introduction of Christianity into
+Japan</span>," ix, 325.</p>
+
+<p>Book of Common Prayer adopted in England, under Edward VI.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1550.</b> Promulgation against the heretics in the Netherlands by Charles;
+the hateful Inquisition established there.</p>
+
+<p>Peace between England and France; Boulogne restored to the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Publication of his <i>Lives of the Painters</i>, by Giorgio Vasari.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1551.</b> After a long siege Magdeburg is taken by Maurice of Saxony.</p>
+
+<p>Turkish ravages on the coast of Sicily; an attack on Malta fails;
+Tripoli surrenders to them.</p>
+
+<p>Palestrina, the first to reconcile musical science with musical art,
+made <i>maestro di capella</i> by Pope Julius III.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1552.</b> Adoption of the Forty-two Articles of the Church of England; these
+were afterward reduced to Thirty-nine.</p>
+
+<p>Alliance of Maurice of Saxony with France; they make war on Charles V,
+on behalf of the Protestants. The Peace of Passau follows. See "<span class="smcap">Collapse
+of the Power of Charles V</span>," ix, 337 and 348.</p>
+
+<p>Seizure of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun by Henry II of
+France. See "<span class="smcap">Collapse of the Power of Charles V</span>," ix, 337.</p>
+
+<p>Subjugation of the Tartars of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible of Russia.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1553.</b> Death of Edward VI; his sister, Mary, succeeds to the English
+throne.</p>
+
+<p>Unsuccessful attempt of the Duke of Northumberland to place his
+daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne.</p>
+
+<p>After a stubborn defence by Francis, Duke of Guise, Charles V is
+compelled to raise the siege of Metz.</p>
+
+<p>Burning of Servetus at Geneva, with Calvin's approval.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1554.</b> Rebellion of Wyatt, in support of Lady Jane Grey's attempt on the
+crown of England; she is executed.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Mary, of England, marries Philip of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Regency of Mary de Guise, mother of Mary Stuart, in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Astrakhan conquered by Ivan the Terrible.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1555.</b> Peace of Augsburg between the Roman Catholic and Lutheran parties
+in Germany. See "<span class="smcap">The Religious Peace of Augsburg</span>," ix, 348.</p>
+
+<p>Persecution of the Protestants begun by Queen Mary in England; burning
+of Latimer and Ridley.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The sovereignty of the Netherlands resigned by Charles V to his son,
+Philip II.</p>
+
+<p>Return to Scotland of John Knox.</p>
+
+<p>Completion of the version of the Psalms, in English metre, by Sternhold
+and Hopkins.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1556.</b> Burning of Cranmer.</p>
+
+<p>Emperor Charles V resigns the crown of Germany. See "<span class="smcap">Religious Peace of
+Augsburg</span>," ix, 348.</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India.</span>" See ix, 366.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>1557.</b> Philip II of Spain arrives in England; he obtains a declaration of
+war against France and departs. Battle of St. Quentin; the Earl of
+Pembroke joins the army of Philip II in Flanders, with 10,000 English
+soldiers; defeat of the French.</p>
+
+<p>Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant, "even to the knife," by
+Scottish Lords of the Congregation.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Sometimes given as 1530.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS HISTORIANS, VOLUME 9***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 26337-h.txt or 26337-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/3/3/26337">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/3/3/26337</a></p>
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+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume
+9, by Various, Edited by Rossiter Johnson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 9
+
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Rossiter Johnson
+
+Release Date: August 17, 2008  [eBook #26337]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS
+HISTORIANS, VOLUME 9***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 26337-h.htm or 26337-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/3/3/26337/26337-h/26337-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/3/3/26337/26337-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT EVENTS BY FAMOUS HISTORIANS
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+A COMPREHENSIVE AND READABLE ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY. EMPHASIZING
+THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS. AND PRESENTING THESE AS COMPLETE NARRATIVES
+IN THE MASTER-WORDS OF THE MOST EMINENT HISTORIANS
+
+NON-SECTARIAN            NON-PARTISAN            NON-SECTIONAL
+
+ON THE PLAN EVOLVED FROM A CONSENSUS OF OPINIONS GATHERED FROM THE MOST
+DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS OF AMERICA AND EUROPE. INCLUDING BRIEF
+INTRODUCTIONS BY SPECIALISTS TO CONNECT AND EXPLAIN THE CELEBRATED
+NARRATIVES. ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY. WITH THOROUGH INDICES,
+BIBLIOGRAPHIES, CHRONOLOGIES, AND COURSES OF READING
+
+EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
+
+ROSSITER JOHNSON, LL.D.
+
+ASSOCIATE EDITORS
+
+CHARLES F. HORNE, Ph.D. JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
+
+With a staff of specialists
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry VIII, during the festivities at Guines--"The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold"--in courtly dance with one of the French Queen's
+ladies-in-waiting
+
+Painting by Adolph Menzel]
+
+
+
+The National Alumni
+
+Copyright, 1905,
+by The National Alumni
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+
+                                                             PAGE
+_An Outline Narrative of the Great Events_,                  xiii
+  CHARLES F. HORNE
+
+_Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany (A.D. 1517)_,         1
+  JULIUS KOESTLIN
+  JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+_Negro Slavery in America_
+_Its Introduction by Law (A.D. 1517)_,                         36
+   SIR ARTHUR HELPS
+
+_First Circumnavigation of the Globe (A.D. 1519)_
+_Magellan Reaches the Ladrones and Philippines_,               41
+  JOAN BAUTISTA
+  ANTONIO PIGAFETTA
+
+_The Field of the Cloth of Gold (A.D. 1520)_,                  59
+  J. S. BREWER
+
+_Cortes Captures the City of Mexico (A.D. 1521)_,              72
+  WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+_Liberation of Sweden (A.D. 1523)_,                            79
+  ERIC GUSTAVE GEIJER
+
+_The Peasants' War in Germany (A.D. 1524)_,                    93
+  J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNE
+
+_France Loses Italy (A.D. 1525)_
+_Battle of Pavia_,                                            111
+  WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+_Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops (A.D. 1527)_,            124
+  BENVENUTO CELLINI
+  T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+
+_Great Religious Movement in England_
+_Fall of Wolsey (A.D. 1529)_,                                 137
+  JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+_Pizarro Conquers Peru (A.D. 1532)_,                          156
+  HERNANDO PIZARRO
+  WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+_Calvin is Driven from Paris (A.D. 1533)_
+_He Makes Geneva the Stronghold of Protestantism_,            176
+  A. M. FAIRBAIRN
+  JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+_England Breaks with the Roman Church (A.D. 1534)_
+_Destruction of Monasteries_,                                 203
+  JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+_Cartier Explores Canada (A.D. 1534)_,                        236
+  H. H. MILES
+
+_Mendoza Settles Buenos Aires (A.D. 1535)_,                   254
+  ROBERT SOUTHEY
+
+_Founding of the Jesuits (A.D. 1540)_,                        261
+  ISAAC TAYLOR
+
+_De Soto Discovers the Mississippi (A.D. 1541)_,              277
+  JOHN S. C. ABBOTT
+
+_Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus (A.D. 1543)_,          285
+  SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL
+
+_Council of Trent and the Counter-reformation (A.D. 1545)_    293
+  ADOLPHUS W. WARD
+
+_Protestant Struggle against Charles V_
+_The Smalkaldic War (A.D. 1546)_,                             313
+  EDWARD ARMSTRONG
+
+_Introduction of Christianity into Japan (A.D. 1549)_,        325
+  JOHN H. GUBBINS
+
+_Collapse of the Power of Charles V (A.D. 1552)_
+_France Seizes German Bishoprics_,                            337
+  LADY C. C. JACKSON
+
+_The Religious Peace of Augsburg (A.D. 1555)_
+_Abdication of Charles V_                                     348
+  WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+_Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India (A.D. 1556)_,    366
+  J. TALBOYS WHEELER
+
+_Universal Chronology (A.D. 1517-1557)_                       385
+  JOHN RUDD
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME IX
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+_Henry VIII during the festivities at Guines_--"_The Field
+of the Cloth of Gold_"--_in courtly dance with one of
+the French Queen's ladies-in-waiting_ (_page 63_),        Frontispiece
+  Painting by Adolph Menzel.
+
+_Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the Estates_,     79
+  Painting by L. Hersent.
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE NARRATIVE
+
+TRACING BRIEFLY THE CAUSES, CONNECTIONS, AND CONSEQUENCES OF
+
+THE GREAT EVENTS
+
+(THE REFORMATION: REIGN OF CHARLES V)
+
+CHARLES F. HORNE
+
+
+Our modern world begins with the Protestant Reformation. The term itself
+is objected to by Catholics, who claim that there was little real
+reform. But the importance of the event, whether we call it reform or
+revolution, is undenied. Previous to 1517 the nations of Europe had
+formed a single spiritual family under the acknowledged leadership of
+the Pope. The extent of the Holy Father's authority might be disputed,
+especially when he interfered in affairs of state. Kings had fought
+against his troops on the field of battle. But in spiritual matters he
+was still supreme, and when reformers like Huss and Savonarola refused
+him obedience on questions of doctrine, the very men who had been
+fighting papal soldiers were shocked by this heretical wickedness. The
+heretics were burned and the wars resumed. When Alexander Borgia sat
+upon the papal throne for eleven years, there were even philosophers who
+drew from his very wickedness an argument for the divine nature of his
+office. It must be indeed divine, said they, since despite such
+pollution as his, it had survived and retained its influence.
+
+Some modern critics have even gone so far as to assert that for at least
+two generations before the Reformation the great majority of the
+educated classes had ceased to care whether the Christian religion were
+true or not. The Renaissance had so awakened their interest in the
+affairs of this world, its artistic beauties and intellectual advance,
+that they gave no thought to the beyond. But we approach controversial
+matters scarce within our scope. Suffice it to say that the Reformation
+brought religion once more into intensest prominence in all men's eyes,
+and that a large portion of the civilized world broke away from the
+domination of the Pope. Men insisted on judging for themselves in
+spiritual matters. Only after three centuries of strife was the
+privilege granted them. Only within the past century has thought been
+made everywhere free--at least from direct physical coercion. The last
+execution by the Spanish Inquisition was in 1826, and the institution
+was formally abolished in 1835.
+
+The era of open warfare and actual bodily torture between various sects
+all calling themselves Christian, thus extended over three centuries.
+These may be divided into four periods. The first is one of fierce
+dispute but little actual warfare, during which the revolt spread over
+Europe with Germany as its centre. An agreement between the contestants
+was still hoped for; the break was not recognized as final until 1555,
+when, by the Peace of Augsburg, the two German factions definitely
+agreed to separate and to refrain from interference with each other. Or
+perhaps it would be better to end the first period with 1556, when the
+mighty Emperor, Charles V, resigned all his authority, giving Germany to
+his brother, Ferdinand, who maintained peace there, while Spain passed
+to Charles' son, Philip II, most resolute and fanatic of Catholics.
+
+The second period began in 1558, when the Protestant queen, Elizabeth,
+ascended the throne of England. She and Philip of Spain became the
+champions of their respective faiths; the strife extended over Europe,
+and soon developed into bitter war. This spread from land to land, and
+finally returned to Germany as the awful Thirty Years' War.
+
+Then came the third period, during which the religious question was less
+prominent; but Catholic sovereigns like Louis XIV of France and James II
+of England still hoped by persecutions to force their subjects to
+reaccept the ancient faith. These aims were only abandoned with the
+downfall of Louis' military power before the armies of Marlborough and
+Eugene, early in the eighteenth century.
+
+During the final hundred years the stubborn contest was confined to the
+lands still Catholic, in which intellect, under such leaders as
+Voltaire, struggled with the superstition and prejudice of the masses,
+and demanded everywhere the freedom it at last attained.
+
+For the present we need look only to the first of these periods, that in
+which Germany holds the centre of the view.[1] It is an odd coincidence
+that at the outbreak of the Reformation all the chief states of Europe
+were ruled by sovereigns of unusual ability, but each one of them a man
+who obviously thought more of his ambitions, his pleasures, and his
+political plans than of his religion. Moreover, each of these rulers
+came to the throne before he was of age, and thus lacked the salutary
+training of a subordinate position; while, on the other hand, each of
+them, through varying causes, wielded a power much greater than that of
+any of his recent predecessors.
+
+
+RULERS OF EUROPE IN 1517
+
+Henry VIII of England was the first of these young despots to assume
+authority. Nine years older than the century, he became king in 1509 at
+the age of eighteen. His father, Henry VII, had, as we have seen,
+snatched power from an exhausted aristocracy. He had been what men
+sneeringly called a "tradesman" king, caring little for the show and
+splendor of his office, but using it to amass enormous sums of money by
+means not over-scrupulous. Young Henry VIII, handsome, dashing, and
+debonair, at once repudiated his father's policy, executed the ministers
+who had directed it, and was hailed as a liberator by his delighted
+people. They quite overlooked the fact that he neglected to restore the
+ill-gotten funds, and soon used them in establishing a far more vigorous
+tyranny than his father would have dared. Much is forgiven a youthful
+king if he be but brave and jovial and hearty in his manner. His
+blunders, his excesses of fury, are put down to his inexperience.
+Nations are ever yearning for a hero-ruler.
+
+In France a monarch of twenty years, Francis I, ascended the throne in
+1515, five years older then than the century. Henry of England had
+descended from a family of simple Welsh gentlemen, far indeed at one
+time from the crown; Francis I was also of a new line of kings, only a
+distant cousin of the childless Louis XII, whom he succeeded. "That
+great boy of Angouleme will ruin all," groaned Louis on his death-bed.
+Ruin the prosperity of France, he meant, for Louis had been a good and
+thoughtful king, cherishing his land and enabling it to rise to the
+height of wealth and power, justified by its natural resources and the
+ingenuity of its people.
+
+Francis, the "great boy," even more than his rival Henry, proved bent on
+being a hero. Like Maximilian of Germany, he sought to be known as the
+flower of knighthood. To win his ambition he also was possessed of youth
+and wealth, a gallant bearing, and a devoted people. He had intellect,
+too, and a love of art. He became the great patron of the later
+Renaissance. The famous artist Da Vinci died at his court, in his arms,
+legend says. Artists, literary men, flocked to his service. Paris became
+the intellectual centre of Europe. France snatched from Italy the
+supremacy of thought, of genius.
+
+Alas for the fickleness of untried youth! Henry seemed to promise his
+country freedom and he gave it tyranny. Francis promised his people
+glory--that is, honor and splendor. In the end he brought them shame and
+suffering. Charles V of Germany, youngest of this mighty trio, seemed by
+his wisdom to promise his subjects at least protection; and his reign
+produced anarchy.
+
+Charles, unlike his rivals, was almost born into power. His father died
+in the lad's babyhood; his mother went insane. His two grandfathers were
+the two mightiest potentates of Europe, Ferdinand the Wise of Spain, and
+Maximilian, head of the great Hapsburg house and Emperor of Germany.
+Neither had any nearer heir than little Charles. His father's position
+as ruler of the Netherlands was given him as a child, so that he was
+really a Fleming by education, a silent, thoughtful, secretive youth,
+far different from the jovial Henry or the brilliant Francis, but
+ambitious as either and more conscientious perhaps, a dangerous rival in
+the race for fame.
+
+Ferdinand died in 1515, and Charles became King of Spain, with all that
+the title included of power over the Mediterranean and Southern Italy,
+and all the vast new world of America. Charles was then fifteen, just
+the age of the century, nine years younger than Henry, five years
+younger than Francis. Amid the tumult of the opening Reformation in
+1519, the aged Maximilian also died, departed not unwillingly, one
+fancies, from an age whose intricacies had grown too many for his simple
+soul. The young King of Spain thus became lord of all the vast Hapsburg
+possessions of Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands and so on.
+
+He sought to be elected Emperor of Germany also, but here the matter was
+less easy. Already his rule extended over more of Europe than any
+sovereign had held since Charlemagne, and Europe took alarm. Henry and
+Francis both thrust in, each of them suggesting to the German electorial
+princes that he had claims of his own, and would make an emperor far
+more suitable than Charles. Henry polished up his German ancestry;
+Francis recalled that Germans and Frenchmen were both Franks, had been
+one mighty race under Charlemagne, and surely might become so once
+again--under his leadership, of course.
+
+The matter was really decided by a fourth party. The Turks had once more
+become a serious menace to Europe. During the brief reign of Sultan
+Selim the Ferocious (1512-1520) they crushed Persia and conquered Syria
+and Egypt. They seized the caliph, spiritual ruler of the Mahometan
+faith, and declared themselves heads of the Mahometan world. Triumphant
+over Asia, they were turning upon Europe with renewed energy. Hungary
+was at its last expiring gasp. Selim's death in 1520 did not stop the
+invaders, for his son Solyman, a youth of twenty-five, soon proved
+himself a fourth giant, fitted to be ranked with the three young rulers
+of the West. He also was a seeker after glory. History calls him the
+"magnificent," and holds him greatest among the Turkish rulers. It was
+certainly under him that the Turks advanced farthest into Europe, if
+that is to be established as the chief measure of Mahometan greatness.
+In 1526 Solyman utterly crushed the Hungarians at Mohacs. In 1529 he
+besieged Vienna; and though he failed to capture the Hapsburg capital,
+yet at a still later period he exacted from the German Emperor
+Ferdinand a money tribute. His fleets swept the Mediterranean.
+
+This increasing menace of the Turks was much considered by the German
+electors. At first they refused to add to the power of either of the
+three monarchs who so assiduously courted them. They chose instead the
+ablest of their own number, Frederick the Wise, Duke of Saxony. But
+Frederick proved his wisdom by refusing the task of steering Germany
+through the troublous seas ahead. He insisted on their electing some
+ruler strong enough to command obedience, and to gather all Europe
+against the Turks. So as Charles was after all a German, and of the
+Hapsburg race which had so long ruled them, they named him Emperor. He
+was Charles I of Spain, but Charles V of Germany. His rule extended over
+a wider realm than any monarch has since held.
+
+This success of their younger rival was very differently received by
+Henry and by Francis. The English King accepted the rebuff
+good-naturedly; perhaps he had never felt any real hope of success. But
+Francis was enraged. It was the first check he had met in a career of
+spectacular success. He invited Henry to their celebrated meeting at the
+Field of the Cloth of Gold[2] to plan an alliance and revenge. Henry
+came, but the silent Charles had already managed to enlist his interests
+by quieter ways; while Francis, by his ostentation and splendor,
+offended the bluff Englishman. So Henry kept out of the quarrel; but to
+Charles and Francis it became the main business of their lives. Their
+reigns thereafter are the story of one long strife between them, rising
+to such bitterness that at one time they passed the lie and challenged
+each other to personal combat, over which there was much bustling and
+bluster, but no result.
+
+To get a full view of this Europe of young men, that beheld the
+Reformation, we must note one other ruler farther north. Ever since the
+union of Colmar in 1397, Sweden had been more or less bound to Denmark,
+the strongest of the northern kingdoms. By the year 1520 the Danish
+monarch Christian had reduced the Swedes to a state of most cruel
+vassalage and misery. Only one young noble, Gustavus Vasa, a lad of
+twenty-three, still held out, and by adventures wild as those of Robin
+Hood evaded his enemies and at last roused his countrymen to one more
+revolt. It was successful, and in 1523 Gustavus, by the unanimous
+election of the Swedes, became the first of a new line of monarchs.[3]
+He proved as able as a king as he had been daring as an adventurer, and
+his long reign laid the foundation of Sweden's greatness in the
+following century. He early accepted the reformed religion, and thus it
+spread through the Far North almost without a check.
+
+
+THE REFORMATION
+
+The Reformation began in Germany in 1517, when the Saxon monk
+Luther--himself then only thirty-four years a sojourner upon our
+planet--protested against the Church's sale of indulgences. He was not
+alone in his protest, but only stood forth as the mouthpiece of many
+earnest men. His prince, that Frederick the Wise who afterward refused
+to be emperor, upheld him. Maximilian, dying in the early days of the
+dispute, had kind words of regard for the hero-monk. Even the Pope, Leo
+X, treated the matter amicably at first. He also was still in early
+life, having been made pope at thirty-six, an age quite as juvenile for
+the leadership of the spiritual world as that of the various temporal
+monarchs for theirs. Leo, being a member of the famous Medici family,
+was apparently more interested in art than in religion. He wanted to
+rebuild the gorgeous cathedral of St. Peter, and he did not want to
+quarrel with Germany. So also Charles V, desiring to be emperor, could
+scarce antagonize Frederick of Saxony, who could and did secure him his
+ambition.
+
+Thus in its earliest days Luther's revolt was handled very gently, and
+it spread with speed. Then Charles, secure upon his throne and gravely
+Catholic, resolved on firmer methods of stamping out the heresy. He
+summoned Luther to that famous interview at Worms (1521), where the
+reformer, threatened with outlawry and all the terror of the empire's
+power, refused to unsay his preaching, crying out in agony: "Here I
+stand! I can no other! God help me! Amen!"
+
+Charles in his shrewd, silent way saw that the matter was not to be
+settled so easily as he had hoped. Already half Germany was on
+Luther's side. Several leading nobles accompanied him as he left the
+Emperor's presence. Charles wanted their help against the Turks. So
+there was more temporizing. Then came war with Francis no tune this for
+quarrelling with obstinate Teutonic princes and their obstinate
+_protege_.
+
+The peasants of Germany did Luther's cause more harm than Charles had
+done. These ignorant and bitterly oppressed unfortunates, constituting
+everywhere, remember, the vast majority of the human race, heard
+impassioned preachings of reform, revolt. To them Rome seemed not the
+oppressor, but their immediate lords; and, thinking they were obeying
+Luther's behest, they rose in arms. Some of the more violent reformers
+joined them. Luther preached against the uprising, but it was not to be
+checked. Terrible were the excesses of the mobs of brutal peasantry, and
+all the upper classes of the land were forced in self-defence to turn
+against them and crush them. Many a noble who had once thought well of
+the reform, abandoned it in fear and horror at its consequences.[4]
+
+Meanwhile the war with France became more serious. The claims of both
+Charles and Francis to Italian lands made that unlucky country the
+theatre of their battles. Francis, with his compact domain and readily
+gathered resources, proved at first more than a match for the scattered
+forces and insecure authority of the Emperor. Never had the French
+monarch's fame stood higher than when in 1525, with an army made
+confident by repeated victories, he besieged Pavia. The city was the
+last important stronghold of Charles in Italy; it was reduced almost to
+surrender.
+
+Then came a fatal blunder. Francis confused the old ways with the new.
+The German generals had been hopeless of raising the siege, the imperial
+armies were on the point of disbanding, but as a last resort their
+leaders advanced and defied the enemy to fight on equal terms. Instead
+of laughing at the proposal as any modern leader would, Francis, in face
+of the protest of all his generals, accepted and in true chivalrous
+fashion fought the wholly unnecessary battle of Pavia. His forces were
+completely defeated, he himself made prisoner. "All is lost," he wrote
+home to France, "but honor." Even that too was lost, had he but
+known. Charles, unchivalrous, determined to make the most of his
+good-luck, and, for the release of his royal prisoner, demanded such
+terms as would make France little more than a subject state.[5]
+
+King Francis refused, threatened heroic suicide to save his country; but
+he wearied of captivity at last and descended to his rival's level. It
+was the tragic turning-point of the French monarch's life, the not
+wholly untragic turning-point of larger destinies, ancient chivalry
+being admitted unsuccessful and wholly out of date. The two monarchs
+dickered over the terms of release. Charles abated somewhat of his
+demands, and Francis was made free, having sworn to a treaty which he
+never meant to keep. He repudiated it on various pleas, and having thus
+sacrificed honor to regain something of all it had lost him, recommenced
+the strife with Charles on more equal terms.
+
+The Pope, not the Leo of earlier years, but Clement VII, another Medici,
+absolved Francis from his treaty oath. This benevolence can scarce be
+ascribed to religious grounds, for Charles was assuredly a better
+Catholic than Francis. But as a temporal ruler Clement feared to have in
+Italy a neighbor so powerful and unchecked as the Emperor was becoming.
+Charles had his revenge. A German army of "Lutheran heretics" marched
+into Italy swearing to hang the Pope to the dome of St. Peter's. They
+stormed Rome, sacked it with such cruelty as rivalled the barbarian
+plunderings of over a thousand years before; and if they did not hang
+Clement, it was only because his castle of St. Angelo proved too strong
+for their assaults. The marvellous art treasures which had been slowly
+garnered in Rome since the days of Nicholas V, were almost wholly
+destroyed.[6] Charles hastened to disclaim responsibility for this
+direct assault upon the head of his Church; but he did not relinquish
+any of the advantages it gave. He and the Pope arranged an alliance and
+the Imperial army turned from Rome against Florence, where Pope
+Clement's family, the Medici, had recently been expelled as rulers. The
+siege and capture of Florence (1529) mark almost the last fluttering of
+real independence in Italy. From that time the country remained in the
+grasp of the Hapsburgs or their heirs and allies. Petty tyrants, minions
+of Austria or Spain, ruled over the various cities. Their intellectual
+supremacy passed over to France. Only within the last half-century has a
+brighter day redawned for Italy, has she ceased to be what she was so
+long called, "the battle-ground" of other nations.
+
+Meanwhile since neither Pope nor Emperor had found time to offer any
+vigorous opposition to the German Reformation, it had grown unchecked.
+In its inception it had unquestionably been a pure and noble movement:
+but as the "protesting" princes moved further in the matter, it dawned
+on them that the suppression of the Roman Church meant the suppression
+of all the bishoprics and abbeys, to which at least half the lands of
+the empire belonged. Such an opportunity for plunder, and such easy
+plunder, had never been before. Luther and the other preachers urged
+that the church property should be used to erect schools and support
+Protestant divines; but only a small fraction of it was ever surrendered
+by the princes for these purposes. The Reformation had ceased to be a
+purely religious movement.
+
+In no country was this new aspect of the revolt so marked as in England.
+There Henry VIII had grown ever more secure in his power by holding
+aloof from the jangling that weakened Charles and Francis. He had sunk
+into a tyrant and a voluptuary. Yet England herself, profiting by almost
+half a century of peace, was progressing rapidly in culture. She was no
+longer behind her neighbors. The Renaissance movement can scarce be said
+to have begun in England before 1500, yet by 1516 her famous chancellor,
+Sir Thomas More, was writing histories and philosophies. In 1522 the
+King himself sighed for literary fame and gave opportunity for many
+future satirists by writing a Latin book against the Lutherans. The Pope
+conferred upon his royal champion a title, "Defender of the Faith."
+
+As Henry, however, devoted himself more and more to pleasure, the real
+power in England passed into the hands of his great minister Cardinal
+Wolsey, who had risen from humble station to be for a time the most
+influential man in Europe.[7] He even aspired to be pope, with what
+seemed assured chances of success. But destiny willed otherwise. Henry
+chanced to fall in love with a lady who insisted on his marrying her. To
+do this he had to secure from the Pope a divorce from his former Queen,
+who chanced to be an aunt of the Emperor Charles. What was poor Pope
+Clement to do? Offend Charles who was just helping him crush the
+Florentines, or refuse his "Defender of the Faith"? Real reason for the
+divorce there was none. Clement temporized: and Wolsey with one eye on
+his own future, helped him.
+
+The result was tempestuous. Wolsey was hurried to his tragic downfall.
+Henry took matters in his own hands and had his own English bishops
+divorce him. England joined the ranks of the nations denying the
+authority of Rome. Sir Thomas More and other nobles who refused to
+follow Henry's bidding were beheaded. Thomas Cromwell, a new minister,
+abler perhaps than even Wolsey, and risen from a yet lower sphere of
+life, directed England's counsel. By one act after another the break
+with Rome was made complete. A thousand monasteries were suppressed and
+their wealth added to the crown. Cromwell earned his name, "the hammer
+of the monks." In 1534 was passed the final "Act of Supremacy,"
+declaring that the King of England and he alone was head of the English
+Church.[8]
+
+In France, too, was heresy beginning to appear. The young scholar, Jean
+Calvin, wrote so vigorously against Rome that he was driven to flee from
+Paris, though King Francis was himself suspected of favoring the free
+thought of the reformers. Calvin, after many vicissitudes, settled in
+Geneva and built up there a religious republic, that became intolerant
+on its own account, and burned heretics who departed from its heresy.
+But at least Geneva was in earnest. Calvinism spread fast over France;
+it began crowding Lutheranism from parts of Germany. Geneva became the
+"Protestant Rome," the centre of the opposition from which ministers
+went forth to preach the faith.[9]
+
+Science also began to raise its head against the ancient Church. The
+Polish astronomer Copernicus had long since conceived his idea that the
+earth was not the centre of the universe. He even pointed out the
+proofs of his theory to a few brother-scientists; but the Church taught
+otherwise, so Copernicus kept silent till, on his death-bed, he let his
+doctrines be published in a book. Then he passed away, bequeathing to
+posterity the wonderful foundation upon which modern science has so
+built as to make impossible many of the over-literal teachings of the
+mediaeval Church.[10]
+
+
+THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
+
+Nothing but a miracle, it seemed, could save the falling cause of Rome,
+and there have been men to assert that a miracle occurred. The order of
+the Jesuits was founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola.[11] His followers
+with intense fanaticism and self-abnegation devoted themselves
+absolutely to upholding the ancient faith, to trampling out heresy
+wherever it appeared. They sent out missionaries too, to the New World,
+to Asia, Africa, and even distant Japan. As Catholicism lost ground in
+Europe it extended over other continents.[12]
+
+Partly at least under Jesuit influence began the great
+"Counter-reformation," as it is called, the reform within the Church
+itself. Even the most faithful Catholics had admitted the need of this.
+Charles V had long urged the calling of a general council, and one
+finally assembled in 1545 at Trent. It even tried to win the Lutherans
+back peaceably into the fold, and, though this hope was soon abandoned,
+a very marked reform was established within the Church. This Council of
+Trent held sessions extending over nearly twenty years, and when its
+labors were completed the entire body of laws and doctrines of the Roman
+Catholic Church were fully established and defined.[13]
+
+The refusal of the Protestants to join the Council of Trent brought
+matters to a crisis. It placed them definitely outside the pale of the
+Church, and Charles V could no longer find excuse in his not
+over-troublous conscience, to avoid taking measures against them. They
+themselves realized this, and formed a league for mutual support, the
+Smalkald League; but it was never very harmonious. Thought, made
+suddenly free, could not be expected to run all in the same channel. The
+Protestants had divided into Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, and a
+dozen minor sects, some of which opposed one another more bitterly than
+they did the Catholics. Toleration was as yet a thing unknown.[14]
+
+The state of affairs was thus one peculiarly fitted for the genius of
+Charles, who managed so to divide the members of the league that only
+one of them, the Elector of Saxony, successor to Frederick the Wise, met
+the Emperor's forces in battle. He was easily overthrown. The league
+dissolved, and Charles, supported by his Spanish forces, was undisputed
+master of Germany. He used his power mildly, insisting indeed on the
+Protestants returning to the Church, but promising them many of the
+reforms they demanded.
+
+This was the moment of Charles' greatest power (1547). His ancient
+rivals Henry and Francis both died in this year, the one sunk in sensual
+sloth, the other in shame and gloom and savage cruelty. In his hatred of
+Charles, Francis had even in his latter years allied himself with
+Solyman the Magnificent, and encouraged the Turks in their assault on
+Germany. Henry's crown fell to a child, Edward VI; that of Francis, to
+his son, another Henry, the second of France, a young man apparently
+immersed in sports and pleasures. The Turks had been defeated by
+Charles' fleets in the Mediterranean. The Council of Trent, at first
+refractory, seemed yielding to his wishes. Spain, where at one time he
+had faced a violent revolt against his absolutism, was now wholly
+submissive. Germany seemed equally overcome. The Emperor was at the
+summit of his ambitions. Europe lay at his feet.
+
+In 1552, with the suddenness of an earthquake, the Protestant princes of
+Germany burst into a carefully planned revolt.[15] Maurice, another
+member of the Saxon house, was their leader. Charles, caught unprepared,
+had to flee from Germany, crossing the Alps in a litter, while he
+groaned with gout. Henry of France, in alliance with the rebels,
+proclaimed himself "Defender of the Liberties of Germany," and invading
+the land, began seizing what cities and strong places he could. The
+princes, amazed at their own complete success, sent Henry word that
+their liberties were now fully secured, and he might desist. But he
+concluded to keep what he had won. So began the series of aggressions by
+which France gradually advanced her frontier to the Rhine.
+
+Charles returned with an army the next year, and made peace with his
+Germans, that he might turn all his fury against Henry, who had thus
+assumed his father's unforgotten quarrel. A mighty German army laid
+siege to Henry's most valuable bit of spoils, the strong city of Metz.
+But the young French nobles, under Francis, Duke of Guise, a new, great
+general who had risen to the help of France, threw themselves gallantly
+into the fortress for its defence. Cold, hunger, and pestilence wasted
+the imperial troops until--one can scarce say they raised the siege,
+they disappeared, those who did not die had slunk away in fear before
+the grisly death. Charles accepted his fate with bitter calm, commenting
+that he saw Fortune was indeed a woman, she deserted an aged emperor for
+a young king.
+
+The Emperor's life had failed. He had not the heart to begin his plots
+again. In 1555 he consented to the Peace of Augsburg,[16] which granted
+complete liberty of faith to the German princes, and so ended the first
+period of the Reformation. Religion, in this celebrated treaty, was
+still regarded as a matter in which only monarchs were to be considered.
+By a peculiar obliquity of vision, the princes denied to their subjects
+the very thing they demanded for themselves. Each ruler was allowed to
+establish what creed he chose within his own domains, and then to compel
+his subjects to accept it.
+
+The following year (1556) Charles with solemn ceremony resigned all his
+kingdoms--Austria and the Empire to his brother, Spain to his son the
+celebrated Philip II. Charles himself retired to a Spanish monastery,
+where two years later he died. He had found life a vanity, indeed.
+
+
+THE OTHER CONTINENTS
+
+Of the world of Asia during this time it scarce seems necessary to
+speak. The Tartars or Mongols, driven back from the borders of the
+Turkish empire, invaded India and there founded the Mongol or Mogul
+empire which Akbar pushed to its greatest extent.[17] These Moguls
+remained emperors of India until its conquest by the English, over two
+centuries later. Even to our own days their title has come down as a
+symbol of power, "the Great Mogul."
+
+Portuguese adventurers continued and expanded the trade with Asia, which
+Vasco da Gama had opened. The Spaniards also sought a share in it, and
+Jesuit missionaries preached the Christian faith. Magellan, a Portuguese
+but sailing in the service of Spain, was the first to fulfil the vision
+of Columbus and find the Indies by sailing westward.[18] He crossed the
+entire Atlantic and Pacific oceans, discovered the Philippine Islands,
+and was slain there by the natives. One of his ships completed the first
+circumnavigation of the globe.
+
+Look also to Spain's achievements in America, a new continent, but one
+already vastly important because of the broad empires Spaniards were
+winning there, the enormous wealth that was beginning to pour into the
+mother-country. Settlement had begun immediately on the discovery. Rich
+mines were opened and the Indians forced to work in them as slaves. As
+the unhappy aborigines perished by thousands under the unaccustomed
+toil, negroes were brought from Africa to supply their places, were
+driven like wild beasts to the labor.[19] The New World became more like
+a hell than like the paradise for which Isabella and Columbus planned.
+Cortes conquered Mexico,[20] rich with gold beyond all that Europe had
+even dreamed. Pizarro found in Peru[21] a civilization whose remarkable
+advance we are only lately beginning to realize. And he annihilated
+it--for gold. Lima was founded, and Buenos Aires, to be twice destroyed
+by Indians and yet become the metropolis of South America.[22] Even here
+extended the rivalry of the great European monarchs, Charles and
+Francis. Cartier, in the service of the latter, refused to acknowledge
+the claims of Spain to America, and exploring the St. Lawrence planned
+for France a colonial empire to match that of her enemy.[23] De Leon
+discovered Florida, and died while seeking there to emulate the
+successes of Cortes. De Soto discovered the Mississippi[24] and he also
+perished, lured on in the same knight-errant search for another golden
+empire to conquer. Who, having read the lives of such adventurers as
+these, shall ridicule the wildest extravagance in all the romances of
+chivalry? Wonderland grew real around these men. They achieved
+impossibilities. The maddest imaginings of the poets, the most fantastic
+tales of knightly wanderings and successes, seem slight beside the
+exploits of these daring, dauntless, heartless cavaliers of Spain.
+
+
+[FOR THE NEXT SECTION OF THIS GENERAL SURVEY SEE VOLUME X]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See _Luther Begins the Reformation in Germany_, page 1.
+
+[2] See _The Field of the Cloth of Gold_, page 59.
+
+[3] See _Liberation of Sweden_, page 79.
+
+[4] See The Peasants' War in Germany, page 93.
+
+[5] See _France Loses Italy_, page 111.
+
+[6] See _Sack of Rome by the Imperial Troops_, page 124.
+
+[7] See _Great Religious Movement in England_, page 137.
+
+[8] See _England Breaks with the Roman Church_, page 203.
+
+[9] See _Calvin is Driven from Paris_, page 176.
+
+[10] See _Revolution of Astronomy by Copernicus_, page 285.
+
+[11] See _Founding of the Jesuits_, page 261.
+
+[12] See _Introduction of Christianity into Japan_, page 325.
+
+[13] See _Council of Trent_, page 293.
+
+[14] See _Protestant Struggle against Charles V_, page 313.
+
+[15] See _Collapse of the Power of Charles V_, page 337.
+
+[16] See _The Religious Peace of Augsburg_, page 348.
+
+[17] See _Akbar Establishes the Mogul Empire in India_, page 366.
+
+[18] See _First Circumnavigation of the Globe_, page 41.
+
+[19] See _Negro Slavery in America_, page 36.
+
+[20] See _Cortes Captures the City of Mexico_, page 72.
+
+[21] See _Pizarro Conquers Peru_, page 156.
+
+[22] See _Mendoza Settles Buenos Aires_, page 254.
+
+[23] See _Cartier Explores Canada_, page 236.
+
+[24] See _De Soto Discovers the Mississippi_, page 277.
+
+
+
+
+LUTHER BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY
+
+A.D. 1517
+
+JULIUS KOESTLIN    JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+     It has seldom happened that the story of one man was
+     essentially the history of a great movement and of an epoch
+     in human progress. In the case of Luther, a large part of
+     the world regards his name as a historic epitome. The monk
+     whose "words were half-battles," and whom Carlyle chose for
+     his hero-priest, was chief among the reformers, and in the
+     general view stands for the Reformation itself.
+
+     But recognition of Luther's dominating position and
+     representative character should not leave us blind to other
+     factors in the religious revolution which was also an
+     evolution, the achievement not of one man, but of advancing
+     generations with many leaders. Luther had great helpers in
+     his own time and great successors. He also had great
+     predecessors. The Reformation was the religious development
+     of the Renaissance; it had been heralded by Wycliffe, Huss,
+     and Savonarola, and there were many minor prophets of a
+     reformed church before the great German was born.
+
+     Luther's Reformation was a revolt against the power and
+     abuses of the Roman Catholic Church. It was directed against
+     certain doctrines as well as certain practices, and
+     especially against evils in the spiritual and temporal
+     government of the Church.
+
+     All the reformers aimed at freeing themselves from
+     oppressive rule at Rome, and endeavored to establish a purer
+     faith. The appeal to private judgment as against
+     unquestioning belief was a natural result of the revival of
+     learning as well as of spiritual quickening.
+
+     Before Luther's time, however, such revolts against church
+     authority had been quickly suppressed. It is also true that
+     many abuses had been done away by reformation within the
+     Church itself; and that, indeed, was what Luther at first
+     intended. His movement became "too powerful to be put down,
+     and its leaders soon passed beyond the point at which they
+     were willing to reform the Church from within. Finding that
+     the Church would not respond as quickly and as fully to
+     their demands as they wished, they left the Church and
+     attacked it from without." In Germany the administration of
+     the Church had long caused discontent. Through Martin Luther
+     this feeling found powerful utterance, and in him the demand
+     for reforms became irresistibly urgent.
+
+     Luther, the son of a poor miner, was born at Eisleben,
+     Saxony, November 10, 1483. He became an Augustinian monk,
+     in 1507 was consecrated a priest, and the next year was made
+     professor of philosophy in the University of Wittenberg. In
+     1511 he visited Rome, and on his return to Wittenberg was
+     made doctor of theology. He had already become known through
+     the power and independence of his preaching. Although he
+     went to Rome "an insane papist," as he said, and while he
+     was still intensely devoted to the Church and its leaders,
+     he made known his belief in what became the fundamental
+     doctrines of Protestantism, exclusive authority of the
+     Bible--implying the right of private judgment--and
+     justification by faith.
+
+     The immediate occasion of Luther's first great protest was
+     the sale of indulgences by the Dominican monk John Tetzel.
+     From early times the church authorities had granted
+     indulgences or remissions of penances imposed on persons
+     guilty of mortal sins, the condition being true penitence.
+     At length the Church began to accept money, not in lieu of
+     penitence, but of the customary penances which usually
+     accompanied it. Before 1517 Luther had given warnings
+     against the abuse of indulgences, without blaming the
+     administration of the Church. But when in that year Tetzel
+     approached the borders of Saxony selling indulgences in the
+     name of the Pope, Leo X, who wanted money for the building
+     of St. Peter's Church in Rome, Luther, with many of the
+     better minds of Germany, was greatly offended by the
+     vender's methods. Against the course of Tetzel Luther took a
+     firm stand, and when the reformer posted his theses
+     (summarized by Koestlin) on the church door at Wittenberg
+     the first great movement of the Reformation in the sixteenth
+     century was inaugurated.
+
+     In accordance with the impartial plan of the present work
+     regarding the treatment of controverted matters, it is here
+     sought to satisfy the historic sense, which includes the
+     sense of justice, by giving a presentation of each view of
+     the story--the Protestant by Koestlin, the Catholic by Jean
+     M. V. Audin, whose _Life of Luther_ has been called the
+     "tribunal" before which the great reformer must be summoned
+     for his answer.
+
+
+JULIUS KOESTLIN
+
+Luther longed now to make known to theologians and ecclesiastics
+generally his thoughts about indulgences, his own principles, his own
+opinions and doubts, to excite public discussion on the subject, and to
+awake and maintain the fray. This he did by the ninety-five Latin theses
+or propositions which he posted on the doors of the Castle Church at
+Wittenberg on October 31, 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day and of the
+anniversary of the consecration of the church.
+
+These theses were intended as a challenge for disputation. Such public
+disputations were then very common at the universities and among
+theologians, and they were meant to serve as means not only of
+exercising learned thought, but of elucidating the truth. Luther headed
+his theses as follows:
+
+"_Disputation to Explain the Virtue of Indulgences._--In charity, and in
+the endeavor to bring the truth to light, a disputation on the following
+propositions will be held at Wittenberg, presided over by the Reverend
+Father Martin Luther. Those who are unable to attend personally may
+discuss the question with us by letter. In the name of our Lord Jesus
+Christ. Amen."
+
+It was in accordance with the general custom of that time that, on the
+occasion of a high festival, particular acts and announcements, and
+likewise disputations at a university, were arranged, and the doors of a
+collegiate church were used for posting such notices.
+
+The contents of these theses show that their author really had such a
+disputation in view. He was resolved to defend with all his might
+certain fundamental truths to which he firmly adhered. Some points he
+considered still within the region of dispute; it was his wish and
+object to make these clear to himself by arguing about them with others.
+
+Recognizing the connection between the system of indulgences and the
+view of penance entertained by the Church, he starts with considering
+the nature of true Christian repentance; but he would have this
+understood in the sense and spirit taught by Christ and the Scriptures.
+He begins with the thesis: "Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when he
+says repent, desires that the whole life of the believer should be one
+of repentance." He means, as the subsequent theses express it, that true
+inward repentance, that sorrow for sin and hatred of one's own sinful
+self, from which must proceed good works and mortification of the sinful
+flesh. The pope could only remit his sin to the penitent so far as to
+declare that God had forgiven it.
+
+Thus then the theses expressly declare that God forgives no man his sin
+without making him submit himself in humility to the priest who
+represents him, and that he recognizes the punishments enjoined by the
+Church in her outward sacrament of penance. But Luther's leading
+principles are consistently opposed to the customary announcements of
+indulgences by the Church. The pope, he holds, can only grant
+indulgences for what the pope and the law of the Church have imposed;
+nay, the pope himself means absolution from these obligations only, when
+he promises absolution from all punishment. And it is only the living
+against whom those punishments are directed which the Church's
+discipline of penance enjoins; nothing, according to her own laws, can
+be imposed upon those in another world.
+
+Further on Luther declares: "When true repentance is awakened in a man,
+full absolution from punishment and sin comes to him without any letters
+of indulgence." At the same time he says that such a man would willingly
+undergo self-imposed chastisement, nay, he would even seek and love it.
+
+Still, it is not the indulgences themselves, if understood in the right
+sense, that he wishes to be attacked, but the loose babble of those who
+sold them. Blessed, he says, be he who protests against this, but cursed
+be he who speaks against the truth of apostolic indulgences. He finds it
+difficult, however, to praise these to the people, and at the same time
+to teach them the true repentance of the heart. He would have them even
+taught that a Christian would do better by giving money to the poor than
+by spending it in buying indulgences, and that he who allows a poor man
+near him to starve draws down on himself, not indulgences, but the wrath
+of God. In sharp and scornful language he denounces the iniquitous
+trader in indulgences, and gives the Pope credit for the same abhorrence
+for the traffic that he felt himself. Christians must be told, he says,
+that, if the Pope only knew of it, he would rather see St. Peter's
+Church in ashes than have it built with the flesh and bones of his
+sheep.
+
+Agreeably with what the preceding theses had said about the true
+penitent's earnestness and willingness to suffer, and the temptation
+offered to a mere carnal sense of security, Luther concludes as follows:
+"Away therefore with all those prophets who say to Christ's people
+'Peace, peace!' when there is no peace, but welcome to all those who bid
+them seek the Cross of Christ, not the cross which bears the papal arms.
+Christians must be admonished to follow Christ their Master through
+torture, death, and hell, and thus through much tribulation, rather
+than, by a carnal feeling of false security, hope to enter the kingdom
+of heaven."
+
+The Catholics objected to this doctrine of salvation advanced by Luther
+that, by trusting to God's free mercy, and by undervaluing good works,
+it led to moral indolence. But, on the contrary, it was to the very
+unbending moral earnestness of a Christian conscience, which, indignant
+at the temptations offered to moral frivolity, to a deceitful feeling of
+ease in respect to sin and guilt, and to a contempt of the fruits of
+true morality, rebelled against the false value attached to this
+indulgence money, that these theses, the germ, so to speak, of the
+Reformation, owed their origin and prosecution. With the same
+earnestness he now for the first time publicly attacked the
+ecclesiastical power of the papacy, in so far namely as, in his
+conviction, it invaded the territory reserved to himself by the heavenly
+Lord and Judge. This was what the Pope and his theologians and
+ecclesiastics could least of all endure.
+
+On the same day that these theses were published, Luther sent a copy of
+them with a letter to the archbishop Albert, his "revered and gracious
+lord and shepherd in Christ." After a humble introduction, he begged him
+most earnestly to prevent the scandalizing and iniquitous harangues with
+which his agents hawked about their indulgences, and reminded him that
+he would have to give an account of the souls intrusted to his episcopal
+care.
+
+The next day he addressed himself to the people from the pulpit in a
+sermon he had to preach on the festival of All Saints. After exhorting
+them to seek their salvation in God and Christ alone, and to let the
+consecration by the Church become a real consecration of the heart, he
+went on to tell them plainly, with regard to indulgences, that he could
+only absolve from duties imposed by the Church, and that they dare not
+rely on him for more, nor delay on his account the duties of true
+repentance.
+
+Theologians before Luther, and with far more acuteness and penetration
+than he showed in his theses, had already assailed the whole system of
+indulgences. And, in regard to any idea on Luther's part of the effects
+of his theses extending widely in Germany, it may be noticed that not
+only were they composed in Latin, but that they dealt largely with
+scholastic expressions and ideas, which a layman would find it difficult
+to understand.
+
+Nevertheless the theses created a sensation which far surpassed Luther's
+expectations. In fourteen days, as he tells us, they ran through the
+whole of Germany, and were immediately translated and circulated in
+German. They found, indeed, the soil already prepared for them, through
+the indignation long since and generally aroused by the shameless doings
+they attacked; though till then nobody, as Luther expresses it, had
+liked to bell the cat, nobody had dared to expose himself to the
+blasphemous clamor of the indulgence-mongers and the monks who were in
+league with them, still less to the threatened charge of heresy. On the
+other hand, the very impunity with which this traffic in indulgences had
+been maintained throughout German Christendom had served to increase
+from day to day the audacity of its promoters.
+
+The task that Luther had now undertaken lay heavy upon his soul. He was
+sincerely anxious, while fighting for the truth, to remain at peace with
+his Church, and to serve her by the struggle. Pope Leo, on the contrary,
+as was consistent with his whole character, treated the matter at first
+very lightly, and, when it threatened to become dangerous, thought only
+how, by means of his papal power, to make the restless German monk
+harmless.
+
+Two expressions of his in these early days of the contest are recorded.
+"Brother Martin," he said, "is a man of a very fine genius, and this
+outbreak the mere squabble of envious monks;" and again, "It is a
+drunken German who has written the theses; he will think differently
+about them when sober." Three months after the theses had appeared, he
+ordered the vicar-general of the Augustinians to "quiet down the man,"
+hoping still to extinguish easily the flame. The next step was to
+institute a tribunal for heretics at Rome for Luther's trial; what its
+judgment would be was patent from the fact that the single theologian of
+learning among the judges was Sylvester Prierias. Before this tribunal
+Luther was cited on August 7th; within sixty days he was to appear there
+at Rome. Friend and foe could well feel certain that they would look in
+vain for his return.
+
+Papal influence, meanwhile, had been brought to bear on the elector
+Frederick[25] to induce him not to take the part of Luther, and the
+chief agent chosen for working on the Elector and the emperor Maximilian
+was the papal legate, Cardinal Thomas Vio of Gaeta, called Cajetan, who
+had made his appearance in Germany. The University of Wittenberg, on the
+other hand, interposed on behalf of their member, whose theology was
+popular there, and whose biblical lectures attracted crowds of
+enthusiastic hearers. He had just been joined at Wittenberg by his
+fellow-professor Philip Melanchthon, then only twenty-one years old, but
+already in the first rank of Greek scholars, and the bond of friendship
+was now formed which lasted through their lives. The university claimed
+that Luther should at least be tried in Germany. Luther expressed the
+same wish through Spalatin[26] to his sovereign.
+
+The Pope meanwhile had passed from his previous state of haughty
+complacency to one of violent haste. Already, on August 23d, thus long
+before the sixty days had expired, he demanded the Elector to deliver up
+this "child of the devil," who boasted of his protection, to the legate,
+to bring away with him. This is clearly shown by two private briefs from
+the Pope, of August 23d and 25th, the one addressed to the legate, the
+other to the head of all the Augustinian convents in Saxony, as
+distinguished from the vicar of those congregations, Staupitz, who
+already was looked on with suspicion at Rome. These briefs instructed
+both men to hasten the arrest of the heretic; his adherents were to be
+secured with him, and every place where he was tolerated laid under the
+interdict.
+
+In the summer of 1518 a diet was held at Augsburg at which the papal
+legate attended. The Pope was anxious to obtain its consent to the
+imposition of a heavy tax throughout the empire, to be applied
+ostensibly for the war against the Turks, but alleged to be wanted in
+reality for entirely other objects. The demand for a tax, however, was
+received with the utmost disfavor both by the diet and the empire; and a
+long-cherished bitterness of feeling now found expression. An anonymous
+pamphlet was circulated, from the pen of one Fischer, a prebendary of
+Wuerzburg, which bluntly declared that the avaricious lords of Rome only
+wished to cheat the "drunken Germans," and that the real Turks were to
+be looked for in Italy. This pamphlet reached Wittenberg and fell into
+the hands of Luther, whom now for the first time we hear denouncing
+"Roman cunning," though he only charged the Pope himself with allowing
+his grasping Florentine relations to deceive him.
+
+The diet seized the opportunity offered by this demand for a tax, to
+bring up a whole list of old grievances; the large sums drawn from
+German benefices by the Pope under the name of annates, or extorted
+under other pretexts; the illegal usurpation of ecclesiastical patronage
+in Germany; the constant infringement of concordats, and so on. The
+demand itself was refused; and in addition to this, an address was
+presented to the diet from the bishop and clergy of Liege, inveighing
+against the lying, thieving, avaricious conduct of the Romish minions,
+in such sharp and violent tones that Luther, on reading it afterward
+when printed, thought it only a hoax, and not really an episcopal
+remonstrance.
+
+This was reason enough why Cajetan, to avoid increasing the excitement,
+should not attempt to lay hands on the Wittenberg opponent of
+indulgences. The elector Frederick, from whose hands Cajetan would have
+to demand Luther, was one of the most powerful and personally respected
+princes of the empire, and his influence was especially important in
+view of the election of a new emperor. This Prince went now in person to
+Cajetan on Luther's behalf, and Cajetan promised him, at the very time
+that the brief was on its way to him from Rome, that he would hear
+Luther at Augsburg, treat him with fatherly kindness, and let him depart
+in safety.
+
+Luther accordingly was sent to Augsburg. It was an anxious time for
+himself and his friends when he had to leave for that distant place,
+where the Elector, with all his care, could not employ any physical
+means for his protection, and to stand accused as a heretic before that
+papal legate who, from his own theological principles, was bound to
+condemn him. "My thoughts on the way," said Luther afterward, "were now
+I must die; and I often lamented the disgrace I should be to my dear
+parents."
+
+He went thither in humble garb and manner. He made his way on foot till
+within a short distance of Augsburg, when illness and weakness overcame
+him, and he was forced to proceed by carriage. Another younger monk of
+Wittenberg accompanied him, his pupil Leonard Baier. At Nuremberg he was
+joined by his friend Link, who held an appointment there as preacher.
+From him he borrowed a monk's frock, his own being too bad for Augsburg.
+He arrived here on October 7th.
+
+The surroundings he now entered, and the proceedings impending over him,
+were wholly novel and unaccustomed. But he met with men who received him
+with kindness and consideration; several of them were gentlemen of
+Augsburg favorable to him, especially the respected patrician, Dr.
+Conrad Peutinger, and two counsellors of the Elector. They advised him
+to behave with prudence, and to observe carefully all the necessary
+forms to which as yet he was a stranger.
+
+Luther at once announced his arrival to Cajetan, who was anxious to
+receive him without delay. His friends, however, kept him back until
+they had obtained a written safe-conduct from the Emperor, who was then
+hunting in the environs. In the mean time a distinguished friend of
+Cajetan, one Urbanus of Serralonga, tried to persuade him, in a flippant
+and, as Luther thought, a downright Italian manner, to come forward and
+simply pronounce six letters--"_Revoco_" ("I retract"). Urbanus asked
+him with a smile if he thought his sovereign would risk his country for
+his sake. "God forbid!" answered Luther. "Where then do you mean to take
+refuge?" he went on to ask him. "Under heaven," was Luther's reply.
+
+On October 11th Luther received the letter of safe-conduct, and the next
+day he appeared before Cajetan. Humbly, as he had been advised, he
+prostrated himself before the representative of the Pope, who received
+him graciously and bade him rise.
+
+The Cardinal addressed him civilly and with a courtesy Luther was not
+accustomed to meet with from his opponents; but he immediately demanded
+him, in the name and by command of the Pope, to retract his errors, and
+promise in future to abstain from them and from everything that might
+disturb the peace of the Church. He pointed out, in particular, two
+errors in his theses; namely, that the Church's treasure of indulgences
+did not consist of the merits of Christ, and that faith on the part of
+the recipient was necessary for the efficacy of the sacrament. With
+respect to the second point, the religious principles upon which Luther
+based his doctrine were altogether strange and unintelligible to the
+scholastic standpoint of Cajetan; mere tittering and laughter followed
+Luther's observations, and he was required to retract this thesis
+unconditionally. The first point settled the question of papal
+authority. The Cardinal-legate could not believe that Luther would
+venture to resist a papal bull, and thought he had probably not read it.
+He read him a vigorous lecture of his own on the paramount authority of
+the pope over council, Church, and Scripture. As to any argument,
+however, about the theses to be retracted, Cajetan refused from the
+first to engage in it, and undoubtedly he went further in that direction
+than he originally desired or intended. His sole wish was, as he said,
+to give fatherly correction, and with fatherly friendliness to arrange
+the matter. But in reality, says Luther, it was a blunt, naked,
+unyielding display of power. Luther could only beg from him further time
+for consideration.
+
+Luther's friends at Augsburg, and Staupitz, who had just arrived there,
+now attempted to divert the course of these proceedings, to collect
+other decisions of importance bearing on the subject, and to give him
+the opportunity of a public vindication. Accompanied therefore by
+several jurists friendly to his cause, and by a notary and Staupitz, he
+laid before the legate next day a short and formal statement of defence.
+He could not retract unless convicted of error, and to all that he had
+said he must hold as being Catholic truth. Nevertheless he was only
+human, and therefore fallible, and he was willing to submit to a
+legitimate decision of the Church. He offered, at the same time,
+publicly to justify his theses, and he was ready to hear the judgment of
+the learned doctors of Basel, Freiburg, Louvain, and even Paris upon
+them. Cajetan with a smile dismissed Luther and his proposals, but
+consented to receive a more detailed reply in writing to the principal
+points discussed the previous day.
+
+On the morrow, October 14th, Luther brought his reply to the legate. But
+in this document also he insisted clearly and resolutely from the
+commencement on those very principles which his opponents regarded as
+destructive of all ecclesiastical authority and of the foundations of
+Christian belief. Still he entreated Cajetan to intercede with Leo X,
+that the latter might not harshly thrust out into darkness his soul,
+which was seeking for the light. But he repeated that he could do
+nothing against his conscience: one must obey God rather than man, and
+he had the fullest confidence that he had Scripture on his side.
+Cajetan, to whom he delivered this reply in person, once more tried to
+persuade him. They fell into a lively and vehement argument; but Cajetan
+cut it short with the exclamation, "Revoke." In the event of Luther not
+revoking or submitting to judgment at Rome, he threatened him and all
+his friends with excommunication, and whatever place he might go to with
+an interdict; he had a mandate from the Pope to that effect already in
+his hands. He then dismissed him with the words, "Revoke, or do not come
+again into my presence." Nevertheless he spoke in quite a friendly
+manner after this to Staupitz, urging him to try his best to convert
+Luther, whom he wished well. Luther, however, wrote the same day to his
+friend Spalatin, who was with the Elector, and to his friends at
+Wittenberg, telling them he had refused to yield. Luther added further
+that an appeal would be drawn up for him in the form best fitted to the
+occasion. He further hinted to his Wittenberg friends at the possibility
+of his having to go elsewhere in exile; indeed, his friends already
+thought of taking him to Paris, where the university still rejected the
+doctrine of papal absolutism. He concluded this letter by saying that he
+refused to become a heretic by denying that which had made him a
+Christian; sooner than do that, he would be burned, exiled, or cursed.
+The appeal, of which Luther here spoke, was "from the Pope ill-informed
+to the same when better informed." On October 16th he submitted it,
+formally prepared, to a public notary.
+
+Luther even addressed, on October 17th, a letter to Cajetan, conceding
+to him the utmost he thought possible. Moved, as he said, by the
+persuasions of his dear father Staupitz and his brother Link, he offered
+to let the whole question of indulgences rest, if only that which drove
+him to this tragedy were put a stop to; he confessed also to having been
+too violent and disrespectful in dispute. In after-years he said to his
+friends, when referring to this concession, that God had never allowed
+him to sink deeper than when he had yielded so much. The next day,
+however, he gave notice of his appeal to the legate, and told him he did
+not wish longer to waste his time in Augsburg. To this letter he
+received no answer.
+
+Luther waited, however, till the 20th. He and his Augsburg patrons began
+to suspect whether measures had not already been taken to detain him.
+They therefore had a small gate in the city wall opened in the night,
+and sent with him an escort well acquainted with the road. Thus he
+hastened away, as he himself described it, on a hard-trotting hack, in a
+simple monk's frock, with only knee-breeches, without boots or spurs,
+and unarmed. On the first day he rode eight miles, as far as the little
+town of Monheim. As he entered in the evening an inn and dismounted in
+the stable, he was unable to stand from fatigue and fell down instantly
+among the straw. He travelled thus on horseback to Wittenberg, where he
+arrived, well and joyful, on the anniversary of his ninety-five theses.
+He had heard on the way of the Pope's brief to Cajetan, but he refused
+to think it could be genuine. His appeal, meanwhile, was delivered to
+the Cardinal at Augsburg, who had it posted by his notary on the doors
+of the cathedral.
+
+Without waiting for an answer direct from Rome, Luther now abandoned all
+thoughts of success with Leo X. On November 28th he formally and
+solemnly appealed from the Pope to a general Christian council. By so
+doing he anticipated the sentence of excommunication which he was daily
+expecting. With Rome he had broken forever, unless she were to surrender
+her claims and acquisitions of more than a thousand years.
+
+After once the first restraints of awe were removed with which Luther
+had regarded the papacy, behind and beyond the matter of the
+indulgences, and he had learned to know the papal representative at
+Augsburg, and made a stand against his demands and menaces, and escaped
+from his dangerous clutches, he enjoyed for the first time the fearless
+consciousness of freedom. He took a wider survey around him, and saw
+plainly the deep corruption and ungodliness of the powers arrayed
+against him. His mind was impelled forward with more energy as his
+spirit for the fight was stirred within him. Even the prospect that he
+might have to fly, and the uncertainty whither his flight could be, did
+not daunt or deter him.
+
+He was really prepared for exile or flight at any moment. At Wittenberg
+his friends were alarmed by rumors of designs on the part of the Pope
+against his life and liberty, and insisted on his being placed in
+safety. Flight to France was continually talked of; had he not followed
+in his appeal a precedent set by the University of Paris? We certainly
+cannot see how he could safely have been conveyed thither, or where,
+indeed, any other and safer place could have been found for him. Some
+urged that the Elector himself should take him into custody and keep him
+in a place of safety, and then write to the legate that he held him
+securely in confinement and was in future responsible for him. Luther
+proposed this to Spalatin, and added: "I leave the decision of this
+matter to your discretion; I am in the hands of God and of my friends."
+The Elector himself, anxious also in this respect, arranged early in
+December a confidential interview between Luther and Spalatin at the
+castle of Lichtenberg. He also, as Luther reported to Staupitz, wished
+that Luther had some other place to be in, but he advised him against
+going away so hastily to France. His own wish and counsel, however, he
+refrained as yet from making known. Luther declared that at all events,
+if a ban of excommunication were to come from Rome, he would not remain
+longer at Wittenberg. On this point also the Prince kept secret his
+resolve.
+
+At Rome the bull of excommunication was published as early as June 16th.
+It had been considered very carefully in the papal consistory. The
+jurists there were of opinion that Luther should be cited once more, but
+their views did not prevail. The bull begins with the words, "Arise, O
+Lord, and avenge thy cause." It proceeds to invoke St. Peter, St. Paul,
+the whole body of the saints, and the Church. A wild boar had broken
+into the vineyard of the Lord, a wild beast was there seeking to devour,
+etc. Of the heresy against which it was directed, the Pope, as he
+states, had additional reason to complain, since the Germans, among whom
+it had broken out, had always been regarded by him with such tender
+affection: he gives them to understand that they owed the empire to the
+Roman Church. Forty-one propositions from Luther's writings are then
+rejected and condemned as heretical, or at least scandalous and
+corrupting, and his works collectively are sentenced to be burned. As to
+Luther himself, the Pope calls God to witness that he has neglected no
+means of fatherly love to bring him into the right way. Even now he is
+ready to follow toward him the example of divine mercy which wills not
+the death of a sinner, but that he should be converted and live; and so
+once more he calls upon him to repent, in which case he will receive him
+graciously like the prodigal son. Sixty days are given him to recant.
+But if he and his adherents will not repent, they are to be regarded as
+obstinate heretics and withered branches of the vine of Christ, and must
+be punished according to law. No doubt the punishment of burning was
+meant; the bull in fact expressly condemns the proposition of Luther
+which denounces the burning of heretics. All this was called then at
+Rome, and has been called even latterly by the papal party, "the tone
+rather of fatherly sorrow than of penal severity."
+
+The emperor Charles V, before leaving the Netherlands on his journey to
+Aix-la-Chapelle to be crowned (1520),[27] had already been induced to
+take his first step against Luther. He had consented to the execution of
+the sentence in the bull condemning Luther's works to be burned, and had
+issued orders to that effect throughout the Netherlands. They were
+burned in public at Louvain, Cologne, and Mainz. At Cologne this was
+done while he was staying there. It was in this town that the two
+legates approached the elector Frederick with the demand to have the
+same done in his territory, and to execute due punishment on the heretic
+himself, or at least to keep him close prisoner or to deliver him over
+to the Pope. Frederick, however, refused, saying that Luther must first
+be heard by impartial judges. Erasmus also, who was then staying at
+Cologne, expressed himself to the same effect, in an opinion obtained
+from him by Frederick through Spalatin. At an interview with the
+Elector he said to him: "Luther has committed two great faults: he has
+touched the Pope on his crown and the monks on their bellies." The
+burning of Luther's books at Mainz was effected without hinderance, and
+the legates in triumph proceeded to carry out their mission elsewhere.
+
+Luther, however, lost no time in following up their execution of the
+bull with his reply. On December 10th he posted a public announcement
+that the next morning, at nine o'clock, the anti-Christian decretals,
+that is, the papal law-books, would be burned, and he invited all the
+Wittenberg students to attend. He chose for this purpose a spot in front
+of the Elster gate, to the east of the town, near the Augustinian
+convent. A multitude poured forth to the scene. With Luther appeared a
+number of other doctors and masters, and among them Melanchthon and
+Carlstadt. After one of the masters of art had built up a pile, Luther
+laid the decretals upon it, and the former applied the fire. Luther then
+threw the papal bull into the flames, with the words, "Because thou hast
+vexed the Holy One of the Lord,[28] let the everlasting fire consume
+thee." While Luther with the other teachers returned to the town, some
+hundreds of students remained upon the scene and sang a _Te Deum_, and a
+Dirge for the decretals. After the ten o'clock meal, some of the young
+students, grotesquely attired, drove through the town in a large
+carriage, with a banner, emblazoned with a bull, four yards in length,
+amid the blowing of brass trumpets and other absurdities. They collected
+from all quarters a mass of scholastic and papal writings, and hastened
+with them and the bull to the pile, which their companions had meanwhile
+kept alight. Another _Te Deum_ was then sung, with a requiem, and the
+hymn, "_O du armer Judas_."
+
+Luther at his lecture the next day told his hearers with great
+earnestness and emotion what he had done. The papal chair, he said,
+would yet have to be burned. Unless with all their hearts they abjured
+the kingdom of the pope, they could not obtain salvation.
+
+By this bold act, Luther consummated his final rupture with the papal
+system, which for centuries had dominated the Christian world and had
+identified itself with Christianity. The news of it must also have made
+the fire which his words had kindled throughout Germany blaze out in all
+its violence. He saw now, as he wrote to Staupitz, a storm raging, such
+as only the last day could allay, so fiercely were passions aroused on
+both sides. Germany was then, in fact, in a state of excitement and
+tension more critical than at any other period of her history.
+
+The announcement of the retractation required from Luther by the bull
+was to have been sent to Rome within one hundred twenty days. Luther had
+given his answer. The Pope declared that the time of grace had expired;
+and on January 3d Leo X finally pronounced the ban against Luther and
+his followers, and an interdict on the places where they were harbored.
+
+Never did the most momentous issue in the fortunes of the German nation
+and church rest so entirely with one man as they did now with the
+Emperor. Everything depended on this whether he, as head of the empire,
+should take the great work in hand, or should fling his authority and
+might into the opposite scale. Charles had been welcomed in Germany as
+one whose youthful heart seemed likely to respond to the newly awakened
+life and aspirations, as the son of an old German princely family, who
+by his election as emperor had won a triumph over the foreign king
+Francis, supported though the latter was by the Pope. Rumor now alleged
+that he was in the hands of the Mendicant friars; the Franciscan Glapio
+was his confessor and influential adviser, the very man who had
+instigated the burning of Luther's works.
+
+He was, however, by no means so dependent on those about him as might
+have been supposed. His counsellors, in the general interests of his
+government, pursued an independent line of policy, and Charles himself,
+even in these his youthful days, knew to assert his independence as a
+monarch and display his cleverness as a statesman. He saw the prudence
+of cultivating friendship and contracting if possible an alliance with
+the Pope. The pressure desirable for this purpose could now be supplied
+by means of the very danger with which the papacy was threatened by the
+great German heresy, and against which Rome so sorely needed the aid of
+a temporal power. At the same time, Charles was far too astute to allow
+his regard for the Pope, and his desire for the unity of the Church, to
+entangle his policy in measures for which his own power was inadequate,
+or by which his authority might be shaken and possibly destroyed.
+Strengthened as was his monarchical power in Spain, in Germany he found
+it hemmed in and fettered by the estates of the empire and the whole
+contexture of political relations.
+
+Such were the main points of view which determined for Charles V his
+conduct toward Luther and his cause. Luther thus was at least a passive
+sharer in the game of high policy, ecclesiastical and temporal, now
+being played, and had to pursue his own course accordingly.
+
+The imperial court was quickly enough acquainted with the state of
+feeling in Germany. The Emperor showed himself prudent at this juncture,
+and accessible to opinions differing from his own, however small cause
+his proclamations gave to the friends of Luther to hope for any positive
+act of favor on his part.
+
+While Charles was on his way up the Rhine to hold, at the beginning of
+the new year, a diet at Worms, the elector Frederick approached him with
+the request that Luther should at least be heard before the Emperor took
+any proceedings against him. The Emperor informed him in reply that he
+might bring Luther for this purpose to Worms, promising that the monk
+should not be molested.
+
+The Emperor, on March 6th, issued a citation to Luther, summoning him to
+Worms to give "information concerning his doctrines and books." An
+imperial herald was sent to conduct him. In the event of his disobeying
+the citation, or refusing to retract, the estates declared their consent
+to treat him as an open heretic. Luther, therefore, had to renounce at
+once all hope of having the truth touching his articles of faith tested
+fairly at Worms by the standard of God's word in Scripture. Spalatin
+indicated to him the points on which he would in any case be expected to
+make a public recantation.
+
+Luther formed his resolve at once on the two points required of him. He
+determined to obey the summons to the diet, and, if there unconvicted of
+error, to refuse the recantation demanded. The Emperor's citation was
+delivered to him on March 26th by the imperial herald, Kaspar Sturm, who
+was to accompany him to Worms. Within twenty-one days after its receipt,
+Luther was to appear before the Emperor; he was due therefore at Worms
+on April 16th at the latest.
+
+On April 2d, the Tuesday after Easter, he set out on his way to Worms.
+His friend Amsdorf and the Pomeranian nobleman Peter Swaven, who was
+then studying at Wittenberg, accompanied him. He took with him also,
+according to the rules of the order, a brother of the order, John
+Pezensteiner. The Wittenberg magistracy provided carriages and horses.
+
+The way led past Leipzig, through Thuringia from Naumburg to Eisenach,
+southward past Berka, Hersfeld, Gruenberg, Friedberg, Frankfort, and
+Oppenheim. The herald rode on before in his coat-of-arms, and announced
+the man whose word had everywhere so mightily stirred the minds of
+people, and for whose future behavior and fate friend and foe were alike
+anxious. Everywhere people collected to catch a glimpse of him. On April
+6th he was very solemnly received at Erfurt. The large majority of the
+university there were by this time full of enthusiasm for his cause.
+
+Meanwhile at Worms disquietude and suspense prevailed on both sides.
+Hutten[29] from the castle of Ebernburg sent threatening and angry
+letters to the papal legates, who became really anxious lest a blow
+might be struck from that quarter. Some anxious friends of Luther's were
+afraid that, according to papal law, the safe-conduct would not be
+observed in the case of a condemned heretic. Spalatin himself sent from
+Worms a second warning to Luther after he had left Frankfort, intimating
+that he would suffer the fate of Huss.
+
+But Luther continued on his way. To Spalatin he replied, though Huss
+were burned, yet the truth was not burned; he would go to Worms though
+there were as many devils there as there were tiles on the roofs of the
+houses.
+
+On April 16th, at ten o'clock in the morning, Luther entered Worms. He
+sat in an open carriage with his three companions from Wittenberg,
+clothed in his monk's habit. He was accompanied by a large number of men
+on horseback, some of whom, like Jonas, had joined him earlier in his
+journey; others, like some gentlemen belonging to the Elector's court,
+had ridden out from Worms to receive him. The imperial herald rode on
+before. The watchman blew a horn from the tower of the cathedral on
+seeing the procession approach the gate. Thousands streamed hither to
+see Luther. The gentlemen of the court escorted him into the house of
+the Knights of St. John, where he lodged with two counsellors of the
+Elector. As he stepped from his carriage he said, "God will be with me."
+Aleander, writing to Rome, said that he looked around with the eyes of a
+demon. Crowds of distinguished men, ecclesiastics and laymen, who were
+anxious to know him personally, flocked daily to see him.
+
+On the evening of the following day he had to appear before the diet,
+which was assembled in the Bishop's palace, the residence of the
+Emperor, not far from where Luther was lodging. He was conducted thither
+by side streets, it being impossible to get through the crowds assembled
+in the main thoroughfare to see him. On his way into the hall where the
+diet was assembled, tradition tells us how the famous warrior, George
+von Frundsberg, clapped him on the shoulder and said: "My poor monk! my
+poor monk! thou art on thy way to make such a stand as I and many of my
+knights have never done in our toughest battles. If thou art sure of the
+justice of thy cause, then forward in the name of God, and be of good
+courage--God will not forsake thee." The Elector had given Luther as his
+advocate the lawyer Jerome Schurf, his Wittenberg colleague and friend.
+
+When at length, after waiting two hours, Luther was admitted to the
+diet, Eck, the official of the Archbishop of Treves, put to him simply,
+in the name of the Emperor, two questions, whether he acknowledged the
+books--pointing to them on a bench beside him--to be his own, and next,
+whether he would retract their contents or persist in them. Schurf here
+exclaimed, "Let the titles of the books be named." Eck then read them
+out. Among them there were some merely edifying writings, such as _A
+Commentary on the Lord's Prayer_, which had never been made the subject
+of complaint.
+
+Luther was not prepared for this proceeding, and possibly the first
+sight of the august assembly made him nervous. He answered in a low
+voice, and as if frightened, that the books were his, but that since the
+question as to their contents concerned the highest of all things, the
+Word of God and the salvation of souls, he must beware of giving a rash
+answer, and must therefore humbly entreat further time for
+consideration. After a short deliberation the Emperor instructed Eck to
+reply that he would, out of his clemency, grant him a respite till the
+next day.
+
+So Luther had again, on April 18th, a Thursday, to appear before the
+diet. Again he had to wait two hours till six o'clock. He stood there in
+the hall among the dense crowd, talking unconstrained and cheerfully
+with the ambassador of the diet, Peutinger, his patron at Augsburg.
+After he was called in, Eck began by reproaching him for having wanted
+time for consideration. He then put the second question to him in a form
+more befitting and more conformable with the wishes of the members of
+the diet: "Wilt thou defend _all_ the books acknowledged by thee to be
+thine, or recant some part?" Luther now answered with firmness and
+modesty, in a well-considered speech. He divided his works into three
+classes. In some of them he had set forth simple evangelical truths,
+professed alike by friend and foe. Those he could on no account retract.
+In others he had attacked corrupt laws and doctrines of the papacy,
+which no one could deny had miserably vexed and martyred the consciences
+of Christians, and had tyrannically devoured the property of the German
+nation: if he were to retract these books, he would make himself a cloak
+for wickedness and tyranny.
+
+In the third class of his books he had written against individuals who
+endeavored to shield that tyranny and to subvert godly doctrine. Against
+these he freely confessed that he had been more violent than was
+befitting. Yet even these writings it was impossible for him to retract
+without lending a hand to tyranny and godlessness. But in defence of his
+books he could only say in the words of the Lord Jesus Christ: "If I
+have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil; but if well, why smitest
+thou me?" If anyone could do so, let him produce his evidence and
+confute him from the sacred writings, the Old Testament and the Gospel,
+and he would be the first to throw his books into the fire. And now, as
+in the course of his speech he had sounded a new challenge to the
+papacy, so he concluded by an earnest warning to Emperor and empire,
+lest, by endeavoring to promote peace by a condemnation of the divine
+Word, they might rather bring a dreadful deluge of evils, and thus give
+an unhappy and inauspicious beginning to the reign of the noble young
+Emperor. He said not these things as if the great personages who heard
+him stood in any need of his admonitions, but because it was a duty that
+he owed to his native Germany, and he could not neglect to discharge it.
+
+Luther, like Eck, spoke in Latin, and then, by desire, repeated his
+speech with equal firmness in German. Schurf, who was standing by his
+side, declared afterward with pride, "how Martin had made this answer
+with such bravery and modest candor, with eyes upraised to heaven, that
+he and everyone were astonished."
+
+The princes held a short consultation after this harangue. Then Eck,
+commissioned by the Emperor, sharply reproved him for having spoken
+impertinently and not really answered the question put to him. He
+rejected his demand that evidence from Scripture might be brought
+against him by declaring that his heresies had already been condemned by
+the Church, and in particular by the Council of Constance, and such
+judgments must suffice if anything were to be held settled in
+Christianity. He promised him, however, if he would retract the
+offensive articles, that his other writings should be fairly dealt with,
+and finally demanded a plain answer "without horns" to the question
+whether he intended to adhere to all he had written or would retract any
+part of it?
+
+To this Luther replied he would give an answer "with neither horns nor
+teeth." Unless he were refuted by proofs from Scripture, or by evident
+reason, his conscience bound him to adhere to the Word of God which he
+had quoted in his defence. Popes and councils, as was clear, had often
+erred and contradicted themselves. He could not, therefore, and he would
+not, retreat anything, for it was neither safe nor honest to act against
+one's conscience.
+
+Eck exchanged only a few more words with him in reply to his assertion
+that councils had erred. "You cannot prove that," said Eck. "I will
+pledge myself to do it," was Luther's answer. Pressed and threatened by
+his enemy, he concluded with the famous words: "Here I stand, I can do
+no otherwise. God help me. Amen."
+
+The Emperor reluctantly broke up the diet at about eight o'clock in the
+evening. Darkness had meanwhile come on; the hall was lighted with
+torches, and the audience were in a state of general excitement and
+agitation. Luther was led out; whereupon an uproar arose among the
+Germans, who thought that he had been taken prisoner. As he stood among
+the heated crowd, Duke Erich of Brunswick sent him a silver tankard of
+Eimbeck beer, after having first drunk of it himself.
+
+On reaching his lodging, "Luther," to use the words of a Nuremberger
+present there, "stretched out his hands, and with a joyful countenance
+exclaimed, 'I am through! I am through!'" Spalatin says: "He entered the
+lodging so courageous, comforted, and joyful in the Lord that he said
+before others and myself, 'if he had a thousand heads, he would rather
+have them all cut off than make one recantation.'" He relates also how
+the elector Frederick, before his supper, sent for him from Luther's
+dwelling, took him into his room and expressed to him his astonishment
+and delight at Luther's speech. "How excellently did Father Martin speak
+both in Latin and German before the Emperor and the orders! He was bold
+enough, if not too much so." The Emperor, on the contrary, had been so
+little impressed by Luther's personality, and had understood so little
+of it, that he fancied the writings ascribed to him must have been
+written by someone else. Many of his Spaniards had pursued Luther, as he
+left the diet, with hisses and shouts of scorn.
+
+Luther, by refusing thus point-blank to retract, effectually destroyed
+whatever hopes of mediation or reconciliation had been entertained by
+the milder and more moderate adherents of the Church who still wished
+for reform. Nor was any union possible with those who, while looking to
+a truly representative council as the best safeguard against the tyranny
+of a pope, were anxious also to obtain at such a council a secure and
+final settlement of all questions of Christian faith and morals. It was
+these very councils about which Eck purposely called on Luther for a
+declaration; and Luther's words on this point might well have been
+considered by the Elector as "too bold."
+
+Luther remained faithful to himself. True it was that he had often
+formerly spoken of yielding in mere externals, and of the duty of living
+in love and harmony, and respecting the weaknesses of others; and his
+conduct during the elaboration of his own church system will show us how
+well he knew to accommodate himself to the time, and, where perfection
+was impossible, to be content with what was imperfect. But the question
+here was not about externals, or whether a given proceeding were
+judicious or not for the attainment of an object admittedly good. It was
+a question of confessing or denying the truth--the highest and holiest
+truths, as he expressed it--relating to God and the salvation of man. In
+this matter his conscience was bound.
+
+And the trial thus offered for his endurance was not yet over. On the
+morning of the 19th the Emperor sent word to the estates that he would
+now send Luther back in safety to Wittenberg, but treat him as a
+heretic. The majority insisted on attempting further negotiations with
+him through a committee specially appointed. These were conducted
+accordingly by the Elector of Treves. The friendliness and the visible
+interest in his cause with which Luther now was urged were more
+calculated to move him than Eck's behavior at the diet. He himself bore
+witness afterward how the Archbishop had shown himself more than
+gracious to him and would willingly have arranged matters peaceably.
+Instead of being urged simply to retract all his propositions condemned
+by the Pope, or his writings directed against the papacy, he was
+referred in particular to those articles in which he rejected the
+decisions of the Council of Constance. He was desired to submit in
+confidence to a verdict of the Emperor and the empire when his books
+should be submitted to judges beyond suspicion. After that he should at
+least accept the decision of a future council, unfettered by any
+acknowledgment of the previous sentence of the Pope.
+
+So freely and independently of the Pope did this committee of the German
+Diet, including several bishops and Duke George of Saxony, proceed in
+negotiating with a papal heretic. But everything was shipwrecked on
+Luther's firm reservation that the decision must not be contrary to the
+Word of God; and on that question his conscience would not allow him to
+renounce the right of judging for himself. After two days'
+negotiations, he thus, on April 25th, according to Spalatin, declared
+himself to the Archbishop: "Most gracious Lord, I cannot yield; it must
+happen with me as God wills," and continued: "I beg of your grace that
+you will obtain for me the gracious permission of his imperial majesty
+that I may go home again, for I have now been here for ten days and
+nothing yet has been effected." Three hours later the Emperor sent word
+to Luther that he might return to the place he came from, and should be
+given a safe-conduct for twenty-one days, but would not be allowed to
+preach on the way.
+
+Free residence, however, and protection at Wittenberg, in case Luther
+were condemned by the empire, was more than even Frederick the Wise
+would be able to assure him. But he had already laid his plan for the
+emergency. Spalatin refers to it in these words: "Now was my most
+gracious Lord somewhat disheartened; he was certainly fond of Dr.
+Martin, and was also most unwilling to act against the Word of God or to
+bring upon himself the displeasure of the Emperor. Accordingly, he
+devised means how to get Dr. Martin out of the way for a time, until
+matters might be quietly settled, and caused Luther also to be informed,
+the evening before he left Worms, of his scheme for getting him out of
+the way. At this Dr. Martin, out of deference to his Elector, was
+submissively content, though certainly, then and at all times, he would
+much rather have gone courageously to the attack."
+
+The very next morning, Friday, the 26th, Luther departed. The imperial
+herald went behind him, so as not to attract notice. They took the usual
+road to Eisenach. At Friedberg Luther dismissed the herald, giving him a
+letter to the Emperor and the estates, in which he defended his conduct
+at Worms, and his refusal to trust in the decision of men, by saying
+that when God's Word and things eternal were at stake, one's trust and
+dependence should be placed, not on one man or many men, but on God
+alone. At Hersfeld, where Abbot Crato, in spite of the ban, received him
+with all marks of honor, and again at Eisenach, he preached,
+notwithstanding the Emperor's prohibition, not daring to let the Word of
+God be bound.
+
+From Eisenach, while Swaven, Schurf, and several other of his companions
+went straight on, he struck southward, together with Amsdorf and
+Brother Pezensteiner, in order to go and see his relations at Moehra.
+Here, after spending the night at the house of his uncle Heinz, he
+preached the next morning, Saturday, May 4th. Then, accompanied by some
+of his relations, he took the road through Schweina, past the castle of
+Altenstein, and then across the back of the Thuringian Forest to
+Waltershausen and Gotha. Toward evening, when near Altenstein, he bade
+leave of his relations. About half an hour farther on, at a spot where
+the road enters the wooded heights, and, ascending between hills along a
+brook, leads to an old chapel, which even then was in ruins and has now
+quite disappeared, armed horsemen attacked the carriage, ordered it to
+stop with threats and curses, pulled Luther out of it, and then hurried
+him away at full speed. Pezensteiner had run away as soon as he saw them
+approach. Amsdorf and the coachman were allowed to pass on; the former
+was in the secret, and pretended to be terrified, to avoid any suspicion
+on the part of his companion.
+
+The Wartburg[30] lay to the north, about eight miles distant, and had
+been the starting-point of the horsemen, as it now was their goal; but
+precaution made them ride first in an eastern direction with Luther. The
+coachman afterward related how Luther in the haste of the flight dropped
+a gray hat he had worn. And now Luther was given a horse to ride. The
+night was dark, and at about eleven o'clock they arrived at the stately
+castle, situated above Eisenach. Here he was to be kept as a
+knight-prisoner. The secret was kept as strictly as possible toward
+friend and foe. For many weeks afterward even Frederick's brother John
+had no idea of it. Among his friends and followers the terrible news had
+spread, immediately upon his capture, that he had been made away with by
+his enemies.
+
+At Worms, however, while the Pope was concluding an alliance with
+Charles against France, the papal legate Aleander, by commission of the
+Emperor, prepared the edict against Luther on the 8th of May. It was
+not, however, until the 25th, after Frederick the Elector of the
+Palatinate and a great part of the other members of the diet had already
+left, that it was deemed advisable to have it communicated to the rest
+of the estates; nevertheless it was antedated the 8th, and issued "by
+the unanimous advice of the electors and estates." It pronounced upon
+Luther, applying the customary strong expressions of papal bulls, the
+ban and reban; no one was to receive him any longer, or feed him, etc.,
+but wherever he was found he was to be seized and handed over to the
+Emperor.
+
+
+JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+The Reformation was a revolution, and they who rebelled against the
+authority of the Church were revolutionists. However slightly you look
+into the constitution of the Church, you will be convinced that the
+Reformation possessed the character of an insurrection. What is the
+meaning of this fine word, Reformation? Amelioration, doubtless. Well,
+then, with history before us, it is easy to show that it was only a
+prostration of the human mind. Glutted with the wealth of which it
+robbed the Catholics, and the blood which it shed, it gives us, instead
+of the harmony and Christian love of which it deprived our ancestors,
+nothing but dissensions, resentments, and discords. No, the Reformation
+was not an era of happiness and peace; it was only established by
+confusion and anarchy. Do you feel your heart beat at the mention of
+justice and truth? Acknowledge, then, what it is impossible to deny,
+that Luther must not be compared with the apostles. The apostles came
+teaching in the name of Jesus Christ their master, and the Catholics are
+entitled to ask us from whom Luther had his mission. We cannot prove
+that he had a mission direct or indirect. Luther perverted Christianity;
+he withdrew himself criminally from the communion in which regeneration
+alone was possible.
+
+It has been said that all Christendom demanded a reformation--who
+disputes it? But long before the time of Luther the papacy had listened
+to the complaints of the faithful. The Council of Lateran had been
+convened to put an end to the scandals which afflicted the Church. The
+papacy labored to restore the discipline of the early ages, in
+proportion as Europe, freed from the yoke of brute force, became
+politically organized and advanced with slow but sure step to
+civilization. Was it not at that time that the source of all religious
+truth was made accessible to scientific study, since, by means of the
+watchful protection of the papacy, the holy Scriptures were translated
+into every language? The New Testament of Erasmus, dedicated to Leo X,
+had preceded the quarrel about indulgences.
+
+A reformer should take care that, in his zeal to get rid of manifest
+abuses, he does not at the same time shake the faith and its wholesome
+institutions to the foundation. When the reformers violently separated
+themselves from the Church of Rome, they thought it necessary to reject
+every doctrine taught by her. Luther, that spirit of evil, who scattered
+gold with dirt, declared war against the institutions without which the
+Church could not exist; he destroyed unity. Who does not remember that
+exclamation of Melanchthon, "We have committed many errors, and have
+made good of evil without any necessity for it"?
+
+In justification of the brutal rupture of Germany with Rome, the
+scandals of the clergy are alleged. But if at the period of the
+Reformation there were priests and monks in Germany whose conduct was
+the cause of regret to Christians, their number was not larger than it
+had been previously. When Luther appeared, there was in Germany a great
+number of Catholic prelates whose piety the reformers themselves have
+not hesitated to admire.
+
+What pains they take to deceive us! In books of every size they teach
+us, even at the present day, that the beast, the man of sin, the
+creature of Babylon, are the names which God has given in his Scriptures
+to the pope and the papacy! Can it be imagined that Christ, who died for
+our sins, and saved us by his blood, would have suffered that for ten or
+twelve centuries his church should be guided by such an abominable
+wretch? that he would have allowed millions of his creatures to walk in
+the shadow of death? and that so many generations should have had no
+other pastor but Antichrist?
+
+Luther mistook the genius of Christianity in introducing a new principle
+into the world--the immediate authority of the Bible as the sole
+criterion of the truth. If tradition is to be rejected, it follows that
+the Bible cannot be authoritatively explained by acquired knowledge; in
+a word, human interpretation based upon its comprehensions of the Greek
+and Hebrew languages. So, by this theory, the palladium of orthodoxy is
+to be found in a knowledge of foreign tongues, and living authority is
+replaced by a dead letter; a slavery a thousand times more oppressive
+than the yoke of tradition. Has any dogmatist succeeded in drawing up a
+confession of faith by means of the Bible which could not be attacked by
+means of reason? This formula, that the Bible must be the "_unicum
+principium theologiae_," is the source of contradictory doctrines in
+Protestant theology; hence this question arises: "What Protestant
+theology is there in which there are not errors more or less?" It was
+the Bible that inspired all the neologists of the sixteenth century; the
+Bible that they made use of to persecute and condemn themselves as
+heretics. When Luther maintained that the Bible contains the enunciation
+of all the truths of which a knowledge is necessary to salvation, and
+that no doctrine which is not distinctly laid down in the Bible can be
+regarded as an article of faith, he did not imagine that the time was at
+hand when everybody, from this very volume, would form a confession for
+himself, and reject all others which contradicted his individual creed.
+This necessity for inquiry so occupies the minds of men at the present
+day that the principal articles of the original creed are rejected by
+those who call themselves the disciples of Jesus.
+
+But what are we to understand by the Bible? The question was a difficult
+one to solve even at the beginning of the Reformation, when Luther, in
+his preface to the translation of the Bible, laid down a difference
+between the canonical books by preferring the gospel of St. John to the
+three other evangelists; by depreciating the Epistle of St. James as an
+epistle of straw, that contained nothing of the Gospel in it, and which
+an apostle could not have written, since it attributes to works a merit
+which they did not possess. It was in the Bible that Luther discovered
+these two great truths of salvation, which he revealed to the world at
+the beginning of his apostleship--_the slavery of man's will, and the
+impeccability of the believer_.
+
+It is said in Exodus, chapter ix, that God hardened the heart of
+Pharaoh. It was questioned whether these words were to be construed
+literally. This Erasmus rightly denied, and it roused the doctor's
+wrath. Luther, in his reply, furiously attacks the fools who, calling
+reason to their aid, dare call for an account from God why he condemns
+or predestines to damnation innocent beings before they have even seen
+the light. Truly, Luther, in the eyes of all God's creatures, must
+appear a prodigy of daring when he ventures to maintain that no one can
+reach heaven unless he adopts the slavery of the human will. And it is
+not merely by the spirit of disputation, but by settled conviction, that
+he defends this most odious of all ideas. He lived and died teaching
+that horrible doctrine, which the most illustrious of his
+disciples--among others, Melanchthon and Matthew Albert of
+Reutlingen--condemned. "How rich is the Christian!" repeated Luther;
+"even though he wished it, he cannot forfeit heaven by any stain;
+believe, then, and be assured of your salvation: God in eternity cannot
+escape you. Believe, and you shall be saved: repentance, confession,
+satisfaction, good works, all these are useless for salvation; it is
+sufficient to have faith."
+
+Is not this a fearful error--a desolating doctrine? If you demonstrate
+to Luther its danger or absurdity, he replies that you blaspheme the
+Spirit of light. Neither attempt to prove to him that he is mistaken; he
+will tell you that you offend God. No, no, my brother, you will never
+convince me that the Holy Spirit is confined to Wittenberg any more than
+to your person.
+
+Not content with maledictions, Luther then turns himself to prophecy; he
+announces that his doctrine, which proceeds from heaven, will gain, one
+by one, all the kingdoms of the world. He says of Zwingli's explanation
+of the eucharist, "I am not afraid of this fanatical interpretation
+lasting long." On the other hand Zwingli predicted that the Swiss creed
+would be handed down from generation to generation, crossing the Elbe
+and the Rhine. Prophet against prophet, if success be the test of truth,
+Luther will inevitably have to yield in this point.
+
+The Reformation, which at first was entirely a religious phenomenon,
+soon assumed a political character; it could not fail to do so. When
+people began to exclaim, like Luther, on the house-tops: "The Emperor
+Charles V ought not to be supported longer; let him and the Pope be
+knocked on the head;" that "he is an excited madman, a bloodhound, who
+must be killed with pikes and clubs," how could civil society continue
+subject to authority? It was natural that the monk's virulent writings
+against the bishops' spiritual power should be reduced by the subjects
+of the ecclesiastical superiors into a political theory. When he
+proclaimed that the yoke of priests and monks must be shaken off, we
+might expect that this wild appeal would be directed against the tithes
+which the people paid to the prelates and the abbots. The Saxon's
+doctrine being based wholly on the holy Scriptures, the peasant
+considered himself authorized in virtue of their text to break violently
+with his lord; hence that long war between the cottage and the castle.
+This it was that made Erasmus write sorrowfully to Luther: "You see that
+we are now reaping the fruits of what you sowed. You will not
+acknowledge the rebels; but they acknowledge you, and they know only too
+well that many of your disciples, who clothed themselves in the mantle
+of the Gospel, have been the instigators of this bloody rebellion. In
+your pamphlet against the peasants, you in vain endeavor to justify
+yourself. It is you who have raised the storm by your publications
+against the monks and the prelates, and you say that you fight for
+gospel liberty, and against the tyranny of the great! From the moment
+that you began your tragedy I foresaw the end of it."
+
+That civil war, in which Germany had to mourn the loss of more than a
+hundred thousand of her children, was the consequence of Luther's
+preaching. It is fortunate that, through the efforts of a Catholic
+prince, Duke George of Saxony, it was speedily brought to an end. Had it
+lasted but a few years longer, of all the ancient monuments with which
+Germany was filled, not a single vestige would have remained. Karlstadt
+might then have sat upon their ruins, and sung, with his Bible in his
+hand, the downfall of the images. The iconoclast's theories, all drawn
+from the Word of God, held their ground in spite of Luther, and dealt a
+fatal blow to the arts.
+
+When a gorgeous worship requires magnificent temples, imposing
+ceremonies, and striking solemnities; when religion presents to the eye
+sensible images as objects of public veneration; when earth and heaven
+are peopled with supernatural beings, to whom imagination can lend a
+sensible form--then it is that the arts, encouraged and ennobled, reach
+the zenith of their splendor and perfection. The architect, raised to
+honors and fortune, conceives the plans of those basilicas and
+cathedrals whose aspect strikes us with religious awe, and whose richly
+adorned walls are ornamented with the finest efforts of art. Those
+temples and altars are decorated with marbles and precious metals, which
+sculpture has fashioned into the similitude of angels, saints, and the
+images of illustrious men. The choirs, the jubes, the chapels, and
+sacristies are hung with pictures on all sides. Here Jesus expires on
+the cross; there he is transfigured on Mount Tabor. Art, the friend of
+imagination, which delights only in heaven, finds there the most sublime
+creations--a St. John, a Cecilia, above all a Mary, that patroness of
+tender hearts, that virgin model to all mothers, that mediatrix of
+graces, placed between man and his God, that august and amiable being,
+of whom no other religion presents either the resemblance or the model.
+During the solemnities, the most costly stuffs, precious stones, and
+embroidery cover the altars, vessels, priests, and even the very walls
+of the sanctuary. Music completes the charm by the most exquisite
+strains, by the harmony of the choir. These powerful incentives are
+repeated in a hundred different places; the metropolises, parishes, the
+numerous religious houses, the simple oratories, sparkle with emulation
+to captivate all the powers of the religious and devout mind. Thus a
+taste for the arts becomes general by means of so potent a lever, and
+artists increase in number and rivalry. Under this influence the
+celebrated schools of Italy and Flanders flourished; and the finest
+works which now remain to us testify the splendid encouragement which
+the Catholic religion lavished upon them.
+
+After this natural progress of events, it cannot be doubted that the
+Reformation has been unfavorable to the fine arts, and has very much
+restrained the exercise of them. It has severed the bonds which united
+them to religion, which sanctified them, and secured for them a place in
+the veneration of the people. The Protestant worship tends to disenchant
+the material imagination; it makes fine churches and statues and
+paintings unnecessary; it renders them unpopular, and takes from them
+one of their most active springs.
+
+The peasants' war was soon succeeded by the spoliation of the
+monasteries; "an invasion of the most sacred of all rights, more
+important, in certain respects, than liberty itself--property." From
+that time not a day passed without Luther preaching up the robbery of
+the religious houses. To excite the greed of the princes whom he wished
+to secure to his views, he loved to direct their attention to the
+treasures which the abbeys, cloisters, sacristies, and sanctuaries
+contained. "Take them," he said; "all these are your own--all belong to
+you." Luther was convinced that to the value of the golden remonstrances
+which shone on the Catholic altars he was indebted for more than one
+conversion. In a moment of humor he said: "The gentry and princes are
+the best Lutherans; they willingly accept both monasteries and chapters,
+and appropriate their treasures."
+
+The Landgrave of Hesse, to obtain authority for giving his arm to two
+lawful wives, took care to make the wealth of the monasteries glitter in
+the eyes of the Church of Wittenberg, so that as the price of their
+permission he was willing to give it to the Saxon ministers. The plunder
+of church property, preached by Luther, will be the eternal condemnation
+of the Protestants. Though Naboth's vineyard may serve as a bait or
+reward for apostasy, it cannot justify crime.
+
+A laureate of the Institute of France has discovered grounds for
+palliating this blow to property. He congratulates the princes who
+embraced the Reformation for having, by means of the ecclesiastical
+property, filled their coffers, paid their debts, applied the
+confiscated wealth to useful establishments, clubs, universities,
+hospitals, orphanages, retreats, and rewards for the old servants of the
+state. But Luther himself took care, on more than one occasion, to
+denounce the avarice of the princes who, when once masters of the
+monastic property, employed its revenues for the support of mistresses
+and packs of hounds. We remember the eloquent complaints which he
+uttered in his old age against these carnal men, who left the Protestant
+clergy in destitution, and did not even pay the schoolmasters their
+salaries. He mourned them, but it was too late. Sometimes the
+chastisement of heaven fell, even in this life, on the spoiler; and
+Luther has mentioned instances of several of those iron hands, who,
+after having enriched themselves by the plunder of a monastery, church,
+or abbey, fell into abject poverty. Besides, we will admit that Luther
+never thought of consoling the plundered monks by asserting, like
+Charles Villers, that "one of the finest effects of these terrible
+commotions which unsettle all properties, the fruits of social
+institutions, is to substitute for them greatness of mind, virtues, and
+talents, the fruits of nature exclusively."
+
+If the triumph of the peasants in the fields of Thuringia might have
+been an irreparable misfortune to Germany and to Christianity, we cannot
+deny that Luther's appeal to the secular arm, to suppress the rebellion,
+may have thoroughly altered the character of the first Reformation. Till
+then it had been established by preaching; but from the moment of that
+bloody episode it required the civil authority to move it. The sword,
+therefore, took the place of the Word; and to perpetuate itself the
+Reformation was bound to exaggerate the theory of passive obedience. One
+of the distinguished historians of Heidelberg, Carl Hagen, has recently
+favored us with some portions of the political code in which
+Protestantism commands subjects to be obedient to the civil power, even
+when it commands them to commit sin.
+
+Thus the democratic element, first developed by the Reformation, was
+effaced to become absorbed in the despotic. It was no longer the people,
+but the prince, who chose or rejected the Protestant minister. When the
+Landgrave of Hesse consulted Melanchthon, in 1525, as to the line he
+should pursue in the appointment of a pastor, the doctor told him that
+he had the right to interfere in the election of the ministers, and
+that, if he surmounted the struggles in which the Word of God had
+involved him, he ought not to commit that sacred Word but to such
+preacher as seemed best to him; in other terms, observes the historian,
+to him whom the civil power thinks competent. And Martin Bucer contrived
+to extend Melanchthon's theory by constituting the civil power supreme
+judge of religious orthodoxy, by conferring on it the right of ultimate
+decision in questions of heresy, and of punishing, if necessary by fire
+and sword innovators, who are a thousand times more culpable, he says,
+than the robber or murderer, who only steal the material bread and slay
+the body, while the heretic steals the bread of life and kills the soul.
+
+Intolerance then entered into the councils of the Reformation. It was no
+longer with the peasants that Luther declared war. Whoever did not
+believe in his doctrines was denounced as a rebel; in the Saxon's eyes,
+the peasant was only an enemy to be despised; the real Satan was
+Karlstadt, Zwingli, and Krautwald.
+
+His disciples were no longer satisfied with plundering the
+monasteries--they desired to live in ease; they must have servants, a
+fine house, a well-supplied table, and plenty of money. The struggle
+then was no longer with piety and knowledge, but with power and
+influence. Every city and town had its own Lutheran pope. At Nuremberg,
+Osiander was a regular pacha. Those who among the Protestants endeavored
+to reprove his scandalous ostentation were abused and maligned. When he
+ascended the pulpit, his fingers were adorned with diamonds which
+dazzled the eyes of his hearers.
+
+The religious disputes which disturbed men's minds in Germany retarded,
+rather than advanced, the march of intellect. Blind people who fought
+furiously with each other could not find the road to truth. These
+quarrels were only another disease of the human mind. Although printing
+served to disseminate the principles of the reformers, the sudden
+progress of Lutheranism, and the zeal with which it was embraced, prove
+that reason and reflection had no part in their development.
+
+Villers has drawn a brilliant sketch of the influence which the
+Reformation exercised over biblical criticism. "It may be said that
+criticism of the Scripture text was unknown previous to the time of
+Luther; and if by this is meant that captious, whimsical, and shuffling
+criticism which DeWette has so justly condemned--certainly so. But that
+which relates to languages, antiquities, the knowledge of times, places,
+authors--in a word, hermeneutics--was known and practised in our schools
+before the Reformation, as is proved by the works of Cajetan and
+Sadoletus, and a multitude of learned men whom Leo X had encouraged and
+rewarded. We have seen besides, in the history of the Reformation, what
+that vain science has produced. It was by means of his critical
+researches that, from the time of Luther, Karlstadt found such a meaning
+of '_Semen immolare Moloch_,' as made his disciples shrug their
+shoulders; that Muenzer preached community of goods and wives; that
+Melanchthon taught that the dogma of the Trinity deprives our mind of
+all liberty; that at a later period Ammon asserted that the
+resurrection of the dead could not be deduced from the New Testament;
+Veter, that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses; that the history of
+the Jews to the time of the Judges is only a popular tradition;
+Bretschneider, that the Psalms cannot be looked upon as inspired;
+Augusti, that the true doctrine of Jesus Christ has not been preserved
+intact in the New Testament; and Geisse, that not one of the four
+gospels was written by the evangelist whose name it bears.
+
+"Since the days of Semler, Germany presents a singular spectacle: every
+ten years, or nearly so, its theological literature undergoes a complete
+revolution. What was admired during the one decennial period is rejected
+in the next, and the image which they adored is burned to make way for
+new divinities; the dogmas which were held in honor fall into discredit;
+the classical treatise of morality is banished among the old books out
+of date; criticism overturns criticism; and the commentary of yesterday
+ridicules that of the previous day."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, was Luther's friend and
+protector.
+
+[26] Georg Spalatin, a friend and fellow-reformer of Luther's, was in
+the diplomatic service of Elector Frederick.
+
+[27] Charles, the grandson of Maximilian I, Emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, succeeded him 1519. At the time of his coronation Charles was
+but twenty years old. He was also King of Spain.--ED.
+
+[28] It is obvious that he refers to Christ, who is spoken of in
+Scripture as the Holy One of God (St. Mark i. 24; Acts ii. 27), not, as
+ignorance and malice have suggested, to himself.
+
+[29] Ulrich von Hutten was a friend and supporter of Luther.
+
+[30] In 1521-1522 Frederick the Wise gave Luther asylum in the Wartburg,
+where for ten months the reformer remained in disguise as "Junker
+Georg." His room, with its furniture, is still preserved.
+
+
+
+
+NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA
+
+ITS INTRODUCTION BY LAW
+
+A.D. 1517
+
+SIR ARTHUR HELPS
+
+     In 1442 the first negro slaves were imported into Europe.
+     They were taken from Africa to Portugal in ships of Prince
+     Henry, the "Navigator." From that time there was little
+     traffic in negroes until after the discovery of America.
+     Then there was great destruction of American Indians by war,
+     disease, and killing work, and the importation of negroes
+     into Spanish America was begun in order to fill the void in
+     the labor market.
+
+     Influenced by the spirit of Bartolome de las Casas, a
+     Spanish monk, celebrated as the defender of the Indians
+     against his own countrymen who conquered them, the monarchs
+     of Spain prohibited Indian slavery. "It is a very
+     significant fact that the great 'Protector of the Indians,'
+     Las Casas, should, however innocently, have been concerned
+     with the first large grant of licenses to import negroes
+     into the West India Islands."
+
+     We first hear of the introduction of negro slaves in those
+     islands through the instructions given in 1501 to Nicolas de
+     Ovando, who in the following year succeeded Columbus as
+     governor. During the nine years of his governorship negro
+     slavery in the Spanish possessions of the New World was
+     greatly extended. A few years later, as shown by Helps,
+     official license gave it a legal sanction. Helps' account
+     begins with an abstract of Las Casas' memorials to the King
+     of Spain looking to a remedy for the bad government of the
+     West Indies.
+
+
+The outline of Las Casas' scheme was as follows: The King was to give to
+every laborer willing to emigrate to Espanola his living during the
+journey from his place of abode to Seville, at the rate of half a real a
+day throughout the journey, for great and small, child and parent. At
+Seville the emigrants were to be lodged in the Casa de la Contratacion
+(the India House), and were to have from eleven to thirteen maravedis a
+day. From thence they were to have a free passage to Espanola, and to be
+provided with food for a year. And if the climate "should try them so
+much" that at the expiration of this year they should not be able to
+work for themselves, the King was to continue to maintain them; but
+this extra maintenance was to be put down to the account of the
+emigrants, as a loan which they were to repay. The King was to give them
+lands--his own lands--furnish them with ploughshares and spades, and
+provide medicines for them. Lastly, whatever rights and profits accrued
+from their holdings were to become hereditary. This was certainly a most
+liberal plan of emigration. And, in addition, there were other
+privileges held out as inducements to these laborers.
+
+In connection with the above scheme, Las Casas, unfortunately for his
+reputation in after-ages, added another provision, namely, that each
+Spanish resident in the island should have license to import a dozen
+negro slaves.
+
+The origin of this suggestion was, as he informs us, that the colonists
+had told him that, if license were given them to import a dozen negro
+slaves each, they, the colonists, would then set free the Indians. And
+so, recollecting that statement of the colonists, he added this
+provision. Las Casas, writing his history in his old age, thus frankly
+owns his error: "This advice, that license should be given to bring
+negro slaves to these lands, the _clerigo_ Casas first gave, not
+considering the injustice with which the Portuguese take them and make
+them slaves; which advice, after he had apprehended the nature of the
+thing, he would not have given for all he had in the world. For he
+always held that they had been made slaves unjustly and tyrannically;
+for the same reason holds good of them as of the Indians." The above
+confession is delicately and truthfully worded--"not considering"; he
+does not say, not being aware of; but though it was a matter known to
+him, his moral sense was not watchful, as it were, about it. We must be
+careful not to press the admissions of a generous mind too far, or to
+exaggerate the importance of the suggestion of Las Casas.
+
+It would be quite erroneous to look upon this suggestion as being the
+introduction of negro slavery. From the earliest times of the discovery
+of America, negroes had been sent there. But what is of more
+significance, and what it is strange that Las Casas was not aware of, or
+did not mention, the Hieronymite Fathers[31] had also come to the
+conclusion that negroes must be introduced into the West Indies.
+Writing in January, 1518, when the fathers could not have known what was
+passing in Spain in relation to this subject, they recommended licenses
+to be given to the inhabitants of Espanola, or to other persons, to
+bring negroes there. From the tenor of their letter it appears that they
+had before recommended the same thing. Zuazo, the judge of residencia,
+and the legal colleague of Las Casas, wrote to the same effect. He,
+however, suggested that the negroes should be placed in settlements and
+married. Fray Bernardino de Manzanedo, the Hieronymite father, sent over
+to counteract Las Casas, gave the same advice as his brethren about the
+introduction of negroes. He added a proviso, which does not appear in
+their letter--perhaps it did exist in one of the earlier ones--that
+there should be as many women as men sent over, or more.
+
+The suggestion of Las Casas was approved of by the Chancellor; and,
+indeed, it is probable there was hardly a man of that time who would
+have seen further than the excellent clerigo did. Las Casas was asked
+what number of negroes would suffice? He replied that he did not know;
+upon which a letter was sent to the officers of the India House at
+Seville to ascertain the fit number in their opinion. They said that
+four thousand at present would suffice, being one thousand for each of
+the islands, Espanola, Porto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. Somebody now
+suggested to the Governor, De Bresa, a Fleming of much influence and a
+member of the council, that he should ask for this license to be given
+to him. De Bresa accordingly asked the King for it, who granted his
+request; and the Fleming sold this license to certain Genoese merchants
+for twenty-five thousand ducats, having obtained from the King a pledge
+that for eight years he should give no other license of this kind.
+
+The consequence of this monopoly enjoyed by the Genoese merchants was
+that negroes were sold at a great price, of which there are frequent
+complaints. Both Las Casas and Pasamonte--rarely found in
+accord--suggested to the King that it would be better to pay the
+twenty-five thousand ducats and resume the license, or to abridge its
+term. Figueroa, writing to the Emperor from Santo Domingo in July, 1500,
+says: "Negroes are very much in request; none have come for about a
+year. It would have been better to have given De Bresa the customs
+duties--_i.e._, the duties that had been usually paid on the importation
+of slaves--than to have placed a prohibition." I have scarcely a doubt
+that the immediate effect of the measure adopted in consequence of the
+clerigo's suggestion was greatly to check that importation of negro
+slaves which otherwise, had the license been general, would have been
+very abundant.
+
+Before quitting this part of the subject, something must be said for Las
+Casas which he does not allege for himself. This suggestion of his about
+the negroes was not an isolated one. Had all his suggestions been
+carried out, and the Indians thereby been preserved, as I firmly believe
+they might have been, these negroes might have remained a very
+insignificant number in the general population. By the destruction of
+Indians a void in the laborious part of the community was being
+constantly created, which had to be filled up by the labor of negroes.
+The negroes could bear the labor in the mines much better than the
+Indians; and any man who perceived that a race, of whose Christian
+virtues and capabilities he thought highly, were fading away by reason
+of being subjected to labor which their natures were incompetent to
+endure, and which they were most unjustly condemned to, might prefer the
+misery of the smaller number of another race treated with equal
+injustice, but more capable of enduring it. I do not say that Las Casas
+considered all these things; but, at any rate, in estimating his
+conduct, we must recollect that we look at the matter centuries after it
+occurred, and see all the extent of the evil arising from circumstances
+which no man could then be expected to foresee, and which were
+inconsistent with the rest of the clerigo's plans for the preservation
+of the Indians.
+
+I suspect that the wisest among us would very likely have erred with
+him; and I am not sure that, taking all his plans together, and taking
+for granted, as he did then, that his influence at court was to last,
+his suggestion about the negroes was an impolitic one.
+
+One more piece of advice Las Casas gave at this time, which, if it had
+been adopted, would have been most serviceable. He proposed that forts
+for mercantile purposes, containing about thirty persons, should be
+erected at intervals along the coast of the _terra firma_, to traffic
+with merchandise of Spain for gold, silver, and precious stones; and in
+each of these ports ecclesiastics were to be placed, to undertake the
+superintendence of spiritual matters. In this scheme may be seen an
+anticipation of subsequent plans for commercial intercourse with Africa.
+And, indeed, one is constantly reminded by the proceedings in those
+times of what has occurred much later and under the auspices of other
+nations.
+
+Of all these suggestions, some of them certainly excellent, the only
+questionable one was at once adopted. Such is the irony of life. If we
+may imagine superior beings looking on at the affairs of men, and
+bearing some unperceived part of the great contest in the world, this
+was a thing to have gladdened all the hosts of hell.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Spanish monks, followers of St. Jerome (Hieronymus).
+
+
+
+
+FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE
+
+MAGELLAN REACHES THE LADRONES AND PHILIPPINES
+
+A.D. 1519
+
+JOAN BAUTISTA    ANTONIO PIGAFETTA[32]
+
+     Ferdinand Magellan, whose name in Portuguese was Fernao de
+     Magalhaes, was born in Portugal about 1480. After serving
+     with the Portuguese in the East Indies, 1505-1512, and in
+     Morocco, 1514, where during an action he was lamed for life,
+     he became disaffected toward his country, and in 1517
+     renounced his allegiance and turned to Spain in hope of
+     better reward for his services. In conjunction with a
+     fellow-countryman, Ruy Faleiro, a geographer and astronomer,
+     he offered to find for Spain the Moluccas, in the Malay
+     Archipelago, and to prove that they were within the Spanish
+     and not the Portuguese lines of demarcation. The acceptance
+     of this proposal by the Emperor, Charles V, who was also
+     King of Spain, gave Magellan the opportunity, which he so
+     well improved, to immortalize his name in the annals of
+     maritime discovery.
+
+     While the specific object of the expedition failed on
+     account of the leader's death, his performance made him
+     worthy, as some historians think, to be considered "the most
+     undaunted and in many respects the most extraordinary man
+     that ever traversed an unknown sea."
+
+     A squadron of five ships with two hundred sixty-five men was
+     fitted out by the Emperor, and the two friends were named as
+     joint commanders, but Faleiro was afterward detached from
+     the expedition, leaving full command to Magellan, who sailed
+     from San Lucar, Spain, September 20, 1519, first touching at
+     Madeira.
+
+     Magellan passed through the straits that bear his name and
+     so penetrated to the Pacific, that ocean being first so
+     called by him. He was the first European to reach it from
+     the Atlantic. Magellan was killed by natives in the
+     Philippines, April 27, 1521; but his ships continued their
+     course. One by one they were lost from the expedition,
+     except the Victoria, on which was Pigafetta, who wrote for
+     Charles V an account of the voyage. The Victoria returned to
+     Spain in September, 1522, completing the first
+     circumnavigation of the earth. Bautista was pilot and
+     afterward captain of the Trinidad, one of the lost vessels.
+
+     In 1898 the Philippines and Guam, one of the Ladrones, were
+     acquired by the United States as a result of the
+     Spanish-American War.
+
+
+
+JOAN BAUTISTA
+
+Magellan steered to the southwest to make the island of Teneriffe, and
+they reached the said island on the day of St. Michael, which was
+September 29th. Thence he made his course to fetch the Cape Verd
+Islands, and they passed between the islands and the cape without
+sighting either the one or the other. Having to make for Brazil, and as
+soon as they sighted the other coast of Brazil, he steered to the
+southeast along the coast of Cape Frio, which is in 23 deg. south latitude;
+and from this cape he steered to the west, a matter of thirty leagues,
+to make the Rio Janeiro, which is in the same latitude as Cape Frio, and
+they entered the said river on the day of St. Lucy, which was December
+13th, in which place they took in wood, and they remained there until
+the first octave of Christmas, which was December 26th of the same year.
+
+They sailed from this Rio de Janeiro on December 26th, and navigated
+along the coast to make Cape of St. Mary, which is only 35 deg.; as soon as
+they sighted it, they made their course west-northwest, thinking they
+would find a passage for their voyage, and they found that they had got
+into a great river of fresh water, to which they gave the name of River
+St. Christopher, and it is in 34 deg., and they remained in it till February
+2, 1520.
+
+He sailed from this river of St. Christopher on the 2d of the said month
+of February; they navigated along the said coast, and farther on to the
+south they discovered a point, which is in the same river more to the
+south, to which they gave the name of Point St. Anthony; it is in 36 deg.;
+hence they ran to the southwest a matter of twenty-five leagues, and
+made another cape, which they named Cape St. Apelonia, which is in 36 deg.;
+thence they navigated to the west-southwest to some shoals, which they
+named Shoals of the Currents, which are in 39 deg.; and thence they
+navigated out to the sea, and lost sight of land for a matter of two or
+three days, when they again made for the land, and they came to a bay,
+which they entered, and ran within it the whole day, thinking that there
+was an outlet for Molucca; and when night came they found that it was
+quite closed up, and in the same night they again stood out by the way
+which they had come in. This bay is in 34 deg.; they named it the island of
+St. Matthew. They navigated from this island of St. Matthew along the
+coast until they reached another bay, where they caught many sea-wolves
+and birds; to this they gave the name of Bay of Labors; it is in 37 deg.;
+here they came near losing the flag-ship in a storm. Thence they
+navigated along the said coast, and arrived on the last day of March of
+the year 1520 at the port of St. Julian, which is in 49 deg.. Here they
+wintered, and found the day a little more or less than seven hours.
+
+In this port three of the ships rose up against the captain-major, their
+captains saying that they intended to take him to Castile in arrest, as
+he was taking them all to destruction. Here, through the exertions of
+the said captain-major, and the assistance and favor of the foreigners
+whom he carried with him, the captain-major went to the said three ships
+which were already mentioned, and there the captain of one of them was
+killed, who was the treasurer of the whole fleet, and named Luis de
+Mendoza; he was killed in his own ship by stabs with a dagger by the
+chief constable of the fleet, who was sent to do this by Ferdinand
+Magellan in a boat with certain men. The said three ships having thus
+been recovered, five days later Ferdinand Magellan ordered Gaspar de
+Quexixada to be decapitated and quartered; he was captain of one of the
+ships and was one of those who had mutinied.
+
+In this port they refitted the ship. Here the captain-major made Alvaro
+de Mesquita, a Portuguese, a captain of one of the ships the captain of
+which had been killed. There sailed from this port on August 24th four
+ships, for the smallest of the ships had been already lost; he had sent
+it to reconnoitre, and the weather had been heavy and had cast it
+ashore, where all the crew had been recovered along with the
+merchandise, artillery, and fittings of the ship. They remained in this
+port, in which they wintered, five months and twenty-four days, and they
+were 70 deg. less ten minutes to the southward.
+
+They sailed on August 24th of the said year from this port of St.
+Julian, and navigated a matter of twenty leagues along the coast, and so
+they entered a river which was called Santa Cruz, which is in 50 deg., where
+they took in goods and as much as they could obtain. The crew of the
+lost ship were already distributed among the other ships, for they had
+returned by land to where Ferdinand Magellan was, and they continued
+collecting goods which had remained there during August and up to
+September 18th, and there they took in water and much fish which they
+caught in this river; and in the other, where they wintered, there were
+people like savages, and the men are from nine to ten spans in height,
+very well made; they have not got houses, they only go about from one
+place to another with their flocks, and eat meat nearly raw. They are
+all of them archers, and kill many animals with arrows, and with the
+skins they make clothes, that is to say, they make the skins very
+supple, and fashion them after the shape of the body, as well as they
+can, then they cover themselves with them, and fasten them by a belt
+round the waist. When they do not wish to be clothed from the waist
+upward, they let that half fall which is above the waist, and the
+garment remains hanging down from the belt which they have girt around
+them.
+
+They wear shoes which cover them four inches above the ankle, full of
+straw inside to keep their feet warm. They do not possess any iron, nor
+any other ingenuity of weapons, only they make the points of their
+arrows with flints, and so also the knives with which they cut, and the
+adze and awls with which they cut and stitch their shoes and clothes.
+They are very agile people and do no harm, and thus follow their flocks;
+wherever night finds them, there they sleep; they carry their wives
+along with them, with all the chattels they possess. The women are very
+small and carry heavy burdens on their backs. They wear shoes and
+clothes just like the men. Of these men they obtained three or four and
+brought them in the ships, and they all died except one, who went to
+Castile in a ship which went thither.
+
+They sailed from this river of Santa Cruz on October 18th: they
+continued navigating along the coast until the 21st day of the same
+month, October, when they discovered a cape, to which they gave the name
+of Cape of the Virgins, because they sighted it on the day of the eleven
+thousand virgins; it is in 52 deg., a little more or less, and from this
+cape, a matter of two or three leagues' distance, we found ourselves at
+the mouth of a strait. We sailed along the said coast within that
+strait, which they had reached the mouth of: they entered in it a little
+and anchored. Ferdinand Magellan sent to discover what there was
+farther in, and they found three channels; that is to say, two more in a
+southerly direction, and one traversing the country in the direction of
+Molucca, but at that time this was not yet known, only the three mouths
+were seen.
+
+The boats went thither, and brought back word, and they set sail and
+anchored at these mouths of the channels, and Ferdinand Magellan sent
+two ships to learn what there was within, and these ships went; one
+returned to the captain-major, and the other, of which Alvaro de
+Mesquita was captain, entered into one of the bays which was to the
+south, and did not return any more. Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that it
+did not come back, set sail, and the next day he did not choose to make
+for the bays, and went to the south and took another which runs
+northwest and southeast and a quarter west and east. He left letters in
+the place from which he sailed, so that, if the other ship returned, it
+might make the course which he left prescribed.
+
+After this they entered into the channel, which at some places had a
+width of three leagues, and two, and one, and in some places half a
+league, and he went through it as long as it was daylight, and anchored
+when it was night: and he sent the boats, and the ships went after the
+boats, and they brought news that there was an outlet, for they already
+saw the great sea on the other side; on which account Ferdinand Magellan
+ordered artillery to be fired for rejoicing; and before they set forth
+from this strait they found two islands, the first one larger, and the
+other, nearer toward the outlet, is the smaller one; and they went out
+between these islands and the coast on the southern side, as it was
+deeper than on the other side.
+
+This strait is a hundred leagues in length to the outlet; that outlet
+and the entrance are in 52 deg. latitude. They made a stay in this strait
+from October 21st to November 26th, which makes thirty-six days of the
+said year of 1520, and as soon as they went out from the strait to the
+sea they made their course, for the most part, to west-northwest, when
+they found that their needles varied to the northwest almost one-half;
+and after they had navigated thus for many days they found an island in
+a little more or less than 18 deg. or 19 deg., and also another, which was in
+from 13 deg. to 14 deg., and this in south latitude; they are uninhabited.
+
+They ran on until they reached the line, when Ferdinand Magellan said
+that now they were in the neighborhood of Molucca, and that he would go
+in a northerly direction as far as 10 deg. or 12 deg., and they reached to as
+far as 13 deg. north, and in this latitude they navigated to the west and a
+quarter southwest a matter of a hundred leagues, where on March 6, 1521,
+they fetched two islands inhabited by many people of little truth; and
+they did not take precautions against them until they saw that they were
+taking away the skiff of the flag-ship, and they cut the rope with which
+it was made fast, and took it ashore without their being able to prevent
+it. They gave this island the name of Thieves' Island (_dos Ladroes_).
+
+Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that the skiff was lost, set sail, it being
+already night, tacking about until the next day; as soon as it was
+morning they anchored at the place where they had seen the skiff carried
+to, and he ordered two boats to be got ready with a matter of fifty or
+sixty men, and he went ashore in person and burned the whole village,
+and they killed seven or eight persons, between men and women, and
+recovered the skiff, and returned to the ships; and while they were
+there they saw forty or fifty _paraos_ come from the same land, and
+which brought much refreshments.
+
+Ferdinand Magellan would not make any further stay, and at once set
+sail, and ordered the course to be steered west and a quarter southwest,
+and so they made land, which is in barely 11 deg.. This land is an island,
+but he would not touch at this one, and they went to touch at another
+farther on which appeared first. Ferdinand Magellan sent a boat ashore
+to observe the nature of the island; when the boat reached land, they
+saw, from the ships, paraos come out from behind the point; then they
+called back their boat. The people of the paraos, seeing that the boat
+was returning to the ships, turned back the paraos, and the boat reached
+the ships, which at once set sail for another island very near to this
+island, which is 10 deg., and they gave it the name of the Island of Good
+Signs, because they observed some gold in it.
+
+While they were thus anchored at this island there came to them two
+paraos, and brought them fowls and cocoanuts, and told them they had
+already seen there other men like them, from which they presumed that
+these might be Lequios or Mogores, a nation of people who have this
+name, or Chiis; and thence they set sail, and navigated farther on among
+many islands, to which they gave the name of Valley without Peril, and
+also St. Lazarus; and they ran on to another island twenty leagues from
+that from which they sailed, which is in 10 deg., and came to anchor at
+another island, which is named Macangor, which is in 9 deg.; and in this
+island they were very well received, and they placed a cross in it. This
+King conducted them thence a matter of thirty leagues to another island,
+named Cabo, which is in 10 deg., and in this island Ferdinand Magellan did
+what he pleased with the consent of the country, and in one day eight
+hundred people became Christian, on which account Ferdinand Magellan
+desired that the other kings, neighbors to this one, should become
+subject to this one, who had become Christian; and these did not choose
+to yield to such obedience. Ferdinand Magellan, seeing that, got ready
+one night with his boats, and burned the villages of those who would not
+yield the said obedience; and a matter of ten or twelve days after this
+was done he sent to a village about half a league from that which he had
+burned, which is named Matam, and which is also an island, and ordered
+them to send him at once three goats, three pigs, three loads of rice,
+and three loads of millet for provisions for the ship. They replied
+that, of each article which he sent to ask them three of, they would
+send him by twos, and if he was satisfied with this they would at once
+comply; if not, it might be as he pleased, but that they would not give
+it. Because they did not choose to grant what he demanded of them,
+Ferdinand Magellan ordered three boats to be equipped with a matter of
+fifty or sixty men, and went against the said place, which was on April
+28th in the morning; there they found many people, who might well be as
+many as three thousand or four thousand men, who fought with such will
+that the said Ferdinand Magellan was killed there, with six of his men,
+in the year 1521.
+
+When Ferdinand Magellan was dead the Christians got back to the ships,
+where they thought fit to make two captains and governors whom they
+should obey; and, having done this, they took counsel (and decided)
+that the captains should go ashore where the people had turned
+Christians, to ask for pilots to take them to Borneo, and this was on
+May 1st of the said year. When the two captains went, being agreed upon
+what had been said, the same people of the country who had become
+Christians armed themselves against them, and killed the two captains
+and twenty-six gentlemen; and the other people who remained got back to
+the boats and returned to the ships, and, finding themselves again
+without captains, they agreed, inasmuch as the principal persons were
+killed, that one Joan Lopez, who was the chief treasurer, should be
+captain-major of the fleet, and the chief constable of the fleet should
+be captain of one of the ships. He was named Gonzalo Vas Despinosa.
+
+Having done this, they set sail, and ran about twenty-five leagues with
+three ships, which they still possessed; they then mustered, and found
+that they were altogether one hundred eight men in all these three
+ships, and many of them were wounded and sick, on which account they did
+not venture to navigate the three ships and thought it would be well to
+burn one of them--the one that should be most suitable for that
+purpose--and to take into the two ships those that remained: this they
+did out at sea, out of sight of any land. While they did this many
+paraos came to speak to them, and navigating among the islands, for in
+that neighborhood there are a great many. They did not understand one
+another, for they had no interpreter, for he had been killed with
+Ferdinand Magellan. Sailing farther on among islets, they came to anchor
+at an island which is named Carpyam, where there is gold enough, and
+this island is in fully 8 deg..
+
+While at anchor in this port of Carpyam they had speech with the
+inhabitants of the island, and made peace with them, and Carvalho, who
+was captain-major, gave them the boat of the ship which had been burned:
+this island has three islets in the offing. Here they took in
+refreshments, and sailed farther on to the west-southwest, and fell in
+with another island, which is named Caram, and is in 11 deg.; from this they
+went on farther to west-southwest, and fell in with a large island, and
+ran along the coast of this island to the northeast, and reached as far
+as 9 deg., where they went ashore one day, with the boats equipped to seek
+for provisions, for in the ships there was now not more than eight days'
+food. On reaching shore the inhabitants would not suffer them to land,
+and shot at them with arrows of cane hardened in fire, so that they
+returned to the ships.
+
+Seeing this, they agreed to go to another island, where they had had
+some dealings, to see if they could get some provisions. Then they met
+with a contrary wind, and, going about in the direction in which they
+wished to go, they anchored, and while at anchor they saw people on
+shore hailing them to go thither; they went there with the boats, and as
+they were speaking to those people by signs, for they did not understand
+each other otherwise, a man-at-arms, named Joan de Campos, told them to
+let him go on shore, since there were no provisions in the ships, and it
+might be that they would obtain some means of getting provisions, and
+that, if the people killed him, they would not lose much with him, for
+God would take thought of his soul; and also if he found provisions, and
+if they did not kill him, he would find means for bringing them to the
+ships: and they thought well of this. So he went on shore, and as soon
+as he reached it the inhabitants received him and took him into the
+interior the distance of a league, and when he was in the village all
+the people came to see him, and they gave him food and entertained him
+well, especially when they saw that he ate pigs' flesh, because in this
+island they had dealings with the Moors of Borneo, and because the
+country people were greedy they made them neither eat pigs nor bring
+them up in the country. The country is called Dyguacam and is in 9 deg..
+
+The said Christian, seeing that he was favored and well treated by the
+inhabitants, gave them to understand by his signs that they should carry
+provisions to the ships, which would be well paid for. In the country
+there was nothing except rice not pounded. Then the people set to
+pounding rice all the night, and when it was morning they took the rice
+and the said Christian and came to the ships, where they did them great
+honor, and took in the rice and paid them, and they returned on shore.
+This man being already set on shore, inhabitants of another village a
+little farther on came to the ships and told them they would give them
+much provisions for their money; and as soon as the said man whom they
+had sent arrived, they set sail and went to anchor at the village of
+those who had come to call them, which was named Vay Palay Cucar a
+Canbam, where Carvalho made peace with the King of the country, and they
+settled the price of rice, and they gave them two measures of rice,
+which weighed one hundred fourteen pounds, for three fathoms of linen
+stuff of Britanny; they took there as much rice as they wanted, and
+goats and pigs; and while they were at this place there came a Moor, who
+had been in the village of Dyguacam, which belongs to the Moors of
+Borneo, as had been said above, and after that he went to his country.
+
+While they were at anchor at this village of Dyguacam, there came to
+them a parao in which there was a negro named Bastiam, who asked for a
+flag and a passport for the Governor of Dyguacam, and they gave him all
+this and other things for a present. They asked the said Bastiam, who
+spoke Portuguese sufficiently well, since he had been in Molucca, where
+he had become a Christian, if he would go with them and show them
+Borneo; he said he would be very willing, and when the departure arrived
+he hid himself, and, seeing that he did not come, they set sail from
+this port of Dyguacam on July 21st to seek for Borneo. As they set sail
+there came to them a parao, which was coming to the port of Dyguacam,
+and they took it, and in it they took three Moors, who said they were
+pilots and that they would take them to Borneo.
+
+Having got these Moors, they steered along this island to the southwest,
+and fell in with two islands at its extremity, and passed between them;
+that on the north side is named Bolyna, and that on the south Bamdym.
+Sailing to the west-southwest a matter of fourteen leagues, they fell in
+with a white bottom, which was a shoal below the water; and the black
+men they carried with them told them to draw near to the coast of the
+island, as it was deeper there, and that was more in the direction of
+Borneo, for from that neighborhood the island of Borneo could already be
+sighted. This same day they reached and anchored at some islands, to
+which they gave the name of islets of St. Paul, which was a matter of
+two and a half or three leagues from the great island of Borneo, and
+they were in about 7 deg. at the south side of these islands. In the island
+of Borneo there is an exceedingly big mountain to which they gave the
+name of Mount St. Paul; and from thence they navigated along the coast
+of Borneo to the southwest, between an island and the island of Borneo
+itself; and they went forward on the same course and reached the
+neighborhood of Borneo, and the Moors they had with them told them that
+there was no Borneo, and the wind did not suffer them to arrive thither,
+as it was contrary. They anchored at an island which is there, and which
+may be eight leagues from Borneo.
+
+Close to this island is another which has many Myrobalans, and the next
+day they set sail for the other island, which is nearer to the port of
+Borneo; and going along thus they saw so many shoals that they anchored
+and sent the boats ashore in Borneo, and they took the aforesaid Moorish
+pilots on shore, and there went a Christian with them; and the boats
+went to set them on land, from whence they had to go to the city of
+Borneo, which was three leagues off, and there they were taken before
+the Shahbender of Borneo, and he asked what people they were, and for
+what they came in the ships; and they were presented to the King of
+Borneo with the Christian. As soon as the boats had set the said men on
+shore, they sounded, in order to see if the ships should come in closer;
+and during this they saw three junks which were coming from the port of
+Borneo--from the said city--out to sea, and as soon as they saw the
+ships they returned inshore; continuing to sound, they found the channel
+by which the port is entered; then they set sail, and entered this
+channel, and being within the channel they anchored, and would not go
+farther in until they received a message from the shore, which arrived
+next day with two paraos: these carried certain swivel guns of metal,
+and a hundred men in each parao, and they brought goats and fowls and
+two cows, and figs and other fruit, and told them to enter farther in
+opposite the islands which were near there, which was the true berth;
+and from this position to the city there might be three or four leagues.
+While thus at anchor they established peace, and settled that they
+should trade in what there was in the country, especially wax, to which
+they answered that they would be willing to sell all that there was in
+the country for their money. This port of Borneo is in 8 deg..
+
+For the answer thus received from the King they sent him a present by
+Gonzalo Mendes Despinosa, captain of the ship Victoria, and the King
+accepted the present, and gave to all of them China stuffs; and when
+there had passed twenty or twenty-three days that they were there
+trading with the people on the island, and had got five men on shore in
+the city itself, there came to anchor at the bar, close to them, five
+junks, at the hour of vespers, and they remained there that evening and
+the night until next day in the morning, when they saw coming from the
+city two hundred paraos, some under sail, others rowing. Seeing in this
+manner the five junks and the paraos, it seemed to them that there might
+be treachery, and they set sail for the junks, and as soon as the crews
+of the junks saw them under sail, they also set sail and made off where
+the wind best served them; and they overhauled one of the junks with
+boats, and took it with twenty-seven men; and the ships went and
+anchored abreast off the Island of the Myrobalans, with the junk made
+fast to the poop of the flag-ship, and the paraos returned to the shore,
+and when night came there came a squall from the west in which the said
+junk went to the bottom alongside the flag-ship, without being able to
+receive any assistance from it whatever.
+
+Next day, in the morning, they saw a sail, and went to it and took it.
+This was a great junk in which the son of the King of Lucam came as
+captain, and had with him ninety men; and as soon as they took them they
+sent some of them to the King of Borneo; and they sent him word by these
+men to send the Christians whom they had got there, who were seven men,
+and they would give him all the people they had taken in the junk; on
+which account the King sent two men of seven whom he had got there in a
+parao, and they again sent him word to send the five men who still
+remained, and they would send all the people they had got from the junk.
+They waited two days for the answer, and there came no message; and they
+took thirty men from the junk, and sent them to the King of Borneo, and
+set sail with fourteen men of those they had taken and three women; and
+they steered along the coast of the said island to the northeast,
+returning backward, and they again passed between the islands and the
+great island of Borneo, where the flag-ship grounded on a point of the
+island, and so remained more than four hours, and the tide turned and
+it got off, by which it was seen clearly that the tide was of
+twenty-four hours.
+
+While making the aforesaid course the wind shifted to northeast, and
+they stood out to sea, and they saw a sail coming, and the ships
+anchored and the boats went to it and took it. It was a small junk and
+carried nothing but cocoanuts; and they took in water and wood, and set
+sail along the coast of the island to the northeast, until they reached
+the extremity of the said island, and met with another small island,
+where they overhauled the ships, and they gave it the name of Port St.
+Mary of August, and it is in fully 7 deg..
+
+As soon as they had taken these precautions they set sail and steered to
+the southwest until they sighted the island, which is called Fagajam,
+and this is a course of thirty-eight to forty leagues; and as soon as
+they sighted this island they steered to the southwest, and again made
+an island which is called Seloque, and they had information that there
+were many pearls there; and when they had already sighted the island the
+wind shifted to a head wind, and they could not fetch it by the course
+they were sailing, and it seemed to them that it might be in 6 deg.. This
+same night they arrived at the island of Quipe, and ran along it to the
+southeast, and passed between it and another island called Tamgym; and
+always running along the coast of the said island, and going thus, they
+fell in with a parao laden with sago leaves (which is of a tree which is
+named _cajare_), which the people of that country eat as bread. The
+parao carried twenty-one men, and the chief of them had been in Molucca,
+in the house of Francisco Semrryn; this was in 5 deg., a little more or
+less. The inhabitants of this land came to see the ships, and so they
+had speech of one another, and an old man of these people said he would
+conduct them to Molucca.
+
+In this manner, having fixed a time with the old man, an agreement was
+made with him, and they gave him a certain price for this; and when the
+next day came, and they were to depart, the old man intended to escape,
+and they understood it, and took him and others who were with him, and
+who also said that they knew pilots' work, and they set sail; and as
+soon as the inhabitants saw them go, they fitted out to go after them;
+and of the paraos, there did not reach the ships more than two, and
+these reached so near that they shot arrows into the ships, and the wind
+was fresh and they could not come up with them. At midnight of that day
+they sighted some islands, and they steered more toward them; and next
+day they saw land, which was an island; and at night following that day
+they found themselves very close to it, and when night fell the wind
+calmed and the currents drew them very much inshore; there the old pilot
+cast himself into the sea and betook himself to land.
+
+Sailing thus forward, after one of the pilots had fled, they sighted
+another island and arrived close to it, and another Moorish pilot said
+that Molucca was still farther on; and navigating thus, the next day in
+the morning they sighted three high mountains, which belonged to a
+nation of people whom they called Salabos; and then they saw a small
+island and they anchored to take in some water, because they feared that
+in Molucca they would not be allowed to take it in; and they omitted
+doing so because the Moorish pilot told them that there were some four
+hundred in that island, and that they were all very bad, and might do
+them some injury, as they were men of little faith; and that he would
+give them no such advice as to go to that island; and also because
+Molucca, which they were seeking, was now near, and that its kings were
+good men, who gave a good reception to all sorts of men in their
+country; and while still in this neighborhood they saw the islands
+themselves of Molucca, and for rejoicing they fired all the artillery,
+and they arrived at the island on November 8, 1521, so that they spent
+from Spain to Molucca two years and two months.
+
+As soon as they arrived at the island of Tydor, which is in 30', the
+King thereof did them great honor, which could not be exceeded. There
+they treated with the King for their cargo, and the King engaged to give
+them whatever there was in the country for their money, and they settled
+to give for the bahar of cloves fourteen ells of yellow cloth of
+seventy-seven tem, which are worth in Castile a ducat the ell; of red
+cloth of the same kind ten ells; they also gave thirty ells of Britanny
+linen cloth, and for each of these quantities they received a bahar of
+cloves; likewise for thirty knives, eight bahars. Having thus settled
+all the above mentioned prices, the inhabitants of the country gave them
+information that farther on, in another island near, there was a
+Portuguese man. This island might be two leagues distant, and it was
+named Targatell. This man was the chief person of Molucca; there we now
+have got a fortress. They then wrote letters to the said Portuguese to
+come and speak with them, to which he answered that he did not dare,
+because the King of the country forbade it; that if they obtained
+permission from the King he would come at once. This permission they
+soon got, and the Portuguese came to speak with them.
+
+They gave him an account of the prices which they had settled, at which
+he was amazed, and said on that account the King had ordered him not to
+come, as they did not know the truth about the prices of the country;
+and while they were thus taking in cargo there arrived the King of
+Baraham, which is near there, and said that he wished to be a vassal of
+the King of Castile, and also that he had got four hundred bahars of
+cloves, and that he had sold them to the King of Portugal, and that they
+had bought it, but that he had not yet delivered it; and if they wished
+for it, he would give it all to them; to which the captains answered
+that if he brought it to them, and came with it, they would buy it, but
+not otherwise. The King, seeing that they did not wish to take the
+cloves, asked them for a flag and a letter of safe-conduct, which they
+gave him, signed by the captains of the ships.
+
+While they were thus waiting for the cargo, it seemed to them, from the
+delay in delivery, that the King was preparing some treachery against
+them, and the greater part of the ships' crews made an uproar and told
+the captains to go, as the delays which the King made were for nothing
+else than treachery: as it seemed to them all that it might be so, they
+were abandoning everything and were intending to depart; and being about
+to unfurl the sails, the King, who had made the agreement with them,
+came to the flag-ship and asked the captain why he wanted to go, because
+that which he had agreed upon with him he intended to fulfil it as had
+been settled. The captain replied that the ships' crews said they should
+go and not remain any longer, as it was only treachery that was being
+prepared against them. To this the King answered that it was not so, and
+on that account he at once sent for his _Koran_, upon which he wished
+to make oath that nothing should be done to them. They at once brought
+him his _Koran_, and upon it he made oath, and told them to rest at ease
+with that. At this the crews were set at rest, and he promised them that
+he would give them their cargo by December 15, 1521, which he fulfilled
+within the said time, without being wanting in anything.
+
+When the two ships were already laden and about to unfurl their sails,
+the flag-ship sprung a large leak, and, the King of the country learning
+this, he sent them twenty-five divers to stop the leak, which they were
+unable to do. They settled that the other ship should depart, and that
+this one should again discharge all its cargo and unload it; and as they
+could not stop the leak, the King promised that they, the people of the
+country, should give them all that they might be in need of. This was
+done, and they discharged the cargo of the flag-ship; and when the said
+ship was repaired, they took in her cargo, and decided on making for the
+country of the Antilles, and the course from Molucca to it was two
+thousand leagues, a little more or less. The other ship, which set sail
+first, left on December of the said year, and went out to sea for the
+Timor, and made its course behind Java, two thousand fifty-five leagues,
+to the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+
+ANTONIO PIGAFETTA
+
+In order to double the Cape of Good Hope, we went as far as 42 deg. south
+latitude, and we remained off that cape for nine weeks, with the sails
+struck, on account of the western and northwestern gales, which beat
+against our bows with fierce squalls. The Cape of Good Hope is in 34 deg.
+30' south latitude, sixteen hundred leagues distant from Cape of
+Molucca, and it is the largest and most dangerous cape in the world.
+
+Some of our men, and among them the sick, would have liked to land at a
+place belonging to the Portuguese called Mozambique, both because the
+ship made much water and because of the great cold which we suffered;
+and much more because we had nothing but rice-water for food and drink,
+all the meat of which we had made provision having putrefied, for the
+want of salt had not permitted us to salt it. But the greater number of
+us, prizing honor more than life itself, decided on attempting at any
+risk to return to Spain.
+
+At length, by the aid of God, on the 6th of May, we passed the terrible
+cape, but we were obliged to approach it within only five leagues'
+distance, or else we should never have passed it. We then sailed toward
+the northwest for two whole months without ever taking rest; and in this
+short time we lost twenty-one men, between Christians and Indians. We
+made then a curious observation on throwing them into the sea; that was
+that the Christian remained with the face turned to the sky, and the
+Indians with the face turned to the sea. If God had not granted us
+favorable weather, we should all have perished of hunger.
+
+Constrained by extreme necessity, we decided on touching at the Cape
+Verd island named St. James. Knowing that we were in an enemy's country
+and among suspicious persons, on sending the boat ashore to get
+provision of victuals, we charged the seamen to say to the Portuguese
+that we had sprung our foremast under the equinoctial line--although
+this misfortune had happened at the Cape of Good Hope--and that our ship
+was alone, because while we tried to repair it our captain-general had
+gone with the other two ships to Spain. With these good words, and
+giving our merchandise in exchange, we obtained two boat-loads of rice.
+
+In order to see whether we had kept an exact account of the days, we
+charged those who went ashore to ask what day of the week it was, and
+they were told by the Portuguese inhabitants of the island that it was
+Thursday, which was a great cause of wondering to us, since with us it
+was only Wednesday. We could not persuade ourselves that we were
+mistaken; and I was more surprised than the others, since, having always
+been in good health, I had every day, without intermission, written down
+the day that was current. But we were afterward advised that there was
+no error on our part, since, as we had always sailed toward the west,
+following the course of the sun, and had returned to the same place, we
+must have gained twenty-four hours, as it is clear to anyone who
+reflects upon it.
+
+The boat, having returned for rice a second time to the shore, was
+detained with thirteen men who were in it. As we saw that, and, from the
+movement in certain caravels, suspected that they might wish to capture
+us and our ship, we at once set sail. We afterward learned, some time
+after our return, that our boat and men had been arrested, because one
+of our men had discovered the deception and said that the
+captain-general was dead, and that our ship was the only one remaining
+of Magellan's fleet.
+
+At last, when it pleased heaven, on Saturday, September 6, 1522, we
+entered the Bay of San Lucar; and of sixty men who composed our crew
+when we left Molucca, we were reduced to only eighteen, and these for
+the most part sick. Of the others, some died of hunger, some had run
+away at the island of Timor, and some had been condemned to death for
+their crimes.
+
+From the day when we left this Bay of San Lucar until our return
+thither, we reckoned that we had run more than fourteen thousand four
+hundred sixty leagues, and we had completed going round the earth from
+east to west.
+
+Monday, September 8th, we cast anchor near the mole of Seville, and
+discharged all the artillery.
+
+Tuesday we all went in shirts and barefoot, with a taper in our hands,
+to visit the shrine of Santa Maria de Antigua.
+
+Then leaving Seville, I went to Valladolid, where I presented to his
+sacred majesty Don Carlos neither gold nor silver, but things more
+precious in the eyes of so great a sovereign. I presented to him, among
+other things, a book written by my hand of all the things that occurred
+day by day in our voyage. I departed thence as I was best able and went
+to Portugal, and related to King John the things which I had seen.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[32] Translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley.
+
+
+
+
+THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD
+
+A.D. 1520
+
+J. S. BREWER
+
+     From the magnificence of the preparations made for the
+     famous meeting described in the following pages, the plain
+     on which it took place, between Guines and Ardres, France,
+     received the name of the "Field of the Cloth of Gold."
+
+     The meeting of the two kings, Henry VIII of England and
+     Francis I of France, was brought about by circumstances
+     connected with the rivalry between Francis and the emperor
+     Charles V. The enmity of the two latter and their repeated
+     wars form a principal subject of European history during
+     many years.
+
+     Francis came to the throne in 1515, and the first four years
+     of his reign were marked by brilliant successes, which
+     brought him fame as a ruler and a warrior. But in 1519 he
+     was an unsuccessful candidate for the imperial dignity, and
+     Charles, being preferred before him, became emperor of the
+     Holy Roman Empire.
+
+     Great was the mortification of Francis and he soon after
+     declared war against his rival. Both sought the alliance of
+     Henry VIII, and in hopes of securing his friendship, and
+     thereby preventing a union of the Emperor and the English
+     King against himself, Francis arranged the meeting so
+     brilliantly pictured by Brewer. But Francis, by overdoing
+     this gorgeous reception, gave offence to Henry, whom he
+     seemed to eclipse in magnificence. Meanwhile Charles,
+     anticipating the interview, had visited Henry in England,
+     and by his more politic address he secured the favor both of
+     the English monarch and his great minister, Cardinal Wolsey.
+
+
+Situated in a flat and uninviting plain--poor and barren, as the
+uncultivated border-land of the two kingdoms--Guines and its castle
+offered little attraction, and if possible less accommodation, to the
+gay throng now to be gathered within its walls. Its weedy moat and
+dismantled battlements, "its keep too ruinous to mend," defied the
+efforts of carpenters and bricklayers, as the English commissioners
+pathetically complained; and could not by any artifice or contrivance be
+made to assume the appearance of a formidable, or even a respectable,
+fortress to friend or enemy. But on the castle green, within the limits
+of a few weeks, and in the face of great difficulties, the English
+artists of that day contrived a summer palace, more like a vision of
+romance, the creation of some fairy dream--if the accounts of
+eye-witnesses of all classes may be trusted--than the dull, every-day
+reality of clay-born bricks and mortar.
+
+No "palace of art" in these beclouded climates of the West ever so truly
+deserved its name. As if the imagination of the age, pent up in wretched
+alleys and narrow dwelling-houses, had resolved for once to throw off
+its ordinary trammels and recompense itself for its long restraint, it
+prepared to realize those visions of enchanted bowers and ancient
+pageantry on which it had fed so long in the fictions and romances of
+the Middle Ages. I have thought it worth while to notice so much of the
+details as will enable the reader to form some slight conception for
+himself of this scene of enchantment which the genius of the age had
+contrived for its own amusement.
+
+The palace was an exact square of three hundred twenty-eight feet. It
+was pierced on every side with oriel windows and clear-stories curiously
+glazed, the mullions and posts of which were overlaid with gold. An
+embattled gate, ornamented on both sides with statues representing men
+in various attitudes of war, and flanked by an embattled tower, guarded
+the entrance. From this gate to the entrance of the palace arose in long
+ascent a sloping dais or half pace, along which were grouped "images of
+sore and terrible countenances," in armor of argentine or bright metal.
+At the entrance, under an embowed landing-place, facing the great doors,
+stood "antique" (classical) figures girt with olive branches. The
+passages, the roofs of the galleries from place to place and from
+chamber to chamber, were ceiled and covered with white silk, fluted and
+embowed with silken hanging of divers colors and braided cloths, "which
+showed like bullions of fine burnished gold." The roofs of the chambers
+were studded with roses, set in lozenges, and diapered on a ground of
+fine gold. Panels enriched with antique carving and gilt bosses covered
+the spaces between the windows; while along all the corridors and from
+every window hung tapestry of silk and gold, embroidered with figures.
+Chairs covered with cushions of turkey-work, cloths of estate, of
+various shapes and sizes, overlaid with golden tissue and rich
+embroidery, ornamented the state apartments. The square on every side
+was decorated with equal richness, and blazed with the same profusion of
+glass, gold, and ornamental hangings; and "every quarter of it, even the
+least, was a habitation fit for a prince," says Fleuranges, who had
+examined it with the critical eye of a rival and a Frenchman.
+
+To the palace was attached a spacious chapel, still more sumptuously
+adorned. Its altars were hung with cloth of gold tissue embroidered with
+pearls; cloth of gold covered the walls and desks. Basins, censers,
+cruets, and other vessels, of the same precious materials, lent their
+lustre to its services. On the high altar, shaded by a magnificent
+canopy of immense proportions, stood enormous candlesticks and other
+ornaments of gold. Twelve golden images of the apostles, as large as
+children of four years old, astonished the eyes of the spectator. The
+copes and vestments of the officiating clergy were cloth of tissue
+powdered with red roses, brought from the looms of Florence, and woven
+in one piece, thickly studded with gold and jewelry. No less profusion
+might be seen in the two closets left apart for the King and the Queen.
+Images and sacred vessels of solid gold, in gold cloth, cumbrous with
+pearls and precious stones, attested the rank, the magnificence, and
+devotion of the occupants. The ceilings of these closets were gilded and
+painted; the hangings were of tapestry embroidered with fretwork of
+pearls and gems. The chapel was served by thirty-five priests and a
+proportionate number of singing-boys.
+
+From the palace a secret gallery led into a private apartment in Guines
+castle, along which the royal visitors could pass and repass at
+pleasure.
+
+The King was attended by squires of the body, sewers, gentlemen-ushers,
+grooms and pages of the chamber, for all of whom suitable accommodation
+had to be provided. The lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the lord
+treasurer of the household, the comptroller, with their numerous staffs,
+had to be lodged in apartments adapted to their rank and services. As it
+was one great object of the interview to entertain all comers with
+masques and banquetings of the most sumptuous kind, the mere rank and
+file of inferior officers and servants formed a colony of themselves.
+The bakehouse, pantry, cellar, buttery, kitchen, larder, accatry, were
+amply provided with ovens, ranges, and culinary requirements, to say
+nothing of the stables, the troops of grooms, farriers, saddlers,
+stirrup-makers, furbishers, and footmen. Upward of two hundred
+attendants were employed in and about the kitchen alone.
+
+Outside the palace gate, on the greensward, stood a quiet fountain, of
+antique workmanship, with a statue of Bacchus "birlyng the wine." Three
+runlets, fed by secret conduits hid beneath the earth, spouted claret,
+hypocras, and water into as many silver cups, to quench the thirst of
+all comers. On the opposite side was a pillar wreathed in gold, and
+supported by four gilt lions; and on the top stood an image of blind
+Cupid, armed with bow and arrows. The gate itself, built in massive
+style, was pierced with loop-holes. Its windows and recesses were filled
+with images of Hercules, Alexander, and other ancient worthies, richly
+gilt and painted. In long array, in the plain beyond, twenty-eight
+hundred tents stretched their white canvas before the eyes of the
+spectator, gay with the pennons, badges, and devices of the various
+occupants; while miscellaneous followers, in tens of thousands,
+attracted by profit or the novelty of the scene, camped on the grass and
+filled the surrounding slopes, in spite of the severity of
+provost-marshal and reiterated threats of mutilation and chastisement.
+Multitudes from the French frontiers, or the populous cities of
+Flanders, indifferent to the political significance of the scene,
+swarmed from their dingy homes to gaze on kings, queens, knights, and
+ladies dressed in their utmost splendor. Beggars, itinerant minstrels,
+venders of provisions and small luxuries, mixed with wagoners,
+ploughmen, laborers, and the motley troop of camp-followers, crowded
+round, or stretched themselves beneath the summer's sun on bundles of
+straw and grass, in drunken idleness. No better lodging awaited many a
+gay knight and lady who had travelled far to be present at the
+spectacle, and were obliged to content themselves with such open-air
+accommodation. Backward and forward surged the excited and unwieldy
+crowd, as every hour brought its fresh contingent of curiosity or
+criticism in the shape of some new-comer conspicuous for his fantastic
+bearing or the quaint fashion of his armor. Each new candidate for the
+love and honor of the ladies, for popular applause, or less noble
+objects, was greeted with shouts and acclamations as he succeeded in
+distinguishing himself from the throng by the strangeness or splendor of
+his appointments. Christendom had never witnessed such a scene. The
+fantastic usages of the courts of Love and Beauty were revived once
+more. The Mediaeval Age had gathered up its departing energies for this
+last display of its favorite pastime--henceforth to be consigned,
+without regret, to "the mouldered lodges of the past."
+
+At the time that Henry set sail for Calais, Francis started from
+Montreuil for Ardres. It was a meagre old town, long since in ruins, the
+fosses and castle of which had been hastily repaired. He was attended on
+his route by a vast and motley multitude. No less than ten thousand of
+this poor vagrant crew were compelled to turn back, by a proclamation
+ordering that no person, without special permission, should approach
+within two leagues of the King's train, "on pain of the halter." As the
+French had proposed that both parties should lodge in tents erected on
+the field, they had prepared numerous pavilions, fitted up with halls,
+galleries, and chambers, ornamented within and without with gold and
+silver tissue. Amid golden balls and quaint devices glittering in the
+sun, rose a gilt figure of St. Michael, conspicuous for his blue mantle
+powdered with golden _fleurs-de-lis_, and crowning a royal pavilion, of
+vast dimensions, supported by a single mast. In his right hand he held a
+dart, in his left a shield emblazoned with the arms of France. Inside,
+the roof of the pavilion represented the canopy of heaven, ornamented
+with stars and figures of the zodiac. The lodgings of the Queen, of the
+Duchess of Alencon, the King's favorite sister, and of other ladies and
+princes of the blood were covered with cloth of gold. The rest of the
+tents, to the number of three hundred or four hundred, emblazoned with
+the arms of the owners, were pitched on the banks of a small river
+outside the city walls. A large house in the town, built for the
+occasion, served as a place of reception for royal visitors.
+
+From June 4, 1520, when Henry first entered Guines, the festivities
+continued with unabated splendor for twenty days. They were opened by a
+visit of Wolsey to the French King, and gave the Cardinal an opportunity
+for displaying his love of magnificence, not unaptly reckoned by poets
+and philosophers as the nearest virtue to magnanimity. A hundred
+archers of the guard, followed by fifty gentlemen of his household,
+clothed in crimson velvet with chains of gold, bareheaded, bonnet in
+hand, and mounted on magnificent horses richly caparisoned, led the way.
+After them came fifty gentlemen ushers, also bareheaded, carrying gold
+maces with knobs as big as a man's head; next a cross-bearer in scarlet,
+supporting a crucifix adorned with precious stones. Then four lackeys
+followed, with gilt batons and pole-axes, in paletots of crimson velvet,
+their bonnets in hand adorned with plumes, their coats ornamented before
+and behind with the Cardinal's badge in goldsmith's work. Lastly came
+the Legate himself, mounted on a barded mule trapped in crimson velvet,
+with gold front-stalls, studs, buckles, and stirrups. Over a chimere of
+figured crimson velvet he wore a fine linen rochet. Bishops and other
+ecclesiastics succeeded, and the whole procession was brought up by
+fifty archers of the King's guard, their bows bent, their quivers at
+their sides, their jackets of red cloth adorned with a gold rose before
+and behind.
+
+In this state the procession approached the town of Ardres. Arrived at
+the King's lodgings Wolsey dismounted, amid the roar of artillery and
+the sound of drums, trumpets, fifes, and other instruments of music. He
+was received by the King of France, bonnet in hand, with the greatest
+demonstrations of affection. The visit was returned next day by the
+French. These ceremonies were preliminary to the meeting of the two
+sovereigns on Thursday, June 7th. On that day, the King of England,
+apparelled in cloth of silver damask, thickly ribbed with cloth of gold,
+and mounted on a charger arrayed in the most dazzling trappings overlaid
+with fine gold and curiously wrought in mosaic, advanced toward the
+valley of Ardres. No man, from personal inclinations or personal
+qualities, was better calculated to sustain his part in a brilliant
+ceremonial such as then struck the eyes of the spectators. An admirable
+horseman, tall and muscular, slightly inclined to corpulence, with a red
+beard and ruddy countenance, Henry VIII was at this time, by the
+admission of his rivals, the most comely and commanding prince of his
+age. Closely attending on the King was Sir Henry Guilford, the master of
+the horse, leading a spare charger, not less splendidly arrayed in
+trappings of fine gold wrought in ciphers, with headstall, reins, and
+saddle of the same material. Nine henchmen followed in cloth of tissue,
+the harness of their horses covered with gold scales. In front rode the
+old Marquis of Dorset, bearing the sword of estate before the King;
+behind came the Cardinal, the Dukes of Buckingham and Suffolk, with the
+Earl of Shrewsbury and others.
+
+A shot fired from the castle of Guines, and responded to by a shot from
+the castle of Ardre, gave warning that the two princes were ready to set
+forward. As Henry advanced toward the valley with all his company in
+military array, the French King might be descried on the opposite hill
+with his dazzling company, in dress, deportment, and the splendor of his
+retinue not less glorious or conspicuous than his rival. Over a short
+cassock of gold frieze he wore a mantle of cloth of gold covered with
+jewels. The front and the sleeves were studded with diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and large loose-hanging pearls; on his head he wore a velvet
+bonnet adorned with plumes and precious stones. Far in advance rode the
+provost-marshal with his archers to clear the ground. Then followed the
+marshals of the army in cloth of gold, their orders about their necks,
+mounted on horses covered with gold trappings; next the grand master,
+the princes of the blood, and the King of Navarre. After them came the
+Swiss guard on foot, in new liveries, with their drums, flutes,
+trumpets, clarions, and hautboys; then the gentlemen of the household;
+and immediately preceding the King was the grand constable, Bourbon,
+bearing the sword naked, and the _grand ecuyer_, with the sword of
+France, powdered with gold fleurs-de-lis.
+
+As the two companies approached each other, there was a momentary pause.
+The French watched with some jealousy the close array of the English
+footmen, who, stretched in a long line on the King's left, marched step
+for step with all the solemn gravity of their nation, as if they were
+rather preparing for battle than pastime, while, on the other side, the
+superior numbers of the French awakened the national jealousy of the
+Englishmen. "Sir, ye be my king and sovereign," broke in the lord
+Abergavenny in breathless haste; "wherefore, above all I am bound to
+show you truth, and not to let [stop] for none. I have been in the
+French party, and they may be more in number; double so many as ye be."
+Then spoke up the Earl of Shrewsbury, "Sire, whatever my lord of
+Abergavenny sayeth, I myself have been there, and the Frenchmen be more
+in fear of you and your subjects than your subjects be of them.
+Wherefore," said the Earl, "if I were worthy to give counsel, your grace
+should march forward." "So we intend, my lord," replied the King. "On
+afore, my masters!" shouted the officers of arms; and the whole company
+halted, face foremost, close by the valley of Ardres.
+
+A minute's pause--a breathless silence, followed by a slight stir on
+both sides. Then from the dense array of cloth of gold, silver, and
+jewelry, of white plumes and waving pennons, amid the acclamations of
+myriads of spectators on the surrounding hills, and the shrill burst of
+pipes, trumpets, and clarions, two horsemen were seen to emerge, and, in
+the sight of both nations, slowly descend into the valley from opposite
+sides. These were the two sovereigns. As they approached nearer they
+spurred their horses to a gallop; then, uncovering, embraced each other
+on horseback, and, after dismounting, embraced again. While the two
+sovereigns proceeded arm in arm to a rich pavilion--which no one else
+was allowed to enter, except Wolsey on one side and the Admiral of
+France on the other--the officers on both sides, intermingling their
+ranks, made good cheer, and toasted each other in broken French and
+English, "Bons amys, French and English!"
+
+Friday and Saturday were occupied in preparing the field for the
+tournament. The lists, nine hundred feet in length and three hundred
+twenty feet broad, were pitched on a rising ground in the territory of
+Guines, about half way between Guines and Ardres. Galleries hung with
+tapestry surrounded the enclosure, and on the right side, in the place
+of honor, were two glazed chambers for the two Queens. A deep foss
+served to keep off the crowd. The entrances were guarded by twelve
+French and twelve English archers; and at the foot of the lists, under a
+triumphal arch, stood the _perron_, or tree of nobility, from which the
+shields of the two Kings were suspended on a higher line than those of
+the other challengers and answerers. The perron for Henry VIII was
+formed of a hawthorn; and for Francis I a raspberry (_framboisier_), in
+supposed allusion to his name. Cloth of gold served for the trunk and
+dried leaves; the foliage was of green silk; the flowers and fruits of
+silver and Venetian gold. Under the tree, which measured in compass not
+less than one hundred twenty-nine feet, the heralds took their stand on
+an artificial mound, surrounded by railings of green damask.
+
+On Sunday, while the French King dined at Guines with the Queen of
+England, the English King dined with the French Queen and the Duchess of
+Alencon at Ardres. On arriving at the Queen's lodgings, Henry was
+received by Louis of Savoy and a bevy of ladies magnificently dressed.
+Passing slowly through their ranks, in leisurely admiration of their
+charms, he reached the apartment where the Queen attended his coming. As
+he made his reverence to the Queen, she rose from her chair of state to
+meet him. Kneeling with one knee on the ground, his bonnet in his hand,
+he first kissed the Queen, next Madame, then the Duchess of Alencon, and
+finally all the princesses and ladies of the company. This done, dinner
+was announced. At the third service, Mountjoy's herald entered with a
+great golden goblet, crying in the name of the King of England, "Largess
+to the most high, mighty, and excellent prince, Henry, King of England,
+etc. Largess, largess!" The banquet ended at five in the evening, when
+the King took his leave. To display his skill before the ladies, he set
+spurs to his horse, making it bound and curvet "as valiantly as any man
+could do."
+
+The jousts commenced on Monday, the 11th. The rules adopted to secure
+fair play and guard against accidents may be read by those curious in
+such matters in the original black-letter _Ordonnance_, printed at the
+time.
+
+On the first day the Kings of England and France, with their aids, held
+the lists against all comers; and, with the exception of Wednesday, when
+the wind was too high, the jousts continued without interruption
+throughout the week. On Sunday, the two Kings exchanged hospitality as
+before. On this occasion, Francis, dropping all reserve, visited the
+King of England before eight in the morning, attended by four companions
+only, and, entering his apartment without ceremony, embraced him as he
+was seated at breakfast. The jousts were concluded in the following
+week, with a solemn mass sung by the Cardinal in a chapel erected on the
+field. The arrangements observed on this occasion, not less elaborate
+than those by which the feats of arms were regulated, may be read in the
+same volume as the _Ordonnance_. Here, as in the ceremonial of the
+lists, the spirit of chivalry reigned triumphant. When the Cardinal of
+Bourbon, according to the usages of the time, presented the Gospel to
+the French King to kiss, Francis, declining, commanded it to be offered
+to the King of England, who was too well bred to accept the honor. When
+the _Pax_ was presented at the _Agnus Dei_, the two sovereigns repeated
+the same mannerly breeding. The two Queens were equally ceremonious.
+After a polite altercation of some minutes, when neither would decide
+who should be the first to kiss the _Pax_, woman-like they kissed each
+other instead. A sermon in Latin, enlarging on the blessings of peace,
+was delivered by Pace at the close of the service; and a salamander was
+sent up in the air in the direction of Guines, to the astonishment and
+terror of the beholders. The whole was concluded with a banquet, at
+which the royal ladies, too polite to eat, spent their time in
+conversation; but the legates, cardinals, and prelates dined, drank, and
+ate _sans fiction_ in another room by themselves.
+
+On Sunday, June 24th, the Kings met in the lists to interchange gifts
+and bid each other farewell. Henry and his court left for Calais;
+Francis returned to Abbeville.
+
+The two Kings parted on the best of terms, as the world thought, and
+with mutual feelings of regret. Yet Henry had already arranged to meet
+the Emperor at Gravelines, there settle the terms of a new convention,
+to the disadvantage of the French King. The imperial envoy, the Marquis
+d'Arschot, arrived at Calais on July 4th, and was received by the Duke
+of Buckingham. On the 5th the King visited Gravelines, and returned with
+the Emperor to Calais three days after. The interview, graced by the
+presence of Charles, his brother Ferdinand, Herman, the Archbishop of
+Cologne, and the Lord Chievres, though less splendid, was more cordial
+than the interview with the French King, and was meant for business.
+
+Frugal and reserved, the Emperor contrived, by his simple and
+unostentatious habits, to render himself more agreeable to his English
+guests than even Francis had been able to do with all his profuse and
+expensive civilities. Not, as some may condemn us, in consequence of
+our national fickleness; nor, as others may excuse us, because
+Englishmen preferred the plainer manners of the German or the Fleming;
+but because in the interview with Francis, in spite of appearances,
+there was no real cordiality. A tournament, in fact, was the least
+eligible method of promoting friendly feeling; it was more likely to
+engender unpleasant disputes and jealousies. To enforce the rules laid
+down for preserving order and fair play among the combatants was not an
+easy or a popular task. National rivalry was apt to break out, and it
+was hard for the judges to escape the imputation of partiality. Nor did
+the English, it must be admitted, return from the field in much good
+humor. With a feeling of complacency engendered by their insular
+position and their long isolation from the Continent, they had been wont
+to consider themselves as far superior to the French in all exercises of
+strength and agility. The French knights had shown themselves fully
+equal to their English opponents; the French King was not inferior in
+personal courage and activity to his English rival. Then rumors, such as
+spring up like the dragon's teeth in vast and motley multitudes,
+evidently fanned and fostered by Flemish emissaries, continually
+represented the French as engaged in contriving some act of treachery
+against the English King and nation. Among the nobles, also, the Dukes
+of Suffolk and Buckingham, the lord Abergavenny, and others were glad of
+any pretext for maligning a pageant of which Wolsey had the prime
+direction.
+
+Francis still hovered on the frontier in the fruitless hope of being
+invited to take part in this interview with the Emperor. The day before
+Charles left Ghent, the Lady Vendome and the Duchess her daughter-in-law
+contrived to have business in that town, but their artifice was not
+successful. Francis was obliged to content himself with the assurance
+that the visage and countenance of his English ally appeared "not to be
+so replenished with joy" as at the valley of Ardres, and that he had
+given proofs of undiminished affection by riding a courser that Francis
+had given him. With an impressiveness intended to be candid, he told Sir
+Richard Wingfield, who had succeeded as English resident at the French
+court, that "if the King Catholic were a prince of like faith unto the
+King his brother [Henry], and that he might perceive from Wolsey that
+his coming thither [to Calais] might be the cause of any good conclusion
+between them" (that is, between himself and the Emperor), "he would not
+fail to come in post, and not to have looked for rank and place to him
+belonging, but would have put him into the King's chamber as one of the
+number of the same." But neither his extreme humility nor his flattering
+proposal that Henry and himself, "the chief pillars of Christendom,"
+should handle the Pope, whom Francis knew "to be at some season the
+fearfulest creature of the world, and at some other to be as brave," nor
+the schemes and blandishments of the ladies, availed. He chafed under
+disappointment; still more at his ill-success in counteracting the
+growing intimacy of Henry and the Emperor. He had exhausted, to little
+purpose, "that liberal and unsuspicious confidence" which too credulous
+historians are apt to think characterized his proceedings at the Field
+of the Cloth of Gold, to the disadvantage of his less attractive and
+engaging contemporary. He could neither prevent the meetings of his two
+rivals nor penetrate their secrets. He was utterly foiled, yet dared not
+show his resentment. While the Pope and the Spaniards, unable to
+penetrate beneath the surface or read the signs of the times, were
+puzzled and scandalized at the Emperor's condescension, the world looked
+on with astonishment, as well it might, to see the two monarchs of the
+West thus anxiously soliciting the Cardinal's good graces. What could
+there be in the son of a butcher to command such deference?
+
+Of the projects discussed at this interview we are not precisely
+informed. The English version, intended for the meridian of the French
+court, and to lull the suspicions of Francis, is the only account we
+possess. If any credit be due to a statement prepared under such
+circumstances and calculated to alienate the French King irrecoverably
+from the Emperor, we are to believe that the imperial ambassadors had
+already proposed to Henry to break off his matrimonial engagement with
+France, and transfer the hand of the princess Mary to the Emperor. As an
+inducement for the King to coincide in this arrangement, the Emperor
+undertook to make war on France by sea and land, and not desist until
+Henry "had recovered his right and title in the same." The King,
+according to the same document, rejected such a treacherous overture
+with the utmost horror, vehemently protesting against its immorality and
+perfidiousness. That such a proposal was made, though probably not by
+Chievres, to whom it is attributed--that it was accepted by England, but
+with none of the indignation described in the document--is clear beyond
+dispute. Long before any interruption had occurred in the amicable
+relations between the two countries, before even the landing of Charles
+at Canterbury, or in the interview in the valley of Ardres, it had been
+secretly proposed that the French engagement should be set aside, and
+the hand of Mary be transferred to the Emperor. The King's horror at
+this act of faithlessness--if it had any existence beyond the paper on
+which it was written--must have been tardy and gratuitous, seeing that
+the chief purpose of the meeting at Calais was to settle the basis of
+this matrimonial alliance, and obtain the solemn ratification of the
+Emperor.
+
+
+
+
+CORTES CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO
+
+A.D. 1521
+
+WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+     Spain had already begun to conquer and colonize the New
+     World when in 1519 Hernando Cortes, with about 700 men,
+     landed in Mexico, having previously served in Espanola
+     (Haiti) and Cuba. He was born in Medellin, Estremadura,
+     Spain, in 1485, and was therefore now about thirty-four
+     years of age. To make the retreat of his force impossible,
+     he destroyed his ships and marched into the interior and
+     established himself in the capital city, Tenochtitlan, on
+     the site of the present city of Mexico.
+
+     Cortes found Southern Mexico under the rule of the Aztecs
+     (more correctly Aztecas), a partly civilized and powerful
+     branch of Nahuatl Indians of Central Mexico. They had formed
+     a confederacy with other tribes, and now maintained a
+     formidable empire in the Mexican valley plateau. Their
+     emperor was Montezuma II, who sent messengers to remonstrate
+     against the advance of Cortes. The Spaniard continued his
+     march, entered the city, and soon made Montezuma his
+     prisoner, holding him as a hostage. In June, 1520, the
+     Spaniards were besieged in the city; during a parley
+     Montezuma was killed; on the night of the 30th the
+     Spaniards, while trying to leave the city, lost half their
+     men in a severe fight, and only after another battle (July
+     7th) escaped into Tlascala.
+
+     Reorganizing his force, strengthened by Indian allies and by
+     ships which he built on the lakes, Cortes, in May, 1521,
+     began the siege of Mexico, as historians call the Aztec
+     capital. Guatemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, made a
+     desperate defence, and before its capture the city was
+     almost destroyed. On August 12th the Spaniards made a strong
+     assault, which so weakened the defenders that the following
+     day was to be the last of the once flourishing empire.
+     Cortes' chief lieutenants were Pedro de Alvarado, Gonzalo de
+     Sandoval, and Olid, famous Spanish soldiers.
+
+     After taking the capital city, Cortes, being empowered by
+     Guatemotzin, conquered the whole of Mexico, which was called
+     New Spain, and in 1523 he was appointed governor.
+
+
+On the morning of August 13, 1521, the Spanish commander again mustered
+his forces, having decided to follow up the blow of the preceding day
+before the enemy should have time to rally, and at once to put an end to
+the war. He had arranged with Alvarado, on the evening previous, to
+occupy the market-place of Tlatelolco; and the discharge of an arquebuse
+was to be the signal for a simultaneous assault. Sandoval was to hold
+the northern causeway, and, with the fleet, to watch the movements of
+the Indian Emperor and to intercept the flight to the mainland, which
+Cortes knew he meditated. To allow him to effect this would be to leave
+a formidable enemy in his own neighborhood, who might at any time kindle
+the flame of insurrection throughout the country. He ordered Sandoval,
+however, to do no harm to the royal person, and not to fire on the enemy
+at all except in self-defence.
+
+It was the day of St. Hippolytus--from this circumstance selected as the
+patron saint of modern Mexico--that Cortes led his warlike array for the
+last time across the black and blasted environs which lay around the
+Indian capital. On entering the Aztec precincts he paused, willing to
+afford its wretched inmates one more chance of escape before striking
+the fatal blow. He obtained an interview with some of the principal
+chiefs, and expostulated with them on the conduct of their Prince. "He
+surely will not," said the general, "see you all perish, when he can
+easily save you." He then urged them to prevail on Guatemotzin to hold a
+conference with him, repeating the assurances of his personal safety.
+
+The messengers went on their mission, and soon returned with the
+Cihuacoatl at their head, a magistrate of high authority among the
+Mexicans. He said, with a melancholy air, in which his own
+disappointment was visible, that "Guatemotzin was ready to die where he
+was, but would hold no interview with the Spanish commander"; adding in
+a tone of resignation, "It is for you to work your pleasure." "Go,
+then," replied the stern conqueror, "and prepare your countrymen for
+death. Their hour is come."
+
+He still postponed the assault for several hours. But the impatience of
+his troops at this delay was heightened by the rumor that Guatemotzin
+and his nobles were preparing to escape with their effects in the
+periaguas and canoes which were moored on the margin of the lake.
+Convinced of the fruitlessness and impolicy of further procrastination,
+Cortes made his final dispositions for the attack, and took his own
+station on an azotea which commanded the theatre of operations.
+
+When the assailants came into the presence of the enemy, they found them
+huddled together in the utmost confusion, all ages and both sexes, in
+masses so dense that they nearly forced one another over the brink of
+the causeways into the water below. Some had climbed on the terraces,
+others feebly supported themselves against the walls of the buildings.
+Their squalid and tattered garments gave a wildness to their appearance
+which still further heightened the ferocity of their expression, as they
+glared on their enemy with eyes in which hate was mingled with despair.
+When the Spaniards had approached within bow-shot, the Aztecs let off a
+flight of impotent missiles, showing to the last the resolute spirit,
+though they had lost the strength, of their better days. The fatal
+signal was then given by the discharge of an arquebuse--speedily
+followed by peals of heavy ordnance, the rattle of fire-arms, and the
+hellish shouts of the confederates as they sprang upon their victims.
+
+It is unnecessary to stain the page with a repetition of the horrors of
+the preceding day. Some of the wretched Aztecs threw themselves into the
+water and were picked up by the canoes. Others sank and were suffocated
+in the canals. The number of these became so great that a bridge was
+made of their dead bodies, over which the assailants could climb to the
+opposite banks. Others again, especially the women, begged for mercy,
+which, as the chroniclers assure us, was everywhere granted by the
+Spaniards, and, contrary to the instructions and entreaties of Cortes,
+everywhere refused by the confederates.
+
+While this work of butchery was going on, numbers were observed pushing
+off in the barks that lined the shore, and making the best of their way
+across the lake. They were constantly intercepted by the brigantines,
+which broke the flimsy array of boats, sending off their volleys to the
+right and left as the crews of the latter hotly assailed them. The
+battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. Many of the Indian
+vessels were shattered and overturned. Some few, however, under cover of
+smoke, which rolled darkly over the waters, succeeded in clearing
+themselves of the turmoil, and were fast nearing the opposite shore.
+Sandoval had particularly charged his captains to keep an eye on the
+movements of any vessel in which it was at all probable that Guatemotzin
+might be concealed. At this crisis, three or four of the largest
+periaguas were seen skimming over the water and making their way rapidly
+across the lake. A captain, named Garci Holguin, who had command of one
+of the best sailors in the fleet, instantly gave them chase. The wind
+was favorable, and every moment he gained on the fugitives, who pulled
+their oars with a vigor that despair alone could have given. But it was
+in vain; and after a short race, Holguin, coming alongside of one of the
+periaguas, which, whether from its appearance or from information he had
+received, he conjectured might bear the Indian Emperor, ordered his men
+to level their cross-bows at the boat. But, before they could discharge
+them a cry arose from those in it that their lord was on board. At the
+same moment a young warrior, armed with buckler and _maquahuitl_, rose
+up, as if to beat off the assailants. But, as the Spanish captain
+ordered his men not to shoot, he dropped his weapons and exclaimed: "I
+am Guatemotzin. Lead me to Malintzin;[33] I am his prisoner, but let no
+harm come to my wife and my followers."
+
+Holguin assured him that his wishes should be respected, and assisted
+him to get on board the brigantine, followed by his wife and attendants.
+These were twenty in number, consisting of Coanaco, the deposed Lord of
+Tlacopan, the Lord of Tlacopan, and several other caciques and
+dignitaries, whose rank, probably, had secured them some exemption from
+the general calamities of the siege. When the captives were seated on
+the deck of the vessel Holguin requested the Aztec Prince to put an end
+to the combat by commanding his people in the other canoes to surrender.
+But with a dejected air he replied: "It is not necessary. They will
+fight no longer when they see their Prince is taken." He spoke the
+truth. The news of Guatemotzin's capture spread rapidly through the
+fleet and on shore, where the Mexicans were still engaged in conflict
+with their enemies. It ceased, however, at once. They made no further
+resistance; and those on the water quickly followed the brigantines,
+which conveyed their captive monarch to land. It seemed as if the fight
+had been maintained thus long the better to divert the enemy's attention
+and cover their master's retreat.
+
+Meanwhile, Sandoval, on receiving tidings of the capture, brought his
+own brigantine alongside of Holguin's and demanded the royal prisoner to
+be surrendered to him. But the captain claimed him as his prize. A
+dispute arose between the parties, each anxious to have the glory of the
+deed, and perhaps the privilege of commemorating it on his escutcheon.
+The controversy continued so long that it reached the ears of Cortes,
+who, in his station on the azotea, had learned with no little
+satisfaction the capture of his enemy. He instantly sent orders to his
+wrangling officers to bring Guatemotzin before him, that he might adjust
+the difference between them. He charged them, at the same time, to treat
+their prisoner with respect. He then made preparations for the
+interview, caused the terrace to be carpeted with crimson cloth and
+matting, and a table to be spread with provisions, of which the unhappy
+Aztecs stood so much in need. His lovely Indian mistress, Dona Marina,
+was present to act as interpreter. She stood by his side through all the
+troubled scenes of the conquest, and she was there now to witness its
+triumphant termination.
+
+Guatemotzin, on landing, was escorted by a company of infantry to the
+presence of the Spanish commander. He mounted the azotea with a calm and
+steady step, and was easily to be distinguished from his attendant
+nobles, though his full, dark eye was no longer lighted up with its
+accustomed fire, and his features wore an expression of passive
+resignation, that told little of the fierce and fiery spirit that burned
+within. His head was large, his limbs well proportioned, his complexion
+fairer than that of his bronze-colored nation, and his whole deportment
+singularly mild and engaging.
+
+Cortes came forward with a dignified and studied courtesy to receive
+him. The Aztec monarch probably knew the person of his conqueror, for he
+first broke silence by saying: "I have done all that I could to defend
+myself and my people. I am now reduced to this state. You will deal with
+me, Malintzin, as you list." Then, laying his hand on the hilt of a
+poniard stuck in the General's belt, he added with vehemence, "Better
+despatch me with this, and rid me of life at once." Cortes was filled
+with admiration at the proud bearing of the young barbarian, showing in
+his reverses a spirit worthy of an ancient Roman. "Fear not," he
+replied; "you shall be treated with all honor. You have defended your
+capital like a brave warrior. A Spaniard knows how to respect valor even
+in an enemy." He then inquired of him where he had left the Princess his
+wife; and, being informed that she still remained under protection of a
+Spanish guard on board the brigantine, the General sent to have her
+escorted to his presence.
+
+She was the youngest daughter of Montezuma, and was hardly yet on the
+verge of womanhood. On the accession of her cousin Guatemotzin to the
+throne, she had been wedded to him as his lawful wife. She is celebrated
+by her contemporaries for her personal charms; and the beautiful
+Princess Tecuichpo is still commemorated by the Spaniards, since from
+her by a subsequent marriage are descended some of the illustrious
+families of their own nation. She was kindly received by Cortes, who
+showed her the respectful attentions suited to her rank. Her birth, no
+doubt, gave her an additional interest in his eyes, and he may have felt
+some touch of compunction as he gazed on the daughter of the unfortunate
+Montezuma. He invited his royal captives to partake of the refreshments
+which their exhausted condition rendered so necessary. Meanwhile the
+Spanish commander made his dispositions for the night, ordering Sandoval
+to escort the prisoners to Cojohuacan, whither he proposed himself
+immediately to follow. The other captains, Olid and Alvarado, were to
+draw off their forces to their respective quarters.
+
+It was impossible for them to continue in the capital, where the
+poisonous effluvia from the unburied carcasses loaded the air with
+infection. A small guard only was stationed to keep order in the wasted
+suburbs. It was the hour of vespers when Guatemotzin surrendered, and
+the siege might be considered as then concluded. The evening set in
+dark, and the rain began to fall before the several parties had
+evacuated the city.
+
+During the night a tremendous tempest, such as the Spaniards had rarely
+witnessed, and such as is known only within the tropics, burst over the
+Mexican valley. The thunder, reverberating from the rocky amphitheatre
+of hills, bellowed over the waste of waters, and shook the _teocallis_
+and crazy tenements of Tenochtitlan--the few that yet survived--to their
+foundations. The lightning seemed to cleave asunder the vault of heaven,
+as its vivid flashes wrapped the whole scene in a ghastly glare for a
+moment, to be again swallowed up in darkness. The war of elements was in
+unison with the fortunes of the ruined city. It seemed as if the deities
+of Anahuac,[34] scared from their ancient bodies, were borne along
+shrieking and howling in the blast, as they abandoned the fallen capital
+to its fate.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] A name given by the Indians to Cortes.
+
+[34] The low water-bordered coastal region of Mexico. The name is now
+applied to a part of the table-land near the city of Mexico.--ED.
+
+
+
+
+LIBERATION OF SWEDEN
+
+A.D. 1523
+
+ERIC GUSTAVE GEIJER[35]
+
+     Gustavus Vasa, son of Eric Johanson, and hence called
+     Gustavus Ericson, was descended from the house of Vasa, and
+     before the beginning of his long reign (1523-1560) as king
+     of Sweden had served his country against the Danes, who were
+     the controlling power in the union with Sweden and Norway.
+     In a battle fought at the Brennkirk, July 22, 1518,
+     Gustavus, then twenty-two years old, bore the Swedish
+     banner. This battle resulted in the defeat of Christian II
+     of Denmark. Gustavus was given as a hostage to Christian
+     during his interview with the Swedish administrator, and the
+     Dane treacherously carried the young patriot off to Denmark.
+     In the following year he escaped in the disguise of a
+     peasant.
+
+     Sweden was conquered by Christian in 1520, and in the same
+     year, having taken Stockholm, he ordered there the massacre
+     of the nobility, known as the "Blood-bath." Ninety of the
+     leading men of Sweden, including the father of Gustavus,
+     were put to death. This outrage provoked an uprising, in
+     which the province of Dalecarlia bore the leading part, and
+     its people followed Gustavus in a movement for independence.
+     He soon gathered an army of his adherents, called
+     "Dalesmen"--men of the dales--strong enough to meet the
+     enemy.
+
+     Gustavus Vasa is not only famed as the deliverer of Sweden,
+     but also as the promoter of popular education in his
+     country, and for the support which he gave to the
+     Reformation, he himself having early embraced the doctrines
+     of Luther.
+
+     The heroic aspects of this Scandinavian patriot and King
+     have alike endeared his memory to his own people and made
+     his fame to endure in the world annals of mankind. His last
+     appearance and address before the estates of his kingdom, in
+     the closing year of his life, have been finely commemorated
+     in art, with a commingling of power and pathos, the aged
+     monarch taking leave of his people and his throne. "He took
+     his place in the hall of assemblage, accompanied by all his
+     sons. The King having saluted the estates, they listened for
+     the last time to the accents of that eloquence so well liked
+     by the people."
+
+
+[Illustration: Gustavus I (Vasa) addressing his last meeting of the
+Estates
+
+Painting by L. Hersent]
+
+The most influential yeomen of all the parishes in the eastern and
+western dales elected Gustavus to be "lord and chieftain over them and
+the commons of the realm of Sweden." Some scholars who had arrived from
+Westeras brought with them new accounts of the tyranny of Christian.
+Gustavus placed them amid a ring of peasants to tell their story and
+answer the questions of the crowd. Old men represented it as a
+comfortable sign for the people, that as often as Gustavus discoursed to
+them the north wind always blew, "which was an old token to them that
+God would grant them good success." Sixteen active peasants were
+appointed to be his bodyguard; and two hundred more youths who joined
+him were called his foot-goers. The chronicles reckon his reign from
+this small beginning; while the Danes and their abettors in Stockholm
+long continued to speak of him and his party as a band of robbers in the
+woods.
+
+Thus the Dalesmen swore fidelity to Gustavus--the inhabitants, namely,
+of the upper parishes on both arms of the Dal-elf, where a numerous
+people, living amid wild yet grand natural scenery and hardened by
+privations, is still known by that name. Gustavus came to the Kopparberg
+with several hundred men in the early part of February, 1521, there took
+prisoner his enemy Christopher Olson, the powerful warden of the mines,
+made himself master of the money collected for the crown dues, and of
+the wares of the Danish traders on the spot, distributed both the money
+and goods among his men--who made their first standard from the silk
+stuffs there taken--and then returned to the Dales. Not long afterward,
+on a Sunday, when the people of the Kopparberg were at church, Gustavus
+again appeared at the head of fifteen hundred Dalesmen. He spoke to the
+people after divine service, and now the miners likewise swore fidelity
+to his cause. Thereupon the commonalty of the mining districts and the
+Dalesmen wrote to the commons of Helsingland, requesting that the
+Helsingers might bear themselves like true Swedish men against the
+overbearing violence and tyranny of the Danes. Those cruelties which
+King Christian had already exercised on the best in the land, they said,
+would soon reach every man's door and fill all the houses of Sweden with
+the tears and shrieks of widows and orphans; if they would take up arms
+and show themselves to be stout-hearted men, there was now good hope for
+victory and triumph under a praiseworthy captain, the lord Gustavus
+Ericson, whom God had preserved "as a drop of the knightly blood of
+Sweden"; wherefore they begged them to give their help for the sake of
+the brotherly league by which, since early times, the commonalty of both
+countries had been united.
+
+Ten years afterward, the Dalecarlians recall the fact that they had
+received a friendly answer to the request which their accredited
+messengers had preferred on that occasion, and that their neighbors the
+Helsingers had promised to stand by them as one man, "whatever evils
+might befall them from the oppression of foreign or native masters."
+When Gustavus had begun the siege of Stockholm, every third man of the
+Helsingers in fact marched thither to strengthen his army. Yet at first
+they hesitated to embrace the cause, although Gustavus himself went
+among them, and spoke to the assembled people from the barrow on the
+royal domain of Norrala. Thence he proceeded to Gestricland, where
+fugitives from Stockholm had already prepared men's minds. The burghers
+of Gefle, and commissioners from several parishes, swore fidelity to him
+in the name of the whole province. Here the rumor reached him that the
+Dalecarlians had already suffered a defeat; he hastened back, and soon
+received an account of the first victory of his followers.
+
+Letters of the magistracy of Stockholm, which were sent over the whole
+kingdom, warned the people to avoid all participation in the revolt.
+Relief was supplicated from the King; additions were made to the
+fortifications of the capital, sloops and barks were equipped, in order,
+as it was said, to deprive "Gustavus Ericson and his company of
+malefactors of all opportunity of quitting the country," but really to
+keep the approaches on the side of the sea open, which were obstructed
+by the fishers and peasants of the islets, who had begun to take arms
+for Gustavus. Special admonitory letters were despatched to Helsingland
+and Dalecarlia, signed by Gustavus Trolle, his father Eric Trolle, and
+Canute Bennetson (Sparre) of Engsoe, styling themselves the council of
+the realm of Sweden, by which, however, say the chronicles, the royal
+cause was rather damaged than strengthened. "For when the Dalesmen and
+miners heard the letter, they said it was manifest to them that the
+council at this time was but small and thin, since it consisted of only
+three men, and these of little weight." Gustavus Trolle, the Danish
+bishops, Canute Bennetson, above named, and Henry of Mellen, the King's
+lieutenant at Westeras--where they had recently been assembled with
+commissioners from the magistracy of Stockholm by Bishop Otho--now
+marched with six thousand men of horse and foot toward the Dal River,
+and encamped at the ferry of Brunback. On the other side the
+Dalecarlians guarded this frontier of their country, under the command
+of Peter Swenson of Viderboda, a powerful miner, whom Gustavus had
+appointed their captain in his absence. When those in the Danish camp
+observed how the Dalesmen shot their arrows across the stream, Bishop
+Beldenacke is said to have inquired of the Swedish lords present--to use
+the words of the chronicles--"how great a force the tract above the Long
+Wood (the forest on the boundary between Westmanland and Dalecarlia)
+could furnish at the utmost?" Answer was made to him, full twenty
+thousand men. Yet further he asked where so many mouths might obtain
+sustenance? To this it was replied that the people were not used to
+dainty meats; they drunk for the most part nothing but water, and, if
+need were, could be satisfied with bark-bread. Then Beldenacke declared:
+"Men who eat wood and drink water the devil himself could not overcome,
+much less anyone else. Brethren, let us leave this place!" The story
+makes the Danes hereupon prepare for breaking up their encampment.
+However this may be, it is certain that Peter Swenson, with the
+Dalesmen, crossed the Dal secretly, by a circuit, at Utsund's Ferry,
+surprised the camp, and put the foe to rout.
+
+Gustavus had himself dealt with the inhabitants of Helsingland and
+Gestricland, in order to insure himself against leaving foes in the
+rear, and, after his return to the Dales, he prepared for an expedition
+into the lower country. He assembled his troops at Hedemora, and sought
+to inure them to habits of order and obedience by military exercises.
+The dale peasant had no fire-arms and knew little of discipline; his
+weapons were the axe, the bow, the pike, and the sling, the latter
+sometimes throwing pieces of red-hot iron. Gustavus instructed his men
+to fashion their arrows in a more effective shape, and increased the
+length of the spear by four or five feet, with a view to repel the
+attacks of cavalry. He caused monetary tokens to be struck--an expedient
+which seems to have been not uncommon in Sweden, since, from a remote
+period, even leather money is mentioned. The coins now struck at
+Hedemora were of copper, with a small admixture of silver, similar to
+those introduced by the King, and called "Christian's klippings;" on one
+side was the impress of an armed man; on the other, arrows laid
+crosswise, with three crowns.
+
+Gustavus broke from his quarters, and marched across the Long Wood into
+Westmanland. His course lay through districts which bore traces yet
+fresh of the enemy's passage. The peasantry rose as he advanced. On St.
+George's Day, April 23d, he mustered his army at the church of
+Romfertuna. The number is stated by the chronicles at from fifteen to
+twenty thousand men, yet on the correctness of this little reliance can
+be placed, even if we did not absolutely class this account with those
+which compare the multitude of Dalesmen in the fight of Brunneback to
+the sands of the sea-shore and the leaves of the forest, and their
+arrows to the hail of the storm-cloud. The liberation of Sweden by
+Gustavus Vasa is a history written by the people, and they counted
+neither themselves nor their foes. The army was now divided under two
+generals, Lawrence Olaveson and Lawrence Ericson, both practised
+warriors. Gustavus next issued his declaration of war against Christian,
+and marched to Westeras. He expected here to be met by the peasants of
+the western mining district from Lindesberg and Nora, who had already
+taken the oath of fidelity to him through his deputies; but instead of
+this he was informed that Peter Ugla, one of those intrusted with the
+performance of this duty, had allowed himself to be surprised at Koping,
+and cut to pieces with his whole force. On the other hand, tidings
+arrived that the peasants on Wermd Isle had revolted, slain a band of
+Christian's men in the church itself, and made themselves masters of two
+of his ships. The letters conveying the news, and magnifying the
+advantages gained, Gustavus caused to be read aloud to his followers.
+
+Theodore Slagheck, exercising power with barbarous cruelty and outrage,
+had himself taken the command of the castle of Westeras. He caused all
+the fences of the neighborhood to be broken down, in order to be able to
+use his cavalry without impediment against the insurgent peasants, who,
+on April 29th, approached the town. Both horsemen and foot, with
+field-pieces, marched against them; and Gustavus, who had interdicted
+his men from engaging in a contest with the enemy, intending to defer
+the attack till the following day, was still at Balundsas, half a mile
+from the town, when news reached him that his young soldiers were
+already at blows with their adversaries, and he hastened to their
+assistance. The Dalecarlians opposed their long pikes to the onset of
+the cavalry with such effect that, more than four hundred horses having
+perished in the assault, they were driven back on the infantry, who were
+posted in their rear, and compelled to flee along with them, while
+Lawrence Ericson pushed into the town by a circuitous road and possessed
+himself of the enemy's artillery in the market-place. When the garrison
+of the castle observed this, they set fire to the houses by shooting
+their combustibles, and burned the greatest part of the town. The miners
+and peasants dispersed to extinguish the flames or to plunder, bartered
+with one another the goods of the traders in the booths, possessed
+themselves of the stock of wine in the cathedral and the council-house,
+seated themselves round the vats, drank and sang. The Danes, reenforced
+from the castle, rallied anew, and the victory would undoubtedly have
+been changed into an overthrow had not Gustavus sent Lawrence Olaveson,
+with the followers he had kept about him, again into the town, where,
+after a renewal of the conflict, the foe was put to an utter rout. Many
+cast away their arms, and threw themselves, between fire and sword, into
+the waters. Gustavus caused all the stores of spirituous liquors to be
+destroyed, and beat in the wine casks with his own hand.
+
+The fight of Westeras, from its influence on public opinion, acquired
+greater importance than of itself it would have possessed. Little was
+gained by the conquest of the town, so long as the castle held out; and
+how unserviceable a force of peasants was for a siege, Gustavus was
+often subsequently to experience. Wherever the tidings of his victory
+came, the people revolted, and he was already enabled to divide his
+power, and to invest the castles of several provinces. Siege was
+accordingly laid to Stegborg, Nykoping, and Orebro. A division of the
+Vermelanders, with the peasants of Rekarne, in Sudermania, was employed
+in beleaguering the castle of Westeras; of whose exploits, however,
+nothing else is told than that they shot the councillor Canute Bennetson
+(Sparre), to whom Slagheck transferred the command, so that he tumbled
+in his wolfskin coat from the wall into the stream. Howbeit, another
+detachment reduced Horningsholm in Sudermania; Christian's governors in
+Vermeland and Dalsland were slain; the people of the former province,
+under the command of their justiciary, prepared for an attack upon the
+councillor Thure Jonson, the King's lieutenant in West-Gothland, and,
+crossing Lake Vener, entered that district.
+
+In Dalsland, fifteen hundred men took up arms; several thousand peasants
+from Nerike marched across the Tiwed with the same object. Gustavus had
+been obliged to grant a furlough to his Dalesmen about seed-time; and to
+supply their place he caused the people of several districts of Upland
+to be summoned to assemble in the forest of Rymningen, at
+Oeresundsbro; from which point his two captains essayed an attack upon
+the Archbishop of Upsala. It was St. Eric's Day (May 18th), and a great
+confluence of people was present at the fair. An assault was expected;
+for a deputation of four priests and two burgesses, sent from Upsala to
+the forest, had received from the leaders the answer that it must be
+Swedes, not outlandish men, who should bear the shrine of holy Eric, and
+that they would come to take their part in the festival. Bennet Bjugg
+(Barley), the Archbishop's bailiff, to show his contempt of such foes,
+caused a banquet to be set out in the open space between the larger and
+smaller episcopal manor houses of that day, where, before the eyes of
+the people, he made himself and his fellows merry till late in the night
+with drinking, dancing, and singing. Roused from a late sleep by an
+assault on the gates of the fortified house, and finding it beset by the
+enemy, they attempted to escape by a concealed passage, which then
+connected the Bishop's house with the cathedral. But the peasants set
+fire to this passage, which was of wood, and shot fire arrows at the
+roof of the episcopal residence, in which the flames soon burst forth.
+The building was laid in ashes, and next day the females of the
+household, with some burghers of Upsala, crept out of its cellars, in
+which they had taken refuge. Great part of the garrison perished. The
+bailiff escaped with a wound from an arrow, of which he died after
+rejoining his master at Stockholm.
+
+This prelate, Archbishop Gustavus Trolle, had lately returned from a
+journey to Helsingland, undertaken in order to retain this part of his
+diocese in its allegiance to the King. Shortly afterward he received, by
+a messenger from Gustavus, who had himself come to Upsala at
+Whitsuntide, a letter exhorting him to embrace the cause of his country,
+to which his chapter had been persuaded to annex a memorial to the same
+effect. The Archbishop detained the messenger, saying that he would
+carry the answer himself. He broke up immediately with five hundred
+German horse and three thousand foot of the garrison of Stockholm, and
+had come within half a mile of Upsala before Gustavus received
+intelligence of his approach. This the latter did not at first credit,
+but remained, expecting an answer to his overture of negotiation, until,
+about six in the morning, being on horseback upon the sand-hill near
+Upsala, the spot where he afterward built a royal castle, he saw the
+Archbishop marching across the King's Mead (Kungsang) toward the town.
+Gustavus had but two hundred of his so-called foot-goers and a small
+number of horse with him, for the peasants had returned to their homes.
+He made a hasty retreat, but was overtaken by Trolle's horsemen at the
+Ford of Laby. Here a young Finnish noble, who was next to him, in the
+confusion rode down his horse in the midst of the stream; and he would
+have been lost had not the rest of his followers turned upon the enemy
+with such effect as to make them desist from the pursuit.
+
+Gustavus now betook himself to the forest of Rymningen, raised the
+peasantry of the adjoining districts, and sent out young men under his
+best captains to surprise the Archbishop on his return. The remains of
+cattle slaughtered on the road betrayed the ambush to the prelate, who
+drew off in another direction. He was nevertheless overtaken and
+attacked, escaping the spear of Lawrence Olaveson only by bending
+downward on his horse, so that the weapon pierced his neighbor; and he
+brought back to Stockholm hardly a sixth part of his army. Gustavus
+followed close after with his collected force, and encamped under the
+Brunkeberg. Four gibbets on this eminence, stocked with corpses of
+Swedish inhabitants, attested the character of the government in the
+capital.
+
+Thus began, at the midsummer of 1521, the siege of Stockholm, which was
+to last full two years, amid difficulties little thought of nowadays,
+after the lapse of ages; and the admiration which men so willingly
+render to the exertions in the cause of freedom have deprived events of
+their original colors. The path of Gustavus was not in general one of
+glittering feats, although his life is in itself one grand achievement.
+What he accomplished was the effect of strong endurance and great
+sagacity; and though he wanted not for intrepidity, it was of a kind
+before which the mere warrior must vail his crest. All the remaining
+movements of the war of liberation consist in sieges of the various
+castles and fortresses of the country, undertaken as opportunity
+offered, with levies of the peasantry, whose detachments relieved each
+other, though sometimes neglecting this duty when pressed by the cares
+or necessities of their own families. Hence the object of these
+investments, which was to deprive the besieged of provisions, could only
+be imperfectly attained, and there were many fortified mansions of which
+the proprietors adhered to the Danish party, as that of Wik in Upland,
+which remained blockaded throughout the whole year. These difficulties
+were the most formidable where, as at Stockholm, access was open by the
+sea, of which Severin Norby, with the Danish squadron, was master. The
+scantiness of the means of attack may be discovered from the
+circumstance that sixty German spearmen, whom Clement Rensel, a burgher
+of Stockholm, himself a narrator of these events, brought from Dantzic
+in July for the service of Gustavus, were regarded as a reenforcement of
+the highest importance. "At this time," says the chronicle, "Lord
+Gustave enjoyed not much repose or many pleasant days, when he kept his
+people in so many campaigns and investments, since he bore for them all
+great anxiety, fear, and peril, how he might lend them help in their
+need, so that they might not be surprised through heedlessness and
+laches. So likewise his pain was not small when he had but little in his
+money chest, and it was grievous to give this answer when the folk cried
+for stipend. Therefore he stayed not many days in the same place, but
+travelled day and night between the camps."
+
+In the month of August he arrived at Stegeborg, which was now besieged
+by his general, Arwid the West-Goth, who had recently repulsed with
+great bravery Severin Norby's attempt to relieve the castle, and had
+even begun to take homage for Gustavus from the people of his province,
+although in this he experienced difficulties. The East-Goths declared
+that they had been so chastised for their attack on the Bishop's castle
+at Linkoping the preceding year that they no longer dared to provoke
+either King Christian or Bishop Hans Brask. The personal presence of
+Gustavus decided the waverers, and even the Bishop received him as a
+friend, because he would otherwise have stood in danger of a hostile
+visitation. Gustavus now convoked a diet of barons at Vadstena, which
+was attended by seventy Swedish gentlemen of noble family and by many
+other persons of all classes in Gothland. These made him a tender of the
+crown, which he refused to accept. On August 24th, therefore, they swore
+fealty and obedience to him as administrator of the kingdom--"in like
+manner," add the chronicles, "as had formerly been done in Upland";
+whence they seem to have assumed that he had already been acknowledged
+as such in Upper Sweden, here called Upland, as we often find it in the
+chronicles of the Middle Age. This was the first public declaration of
+the nobility in favor of Gustavus and his cause; although the greatest
+barons in this division of the kingdom, such as Nils Boson (Grip),
+Holger Carlson (Gere), and Thure Jenson (Roos) in West-Gothland, all
+three councillors of state, were still in arms for Christian. That the
+first-named nobleman joined the party of Gustavus before the end of the
+year we know from his letter of thanks for a fief of which he received
+the investure. Both the latter were proclaimed in 1523 to be enemies of
+the realm, as also was the archbishop Gustavus Trolle. He had repaired
+to Denmark two years before, in order to obtain, by his personal
+instances with the King, the often-promised relief for the besieged
+garrison of Stockholm, but was received with coldness and reproaches.
+
+After the baronial diet of Vadstena, the Gothlanders acknowledged the
+authority of the administrator, and, the Danes having been driven out
+West-Gothland and Smaland, the seat of the war was removed to Finland.
+By the commencement of the next year the principal castles of the
+interior had fallen into the hands of Gustavus, and some, as those of
+Westeras and Orebo, were razed to the ground by the now exasperated
+peasantry. Stockholm and Kalmar, as well as Abo in Finland, yet stood
+out, and by help of reenforcement which they received at the beginning
+of 1522, through the Danish admiral Severin Norby, the enemy were again
+able to resume the offensive. By sallies from the beleaguered capital on
+April 7th, 8th, and 13th, the camp of Gustavus was set on fire and
+destroyed, and for a whole month afterward no Swedish force was seen
+before the walls of Stockholm. The besiegers of Abo were likewise driven
+off, and the chief adherents of Gustavus, being obliged to flee from
+Finland, Arvid, Bishop of Abo, with many noble persons of both sexes,
+perished at sea.
+
+Christian himself by new cruelties added to the detestation with which
+he was regarded in Sweden. The wives and children, of the most
+distinguished among the barons beheaded in Stockholm, had been conveyed
+to Denmark, and among them the mother and two sisters of Gustavus, whom
+the King, in spite of the entreaties of his consort, threw into a
+dungeon. Here they died, either by violence, as Gustavus himself
+complains in a letter of 1522 concerning the cruel oppression of King
+Christian, directed to the Pope, the Emperor, and all Christian princes,
+or, as others assert, of the plague. An order had also been recently
+issued by the King to commanders in Sweden to put to death all the
+Swedes of distinction who had fallen into their hands. The chronicles
+say that Severin Norby had received this order so early as the summer of
+1521, but, instead of complying with it, permitted the escape of many
+noblemen, who afterward did homage to Gustavus at Vadstena, in order, as
+he expressed it, that they might rather guard their necks like warriors
+than be slaughtered like chickens. But in Abo a new massacre was
+perpetrated at the beginning of the next year by Lord Thomas, the
+royalist commander there, who afterward, in an attempt to relieve
+Stockholm, fell, with all his ships, into the hands of Gustavus, and was
+hanged upon an oak in Tynnels Island.
+
+After Severin Norby had relieved the capital, the secretary, master
+Gotschalk Ericson, wrote thence to Christian that there were but eighty
+of the burghers, for the most part Germans, who could be counted on for
+the King's service, but of footmen and gunners in the castle there were
+now eight hundred fifty men, well furnished with all; the peasants were,
+indeed, weary of the war, but were still more fearful of the King's
+vengeance, and put faith in no assurances, whence the country could only
+be reduced to obedience by violent methods; if a sufficient force were
+sent, East-Gothland, Sodermanland, and Upland would submit to the King,
+and his grace could then punish the Dalecarlians and Helsingers, who
+first stirred up these troubles.
+
+The governor of the castle of Stockholm informs the King, in a report on
+military occurrences of the winter, "that his men had compelled him to
+consent to an increase of pay on account of the successes they had
+gained; that he had expelled from the town, or imprisoned, the suspected
+Swedish burghers; that the peasants would rather be hanged on their own
+hearths than longer endure the burden of war; that Gustavus, who had in
+vain tempted his fidelity, had already sent his plate and the chief part
+of his own movable property to a priest in Helsingland; he (the
+governor) also transmitted an inventory of the goods of the decapitated
+nobles."
+
+But by the end of one month Gustavus, who in this letter is styled "a
+forest thief and robber," had again filled three camps around Stockholm
+with Dalesmen and Norrlanders; and when, pursuant to a convention with
+Lubeck, he received thence in the month of June an auxiliary force of
+ten ships, a number that was afterward augmented, he was enabled to
+dispense with the greatest portion of his peasants, and retained about
+him only those who were young and unmarried. The assistance of the
+Lubeckers, it was true, was given only by halves, and from selfish
+motives; they did not forget their profit on the arms, purchased Swedish
+iron and copper for klippings, with which worthless coins they came
+well provided, and exacted a dear price for their men, ships, and
+military stores, refusing even, it is said, to supply Gustavus with two
+pieces of cannon at a decisive moment, although upon the proffered
+security of two of the royal castles.
+
+This occurred on occasion of a second, and this time unsuccessful,
+attempt made by Norby to relieve Stockholm; in which he was only saved
+from ruin by the refusal of the admiral of Lubeck to attack. Meanwhile
+Gustavus, despite the losses which he sustained by sallies, pushed his
+three camps by degrees close to the town, then covering little more than
+the island still contains, the town properly so called. At length, after
+Kingsholm, Langholm, Sodermalm, Waldemar's Island, now the Zoological
+Gardens, had been connected by block-houses and chains, the place was
+invested on all sides. Yet it held out through the winter, until the
+news of Christian's fate, joined to the pangs of hunger, deprived the
+garrison of all spirit for further resistance.
+
+He did not dare to trust either his subjects or his soldiers, collected
+twenty ships, in which he embarked the public records, with the treasure
+and crown jewels, his consort and child, and his adviser Sigbert, who
+was concealed in his chest. Deserting his kingdom, he sailed away in the
+face of the whole population of Copenhagen, April 20, 1523.
+
+Thus ended the reign of Christian II, a king in whom one knows not which
+rivets the attention, the multiplied undertakings he commenced and
+abandoned in a career so often stained with blood, his audacity, his
+feebleness, or that misery of many years by which he was to expiate a
+short and ill-used tenure of power. There are men who, like the storm
+birds before the tempest, appear in history as foretokens of the
+approaching outburst of great convulsions. Of such a nature was
+Christian, who, tossed hither and thither between all the various
+currents of his time without central consistence, awakened alternately
+the fear or pity of the beholders.
+
+Frederick I, who was chosen to succeed him in Denmark, wrote to the
+estates of Sweden, demanding that in accordance with the stipulations of
+the Union of Kalmar he might also be acknowledged king in Sweden. They
+replied "that they had elected Gustavus Ericson to be Sweden's king."
+That event came to pass at the Diet of Strengess, June 7, 1523. Thus was
+the union dissolved, after enduring one hundred twenty-six years. Norway
+wavered at this critical moment. The inhabitants of the southern portion
+declared, when the Swedes under Thure Jenson (Roos) and Lawrence
+Siggeson (Sparre) had penetrated into their country as far as Opslo,
+that they would unite with Sweden if they might rely upon its support.
+Bohusland was subdued, Bleking likewise on another side, and Gustavus
+sought, both by negotiation and arms, to enforce the old claims of
+Sweden to Scania and Halland. The town of Kalmar was taken on May 27th,
+and the castle on July 7th. Stockholm having surrendered on June 20th,
+on condition of the free departure of the garrison with their property
+and arms, and of every other person who adhered to the cause of
+Christian, Gustavus made his public entry on Midsummer's Eve; before the
+end of the year Finland also was reduced to obedience. The kingdom was
+freed from foreign enemies, but internal foes still remained; and Lubeck
+was an ally whose demands made it more troublesome than it would have
+been as an enemy.
+
+A town wasted in the civil war had been the scene of the election of
+Gustavus Vasa to the throne. In the capital, when he made his public
+entry, one-half of the houses were empty, and of population scarcely a
+fourth part remained. To fill up the gap, he issued an invitation to the
+burghers in other towns to settle there, a summons which he was obliged
+twelve years afterward to renew, "seeing that Stockholm had not yet
+revived from the days of King Christian." The spectacle which here met
+his eyes was a type of the condition of the whole kingdom, and never was
+it said of any sovereign with more justice that the throne to which he
+had been elevated was more difficult to preserve than to win.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35] Translated by J. H. Turner, M.A.
+
+
+
+
+THE PEASANTS' WAR IN GERMANY
+
+A.D. 1524
+
+J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNE
+
+     The Peasants' War was the most widespread and most bloody of
+     the mediaeval forerunners of the French Revolution. Like the
+     rebellion of the Jacquerie and many another ferocious,
+     desperate outburst of the downtrodden common folk, it
+     foretold a day of vengeance to come. These early uprisings
+     were all hopeless from their start, because the untrained
+     and naked bodies of the people, however numerous, could not
+     possibly hold an open battlefield against skilled and armed
+     men of war. Each revolt terminated in the butchery of the
+     unhappy rebels.
+
+     The Peasants' War has acquired special notoriety because of
+     its connection with the Reformation. The people rose in the
+     name of religion, and, as their ignorance and ferocity led
+     them into hideous excesses of revenge upon their oppressors,
+     the new religion was blamed for all the evil thus done in
+     its name. This revolt, because of the fear and disgust it
+     roused, became the most severe set-back Protestantism
+     received in all its struggle with the more ancient and
+     conservative Church.
+
+     The following account of the outbreak and its consequences
+     is by a standard Protestant historian, president of the
+     College of Geneva, a student who can see justice on both
+     sides of the great controversy.
+
+
+A political ferment, very different from that produced by the Gospel,
+had long been at work in the empire. The people, bowed down by civil and
+ecclesiastical oppression, bound in many countries to the seigniorial
+estates, and transferred from hand to hand along with them, threatened
+to rise with fury and at last to break their chains. This agitation had
+showed itself long before the Reformation by many symptoms, and even
+then the religious element was blended with the political; in the
+sixteenth century it was impossible to separate these two principles, so
+closely associated in the existence of nations. In Holland, at the close
+of the preceding century, the peasants had revolted, placing on their
+banners, by way of arms, a loaf and a cheese, the two great blessings of
+these poor people. The "Alliance of the Shoes" had shown itself in the
+neighborhood of Spires in 1502. In 1513 it appeared again in Breisgau,
+being encouraged by the priests. In 1514 Wuertemberg had seen the
+"League of Poor Conrad," whose aim was to maintain by rebellion "the
+right of God." In 1515 Carinthia and Hungary had been the theatres of
+terrible agitations. These seditions had been quenched in torrents of
+blood, but no relief had been accorded to the people. A political
+reform, therefore, was not less necessary than a religious reform. The
+people were entitled to this; but we must acknowledge that they were not
+ripe for its enjoyment.
+
+Since the commencement of the Reformation, these popular disturbances
+had not been renewed; men's minds were occupied by other thoughts.
+Luther, whose piercing glance had discerned the condition of the people,
+had already from the summit of the Wartburg addressed them in serious
+exhortations calculated to restrain their agitated minds:
+
+"Rebellion," he had said, "never produces the amelioration we desire,
+and God condemns it. What is it to rebel, if it be not to avenge one's
+self? The devil is striving to excite to revolt those who embrace the
+Gospel, in order to cover it with opprobrium; but those who have rightly
+understood my doctrine do not revolt."
+
+Everything gave cause to fear that the popular agitation could not be
+restrained much longer. The government that Frederick of Saxony had
+taken such pains to form, and which possessed the confidence of the
+nation, was dissolved. The Emperor, whose energy might have been an
+efficient substitute for the influence of this national administration,
+was absent; the princes whose union had always constituted the strength
+of Germany were divided; and the new declaration of Charles V against
+Luther, by removing every hope of future harmony, deprived the reformer
+of part of the moral influence by which in 1522 he had succeeded in
+calming the storm. The chief barriers that hitherto had confined the
+torrent being broken, nothing could any longer restrain its fury.
+
+It was not the religious movement that gave birth to political
+agitations; but in many places it was carried away by their impetuous
+waves. Perhaps we should even go further, and acknowledge that the
+movement communicated to the people by the Reformation gave fresh
+strength to the discontent fermenting in the nation. The violence of
+Luther's writings, the intrepidity of his actions and language, the
+harsh truths that he spoke, not only to the Pope and prelates, but also
+to the princes themselves, must all have contributed to inflame minds
+that were already in a state of excitement. Accordingly, Erasmus did not
+fail to tell him, "We are now reaping the fruits that you have sown."
+And further, the cheering truths of the Gospel, at last brought to
+light, stirred all hearts and filled them with anticipation and hope.
+But many unregenerated souls were not prepared by repentance for the
+faith and liberty of Christians. They were very willing to throw off the
+papal yoke, but they would not take up the yoke of Christ. And hence,
+when princes devoted to the cause of Rome endeavored in their wrath to
+stifle the Reformation, real Christians patiently endured these cruel
+persecutions; but the multitude resisted and broke out, and, seeing
+their desires checked in one direction, gave vent to them in another.
+"Why," said they, "should slavery be perpetuated in the state while the
+Church invites all men to a glorious liberty? Why should governments
+rule only by force, when the Gospel preaches nothing but gentleness?"
+Unhappily, at a time when the religious reform was received with equal
+joy both by princes and people, the political reform, on the contrary,
+had the most powerful part of the nation against it; and while the
+former had the Gospel for its rule and support, the latter had soon no
+other principles than violence and despotism. Accordingly, while the one
+was confined within the bounds of truth, the other rapidly, like an
+impetuous torrent, overstepped all limits of justice. But to shut one's
+eyes against the indirect influence of the Reformation on the troubles
+that broke out in the empire would betoken partiality. A fire had been
+kindled in Germany by religious discussions from which it was impossible
+to prevent a few sparks escaping, which were calculated to inflame the
+passions of the people.
+
+The claims of a few fanatics to divine inspiration increased the evil.
+While the Reformation had continually appealed from the pretended
+authority of the Church to the real authority of the holy Scriptures,
+these enthusiasts not only rejected the authority of the Church, but of
+the Scriptures also; they spoke only of an inner word, of an internal
+revelation from God; and, overlooking the natural corruption of their
+hearts, they gave way to all the intoxication of spiritual pride, and
+fancied they were saints.
+
+"To them the holy Scriptures were but a dead letter," said Luther, "and
+they all began to cry, 'The Spirit! the Spirit!' But most assuredly I
+will not follow where their spirit leads them. May God of his mercy
+preserve me from a church in which there are none but saints. I desire
+to dwell with the humble, the feeble, the sick, who know and feel their
+sins, and who groan and cry continually to God from the bottom of their
+hearts to obtain his consolation and support." These words of Luther
+have great depth of meaning, and point out the change that was taking
+place in his views as to the nature of the Church. They indicate at the
+same time how contrary were the religious opinions of the rebels to
+those of the Reformation.
+
+The most notorious of these enthusiasts was Thomas Munzer; he was not
+devoid of talent, had read his Bible, was zealous, and might have done
+good if he had been able to collect his agitated thoughts and find peace
+of heart. But as he did not know himself, and was wanting in true
+humility, he was possessed with a desire of reforming the world, and
+forgot, as all enthusiasts do, that the reformation should begin with
+himself. Some mystical writings that he had read in his youth had given
+a false direction to his mind. He first appeared at Zwickau, quitted
+Wittenberg after Luther's return, dissatisfied with the inferior part he
+was playing, and became pastor of the small town of Alstadt in
+Thuringia. He could not long remain quiet, and accused the reformers of
+founding, by their adherence to the letter, a new popery, and of forming
+churches which were not pure and holy.
+
+"Luther," said he, "has delivered men's consciences from the yoke of the
+Pope, but he has left them in a carnal liberty, and not led them in
+spirit toward God."
+
+He considered himself as called of God to remedy this great evil. The
+revelations of the Spirit were in his eyes the means by which his reform
+was to be effected. "He who possesses this spirit," said he, "possesses
+the true faith, although he should never see the Scriptures in his life.
+Heathens and Turks are better fitted to receive it than many Christians
+who style us enthusiasts." It was Luther whom he here had in view. "To
+receive this Spirit we must mortify the flesh," said he at another time,
+"wear tattered clothing, let the beard grow, be of sad countenance, keep
+silence, retire into desert places, and supplicate God to give us a sign
+of his favor. Then God will come and speak with us, as formerly he spoke
+with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. If he were not to do so, he would not
+deserve our attention. I have received from God the commission to gather
+together his elect into a holy and eternal alliance."
+
+The agitation and ferment which were at work in men's minds were but too
+favorable to the dissemination of these enthusiastic ideas. Man loves
+the marvellous and whatever flatters his pride. Munzer, having persuaded
+a part of his flock to adopt his views, abolished ecclesiastical singing
+and all other ceremonies. He maintained that obedience to princes, "void
+of understanding," was at once to serve God and Belial. Then, marching
+out at the head of his parishioners to a chapel in the vicinity of
+Alstadt, whither pilgrims from all quarters were accustomed to resort,
+he pulled it down. After the exploit, being compelled to leave that
+neighborhood, he wandered about Germany, and went as far as Switzerland,
+carrying with him, and communicating to all who would listen to him, the
+plan of a general revolution. Everywhere he found men's minds prepared;
+he threw gunpowder on the burning coals, and the explosion forthwith
+took place.
+
+Luther, who had rejected the warlike enterprises of Sickengen, could not
+be led away by the tumultuous movements of the peasantry. He wrote to
+the Elector: "It causes me especial joy that these enthusiasts
+themselves boast, to all who are willing to listen to them, that they do
+not belong to us. The Spirit urges them on, say they; and I reply, it is
+an evil spirit, for he bears no other fruit than the pillage of convents
+and churches; the greatest highway robbers upon earth might do as much."
+
+At the same time, Luther, who desired that others should enjoy the
+liberty he claimed for himself, dissuaded the Prince from all measures
+of severity: "Let them preach what they please, and against whom they
+please," said he; "for it is the Word of God that must march in front
+of the battle and fight against them. If their spirit be the true
+spirit, he will not fear our severity; if ours is the true one, he will
+not fear their violence. Let us leave the spirits to struggle and
+contend with one another. Perhaps some persons may be led astray; there
+is no battle without wounds; but he who fighteth faithfully shall be
+crowned. Nevertheless, if they desire to take up the sword, let your
+highness forbid it, and order them to quit the country."
+
+The insurrection began in the Black Forest, and near the sources of the
+Danube, so frequently the theatre of popular commotions. On the 19th of
+July, 1524, some Thurgovian peasants rose against the Abbot of
+Reichenau, who would not accord them an evangelical preacher. Ere long
+thousands were collected round the small town of Tengen to liberate an
+ecclesiastic who was there imprisoned. The revolt spread with
+inconceivable rapidity from Swabia as far as the Rhenish provinces,
+Franconia, Thuringia, and Saxony. In the month of January, 1525, all
+these countries were in a state of rebellion.
+
+About the end of this month the peasants published a declaration in
+twelve articles, in which they claimed the liberty of choosing their own
+pastors; the abolition of small tithes, of slavery, and of fines on
+inheritance; the right to hunt, fish, and cut wood, etc. Each demand was
+backed by a passage from holy writ, and they said in conclusion, "If we
+are deceived, let Luther correct us by Scripture."
+
+The opinions of the Wittenberg divines were consulted. Luther and
+Melanchthon delivered theirs separately, and they both gave evidence of
+the difference of their characters. Melanchthon, who thought every kind
+of disturbance a crime, oversteps the limits of his usual gentleness,
+and cannot find language strong enough to express his indignation. The
+peasants are criminals against whom he invokes all laws human and
+divine. If friendly negotiation is unavailing, the magistrates should
+hunt them down as if they were robbers and assassins. "And yet," adds
+he--and we require at least one feature to remind us of
+Melanchthon--"let them take pity on the orphans when having recourse to
+the penalty of death!"
+
+Luther's opinion of the revolt was the same as Melanchthon's, but he had
+a heart that beat for the miseries of the people. On this occasion he
+manifested a dignified impartiality, and spoke the truth frankly to both
+parties. He first addressed the princes, and more especially the
+bishops:
+
+"It is you," said he, "who are the cause of this revolt; it is your
+clamors against the Gospel, your guilty oppressions of the poor, that
+have driven the people to despair. It is not the peasants, my dear
+lords, that rise up against you--it is God himself who opposes your
+madness. The peasants are but the instruments he employs to humble you.
+Do not imagine you can escape the punishment he is preparing for you.
+Even should you have succeeded in destroying all these peasants, God is
+able from the very stones to raise up others to chastise your pride. If
+I desired revenge, I might laugh in my sleeve, and look on while the
+peasants were carrying on their work, or even increase their fury; but
+may God preserve me from such thoughts! My dear lords, put away your
+indignation, treat those poor peasants as a man of sense treats people
+who are drunk or insane. Quiet these commotions by mildness, lest a
+conflagration should arise and burn all Germany. Among these twelve
+articles there are certain demands which are just and equitable."
+
+This prologue was calculated to conciliate the peasants' confidence in
+Luther, and to make them listen patiently to the truths he had to tell
+them. He represented to them that the greater number of their demands
+were well founded, but that to revolt was to act like heathens; that the
+duty of a Christian is to be patient, not to fight; that if they
+persisted in revolting against the Gospel in the name of the Gospel, he
+should look upon them as more dangerous enemies than the Pope. "The Pope
+and the Emperor," continued he, "combined against me; but the more they
+blustered, the more did the Gospel gain ground. And why was this?
+Because I have never drawn the sword or called for vengeance; because I
+never had recourse to tumult or insurrection: I relied wholly on God,
+and placed everything in his almighty hands. Christians fight not with
+swords or arquebuses, but with sufferings and with the Cross. Christ,
+their captain, handled not the sword. He was hung upon a tree."
+
+But to no purpose did Luther employ this Christian language. The people
+were too much excited by the fanatical speeches of the leaders of the
+insurrection to listen, as of old, to the words of the reformer. "He is
+playing the hypocrite," said they; "he flatters the nobles. He has
+declared war against the Pope, and yet wishes us to submit to our
+oppressors."
+
+The revolt, instead of dying away, became more formidable. At Weinsberg,
+Count Louis of Helfenstein and the seventy men under his orders were
+condemned to death by the rebels. A body of peasants drew up with their
+pikes lowered, while others drove the count and his soldiers against
+this wall of steel. The wife of the wretched Helfenstein, a natural
+daughter of the emperor Maximilian, holding an infant two years old in
+her arms, knelt before them, and with loud cries begged for her
+husband's life, and vainly endeavored to arrest this march of murder; a
+boy, who had been in the count's service and had joined the rebels,
+capered gayly before him, and played the dead march upon his fife, as if
+he had been leading his victims in a dance. All perished; the child was
+wounded in its mother's arms, and she herself thrown upon a dung-cart
+and thus conveyed to Heilbronn.
+
+At the news of these cruelties, a cry of horror was heard from the
+friends of the Reformation, and Luther's feeling heart underwent a
+terrible conflict. On the one hand the peasants, ridiculing his advice,
+pretended to receive revelations from heaven, made an impious use of the
+threatenings of the Old Testament, proclaimed an equality of rank and a
+community of goods, defended their cause with fire and sword, and
+indulged in barbarous atrocities. On the other hand, the enemies of the
+Reformation asked the reformer, with a malicious sneer, if he did not
+know that it was easier to kindle a fire than to extinguish it. Shocked
+at these excesses, alarmed at the thought that they might check the
+progress of the Gospel, Luther hesitated no longer, no longer
+temporized; he inveighed against the insurgents with all the energy of
+his character, and perhaps overstepped the just bounds within which he
+should have contained himself.
+
+"The peasants," said he, "commit three horrible sins against God and
+man, and thus deserve the death of body and soul. First, they revolt
+against their magistrates, to whom they have sworn fidelity; next, they
+rob and plunder convents and castles; and lastly, they veil their crimes
+with the cloak of the Gospel. If you do not put a mad dog to death, you
+will perish, and all the country with you. Whoever is killed fighting
+for the magistrates will be a true martyr, if he has fought with a good
+conscience." Luther then gives a powerful description of the guilty
+violence of the peasants who force peaceful and simple men to join their
+alliance and thus drag them to the same condemnation. He then adds: "For
+this reason, my dear lords, help, save, deliver, have pity on these poor
+people. Let everyone strike, pierce, and kill who is able. If thou
+diest, thou canst not meet a happier death; for thou diest in the
+service of God, and to save thy neighbor from hell."
+
+Neither gentleness nor violence could arrest the popular torrent. The
+church-bells were no longer rung for divine service; whenever their deep
+and prolonged sounds were heard in the fields, it was the tocsin, and
+all ran to arms. The people of the Black Forest had rallied round John
+Muller of Bulgenbach. With an imposing aspect, covered with a red cloak
+and wearing a red cap, this leader boldly advanced from village to
+village followed by the peasantry. Behind him, on a wagon decorated with
+ribands and branches of trees, was raised the tricolor flag--black, red,
+and white--the signal of revolt. A herald dressed in the same colors
+read the twelve articles, and invited the people to join in the
+rebellion. Whoever refused was banished from the community.
+
+Ere long this march, which at first was peaceful, became more
+disquieting. "We must compel the lords to submit to our alliance,"
+exclaimed they. And to induce them to do so, they plundered the
+granaries, emptied the cellars, drew the seigniorial fish-ponds,
+demolished the castles of the nobles who resisted, and burned the
+convents. Opposition had inflamed the passions of these rude men;
+equality no longer satisfied them; they thirsted for blood, and swore to
+put to death every man who wore a spur.
+
+At the approach of the peasants, the cities that were unable to resist
+them opened their gates and joined them. In whatever place they entered,
+they pulled down the images and broke the crucifixes; armed women
+paraded the streets and threatened the monks. If they were defeated in
+one quarter, they assembled in another, and braved the most formidable
+forces. A committee of peasants was established at Heilbrunn. The counts
+of Lowenstein were taken prisoners, dressed in a smock-frock, and then,
+a white staff having been placed in their hands, they were compelled to
+swear to the twelve articles. "Brother George, and thou, brother
+Albert," said a tinker of Ohringen to the counts of Hohenlohe who had
+gone to their camp, "swear to conduct yourselves as our brethren, for
+you also are now peasants; you are no longer lords." Equality of rank,
+the dream of many democrats, was established in aristocratic Germany.
+
+Many nobles, some through fear, others from ambition, then joined the
+insurgents. The famous Goetz von Berlichingen, finding his vassals
+refuse to obey him, desired to flee to the Elector of Saxony; but his
+wife, who was lying-in, wishing to keep him near her, concealed the
+Elector's answer. Goetz, being closely pursued, was compelled to put
+himself at the head of the rebel army. On the 7th of May the peasants
+entered Wuerzburg, where the citizens received them with acclamations.
+The forces of the princes and knights of Swabia and Franconia, which had
+assembled in this city, evacuated it, and retired in confusion to the
+citadel, the last bulwark of the nobility.
+
+But the movement had already extended to other parts of Germany. Spires,
+the Palatinate, Alsace, and Hesse accepted the twelve articles, and the
+peasants threatened Bavaria, Westphalia, the Tyrol, Saxony, and
+Lorraine. The Margrave of Baden, having rejected the articles, was
+compelled to flee. The coadjutor of Fulda acceded to them with a smile.
+The smaller towns said they had no lances with which to oppose the
+insurgents. Mentz, Treves, and Frankfort obtained the liberties they had
+claimed.
+
+An immense revolution was preparing in all the empire. The
+ecclesiastical and secular privileges, that bore so heavily on the
+peasants, were to be suppressed; the possessions of the clergy were to
+be secularized, to indemnify the princes and provide for the wants of
+the empire; taxes were to be abolished, with the exception of a tribute
+payable every ten years; the imperial power was to subsist alone, as
+being recognized by the New Testament; all the other princes were to
+cease to reign; sixty-four free tribunals were to be established, in
+which men of all classes should have a seat; all ranks were to return to
+their primitive condition; the clergy were to be henceforward merely the
+pastors of the churches; princes and knights were to be simply the
+defenders of the weak; uniformity in weights and measures was to be
+introduced, and only one kind of money was to be coined throughout the
+empire.
+
+Meanwhile the princes had shaken off their first lethargy, and George
+von Truchsess, commander-in-chief of the imperial army, was advancing on
+the side of the Lake of Constance. On the 2d of May he defeated the
+peasants at Beblingen; then marched on the town of Weinsberg, where the
+unhappy Count of Helfenstein had perished, burned and razed it to the
+ground, giving orders that the ruins should be left as an eternal
+monument of the treason of its inhabitants. At Fairfeld he united with
+the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Treves, and all three moved
+toward Franconia.
+
+The Frauenburg, the citadel of Wuerzburg, held out for the princes, and
+the main army of the peasants still lay before its walls. As soon as
+they heard of the Truchsess' march, they resolved on an assault, and at
+nine o'clock at night on the 15th of May the trumpets sounded, the
+tricolor flag was unfurled, and the peasants rushed to the attack with
+horrible shouts. Sebastian von Rotenhan, one of the warmest partisans of
+the Reformation, was governor of the castle. He had put the fortress in
+a formidable state of defence, and, having exhorted the garrison to
+repel the assault with courage, the soldiers, holding up three fingers,
+had all sworn to do so. A most terrible conflict took place. To the
+vigor and despair of the insurgents, the fortress replied from its walls
+and towers by petards, showers of sulphur and boiling pitch and the
+discharges of artillery. The peasants, thus struck by their unseen
+enemies, were staggered for a moment; but in an instant their fury grew
+more violent. The struggle was prolonged as the night advanced. The
+fortress, lit up by a thousand battle-fires, appeared in the darkness
+like a towering giant, who, vomiting flames, struggled alone amid the
+roar of thunder, for the salvation of the empire against the ferocious
+valor of these furious hordes. Two hours after midnight the peasants
+withdrew, having failed in all their efforts.
+
+They now tried to enter into negotiations, either with the garrison or
+with Truchsess, who was advancing at the head of his army. But this was
+going out of their path; violence and victory alone could save them.
+After some little hesitation they resolved to march against the imperial
+forces, but the cavalry and artillery made terrible havoc in their
+ranks. At Koenigshofen, and afterward at Engelstadt, those unfortunate
+creatures were totally defeated. The princes, the nobles, and bishops,
+abusing their victory, indulged in the most unprecedented cruelties. The
+prisoners were hanged on the trees by the wayside. The Bishop of
+Wuerzburg, who had run away, now returned, traversed his diocese
+accompanied by executioners, and watered it alike with the blood of the
+rebels and of the peaceful friends of the Word of God. Goetz von
+Berlichingen was sentenced to imprisonment for life. The margrave
+Casimir of Anspach put out the eyes of eighty-five insurgents who had
+sworn that their eyes should never look upon that Prince again; and he
+cast this troop of blinded individuals upon the world, to wander up and
+down, holding each other by the hand, groping along, tottering, and
+begging their bread. The wretched boy who had played the dead-march on
+his fife at the murder of Helfenstein, was chained to a post, a fire was
+kindled around him, and the knights looked on, laughing at his horrible
+contortions.
+
+Public worship was now everywhere restored in its ancient forms. The
+most flourishing and populous districts of the empire exhibited to those
+who travelled through them nothing but heaps of dead bodies and smoking
+ruins. Fifty thousand men had perished, and the people lost nearly
+everywhere the little liberty they had hitherto enjoyed. Such was the
+horrible termination of this revolt in the south of Germany.
+
+But the evil was not confined to the south and west of Germany. Munzer,
+after having traversed a part of Switzerland, Alsace, and Swabia, had
+again directed his steps toward Saxony. A few citizens of Muelhausen, in
+Thuringia, had invited him to their city and elected him their pastor.
+The town council having resisted, Munzer deposed it and nominated
+another, consisting of his friends, with himself at their head. Full of
+contempt for that Christ, "sweet as honey," whom Luther preached, and
+being resolved to employ the most energetic measures, he exclaimed,
+"Like Joshua, we must put all the Canaanites to the sword." He
+established a community of goods and pillaged the convents. "Munzer,"
+wrote Luther to Ansdorff on the 11th of April, 1525, "Munzer is not only
+pastor, but king and emperor of Muelhausen." The poor no longer worked;
+if anyone needed corn or cloth, he went and demanded it of some rich
+man; if the latter refused, the poor man took it by force; if the owner
+resisted, he was hanged. As Muelhausen was an independent city, Munzer
+was able to exercise his power for nearly a year without opposition. The
+revolt in the south of Germany led him to imagine that it was time to
+extend his new kingdom. He had a number of heavy guns cast in the
+Franciscan convent, and endeavored to raise the peasantry and miners of
+Mansfeld. "How long will you sleep?" said he to them in a fanatical
+proclamation: "Arise and fight the battle of the Lord! The time is come.
+France, Germany, and Italy are moving. On, on, on! (_Dran, Dran, Dran!_)
+Heed not the groans of the impious ones. They will implore you like
+children, but be pitiless. _Dran, Dran, Dran!_ The fire is burning: let
+your sword be ever warm with blood. _Dran, Dran, Dran!_ Work while it is
+yet day." The letter was signed, "Munzer, servant of God against the
+wicked."
+
+The country people, thirsting for plunder, flocked round his standard.
+Throughout all the districts of Mansfeld, of Stolberg, and Schwarzburg
+in Hesse, and the duchy of Brunswick the peasantry rose in insurrection.
+The convents of Michelstein, Ilsenburg, Walkenfied, Rossleben, and many
+others in the neighborhood of the Hartz, or in the plains of Thuringia,
+were devastated. At Reinhardsbrunn, which Luther had visited, the tombs
+of the ancient landgraves were profaned and the library destroyed.
+
+Terror spread far and wide. Even at Wittenberg some anxiety was felt.
+Those doctors, who had feared neither the Emperor nor the Pope, trembled
+in the presence of a madman. They were always on the watch for news;
+every step of the rebels was counted. "We are here in great danger,"
+said Melanchthon. "If Munzer succeeds, it is all over with us, unless
+Christ should rescue us. Munzer advances with a worse than Scythian
+cruelty, and it is impossible to repeat his dreadful threats."
+
+The pious Elector had long hesitated what he should do. Munzer had
+exhorted him and all the princes to be converted, because, said he,
+their hour was come; and he had signed these letters: "Munzer, armed
+with the sword of Gudeon." Frederick would have desired to reclaim these
+misguided men by gentle measures. On the 14th of April, when he was
+dangerously ill, he had written to his brother John: "We may have given
+these wretched people more than one cause for insurrection. Alas! the
+poor are oppressed in many ways by their spiritual and temporal lords."
+And when his attention was directed to the humiliation, the revolutions,
+the dangers to which he would expose himself unless he promptly stifled
+the rebellion, he replied: "Hitherto I have been a mighty elector,
+having chariots and horses in abundance; if it be God's pleasure to take
+them from me now, I will go on foot."
+
+The youthful Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, was the first of the princes
+who took up arms. His knights and soldiers swore to live and die with
+him. After pacifying his own states, he directed his march toward
+Saxony. On their side, Duke John, the Elector's brother, Duke George of
+Saxony, and Duke Henry of Brunswick advanced and united their troops
+with those of Hesse. The peasants, terrified at the sight of this army,
+fled to a small hill, where, without any discipline, without arms, and
+for the most part without courage, they formed a rampart with their
+wagons. Munzer had not even prepared ammunition for his large guns. No
+succors appeared; the rebels were hemmed in by the army; they lost all
+confidence. The princes, taking pity on them, offered them propositions
+which they appeared willing to accept. Upon this Munzer had recourse to
+the most powerful lever that enthusiasm can put in motion. "To-day we
+shall behold the arm of the Lord," said he, "and all our enemies shall
+be destroyed." At this moment a rainbow appeared over their heads; the
+fanatical host, who carried a rainbow on their flags, beheld in it a
+sure prognostic of the divine protection. Munzer took advantage of it:
+"Fear nothing," said he to the citizens and peasants: "I will catch all
+their balls in my sleeve." At the same time he cruelly put to death a
+young gentleman, Maternus von Geholfen, an envoy from the princes, in
+order to deprive the insurgents of all hope of pardon.
+
+The Landgrave, having assembled his horsemen, said to them: "I well know
+that we princes are often in fault, for we are but men; but God commands
+all men to honor the powers that be. Let us save our wives and children
+from the fury of these murderers. The Lord will give us the victory, for
+he has said, 'Whosoever resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of
+God.'" Philip then gave the signal of attack. It was the 15th of May,
+1525. The army was put in motion; but the peasant host stood immovable,
+singing the hymn, "Come, Holy Ghost," and waiting for heaven to declare
+in their favor. The artillery soon broke down their rude rampart,
+carrying dismay and death into the midst of the insurgents. Their
+fanaticism and courage at once forsook them; they were seized with a
+panic-terror, and ran away in disorder. Five thousand perished in the
+flight.
+
+After the battle the princes and their victorious troops entered
+Frankenhausen. A soldier who had gone into a loft in the house where he
+was quartered, found a man in bed. "Who art thou?" said he; "art thou
+one of the rebels?" Then, observing a pocket-book, he took it up, and
+found several letters addressed to Thomas Munzer, "Art thou Munzer?"
+demanded the trooper. The sick man answered, "No." But as the soldier
+uttered dreadful threats, Munzer, for it was really he, confessed who he
+was. "Thou art my prisoner," said the horseman. When Munzer was taken
+before Duke George and the Landgrave, he persevered in saying that he
+was right to chastise the princes, since they opposed the Gospel.
+"Wretched man!" replied they, "think of all those of whose death you
+have been the cause." But he answered, smiling in the midst of his
+anguish, "They would have it so!" He took the sacrament, and was
+beheaded at the same time with Pfeiffer, his lieutenant. Mulhausen was
+taken, and the peasants were loaded with chains.
+
+A nobleman having observed among the crowd of prisoners a peasant of
+favorable appearance, went up and said to him: "Well, my man, which
+government do you like best--that of the peasants or of the princes?"
+The poor fellow made answer with a deep sigh, "Ah, my lord, no knife
+cuts so deep as the rule of the peasant over his fellows."
+
+The remnants of the insurrection were quenched in blood; Duke George, in
+particular, acted with the greatest severity. In the states of the
+Elector, there were neither executions nor punishment. The Word of God,
+preached in all its purity, had shown its power to restrain the
+tumultuous passions of the people.
+
+From the very beginning, indeed, Luther had not ceased to struggle
+against the rebellion, which was, in his opinion, the forerunner of the
+Judgment-day. Advice, prayers, and even irony had not been spared. At
+the end of the articles drawn up at Erfurth by the rebels he had
+subjoined, as a supplementary article: "_Item._ The following article
+has been omitted. Henceforward the honorable council shall have no
+power; it shall do nothing; it shall sit like an idol or a log of wood;
+the commonalty shall chew its food, and it shall govern with its hands
+and feet tied; henceforth the wagon shall guide the horses, the horses
+shall hold the reins, and we shall go on admirably, in conformity with
+the glorious system set forth in these articles."
+
+Luther did not confine himself to writing. While the disturbance was
+still at its height, he quitted Wittenberg and went through some of the
+districts where the agitation was greatest. He preached, he labored to
+soften his hearers' hearts, and his hand, to which God had given power,
+turned aside, quieted, and brought back the impetuous and overflowing
+torrents into their natural channels.
+
+In every quarter the doctors of the Reformation exerted a similar
+influence. At Halle, Brentz had revived the drooping spirits of the
+citizens by the promise of God's Word, and four thousand peasants had
+fled before six hundred citizens. At Ichterhausen, a mob of peasants
+having assembled with an intent to demolish several castles and put
+their lords to death, Frederick Myconius went out to them alone, and
+such was the power of his words that they immediately abandoned their
+design.
+
+Such was the part taken by the reformers and the Reformation in the
+midst of this revolt; they contended against it with all their might,
+with the sword of the Word, and boldly maintained those principles which
+alone, in every age, can preserve order and subjection among the
+nations. Accordingly, Luther asserted that, if the power of sound
+doctrine had not checked the fury of the people, the revolt would have
+extended its ravages far more widely, and have overthrown both church
+and state. If the reformers thus contended against sedition, it was not
+without receiving grievous wounds. That moral agony which Luther had
+first suffered, in his cell at Erfurth, became still more serious after
+the insurrection of the peasants. No great change takes place among men
+without suffering on the part of those who are its instruments. The
+birth of Christianity was effected by the agony of the Cross; but He who
+hung upon that cross addressed these words to each of his disciples,
+"Are ye able to drink of the cup that I shall drink of, and to be
+baptized with the same baptism that I am baptized with?"
+
+On the side of the princes, it was continually repeated that Luther and
+his doctrine were the cause of the revolt, and, however absurd this idea
+may be, the reformer could not see it so generally entertained without
+experiencing the deepest grief. On the side of the people, Munzer and
+all the leaders of the insurrection represented him as a vile hypocrite,
+a flatterer of the great, and these calumnies easily obtained belief.
+The violence with which Luther had declared against the rebels had
+displeased even moderate men. The friends of Rome exulted; all were
+against him, and he bore the heavy anger of his times. But his greatest
+affliction was to behold the work of heaven thus dragged in the mire and
+classed with the most fanatical projects. Here he felt was his
+Gethsemane: he saw the bitter cup that was presented to him; and,
+foreboding that he would be forsaken by all, he exclaimed: "Soon,
+perhaps, I shall also be able to say, 'All ye shall be offended because
+of me this night.'"
+
+Yet in the midst of this deep bitterness he preserved his faith: "He who
+has given me power to trample the enemy under foot," said he, "when he
+rose up against me like a cruel dragon or a furious lion, will not
+permit this enemy to crush me, now that he appears before me with the
+treacherous glance of the basilisk. I groan as I contemplate those
+calamities. Often have I asked myself whether it would not have been
+better to have allowed the papacy to go on quietly, rather than witness
+the occurrence of so many troubles and seditions in the world. But no!
+it is better to have snatched a few souls from the jaws of the devil
+than to have left them all between his murderous fangs."
+
+Now terminated the revolution in Luther's mind that had begun at the
+period of his return from the Wartburg. The inner life no longer
+satisfied him: the Church and her institutions now became most important
+in his eyes. The boldness with which he had thrown down everything was
+checked at the sight of still more sweeping destructions; he felt it his
+duty to preserve, govern, and build up; and from the midst of the
+blood-stained ruins with which the peasant war had covered all Germany,
+the edifice of the new Church began slowly to arise.
+
+These disturbances left a lasting and deep impression on men's minds.
+The nations had been struck with dismay. The masses, who had sought in
+the Reformation nothing but political reform, withdrew from it of their
+own accord, when they saw it offered them spiritual liberty only.
+Luther's opposition to the peasants was his renunciation of the
+ephemeral favor of the people. A seeming tranquillity was soon
+established, and the noise of enthusiasm and sedition was followed in
+all Germany by a silence inspired by terror.
+
+Thus the popular passions, the cause of revolution, the interests of a
+radical equality, were quelled in the empire; but the Reformation did
+not yield. These two movements, which many have confounded with each
+other, were clearly marked out by the difference of their results. The
+insurrection was from below; the Reformation, from above. A few horsemen
+and cannon were sufficient to put down the one; but the other never
+ceased to rise in strength and vigor, in despite of the reiterated
+assaults of the empire and the Church.
+
+
+
+
+FRANCE LOSES ITALY
+
+BATTLE OF PAVIA
+
+A.D. 1525
+
+WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+     Close upon the election of Charles V as emperor of the Holy
+     Roman Empire came the first of a series of wars between that
+     sovereign and Francis I, King of France, who had been
+     Charles's rival for the imperial crown. The Emperor was at
+     this time, 1521, favored by Henry VIII of England, and a
+     secret treaty with Charles was finally concluded by Pope Leo
+     X, who from the first had hesitated between the two young
+     rivals, and who had already treated with Francis. The papal
+     support proved the foundation of future power for Charles in
+     Italy. The Pope and the Emperor agreed to unite their forces
+     for expulsion of the French from their seat in the duchy of
+     Milan.
+
+     In 1521 hostilities broke out in Navarre and in the
+     Netherlands, and finally in the Milanese, where the people
+     were tired of French government. The various allies drove
+     the French completely out of Italy, and Charles invaded
+     France, but was there repulsed. King Francis, elated by this
+     last success, determined upon another invasion of the
+     Milanese. He went in person to Italy, leaving his mother as
+     regent in France. With largely superior forces, he drove the
+     imperialists before him.
+
+     Instead, however, of pursuing the enemy, whom he might have
+     overtaken at an untenable position, Francis, against the
+     almost unanimous advice of his generals, laid siege to the
+     strongly fortified city of Pavia, only to meet before it the
+     crushing defeat which for centuries settled the fate of
+     Italy. Pavia was held by a strong imperialist force under
+     Lannoy.
+
+
+Francis prosecuted the siege with obstinacy equal to the rashness with
+which he had undertaken it. During three months everything known to the
+engineers of that age, or that could be effected by the valor of his
+troops, was attempted, in order to reduce the place; while Lannoy and
+Pescara, unable to obstruct his operations, were obliged to remain in
+such an ignominious state of inaction that a pasquinade was published at
+Rome offering a reward to any person who could find the imperial army,
+lost in the month of October in the mountains between France and
+Lombardy, and which had not been heard of since that time.
+
+Leyva, well acquainted with the difficulties under which his countrymen
+labored, and the impossibility of their facing, in the field, such a
+powerful army as formed the siege of Pavia, placed his only hopes of
+safety in his own vigilance and valor. The efforts of both were
+extraordinary, and in proportion to the importance of the place with the
+defence of which he was intrusted. He interrupted the approaches of the
+French by frequent and furious sallies. Behind the breaches made by
+their artillery he erected new works, which appeared to be scarcely
+inferior in strength to the original fortifications. He repulsed the
+besiegers in all their assaults, and by his own example brought not only
+the garrison, but the inhabitants, to bear the most severe fatigues, and
+to encounter the greatest dangers, without murmuring. The rigor of the
+season conspired with his endeavors in retarding the progress of the
+French. Francis, attempting to become master of the town by diverting
+the course of the Tessino, which is its chief defence on one side, a
+sudden inundation of the river destroyed, in one day, the labor of many
+weeks, and swept away all the mounds which his army had raised with
+infinite toil as well as at great expense.
+
+Notwithstanding the slow progress of the besiegers, and the glory which
+Leyva acquired by his gallant defence, it was not doubted but that the
+town would at last be obliged to surrender. Pope Clement, who already
+considered the French arms as superior in Italy, became impatient to
+disengage himself from his connections with the Emperor, of whose
+designs he was extremely jealous, and to enter into terms of friendship
+with Francis. As Clement's timid and cautious temper rendered him
+incapable of following the bold plan which Leo had formed of delivering
+Italy from the yoke of both the rivals, he returned to the more obvious
+and practicable scheme of employing the power of the one to balance and
+to restrain that of the other.
+
+For this reason he did not dissemble his satisfaction at seeing the
+French King recover Milan, as he hoped that the dread of such a neighbor
+would be some check upon the Emperor's ambition, which no power in Italy
+was now able to control. He labored hard to bring about a peace that
+would secure Francis in the possession of his new conquests; and as
+Charles, who was always inflexible in the prosecution of his schemes,
+rejected the proposition with disdain, and with bitter exclamations
+against the Pope, by whose persuasions, while Cardinal di Medici, he had
+been induced to invade the Milanese, Clement immediately concluded a
+treaty of neutrality with the King of France, in which the republic of
+Florence was included.
+
+Francis having, by this transaction, deprived the Emperor of his two
+most powerful allies, and at the same time having secured a passage for
+his own troops through their territories, formed a scheme of attacking
+the kingdom of Naples, hoping either to overrun that country, which was
+left altogether without defence, or that at least such an unexpected
+invasion would oblige the viceroy to recall part of the imperial army
+out of the Milanese. For this purpose he ordered six thousand men to
+march under the command of John Stuart, Duke of Albany. But Pescara,
+foreseeing that the effect of this diversion would depend entirely upon
+the operations of the armies in the Milanese, persuaded Lannoy to
+disregard Albany's motions, and to bend his whole force against the King
+himself; so that Francis not only weakened his army very unseasonably by
+this great detachment, but incurred the reproach of engaging too rashly
+in chimerical and extravagant projects.
+
+By this time the garrison of Pavia was reduced to extremity; their
+ammunition and provisions began to fail; the Germans, of whom it was
+chiefly composed, having received no pay for seven months, threatened to
+deliver the town into the enemy's hands, and could hardly be restrained
+from mutiny by all Leyva's address and authority. The imperial generals,
+who were no strangers to his situation, saw the necessity of marching
+without loss of time to his relief. This they had now in their power.
+Twelve thousand Germans, whom the zeal and activity of Bourbon taught to
+move with unusual rapidity, had entered Lombardy under his command, and
+rendered the imperial army nearly equal to that of the French, greatly
+diminished by the absence of the body under Albany, as well as by the
+fatigues of the siege and the rigor of the season.
+
+But the more their troops increased in number, the more sensibly did
+the imperialists feel the distress arising from want of money. Far from
+having funds for paying a powerful army, they had scarcely what was
+sufficient for defraying the charges of conducting their artillery and
+of carrying their ammunition and provisions. The abilities of the
+generals, however, supplied every defect. By their own example, as well
+as by magnificent promises in name of the Emperor, they prevailed on the
+troops of all the different nations which composed their army to take
+the field without pay; they engaged to lead them directly toward the
+enemy, and flattered them with the certain prospect of victory, which
+would at once enrich them with such royal spoils as would be an ample
+reward for all their services. The soldiers, sensible that, by quitting
+the army, they would forfeit the great arrears due to them, and eager to
+get possession of the promised treasures, demanded a battle with all the
+impatience of adventurers who fight only for plunder.
+
+The imperial generals, without suffering the ardor of their troops to
+cool, advanced immediately toward the French camp. On the first
+intelligence of their approach, Francis called a council of war to
+deliberate what course he ought to take. All his officers of greatest
+experience were unanimous in advising him to retire, and to decline a
+battle with an enemy who courted it from despair. The imperialists, they
+observed, would either be obliged in a few weeks to disband an army
+which they were unable to pay, and which they kept together only by the
+hope of plunder, or the soldiers, enraged at the nonperformance of the
+promises to which they had trusted, would rise in some furious mutiny,
+which would allow their generals to think of nothing but their own
+safety; that meanwhile he might encamp in some strong post, and, waiting
+in safety the arrival of fresh troops from France and Switzerland, might
+before the end of spring take possession of all the Milanese without
+danger or bloodshed. But in opposition to them, Bonnivet, whose destiny
+it was to give counsels fatal to France during the whole campaign,
+represented the ignominy that it would reflect on their sovereign if he
+should abandon a siege which he had prosecuted so long, or turn his back
+before an enemy to whom he was still superior in number, and insisted on
+the necessity of fighting the imperialists rather than relinquish an
+undertaking on the success of which the King's future fame depended.
+Unfortunately, Francis' notions of honor were delicate to an excess that
+bordered on what was romantic. Having often said that he would take
+Pavia or perish in the attempt, he thought himself bound not to depart
+from that resolution; and, rather than expose himself to the slightest
+imputation, he chose to forego all the advantages which were the certain
+consequences of a retreat, and determined to wait for the imperialists
+before the walls of Pavia.
+
+The imperial generals found the French so strongly intrenched that,
+notwithstanding the powerful motives which urged them on, they hesitated
+long before they ventured to attack them; but at last the necessities of
+the besieged and the murmurs of their own soldiers obliged them to put
+everything to hazard. Never did armies engage with greater ardor or with
+a higher opinion of the importance of the battle which they were going
+to fight; never were troops more strongly animated with emulation,
+national antipathy, mutual resentment, and all the passions which
+inspire obstinate bravery. On the one hand, a gallant young monarch,
+seconded by a generous nobility and followed by subjects to whose
+natural impetuosity indignation at the opposition which they had
+encountered added new force, contended for victory and honor. On the
+other side, troops more completely disciplined, and conducted by
+generals of greater abilities, fought from necessity, with courage
+heightened by despair. The imperialists, however, were unable to resist
+the first efforts of the French valor, and their firmest battalions
+began to give way. But the fortune of the day was quickly changed. The
+Swiss in the service of France, unmindful of the reputation of their
+country for fidelity and martial glory, abandoned their post in a
+cowardly manner. Leyva, with his garrison, sallied out and attacked the
+rear of the French, during the heat of the action, with such fury as
+threw it into confusion; and Pescara, falling on their cavalry with the
+imperial horse, among whom he had prudently intermingled a considerable
+number of Spanish foot armed with the heavy muskets then in use, broke
+this formidable body by an unusual method of attack, against which they
+were wholly unprovided. The rout became universal; and resistance ceased
+in almost every part but where the King was in person, who fought now,
+not for fame or victory, but for safety. Though wounded in several
+places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed under him, Francis
+defended himself on foot with a heroic courage.
+
+Many of his bravest officers, gathering round him, and endeavoring to
+save his life at the expense of their own, fell at his feet. Among these
+was Bonnivet, the author of this great calamity, who alone died
+unlamented. The King, exhausted with fatigue, and scarcely capable of
+further resistance, was left almost alone, exposed to the fury of some
+Spanish soldiers, strangers to his rank and enraged at his obstinacy. At
+that moment came up Pomperant, a French gentleman, who had entered
+together with Bourbon into the Emperor's service, and, placing himself
+by the side of the monarch against whom he had rebelled, assisted in
+protecting him from the violence of the soldiers, at the same time
+beseeching him to surrender to Bourbon, who was not far distant.
+Imminent as the danger was which now surrounded Francis, he rejected
+with indignation the thoughts of an action which would have afforded
+such matter of triumph to his traitorous subject, and calling for
+Lannoy, who happened likewise to be near at hand, gave up his sword to
+him; which he, kneeling to kiss the King's hand, received with profound
+respect; and taking his own sword from his side, presented it to him,
+saying that it did not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in
+the presence of one of the Emperor's subjects.
+
+Ten thousand men fell on this day, one of the most fatal France had ever
+seen. Among these were many noblemen of the highest distinction, who
+chose rather to perish than to turn their backs with dishonor. Not a few
+were taken prisoners, of whom the most illustrious was Henry d'Albret,
+the unfortunate King of Navarre. A small body of the rear-guard made its
+escape under the command of the Duke of Alencon; the feeble garrison of
+Milan, on the first news of the defeat, retired, without being pursued,
+by another road; and, in two weeks after the battle, not a Frenchman
+remained in Italy.
+
+Lannoy, though he treated Francis with all the outward marks of honor
+due to his rank and character, guarded him with the utmost attention. He
+was solicitous, not only to prevent any possibility of his escaping,
+but afraid that his own troops might seize his person and detain it as
+the best security for the payment of their arrears. In order to provide
+against both these dangers, he conducted Francis, the day after the
+battle, to the strong castle of Pizzichitone, near Cremona, committing
+him to the custody of Don Ferdinand Alarcon, general of the Spanish
+infantry, an officer of great bravery and of strict honor, but
+remarkable for that severe and scrupulous vigilance which such a trust
+required.
+
+Francis, who formed a judgment of the Emperor's dispositions by his own,
+was extremely desirous that Charles should be informed of his situation,
+fondly hoping that from his generosity or sympathy he should obtain
+speedy relief. The imperial generals were no less impatient to give
+their sovereign an early account of the decisive victory which they had
+gained, and to receive his instructions with regard to their future
+conduct. As the most certain and expeditious method of conveying
+intelligence to Spain at that season of the year was by land, Francis
+gave the _commendador_ Pennalosa, who was charged with Lannoy's
+despatches, a passport to travel through France.
+
+Charles received the account of this signal and unexpected success that
+had crowned his arms with a moderation which, if it had been real, would
+have done him more honor than the greatest victory. Without uttering one
+word expressive of exultation or of intemperate joy, he retired
+immediately into his chapel, and, having spent an hour in offering up
+his thanksgivings to heaven, returned to the presence-chamber, which by
+that time was filled with grandees and foreign ambassadors assembled in
+order to congratulate him. He accepted of their compliments with a
+modest deportment; he lamented the misfortune of the captive King, as a
+striking example of the sad reverse of fortune to which the most
+powerful monarchs are subject; he forbade any public rejoicings, as
+indecent in a war carried on among Christians, reserving them until he
+should obtain a victory equally illustrious over the infidels; and
+seemed to take pleasure, in the advantage which he had gained, only as
+it would prove the occasion of restoring peace to Christendom.
+
+Charles, however, had already begun to form schemes in his own mind
+which little suited such external appearances. Ambition, not
+generosity, was the ruling passion in his mind; and the victory at Pavia
+opened such new and unbounded prospects of gratifying it as allured him
+with irresistible force. But it being no easy matter to execute the vast
+designs which he meditated, he thought it necessary, while proper
+measures were taking for that purpose, to affect the greatest
+moderation, hoping under that veil to conceal his real intentions from
+the other princes of Europe.
+
+Meanwhile France was filled with consternation. The King himself had
+early transmitted an account of the rout at Pavia in a letter to his
+mother, delivered by Pennalosa, which contained only these words:
+"Madam, all is lost except our honor." The officers who made their
+escape, when they arrived from Italy, brought such a melancholy detail
+of particulars as made all ranks of men sensibly feel the greatness and
+extent of the calamity. France, without its sovereign, without money in
+her treasury, without an army and without generals to command it, and
+encompassed on all sides by a victorious and active enemy, seemed to be
+on the very brink of destruction. But on that occasion the great
+abilities of Louise, the regent, saved the kingdom which the violence of
+her passions had more than once exposed to the greatest danger. Instead
+of giving herself up to such lamentations as were natural to a woman so
+remarkable for her maternal tenderness, she discovered all the foresight
+and exerted all the activity of a consummate politician. She assembled
+the nobles at Lyons, and animated them, by her example no less than by
+her words, with such zeal in defence of their country as its present
+situation required. She collected the remains of the army which had
+served in Italy, ransomed the prisoners, paid the arrears, and put them
+in a condition to take the field. She levied new troops, provided for
+the security of the frontiers, and raised sums sufficient for defraying
+these extraordinary expenses. Her chief care, however, was to appease
+the resentment or to gain the friendship of the King of England; and
+from that quarter the first ray of comfort broke in upon the French.
+
+Though Henry, in entering into alliances with Charles or Francis, seldom
+followed any regular or concerted plan of policy, but was influenced
+chiefly by the caprice of temporary passions, such occurrences often
+happened as recalled his attention toward that equal balance of power
+which it was necessary to keep between the two contending potentates,
+the preservation of which he always boasted to be his peculiar office.
+He had expected that his union with the Emperor might afford him an
+opportunity of recovering some part of those territories in France which
+had belonged to his ancestors, and for the sake of such an acquisition
+he did not scruple to give his assistance toward raising Charles to a
+considerable preeminence above Francis. He had never dreamed, however,
+of any event so decisive and so fatal as the victory at Pavia, which
+seemed not only to have broken, but to have annihilated, the power of
+one of the rivals; so that the prospect of the sudden and entire
+revolution which this would occasion in the political system filled him
+with the most disquieting apprehensions. He saw all Europe in danger of
+being overrun by an ambitious prince, to whose power there now remained
+no counterpoise; and though he himself might at first be admitted, in
+quality of an ally, to some share in the spoils of the captive monarch,
+it was easy to discern that with regard to the manner of making the
+partition, as well as his security for keeping possession of what should
+be allotted him, he must absolutely depend upon the will of a
+confederate, to whose forces his own bore no proportion.
+
+He was sensible that if Charles were permitted to add any considerable
+part of France to the vast dominions of which he was already master, his
+neighborhood would be much more formidable to England than that of the
+ancient French kings; while at the same time the proper balance on the
+Continent, to which England owed both its safety and importance, would
+be entirely lost. Concern for the situation of the unhappy monarch
+cooperated with these political considerations; his gallant behavior in
+the battle of Pavia had excited a high degree of admiration, which never
+fails of augmenting sympathy; and Henry, naturally susceptible of
+generous sentiments, was fond of appearing as the deliverer of a
+vanquished enemy from a state of captivity. The passions of the English
+minister seconded the inclinations of the monarch. Wolsey, who had not
+forgotten the disappointment of his hopes in two successive conclaves,
+which he imputed chiefly to the Emperor, thought this a proper
+opportunity of taking revenge; and, Louise courting the friendship of
+England with such flattering submissions as were no less agreeable to
+the King than to the Cardinal, Henry gave her secret assurances that he
+would not lend his aid toward oppressing France in its present helpless
+state, and obliged her to promise that she would not consent to
+dismember the kingdom even in order to procure her son's liberty.
+
+During these transactions, Charles, whose pretensions to moderation and
+disinterestedness were soon forgotten, deliberated, with the utmost
+solicitude, how he might derive the greatest advantages from the
+misfortunes of his adversary. Some of his counsellors advised him to
+treat Francis with the magnanimity that became a victorious prince, and,
+instead of taking advantage of his situation to impose rigorous
+conditions, to dismiss him on such equal terms as would bind him forever
+to his interest by the ties of gratitude and affection, more forcible as
+well as more permanent than any which could be formed by extorted oaths
+and involuntary stipulations.
+
+Such an exertion of generosity is not, perhaps, to be expected in the
+conduct of political affairs, and it was far too refined for that prince
+to whom it was proposed. The more obvious but less splendid scheme, of
+endeavoring to make the utmost of Francis' calamity, had a greater
+number in the council to recommend it, and suited better with the
+Emperor's genius. But though Charles adopted this plan, he seems not to
+have executed it in the most proper manner. Instead of making one great
+effort to penetrate into France with all the forces of Spain and the Low
+Countries; instead of crushing the Italian states before they recovered
+from the consternation which the success of his arms had occasioned, he
+had recourse to the artifices of intrigue and negotiation. This
+proceeded partly from necessity, partly from the natural disposition of
+his mind. The situation of his finances at that time rendered it
+extremely difficult to carry on any extraordinary armament; and he
+himself, having never appeared at the head of his armies, the command of
+which he had hitherto committed to his generals, was averse to bold and
+martial counsels, and trusted more to the arts with which he was
+acquainted. He laid, besides, too much stress upon the victory of
+Pavia, as if by that event the strength of France had been annihilated,
+its resources exhausted, and the kingdom itself, no less than the person
+of its monarch, had been subjected to his power.
+
+Full of this opinion, he determined to set the highest price upon
+Francis' freedom; and, having ordered the Count de Roeux to visit the
+captive King in his name, he instructed him to propose the following
+articles as the conditions on which he would grant him his liberty: That
+he should restore Burgundy to the Emperor, from whose ancestors it had
+been unjustly wrested; that he should surrender Provence and Dauphine,
+that they might be erected into an independent kingdom for the constable
+Bourbon; that he should make full satisfaction to the King of England
+for all his claims, and finally renounce the pretensions of France to
+Naples, Milan, or any other territory in Italy. When Francis, who had
+hitherto flattered himself that he should be treated by the Emperor with
+the generosity becoming one great prince toward another, heard these
+rigorous conditions, he was so transported with indignation that,
+drawing his dagger hastily, he cried out, "'Twere better that a king
+should die thus." Alarcon, alarmed at his vehemence, laid hold on his
+hand; but though he soon recovered greater composure, he still declared
+in the most solemn manner that he would rather remain a prisoner during
+life than purchase liberty by such ignominious concessions.
+
+The chief obstacle that stood in the way of Francis' liberty was the
+Emperor's continuing to insist so peremptorily on the restitution of
+Burgundy as a preliminary to that event. Francis often declared that he
+would never consent to dismember his kingdom; and that, even if he
+should so far forget the duties of a monarch as to come to such a
+resolution, the fundamental laws of the nation would prevent its taking
+effect. On his part he was willing to make an absolute cession to the
+Emperor of all his pretensions in Italy and the Low Countries; he
+promised to restore to Bourbon all his lands which had been confiscated;
+he renewed his proposal of marrying the Emperor's sister, the
+queen-dowager of Portugal; and engaged to pay a great sum by way of
+ransom for his own person.
+
+But all mutual esteem and confidence between the two monarchs were now
+entirely lost; there appeared, on the one hand, a rapacious ambition,
+laboring to avail itself of every favorable circumstance; on the other,
+suspicion and resentment, standing perpetually on their guard; so that
+the prospect of bringing their negotiations to an issure seemed to be
+far distant. The Duchess of Alencon, the French King's sister, whom
+Charles permitted to visit her brother in his confinement, employed all
+her address in order to procure his liberty on more reasonable terms.
+Henry of England interposed his good offices to the same purpose; but
+both with so little success that Francis, in despair, took suddenly the
+resolution of resigning his crown, with all its rights and prerogatives,
+to his son, the Dauphin, determining rather to end his days in prison
+than to purchase his freedom by concessions unworthy of a king. The deed
+for this purpose he signed with legal formality in Madrid, empowering
+his sister to carry it into France, that it might be registered in all
+the parliaments of the kingdom; and, at the same time, intimating his
+intention to the Emperor, he desired him to name the place of his
+confinement, and to assign him a proper number of attendants during the
+remainder of his days.
+
+This resolution of the French King had great effect; Charles began to be
+sensible that, by pushing rigor to excess, he might defeat his own
+measures; and instead of the vast advantages which he hoped to draw from
+ransoming a powerful monarch, he might at last find in his hands a
+prince without dominions or revenues. About the same time one of the
+King of Navarre's domestics happened, by an extraordinary exertion of
+fidelity, courage, and address, to procure his master an opportunity of
+escaping from the prison in which he had been confined ever since the
+battle of Pavia. This convinced the Emperor that the most vigilant
+attention of his officers might be eluded by the ingenuity or boldness
+of Francis or his attendants, and one unlucky hour might deprive him of
+all the advantages which he had been so solicitous to obtain. By these
+considerations he was induced to abate somewhat of his former demands.
+On the other hand, Francis' impatience under confinement daily
+increased; and having received certain intelligence of a powerful league
+forming against his rival in Italy, he grew more compliant with regard
+to his concessions, trusting that, if he could once obtain his liberty,
+he would soon be in a condition to resume whatever he had yielded.
+
+Such being the views and sentiments of the two monarchs, the treaty
+which procured Francis his liberty was signed at Madrid on January 14,
+1526.
+
+
+
+
+SACK OF ROME BY THE IMPERIAL TROOPS
+
+A.D. 1527
+
+BENVENUTO CELLINI    T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+
+     Charles, Duc de Bourbon, known as the Constable de Bourbon,
+     became famous in the wars of the emperor Charles V with
+     Francis I, King of France. The vast estates of both branches
+     of the Bourbon family were united in the possession of the
+     Constable, making him a person of importance independently
+     of his military career. He was born in 1490, and was made
+     Constable of France for his services at the battle of
+     Melegnano (1515), in which Francis gained a brilliant
+     victory over the Swiss.
+
+     The attempt of powerful enemies to undermine Bourbon in the
+     favor of the King led to the threatened loss of the
+     Constable's dignities and lands, and provoked him to
+     renounce the French service. After making a secret treaty
+     with Charles V and with his ally, Henry VIII of England,
+     Bourbon led a force of German mercenaries into Lombardy,
+     where in 1523 he joined Charles' Spanish army, and next year
+     aided in driving the French from Italy. Invading France, he
+     marched under the Emperor's orders to Marseilles and laid
+     siege to the city, but failed to take it.
+
+     Bourbon contributed materially to the Emperor's great
+     victory at Pavia, and was rewarded by being made Duke of
+     Milan and commander in Northern Italy. But although Charles
+     thus honored Bourbon he did not trust him, and was not
+     really desirous of advancing a person of such great resource
+     and consequence. In the peace between Spain and France in
+     1526 Bourbon's great interests were neglected.
+     Notwithstanding these things, when Charles V wished to
+     punish Pope Clement VII, who had joined a league against
+     him, Bourbon, with George of Frundsberg, led an army of
+     Spanish and German mercenaries to Rome.
+
+     The description of the sack which followed, written by
+     Benvenuto Cellini, the celebrated Italian artist, shows him
+     as an effective participant in the defence. This account of
+     a combatant is of course only fragmentary, and is
+     supplemented by Trollope's critical narrative.
+
+
+BENVENUTO CELLINI
+
+The whole world was now in warfare. Pope Clement had sent to get some
+troops from Giovanni de' Medici, and when they came they made such
+disturbances in Rome that it was ill living in open shops.[36] On this
+account I retired to a good snug house behind the Banchi, where I
+worked for all the friends I had acquired. Since I produced few things
+of much importance at that period, I need not waste time in talking
+about them. I took much pleasure in music and amusements of the kind.
+
+On the death of Giovanni de' Medici in Lombardy, the Pope, at the advice
+of Messer Jacopo Salviati, dismissed the five bands he had engaged; and
+when the Constable of Bourbon knew there were no troops in Rome, he
+pushed his army with the utmost energy up to the city. The whole of Rome
+upon this flew to arms. I happened to be intimate with Alessandro, the
+son of Piero del Bene, who, at the time when the Colonnesi entered Rome,
+had requested me to guard his palace.[37] On this more serious occasion,
+therefore, he prayed me to enlist fifty comrades for the protection of
+the said house, appointing me their captain, as I had been when the
+Colonnesi came. So I selected fifty young men of the highest courage,
+and we took up quarters in his palace, with good pay and excellent
+appointments.
+
+Bourbon's army had now arrived before the walls of Rome, and Alessandro
+begged me to go with him to reconnoitre. So we went with one of the
+stoutest fellows in our company; and on the way a youth called Cecchino
+della Casa joined himself to us. On reaching the walls by the Campo
+Santo, we could see that famous army, which was making every effort to
+enter the town. Upon the ramparts where we took our station, several
+young men were lying, killed by the besiegers; the battle raged there
+desperately, and there was the densest fog imaginable. I turned to
+Alessandro and said: "Let us go home as soon as we can, for there is
+nothing to be done here; you see the enemies are mounting, and our men
+are in flight." Alessandro, in a panic, cried, "Would God that we had
+never come here!" and turned in maddest haste to fly. I took him up
+somewhat sharply with these words: "Since you have brought me here, I
+must perform some action worthy of a man"; and, directing my arquebuse
+where I saw the thickest and most serried troop of fighting men, I aimed
+exactly at one whom I remarked to be higher than the rest: the fog
+prevented me from being certain whether he was on horseback or on foot.
+Then I turned to Alessandro and Cecchino, and bade them discharge their
+arquebuses, showing them how to avoid being hit by the besiegers. When
+we had fired two rounds apiece I crept cautiously up to the wall, and,
+observing among the enemy a most extraordinary confusion, I discovered
+afterward that one of our shots had killed the Constable of Bourbon;
+and, from what I subsequently learned, he was the man whom I had first
+noticed above the heads of the rest.[38]
+
+Quitting our position on the ramparts, we crossed the Campo Santo, and
+entered the city by St. Peter's; then, coming out exactly at the Church
+of Santo Agnolo, we got with the greatest difficulty to the great gate
+of the castle; for the generals, Renzo di Ceri and Orazio Baglioni, were
+wounding and slaughtering everybody who abandoned the defence of the
+walls.[39]
+
+By the time we had reached the great gate, part of the foemen had
+already entered Rome, and we had them in our rear. The castellan had
+ordered the portcullis to be lowered, in order to do which they cleared
+a little space, and this enabled us four to get inside. On the instant
+that I entered, the captain Palone de' Medici claimed me as being of the
+papal household and forced me to abandon Alessandro, which I had to do
+much against my will. I ascended to the keep, and at the same instant
+Pope Clement came in through the corridors into the castle; he had
+refused to leave the palace of St. Peter earlier, being unable to
+believe that his enemies would effect their entrance into Rome.[40]
+
+Having got into the castle in this way, I attached myself to certain
+pieces of artillery, which were under the command of a bombardier called
+Giuliano Fiorentino. Leaning there against the battlements, the unhappy
+man could see his poor house being sacked, and his wife and children
+outraged; fearing to strike his own folk, he dared not discharge the
+cannon, and, flinging the burning fuse upon the ground, he wept as
+though his heart would break, and tore his cheeks with both his
+hands.[41]
+
+Some of the other bombardiers were behaving in like manner; seeing
+which, I took one of the matches, and got the assistance of a few men
+who were not overcome by their emotions. I aimed some swivels and
+falconets at points where I saw it would be useful, and killed with them
+a good number of the enemy. Had it not been for this, the troops who
+poured into Rome that morning and were marching straight upon the castle
+might possibly have entered it with ease, because the artillery was
+doing them no damage. I went on firing under the eyes of several
+cardinals and lords, who kept blessing me and giving me the heartiest
+encouragement. In my enthusiasm I strove to achieve the impossible; let
+it suffice that it was I who saved the castle that morning, and brought
+the other bombardiers back to their duty.[42] I worked hard the whole of
+that day, and when the evening came--while the army was marching into
+Rome through Trastevere--Pope Clement appointed a great Roman nobleman
+named Antonio Santacroce to be a captain of all the gunners. The first
+thing this man did was to come to me, and, having greeted me with the
+utmost kindness, he stationed me with five fine pieces of artillery on
+the highest point of the castle, to which the name of the "Angel"
+specially belongs.
+
+This circular eminence goes round the castle and surveys both Prati and
+the town of Rome. The captain put under my orders enough men to help in
+managing my guns, and, having seen me paid in advance, he gave me
+rations of bread and a little wine, and begged me to go forward as I had
+begun. I was perhaps more inclined by nature to the profession of arms
+than to the one I had adopted, and I took such pleasure in its duties
+that I discharged them better than those of my own art.
+
+Night came, the enemy had entered Rome, and we who were in the
+castle--especially myself, who have always taken pleasure in
+extraordinary sights--stayed gazing on the indescribable scene of tumult
+and conflagration in the streets below. People who were anywhere else
+but where we were could not have formed the least imagination of what it
+was.
+
+
+T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE
+
+The combined force of Bourbon and Frundsberg was in all respects more
+like a rabble-rout of brigands and bandits than an army, and was
+assuredly such as must, even in those days, have been felt to be a
+disgrace to any sovereign permitting them to call themselves his
+soldiers. Their pay was, as was often the case with the troops of
+Charles V, hopelessly in arrear, and discipline was of course
+proportionably weak among them. Indeed, it seemed every now and then on
+the point of coming to an end altogether. The two generals had the
+greatest difficulty in preventing their army from becoming an entirely
+anarchical and disorganized mob of freebooters as dangerous to its
+masters as to everybody else. Of course food, raiment, and shelter were
+the first absolute essentials for keeping this dangerous mass of armed
+men in any degree of order and organization, and in fact the present
+march of Frundsberg and Bourbon had the obtaining of these necessaries
+for its principal and true object.
+
+The progress southward of this bandit army unchecked by any opposing
+force--for Giovanni delle Bande Nere had lost his life in the attempt to
+prevent them from passing the Po; and after the death of that great
+captain, the army of the league did not muster courage to attack or
+impede the invaders in any way--filled the cities exposed to their
+inroad with terror and dismay. They had passed like a destroying locust
+swarm over Bologna and Imola, and crossing the Apennines, which separate
+Umbria from Tuscany, had descended into the valley of the Arno not far
+from Arezzo. Florence and Rome both trembled. On which would the storm
+burst? That was the all-absorbing question.
+
+Pope Clement, with his usual avarice-blinded imbecility, had,
+immediately on concluding a treaty with the Neapolitan viceroy,
+discharged all his troops except a bodyguard of about six hundred men.
+Florence was nearly in as defenceless a position. She had, says Varchi,
+"two great armies on her territory; one that under Bourbon, which came
+as an enemy to sack and plunder her; and the other, that of a league,
+which came as a friend to protect her, but sacked and plundered her none
+the less." It was, however, probably the presence of this army, little
+as it had hitherto done to impede the progress of the enemy, which
+decided Bourbon eventually to determine on marching toward Rome.
+
+It seems doubtful how far they were, in so doing, executing the orders
+or carrying out the wishes of the Emperor. Clement, though he had played
+the traitor to Charles, as he did to everyone else, and had been at war
+with him recently, had now entered into a treaty with the Emperor's
+viceroy. And apart from this there was a degree of odium and scandal
+attaching to the sight of the "most Catholic" Emperor sending a Lutheran
+army in his pay to attack the head of the Church, and ravage the
+venerated capital of Christendom, which so decorous a sovereign as
+Charles would hardly have liked to incur. Still, it may be assumed that
+if the Emperor wished his army kept together, and provided no sums for
+the purpose, he was not unwilling that they should live by plunder. And
+perhaps his real intention was to extort from Rome the means of paying
+his troops by the mere exhibition of the danger arising from their
+propinquity while they remained unpaid. Upon the whole we are warranted
+in supposing that Bourbon and Frundsberg would hardly have ventured on
+the course they took if they had not had reason to believe that it would
+not much displease their master. And Charles was exactly the sort of
+man who would like to have the profit of an evil deed without the loss
+of reputation arising from the commission of it, and who would consider
+himself best served by agents who could commit a profitable atrocity
+without being guilty of the annoying want of tact of waiting for his
+direct orders to commit it.
+
+For the especial business in hand, it was impossible, moreover, to have
+had two more fitting agents than Bourbon and Frundsberg. It was not
+every knightly general in those days who would have accepted the task,
+even with direct orders, of marching to the sack of Rome, and the open
+defiance of its sacred ruler. A Florentine or a Neapolitan soldier might
+have had small scruple in doing so; and a Roman baron--a Colonna or an
+Orsini--none at all. But there would have been found few men of such
+mark as Bourbon, in either France or Spain, willing to undertake the
+enterprise he was now engaged in. The unfortunate Constable, however,
+was a disgraced and desperate man. He was disgraced in the face of
+Europe by unknightly breach of fealty to his sovereign, despite the
+intensity of the provocation which had driven him to that step. For all
+the sanctions which held European society together, in the universal
+bondage which alone then constituted social order, were involved in
+maintaining the superstition that so branded him. And he was a desperate
+man in his fortunes; for though no name in all Europe was at that day as
+great a military power at the head of a host as that of Bourbon, and
+though the miserable bearer of it had so shortly before been one of the
+wealthiest and largest territorial nobles of France, yet the Constable
+had now his sword for his fortune as barely as the rawest lad in the
+rabble-rout that followed him, sent out from some landless tower of an
+impoverished knight, in half-starved Galicia or poverty-stricken
+Navarre, to carve his way in the world.
+
+Even among those whose ranks he had joined, Bourbon was a disgraced and
+ruined man beyond redemption. Although his well-known military capacity
+had easily induced Charles to welcome and make use of him, he must have
+felt that the step he had taken in breaking his allegiance and
+abandoning his country had rendered him an outcast and almost a pariah
+in the estimation of the chivalry of Europe. The feeling he had awakened
+against himself throughout Christendom is strikingly illustrated by an
+anecdote recorded of his reception at Madrid. When, shortly after
+winning the battle of Pavia, Bourbon went thither to meet Charles, and
+the Marquis of Villane was requested to lodge the victorious general in
+his palace, the haughty Spaniard told the Emperor that his house and all
+that he possessed were at his sovereign's disposition, but that he
+should assuredly burn it down as soon as Bourbon was out of it; since,
+having been sullied by the presence of a renegade, it could no longer be
+a fitting residence for a man of honor.
+
+So low had Bourbon fallen! Every man's hand was raised against him, and
+his hand was against every man. And it is easy to conceive what must
+have been his tone of mind and feeling, as he led on his mutinous
+robber-rout to Rome, while men of all parties looked on in
+panic-stricken horror. Thus Bourbon led his unpaid and mutinous hordes
+to a deed which, none knew better than he, would shock and scandalize
+all Europe, as a man who, having fallen already so low as to have lost
+all self-respect, cares not in his reckless despair to what depth he
+plunges.
+
+As for Frundsberg, he was a mere soldier of fortune, whose world was his
+camp, whose opinions and feelings had been formed in quite another
+school from those of his fellow-general; whose code of honor and of
+morals was an entirely different one, and whose conscience was not only
+perfectly at rest respecting the business he was bound on, but approved
+of it as a good and meritorious work for the advancement of true
+religion. He carried round his neck a halter of golden tissue, we are
+told, with which he loudly boasted that he would hang the Pope as soon
+as he got to Rome; and had others of crimson silk at his saddle-bow,
+which he said were destined for the cardinals!
+
+Too late Clement became aware of the imminence and magnitude of the
+danger that threatened him and the capital of Christendom. He besought
+the Neapolitan viceroy, who had already signed a treaty with him, as has
+been seen, to exert himself and use his authority to arrest the
+southward march of Bourbon's army. And it is remarkable that this
+representative of the Emperor in the government of Naples did, as it
+would seem, endeavor earnestly to avert the coming avalanche from the
+Eternal City. But, while the Emperor's viceroy used all his authority
+and endeavors to arrest the advance of the Emperor's army, the Emperor's
+generals advanced and sacked Rome in spite of him. Which of them most
+really acted according to the secret wishes of that profound dissembler,
+and most false and crafty monarch, it is impossible to know. It may have
+been that Bourbon himself had no power to stay the plundering,
+bandit-like march of his hungry and unpaid troops. And the facts
+recorded of the state of discipline of the army are perfectly consistent
+with such a supposition.
+
+The Viceroy sent a messenger to Bourbon, while he was yet in Bologna,
+informing him of the treaty signed with Clement, and desiring him
+therefore to come no farther southward. Bourbon, bent, as Varchi says,
+on deceiving both the Pope and the Viceroy, replied that, if the Pope
+would send him two hundred thousand florins for distribution to the
+army, he would stay his march. But, while this answer was carried back
+to Rome, the tumultuous host continued its fearfully menacing advance;
+and the alarm in Rome was rapidly growing to desperate terror. At the
+Pope's earnest request, the Viceroy, "who knew well," says Varchi, "that
+his holiness had not a farthing," himself took post and rode hard for
+Florence with letters from Clement, hoping to obtain the money there.
+
+The departure of the Viceroy in person, and the breathless haste of his
+ride to Florence, speak vividly of this Spanish officer's personal
+anxiety respecting the dreadful fate which threatened Rome. But the
+Florentines do not seem to have been equally impressed with the
+necessity of losing no time in making an effort to avert the calamity
+from a rival city. It was after "much talking," we are told, that they
+at last consented to advance a hundred fifty thousand florins, eighty
+thousand in cash down, and the remainder by the end of October. It was
+now April; and Bourbon had by this time crossed the Apennines, and was
+with his army on the western slopes of the mountains, not far from the
+celebrated monastery of Lavernia. Thither the Viceroy hurried with all
+speed, accompanied by only two servants and a trumpeter; and having
+"with much difficulty," says Varchi, come to speech with the general,
+proffered him the eighty thousand florins. Upon which he was set upon by
+the tumultuous troops, and "narrowly escaped being torn in pieces by
+them." In endeavoring to get away from them and make his way back to
+Florence, he fell into the hands of certain peasants near Camaldoli, and
+was here again in danger of his life, and was wounded in the head. He
+was, however, rescued by a monk of Vallombrosa, and by him conducted to
+the neighboring little town of Poppi in the Casentino, or upper valley
+of the Arno, whence he made his way to Siena, and so back to Rome, with
+no pleasant tidings of what might be expected from Bourbon and his
+brigand army.
+
+The Vallombrosan monk, who thus bestead the Viceroy at his need, was, as
+Varchi records, rewarded by the bishopric of Muro, in the kingdom of
+Naples, which, adds the historian, "he still holds."
+
+The fate of Rome was no longer doubtful. Clement, who by his pennywise
+parsimony had left himself defenceless, made a feeble and wholly vain
+attempt to put the city in a state of defence. The corrupt and cowardly
+citizens could not have opposed any valid resistance to the ruffian
+hordes who were slowly but surely, like an advancing conflagration,
+coming upon them, even if they had been willing to do their best. But
+the trembling Pope's appeal to them to defend the walls fell on the ears
+of as sorely trembling men, each thinking only of the possible chances
+of saving his own individual person. Yet it seems clear that means of
+defence might have been found had not the Pope been thus paralyzed by
+terror.
+
+Clement, however, was as one fascinated. Martin du Bellay tells us that
+he himself, then in Italy as ambassador from Francis I, hurried to Rome,
+and warned the Pope of his danger in abundant time for him to have
+prepared for the protection of the city by the troops he had at his
+disposal. But no persuasion availed to induce Clement to take any step
+for that purpose. Neither would he seek safety by flight, nor permit his
+unfortunate subjects to do so. John da Casale, ambassador of Henry VIII
+at Venice, writes thence to Wolsey on May 16th--the fatal tidings of the
+sack of the city having just reached Venice--as follows:
+"He"--Clement--"refused to quit the city for some safer place. He even
+forbade by edict that anyone should carry anything out of the gates on
+pain of death, though many were anxious to depart and carry their
+fortunes elsewhere." Meantime Florence, for her own protection, had
+hastily induced Francesco Maria, Duke of Urbino, to place himself at the
+head of the remaining forces of the Italian league, and to take up a
+position at Incisa, a small town in the Upper Valdarno, about twenty
+miles from the city, on the road to Arezzo. Thus the torrent was turned
+off from the capital of the commonwealth. Probably as soon as the
+invading army once found itself to the south of Florence, that wealthy
+city was in no immediate danger. Rome was metal more attractive to the
+invaders, even had there not been an army between them and Florence.
+
+And now it became frightfully clear that the doom of the Eternal City
+was at hand. On came the strangely heterogeneous rout of lawless
+soldiery, leaving behind them a trail of burned and ruined cities,
+devastated fields, and populations plague-stricken from the
+contamination engendered by the multitude of their unburied dead.
+
+On May 5th Bourbon arrived beneath the walls of Rome. During the last
+few days the unhappy Pope had endeavored to arm what men he could get
+together under Renzo di Ceri and one Horatius--not Cocles,
+unhappily--but Baglioni. "Rome contained within her walls," says Ranke,
+"some thirty thousand inhabitants capable of bearing arms. Many of these
+men had seen service. They wore swords by their sides, which they had
+used freely in their broils among each other, and then boasted of their
+exploits. But to oppose the enemy, who brought with him certain
+destruction, five hundred men were the utmost that could be mustered
+within the city. At the first onset the Pope and his forces were
+overthrown." On the evening of May 6th the city was stormed and given
+over to the unbridled cupidity and brutality of the soldiers, who during
+many a long day of want and hardship had been looking forward to the
+hour that was to repay them amply for all past sufferings by the
+boundless gratification of every sense, and every caprice of lawless
+passion. Bourbon himself had fallen in the first moments of the attack,
+as he was leading his men to scale the walls, and any small influence
+that he might have exerted in moderating the excesses of the conquerors
+was thus at an end.
+
+It does not fall within the scope of the present narrative to attempt
+any detailed account of the days and scenes that followed. They have
+been described by many writers; and the reader who bears in mind what
+Rome was--her vileness, her cowardice, her imbecility, her wealth, her
+arts, her monuments, her memories, her helpless population of religious
+communities of both sexes, and the sacred character of her high places
+and splendors, which served to give an additional zest to the violence
+of triumphant heretics--he that bears in mind all these things may
+safely give the reign to his imagination without any fear of
+overcharging the picture. Frundsberg had been wont to boast that if ever
+he reached Rome he would hang the Pope. He never did reach it, having
+been carried off by a fit of apoplexy while striving to quell a mutiny
+among his troops shortly after leaving Bologna on his southward march.
+But the threat is sufficiently indicative of the spirit that animated
+his army, to show that Clement owed his personal safety only to the
+strength of the castle of St. Angelo, in which he sought refuge.
+
+The sensation produced throughout Europe by the dreadful misfortune
+which had fallen on the Eternal City was immense. John da Casale, in the
+letter cited above, says that it would have been better for Rome to have
+been taken by the Turks, when they were in Hungary, as the infidels
+would have perpetrated less odious outrages and less horrible sacrilege.
+Clerk, Bishop of Bath, writes to Wolsey from Paris on May 28th
+following: "Please it, your Grace, after my most humble recommendation,
+to understand that about the fifteenth of this moneth, by letters sent
+from Venyce, it was spoken, that the Duke of Burbon with the armye
+imperyall by vyolence shold enter Rome as the 6th of this moneth; and
+that in the same entree the said Duke should be slayne; and that the
+Pope had savyd Himself with the Cardynalls in Castell Angell; whiche
+tydinges bycause they ware not written unto Venyce, but upon relation of
+a souldier, that came from Rome to Viterbe, and bycause ther cam hither
+no maner of confirmation thereof unto this day, thay war not belevyd.
+This day ther is come letters from Venyce confyrming the same tydinges
+to be true. They write also that they have sackyd and spoylyd the town,
+and slayne to the nombre of 45,000, _non parcentes nec etati nec sexui
+nec ordini_; amongst other that they have murdyrd a marveillous sorte of
+fryars, and agaynst pristes and churchis they have behavyd thymselfes
+as it doth become Murranys and Lutherans to do."
+
+How deeply Wolsey himself was moved by the news is seen by a letter from
+him to Henry VIII, written on June 2d following. He forwards to the King
+the letters "nowe arryved, as wel out of Fraunce as out of Italy,
+confirming the piteous and lamentable spoiles, pilages, with most cruel
+murdres, committed by the Emperialls in the citie of Rome, _non
+parcentes sacris, etati, sexui, aut relioni_; and the extreme daungier
+that the Poopes Holines and Cardinalles, who fled into the Castel Angel,
+wer in, if by meane of the armye of the liege, they should not be
+shortly socoured and releved. Which, sire, is matier that must nedes
+commove and stire the hartes of al good christen princes and people to
+helpe and put their handes with effecte to reformacion thereof, and the
+repressing of such tirannous demenour."
+
+Even Charles himself affected at least to mourn the success of his own
+army. Nowhere did this terrible Italian misfortune fail to awaken
+sympathy and compassion save in a rival Italian city. Florence heard the
+tidings, says Varchi, with the utmost delight. The same historian
+expresses his own opinion, that the sack of Rome was at once the most
+cruel and the most merited chastisement ever inflicted by heaven. And
+another Florentine writer piously accounts for the failure of all means
+adopted to avert the calamity, by supposing that it was God's eternal
+purpose then and thus to chastise the crimes of the Roman prelates--a
+theory, it may occur to some minds, somewhat damaged by the unfortunate
+fact that the greater part of the miseries suffered in those awful days
+were inflicted on the unhappy flocks of those purple shepherds.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[36] These troops entered Rome in October, 1526. They were disbanded in
+March, 1527.
+
+[37] Cellini here refers to the attack made upon Rome by the great
+Ghibelline house of Colonna, led by their chief captain, Pompeo, in
+September, 1526. They took possession of the city and drove Clement into
+the castle of St. Angelo, where they forced him to agree to terms
+favoring the Imperial cause. It was customary for Roman gentlemen to
+hire bravoes for the defence of their palaces when any extraordinary
+disturbance was expected, as, for example, upon the vacation of the
+papal chair.
+
+[38] All historians of the sack of Rome agree in saying that Bourbon was
+shot dead while placing ladders against the outworks near the shop
+Cellini mentions. But the honor of firing the arquebuse which brought
+him down cannot be assigned to anyone in particular. Very different
+stories were current on the subject.
+
+[39] Renzo di Ceri was a captain of adventurers, who had conquered
+Urbino for the Pope in 1515, and afterward fought for the French in the
+Italian wars. Orazio Baglioni, of the semiprincely Perugian family, was
+a distinguished _condottiere_. He subsequently obtained the captaincy of
+the Bande Nere, and died fighting near Naples in 1528. Orazio murdered
+several of his cousins in order to acquire the lordship of Perugia. His
+brother Malatesta undertook to defend Florence in the siege of 1530, and
+sold the city by treason to Clement.
+
+[40] Giovio, in his _Life of the Cardinal Prospero Colonna_, relates how
+he accompanied Clement in his flight from the Vatican to the castle.
+While passing some open portions of the gallery, he threw his violet
+mantle and cap of a monseigneur over the white stole of the Pontiff, for
+fear he might be shot at by the soldiers in the streets below.
+
+[41] The short autobiography of Raffaello da Montelupo, a man in many
+respects resembling Cellini, confirms this part of our author's
+narrative. It is one of the most interesting pieces of evidence
+regarding what went on inside the castle during the sack of Rome.
+Montelupo was also a gunner and commanded two pieces.
+
+[42] This is an instance of Cellini's exaggeration. He did more than
+yeoman's service, no doubt, but we cannot believe that, without him, the
+castle would have been taken.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND
+
+FALL OF WOLSEY
+
+A.D. 1529
+
+JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+     The "New Learning" which had been slowly spreading from
+     Italy over all Europe, did not markedly affect England until
+     the sixteenth century. There the long Wars of the Roses had
+     not only gone nigh to exterminating the old nobility, but
+     had so distracted men's minds from more peaceful pursuits
+     that little note was taken of the intellectual movement
+     abroad. Under Henry VII and Henry VIII all this changed.
+     These Tudor monarchs were indeed tyrants over England, but
+     they brought her peace--and time for thought. Under the
+     leadership of the celebrated Dutch scholar Erasmus, and the
+     almost equally renowned Englishmen, Sir Thomas More and Dean
+     Colet, the land awakened about 1500 to a new life of study
+     and of culture, whose principles spread rapidly among the
+     upper classes.
+
+     When news of Luther's religious revolt reached England, the
+     leaders of the New Learning were at first inclined to favor
+     his ideas. But the two movements, one scholarly and calm,
+     the other impassioned and intense, soon parted company, as
+     Green shows in his justly famous account.
+
+     The true ruler of England at the time was the "great
+     cardinal," Wolsey, whose brain long enabled him to play upon
+     King Henry as a toreador does upon a bull, guiding at will
+     the frenzied rushes of the mighty brute. In 1521, the period
+     when the following account begins, Wolsey was fifty years
+     old. He had risen from being the studious son of a grazier
+     and wool merchant to be a dean of the Church under Henry
+     VII, and a bishop, cardinal and lord chancellor, of England
+     under Henry VIII. His ambition to be pope was thwarted by
+     the emperor Charles V, but he was "cardinal legate," having
+     control of the Catholic Church throughout England; and it
+     was said of him that in all European affairs he was "seven
+     times more powerful than the Pope."
+
+
+In England Luther's protest seemed at first to find no echo. King Henry
+VIII was, both on political and on religious grounds, firm on the papal
+side. England and Rome were drawn to a close alliance by the identity of
+their political position. Each was hard pressed between the same great
+powers; Rome had to hold its own between the masters of Southern and the
+masters of Northern Italy, as England had to hold her own between the
+rulers of France and of the Netherlands. From the outset of his reign to
+the actual break with Clement VII the policy of Henry is always at one
+with that of the papacy. Nor were the King's religious tendencies
+hostile to it. He was a trained theologian and proud of his theological
+knowledge, but to the end his convictions remained firmly on the side of
+the doctrines which Luther denied. In 1521, therefore, he entered the
+lists against Luther with an "Assertion of the Seven Sacraments," for
+which he was rewarded by Leo with the title of "Defender of the Faith."
+The insolent abuse of the reformer's answer called More and Fisher into
+the field.
+
+The influence of the "New Learning" was now strong at the English court.
+Colet and Grocyn were among its foremost preachers; Linacre was Henry's
+physician; More was a privy councillor; Pace was one of the secretaries
+of state; Tunstall was master of the rolls. And as yet the New Learning,
+though scared by Luther's intemperate language, had steadily backed him
+in his struggle. Erasmus pleaded for him with the Emperor. Ulrich von
+Hutten attacked the friars in satires and invectives as violent as his
+own. But the temper of the Renaissance was even more antagonistic to the
+temper of Luther than that of Rome itself.
+
+From the golden dream of a new age wrought peaceably and purely by the
+slow progress of intelligence, the growth of letters, the development of
+human virtue, the reformer of Wittenberg turned away with horror. He had
+little or no sympathy with the new cult. He despised reason as heartily
+as any papal dogmatist could despise it. He hated the very thought of
+toleration or comprehension. He had been driven by a moral and
+intellectual compulsion to declare the Roman system a false one, but it
+was only to replace it by another system of doctrine just as elaborate
+and claiming precisely the same infallibility. To degrade human nature
+was to attack the very base of the New Learning; and his attack on it
+called the foremost of its teachers to the field. But Erasmus no sooner
+advanced to its defence than Luther declared man to be utterly enslaved
+by original sin and incapable, through any efforts of his own, of
+discovering truth or of arriving, at goodness.
+
+Such a doctrine not only annihilated the piety and wisdom of the classic
+past, from which the New Learning had drawn its larger views of life and
+of the world; it trampled in the dust reason itself, the very instrument
+by which More and Erasmus hoped to regenerate both knowledge and
+religion. To More especially, with his keener perception of its future
+effect, this sudden revival of a purely theological and dogmatic spirit,
+severing Christendom into warring camps and ruining all hopes of union
+and tolerance, was especially hateful. The temper which hitherto had
+seemed so "endearing, gentle, and happy," suddenly gave way. His reply
+to Luther's attack upon the King sank to the level of the work it
+answered; and though that of Bishop Fisher was calmer and more
+argumentative, the divorce of the New Learning from the Reformation
+seemed complete.
+
+But if the world of scholars and thinkers stood aloof from the new
+movement it found a warmer welcome in the larger world where men are
+stirred rather by emotion than by thought. There was an England of which
+even More and Colet knew little, in which Luther's words kindled a fire
+that was never to die. As a great social and political movement
+Lollardry had ceased to exist, and little remained of the directly
+religious impulse given by Wycliffe beyond a vague restlessness and
+discontent with the system of the Church. But weak and fitful as was the
+life of Lollardry the prosecutions whose records lie scattered over the
+bishops' registers failed wholly to kill it. We see groups meeting here
+and there to read "in a great book of heresy all one night certain
+chapters of the Evangelists in English," while transcripts of Wycliffe's
+tracts passed from hand to hand.
+
+The smouldering embers needed but a breath to fan them into flame, and
+the breath came from William Tyndale. Born among the Cotswolds when
+Bosworth Field gave England to the Tudors, Tyndale passed from Oxford to
+Cambridge to feel the full impulse given by the appearance there of the
+New Testament of Erasmus. From that moment one thought was at his heart.
+He "perceived by experience how that it was impossible to establish the
+lay people in any truth except the Scripture were plainly laid before
+their eyes in their mother tongue."
+
+"If God spare my life," he said to a learned controversialist, "ere many
+years I will cause a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the
+Scripture than thou dost." But he was a man of forty before his dream
+became fact. Drawn from his retirement in Gloucestershire by the news of
+Luther's protest at Wittenberg, he found shelter for a year with a
+London alderman, Humfrey Monmouth. "He studied most part of the day at
+his book," said his host afterward, "and would eat but sodden meat by
+his good-will and drink but small single beer." The book at which he
+studied was the Bible. But it was soon needful to quit England if his
+purpose was to hold. "I understood at the last not only that there was
+no room in my lord of London's palace to translate the New Testament,
+but also that there was no place to do it in all England."
+
+From Hamburg, where he took refuge in 1524, he probably soon found his
+way to the little town which had suddenly become the sacred city of the
+Reformation. Students of all nations were flocking there with an
+enthusiasm which resembled that of the crusades. "As they came in sight
+of the town," a contemporary tells us, "they returned thanks to God with
+clasped hands, for from Wittenberg, as heretofore from Jerusalem, the
+light of evangelical truth had spread to the utmost parts of the earth."
+
+Such a visit could only fire Tyndale to face the "poverty, exile, bitter
+absence from friends, hunger and thirst and cold, great dangers, and
+innumerable other hard and sharp fightings," which the work he had set
+himself was to bring with it. In 1525 his version of the New Testament
+was completed, and means were furnished by English merchants for
+printing it at Cologne. But Tyndale had soon to fly with his sheets to
+Worms, a city whose Lutheran tendencies made it a safer refuge, and it
+was from Worms that six thousand copies of the New Testament were sent
+in 1526 to English shores. The King was keenly opposed to a book which
+he looked on as made "at the solicitation and instance of Luther"; and
+even the men of the New Learning from whom it might have hoped for
+welcome were estranged from it by its Lutheran origin. We can only
+fairly judge their action by viewing it in the light of the time. What
+Warham and More saw over sea might well have turned them from a
+movement which seemed breaking down the very foundations of religion
+and society. Not only was the fabric of the Church rent asunder and the
+centre of Christian unity denounced as "Babylon," but the reform itself
+seemed passing into anarchy.
+
+Luther was steadily moving onward from the denial of one Catholic dogma
+to that of another; and what Luther still clung to, his followers were
+ready to fling away. Carlstadt was denouncing the reformer of Wittenberg
+as fiercely as Luther himself had denounced the Pope, and meanwhile the
+religious excitement was kindling wild dreams of social revolution, and
+men stood aghast at the horrors of a peasant war which broke out in
+Southern Germany. It was not therefore as a mere translation of the
+Bible that Tyndale's work reached England. It came as a part of the
+Lutheran movement, and it bore the Lutheran stamp in its version of
+ecclesiastical words. "Church" became "congregation," "priest" was
+changed into "elder." It came too in company with Luther's bitter
+invectives and reprints of the tracts of Wycliffe, which the German
+traders of the Steelyard were importing in large numbers. We can hardly
+wonder that More denounced the book as heretical, or that Warham ordered
+it to be given up by all who possessed it.
+
+Wolsey took little heed of religious matters, but his policy was one of
+political adhesion to Rome, and he presided over a solemn penance to
+which some Steelyard men submitted in St. Paul's. "With six-and-thirty
+abbots, mitred priors, and bishops, and he in his whole pomp mitred,"
+the Cardinal looked on while "great baskets full of books were
+commanded; after the great fire was made before the Rood of Northen (the
+crucifix by the great north door of the cathedral), thus to be burned,
+and those heretics to go thrice about the fire and to cast in their
+fagots."
+
+But scenes and denunciations such as these were vain in the presence of
+an enthusiasm which grew every hour. "Englishmen," says a scholar of the
+time, "were so eager for the Gospel as to affirm that they would buy a
+New Testament even if they had to give a hundred thousand pieces of
+money for it." Bibles and pamphlets were smuggled over to England and
+circulated among the poorer and trading classes through the agency of an
+association of "Christian Brethren," consisting principally of London
+tradesmen and citizens, but whose missionaries spread over the country
+at large. They found their way at once to the universities, where the
+intellectual impulse given by the New Learning was quickening religious
+speculation.
+
+Cambridge had already won a name for heresy; Barnes, one of its foremost
+scholars, had to carry his fagot before Wolsey at St. Paul's; two other
+Cambridge teachers, Bilney and Latimer, were already known as
+"Lutherans." The Cambridge scholars whom Wolsey introduced into Cardinal
+College, which he was founding, spread the contagion through Oxford. A
+group of "brethren" was formed in Cardinal College for the secret
+reading and discussion of the Epistles; and this soon included the more
+intelligent and learned scholars of the university. It was in vain that
+Clark, the centre of this group, strove to dissuade fresh members from
+joining it by warnings of the impending dangers. "I fell down on my
+knees at his feet," says one of them, Anthony Dalaber, "and with tears
+and sighs besought him that for the tender mercy of God he should not
+refuse me, saying that I trusted verily that he who had begun this on me
+would not forsake me, but would give me grace to continue therein to the
+end. When he heard me say so, he came to me, took me in his arms, and
+kissed me, saying, 'The Lord God Almighty grant you so to do, and from
+henceforth ever take me for your father, and I will take you for my son
+in Christ.'"
+
+In 1528 the excitement which followed on this rapid diffusion of
+Tyndale's works forced Wolsey to more vigorous action; many of the
+Oxford Brethren were thrown into prison and their books seized. But in
+spite of the panic of the Protestants, some of whom fled over sea,
+little severity was really exercised. Henry's chief anxiety, indeed, was
+lest in the outburst against heresy the interest of the New Learning
+should suffer harm. This was remarkably shown in the protection he
+extended to one who was destined to eclipse even the fame of Colet as a
+popular preacher. Hugh Latimer was the son of a Leicestershire yeoman,
+whose armor the boy had buckled on in the days of Henry VII, ere he set
+out to meet the Cornish insurgents at Blackheath Field. Latimer has
+himself described the soldierly training of his youth.
+
+"My father was delighted to teach me to shoot with the bow. He taught
+me how to draw, how to lay my body to the bow, not to draw with strength
+of arm as other nations do, but with the strength of the body."
+
+At fourteen he was at Cambridge, flinging himself into the New Learning
+which was winning its way there with a zeal that at last told on his
+physical strength. The ardor of his mental efforts left its mark on him
+in ailments and enfeebled health from which, vigorous as he was, his
+frame never wholly freed itself. But he was destined to be known, not as
+a scholar, but as a preacher. In his addresses from the pulpit the
+sturdy good-sense of the man shook off the pedantry of the schools as
+well as the subtlety of the theologian. He had little turn for
+speculation, and in the religious changes of the day we find him
+constantly lagging behind his brother-reformers. But he had the moral
+earnestness of a Jewish prophet, and his denunciations of wrong had a
+prophetic directness and fire. "Have pity on your soul," he cried to
+Henry, "and think that the day is even at hand when you shall give an
+account of your office, and of the blood that hath been shed by your
+sword."
+
+His irony was yet more telling than his invective. "I would ask you a
+strange question," he said once at Paul's Cross to a ring of bishops;
+"who is the most diligent prelate in all England, that passeth all the
+rest in doing of his office? I will tell you. It is the Devil! Of all
+the pack of them that have cure, the Devil shall go for my money; for he
+ordereth his business. Therefore, you unpreaching prelates, learn of the
+Devil to be diligent in your office. If you will not learn of God, for
+shame learn of the Devil." But Latimer was far from limiting himself to
+invective. His homely humor breaks in with story and apologue; his
+earnestness is always tempered with good-sense; his plain and simple
+style quickens with a shrewd mother-wit. He talks to his hearers as a
+man talks to his friends, telling stories such as we have given of his
+own life at home, or chatting about the changes and chances of the day
+with a transparent simplicity and truth that raise even his chat into
+grandeur. His theme is always the actual world about him, and in his
+simple lessons of loyalty, of industry, of pity for the poor, he touches
+upon almost every subject from the plough to the throne. No such
+preaching had been heard in England before his day, and with the growth
+of his fame grew the danger of persecution. There were moments when,
+bold as he was, Latimer's heart failed him. "If I had not trust that God
+will help me," he wrote once, "I think the ocean sea would have divided
+my lord of London and me by this day."
+
+A citation for heresy at last brought the danger home. "I intend," he
+wrote with his peculiar medley of humor and pathos, to "make merry with
+my parishioners this Christmas, for all the sorrow, lest perchance I may
+never return to them again." But he was saved throughout by the steady
+protection of the court. Wolsey upheld him against the threats of the
+Bishop of Ely; Henry made him his own chaplain; and the King's
+interposition at this critical moment forced Latimer's judges to content
+themselves with a few vague words of submission.
+
+What really sheltered the reforming movement was Wolsey's indifference
+to all but political matters. In spite of the foundation of Cardinal
+College in which he was now engaged, and of the suppression of some
+lesser monasteries for its endowment, the men of the New Learning looked
+on him as really devoid of any interest in the revival of letters or in
+their hopes of a general enlightenment. He took hardly more heed of the
+new Lutheranism. His mind had no religious turn, and the quarrel of
+faiths was with him simply one factor in the political game which he was
+carrying on and which at this moment became more complex and absorbing
+than ever. The victory of Pavia had ruined that system of balance which
+Henry VII, and, in his earlier days, Henry VIII, had striven to
+preserve. But the ruin had not been to England's profit, but to the
+profit of its ally. While the Emperor stood supreme in Europe, Henry had
+won nothing from the war, and it was plain that Charles meant him to win
+nothing. He set aside all projects of a joint invasion; he broke his
+pledge to wed Mary Tudor and married a princess of Portugal; he pressed
+for a peace with France which would give him Burgundy. It was time for
+Henry and his minister to change their course. They resolved to withdraw
+from all active part in the rivalry of the two powers.
+
+In June, 1525, a treaty was secretly concluded with France. But Henry
+remained on fair terms with the Emperor; and though England joined the
+Holy League for the deliverance of Italy from the Spaniards which was
+formed between France, the Pope, and the lesser Italian states on the
+release of Francis in the spring of 1526 by virtue of a treaty which he
+at once repudiated, she took no part in the lingering war which went on
+across the Alps. Charles was too prudent to resent Henry's alliance with
+his foes, and from this moment the country remained virtually at peace.
+No longer spurred by the interest of great events, the King ceased to
+take a busy part in foreign politics, and gave himself to hunting and
+sport. Among the fairest and gayest ladies of his court stood Anne
+Boleyn. She was sprung of a merchant family which had but lately risen
+to distinction through two great marriages, that of her grandfather with
+the heiress of the earls of Ormond, and that of her father, Sir Thomas
+Boleyn, with a sister of the Duke of Norfolk.
+
+It was probably through his kinship with the Duke, who was now lord
+treasurer and high in the King's confidence, that Boleyn was employed
+throughout Henry's reign in state business, and his diplomatic abilities
+had secured his appointment as envoy both to France and to the Emperor.
+His son, George Boleyn, a man of culture and a poet, was among the group
+of young courtiers in whose society Henry took most pleasure. Anne was
+his youngest daughter; born in 1507, she was still but a girl of sixteen
+when the outbreak of war drew her from a stay in France to the English
+court. Her beauty was small, but her bright eyes, her flowing hair, her
+gayety and wit soon won favor with the King, and only a month after her
+return in 1522 the grant of honors to her father marked her influence
+over Henry.
+
+Fresh gifts in the following years showed that the favor continued; but
+in 1524 a new color was given to this intimacy by a resolve on the
+King's part to break his marriage with the Queen. Catharine had now
+reached middle age; her personal charms had departed. The death of every
+child save Mary may have woke scruples as to the lawfulness of a
+marriage on which a curse seemed to rest; the need of a male heir for
+public security may have deepened this impression. But whatever were the
+grounds of his action we find Henry from this moment pressing the Roman
+see to grant him a divorce.
+
+It is probable that the matter was already mooted in 1525, a year which
+saw new proof of Anne's influence in the elevation of Sir Thomas Boleyn
+to the baronage as Lord Rochford. It is certain that it was the object
+of secret negotiation with the Pope in 1526. No sovereign stood higher
+in the favor of Rome than Henry, whose alliance had ever been ready in
+its distress and who was even now prompt with aid in money. But
+Clement's consent to his wish meant a break with the Emperor,
+Catharine's nephew; and the exhaustion of France, the weakness of the
+league in which the lesser Italian states strove to maintain their
+independence against Charles after the battle of Pavia, left the Pope at
+the Emperor's mercy. While the English envoy was mooting the question of
+divorce in 1526 the surprise of Rome by an imperial force brought home
+to Clement his utter helplessness.
+
+It is hard to discover what part Wolsey had as yet taken in the matter,
+or whether as in other cases Henry had till now been acting alone,
+though the Cardinal himself tells us that on Catharine's first discovery
+of the intrigue she attributed the proposal of divorce to "my
+procurement and setting forth." But from this point his intervention is
+clear. As legate he took cognizance of all matrimonial causes, and in
+May, 1527, a collusive action was brought in his court against Henry for
+cohabiting with his brother's wife. The King appeared by proctor; but
+the suit was suddenly dropped. Secret as were the proceedings, they had
+now reached Catharine's ear; and as she refused to admit the facts on
+which Henry rested his case her appeal would have carried the matter to
+the tribunal of the Pope, and Clement's decision could hardly be a
+favorable one.
+
+The Pope was now in fact a prisoner in the Emperor's hands. At the very
+moment of the suit Rome was stormed and sacked by the army of the Duke
+of Bourbon. "If the Pope's holiness fortune either to be slain or
+taken," Wolsey wrote to the King when the news of this event reached
+England, "it shall not a little hinder your grace's affairs." But it was
+needful for the Cardinal to find some expedient to carry out the King's
+will, for the group around Anne were using her skilfully for their
+purposes. A great party had now gathered to her support. Her uncle, the
+Duke of Norfolk, an able and ambitious man, counted on her rise to set
+him at the head of the council board; the brilliant group of young
+courtiers to which her brother belonged saw in her success their own
+elevation; and the Duke of Suffolk with the bulk of the nobles hoped
+through her means to bring about the ruin of the statesman before whom
+they trembled.
+
+What most served their plans was the growth of Henry's passion. "If it
+please you," the King wrote at this time to Anne Boleyn, "to do the
+office of a true, loyal mistress, and give yourself body and heart to
+me, who have been and mean to be your loyal servant, I promise you not
+only the name but that I shall make you my sole mistress, remove all
+others from my affection, and serve you only." What stirred Henry's
+wrath most was Catharine's "stiff and obstinate" refusal to bow to his
+will. Wolsey's advice that "your Grace should handle her both gently and
+doulcely" only goaded Henry's impatience. He lent an ear to the rivals
+who charged his minister with slackness in the cause, and danger drove
+the Cardinal to a bolder and yet more unscrupulous device.
+
+The entire subjection of Italy to the Emperor was drawing closer the
+French alliance, and a new treaty had been concluded in April. But this
+had hardly been signed when the sack of Rome and the danger of the Pope
+called for bolder measures. Wolsey was despatched on a solemn embassy to
+Francis to promise an English subsidy on the despatch of a French army
+across the Alps. But he aimed at turning the Pope's situation to the
+profit of the divorce. Clement was virtually a prisoner in the castle of
+St. Angelo; and as it was impossible for him to fulfil freely the
+function of a Pope, Wolsey proposed, in conjunction with Francis, to
+call a meeting of the college of cardinals at Avignon which should
+exercise the papal powers till Clement's liberation. As Wolsey was to
+preside over this assembly, it would be easy to win from it a favorable
+answer to Henry's request.
+
+But Clement had no mind to surrender his power, and secret orders from
+the Pope prevented the Italian cardinals from attending such an
+assembly. Nor was Wolsey more fortunate in another plan for bringing
+about the same end by inducing Clement to delegate to him his full
+powers westward of the Alps. Henry's trust in him was fast waning before
+these failures and the steady pressure of his rivals at court, and the
+coldness of the King on his return in September was an omen of his
+minister's fall. Henry was in fact resolved to take his own course; and
+while Wolsey sought from the Pope a commission enabling him to try the
+case in his legatine court and pronounce the marriage null and void by
+sentence of law, Henry had determined at the suggestion of the Boleyns
+and apparently of Thomas Cranmer, a Cambridge scholar who was serving as
+their chaplain, to seek, without Wolsey's knowledge, from Clement either
+his approval of a divorce or, if a divorce could not be obtained, a
+dispensation to remarry without any divorce at all.
+
+For some months his envoys could find no admission to the Pope; and
+though in December Clement succeeded in escaping to Orvieto and drew
+some courage from the entry of the French army into Italy, his temper
+was still too timid to venture on any decided course. He refused the
+dispensation altogether. Wolsey's proposal for leaving the matter to a
+legatine court found better favor; but when the commission reached
+England it was found to be "of no effect or authority." What Henry
+wanted was not merely a divorce but the express sanction of the Pope to
+his divorce, and this Clement steadily evaded. A fresh embassy, with
+Wolsey's favorite and secretary, Stephen Gardiner, at its head, reached
+Orvieto in March, 1528, to find, in spite of Gardiner's threats, hardly
+better success; but Clement at last consented to a legatine commission
+for the trial of the case in England. In this commission Cardinal
+Campeggio, who was looked upon as a partisan of the English King, was
+joined with Wolsey.
+
+Great as the concession seemed, this gleam of success failed to hide
+from the minister the dangers which gathered round him. The great nobles
+whom he had practically shut out from the King's counsels were longing
+for his fall. The Boleyns and the young courtiers looked on him as cool
+in Anne's cause. He was hated alike by men of the old doctrine and men
+of the new. The clergy had never forgotten his extortions, the monks saw
+him suppressing small monasteries. The foundation of Cardinal College
+failed to reconcile to him the scholars of the New Learning; their poet,
+Skelton, was among his bitterest assailants.
+
+The Protestants, goaded by the persecution of this very year, hated him
+with a deadly hatred. His French alliances, his declaration of war with
+the Emperor, hindered the trade with Flanders and secured the hostility
+of the merchant class. The country at large, galled with murrain and
+famine and panic-struck by an outbreak of the sweating sickness which
+carried off two thousand in London alone, laid all its suffering at the
+door of the Cardinal. And now that Henry's mood itself became uncertain
+Wolsey knew his hour was come. Were the marriage once made, he told the
+French ambassador, and a male heir born to the realm, he would withdraw
+from state affairs and serve God for the rest of his life. But the
+divorce had still to be brought about ere marriage could be made or heir
+be born. Henry indeed had seized on the grant of a commission as if the
+matter were at an end. Anne Boleyn was installed in the royal palace and
+honored with the state of a wife. The new legate, Campeggio, held the
+bishopric of Salisbury, and had been asked for as judge from the belief
+that he would favor the King's cause. But he bore secret instructions
+from the Pope to bring about if possible a reconciliation between Henry
+and the Queen, and in no case to pronounce sentence without reference to
+Rome. The slowness of his journey presaged ill; he did not reach England
+till the end of September, and a month was wasted in vain efforts to
+bring Henry to a reconciliation or Catharine to retirement into a
+monastery.
+
+A new difficulty disclosed itself in the supposed existence of a brief
+issued by Pope Julius and now in the possession of the Emperor, which
+overruled all the objections to the earlier dispensation on which Henry
+relied. The hearing of the cause was delayed through the winter, while
+new embassies strove to induce Clement to declare this brief also
+invalid. Not only was such a demand glaringly unjust, but the progress
+of the imperial arms brought vividly home to the Pope its injustice. The
+danger which he feared was not merely a danger to his temporal domain in
+Italy--it was a danger to the papacy itself. It was in vain that new
+embassies threatened Clement with the loss of his spiritual power over
+England. To break with the Emperor was to risk the loss of his spiritual
+power over a far larger world.
+
+Charles had already consented to the suspension of the judgment of his
+diet at Worms, a consent which gave security to the new Protestantism in
+North Germany. If he burned heretics in the Netherlands, he employed
+them in his armies. Lutheran soldiers had played their part in the sack
+of Rome. Lutheranism had spread from North Germany along the Rhine, it
+was now pushing fast into the hereditary possessions of the Austrian
+house, it had all but mastered the Low Countries. France itself was
+mined with heresy; and were Charles once to give way, the whole
+Continent would be lost to Rome.
+
+Amid difficulties such as these the papal court saw no course open save
+one of delay. But the long delay told fatally for Wolsey's fortunes.
+Even Clement blamed him for having hindered Henry from judging the
+matter in his own realm and marrying on the sentence of his own courts,
+and the Boleyns naturally looked upon his policy as dictated by hatred
+to Anne. Norfolk and the great peers took courage from the bitter tone
+of the girl; and Henry himself charged the Cardinal with a failure in
+fulfilling the promises he had made him. King and minister still clung
+indeed passionately to their hopes from Rome. But in 1529 Charles met
+their pressure with a pressure of his own; and the progress of his arms
+decided Clement to avoke the cause to Rome. Wolsey could only hope to
+anticipate this decision by pushing the trial hastily forward, and at
+the end of May the two legates opened their court in the great hall of
+the Blackfriars.
+
+King and Queen were cited to appear before them when the court again met
+on June 18th. Henry briefly announced his resolve to live no longer in
+mortal sin. The Queen offered an appeal to Clement, and on the refusal
+of the legates to admit it flung herself at Henry's feet. "Sire," said
+Catharine, "I beseech you to pity me, a woman and a stranger, without an
+assured friend and without an indifferent counsellor. I take God to
+witness that I have always been to you a true and loyal wife, that I
+have made it my constant duty to seek your pleasure, that I have loved
+all whom you loved, whether I have reason or not, whether they are
+friends to me or foes. I have been your wife for years; I have brought
+you many children. God knows that when I came to your bed I was a
+virgin, and I put it to your own conscience to say whether it was not
+so. If there be any offence which can be alleged against me I consent to
+depart with infamy; if not, then I pray you to do me justice."
+
+The piteous appeal was wasted on a king who was already entertaining
+Anne Boleyn with royal state in his own palace; the trial proceeded, and
+on July 23d the court assembled to pronounce sentence. Henry's hopes
+were at their highest when they were suddenly dashed to the ground. At
+the opening of the proceedings Campeggio rose to declare the court
+adjourned to the following October. The adjournment was a mere evasion.
+The pressure of the imperialists had at last forced Clement to summon
+the cause to his own tribunal at Rome, and the jurisdiction of the
+legates was at an end.
+
+"Now see I," cried the Duke of Suffolk as he dashed his hand on the
+table, "that the old saw is true, that there was never legate or
+cardinal that did good to England!" The Duke only echoed his master's
+wrath. Through the twenty years of his reign Henry had known nothing of
+opposition to his will. His imperious temper had chafed at the weary
+negotiations, the subterfuges and perfidies of the Pope. Though the
+commission was his own device, his pride must have been sorely galled by
+the summons to the legates' court. The warmest adherents of the older
+faith revolted against the degradation of the Crown. "It was the
+strangest and newest sight and device," says Cavendish, "that ever we
+read or heard of in any history or chronicle in any region that a king
+and queen should be convented and constrained by process compellatory to
+appear in any court as common persons, within their own realm and
+dominion, to abide the judgment and decree of their own subjects, having
+the royal diadem and prerogative thereof."
+
+Even this degradation had been borne in vain. Foreign and papal tribunal
+as that of the legates really was, it lay within Henry's kingdom and had
+the air of an English court. But the citation to Rome was a summons to
+the King to plead in a court without his realm. Wolsey had himself
+warned Clement of the hopelessness of expecting Henry to submit to such
+humiliation as this. "If the King be cited to appear in person or by
+proxy and his prerogative be interfered with, none of his subjects will
+tolerate the insult. To cite the King to Rome, to threaten him with
+excommunication, is no more tolerable than to deprive him of his royal
+dignity. If he were to appear in Italy it would be at the head of a
+formidable army." But Clement had been deaf to the warning, and the case
+had been avoked out of the realm.
+
+Henry's wrath fell at once on Wolsey. Whatever furtherance or hinderance
+the Cardinal had given to his remarriage, it was Wolsey who had
+dissuaded him from acting, at the first, independently; from conducting
+the cause in his own courts and acting on the sentence of his own
+judges. Whether to secure the succession by a more indisputable decision
+or to preserve uninjured the prerogatives of the papal see, it was
+Wolsey who had counselled him to seek a divorce from Rome and promised
+him success in his suit. And in this counsel Wolsey stood alone. Even
+Clement had urged the King to carry out his original purpose when it was
+too late. All that the Pope sought was to be freed from the necessity of
+meddling in the matter at all. It was Wolsey who had forced papal
+intervention on him, as he had forced it on Henry, and the failure of
+his plans was fatal to him. From the close of the legatine court Henry
+would see him no more, and his favorite, Stephen Gardiner, who had
+become chief secretary of state, succeeded him in the King's confidence.
+
+If Wolsey still remained minister for a while, it was because the thread
+of the complex foreign negotiations which he was conducting could not be
+roughly broken. Here too, however, failure awaited him. His diplomacy
+sought to bring fresh pressure on the Pope and to provide a fresh check
+on the Emperor by a closer alliance with France. But Francis was anxious
+to recover his children who had remained as hostages for his return; he
+was weary of the long struggle, and hopeless of aid from his Italian
+allies. At this crisis of his fate therefore Wolsey saw himself deceived
+and outwitted by the conclusion of peace between France and the Emperor
+in a new treaty at Cambray. Not only was his French policy no longer
+possible, but a reconciliation with Charles was absolutely needful, and
+such a reconciliation could only be brought about by Wolsey's fall. In
+October, on the very day that the Cardinal took his place with a haughty
+countenance and all his former pomp in the court of chancery an
+indictment was preferred against him by the King's attorney for
+receiving bulls from Rome in violation of the Statute of Provisors.
+
+A few days later he was deprived of the seals. Wolsey was prostrated by
+the blow. In a series of abject appeals he offered to give up everything
+that he possessed if the King would but cease from his displeasure. "His
+face," wrote the French ambassador, "is dwindled to half its natural
+size. In truth his misery is such that his enemies, Englishmen as they
+are, cannot help pitying him." For the moment Henry seemed contented
+with his disgrace. A thousand boats full of Londoners covered the Thames
+to see the Cardinal's barge pass to the Tower, but he was permitted to
+retire to Esher.
+
+Although judgment of forfeiture and imprisonment was given against him
+in the king's bench at the close of October, in the following February
+he received a pardon on surrender of his vast possessions to the crown
+and was permitted to withdraw to his diocese of York, the one dignity he
+had been suffered to retain.
+
+Not less significant was the attitude of the New Learning. On Wolsey's
+fall the seals had been offered to Warham, and it was probably at his
+counsel that they were finally given to Sir Thomas More. The
+Chancellor's dream, if we may judge it from the acts of his brief
+ministry, seems to have been that of carrying out the religious
+reformation which had been demanded by Colet and Erasmus while checking
+the spirit of revolt against the unity of the Church. His severities
+against the Protestants, exaggerated as they have been by polemic
+rancor, remain the one stain on a memory that knows no other. But it was
+only by a rigid severance of the cause of reform from what seemed to him
+the cause of revolution that More could hope for a successful issue to
+the projects of reform which the council laid before parliament.
+
+The "Petition of the Commons" sounded like an echo of Colet's famous
+address to the convocation. It attributed the growth of heresy not more
+to "frantic and seditious books published in the English tongue contrary
+to the very true Catholic and Christian faith" than to "the extreme and
+uncharitable behavior of divers ordinaries." It remonstrated against the
+legislation of the clergy in convocation without the King's assent or
+that of his subjects, the oppressive procedure of the church courts, the
+abuses of ecclesiastical patronage, and the excessive number of holy
+days. Henry referred the petition to the bishops, but they could devise
+no means of redress, and the ministry persisted in pushing through the
+houses their bills for ecclesiastical reform. The importance of the new
+measures lay really in the action of parliament. They were an explicit
+announcement that church reform was now to be undertaken, not by the
+clergy, but by the people at large. On the other hand it was clear that
+it would be carried out in a spirit of loyalty to the Church. The
+commons forced from Bishop Fisher an apology for words which were taken
+as a doubt thrown on their orthodoxy.
+
+Henry forbade the circulation of Tyndale's translation of the Bible as
+executed in a Protestant spirit. The reforming measures, however, were
+pushed resolutely on. Though the questions of convocation and the
+bishops' courts were adjourned for further consideration, the fees of
+the courts were curtailed, the clergy restricted from lay employments,
+pluralities restrained, and residence enforced. In spite of a dogged
+opposition from the bishops the bills received the assent of the House
+of Lords, "to the great rejoicing of lay people, and the great
+displeasure of spiritual persons."
+
+Not less characteristic of the New Learning was the intellectual
+pressure it strove to bring to bear on the wavering Pope. Cranmer was
+still active in the cause of Anne Boleyn; he had just published a book
+in favor of the divorce; and he now urged on the ministry an appeal to
+the learned opinion of Christendom by calling for the judgment of the
+chief universities of Europe. His counsel was adopted; but Norfolk
+trusted to coarser means of attaining his end. Like most of the English
+nobles and the whole of the merchant class, his sympathies were with the
+house of Burgundy. He looked upon Wolsey as the real hinderance to the
+divorce through the French policy which had driven Charles into a
+hostile attitude; and he counted on the Cardinal's fall to bring about a
+renewal of friendship with the Emperor and to insure his support.
+
+The father of Anne Boleyn, now created Earl of Wiltshire, was sent in
+1530 on this errand to the imperial court. But Charles remained firm to
+Catharine's cause, and Clement would do nothing in defiance of the
+Emperor. Nor was the appeal to the learned world more successful. In
+France the profuse bribery of the English agents would have failed with
+the University of Paris but for the interference of Francis himself,
+eager to regain Henry's good-will by this office of friendship. As
+shameless an exercise of the King's own authority was needed to wring an
+approval of his cause from Oxford and Cambridge. In Germany the very
+Protestants, then in the fervor of their moral revival and hoping little
+from a proclaimed opponent of Luther, were dead against the King. So far
+as could be seen from Cranmer's test every learned man in Christendom,
+but for bribery and threats, would have condemned the royal cause.
+
+Henry was embittered by failures which he attributed to the unskilful
+diplomacy of his new counsellors; and it was rumored that he had been
+heard to regret the loss of the more dexterous statesman whom they had
+overthrown. Wolsey, who since the beginning of the year had remained at
+York, though busy in appearance with the duties of his see, was hoping
+more and more as the months passed by for his recall. But the jealousy
+of his political enemies was roused by the King's regrets, and the
+pitiless hand of Norfolk was seen in the quick and deadly blow which he
+dealt at his fallen rival.
+
+On November 4th, the eve of his installation feast, the Cardinal was
+arrested on a charge of high treason and conducted by the lieutenant of
+the Tower toward London. Already broken by his enormous labors, by
+internal disease, and the sense of his fall, Wolsey accepted the arrest
+as a sentence of death. An attack of dysentery forced him to rest at the
+Abbey of Leicester, and as he reached the gate he said feebly to the
+brethren who met him, "I am come to lay my bones among you."
+
+On his death-bed his thoughts still clung to the Prince whom he had
+served. "Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the King,"
+murmured the dying man, "he would not have given me over in my gray
+hairs. But this is my due reward for my pains and study, not regarding
+my service to God, but only my duty to my Prince."
+
+
+
+
+PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU
+
+A.D. 1532
+
+HERNANDO PIZARRO    WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+     Before Europeans visited Peru, a highly developed
+     civilization existed there under the native Indian empire of
+     the Incas, as the chiefs were called who ruled from the
+     thirteenth to the sixteenth century. These sovereigns
+     constituted a hereditary aristocratic order, and had long
+     been the masters of prodigious wealth taken from the gold
+     and silver mines of the country. It was the rich treasure
+     which they expected to find there that first led the
+     Spaniards to look for conquests in that quarter of the
+     world.
+
+     When the "South Sea," as the Spaniards called the Pacific
+     Ocean, had been discovered by Balboa, and the first
+     conquests on the mainland secured, another Spanish soldier,
+     Francisco Pizarro, who had accompanied Balboa, settled in
+     the new city of Panama. While living there in repose, he
+     longed to perform further and greater services for the
+     Spanish sovereign. He therefore obtained permission from the
+     colonial governor to explore the Pacific coast toward the
+     south. After an unsuccessful voyage in 1524-1526, he set out
+     again in the latter year, and sailed for Peru, reaching that
+     country through many hardships, the surmounting of which
+     places him fairly among the great discoverers.
+
+     Having collected much information concerning the empire of
+     the Incas, Pizarro went to Spain and received authority to
+     conquer Peru. Returning to Panama, he sailed from there in
+     December, 1531, with three ships, one hundred eighty-three
+     men, and thirty-seven horses. He first landed at the island
+     of Puna, where he was joined by Hernando de Soto, and then,
+     crossing to Tumbez, marched inland and reached Cajamarca,
+     the city of the Incas, in November, 1532.
+
+     The circumstantial account of what followed, written by
+     Hernando Pizarro, half-brother and companion of Francisco,
+     is fitly supplemented by the narrative of Prescott, whose
+     story of the last of the Incas is so widely known.
+
+
+HERNANDO PIZARRO
+
+_To the Magnificent Lords, the Judges of the Royal Audience of his
+Majesty, who reside in the city of Santo Domingo._
+
+MAGNIFICENT LORDS: I arrived in this port of Yaguana on my way to Spain,
+by order of the governor Francisco Pizarro, to inform his majesty of
+what has happened in that government of Peru, to give an account of the
+country and of its present condition; and, as I believe that those who
+come to this city give your worships inconsistent accounts, it has
+seemed well to me to write a summary of what has taken place, that you
+may be informed of the truth.
+
+The Governor, in the name of his majesty, founded a town near the
+sea-coast, which was called San Miguel. It is twenty-five leagues from
+that point of Tumbez. Having left citizens there, and assigned the
+Indians in the district to them, he set out, with sixty horse and ninety
+foot, in search of the town of Cajamarca, at which place he was informed
+that Atahualpa then was brother of him who is now lord of that land.
+Between the two brothers there had been a very fierce war, and this
+Atahualpa had conquered the land as far as he then was, which, from the
+point whence he started, was a hundred fifty leagues. After seven or
+eight marches, a captain of Atahualpa came to the Governor and said that
+his lord had heard of his arrival and rejoiced greatly at it, having a
+strong desire to see the Christians; and when he had been two days with
+the Governor he said that he wished to go forward and tell the news to
+his lord, and that another would soon be on the road with a present as a
+token of peace.
+
+The Governor continued his march until he came to a town called La
+Ramada. Up to that point all the land was flat, while all beyond was
+very rugged and obstructed by very difficult passes. When he saw that
+the messenger from Atahualpa did not return, he wished to obtain
+intelligence from some Indians who had come from Cajamarca; so they were
+tortured, and they then said that they had heard that Atahualpa was
+waiting for the Governor in the mountains to give him battle. The
+Governor then ordered the troops to advance, leaving the rear-guard in
+the plain. The rest ascended, and the road was so bad that, in truth, if
+they had been waiting for us, either in this pass or in another that we
+came to on the road to Cajamarca, they could very easily have stopped
+us; for, even by exerting all our skill, we could not have taken our
+horses by the roads; and neither horse nor foot can cross those
+mountains except by the roads. The distance across them to Cajamarca is
+full twenty leagues. When we were half-way, messengers arrived from
+Atahualpa and brought provisions to the Governor. They said that
+Atahualpa was waiting for him at Cajamarca, wishing to be his friend;
+and that he wished the Governor to know that his captains had taken his
+brother prisoner, that they would reach Cajamarca within two days, and
+that all the territory of his father now belonged to him. The Governor
+sent back to say that he rejoiced greatly at this news, and that, if
+there was any lord who refused to submit, he would give assistance and
+subjugate him. Two days afterward the Governor came in sight of
+Cajamarca, and he met Indians with food. He put the troops in order and
+marched to the town. Atahualpa was not there, but was encamped on the
+plain, at a distance of a league, with all his people in tents. When the
+Governor saw that Atahualpa did not come, he sent a captain, with
+fifteen horsemen, to speak to Atahualpa, saying that he would not assign
+quarters to the Christians until he knew where it was the pleasure of
+Atahualpa that they should lodge, and he desired him to come that they
+might be friends. Just then I went to speak to the Governor, touching
+the orders in case the Indians made a night attack. He told me that he
+had sent men to seek an interview with Atahualpa. I told him that, out
+of the sixty cavalry we had, there might be some men who were not
+dexterous on horseback, and some unsound horses, and that it seemed a
+mistake to pick out fifteen of the best; for, if Atahualpa should attack
+them, their numbers were insufficient for defence, and any reverse might
+lead to a great disaster. He therefore ordered me to follow with other
+twenty horsemen, and to act according to circumstances.
+
+When I arrived I found the other horsemen near the camp of Atahualpa,
+and that their officer had gone to speak with him. I left my men there
+also, and advanced with two horsemen to the lodging of Atahualpa, and
+the captain announced my approach and who I was. I then told Atahualpa
+that the Governor had sent me to visit him and to ask him to come, that
+they might be friends. He replied that a cacique of the town of San
+Miguel had sent to tell him that we were bad people and not good for
+war, and that he himself had killed some of us, both men and horses. I
+answered that those people of San Miguel were like women, and that one
+horse was enough for the whole of them; that, when he saw us fight, he
+would know what we were like; that the Governor had a great regard for
+him; that if he had any enemy he had only to say so, and that the
+Governor would send to conquer him. He said that, four marches from that
+spot, there were some very rebellious Indians who would not submit to
+him, and that the Christians might go there to help his troops. I said
+that the Governor would send ten horsemen, who would suffice for the
+whole country, and that his Indians were unnecessary, except to search
+for those who concealed themselves. He smiled like a man who did not
+think so much of us. The captain told me that, until I came, he had not
+been able to get him to speak, but that one of his chiefs had answered
+for him, while he always kept his head down. He was seated in all the
+majesty of command, surrounded by all his women, and with many chiefs
+near him. Before coming to his presence there was another group of
+chiefs, each standing according to his rank. At sunset I said that I
+wished to go, and asked him to tell me what to say to the Governor. He
+replied that he would come to see him on the following morning, that he
+would lodge in three great chambers in the court-yard, and that the
+centre one should be set apart for himself.
+
+That night a good lookout was kept. In the morning he sent messengers to
+put off his visit until the afternoon; and these messengers, in
+conversing with some Indian girls in the service of the Christians, who
+were their relations, told them to run away because Atahualpa was coming
+that afternoon to attack the Christians and kill them. Among the
+messengers there came that captain who had already met the Governor on
+the road. He told the Governor that his lord Atahualpa said that, as the
+Christians had come armed to his camp, he also would come armed. The
+Governor replied that he might come as he liked. Atahualpa set out from
+his camp at noon, and when he came to a place which was about half a
+quarter of a league from Cajamarca he stopped until late in the
+afternoon. There he pitched his tents, and formed his men in three
+divisions. The whole road was full of men, and they had not yet left off
+marching out of the camp.
+
+The Governor had ordered his troops to be distributed in the three
+halls which were in the open court-yard, in form of a triangle; and he
+ordered them to be mounted and armed until the intentions of Atahualpa
+were known. Having pitched his tents, Atahualpa sent a messenger to the
+Governor to say that as it was now late he wished to sleep where he was,
+and that he would come in the morning. The Governor sent back to beg him
+to come at once, because he was waiting for supper, and that he should
+not sup until Atahualpa should come. The messengers came back to ask the
+Governor to send a Christian to Atahualpa, that he intended to come at
+once, and that he would come unarmed. The Governor sent a Christian, and
+presently Atahualpa moved, leaving the armed men behind him. He took
+with him about five or six thousand Indians without arms, except that,
+under their shirts, they had small darts and slings with stones.
+
+He came in a litter, and before him went three or four hundred Indians
+in liveries, cleaning the straws from the road and singing. Then came
+Atahualpa in the midst of his chiefs and principal men, the greatest
+among them being also borne on men's shoulders. When they entered the
+open space, twelve or fifteen Indians went up to the little fortress
+that was there and occupied it, taking possession with a banner fixed on
+a lance. When Atahualpa had advanced to the centre of an open space, he
+stopped, and a Dominican friar, who was with the Governor, came forward
+to tell him, on the part of the Governor, that he waited for him in his
+lodging, and that he was sent to speak with him. The friar then told
+Atahualpa that he was a priest, and that he was sent there to teach the
+things of the faith if they should desire to be Christians. He showed
+Atahualpa a book which he carried in his hands, and told him that that
+book contained the things of God. Atahualpa asked for the book, and
+threw it on the ground, saying: "I will not leave this place until you
+have restored all that you have taken in my land. I know well who you
+are and what you have come for." Then he rose up in his litter and
+addressed his men, and there were murmurs among them and calls to those
+who were armed. The friar went to the Governor and reported what was
+being done and that no time was to be lost. The Governor sent to me; and
+I had arranged with the captain of the artillery that, when a sign was
+given, he should discharge his pieces, and that, on hearing the reports,
+all the troops should come forth at once. This was done, and as the
+Indians were unarmed they were defeated without danger to any Christian.
+Those who carried the litter and the chiefs who surrounded Atahualpa
+were all killed, falling round him. The Governor came out and seized
+Atahualpa, and in protecting him he received a knife-cut from a
+Christian in the hand. The troops continued the pursuit as far as the
+place where the armed Indians were stationed, who made no resistance
+whatever, because it was now night. All were brought into the town where
+the Governor was quartered.
+
+Next morning the Governor ordered us to go to the camp of Atahualpa,
+where we found forty thousand castellanos and four or five thousand
+marcos of silver. The camp was as full of people as if none were
+wanting. All the people were assembled, and the Governor desired them to
+go to their homes, and told them that he had not come to do them harm;
+that what he had done was by reason of the pride of Atahualpa, and that
+he himself ordered it. On asking Atahualpa why he had thrown away the
+book and shown so much pride, he answered that his captain, who had been
+sent to speak with the Governor, had told him that the Christians were
+not warriors, that the horses were unsaddled at night, and that with two
+hundred Indians he could defeat them all. He added that this captain and
+the chief of San Miguel had deceived him. The Governor then inquired
+concerning his brother the Cuzco, and he answered that he would arrive
+next day, that he was being brought as a prisoner, and that his captain
+remained with the troops in the town of Cuzco. It afterward turned out
+that in all this he had spoken the truth, except that he had sent orders
+for his brother to be killed, lest the Governor should restore him to
+his lordship. The Governor said that he had not come to make war on the
+Indians, but that our lord the Emperor, who was lord of the whole world,
+had ordered him to come that he might see the land, and let Atahualpa
+know the things of our faith, in case he should wish to become a
+Christian. The Governor also told him that that land and all other lands
+belonged to the Emperor, and that he must acknowledge him as his lord.
+He replied that he was content, and, observing that the Christians had
+collected some gold, Atahualpa said to the Governor that they need not
+take such care of it, as if there was so little; for that he could give
+them ten thousand plates, and that he could fill the room in which he
+was up to a white line, which was the height of a man and a half from
+the floor. The room was seventeen or eighteen feet wide and thirty-five
+feet long. He said that he could do this in two months.
+
+Two months passed away and the gold did not arrive, but the Governor
+received tidings that every day parties of men were advancing against
+him. In order both to ascertain the truth of these reports, and to hurry
+the arrival of the gold, the Governor ordered me to set out with twenty
+horsemen and ten or twelve foot-soldiers for a place called Guamachuco,
+which is twenty leagues from Cajamarca. This was the place where it was
+reported that armed men were collecting together. I advanced to that
+town, and found a quantity of gold and silver, which I sent thence to
+Cajamarca. Some Indians, who were tortured, told us that the captains
+and armed men were at a place six leagues from Guamachuco; and, though I
+had no instructions from the Governor to advance beyond that point, I
+resolved to push forward with fourteen horsemen and nine foot-soldiers,
+in order that the Indians might not take heart at the notion that we had
+retreated. The rest of my party were sent to guard the gold, because
+their horses were lame. Next morning I arrived at that town, and did not
+find any armed men there, and it turned out that the Indians had told
+lies, perhaps to frighten us and induce us to return.
+
+At this village I received permission from the Governor to go to a
+mosque of which we had intelligence, which was a hundred leagues away on
+the sea-coast, in a town called Pachacamac. It took us twenty-two days
+to reach it. The road over the mountains is a thing worth seeing,
+because, though the ground is so rugged, such beautiful roads could not
+in truth be found throughout Christendom. The greater part of them is
+paved. There is a bridge of stone or wood over every stream. We found
+bridges of network over a very large and powerful river, which we
+crossed twice, which was a marvellous thing to see. The horses crossed
+over by them. At each passage they have two bridges, the one by which
+the common people go over, and the other for the lords of the land and
+their captains. The approaches are always kept closed, with Indians to
+guard them. These Indians exact transit dues from all passengers. The
+chiefs and people of the mountains are more intelligent than those of
+the coast. The country is populous. There are mines in many parts of it.
+It is a cold climate, it snows, and there is much rain. There are no
+swamps. Fuel is scarce. Atahualpa has placed governors in all the
+principal towns, and his predecessors had also appointed governors. In
+all these towns there were houses of imprisoned women, with guards at
+the doors, and these women preserve their virginity. If any Indian has
+any connection with them his punishment is death. Of these houses, some
+are for the worship of the sun, others for that of old Cuzco, the father
+of Atahualpa. Their sacrifices consist of sheep and _chica_, which they
+pour out on the ground. They have another house of women in each of the
+principal towns, also guarded. These women are assembled by the chiefs
+of the neighboring districts, and when the lord of the land passes by
+they select the best to present to him, and when they are taken others
+are chosen to fill up their places. These women also have the duty of
+making chica for the soldiers when they pass that way. They took Indian
+girls out of these houses and presented them to us. All the surrounding
+chiefs come to these towns on the roads to perform service when the army
+passes. They have stores of fuel and maize and of all other necessaries.
+They count by certain knots on cords, and so record what each chief has
+brought. When they had to bring us loads of fuel, maize, chica, or meat,
+they took off knots or made them on some other part; so that those who
+have charge of the stores keep an exact account. In all these towns they
+received us with great festivities, dancing, and rejoicing.
+
+When we arrived on the plain of the sea-coast we met with a people who
+were less civilized, but the country was populous. They also have houses
+of women, and all the other arrangements as in the towns of the
+mountains. They never wished to speak to us of the mosque, for there was
+an order that all who should speak to us of it should be put to death.
+But as we had intelligence that it was on the coast, we followed the
+high road until we came to it. The road is very wide, with an earthen
+wall on either side, and houses for resting at intervals, which were
+prepared to receive the Cuzco when he travelled that way. There are very
+large villages, the houses of the Indians being built of canes, and
+those of the chiefs are of earth with roofs of branches of trees; for in
+that land it never rains. From the city of San Miguel to this mosque the
+distance is one hundred sixty or one hundred eighty leagues, the road
+passing near the sea-shore through a very populous country. The road,
+with a wall on each side, traverses the whole of this country; and,
+neither in that part nor in the part farther on, of which we had notice
+for two hundred leagues, does it ever rain.
+
+They live by irrigation, for the rainfall is so great in the mountains
+that many rivers flow from them, so that throughout the land there is
+not three leagues without a river. The distance from the sea to the
+mountains is in some parts ten leagues, in others twelve. It is not
+cold. Throughout the whole of this coast-land, and beyond it, tribute is
+not paid to Cuzco, but to the mosque. The bishop of it was in Cajamarca
+with the Governor. He had ordered another room of gold, such as
+Atahualpa had ordered, and the Governor ordered me to go on this
+business, and to hurry those who were collecting it. When I arrived at
+the mosque I asked for the gold, and they denied it to me, saying that
+they had none. I made some search, but could not find it. The
+neighboring chiefs came to see me, and brought presents, and in the
+mosque there was found some gold-dust, which was left behind when the
+rest was concealed. Altogether I collected eighty-five thousand
+castellanos and three thousand marcos of silver.
+
+This town of the mosque is very large, and contains grand edifices and
+courts. Outside, there is another great space surrounded by a wall, with
+a door opening on the mosque. In this space there are the houses of the
+women, who, they say, are the women of the devil. Here, also, are the
+storerooms, where the stores of gold are kept. There is no one in the
+place where these women are kept. Their sacrifices are the same as those
+to the sun, which I have already described. Before entering the first
+court of the mosque, a man must fast for twenty days; before ascending
+to the court above, he must fast for a year. In this upper court the
+bishop used to be. When messengers of the chiefs, who had fasted for a
+year, went up to pray to God that he would give them a good harvest,
+they found the bishop seated, with his head covered. There are other
+Indians whom they call pages of the sun. When these messengers of the
+chief delivered their messages to the bishop, the pages of the devil
+went into a chamber, where they said that he speaks to them; and that
+devil said that he was enraged with the chiefs, with the sacrifices they
+had to offer, and with the presents they wished to bring. I believe that
+they do not speak with the devil, but that these his servants deceive
+the chiefs. For I took pains to investigate the matter, and an old page,
+who was one of the chief and most confidential servants of their god,
+told a chief, who repeated it to me, that the devil said they were not
+to fear the horses, as they could do no harm. I caused the page to be
+tortured, and he was so stubborn in his evil creed that I could never
+gather anything from him, but that they really held their devil to be a
+god. This mosque is so feared by all the Indians that they believe that,
+if any of those servants of the devil asked them for anything and they
+refused it, they would presently die. It would seem that the Indians do
+not worship this devil from any feelings of devotion, but from fear. For
+the chiefs told me that, up to that time, they had served that mosque
+because they feared it, but that now they had no fear but of us; and
+that, therefore, they wished to serve us. The cave in which the devil
+was placed was very dark, so that one could not enter it without a
+light, and within it was very dirty. I made all the caciques, who came
+to see me, enter the place, that they might lose their fear; and, for
+want of a preacher, I made my sermon, explaining to them the errors in
+which they lived.
+
+In this town I learned that the principal captain of Atahualpa was at a
+distance of twenty leagues from us, in a town called Jauja. I sent to
+tell him to come and see me, and he replied that I should take the road
+to Cajamarca, and that he would take another road and meet me. The
+Governor, on hearing that the captain was for peace and that he was
+ready to come with me, wrote to me to tell me to return; and he sent
+three Christians to Cuzco, which is fifty leagues beyond Jauja, to take
+possession and to see the country. I returned by the road of Cajamarca,
+and by another road, where the captain of Atahualpa was to join me. But
+he had not started; and I learned from certain chiefs that he had not
+moved, and that he had taken me in. So I went back to the place where he
+was, and the road was very rugged, and so obstructed with snow that it
+cost us much labor to get there. Having reached the royal road, and come
+to a place called Bombon, I met a captain of Atahualpa with five
+thousand armed Indians whom Atahualpa had sent on pretence of conquering
+a rebel chief; but, as it afterward appeared, they were assembled to
+kill the Christians. Here we found five hundred thousand pesos of gold
+that they were taking to Cajamarca. This captain told me that the
+captain-general remained in Jauja, that he knew of our approach, and was
+much afraid. I sent a messenger to him to tell him to remain where he
+was and to fear nothing. I also found a negro here who had gone with the
+Christians to Cuzco, and he told me that these fears were feigned; for
+that the captain-general had many well-armed men with him, that he
+counted them by his knots in presence of the Christians, and that they
+numbered thirty-five thousand Indians. So we went to Jauja, and, when we
+were half a league from the town, and found that the captain did not
+come out to receive us, a chief of Atahualpa, whom I had with me and
+whom I had treated well, advised me to advance in order of battle,
+because he believed that the captain intended to fight. We went up a
+small hill overlooking Jauja, and saw a large black mass in the plaza,
+which appeared to be something that had been burned. I asked what it
+was, and they told me it was a crowd of Indians. The plaza is large, and
+has a length of a quarter of a league. As no one came to receive us on
+reaching the town, our people advanced in the expectation of having to
+fight the Indians. But, at the entrance of the square, some principal
+men came out to meet us with offers of peace, and told us that the
+captain was not there, as he had gone to reduce certain chiefs to
+submission. It would seem that he had gone out of fear, with some of his
+troops, and had crossed a river near the town by a bridge of network. I
+sent to tell him to come to me peaceably or else the Christians would
+destroy him. Next morning the people came who were in the square. They
+were Indian servants, and it is true that they numbered over a hundred
+thousand souls. We remained here five days, and during all that time
+they did nothing but dance and sing and hold great drinking-feasts. The
+captain did not wish to come with me, but when he saw that I was
+determined to make him he came of his own accord. I left the chief who
+came with me as captain there. This town of Jauja is very fine and
+picturesque, with very good level approaches, and it has an excellent
+river-bank. In all my travels I did not see a better site for a
+Christian settlement, and I believe that the Governor intends to form
+one there, though some think that it would be more convenient to select
+a position near the sea, and are, therefore, of an opposite opinion. All
+the country, from Jauja to Cajamarca, by the road we returned, is like
+that of which I have already given a description.
+
+After returning to Cajamarca and reporting my proceedings to the
+Governor, he ordered me to go to Spain and to give an account to his
+majesty of this and other things which appertain to his service. I took,
+from the heap of gold, one hundred thousand castellanos for his majesty,
+being the amount of his fifth. The day after I left Cajamarca, the
+Christians, who had gone to Cuzco, returned, and brought one million
+five hundred thousand of gold. After I arrived at Panama, another ship
+came in, with some knights. They say that a distribution of the gold was
+made; and that the share of his majesty, besides the one hundred
+thousand pesos and the five thousand marcos of silver that I bring, was
+another one hundred sixty-five thousand castellanos and seven thousand
+or eight thousand marcos of silver; while to all those of us who had
+gone, a further share of gold was sent.
+
+After my departure, according to what the Governor writes to me, it
+became known that Atahualpa had assembled troops to make war on the
+Christians, and justice was done upon him. The Governor made his
+brother, who was an enemy, lord in his place. Molina comes to this city,
+and from him your worships may learn anything else that you may desire
+to know. The shares of the troops were, to the horsemen nine thousand
+castellanos, to the Governor six thousand, to me three thousand. The
+Governor has derived no other profit from that land, nor has there been
+deceit or fraud in the account. I say this to your worships because, if
+any other statement is made, this is the truth. May our lord long guard
+and prosper the magnificent persons of your worships.
+
+Done in this city, November, 1533. At the service of your worships,
+
+HERNANDO PIZARRO.
+
+
+WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+The clouds of the evening had passed away, and the sun rose bright on
+the following morning, the most remarkable epoch in the annals of Peru.
+It was Saturday, November 16, 1532. The loud cry of the trumpet called
+the Spaniards to arms with the first streak of dawn; and Pizarro,
+briefly acquainting them with the plan of the assault, made the
+necessary dispositions.
+
+The plaza was defended on its three sides by low ranges of buildings,
+consisting of spacious halls with wide doors or vomitories opening into
+the square. In these halls he stationed his cavalry in two divisions,
+one under his brother Hernando, the other under De Soto. The infantry he
+placed in another of the buildings, reserving twenty chosen men to act
+with himself as occasion might require. Pedro de Candia, with a few
+soldiers and the artillery, comprehending under this imposing name two
+small pieces of ordnance called falconets, he established in the
+fortress. All received orders to wait at their posts till the arrival of
+the Inca. After his entrance into the great square, they were still to
+remain under cover, withdrawn from observation, till the signal was
+given by the discharge of a gun, when they were to cry their war-cries,
+to rush out in a body from their covert, and, putting the Peruvians to
+the sword, bear off the person of the Inca. The arrangements of the
+immense halls, opening on a level with the plaza, seemed to be contrived
+on purpose for a _coup de theatre_. Pizarro particularly inculcated
+order and implicit obedience, that in the hurry of the moment there
+should be no confusion. Everything depended on their acting with
+concert, coolness, and celerity.
+
+The chief next saw that their arms were in good order, and that the
+breastplates of their horses were garnished with bells, to add by their
+noise to the consternation of the Indians. Refreshments were also
+liberally provided, that the troops should be in condition for the
+conflict. These arrangements being completed, mass was performed with
+great solemnity by the ecclesiastics who attended the expedition; the
+God of battles was invoked to spread his shield over the soldiers who
+were fighting to extend the empire of the cross; and all joined with
+enthusiasm in the chant, "_Exsurge, Domine_" ("Rise, O Lord! and judge
+thine own cause"). One might have supposed them a company of martyrs
+about to lay down their lives in defence of their faith, instead of a
+licentious band of adventurers, meditating one of the most atrocious
+acts of perfidy on the record of history; yet, whatever were the vices
+of the Castilian cavalier, hypocrisy was not among the number. He felt
+that he was battling for the Cross, and under this conviction, exalted
+as it was at such a moment as this into the predominant impulse, he was
+blind to the baser motives which mingled with the enterprise. With
+feelings thus kindled to a flame of religious ardor, the soldiers of
+Pizarro looked forward with renovated spirits to the coming conflict;
+and the chieftain saw with satisfaction that in the hour of trial his
+men would be true to their leader and themselves.
+
+It was late in the day before any movement was visible in the Peruvian
+camp, where much preparation was making to approach the Christian
+quarters with due state and ceremony. A message was received from
+Atahualpa, informing the Spanish commander that he should come with his
+warriors fully armed, in the same manner as the Spaniards had come to
+his quarters the night preceding. This was not an agreeable intimation
+to Pizarro, though he had no reason, probably, to expect the contrary.
+But to object might imply distrust, or perhaps disclose, in some
+measure, his own designs. He expressed his satisfaction, therefore, at
+the intelligence, assuring the Inca that, come as he would, he would be
+received by him as a friend and brother.
+
+It was noon before the Indian procession was on its march, when it was
+seen occupying the great causeway for a long extent. In front came a
+large body of attendants, whose office seemed to be to sweep away every
+particle of rubbish from the road. High above the crowd appeared the
+Inca, borne on the shoulders of his principal nobles, while others of
+the same rank marched by the sides of his litter, displaying such a
+dazzling show of ornaments on their persons that, in the language of one
+of the conquerors, "they blazed like the sun." But the greater part of
+the Inca's forces mustered along the fields that lined the road, and
+were spread over the broad meadows as far as the eye could reach.
+
+When the royal procession had arrived within half a mile of the city, it
+came to a halt; and Pizarro saw, with surprise, that Atahualpa was
+preparing to pitch his tents as if to encamp there. A messenger soon
+after arrived, informing the Spaniards that the Inca would occupy his
+present station the ensuing night and enter the city on the following
+morning.
+
+This intelligence greatly disturbed Pizarro, who had shared in the
+general impatience of his men at the tardy movements of the Peruvians.
+The troops had been under arms since daylight, the cavalry mounted, and
+the infantry at their post, waiting in silence the coming of the Inca. A
+profound stillness reigned throughout the town, broken only at intervals
+by the cry of the sentinel from the summit of the fortress, as he
+proclaimed the movements of the Indian army. Nothing, Pizarro well knew,
+was so trying to the soldiers as prolonged suspense in a critical
+situation like the present; and he feared lest his ardor might
+evaporate, and be succeeded by that nervous feeling natural to the
+bravest soul at such a crisis, and which, if not fear, is near akin to
+it. He returned an answer, therefore, to Atahualpa, deprecating his
+change of purpose, and adding that he had provided everything for his
+entertainment, and expected him that night to sup with him.
+
+This message turned the Inca from his purpose; and, striking his tents
+again, he resumed his march, first advising the general that he should
+leave the greater part of his warriors behind, and enter the place with
+only a few of them, and without arms, as he preferred to pass the night
+at Cajamarca. At the same time he ordered accommodations to be provided
+for himself and his retinue in one of the large stone buildings, called,
+from a serpent sculptured on the walls, the "House of the Serpent". No
+tidings could have been more grateful to the Spaniards. It seemed as if
+the Indian monarch was eager to rush into the snare that had been spread
+for him! The fanatical cavalier could not fail to discern in it the
+immediate finger of Providence.
+
+It is difficult to account for this wavering conduct of Atahualpa, so
+different from the bold and decided character which history ascribes to
+him. There is no doubt that he made his visit to the white men in
+perfect good faith, though Pizarro was probably right in conjecturing
+that this amiable disposition stood on a very precarious footing. There
+is as little reason to suppose that he distrusted the sincerity of the
+strangers, or he would not thus unnecessarily have proposed to visit
+them unarmed. His original purpose of coming with all his force was
+doubtless to display his royal state, and perhaps, also, to show greater
+respect for the Spaniards; but when he consented to accept their
+hospitality and pass the night in their quarters, he was willing to
+dispense with a great part of his armed soldiery, and visit them in a
+manner that implied entire confidence in their good faith. He was too
+absolute in his own empire easily to suspect; and he probably could not
+comprehend the audacity with which a few men, like those now assembled
+in Cajamarca, meditated an assault on a powerful monarch in the midst of
+his victorious army. He did not know the character of the Spaniard.
+
+It was not long before sunset when the van of the royal procession
+entered the gates of the city. First came some hundreds of the menials,
+employed to clear the path from every obstacle, and singing songs of
+triumph as they came, "which, in our ears," says one of the conquerors,
+"sounded like the songs of hell!" Then followed other bodies of
+different ranks and dressed in different liveries. Some wore a showy
+stuff, checkered white and red, like the squares of a chess-board.
+Others were clad in pure white, bearing hammers or maces of silver or
+copper; and the guards, together with those in immediate attendance on
+the Prince, were distinguished by a rich azure livery, and a profusion
+of gay ornaments, while the large pendants attached to the ears
+indicated the Peruvian noble.
+
+Elevated high above his vassals came the Inca Atahualpa, borne on a
+sedan or open litter, on which was a sort of throne made of massive gold
+of inestimable value. The palanquin was lined with the richly colored
+plumes of tropical birds, and studded with shining plates of gold and
+silver. The monarch's attire was much richer than on the preceding
+evening. Round his neck was suspended a collar of emeralds of uncommon
+size and brilliancy. His short hair was decorated with golden ornaments,
+and the imperial _borla_ encircled his temples. The bearing of the Inca
+was sedate and dignified; and from his lofty station he looked down on
+the multitudes below with an air of composure, like one accustomed to
+command.
+
+As the leading lines of the procession entered the great square--larger,
+says an old chronicler, than any square in Spain--they opened to the
+right and left for the royal retinue to pass. Everything was conducted
+with admirable order. The monarch was permitted to traverse the plaza in
+silence, and not a Spaniard was to be seen. When some five or six
+thousand of his people had entered the place, Atahualpa halted, and,
+turning round with an inquiring look, demanded, "Where are the
+strangers?"
+
+At this moment Fray Vicente de Valverde, a Dominican friar, Pizarro's
+chaplain, and afterward Bishop of Cuzco, came forward with his breviary,
+or, as other accounts say, a Bible, in one hand and a crucifix in the
+other, and, approaching the Inca, told him that he came by order of his
+commander to expound to him the doctrines of the true faith, for which
+purpose the Spaniards had come from a great distance to his country. The
+friar then explained, as clearly as he could, the mysterious doctrine of
+the Trinity, and, ascending high in his account, began with the creation
+of man, thence passed to his fall, to his subsequent redemption by Jesus
+Christ, to the Crucifixion, and the Ascension, when the Saviour left the
+apostle Peter as his vicegerent upon earth.
+
+This power had been transmitted to the successors of the apostle, good
+and wise men, who, under the title of popes, held authority over all
+powers and potentates on earth. One of the last of these popes had
+commissioned the Spanish Emperor, the most mighty monarch in the world,
+to conquer and convert the natives in this western hemisphere; and his
+general, Francisco Pizarro, had now come to execute this important
+mission. The friar concluded with beseeching the Peruvian monarch to
+receive him kindly, to abjure the errors of his own faith and embrace
+that of the Christians now proffered to him, the only one by which he
+could hope for salvation; and, furthermore, to acknowledge himself a
+tributary of the emperor Charles, who, in that event, would aid and
+protect him as his loyal vassal.
+
+Whether Atahualpa possessed himself of every link in the curious chain
+of argument by which the monk connected Pizarro with St. Peter, may be
+doubted. It is certain, however, that he must have had very incorrect
+notions of the Trinity if, as Garcilasso states, the interpreter,
+Felipillo, explained it by saying that "the Christians believed in three
+gods and one God, and that made four." But there is no doubt he
+perfectly comprehended that the drift of the discourse was to persuade
+him to resign his sceptre and acknowledge the supremacy of another.
+
+The eyes of the Indian monarch flashed fire and his dark brow grew
+darker as he replied: "I will be no man's tributary! I am greater than
+any prince upon earth. Your Emperor may be a great prince; I do not
+doubt it when I see that he has sent his subjects so far across the
+waters; and I am willing to hold him as a brother. As for the Pope of
+whom you speak, he must be crazy to talk of giving away countries which
+do not belong to him. For my faith," he continued, "I will not change
+it. Your own God, as you say, was put to death by the very men whom he
+created. But mine," he concluded, pointing to his deity--then, alas!
+sinking in glory behind the mountains--"my God still lives in the
+heavens and looks down on his children."
+
+He then demanded of Valverde by what authority he had said these things.
+The friar pointed to the book which he held as his authority. Atahualpa,
+taking it, turned over the pages a moment; then, as the insult he had
+received probably flashed across his mind, he threw it down with
+vehemence and exclaimed: "Tell your comrades that they shall give me an
+account of their doings in my land. I will not go from here till they
+have made me full satisfaction for all the wrongs they have committed."
+
+The friar, greatly scandalized by the indignity offered to the sacred
+volume, stayed only to pick it up, and, hastening to Pizarro, informed
+him of what had been done, exclaiming at the same time: "Do you not see
+that, while we stand here wasting our breath in talking with this dog,
+full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with Indians? Set on at
+once! I absolve you." Pizarro saw that the hour had come. He waved a
+white scarf in the air, the appointed signal. The fatal gun was fired
+from the fortress. Then, springing into the square, the Spanish captain
+and his followers shouted the old war-cry of "St. Iago and at them!"
+
+It was answered by the battle-cry of every Spaniard in the city, as,
+rushing from the avenues of the great halls in which they were
+concealed, they poured into the plaza, horse and foot, each in his own
+dark column, and threw themselves into the midst of the Indian crowd.
+The latter, taken by surprise, stunned by the report of artillery and
+muskets, the echoes of which reverberated like thunder from the
+surrounding buildings, and blinded by the smoke which rolled in
+sulphurous volumes along the square, were seized with a panic. They knew
+not whither to fly for refuge from the coming ruin. Nobles and
+commoners, all were trampled down under the fierce charge of the
+cavalry, who dealt their blows right and left without sparing; while
+their swords, flashing through the thick gloom, carried dismay into the
+hearts of the wretched natives, who now, for the first time, saw the
+horse and his rider in all their terrors.
+
+They made no resistance, as, indeed, they had no weapons with which to
+make it. Every avenue to escape was closed, for the entrance to the
+square was choked up with the dead bodies of men who had perished in
+vain efforts to fly; and such was the agony of the survivors under the
+terrible pressure of their assailants that a large body of Indians, by
+their convulsive struggles, burst through the wall of stone and dried
+clay which formed part of the boundary of the plaza! It fell, leaving an
+opening of more than a hundred paces, through which multitudes now found
+their way into the country, still hotly pursued by the cavalry, who,
+leaping the fallen rubbish, hung on the rear of the fugitives, striking
+them down in all directions.
+
+Meanwhile the fight, or rather massacre, continued hot around the Inca,
+whose person was the great object of the assault. His faithful nobles,
+rallying about him, threw themselves in the way of the assailants, and
+strove, by tearing them from their saddles, or, at least, by offering
+their own bosoms as a mark for their vengeance, to shield their beloved
+master. It is said by some authorities that they carried weapons
+concealed under their clothes. If so, it availed them little, as it is
+not pretended that they used them. But the most timid animal will defend
+itself when at bay. That they did not so in the present instance is
+proof that they had no weapons to use. Yet they still continued to force
+back the cavaliers, clinging to their horses with dying grasp, and, as
+one was cut down, another taking the place of his fallen comrade with a
+loyalty truly affecting.
+
+The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects
+falling round him without hardly comprehending his situation. The litter
+on which he rode heaved to and fro as the mighty press swayed backward
+and forward; and he gazed on the overwhelming ruin, like some forlorn
+mariner, who, tossed about in his bark by the furious elements, sees the
+lightning's flash and hears the thunder bursting around him, with the
+consciousness that he can do nothing to avert his fate. At length, weary
+with the work of destruction, the Spaniards, as the shades of evening
+grew deeper, felt afraid that the royal prize might, after all, elude
+them; and some of the cavaliers made a desperate effort to end the
+affray at once by taking Atahualpa's life. But Pizarro, who was nearest
+his person, called out with stentorian voice, "Let no one who values his
+life strike at the Inca"; and, stretching out his arm to shield him,
+received a wound on the hand from one of his own men--the only wound
+received by a Spaniard in the action.
+
+The struggle now became fiercer than ever round the royal litter. It
+reeled more and more, and at length, several of the nobles who supported
+it having been slain, it was overturned, and the Indian prince would
+have come with violence to the ground, had not his fall been broken by
+the efforts of Pizarro and some other of the cavaliers, who caught him
+in their arms. The imperial borla was instantly snatched from his
+temples by a soldier named Estete, and the unhappy monarch, strongly
+secured, was removed to a neighboring building, where he was carefully
+guarded.
+
+All attempt at resistance now ceased. The fate of the Inca soon spread
+over town and country. The charm which might have held the Peruvians
+together was dissolved. Every man thought only of his own safety. Even
+the soldiery encamped on the adjacent fields took alarm, and, learning
+the fatal tidings, were seen flying in every direction before their
+pursuers, who, in the heat of triumph, showed no touch of mercy. At
+length night, more pitiful than man, threw her friendly mantle over the
+fugitives, and the scattered troops of Pizarro rallied once more to the
+sound of the trumpet in the bloody square of Cajamarca.
+
+
+
+
+CALVIN IS DRIVEN FROM PARIS
+
+HE MAKES GENEVA THE STRONGHOLD OF PROTESTANTISM
+
+A.D. 1533
+
+A. M. FAIRBAIRN
+
+JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+     Among what may be called the second generation of Protestant
+     reformers, the great leader was John Calvin. By his
+     writings, and by his directive and administrative work, he
+     exerted a strong influence upon the reformed churches in his
+     own day and upon the theology and polity of later times. He
+     was born in France in 1509, and while still in early
+     manhood, having become familiar with classical learning,
+     with law, and especially with theology, he ardently embraced
+     the Protestant faith and began to preach the reformed
+     doctrines.
+
+     Calvin spent some time in Paris, then a centre of the "New
+     Learning" and of religious ferment, and there he felt the
+     effects of raging persecution. The publication of his great
+     work, the _Institutes of the Christian Religion_, marked an
+     epoch in the history of Protestantism. Though differing on
+     certain points from the teachings of Luther, it was a
+     powerful exposition of the Protestant faith as Calvin
+     understood it, severely logical in form, and especially
+     distinguished by its stern doctrines relating to divine
+     sovereignty.
+
+     When in 1536 Calvin went to live in Geneva, it was already a
+     Protestant city. He became virtually its ruler and made it a
+     kind of theocracy, or rather a "religious republic," which
+     he administered with vigorous laws enforced with the
+     greatest strictness. Zealous Protestants from many countries
+     gathered at Geneva, and from there the influence of Calvin,
+     somewhat modified by that of his Swiss predecessor Zwingli,
+     spread rapidly into France, England, Scotland, and Germany.
+     At the time of Calvin's death (1564) there were three types
+     of Protestantism established in the world--his own, and
+     those of Luther and Zwingli. In Great Britain, and afterward
+     in America, the Calvinistic type came to play a most
+     important part in religious and national development.
+
+     Two estimates of Calvin, the first from a Protestant point
+     of view, the second that of a Roman Catholic writer, are
+     here presented.
+
+
+A. M. FAIRBAIRN
+
+In 1528 Calvin's father, perhaps illuminated by the disputes in his
+cathedral chapter, discovered that the law was a surer road to wealth
+and honor than the church, and decided that his son should leave
+theology for jurisprudence. The son, nothing loath, obeyed, and left
+Paris for Orleans, possibly, as he descended the steps of the College de
+Montaigu, brushing shoulders with a Spanish freshman named Ignatius
+Loyola. In Orleans Calvin studied law under Pierre de l'Estoile, who is
+described as _jurisconsultorum Gallorum facile princeps_, and as
+eclipsing in classical knowledge Reuchlin, Aleander, and Erasmus; and
+Greek under Wolmar, in whose house he met for the first time Theodore
+Beza, then a boy about ten years of age.
+
+After a year in Orleans he went to Bourges, attracted by the fame of the
+Italian jurist Alciati, whose ungainliness of body and speech and vanity
+of mind his students loved to satirize and even by occasional rebellion
+to chasten. In 1531 Gerard Calvin died and his son, in 1532, published
+his first work, a commentary on Seneca's _de Clementia_. His purpose has
+been construed by the light of his late career; and some have seen in
+the book a veiled defence of the Huguenot martyrs, others a cryptic
+censure of Francis I, and yet others a prophetic dissociation of himself
+from Stoicism. But there is no mystery in the matter; the work is that
+of a scholar who has no special interest in either theology or the
+Bible. This may be statistically illustrated: Calvin cites twenty-two
+Greek authors and fifty-five Latin, the quotations being most abundant
+and from many books; but in his whole treatise there are only three
+Biblical texts expressly cited, and those from the Vulgate.
+
+The man is cultivated and learned, writes elegant Latin, is a good judge
+of Latinity, criticises like any modern the mind and style, the
+knowledge and philosophy, the manner, the purpose, and the ethical ideas
+of Seneca; but the passion for religion has not as yet penetrated as it
+did later into his very bones. Erasmus is in Calvin's eyes the ornament
+of letters, though his large edition of Seneca is not all it ought to
+have been; but even Erasmus could not at twenty-three have produced a
+work so finished in its scholarship, so real in its learning, or so wide
+in its outlook.
+
+The events of the next few months are obscure, but we know enough to see
+how forces, internal and external, were working toward change. In the
+second half of 1532 and the earlier half of 1533 Calvin was in Orleans,
+studying, teaching, practising the law, and acting in the university as
+proctor for the Picard nation; then he went to Noyon, and in October he
+was once more in Paris. The capital was agitated; Francis was absent,
+and his sister, Margaret of Navarre, held her court there, favoring the
+new doctrines, encouraging the preachers, the chief among them being her
+own almoner, Gerard Roussel.
+
+Two letters of Calvin to Francis Daniel belong to this date and place;
+and in them we find a changed note. One speaks of "the troublous times,"
+and the other narrates two events: first, it describes a play "pungent
+with gall and vinegar," which the students had performed in the College
+of Navarre to satirize the Queen; and secondly, the action of certain
+factious theologians who had prohibited Margaret's _Mirror of a Sinful
+Soul_. She had complained to the King, and he had intervened. The matter
+came before the university, and Nicolas Cop, the rector, had spoken
+strongly against the arrogant doctors and in defence of the Queen,
+"mother of all the virtues and of all good learning." Le Clerc, a parish
+priest, the author of the mischief, defended his performance as a task
+to which he had been formally appointed, praising the King, the Queen as
+woman and as author, contrasting her book with "such an obscene
+production" as _Pantagruel_, and finally saying that the book had been
+published without the approval of the faculty and was set aside only as
+"liable to suspicion."
+
+Two or three days later, on November 1, 1533, came the famous rectorial
+address which Calvin wrote, and Cop revised and delivered, and which
+shows how far the humanist had travelled since April 4, 1532, the date
+of the _de Clementia_. He is now alive to the religious question, though
+he has not carried it to its logical and practical conclusion. Two fresh
+influences have evidently come into his life, the New Testament of
+Erasmus and certain sermons by Luther. The exordium of the address
+reproduces, almost literally, some sentences from Erasmus' _Paraclesis_,
+including those which unfold his idea of the _philosophia Christiana_;
+while the body of it repeats Luther's exposition of the beatitudes and
+his distinction between law and gospel, with the involved doctrines of
+grace and faith. Yet "_Ave gratia plena_" is retained in the exordium;
+and at the end the peace-makers are praised, who follow the example of
+Christ and contend not with the sword, but with the word of truth.
+
+This address enables us to seize Calvin in the very act and article of
+change; he has come under a double influence. Erasmus has compelled him
+to compare the ideal of Christ with the church of his own day; and
+Luther has given him a notion of grace which has convinced his reason
+and taken possession of his imagination. He has thus ceased to be a
+humanist and a papist, but has not yet become a reformer. And a reformer
+was precisely what his conscience, his country, and his reason compelled
+him to become. Francis was flagrantly immoral, but a fanatic in
+religion; and mercy was not a virtue congenial to either church or
+state. Calvin had seen the Protestants from within; he knew their
+honesty, their honor, the purity of their motives, and the integrity of
+their lives; and he judged, as a jurist would, that a man who had all
+the virtues of citizenship ought not to be oppressed and treated as
+unfit for civil office or even as a criminal by the state. This is no
+conjecture, for it is confirmed by the testimony he bears to the
+influence exercised over him by the martyred Etienne de la Forge. He
+thus saw that a changed mind meant a changed religion, and a changed
+religion a change of abode. Cop had to flee from Paris, and so had
+Calvin.
+
+In the May of 1534 he went to Noyon, laid down his offices, was
+imprisoned, liberated, and while there he seems to have finally
+renounced Catholicism. But he feared the forces of disorder which lurked
+in Protestantism, and which seemed embodied in the Anabaptists. Hence at
+Orleans he composed a treatise against one of their favorite beliefs,
+the sleep of the soul between death and judgment. Conscious personal
+being was in itself too precious, and in the sight of God too sacred, to
+be allowed to suffer even a temporary lapse. But to serve the cause he
+loved was impossible with the stake waiting for him, its fires scorching
+his face, and kindly friends endangered by his presence. And so, in the
+winter of 1534, he retired from France and settled at Basel.
+
+Now a city where Protestantism reigned, where learning flourished, and
+where men so unlike as Erasmus and Farel--the fervid preacher of
+reform--could do their work unhindered, was certain to make a deep
+impression on a fugitive harassed and expatriated on account of
+religion; and the impression it made can be read in the _Christianae
+Religionis Institutio_, and especially in the prefatory _Letter to
+Francis I_. The _Institutio_ is Calvin's positive interpretation of the
+Christian religion: the _Letter_ is learned, eloquent, elegant,
+dignified, the address of a subject to his sovereign, yet of a subject
+who knows that his place in the state is as legal, though not as
+authoritative, as the sovereign's. It throbs with a noble indignation
+against injustice, and with a noble enthusiasm for freedom and truth. It
+is one of the great epistles of the world, a splendid apology for the
+oppressed and arraignment of the oppressors. It does not implore
+toleration as a concession, but claims freedom as a right.
+
+Its author is a young man of but twenty-six, yet he speaks with the
+gravity of age. He tells the King that his first duty is to be just;
+that to punish unheard is but to inflict violence and perpetrate fraud.
+Those for whom he speaks are, though simple and godly men, yet charged
+with crimes that, were they true, ought to condemn them to a thousand
+fires and gibbets. These charges the King is bound to investigate, for
+he is a minister of God, and if he fails to serve the God whose minister
+he is, then he is a robber and no king.
+
+Then he asks, "Who are our accusers?" and he turns on the priests like a
+new Erasmus, who does not, like the old, delight in satire for its own
+sake or in a literature which scourges men by holding up the mirror to
+vice, but who feels the sublimity of virtue so deeply that witticisms at
+the expense of vice are abhorrent to him. He takes up the charges in
+detail: it is said that the doctrine is new, doubtful, and uncertain,
+unconfirmed by miracles, opposed to the fathers and ancient custom,
+schismatical and productive of schism, and that its fruits are sects,
+seditions, license. On no point is he so emphatic as the repudiation of
+the personal charges: the people he pleads for have never raised their
+voice in faction or sought to subvert law and order; they fear God
+sincerely and worship him in truth, praying even in exile for the royal
+person and house.
+
+The book which this address to the King introduces is a sketch or
+programme of reform in religion. The first edition of the _Institutio_
+is distinguished from all later editions by the emphasis it lays, not on
+dogma, but on morals, on worship, and on polity. Calvin conceives the
+Gospel as a new law which ought to be embodied in a new life, individual
+and social. What came later to be known as Calvinism may be stated in an
+occasional sentence or implied in a paragraph, but it is not the
+substance or determinative idea of the book. The problem discussed has
+been set by the studies and the experience of the author; he has read
+the New Testament as a humanist learned in the law, and he has been
+startled by the contrast between its ideal and the reality which
+confronts him. And he proceeds in a thoroughly juridical fashion, just
+as Tertullian before him, and as Grotius and Selden after him. Without a
+document he can decide nothing; he needs a written law or actual custom;
+and his book falls into divisions which these suggest.
+
+Hence his first chapter is concerned with duty or conduct as prescribed
+by the Ten Commandments; his second with faith as contained in the
+apostolic symbol; his third with prayer as fixed by the words of Christ;
+his fourth with the sacrament as given in the Scriptures; his fifth with
+the false sacraments as defined by tradition and enforced by Catholic
+custom; and his sixth with Christian liberty or the relation of the
+ecclesiastical and civil authorities. But though the book is, as
+compared with what it became later, limited in scope and contents--the
+last edition which left the author's hand in 1559 had grown from a work
+in six chapters to one in four books and eighty chapters--yet its
+constructive power, its critical force, its large outlook impress the
+student. We have here none of Luther's scholasticism, or of
+Melanchthon's deft manipulation of incompatible elements; but we have
+the first thoughts on religion of a mind trained by ancient literature
+to the criticism of life.
+
+The _Institutio_ bears the date "_Mense Martio; Anno_ 1536"; but Calvin,
+without waiting till his book was on the market, made a hurried journey
+to Ferrara, whose Duchess, Renee, a daughter of Louis XII, stood in
+active sympathy with the reformers. The reasons for this brief visit are
+very obscure; but it may have been undertaken in the hope of mitigating,
+by the help of Renee, the severity of the persecutions in France. On his
+return Calvin ventured, tradition says, to Noyon, probably for the sake
+of family affairs; but he certainly reached Paris; and, while in the
+second half of July making his way into Germany, he arrived at Geneva.
+An old friend, possibly Louis du Tillet, discovered him, and told Farel;
+and Farel, in sore straits for a helper, besought him, and indeed in the
+name of the Almighty commanded him, to stay. Calvin was reluctant, for
+he was reserved and shy, and conceived his vocation to be the scholar's
+rather than the preacher's; but the entreaties of Farel, half tearful,
+half minatory, prevailed. And thus Calvin's connection with Geneva
+began.
+
+Calvin's life from this point onward falls into three parts: his first
+stay in Geneva from July, 1536, to March, 1538; his residence in
+Strasburg from September, 1538, to September, 1541; and his second stay
+in Geneva from the last date till his death, May 27, 1564. In the first
+period, he, in company with Farel, made an attempt to organize the
+church and reform the mind and manners of Geneva, and failed; his exile,
+formally voted by the council, was the penalty of his failure. In the
+second period he was professor of theology and French preacher at
+Strasburg, a trusted divine and adviser, a delegate to the Protestant
+churches of Germany, which he learned to know better, making the
+acquaintance of Melanchthon, and becoming more appreciative of Luther.
+
+At Strasburg some of his best literary work was done--his _Letter to
+Cardinal Sadoleto_ (in its way his most perfect production), his
+_Commentary on the Romans_, a _Treatise on the Lord's Supper_, the
+second Latin and the first French edition of his _Institutio_. In the
+third period he introduced and completed his legislation at Geneva,
+taught, preached, and published there, watched the churches everywhere,
+and conducted the most extensive correspondence of his day. In these
+twenty-eight years he did a work which changed the face of Christendom.
+
+We come then to Calvin's legislative achievements as his main title to
+name and fame. But two points must here be noted. In the first place,
+while his theology was less original and effective than his legislation
+or polity, yet he so construed the former as to make the latter its
+logical and indeed inevitable outcome. The polity was a deduction from
+the theology, which may be defined as a science of the divine will as a
+moral will, aiming at the complete moralization of man, whether as a
+unit or as a society. The two were thus so organically connected that
+each lent strength to the other, the system to the church and the church
+to the system, while other and more potently reasonable theologies
+either died or lived a feeble and struggling life.
+
+Secondly, the legislation was made possible and practicable by Geneva,
+probably the only place in Europe where it could have been enacted and
+enforced. We have learned enough concerning Genevan history and
+institutions to understand why this should have been the case. The city
+was small, free, homogeneous, distinguished by a strong local
+patriotism, a stalwart communal life. In obedience to these instincts it
+had just emancipated itself from the ecclesiastical Prince and its
+ancient religious system; and the change thus accomplished was, though
+disguised in a religious habit, yet essentially political. For the
+council which abolished the bishop had made itself heir to his faculties
+and functions; it could only dismiss him as civil lord by dismissing him
+as the ecclesiastical head of Geneva, and in so doing it assumed the
+right to succeed as well as to supersede him in both capacities.
+
+This, however, involved a notable inversion of old ideas; before the
+change the ecclesiastical authority had been civil, but because of the
+change the civil authority became ecclesiastical. If theocracy means the
+rule of the church or the sovereignty of the clergy in the state, then
+the ancient constitution of Geneva was theocratic; if democracy means
+the sovereignty of the people in church as well as in state, then the
+change had made it democratic. And it was just after the change had been
+effected that Calvin's connection with the city began.
+
+Its chief pastor had persuaded him to stay as a colleague, and the
+council appointed him professor and preacher. He was young, exactly
+twenty-seven years of age, full of high ideals, but inexperienced,
+unacquainted with men, without any knowledge of Geneva and the state of
+things there. He could therefore make no terms, could only stay to do
+his duty. What that duty was soon became apparent. Geneva had not become
+any more moral in character because it had changed its mind in religion.
+It had two months before Calvin's arrival sworn to live according to the
+holy evangelical law and Word of God; but it did not seem to understand
+its own oath. And the man whom his intellectual sincerity and moral
+integrity had driven out of Catholicism could not hold office in any
+church which made light of conviction and conduct; and so he at once set
+himself to organize a church that should be efficaciously moral.
+
+He built on the ancient Genevan idea, that the city is a church; only he
+wished to make the church to be primary and real. The theocracy, which
+had been construed as the reign of the clergy, he would interpret as
+ideal and realize as a reign of God. The citizens, who had assumed
+control of their own spiritual destinies and ecclesiastical affairs, he
+wanted to instruct in their responsibilities and discipline into
+obedience. And he would do it in the way of a jurist who believes in the
+harmony of law and custom; he would by positive enactments train the
+city, which conceived itself to be a church, to be and behave as if it
+were indeed a church, living according to the gospel which it had sworn
+to obey.
+
+Thus a confession of faith was drawn up which the people were to adopt
+as their own, and so attain clarity and concordance of mind concerning
+God and his Word; and a catechism was composed which was to be made the
+basis of religious instruction in both the school and the family, for
+the citizen as well as the child. Worship was to be carefully regulated,
+psalm-books prepared, psalm-singing cultivated; the preacher was to
+interpret the Word, and the pastor to supervise the flock.
+
+The Lord's Supper was to be celebrated monthly, but only those who were
+morally fit or worthy were to be allowed to communicate. The church, in
+order that it might fulfil its functions and guard the holy table, must
+have the right of excommunication. It was not enough that a man should
+be a citizen or a councillor to be admitted to the Lord's Supper; his
+mind must be Christian and his conduct Christlike. Without faith the
+rite was profaned, the presence of Christ was not realized. Moreover,
+since matrimonial cases were many and infelicity sprang both from
+differences of faith and impurity of conduct, a board, composed partly
+of magistrates and partly of ministers, was to be appointed to deal with
+them; and it was to have the power to exclude from the church those who
+either did not believe its doctrines or did not obey its commandments.
+
+These were drastic proposals to be made to a city which had just
+dismissed its bishop, attained political freedom, and proclaimed a
+reformation of religion; and Calvin was not the man to leave them
+inoperative. A card-player was pilloried; a tire-woman, a mother, and
+two bridesmaids were arrested because they had adorned the bride too
+gayly; an adulterer was driven with the partner of his guilt through the
+streets by the common hangman, and then banished. These things taxed the
+temper of the city sorely; it was not unfamiliar with legislation of the
+kind, but it had not been accustomed to see it enforced. Hence, men who
+came to be known as "libertines," though they were both patriotic and
+moral and only craved freedom, rose and said: "This is an intolerable
+tyranny; we will not allow any man to be lord over our consciences." And
+about the same time Calvin's orthodoxy was challenged. Two Anabaptists
+arrived and demanded liberty to prophesy; and Peter Caroli charged him
+with heresy as to the Trinity. He would not use the Athanasian creed;
+and he defended himself by reasons that the scholar who knows its
+history will respect. The end soon came. When he heard that he had been
+sentenced to banishment he said, "If I had served men this would have
+been a poor reward, but I have served Him who never fails to perform
+what he has promised."
+
+In 1541 Geneva recalled Calvin, and he obeyed as one who goes to fulfil
+an imperative but unwelcome duty. There is nothing more pathetic in the
+literature of the period than his hesitancies and fears. He tells Farel
+that he would rather die a hundred times than again take up that cross
+"_in qua millies quotidie pereundum esset_." And he writes to Viret that
+it were better to perish once for all than "_in illa carnificina iterum
+torqueri_." But he loved Geneva, and it was in evil case. Rome was
+plotting to reclaim it; Savoy was watching her opportunity, the patriots
+feared to go forward, and even the timid dared not go back. So the
+necessities of the city, divided between its factions and its foes,
+constituted an appeal which Calvin could not resist; but he did not
+yield unconditionally. He went back as the legislator who was to frame
+laws for its church; and he so adapted them to the civil constitution
+and the constitution to them, that he raised the little city of Geneva
+to be the Protestant Rome.
+
+The _Ordonnances ecclesiastiques_ may be described as Calvin's programme
+of Genevan reform, or his method for applying to the local and external
+church the government which our Lord had instituted and the Apostles had
+realized. These ordinances expressed his historical sense and gratified
+his religious temper, while adapting the church to the city, so that the
+city might become a better church. To explain in detail how he proposed
+to do this is impossible within our limits; and we shall therefore
+confine ourselves to the most important of the factors he created, the
+ministry.
+
+The ministerial ideal embodied in these ecclesiastical ordinances may be
+said to have had certain indirect but international results; it
+compelled Calvin to develop his system of education; it supplied the
+reformed church, especially in France, with the men which it needed to
+fight its battles and to form the iron in its blood; it presented the
+reformed church everywhere with an intellectual and educational ideal,
+which must be realized if its work was to be done; and it created the
+modern preacher, defining the sphere of his activity and setting up for
+his imitation a noble and lofty example.
+
+Calvin soon found that the reformed faith could live in a democratic
+city only by an enlightened pulpit speaking to enlightened citizens, and
+that an educated ministry was helpless without an educated people. His
+method for creating both entitles him to rank among the foremost makers
+of modern education. As a humanist he believed in the classical
+languages and literatures--there is a tradition which says that he read
+through Cicero once a year--and so "he built his system on the solid
+rock of Graeco-Roman antiquity." Yet he did not neglect religion; he so
+trained the boys of Geneva through his catechism that each was said to
+be able to give a reason for his faith "like a doctor of the Sorbonne."
+He believed in the unity of knowledge and the community of learning,
+placing the magistrate and the minister, the citizen and the pastor, in
+the hands of the same teacher, and binding the school and the university
+together. The boy learned in the one and the man studied in the other,
+but the school was the way to the university, the university was the
+goal of the school.
+
+In nothing does the pedagogic genius of Calvin more appear than in his
+fine jealousy as to the character and competence whether of masters or
+professors, and in his unwearied quest after qualified men. His letters
+teem with references to the men in various lands and many universities
+whom he was seeking to bring to Geneva. The first rector, Antoine
+Saunier, was a notable man; and he never rested till he had secured his
+dear old teacher, Mathurin Cordier. Castellio was a schoolmaster;
+Theodore Beza was head of college and academy, or school and university,
+together; and Calvin himself was a professor of theology. The success of
+the college was great; the success of the academy was greater. Men came
+from all quarters--English, Italians, Spanish, Germans, Russians,
+ministers, jurists, old men, young men, all with the passion to learn in
+their blood--to jostle each other among the thousand hearers who met to
+listen to the great reformer. But France was the main feeder of the
+academy; Frenchmen filled its chairs, occupied its benches, learned in
+it the courage to live and the will to die. From Geneva books poured
+into France; and the French church was ever appealing for ministers, yet
+never appealed in vain.
+
+Within eleven years, 1555-1566--Calvin died in 1564--it is known that
+Geneva sent one hundred sixty-one pastors into France; how many more may
+have gone unrecorded we cannot tell. And they were learned men,
+strenuous, fearless, praised by a French bishop as modest, grave,
+saintly, with the name of Jesus Christ ever on their lips. Charles IX
+implored the magistrates of Geneva to stop the supply and withdraw the
+men already sent; but the magistrates replied that the preachers had
+been sent not by them, but by their ministers, who believed that the
+sovereign duty of all princes and kings was to do homage to Him who had
+given to them their dominion. It was small wonder that the Venetian
+Suriano should describe Geneva as "the mine whence came the ore of
+heresy"; or that the Protestants should gather courage as they heard the
+men from Geneva sing psalms in the face of torture and death.
+
+It was indeed a very different France which the eyes of the dying Calvin
+saw from that which the young man had seen thirty years before.
+Religious hate was even more bitter and vindictive; war had come and
+made persecution more ferocious; but the Huguenots had grown numerous,
+potent, respected, feared, and disputed with Catholicism the supremacy
+of the kingdom. And Calvin had done it, not by arms nor by threats, nor
+by encouragement of sedition or insurrection--to such action he was ever
+resolutely opposed--but by the agency of the men whom he formed in
+Geneva, and by their persuasive speech. The reformed minister was
+essentially a preacher, intellectual, exegetical, argumentative,
+seriously concerned with the subjects that most appealed to the
+serious-minded.
+
+Modern oratory may be said to begin with him, and indeed to be his
+creation. He helped to make the vernacular tongues of Western Europe
+literary. He accustomed the people to hear the gravest and most sacred
+themes discussed in the language which they knew; and the themes
+ennobled the language, the language was never allowed to degrade the
+themes. And there was no tongue and no people that he influenced more
+than the French. Calvin made Bossuet and Massillon possible; as a
+preacher he found his successor in Bourdaloue; and a literary critic who
+does not love him has expressed a doubt as to whether Pascal could be
+more eloquent or was so profound. And the ideal then realized in Geneva
+exercised an influence far beyond France. It extended into Holland,
+which in the strength of the reformed faith resisted Charles V and his
+son, achieved independence, and created the freest and best educated
+state on the continent of Europe.
+
+John Knox breathed for a while the atmosphere of Geneva, was subdued
+into the likeness of the man who had made it, and when he went home he
+copied its education and tried to repeat its reformation. English
+reformers, fleeing from martyrdom, found a refuge within its hospitable
+walls, and, returning to England, attempted to establish a Genevan
+discipline, and failed, but succeeded in forming the Puritan character.
+If the author of the _Ordonnances ecclesiastiques_ accomplished, whether
+directly or indirectly, so much, we need not hesitate to term him a
+notable friend to civilization.
+
+
+JEAN M. V. AUDIN
+
+When the sword of the law fell upon one of his followers, the voice of
+Luther was magnificent; it exclaimed, in the ears of emperors, kings,
+and dukes, "You have shed the blood of the just," and then the Saxon, in
+honor of the martyr, extemporized a hymn which was chanted in the very
+face of the civil power:
+
+    "In the Low Countries, at Brussels,
+    The Lord his greatness hath displayed,
+    In the death of two of his loved children
+    On whom grand gifts he had bestowed."
+
+Calvin had not the courage to imitate Luther. He has told us that he
+wanted courage; he again repeats it: he says that he, a plebeian,
+trifling as a man, and having but little learning, has nothing in him
+which could deserve celebrity. And yet he essayed a timid protest in
+favor of certain Huguenots who had been burned on the public square.
+"The work," says Prince Masson, "of a double-faced writer, a Catholic in
+his writings and a Lutheran in his bedchamber."
+
+This is his first book. It is entitled _de Clementia_ (or _Treatise on
+Clemency_), and is a paraphrase of some Latin writer of the decline.
+Moreover, this is the first time that a commentator is ignorant of the
+life of him whose work he publishes. Calvin has confounded the two
+Senecas, the father and the son; the rhetorician and the philosopher, of
+both of whom he makes but one literary personage, living the very
+patriarchal life of more than one hundred fifteen years.
+
+We must pardon Varillas for having, with sufficient acrimony, brought
+into relief this mistake of the biographer of Seneca the philosopher,
+and not, like the historians of the Reformation, become vexed at the
+proud tone of the French historian. Had the fault been committed by a
+Catholic, where is the Protestant who would not have done the same thing
+as Varillas?
+
+The literary work which Calvin, in the shape of a commentary, has
+interwoven with the treatise of Seneca is a production not unworthy a
+literator of the revival; it is an amplification, which one would have
+supposed to have been written in the cell of a Benedictine monk, so
+numerous are the citations, so great is the display of erudition, so
+replete is it with the names, Greek and Latin, of poets, historians,
+moralists, rhetoricians, philosophers, and philologists.
+
+Calvin is a coquettish student, who loves to parade his reading and his
+memory. His work is a gallery, open to all the modern and ancient
+glories of literature, whom the commentator calls to his aid, often for
+the elucidation of a doubtful passage. The young rhetorician glorifies
+his country, and when upon his march he encounters some historic name,
+by which his idea can be illustrated, he hastens to proclaim it, with
+all its titles to admiration. He there salutes Bude in magnificent
+terms: "Bude, the glory and pillar of human learning, thanks to whom,
+at this day, France can claim the palm of erudition." The portrait
+which he draws of Seneca is the production of a practised pen: "Seneca,
+whose pure and polished phrase savors, in some sort, of his age; his
+diction florid and elegant; his style, without labor or restraint, moves
+on, free and unembarrassed." It may be seen that the student had the
+honor to study under Mathurin Cordier and to attend the lectures of
+Alciati; but, after all, his book is but a defective allegory; for what
+reader could have divined that the writer designed to represent Francis
+I, under the name of Nero, as addressed by the Cordovan? The treatise
+could produce no sensation, and, like the work of Seneca, must be
+shipwrecked in that sea of the passions which, at the two epochs, raged
+around both writers.
+
+Calvin experienced much trouble in having his Latin commentary printed;
+he was in need of funds, and the revenues of his benefice of Pont
+l'Eveque were insufficient to defray the expense of printing. How could
+he apply to the Mommor family? Moreover, he was in dread that his book
+should prove a failure and thereby injure his budding reputation. All
+these alarms of a maiden author are set forth in various letters which
+he addressed on this subject to the dear friends of his bosom.
+
+"Behold my books of Seneca concerning clemency, printed at my own
+expense and labor! They must now be sold, in order that I may again
+obtain the money which I have expended. I must also watch that my
+reputation does not suffer. You will oblige me, then, by informing me
+how the work has been received, whether with favor or indifference." The
+whole anxiety of the poor author is to lose nothing by the enterprise;
+his purse is empty; it needs replenishing; and he urges the professors
+to give circulation to the treatise; he solicits one of his friends at
+Bourges, a member of the university, to bring it forward in his
+lectures; and appeals to the aid of Daniel, to whom he sent a hundred
+copies. Papire Masson was mistaken: the commentary on clemency did not
+first appear, as he supposes, under the title of _Lucius Calvinus, civis
+Romanus_, but under that of _Calvinus_, a name ever after retained by
+the reformer.
+
+This treatise introduced Calvin to the notice of the learned world:
+Bucer, Capito, Padius, sent congratulations to the writer; Calvin, in
+September, 1532, had sent a copy of his work to Bucer, who was then at
+Strasburg. The person commissioned to present it was a poor young man,
+suspected of Anabaptism, and a refugee from France. Calvin's letter of
+recommendation is replete with tender compassion for the miseries of the
+sinner. "My dear Bucer," he writes, "you will not be deaf to my
+entreaties, you will not disregard my tears; I implore you, to come to
+the aid of the proscribed, be a father to the orphan."
+
+This was sending the sick man to a sad physician. Bucer, by turns
+Catholic, Lutheran, Anabaptist, Zwinglian! Besides, why this proselytism
+of a moral _cure_? The exile was Anabaptist by the same title as Calvin
+was predestinarian, in virtue of a text of Scripture: "Go; whoever shall
+believe and be baptized will be saved." The Anabaptist believed in the
+inefficacy of baptism without faith manifested by an external act; but
+is not Calvin, at this very hour, as much to be pitied as the
+Anabaptist? He also doubted, searched, and interrogated his Bible, and
+imagined that he had caught the meaning of a letter which no
+intelligence before him had been able to seize. And what was this truth,
+the conquest of which infused such fear into his soul that, before he
+could announce it to the world, he sold his charge of Pont l'Eveque and
+even his paternal inheritance?
+
+In the year 1531 John Calvin presented himself before Simon Legendre and
+Peter le Roy, royal notaries at Paris, to invest his brothers with
+powers of attorney to sell what had been left him by his father and
+mother.
+
+"To all to whom these present letters shall come; John de la Barre,
+Chevalier Count d'Estampes, Governor of Paris and chief of the judicial
+tribunal of said city, greeting: We make known that before Simon
+Legendre and Peter le Roy, notaries of our lord the King, at Paris, came
+in person Master John Calvin, licentiate at law, and Anthony Cauvin, his
+brother, clerk, living at Paris, and sons of Gerard Cauvin--while yet
+alive, secretary of M. the Bishop of Noyon--and of Jeanne le Franc, his
+wife; who jointly and severally make, name, ordain, appoint, and
+establish as their general agent and special attorney Master Charles
+Cauvin, their brother, to whom bearing these present letters they grant,
+and by these presents do give, full power and right to sell, concede,
+and alienate, to whatever person or persons the two undivided thirds
+belonging to the aforesaid constituents, coming to them in proper right
+of succession by the demise of the aforesaid deceased Jeanne le Franc,
+their mother; also the fourth undivided part of a piece of meadow,
+containing fourteen acres or thereabouts, situated in the territory of
+Noyon, and pertaining on one part to the wood of Chastelain; on another,
+to the monks and sisters of the Hotel-Dieu of St. John, at Noyon; on
+another, to the nuns and abbess of the French convent, the Abbey aux
+Bois, and to the chapter of the church of Notre Dame, of the said city,
+and running up to the highway passing from Noyon to Genury; to make sale
+and alienation of the same, for such price and at such costs as the
+aforesaid Master Charles Cauvin, their brother, shall judge for the
+better; to collect the money and give security, with lien upon all their
+future possessions.
+
+"Done, and passed, on Wednesday, the fifteenth day of February, in the
+year 1531."
+
+Some short time after this, Calvin resigned his charge of the Chapel de
+la Gesine to Anthony de la Marliere, _Mediante pretio conventionis_, for
+the sum agreed on, says the act of transfer, and also surrendered his
+benefice of Pont l'Eveque for a similar consideration.
+
+The storm was gathering. Calvin wished to expose to its fury some other
+head than his own, and chose that of Nicolas Cop, rector of the
+Sorbonne, at Paris. Cop was a German of Basel, who was captivated with
+the student because of his ready speech, his airs of virtue, his
+scriptural knowledge, his railleries against the monks, and his ridicule
+of the university. As to the rest, he was a man of a dull, heavy mind,
+understood nothing of theological subjects, and would have been much
+better placed in a refectory than in a learned body; at table than in
+the professor's chair. Cop had to pronounce his usual discourse on All
+Saints' Day, in presence of the Sorbonne and the university. He had
+recourse to Calvin, who set to work and "built him up a discourse," says
+Beza--"an oration quite different from those which were customary." The
+Sorbonne and university did not assist at the discourse, but only some
+Franciscans, who appeared to be scandalized at certain propositions of
+the orator, and among others at one concerning justification by faith
+alone in Christ--an old error, which, for many ages, has been trailed
+along in all the writings of heretics; often dead and resuscitated--and
+which Calvin, in Cop's discourse, dressed out in tinsel in order to give
+it some appearance of novelty. But our Franciscans had sight and hearing
+equally as good; they detected the heresy easily, and denounced to the
+parliament the evil-sounding propositions, which they had taken pains to
+note down in writing. Cop was greatly embarrassed by his new glory; he
+had not expected so much fame. He, however, held up well and convoked
+the university at the Mathurins. The university assembled in a body in
+order to judge the cause. The rector there commenced a discourse, drawn
+up by Calvin, in which he formally denied having preached the
+propositions denounced, with the exception of one only, precisely the
+worst, that concerning justification. Imagine the tumult which the
+orator excited! Scarcely could he make himself heard, and ask mercy. The
+old Sorbonnists shuddered on their benches. The unfortunate Cop would
+have been seized had he not made his escape, to return no more.
+
+The student kept himself concealed at the College du Forbet, which was
+already surrounded by a body of archers headed by John Morin. Calvin was
+warned of their approach. "He escaped through a window, concealed
+himself in the suburb St. Victor, at the house of a vine-dresser,
+changed his clothes, assumed the long gown of the vine-dresser, and,
+placing a wallet of white linen and a rake on his shoulders, he took the
+road to Noyon." A canon of that city, who was on his way to Paris, met
+the _cure_ of Pont l'Eveque and recognized him.
+
+"Where are you going, Master John," he demanded, "in this fine
+disguise?"
+
+"Where God shall please," answered Calvin, who then began to explain the
+motive and reasons of his disguise. "And would you not do better to
+return to Noyon and to God?" asked the canon, looking at him sadly.
+Calvin was a moment silent, then, taking the priest's hand--"Thank you,"
+said he, "but it is too late."
+
+During this colloquy the lieutenant was searching Calvin's papers, and
+secured those which might have compromised the friends of the fugitive.
+
+Calvin found a refuge with the Queen of Navarre, who was fortunate
+enough to reconcile her _protege_ with the court and the university. The
+person whom she employed to effect this was an adroit man who had
+succeeded in deceiving the government. Francis I based his glory upon
+the patronage and encouragement which he accorded to learning, and
+Calvin, as a man of letters, merited consideration. The King needed some
+forgiveness for serious political faults, and, with reason, he believed
+that the humanists would redeem his character before the people. He was
+at once the protector and the slave of the _literati_.
+
+At that period the little court of Nerac was the asylum of writers, who,
+like Desperriers, there prepared their _Cymbalum Mundi_; of gallant
+ladies, who composed love-tales, of which they were often the heroines
+themselves; of poets, who extemporized odes after Beza's model; of
+clerics and other gentry of the Church, who entertained packs of
+hunting-dogs, and courtesans; of Italian play-actors, who, in the
+Queen's theatre, presented comedies taken from the New Testament, in
+which Jesus was made to utter horrible things against monks and nuns; or
+of princes, who, like the Queen's husband, scarcely knew how to read,
+and yet discoursed, like doctors, about doctrine and discipline.
+
+It was against Roussel, the confessor of Margaret, that Calvin, at a
+later date, composed his _Adversus Nicodemitas_. At Nerac he found Le
+Fevre d'Etaples, who had fled the wrath of the Sorbonne, and who
+"regarded the young man with a benignant eye, predicting that he was to
+become the author of the restoration of the Church in France." Le Fevre
+recalls to our mind that priest about whom Mathesius tells us, who said
+to Luther, when sick: "My child, you will not die; God has great designs
+in your regard." As to the rest, James le Fevre d'Etaples was a
+sufficiently charitable and honest man. He died a Catholic, and very
+probably without ever having prophesied in the terms mentioned by Beza.
+
+It does not appear that Margaret enjoined the law of silence upon her
+guest of Noyon, for we find him disseminating his errors in Saintonge,
+where many laborers flocked to hear him and abandoned Catholicism to
+embrace the Reformation. It was while on one of his excursions that the
+missionary encountered Louis du Tillet, clerk of the Parliament of
+Paris and secretary of Du Tillet, Bishop of Meaux. Louis possessed a
+beautiful dwelling at Claix, a sort of Thebais, retired and pleasant,
+where Calvin commenced his most serious work, _Institutes of the
+Christian Religion_. The time he could spare from this literary
+occupation he devoted to preaching in the neighboring cities, and
+especially at Angouleme. A vine, beneath which he loved to recline and
+muse, may still be seen; it was for a long time called "Calvin's vine."
+He was still living on the last bounties of a church which he had
+renounced, and which he called "a stepmother and a prostitute"; and on
+the presents of a queen gallant, whose morals and piety he lauded,
+continuing to assist at the Catholic service, and composing Latin
+orations, which were delivered out of the assembly of the synod, at the
+temple of St. Peter. He left the court of Margaret and reappeared at
+Orleans.
+
+The Reformation in France, as in Germany, wherever it showed itself,
+produced, on all sides, disorder and trouble. In place of a uniform
+symbol, it brought contradictory confessions, which gave rise to
+interminable disputes. In Germany the Lutheran word caused a thousand
+sects to spring up--each of which wished to establish a Christian
+republic on the ruins of Catholicism. Carlstadt, Schwenkfield,
+Oecolampadius, Zwingli, Munzer, Boskold, begotten by Luther, had
+denied their father, and taught heterogeneous dogmas, of which every one
+passed for the production of the Holy Ghost. Luther, who no longer
+concealed himself beneath a monk's robe, but borrowed the ducal sword,
+drove before him all these rebel angels, and, at the gate of Wittenberg,
+stationed an executioner to prohibit their entrance; driven back into
+the provinces, the dissenters appealed to open force. Germany was then
+inundated with the blood of her noble intelligences, who had been born
+for her glory.
+
+Munzer died on the scaffold, and the Anabaptists marched to punishment,
+denying and cursing the Saxon who did violence to their faith.
+Everything was perishing--painting, sculpture, poesy, letters. The
+Reformation imitated Nero, and sang its triumphs amid ruins and blood.
+
+In France it was destined soon to excite similar tempests. It had
+already troubled the Church. It no longer, as before, sheltered itself
+beneath the shades of night to propagate its doctrines. It erected, by
+the side of the Catholic pulpit, another pulpit, from which its dogmas
+were defended by its disciples; it led its partisans at court, among the
+clergy, in the universities and in the parliaments. Calvin's book, _de
+Clementia_, gained him a large number of proselytes: his disciples had
+an austere air, downcast eyes, pale faces, emaciated cheeks--all the
+signs of labor and sufferings. They mingled little with the world,
+avoided female conversation, the court, and shows; the Bible was their
+book of predilection; they spoke, like the Saviour, in apologues. They
+were termed Christians of the primitive Church. To resemble these, they
+only needed the very essence of Christianity; namely, faith, hope, and
+charity.
+
+To be convinced that their symbol was as diversified as their faces, it
+was only necessary to hear them speak; some taught the sleep of the
+soul, after this life, till the day of the last judgment; others, the
+necessity of a second baptism. Among them there were Lutherans, who
+believed in the real presence, and Zwinglians, who rejected it; apostles
+of free-will, and defenders of fatalism; Melanchthonians, who admitted
+an ecclesiastical hierarchy; Carlstadians, who maintained that every
+Christian is a priest; realists, chained to the letter; idealists, who
+bent the letter to the thought; rationalists, who rejected every
+mystery; mystics, who lost themselves in the clouds; and
+Antitrinitarians, who, like Servetus, admitted but two persons in God.
+These doctors all carried with them the same book--the Bible.
+
+Servetus,[43] a Spanish physician, had left his own country, and
+established himself, in 1531, at Hagenau, where he had published
+different treatises against the Trinity. He had disputed at Basel with
+Oecolampadius, some time before this renegade from the Lutheran faith
+"was strangled by the devil," if we are to believe the account given by
+Doctor Martin Luther. Servetus boasted that he triumphed over the
+theologian. Having left Basel in 1532, and crossed the Rhine, he came
+to hurl a solemn defiance at Calvin; the gauntlet was taken up by the
+_cure_ of Pont l'Eveque, the place of combat indicated, the day for the
+tournament named, but at the appointed hour "the heart of this unhappy
+wretch failed," says Beza, "who having agreed to dispute, did not dare
+appear." Calvin, on his part--in his refutations of the errors of
+Servetus, published in 1554--boasts of having in vain offered the
+Spanish physician remedies suitable to cure his malady. Servetus
+pretends that his adversary was laying snares for him, which he had the
+good-fortune to avoid. At a later period he forgot his part, and came to
+throw himself into the ambuscade of his enemy.
+
+The parliaments redoubled their severity: Calvin was narrowly watched,
+his liberty might be compromised, and even his life put in peril. He
+resolved to abandon France, either from fear or spite--if we are to
+credit an ecclesiastical historian--not being able to forgive Francis I
+for the preference manifested by this Prince toward a relation of the
+Constable, "of moderate circumstances," who was promoted to a benefice,
+for which the author of the _Commentary on Seneca_ had condescended to
+make solicitation. The testimony of the historian is weighty. Soulier
+knows neither hatred, passion, nor anger; he seeks after the truth, and
+he believes that he has found it in the recital which we are about to
+peruse.
+
+"We, the undersigned--Louis Charreton, counsellor of the King, dean of
+the presidents of the parliaments of Paris, son of the late Andrew
+Charreton, who was first Baron of Champagne, and counsellor to the high
+chamber of the Parliament of Paris; Madam Antoinette Charreton, widow of
+Noel Renouard, former master in the chamber of the courts of Paris, and
+daughter of the late Hugh Charreton, Lord of Montauzon; and John
+Charreton, Sieur de la Terriere; all three cousins, and grandchildren of
+Hugh Charreton--certify that we have frequently heard from our fathers
+that the aforesaid Sieur Hugh Charreton had several times told them that
+under the reign of Francis I, while the court was at Fontainebleau,
+Calvin, who had a benefice at Noyon, came there and took lodgings in the
+hotel where the aforesaid Sieur Charreton was lodging, who,
+understanding that Calvin was a man of letters and of great erudition,
+and being very fond of the society of learned men, informed him that he
+would be delighted to have some interviews with him; to this Calvin the
+more willingly consented under the belief that the aforesaid Sieur de
+Charreton might be able to assist him in the affair which had brought
+him to Fontainebleau; that after several interviews the aforesaid Sieur
+de Charreton demanded from Calvin the object of his journey, to which he
+answered that he had come to solicit a priory from the King, for which
+there was but one rival, who was a relative of the Constable.
+
+"The Sieur de Charreton asked him if he thought this nothing. He replied
+that he was aware of the high consideration enjoyed by the Constable,
+but he also knew that the King, in disposing of benefices, was wont to
+choose the most proper persons, and that the relative of the Constable
+was of very poor capacity. To which the aforesaid Sieur de Charreton
+rejoined that this was no obstacle, since no great capacity was needed
+to hold a simple benefice; whereupon Calvin exclaimed and cried out that
+if such wrong was done him he would find means to make them speak of him
+for five hundred years; and the aforesaid Sieur de Charreton having
+urged him strongly to tell him how he would do this, Calvin conducted
+him to his room and showed him the commencement of his _Institutes_; and
+after having read a portion of them, Calvin demanded his opinion; he
+answered _that it was poison well put in sugar_, and advised him not to
+continue a work which was only a false interpretation of the Scriptures
+and of everything which the holy fathers had written; and as he
+perceived that Calvin remained firm in his wicked purpose, he gave
+notice thereof to the Constable, who declared that Calvin was a fool and
+should soon be brought to his senses. But two days after, the benefice
+having been bestowed on the relative of the Constable, Calvin departed
+and began to propagate his sect, which, being very convenient, was
+embraced by many persons, some through libertinism, others from weakness
+of mind.
+
+"That some time after, the Constable was going to his government of
+Languedoc, and passed through Lyons, where the aforesaid Sieur de
+Charreton paid him a visit, and was asked if he did not belong to the
+sect of Calvin, with whom he had lodged. He answered that he would be
+very sorry to embrace a religion the father and founder of which he had
+seen born.
+
+"In testimony whereof we have given our signatures, at Paris, this 20th
+of September, 1682.
+
+"Signed: Charreton, President; A. Charreton, Widow Renouard; and
+Charreton de la Terriere."
+
+After having published his _Psychopannychia_, in 1534, at Orleans,
+Calvin left that city. He felt a desire to visit Basel, at that time the
+Athens of Switzerland, a city of renown, so long the abode of Erasmus,
+famous for its _literati_, its celebrated printers, and its theologians
+amorous of novelties; where Froben had published his fine edition of the
+works of St. Jerome; where Holbein had painted his picture of Christ
+ready for the sepulchre, where Capito taught Hebrew, and Oecolampadius
+commented on the Psalms.
+
+He set out from Orleans in company with his friend Du Tillet; near Metz
+their domestic robbed them and fled with their sacks and valises, and
+they were forced to seek Strasburg on foot, nearly destitute of
+clothing, and with but ten crowns in their pockets. Calvin spent some
+time in Strasburg, studying the different transformations which the
+reformed gospel had undergone during the brief space of fifteen years.
+He entered into intimate relations with some of the most celebrated
+representatives of Protestantism. Anyone else, who had arrived there
+free from prejudices against Catholicism, would have found salutary
+instruction in the ceaseless agitations of that city, which knew not
+where to poise itself in order to find repose, and which, since 1521,
+had become Lutheran, Anabaptist, Zwinglian, and, at that very moment,
+was dreaming of a new transfiguration, to be accomplished by the aid of
+Bucer, one of its new guests.
+
+At Basel, Calvin found Simon Grynaeus and Erasmus. Calvin could not
+neglect this opportunity of visiting the Batavian philologist, whose
+fame was European. After a short interview they separated. Bucer, who
+had assisted at the meeting, was solicitous to know the opinion of the
+caustic old man. "Master," said he, "what think you of the new-comer?"
+Erasmus smiled, without answering. Bucer insisted. "I behold," said the
+author of the _Colloquies_, "a great pest, which is springing up in the
+Church, against the Church."
+
+On the next day Du Tillet, clerk of the Parliament of Paris, arrived at
+Basel and, by dint of tears and entreaties, brought with him his
+brother Louis, who repented, made his abjuration, and was shortly after
+elected archdeacon, a dignity disputed with him by Renaudie, who was to
+be used by the Reformation for the execution of the plot of Amboise.
+
+The _Psychopannychia_, the first controversial work of Calvin, is a
+pamphlet directed against the sect of Anabaptists, whom the bloody day
+of Frankenhausen had conquered, but not subdued. The spirit of Munzer
+lived again in his disciples, who were parading their mystic reveries
+through Holland, Flanders, and France. Luther had essayed his powers
+against Munzer, imagining that by his fiery language, his Pindaric
+wrath, his flames and thunders, he would soon overwhelm the chief of the
+miners, as he had defeated, it is said, those theological dwarfs who
+were unable to stand before him. From the summit of the mountain he had
+appeared to Munzer in the midst of lightnings, but those lightnings did
+not alarm his adversary, who was bold enough to face him with unquailing
+eye.
+
+Munzer also possessed a fiery tongue, which he used with admirable
+skill, to inflame and arouse the peasants; this time victory remained
+with the man of the sledge-hammer. And Luther, who wished to terminate
+the affair at any cost, was reduced, as is well known, to avail himself
+of the sword of one of his electors. The wrecks which escaped from the
+funeral obsequies of Thuringia took refuge in a new land. France
+received and listened to the prophets of Anabaptism.
+
+These Anabaptists maintained seducing doctrines. They dreamed of a sort
+of Jerusalem, very different from the Jewish Jerusalem; a Jerusalem
+quite spiritual, without swords, soldiers, or civil magistracy: the true
+city of the elect. Their speech was infected with Pelagianism and
+Arianism; on several points of dogma they agreed with Catholics--on
+predestination, for example, and on the merit of works. Some of them
+taught the sleep of the soul till the day of judgment. It was against
+these "sleepers" that Calvin determined to measure himself.
+
+The _Commentary on Seneca_ is a philological work, a book of the
+revival, a rhetorical declamation, in which Calvin is evidently aspiring
+to a place among the humanists, and making his court, in sufficiently
+fine Latin, to all the Ciceronians of the age: this was bringing himself
+forward with skill and tact. The Latin language was the idiom of the
+Church, of the convents, colleges, universities, and parliaments. The
+_Psychopannychia_ is a religious pamphlet, and now Calvin must expect a
+rival in the first pamphleteer of Germany, Luther himself. It is certain
+that Calvin was acquainted with the writings of the Saxon monk against
+Eck, Tetzel, Prierias, Latomus, and the Sorbonnists. He must be praised
+for not having dreamed of entering the lists against a spirit of such a
+temper as his rival. Had he desired, after Luther's manner, to deal in
+caricature, he would certainly have failed. Sallies, play upon words,
+and conceits did not suit a mind like his, whose forte was finesse. By
+nature sober, he could not, like the Saxon monk, fertilize his brain in
+enormous pots of beer; moreover, beer was not as yet in use beyond the
+Rhine.
+
+Nor had he at his service those German smoking-houses, where, of an
+evening, among the companions of gay science, his weary mind might have
+revived its energies. In France the monks did not resort to taverns.
+Calvin was, therefore, everything he was destined to become: an adroit,
+biting disputant, ready at retort, but without warmth or enthusiasm. He
+loves to bear testimony in his own behalf, that "he did not indulge his
+wrath, except modestly; that he always made it a rule to set aside
+outrageous or biting expressions; that he almost always moderated his
+style, which was better adapted to instruct than to drive forcibly, in
+such sort, however, that it may ever attract those who would not be
+led." One must see that, with such humor and style, Calvin might have
+died forgotten, in some little benefice of Swabia, and that he was never
+formed for raising storms, but only for using them.
+
+At this epoch the grand agitator of society was first, society itself,
+and then Luther, that great pamphleteer, "whose books are quite full of
+demons," who drove humanity into the paths of a revolution, for which
+all the elements had been prepared years before. Luther had sown the
+wind, Calvin came to reap the whirlwind. Not that the latter does not
+sometimes rise even to wrath, but it is a wrath which savors of labor
+and which he pursues as a rhymester would a rebellious epithet. Besides,
+he is good enough to repent for it, as if this wrath burned the face
+over which it glowed. "I have presented some things," he murmurs, "a
+little sharply, even roughly said, which, peradventure, may offend the
+delicate ears of some. But, as I am aware there are some good persons
+who have conceived such affection for this dream of the sleep of souls,
+I would not have them offended with me." Where Calvin is concerned we
+must not allow our admiration to be too easily awaked; we must note that
+he is speaking of an Anabaptist, that is, of a soul which has thrown off
+the "papism." But let a Catholic appear--a priest unknown to fame, who,
+as editor, shall have reprinted a new edition of the work of Henry VIII,
+"_Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_"--for instance, Gabriel de Sacconay,
+precentor of Lyons, and you shall then behold Calvin, under the form of
+a dithyrambic or congratulatory epistle, without the least regard for
+delicate ears, throw into the face of the Catholic the most filthy
+expressions of offence.
+
+Calvin has himself given a correct estimate of the value of his
+_Psychopannychia_, and of his treatise against the Anabaptists, which
+one of his historians desires to have reprinted in our time, purged of
+all its bitterness of style. He was right in saying, "I have reproved
+the foolish curiosity of those who were debating these questions, which,
+in fact, are but vexations of mind."
+
+One day this question, about the sleep of souls--one that in the ancient
+Church had long since been examined, by Metito--was presented to Luther,
+who disposed of it in few words. "These," said he, "are picked
+nutshells."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[43] Michael Servetus was a controversialist in matters of philosophy
+and religion. For many years he was the object of attack by the
+different orthodox schools on account of his heretical speeches and
+writings. In 1553 he published a work which led to his arrest by order
+of the inquisitor-general at Lyons. Servetus escaped, but was again
+taken, at the instance of Calvin, and was burned at Geneva, October 27,
+1553.--ED.
+
+
+
+
+ENGLAND BREAKS WITH THE ROMAN CHURCH
+
+DESTRUCTION OF THE MONASTERIES
+
+A.D. 1534
+
+JOHN RICHARD GREEN
+
+     Following the fall of Wolsey, Sir Thomas More became lord
+     chancellor of England, but the real power of Wolsey passed
+     to another and perhaps even more able minister, Thomas
+     Cromwell. Henry VIII needed always some strong, able, crafty
+     guide to show him a path through the intricacies of European
+     politics, and enable him at the same time to follow the
+     savage dictates of his passion and his whims.
+
+     Such a helper he found now in Cromwell. Few men have ever
+     been so daring or so ruthless as this great statesman. He
+     helped Henry in all his evil schemes, though Green and other
+     critics as well have thought to discern a larger, wiser
+     policy in the impenetrable mind of the subtle minister. As
+     secretary of state he drove England at his own pace through
+     the vast religious changes of the period. For the ruin he
+     brought upon Catholicism, and more especially for his
+     destruction of the thousand monasteries that dotted England,
+     he has been called the "hammer of the monks." Of even lower
+     birth than Wolsey, and rising to almost equal power,
+     Cromwell began life as a son of a blacksmith.
+
+     He wandered over Europe and especially Italy as a soldier,
+     merchant, and general adventurer of the lower and wilder
+     type. He became Wolsey's right-hand man, and held loyally by
+     his chief even after the latter's overthrow.
+
+     It had been Henry's passion for Anne Boleyn, and the
+     resulting necessity for divorce from his wife Catherine,
+     that caused Wolsey's fall. On the same passion did Cromwell
+     build his rise. He secretly urged the King to break with
+     Rome entirely and declare himself sole head of the English
+     Church. Thus he could divorce himself. Henry first tried a
+     last negotiation with the Pope; that failing, he turned to
+     his new adviser.
+
+
+Cromwell was again ready with his suggestion that the King should
+disavow the papal jurisdiction, declare himself head of the Church
+within its realm, and obtain a divorce from his own ecclesiastical
+courts. But the new minister looked on the divorce as simply the prelude
+to a series of changes which he was bent upon accomplishing. In all his
+checkered life, that had left its deepest stamp on him in Italy. Not
+only in the rapidity and ruthlessness of his designs, but in their
+larger scope, their admirable combination, the Italian statecraft
+entered with Cromwell into English politics. He is in fact the first
+English minister in whom we can trace through the whole period of his
+rule the steady working out of a great and definite aim, that of raising
+the King to absolute authority on the ruins of every rival power within
+his realm.
+
+It was not that Cromwell was a mere slave of tyranny. Whether we may
+trust the tale that carries him in his youth to Florence or not, his
+statesmanship was closely modelled on the ideal of the Florentine
+thinker whose book was constantly in his hand. Even as a servant of
+Wolsey he startled the future Cardinal, Reginald Pole, by bidding him
+take for his manual in politics the _Prince_ of Machiavelli. Machiavelli
+hoped to find in Caesar Borgia or in the later Lorenzo de' Medici a
+tyrant who, after crushing all rival tyrannies, might unite and
+regenerate Italy; and, terrible and ruthless as his policy was, the
+final aim of Cromwell seems to have been that of Machiavelli, an aim of
+securing enlightenment and order for England by the concentration of all
+authority in the Crown.
+
+The first step toward such an end was the freeing the monarchy from its
+spiritual obedience to Rome. What the first of the Tudors had done for
+the political independence of the kingdom, the second was to do for its
+ecclesiastical independence. Henry VII had freed England from the
+interference of France or the house of Burgundy; and in the question of
+the divorce Cromwell saw the means of bringing Henry VIII to free it
+from the interference of the papacy. In such an effort resistance could
+be looked for only from the clergy. But their resistance was what
+Cromwell desired. The last check on royal absolutism which had survived
+the Wars of the Roses lay in the wealth, the independent synods and
+jurisdiction, and the religious claims of the Church; and for the
+success of the new policy it was necessary to reduce the great
+ecclesiastical body to a mere department of the state in which all
+authority should flow from the sovereign alone, his will be the only
+law, his decision the only test of truth.
+
+Such a change, however, was hardly to be wrought without a struggle;
+and the question of national independence in all ecclesiastical matters
+furnished ground on which the Crown could conduct this struggle to the
+best advantage. The secretary's first blow showed how unscrupulously the
+struggle was to be waged. A year had passed since Wolsey had been
+convicted of a breach of the Statute of Provisors. The pedantry of the
+judges declared the whole nation to have been formally involved in the
+same charge by its acceptance of his authority. The legal absurdity was
+now redressed by a general pardon, but from this pardon the clergy found
+themselves omitted. In the spring of 1531 a convocation was assembled to
+be told that forgiveness could be bought at no less a price than the
+payment of a fine amounting to a million of our present money, and the
+acknowledgment of the King as "the chief protector, the only and supreme
+lord, and head of the Church and clergy of England."
+
+Unjust as was the first demand, they at once submitted to it; against
+the second they struggled hard. But their appeals to Henry and Cromwell
+met only with demands for instant obedience. A compromise was at last
+arrived at by the insertion of a qualifying phrase, "So far as the law
+of Christ will allow"; and with this addition the words were again
+submitted by Warham to the convocation. There was a general silence.
+"Whoever is silent seems to consent," said the Archbishop. "Then are we
+all silent," replied a voice from among the crowd.
+
+There is no ground for thinking that the "headship of the Church" which
+Henry claimed in this submission was more than a warning addressed to
+the independent spirit of the clergy, or that it bore as yet the meaning
+which was afterward attached to it. It certainly implied no independence
+of Rome, for negotiations were still being carried on with the papal
+court. But it told Clement plainly that in any strife that might come
+between himself and Henry the clergy were in the King's hand, and that
+he must look for no aid from them in any struggle with the Crown. The
+warning was backed by an address to the Pope from the lords and some of
+the commons who assembled after a fresh prorogation of the houses in the
+spring.
+
+"The cause of his majesty," the peers were made to say, "is the cause of
+each of ourselves." They laid before the Pope what they represented as
+the judgment of the universities in favor of the divorce; but they
+faced boldly the event of its rejection. "Our condition," they ended,
+"will not be wholly irremediable. Extreme remedies are ever harsh of
+application; but he that is sick will by all means be rid of his
+distemper." In the summer the banishment of Catherine from the King's
+palace to a house at Ampthill showed the firmness of Henry's resolve.
+Each of these acts was no doubt intended to tell on the Pope's decision,
+for Henry still clung to the hope of extorting from Clement a favorable
+answer; and at the close of the year a fresh embassy, with Gardiner, now
+Bishop of Winchester, at its head, was despatched to the papal court.
+But the embassy failed like its predecessors, and at the opening of 1532
+Cromwell was free to take more decisive steps in the course on which he
+had entered.
+
+What the nature of his policy was to be, had already been detected by
+eyes as keen as his own. More had seen in Wolsey's fall an opening for
+the realization of those schemes of religious and even of political
+reform on which the scholars of the New Learning had long been brooding.
+The substitution of the lords of the council for the autocratic rule of
+the cardinal-minister, the break-up of the great mass of powers which
+had been gathered into a single hand, the summons of a parliament, the
+ecclesiastical reforms which it at once sanctioned, were measures which
+promised a more legal and constitutional system of government. The
+question of the divorce presented to More no serious difficulty.
+Untenable as Henry's claim seemed to the new Chancellor, his faith in
+the omnipotence of parliament would have enabled him to submit to any
+statute which named a new spouse as queen and her children as heirs to
+the crown. But as Cromwell's policy unfolded itself he saw that more
+than this was impending.
+
+The Catholic instinct of his mind, the dread of a rent Christendom and
+of the wars and bigotry that must come of its rending, united with
+More's theological convictions to resist any spiritual severance of
+England from the papacy. His love for freedom, his revolt against the
+growing autocracy of the Crown, the very height and grandeur of his own
+spiritual convictions, all bent him to withstand a system which would
+concentrate in the king the whole power of church as of state, would
+leave him without the one check that remained on his despotism, and
+make him arbiter of the religious faith of his subjects. The later
+revolt of the Puritans against the king-worship which Cromwell
+established proved the justice of the provision which forced More in the
+spring of 1532 to resign the post of chancellor.
+
+But the revolution from which he shrank was an inevitable one. Till now
+every Englishman had practically owned a double life and a double
+allegiance. As citizen of a temporal state his life was bounded by
+English shores, and his loyalty due exclusively to his English King. But
+as citizen of the state spiritual, he belonged not to England, but to
+Christendom. The law which governed him was not a national law, but a
+law that embraced every European nation, and the ordinary course of
+judicial appeals in ecclesiastical cases proved to him that the
+sovereignty in all matters of conscience or religion lay, not at
+Westminster, but at Rome.
+
+Such a distinction could scarcely fail to bring embarrassment with it as
+the sense of national life and national pride waxed stronger; and from
+the reign of the Edwards the problem of reconciling the spiritual and
+temporal relations of the realm grew daily more difficult. Parliament
+had hardly risen into life when it became the organ of the national
+jealousy, whether of any papal jurisdiction without the realm or of the
+separate life and separate jurisdiction of the clergy within it. The
+movement was long arrested by religious reaction and civil war. But the
+fresh sense of national greatness which sprang from the policy of Henry
+VIII, the fresh sense of national unity as the monarchy gathered all
+power into its single hand, would have itself revived the contest even
+without the spur of the divorce.
+
+What the question of the divorce really did was to stimulate the
+movement by bringing into clearer view the wreck of the great Christian
+commonwealth of which England had till now formed a part, and the
+impossibility of any real exercise of a spiritual sovereignty over it by
+the weakened papacy, as well as by outraging the national pride through
+the summons of the King to a foreign bar and the submission of English
+interests to the will of a foreign emperor.
+
+With such a spur as this the movement, which More dreaded, moved forward
+as quickly as Cromwell desired. The time had come when England was to
+claim for herself the fulness of power, ecclesiastical as well as
+temporal, within her bounds; and, in the concentration of all authority
+within the hands of the sovereign which was the political characteristic
+of the time, to claim this power for the nation was to claim it for the
+king. The import of that headship of the Church which Henry had assumed
+in the preceding year was brought fully out in one of the propositions
+laid before the convocation of 1532.
+
+"The King's majesty," runs this memorable clause, "hath as well the care
+of the souls of his subjects as their bodies; and may by the law of God
+by his parliament make laws touching and concerning as well the one as
+the other." The principle embodied in these words was carried out in a
+series of decisive measures. Under strong pressure the convocation was
+brought to pray that the power of independent legislation till now
+exercised by the church should come to an end, and to promise "that from
+henceforth we shall forbear to enact, promulge, or put into execution
+any such constitutions and ordinances so by us to be made in time
+coming, unless your highness by your royal assent shall license us to
+make, promulge, and execute them, and the same so made be approved by
+your highness' authority."
+
+Rome was dealt with in the same unsparing fashion. The parliament
+forbade by statute any further appeals to the papal court; and on a
+petition from the clergy in convocation the houses granted power to the
+King to suspend the payments of first-fruits, or the year's revenue
+which each bishop paid to Rome on his election to a see. All judicial,
+all financial connection with the papacy was broken by these two
+measures. The last, indeed, was as yet but a menace which Henry might
+use in his negotiations with Clement. The hope which had been
+entertained of aid from Charles was now abandoned; and the overthrow of
+Norfolk and his policy of alliance with the Empire was seen at the
+midsummer of 1532 in the conclusion of a league with France. Cromwell
+had fallen back on Wolsey's system; and the divorce was now to be looked
+for from the united pressure of the French and English kings on the
+papal court.
+
+But the pressure was as unsuccessful as before. In November Clement
+threatened the King with excommunication if he did not restore Catherine
+to her place as queen and abstain from all intercourse with Anne Boleyn
+till the case was tried. But Henry still refused to submit to the
+judgment of any court outside his realm; and the Pope, ready as he was
+with evasion and delay, dared not alienate Charles by consenting to a
+trial within it. The lavish pledges which Francis had given in an
+interview during the preceding summer may have aided to spur the King to
+a decisive step which closed the long debate. At the opening of 1533
+Henry was privately married to Anne Boleyn. The match, however, was
+carefully kept secret while the papal sanction was being gained for the
+appointment of Cranmer to the see of Canterbury, which had become vacant
+by Archbishop Warham's death in the preceding year. But Cranmer's
+consecration at the close of March was the signal for more open action,
+and Cromwell's policy was at last brought fairly into play.
+
+The new primate at once laid the question of the King's marriage before
+the two houses of convocation, and both voted that the license of Pope
+Julius had been beyond the papal powers and that the marriage which it
+authorized was void. In May the King's suit was brought before the
+Archbishop in his court at Dunstable; his judgment annulled the marriage
+with Catherine as void from the beginning, and pronounced the marriage
+with Anne Boleyn, which her pregnancy had forced Henry to reveal, a
+lawful marriage. A week later the hand of Cranmer placed upon Anne's
+brow the crown which she had coveted so long.
+
+"There was much murmuring" at measures such as these. Many thought "that
+the Bishop of Rome would curse all Englishmen, and that the Emperor and
+he would destroy all the people." Fears of the overthrow of religion
+told on the clergy; the merchants dreaded an interruption of the trade
+with Flanders, Italy, and Spain. But Charles, though still loyal to his
+aunt's cause, had no mind to incur risks for her; and Clement, though he
+annulled Cranmer's proceedings, hesitated as yet to take sterner action.
+Henry, on the other hand, conscious that the die was thrown, moved
+rapidly forward in the path that Cromwell had opened. The Pope's
+reversal of the primate's judgment was answered by an appeal to a
+general council. The decision of the cardinals to whom the case was
+referred in the spring of 1534, a decision which asserted the
+lawfulness of Catherine's marriage, was met by the enforcement of the
+long-suspended statute forbidding the payment of first-fruits to the
+Pope.
+
+Though the King was still firm in his resistance to Lutheran opinions,
+and at this moment endeavored to prevent by statute the importation of
+Lutheran books, the less scrupulous hand of his minister was seen
+already striving to find a counterpoise to the hostility of the Emperor
+in an alliance with the Lutheran princes of North Germany. Cromwell was
+now fast rising to a power which rivalled Wolsey's. His elevation to the
+post of lord privy seal placed him on a level with the great nobles of
+the council board; and Norfolk, constant in his hopes of reconciliation
+with Charles and the papacy, saw his plans set aside for the wider and
+more daring projects of "the black-smith's son." Cromwell still clung to
+the political engine whose powers he had turned to the service of the
+Crown. The parliament which had been summoned at Wolsey's fall met
+steadily year after year; and measure after measure had shown its
+accordance with the royal will in the strife with Rome.
+
+It was now called to deal a final blow. Step by step the ground had been
+cleared for the great statute by which the new character of the English
+Church was defined in the session of 1534. By the Act of Supremacy
+authority in all matters ecclesiastical was vested solely in the Crown.
+The courts spiritual became as thoroughly the king's courts as the
+temporal courts at Westminster. The statute ordered that the King "shall
+be taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the
+Church of England, and shall have and enjoy, annexed and united to the
+imperial crown of this realm, as well the title and state thereof as all
+the honors, jurisdictions, authorities, immunities, profits, and
+commodities to the said dignity belonging, with full power to visit,
+repress, redress, reform, and amend all such errors, heresies, abuses,
+contempts, and enormities which by any manner of spiritual authority or
+jurisdiction might or may lawfully be reformed."
+
+The full import of the Act of Supremacy was only seen in the following
+year. At the opening of 1535 Henry formally took the title of "on earth
+Supreme Head of the Church of England," and some months later Cromwell
+was raised to the post of vicar-general, or vicegerent of the King in
+all matters ecclesiastical. His title, like his office, recalled the
+system of Wolsey. It was not only as legate, but in later years as
+vicar-general, of the Pope, that Wolsey had brought all spiritual causes
+in England to an English court. The supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction
+in the realm passed into the hands of a minister who as chancellor
+already exercised its supreme civil jurisdiction. The papal power had
+therefore long seemed transferred to the crown before the legislative
+measures which followed the divorce actually transferred it.
+
+It was in fact the system of Catholicism itself that trained men to look
+without surprise on the concentration of all spiritual and secular
+authority in Cromwell. Successor to Wolsey as keeper of the great seal,
+it seemed natural enough that Cromwell should succeed him also as
+vicar-general of the Church, and that the union of the two powers should
+be restored in the hands of a minister of the King. But the mere fact
+that these powers were united in the hands, not of a priest, but of a
+layman, showed the new drift of the royal policy. The Church was no
+longer to be brought indirectly under the royal power; in the policy of
+Cromwell it was to be openly laid prostrate at the foot of the throne.
+
+And this policy his position enabled him to carry out with a terrible
+thoroughness. One great step toward its realization had already been
+taken in the statute which annihilated the free legislative powers of
+the convocations of the clergy. Another followed in an act which, under
+the pretext of restoring the free election of bishops, turned every
+prelate into a nominee of the King. The election of bishops by the
+chapters of their cathedral churches had long become formal, and their
+appointment had since the time of the Edwards been practically made by
+the papacy on the nomination of the crown. The privilege of free
+election was now with bitter irony restored to the chapters, but they
+were compelled on pain of praemunire to choose whatever candidate was
+recommended by the king. This strange expedient has lasted till the
+present time, though its character has wholly changed with the
+development of constitutional rule.
+
+The nomination of bishops has ever since the accession of the Georges
+passed from the king in person to the minister, who represents the will
+of the people. Practically, therefore, an English prelate, alone among
+all the prelates of the world, is now raised to his episcopal throne by
+the same popular election which raised Ambrose to his episcopal chair at
+Milan. But at the moment of the change Cromwell's measure reduced the
+English bishops to absolute dependence on the crown. Their dependence
+would have been complete had his policy been thoroughly carried out, and
+the royal power of deposition put in force, as well as that of
+appointment. As it was, Henry could warn the Archbishop of Dublin that,
+if he persevered in his "proud folly, we be able to remove you again and
+to put another man of more virtue and honesty in your place." By the
+more ardent partisans of the Reformation this dependence of the bishops
+on the crown was fully recognized. On the death of Henry VIII Cranmer
+took out a new commission from Edward for the exercise of his office.
+Latimer, when the royal policy clashed with his belief, felt bound to
+resign the see of Worcester. If the power of deposition was quietly
+abandoned by Elizabeth, the abandonment was due, not so much to any
+deference for the religious instincts of the nation as to the fact that
+the steady servility of the bishops rendered its exercise unnecessary.
+
+A second step in Cromwell's policy followed hard on this enslavement of
+the episcopate. Master of convocation, absolute master of the bishops,
+Henry had become master of the monastic orders through the right of
+visitation over them, which had been transferred by the Act of Supremacy
+from the papacy to the crown. The monks were soon to know what this
+right of visitation implied in the hands of the vicar-general. As an
+outlet for religious enthusiasm, monasticism was practically dead. The
+friar, now that his fervor of devotion and his intellectual energy had
+passed away, had sunk into a mere beggar. The monks had become mere
+landowners. Most of the religious houses were anxious only to enlarge
+their revenues and to diminish the number of those who shared them.
+
+In the general carelessness which prevailed as to the spiritual objects
+of their trust, in the wasteful management of their estates, in the
+indolence and self-indulgence which for the most part characterized
+them, the monastic establishments simply exhibited the faults of all
+corporate bodies that have outlived the work which they were created to
+perform. They were no more unpopular, however, than such corporate
+bodies generally are. The Lollard cry for their suppression had died
+away. In the north, where some of the greatest abbeys were situated, the
+monks were on good terms with the country gentry, and their houses
+served as schools for their children; nor is there any sign of a
+different feeling elsewhere.
+
+But they had drawn on themselves at once the hatred of the New Learning
+and of the monarchy. In the early days of the revival of letters, popes
+and bishops had joined with princes and scholars in welcoming the
+diffusion of culture and the hopes of religious reform. But, though an
+abbot or a prior here or there might be found among the supporters of
+the movement, the monastic orders as a whole repelled it with unswerving
+obstinacy. The quarrel only became more bitter as years went on. The
+keen sarcasms of Erasmus, the insolent buffoonery of Hutten, were
+lavished on the "lovers of darkness" and of the cloister.
+
+In England Colet and More echoed with greater reserve the scorn and
+invective of their friends. The monarchy had other causes for its hate.
+In Cromwell's system there was no room for either the virtues or the
+vices of monasticism, for its indolence and superstition, or for its
+independence of the throne. The bold stand which the monastic orders had
+made against benevolences had never been forgiven, while the revenues of
+their foundations offered spoil vast enough to fill the royal treasury
+and secure a host of friends for the new reforms. Two royal
+commissioners, therefore, were despatched on a general visitation of the
+religious houses, and their reports formed a "Black Book" which was laid
+before parliament in 1536.
+
+It was acknowledged that about a third of the houses, including the bulk
+of the larger abbeys, were fairly and decently conducted. The rest were
+charged with drunkenness, with simony, and with the foulest and most
+revolting crimes. The character of the visitors, the sweeping nature of
+their report, and the long debate which followed on its reception leave
+little doubt that these charges were grossly exaggerated. But the want
+of any effective discipline which had resulted from their exemption from
+all but papal supervision told fatally against monastic morality even in
+abbeys like St. Albans; and the acknowledgment of Warham, as well as a
+partial measure of suppression begun by Wolsey, goes some way to prove
+that, in the smaller houses at least, indolence had passed into crime.
+
+A cry of "down with them" broke from the commons as the report was read.
+The country, however, was still far from desiring the utter downfall of
+the monastic system, and a long and bitter debate was followed by a
+compromise which suppressed all houses whose income fell below two
+hundred pounds a year. Of the thousand religious houses which then
+existed in England, nearly four hundred were dissolved under this act
+and their revenues granted to the crown.
+
+The secular clergy alone remained; and injunction after injunction from
+the vicar-general taught rector and vicar that they must learn to regard
+themselves as mere mouth-pieces of the royal will. The Church was
+gagged. With the instinct of genius, Cromwell discerned the part which
+the pulpit, as the one means which then existed of speaking to the
+people at large, was to play in the religious and political struggle
+that was at hand; and he resolved to turn it to the profit of the
+monarchy.
+
+The restriction of the right of preaching to priests who received
+licenses from the Crown silenced every voice of opposition. Even to
+those who received these licenses theological controversy was forbidden;
+and a high-handed process of "tuning the pulpits," by express directions
+as to the subject and tenor of each special discourse, made the
+preachers at every crisis mere means of diffusing the royal will. As a
+first step in this process every bishop, abbot, and parish priest was
+required by the new vicar-general to preach against the usurpation of
+the papacy, and to proclaim the King as supreme head of the Church on
+earth. The very topics of the sermon were carefully prescribed; the
+bishops were held responsible for the compliance of the clergy with
+these orders; and the sheriffs were held responsible for the obedience
+of the bishops.
+
+While the great revolution which struck down the Church was in progress,
+England looked silently on. In all the earlier ecclesiastical changes,
+in the contest over the papal jurisdiction and papal exactions, in the
+reform of the church courts, even in the curtailment of the legislative
+independence of the clergy, the nation as a whole had gone with the
+King. But from the enslavement of the priesthood, from the gagging of
+the pulpits, from the suppression of the monasteries, the bulk of the
+nation stood aloof. There were few voices, indeed, of protest. As the
+royal policy disclosed itself, as the monarchy trampled under foot the
+tradition and reverence of ages gone by, as its figure rose bare and
+terrible out of the wreck of old institutions, England simply held her
+breath.
+
+It is only through the stray depositions of royal spies that we catch a
+glimpse of the wrath and hate which lay seething under this silence of
+the people. For the silence was a silence of terror. Before Cromwell's
+rise, and after his fall from power, the reign of Henry VIII witnessed
+no more than the common tyranny and bloodshed of the time. But the years
+of Cromwell's administration form the one period in our history which
+deserves the name that men have given to the rule of Robespierre. It was
+the English "Terror." It was by terror that Cromwell mastered the King.
+Cranmer could plead for him at a later time with Henry as "one whose
+surety was only by your majesty, who loved your majesty, as I ever
+thought, no less than God." But the attitude of Cromwell toward the King
+was something more than that of absolute dependence and unquestioning
+devotion.
+
+He was "so vigilant to preserve your majesty from all treasons," adds
+the primate, "that few could be so secretly conceived but he detected
+the same from the beginning." Henry, like every Tudor, was fearless of
+open danger, but tremulously sensitive to the lightest breath of hidden
+disloyalty; and it was on this dread that Cromwell based the fabric of
+his power. He was hardly secretary before spies were scattered broadcast
+over the land. Secret denunciations poured into the open ear of the
+minister. The air was thick with tales of plots and conspiracies; and
+with the detection and suppression of each, Cromwell tightened his hold
+on the King.
+
+As it was by terror that he mastered the King, so it was by terror that
+he mastered the people. Men felt in England, to use the figure by which
+Erasmus paints the time, "as if a scorpion lay sleeping under every
+stone." The confessional had no secrets for Cromwell. Men's talk with
+their closest friends found its way to his ear. "Words idly spoken," the
+murmurs of a petulant abbot, the ravings of a moon-struck nun, were, as
+the nobles cried passionately at his fall, "tortured into treason." The
+only chance of safety lay in silence.
+
+"Friends who used to write and send me presents," Erasmus tells us, "now
+send neither letter nor gifts, nor receive any from anyone, and this
+through fear." But even the refuge of silence was closed by a law more
+infamous than any that has ever blotted the statute-book of England. Not
+only was thought made treason, but men were forced to reveal their
+thoughts on pain of their very silence being punished with the penalties
+of treason. All trust in the older bulwarks of liberty was destroyed by
+a policy as daring as it was unscrupulous. The noblest institutions were
+degraded into instruments of terror. Though Wolsey had strained the law
+to the utmost, he had made no open attack on the freedom of justice. If
+he shrank from assembling parliaments, it was from his sense that they
+were the bulwarks of liberty.
+
+But under Cromwell the coercion of juries and the management of judges
+rendered the courts mere mouth-pieces of the royal will; and where even
+this shadow of justice proved an obstacle to bloodshed, parliament was
+brought into play to pass bill after bill of attainder. "He shall be
+judged by the bloody laws he has himself made," was the cry of the
+council at the moment of his fall, and by a singular retribution the
+crowning injustice which he sought to introduce even into the practice
+of attainder, the condemnation of a man without hearing his defence, was
+only practised on himself.
+
+But, ruthless as was the "Terror" of Cromwell, it was of a nobler type
+than the Terror of France. He never struck uselessly or capriciously, or
+stooped to the meaner victims of the guillotine. His blows were
+effective just because he chose his victims from among the noblest and
+the best. If he struck at the Church, it was through the Carthusians,
+the holiest and the most renowned of English churchmen. If he struck at
+the baronage, it was through Lady Salisbury, in whose veins flowed the
+blood of kings. If he struck at the New Learning, it was through the
+murder of Sir Thomas More. But no personal vindictiveness mingled with
+his crime.
+
+In temper, indeed, so far as we can judge from the few stories which
+lingered among his friends, he was a generous, kindly hearted man, with
+pleasant and winning manners which atoned for a certain awkwardness of
+person, and with a constancy of friendship which won him a host of
+devoted adherents. But no touch either of love or hate swayed him from
+his course. The student of Machiavelli had not studied the _Prince_ in
+vain. He had reduced bloodshed to a system. Fragments of his papers
+still show us with what a business-like brevity he ticked off human
+lives among the casual "remembrances" of the day.
+
+"Item, the Abbot of Reading to be sent down to be tried and executed at
+Reading." "Item, to know the King's pleasure touching Master More."
+"Item, when Master Fisher shall go to his execution, and the other." It
+is indeed this utter absence of all passion, of all personal feeling,
+that makes the figure of Cromwell the most terrible in our history. He
+has an absolute faith in the end he is pursuing, and he simply hews his
+way to it as a woodman hews his way through the forest, axe in hand.
+
+The choice of his first victim showed the ruthless precision with which
+Cromwell was to strike. In the general opinion of Europe, the foremost
+Englishman of the time was Sir Thomas More. As the policy of the divorce
+ended in an open rupture with Rome, he had withdrawn silently from the
+ministry, but his silent disapproval of the new policy was more telling
+than the opposition of obscurer foes. To Cromwell there must have been
+something specially galling in More's attitude of reserve. The religious
+reforms of the New Learning were being rapidly carried out, but it was
+plain that the man who represented the very life of the New Learning
+believed that the sacrifice of liberty and justice was too dear a price
+to pay even for religious reform.
+
+In the actual changes which the divorce brought about, there was nothing
+to move More to active or open opposition. Though he looked on the
+divorce and remarriage as without religious warrant, he found no
+difficulty in accepting an act of succession passed in 1534 which
+declared the marriage of Anne Boleyn valid, annulled the title of
+Catherine's child, Mary, and declared the children of Anne the only
+lawful heirs to the crown. His faith in the power of parliament over all
+civil matters was too complete to admit a doubt of its competence to
+regulate the succession to the throne. But by the same act an oath
+recognizing the succession as then arranged was ordered to be taken by
+all persons; and this oath contained an acknowledgment that the
+marriage with Catherine was against Scripture, and invalid from the
+beginning.
+
+Henry had long known More's belief on this point; and the summons to
+take this oath was simply a summons to death. More was at his house at
+Chelsea when the summons called him to Lambeth, to the house where he
+had bandied fun with Warham and Erasmus or bent over the easel of
+Holbein. For a moment there may have been some passing impulse to yield.
+But it was soon over. Triumphant in all else, the monarchy was to find
+its power stop short at the conscience of man. The great battle of
+spiritual freedom, the battle of the Protestant against Mary, of the
+Catholic against Elizabeth, of the Puritan against Charles, of the
+Independent against the Presbyterian, began at the moment when More
+refused to bend or to deny his convictions at a king's bidding.
+
+"I thank the Lord," More said with a sudden start as the boat dropped
+silently down the river from his garden steps in the early morning, "I
+thank the Lord that the field is won." At Lambeth, Cranmer and his
+fellow-commissioners tendered to him the new oath of allegiance; but, as
+they expected, it was refused. They bade him walk in the garden, that he
+might reconsider his reply. The day was hot, and More seated himself in
+a window from which he could look down into the crowded court. Even in
+the presence of death, the quick sympathy of his nature could enjoy the
+humor and life of the throng below.
+
+"I saw," he said afterward, "Master Latimer very merry in the court, for
+he laughed and took one or twain by the neck so handsomely that if they
+had been women I should have weened that he waxed wanton." The crowd
+below was chiefly of priests, rectors, and vicars, pressing to take the
+oath that More found harder than death. He bore them no grudge for it.
+When he heard the voice of one who was known to have boggled hard at the
+oath, a little while before, calling loudly and ostentatiously for
+drink, he only noted him with his peculiar humor. "He drank," More
+supposed, "either from dryness or from gladness," or "to show _quod ille
+notus erat Pontifici_."
+
+He was called in again at last, but only repeated his refusal. It was in
+vain that Cranmer plied him with distinctions which perplexed even the
+subtle wit of the ex-chancellor; More remained unshaken and passed to
+the Tower. He was followed there by Bishop Fisher of Rochester, the most
+aged and venerable of the English prelates, who was charged with
+countenancing treason by listening to the prophecies of a religious
+fanatic called the "Nun of Kent." But for the moment even Cromwell
+shrank from their blood. They remained prisoners, while a new and more
+terrible engine was devised to crush out the silent but widespread
+opposition to the religious changes.
+
+By a statute passed at the close of 1534 a new treason was created in
+the denial of the King's titles; and in the opening of 1535 Henry
+assumed, as we have seen, the title of "on earth supreme head of the
+Church of England." The measure was at once followed up by a blow at
+victims hardly less venerable than More. In the general relaxation of
+the religious life, the charity and devotion of the brethren of the
+Charter-house had won the reverence even of those who condemned
+monasticism. After a stubborn resistance they had acknowledged the royal
+supremacy and taken the oath of submission prescribed by the act. But,
+by an infamous construction of the statute which made the denial of the
+supremacy treason, the refusal of satisfactory answers to official
+questions, as to a conscientious belief in it, was held to be equivalent
+to open denial.
+
+The aim of the new measure was well known, and the brethren prepared to
+die. In the agony of waiting, enthusiasm brought its imaginative
+consolations; "when the host was lifted up, there came as it were a
+whisper of air which breathed upon our faces as we knelt; and there came
+a sweet, soft sound of music." They had not long, however, to wait, for
+their refusal to answer was the signal for their doom. Three of the
+brethren went to the gallows; the rest were flung into Newgate, chained
+to posts in a noisome dungeon, where, "tied and not able to stir," they
+were left to perish of jail fever and starvation. In a fortnight five
+were dead and the rest at the point of death, "almost despatched,"
+Cromwell's envoy wrote to him, "by the hand of God, of which,
+considering their behavior, I am not sorry."
+
+Their death was soon followed by that of More. The interval of
+imprisonment had failed to break his resolution, and the new statute
+sufficed to bring him to the block. With Fisher he was convicted of
+denying the King's title as only supreme head of the Church. The old
+bishop approached the scaffold with a book of the New Testament in his
+hand. He opened it at a venture ere he knelt, and read, "This is life
+eternal to know thee, the only true God." In July More followed his
+fellow-prisoners to the block. On the eve of the fatal blow he moved his
+beard carefully from the reach of the doomsman's axe. "Pity that should
+be cut," he was heard to mutter with a touch of the old sad irony, "that
+has never committed treason."
+
+Cromwell had at last reached his aim. England lay panic-stricken at the
+feet of the "low-born knave," as the nobles called him, who represented
+the omnipotence of the crown. Like Wolsey he concentrated in his hands
+the whole administration of the state; he was at once foreign minister
+and home minister, and vicar-general of the Church, the creator of a new
+fleet, the organizer of armies, the president of the terrible star
+chamber. His Italian indifference to the mere show of power stood out in
+strong contrast with the pomp of the Cardinal. Cromwell's personal
+habits were simple and unostentatious; if he clutched at money, it was
+to feed the army of spies whom he maintained at his own expense, and
+whose work he surveyed with a ceaseless vigilance. For his activity was
+boundless.
+
+More than fifty volumes remain of the gigantic mass of his
+correspondence. Thousands of letters from "poor bedesmen," from outraged
+wives and wronged laborers and persecuted heretics, flowed in to the
+all-powerful minister, whose system of personal government turned him
+into the universal court of appeal. But powerful as he was, and mighty
+as was the work which he had accomplished, he knew that harder blows had
+to be struck before his position was secure.
+
+The new changes, above all the irritation which had been caused by the
+outrages with which the dissolution of the monasteries was accompanied,
+gave point to the mutinous temper that prevailed throughout the country;
+for the revolution in agriculture was still going on, and evictions
+furnished embittered outcasts to swell the ranks of any rising. Nor did
+it seem as though revolt, if it once broke out, would want leaders to
+head it. The nobles, who had writhed under the rule of the Cardinal,
+writhed yet more bitterly under the rule of one whom they looked upon
+not only as Wolsey's tool, but as a low-born upstart. "The world will
+never mend," Lord Hussey had been heard to say, "till we fight for it."
+
+"Knaves rule about the King!" cried Lord Exeter; "I trust some day to
+give them a buffet!" At this moment, too, the hopes of political
+reaction were stirred by the fate of one whom the friends of the old
+order looked upon as the source of all their troubles. In the spring of
+1536, while the dissolution of the monasteries was marking the triumph
+of the new policy, Anne Boleyn was suddenly charged with adultery and
+sent to the Tower. A few days later she was tried, condemned, and
+brought to the block. The Queen's ruin was everywhere taken as an omen
+of ruin to the cause which had become identified with her own, and the
+old nobility mustered courage to face the minister who held them at his
+feet.
+
+They found their opportunity in the discontent of the North, where the
+monasteries had been popular, and where the rougher mood of the people
+turned easily to resistance. In the autumn of 1536 a rising broke out in
+Lincolnshire, and this was hardly quelled when all Yorkshire rose in
+arms. From every parish the farmers marched with the parish priest at
+their head upon York, and the surrender of this city determined the
+waverers. In a few days Skipton castle, where the Earl of Cumberland
+held out with a handful of men, was the only spot north of the Humber
+which remained true to the King. Durham rose at the call of the chiefs
+of the house of Neville, Lords Westmoreland and Latimer. Though the Earl
+of Northumberland feigned sickness, the Percies joined the revolt. Lord
+Dacre, the chief of the Yorkshire nobles, surrendered Pomfret, and was
+acknowledged as their chief by the insurgents.
+
+The whole nobility of the North were now enlisted in the "Pilgrimage of
+Grace," as the rising called itself, and thirty thousand "tall men and
+well horsed" moved on the Don demanding the reversal of the royal
+policy, a reunion with Rome, the restoration of Catherine's daughter,
+Mary, to her rights as heiress of the crown, redress for the wrongs done
+to the Church, and above all the driving away of base-born councillors,
+or, in other words, the fall of Cromwell. Though their advance was
+checked by negotiation, the organization of the revolt went steadily on
+throughout the winter, and a parliament of the North, which gathered at
+Pomfret, formally adopted the demands of the insurgents. Only six
+thousand men under Norfolk barred their way southward, and the Midland
+counties were known to be disaffected.
+
+But Cromwell remained undaunted by the peril. He suffered, indeed,
+Norfolk to negotiate; and allowed Henry under pressure from his council
+to promise pardon and a free parliament at York, a pledge which Norfolk
+and Dacre alike construed into an acceptance of the demands made by the
+insurgents. Their leaders at once flung aside the badge of the "Five
+Wounds" which they had worn, with a cry, "We will wear no badge but that
+of our lord the King," and nobles and farmers dispersed to their homes
+in triumph. But the towns of the North were no sooner garrisoned and
+Norfolk's army in the heart of Yorkshire than the veil was flung aside.
+A few isolated outbreaks in the spring of 1537 gave a pretext for the
+withdrawal of every concession.
+
+The arrest of the leaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace was followed by
+ruthless severities. The country was covered with gibbets. Whole
+districts were given up to military execution. But it was on the leaders
+of the rising that Cromwell's hand fell heaviest. He seized his
+opportunity for dealing at the northern nobles a fatal blow. "Cromwell,"
+one of the chief among them broke fiercely out as he stood at the
+council board, "it is thou that art the very special and chief cause of
+all this rebellion and wickedness, and dost daily travail to bring us to
+our ends and strike off our heads. I trust that ere thou die, though
+thou wouldst procure all the noblest heads within the realm to be
+stricken off, yet there shall one head remain that shall strike off thy
+head."
+
+But the warning was unheeded. Lord Darcy, who stood first among the
+nobles of Yorkshire, and Lord Hussey, who stood first among the nobles
+of Lincolnshire, went alike to the block. The Abbot of Barlings, who had
+ridden into Lincoln with his canons in full armor, swung with his
+brother-abbots of Whalley, Woburn, and Sawley from the gallows. The
+abbots of Fountains and of Jervaulx were hanged at Tyburn side by side
+with the representative of the great line of Percy. Lady Bulmer was
+burned at the stake. Sir Robert Constable was hanged in chains before
+the gate of Hull.
+
+The defeat of the northern revolt showed the immense force which the
+monarchy had gained. Even among the rebels themselves not a voice had
+threatened Henry's throne. It was not at the King that they aimed these
+blows, but at the "low-born knaves" who stood about the King. At this
+moment, too, Henry's position was strengthened by the birth of an heir.
+On the death of Anne Boleyn he had married Jane Seymour, the daughter of
+a Wiltshire knight; and in 1537 this Queen died in giving birth to a
+boy, the future Edward VI. The triumph of the Crown at home was doubled
+by its triumph in the great dependency which had so long held the
+English authority at bay across St. George's Channel.
+
+With England and Ireland alike at his feet, Cromwell could venture on a
+last and crowning change. He could claim for the monarchy the right of
+dictating at its pleasure the form of faith and doctrine to be taught
+throughout the land. Henry had remained true to the standpoint of the
+New Learning; and the sympathies of Cromwell were mainly with those of
+his master. They had no wish for any violent break with the
+ecclesiastical forms of the past. They desired religious reform rather
+than religious revolution, a simplification of doctrine rather than any
+radical change in it, the purification of worship rather than the
+introduction of any wholly new ritual. Their theology remained, as they
+believed, a Catholic theology, but a theology cleared of the
+superstitious growths which obscured the true Catholicism of the early
+Church.
+
+In a word, their dream was the dream of Erasmus and Colet. The spirit of
+Erasmus was seen in the articles of religion which were laid before
+convocation in 1536; in the acknowledgment of justification by faith, a
+doctrine for which the founders of the New Learning, such as Contarini
+and Pole, were struggling at Rome itself; in the condemnation of
+purgatory, of pardons, and of masses for the dead, as it was seen in the
+admission of prayers for the dead and in the retention of the ceremonies
+of the Church without material change.
+
+A series of royal injunctions which followed carried out the same policy
+of reform. Pilgrimages were suppressed; the excessive number of holy
+days was curtailed; the worship of images and relics was discouraged in
+words which seemed almost copied from the protest of Erasmus. His appeal
+for a translation of the Bible which weavers might repeat at their
+shuttle and ploughmen sing at their plough received at last a reply. At
+the outset of the ministry of Norfolk and More, the King had promised an
+English version of the Scriptures, while prohibiting the circulation of
+Tyndale's Lutheran translation. The work, however, lagged in the hands
+of the bishops; and as a preliminary measure the Creed, the Lord's
+Prayer, and the Ten Commandments were now rendered into English, and
+ordered to be taught by every schoolmaster and father of a family to his
+children and pupils. But the bishops' version still hung on hand; till,
+in despair of its appearance, a friend of Archbishop Cranmer, Miles
+Coverdale, was employed to correct and revise the translation of
+Tyndale; and the Bible which he edited was published in 1538 under the
+avowed patronage of Henry himself.
+
+But the force of events was already carrying England far from the
+standpoint of Erasmus or More. The dream of the New Learning was to be
+wrought out through the progress of education and piety. In the policy
+of Cromwell, reform was to be brought about by the brute force of the
+monarchy. The story of the royal supremacy was graven even on the
+title-page of the new Bible. It is Henry on his throne who gives the
+sacred volume to Cranmer, ere Cranmer and Cromwell can distribute it to
+the throng of priests and laymen below. Hitherto men had looked on
+religious truth as a gift from the Church. They were now to look on it
+as a gift from the King. The very gratitude of Englishmen for fresh
+spiritual enlightenment was to tell to the profit of the royal power. No
+conception could be further from that of the New Learning, from the plea
+for intellectual freedom which runs through the life of Erasmus, or the
+craving for political liberty which gives nobleness to the speculations
+of More. Nor was it possible for Henry himself to avoid drifting from
+the standpoint he had chosen. He had written against Luther; he had
+persisted in opposing Lutheran doctrine; he had passed new laws to
+hinder the circulation of Lutheran books in his realm. But influences
+from without as from within drove him nearer to Lutheranism. If the
+encouragement of Francis had done somewhat to bring about his final
+breach with the papacy, he soon found little will in the French King to
+follow him in any course of separation from Rome; and the French
+alliance threatened to become useless as a shelter against the wrath of
+the Emperor.
+
+Charles was goaded into action by the bill annulling Mary's right of
+succession; and in 1535 he proposed to unite his house with that of
+Francis by close intermarriage, and to sanction Mary's marriage with a
+son of the French King if Francis would join in an attack on England.
+Whether such a proposal was serious or no, Henry had to dread attack
+from Charles himself and to look for new allies against it. He was
+driven to offer his alliance to the Lutheran princes of North Germany,
+who dreaded like himself the power of the Emperor, and who were now
+gathering in the League of Smalkald.
+
+But the German princes made agreement as to doctrine a condition of
+their alliance; and their pressure was backed by Henry's partisans among
+the clergy at home. In Cromwell's scheme for mastering the priesthood it
+had been needful to place men on whom the King could rely at their head.
+Cranmer became primate, Latimer became Bishop of Worcester, Shaxton and
+Barlow were raised to the sees of Salisbury and St. David's, Hilsey to
+that of Rochester, Goodrich to that of Ely, Fox to that of Hereford. But
+it was hard to find men among the clergy who paused at Henry's
+theological resting-place; and of these prelates all except Latimer were
+known to sympathize with Lutheranism, though Cranmer lagged far behind
+his fellows in their zeal for reform.
+
+The influence of these men, as well as of an attempt to comply at least
+partly with the demand of the German princes, left its stamp on the
+articles of 1536. For the principle of Catholicism, of a universal form
+of faith overspreading all temporal dominions, the Lutheran states had
+substituted the principle of territorial religion, of the right of each
+sovereign or people to determine the form of belief which should be held
+within their bounds. The severance from Rome had already brought Henry
+to this principle, and the Act of Supremacy was its emphatic assertion.
+
+In England, too, as in North Germany, the repudiation of the papal
+authority as a ground of faith, of the voice of the Pope as a
+declaration of truth, had driven men to find such a ground and
+declaration in the Bible; and the articles expressly based the faith of
+the Church of England on the Bible and the three creeds. With such
+fundamental principles of agreement it was possible to borrow from the
+Augsburg Confession five of the ten articles which Henry laid before the
+convocation. If penance was still retained as a sacrament, baptism and
+the Lord's Supper were alone maintained to be sacraments with it; the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, which Henry stubbornly maintained,
+differed so little from the doctrine maintained by Luther that the words
+of Lutheran formularies were borrowed to explain it; confession was
+admitted by the Lutheran churches as well as by the English. The
+veneration of saints and the doctrine of prayer to them, though still
+retained, were so modified as to present little difficulty even to a
+Lutheran.
+
+However disguised in form, the doctrinal advance made in the articles of
+1536 was an immense one; and a vehement opposition might have been
+looked for from those of the bishops like Gardiner, who, while they
+agreed with Henry's policy of establishing a national church, remained
+opposed to any change in faith. But the articles had been drawn up by
+Henry's own hand, and all whisper of opposition was hushed. Bishops,
+abbots, clergy, not only subscribed to them, but carried out with
+implicit obedience the injunctions which put their doctrine roughly into
+practice; and the failure of the Pilgrimage of Grace in the following
+autumn ended all thought of resistance among the laity.
+
+But Cromwell found a different reception for his reforms when he turned
+to extend them to the sister-island. The religious aspect of Ireland was
+hardly less chaotic than its political aspect had been. Ever since
+Strongbow's landing, there had been no one Irish church, simply because
+there had been no one Irish nation. There was not the slightest
+difference in doctrine or discipline between the Church without the pale
+and the Church within it. But within the pale the clergy were
+exclusively of English blood and speech, and without it they were
+exclusively of Irish. Irishmen were shut out by law from abbeys and
+churches within the English boundary; and the ill-will of the natives
+shut out Englishmen from churches and abbeys outside it.
+
+As to the religious state of the country, it was much on a level with
+its political condition. Feuds and misrule told fatally on
+ecclesiastical discipline. The bishops were political officers, or hard
+fighters, like the chiefs around them; their sees were neglected, their
+cathedrals abandoned to decay. Through whole dioceses the churches lay
+in ruins and without priests. The only preaching done in the country was
+done by the begging friars, and the results of the friars' preaching
+were small. "If the King do not provide a remedy," it was said in 1525,
+"there will be no more Christentie than in the middle of Turkey."
+
+Unfortunately the remedy which Henry provided was worse than the
+disease. Politically Ireland was one with England, and the great
+revolution which was severing the one country from the papacy extended
+itself naturally to the other. The results of it indeed at first seemed
+small enough. The supremacy, a question which had convulsed England,
+passed over into Ireland to meet its only obstacle in a general
+indifference. Everybody was ready to accept it without a thought of the
+consequences. The bishops and clergy within the pale bent to the King's
+will as easily as their fellows in England, and their example was
+followed by at least four prelates of dioceses without the pale.
+
+The native chieftains made no more scruple than the lords of the council
+in renouncing obedience to the Bishop of Rome, and in acknowledging
+Henry as the "supreme head of the Church of England and Ireland under
+Christ." There was none of the resistance to the dissolution of the
+abbeys which had been witnessed on the other side of the channel, and
+the greedy chieftains showed themselves perfectly willing to share the
+plunder of the Church.
+
+But the results of the measure were fatal to the little culture and
+religion which even the past centuries of disorder had spared. Such as
+they were, the religious houses were the only schools that Ireland
+contained. The system of vicars, so general in England, was rare in
+Ireland; churches in the patronage of the abbeys were for the most part
+served by the religious themselves, and the dissolution of their houses
+suspended public worship over large districts of the country. The
+friars, hitherto the only preachers, and who continued to labor and
+teach in spite of the efforts of the government, were thrown necessarily
+into a position of antagonism to the English rule.
+
+Had the ecclesiastical changes which were forced on the country ended
+here, however, in the end little harm would have been done. But in
+England the breach with Rome, the destruction of the monastic orders,
+and the establishment of the supremacy had aroused in a portion of the
+people itself a desire for theological change which Henry shared and was
+cautiously satisfying. In Ireland the spirit of the Reformation never
+existed among the people at all. They accepted the legislative measures
+passed in the English Parliament without any dream of theological
+consequences, or of any change in the doctrine or ceremonies of the
+Church. Not a single voice demanded the abolition of pilgrimages or the
+destruction of images or the reform of public worship.
+
+The mission of Archbishop Browne in 1535 "for the plucking down of idols
+and extinguishing of idolatry" was a first step in the long effort of
+the English government to force a new faith on a people who to a man
+clung passionately to their old religion. Browne's attempts at "tuning
+the pulpits" were met by a sullen and significant opposition. "Neither
+by gentle exhortation," the Archbishop wrote to Cromwell, "nor by
+evangelical instruction, neither by oath of them solemnly taken nor yet
+by threats of sharp correction, may I persuade or induce any, whether
+religious or secular, since my coming over once to preach the Word of
+God, nor the just title of our illustrious Prince."
+
+Even the acceptance of the supremacy, which had been so quietly
+effected, was brought into question when its results became clear. The
+bishops abstained from compliance with the order to erase the Pope's
+name out of their mass-books. The pulpits remained steadily silent. When
+Browne ordered the destruction of the images and relics in his own
+cathedral, he had to report that the prior and canons "find them so
+sweet for their gain that they heed not my words."
+
+Cromwell, however, was resolute for a religious uniformity between the
+two islands, and the primate borrowed some of his patron's vigor.
+Recalcitrant priests were thrown into prison, images were plucked down
+from the rood-loft, and the most venerable of Irish relics, the staff
+of St. Patrick, was burned in the market-place. But he found no support
+in his vigor save from across the channel. The Irish council looked
+coldly on; even the Lord Deputy still knelt to say prayers before an
+image at Trim. A sullen, dogged opposition baffled Cromwell's efforts,
+and their only result was to unite all Ireland against the Crown.
+
+But Cromwell found it easier to deal with Irish inaction than with the
+feverish activity which his reforms stirred in England itself. It was
+impossible to strike blow after blow at the Church without rousing wild
+hopes in the party who sympathized with the work which Luther was doing
+oversea. Few as these "Lutherans" or "Protestants" still were in
+numbers, their new hopes made them a formidable force; and in the school
+of persecution they had learned a violence which delighted in outrages
+on the faith which had so long trampled them under foot. At the very
+outset of Cromwell's changes, four Suffolk youths broke into a church at
+Dovercourt, tore down a wonder-working crucifix, and burned it in the
+fields.
+
+The suppression of the lesser monasteries was the signal for a new
+outburst of ribald insult to the old religion. The roughness, insolence,
+and extortion of the commissioners sent to effect it drove the whole
+monastic body to despair. Their servants rode along the road with copes
+for doublets or tunicles for saddle-cloths, and scattered panic among
+the larger houses which were left. Some sold their jewels and relics to
+provide for the evil day they saw approaching. Some begged of their own
+will for dissolution. It was worse when fresh ordinances of the
+vicar-general ordered the removal of objects of superstitious
+veneration. Their removal, bitter enough to those whose religion twined
+itself around the image or the relic which was taken away, was
+embittered yet more by the insults with which it was accompanied.
+
+A miraculous rood at Boxley, which bowed its head and stirred its eyes,
+was paraded from market to market and exhibited as a juggle before the
+court. Images of the Virgin were stripped of their costly vestments and
+sent to be publicly burned at London. Latimer forwarded to the capital
+the figure of Our Lady, which he had thrust out of his cathedral church
+at Worcester with rough words of scorn: "She with her old sister of
+Walsingham, her younger sister of Ipswich, and their two other sisters
+of Doncaster and Penrice, would make a jolly muster at Smithfield."
+Fresh orders were given to fling all relics from their reliquaries, and
+to level every shrine with the ground. In 1538 the bones of St. Thomas
+of Canterbury were torn from the stately shrine which had been the glory
+of his metropolitan church, and his name was erased from the
+service-books as that of a traitor.
+
+The introduction of the English Bible into churches gave a new opening
+for the zeal of the Protestants. In spite of royal injunctions that it
+should be read decently and without comment, the young zealots of the
+party prided themselves on shouting it out to a circle of excited
+hearers during the service of mass, and accompanied their reading with
+violent expositions. Protestant maidens took the new English primer to
+church with them and studied it ostentatiously during matins. Insult
+passed into open violence when the bishops' courts were invaded and
+broken up by Protestant mobs; and law and public opinion were outraged
+at once when priests who favored the new doctrines began openly to bring
+home wives to their vicarages.
+
+A fiery outburst of popular discussion compensated for the silence of
+the pulpits. The new Scriptures, in Henry's bitter words of complaint,
+were "disputed, rhymed, sung, and jangled in every tavern and alehouse."
+The articles which dictated the belief of the English Church roused a
+furious controversy. Above all, the sacrament of the mass, the centre of
+the Catholic system of faith and worship, and which still remained
+sacred to the bulk of Englishmen, was attacked with a scurrility and
+profaneness which pass belief. The doctrine of transubstantiation, which
+was as yet recognized by law, was held up in scorn in ballads and
+mystery plays. In one church a Protestant lawyer raised a dog in his
+hands when the priest elevated the host. The most sacred words of the
+old worship, the words of consecration, "_Hoc est corpus_," were
+travestied into a nickname for jugglery as "Hocus-pocus."
+
+It was by this attack on the mass, even more than by the other outrages,
+that the temper both of Henry and the nation was stirred to a deep
+resentment. With the Protestants Henry had no sympathy whatever. He was
+a man of the New Learning; he was proud of his orthodoxy and of his
+title of "Defender of the Faith." And above all he shared to the utmost
+his people's love of order, their clinging to the past, their hatred of
+extravagance and excess. The first sign of reaction was seen in the
+parliament of 1539. Never had the houses shown so little care for
+political liberty. The monarchy seemed to free itself from all
+parliamentary restrictions whatever when a formal statute gave the
+King's proclamations the force of parliamentary laws.
+
+Nor did the Church find favor with them. No word of the old opposition
+was heard when a bill was introduced granting to the King the greater
+monasteries which had been saved in 1536. More than six hundred
+religious houses fell at a blow, and so great was the spoil that the
+King promised never again to call on his people for subsidies. But the
+houses were equally at one in withstanding the new innovations of
+religion, and an act for "abolishing diversity of opinions in certain
+articles concerning Christian religion" passed with general assent. On
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, which was reasserted by the first of
+six articles to which the act owes its usual name, there was no
+difference of feeling or belief between the men of the New Learning and
+the older Catholics. But the road to a further instalment of even
+moderate reform seemed closed by the five other articles which
+sanctioned communion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monastic
+vows, private masses, and auricular confession.
+
+A more terrible feature of the reaction was the revival of persecution.
+Burning was denounced as the penalty for a denial of transubstantiation;
+on a second offence it became the penalty for an infraction of the other
+five doctrines. A refusal to confess or to attend mass was made felony.
+It was in vain that Cranmer, with the five bishops who partially
+sympathized with the Protestants, struggled against the bill in the
+lords: the commons were "all of one opinion," and Henry himself acted as
+spokesman on the side of the articles. In London alone five hundred
+Protestants were indicted under the new act. Latimer and Shaxton were
+imprisoned, and the former forced into a resignation of his see. Cranmer
+himself was only saved by Henry's personal favor. But the first burst
+of triumph was no sooner spent than the hand of Cromwell made itself
+felt. Though his opinions remained those of the New Learning and
+differed little from the general sentiment which found itself
+represented in the act, he leaned instinctively to the one party which
+did not long for his fall. His wish was to restrain the Protestant
+excesses, but he had no mind to ruin the Protestants. In a little time
+therefore the bishops were quietly released. The London indictments were
+quashed. The magistrates were checked in their enforcement of the law,
+while a general pardon cleared the prisons of the heretics who had been
+arrested under its provisions.
+
+A few months after the enactment of the Six Articles we find from a
+Protestant letter that persecution had wholly ceased, "the Word is
+powerfully preached and books of every kind may safely be exposed for
+sale." Never indeed had Cromwell shown such greatness as in his last
+struggle against fate. "Beknaved" by the King, whose confidence in him
+waned as he discerned the full meaning of the religious changes which
+Cromwell had brought about, met too by a growing opposition in the
+council as his favor declined, the temper of the man remained
+indomitable as ever. He stood absolutely alone. Wolsey, hated as he had
+been by the nobles, had been supported by the Church; but churchmen
+hated Cromwell with an even fiercer hate than the nobles themselves. His
+only friends were the Protestants, and their friendship was more fatal
+than the hatred of his foes. But he showed no signs of fear or of
+halting in the course he had entered on. So long as Henry supported him,
+however reluctant his support might be, he was more than a match for his
+foes.
+
+He was strong enough to expel his chief opponent, Bishop Gardiner of
+Winchester, from the royal council. He met the hostility of the nobles
+with a threat which marked his power. "If the lords would handle him so,
+he would give them such a breakfast as never was made in England, and
+that the proudest of them should know."
+
+He soon gave a terrible earnest of the way in which he could fulfil his
+threat. The opposition to his system gathered, above all, round two
+houses which represented what yet lingered of the Yorkist tradition, the
+Courtenays and the Poles. Courtenay, the Marquis of Exeter, was of royal
+blood, a grandson through his mother of Edward IV. He was known to have
+bitterly denounced the "knaves that ruled about the King"; and his
+threats to "give them some day a buffet" were formidable in the mouth of
+one whose influence in the western counties was supreme.
+
+Margaret, the Countess of Salisbury, a daughter of the Duke of Clarence
+by the heiress of the Earl of Warwick, and a niece of Edward IV, had
+married Sir Richard Pole, and became mother of Lord Montacute as of Sir
+Geoffry and Reginald Pole. The temper of her house might be guessed from
+the conduct of the younger of the three brothers. After refusing the
+highest favors from Henry as the price of his approval of the divorce,
+Reginald Pole had taken refuge at Rome, where he had bitterly attacked
+the King in a book, _The Unity of the Church_.
+
+"There may be found ways enough in Italy," Cromwell wrote to him in
+significant words, "to rid a treacherous subject. When Justice can take
+no place by process of law at home, sometimes she may be enforced to
+take new means abroad." But he had left hostages in Henry's hands. "Pity
+that the folly of one witless fool," Cromwell wrote ominously, "should
+be the ruin of so great a family. Let him follow ambition as fast as he
+can, those that little have offended (saving that he is of their kin),
+were it not for the great mercy and benignity of the Prince, should and
+might feel what it is to have such a traitor as their kinsman." The
+"great mercy and benignity of the Prince" was no longer to shelter them.
+
+In 1538 the Pope, Paul III, published a bull of excommunication and
+deposition against Henry, and Pole pressed the Emperor vigorously,
+though ineffectually, to carry the bull into execution. His efforts only
+brought about, as Cromwell had threatened, the ruin of his house. His
+brother, Lord Montacute, and the Marquis of Exeter, with other friends
+of the two great families, were arrested on a charge of treason and
+executed in the opening of 1539, while the Countess of Salisbury was
+attainted in parliament and sent to the Tower.
+
+Almost as terrible an act of bloodshed closed the year. The abbots of
+Glastonbury, Reading, and Colchester, men who had sat as mitred abbots
+among the lords, were charged with a denial of the King's supremacy and
+hanged as traitors. But Cromwell relied for success on more than
+terror. His single will forced on a scheme of foreign policy whose aim
+was to bind England to the cause of the Reformation while it bound Henry
+helplessly to his minister. The daring boast which his enemies laid
+afterward to Cromwell's charge, whether uttered or not, is but the
+expression of his system--"In brief time he would bring things to such a
+pass that the King with all his power should not be able to hinder him."
+
+His plans rested, like the plan which proved fatal to Wolsey, on a fresh
+marriage of his master; Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, had died in
+childbirth; and in the opening of 1540 Cromwell replaced her by a German
+consort, Anne of Cleves, a sister-in-law of the Lutheran Elector of
+Saxony. He dared even to resist Henry's caprice when the King revolted
+on their first interview from the coarse features and unwieldy form of
+his new bride. For the moment Cromwell had brought matters "to such a
+pass" that it was impossible to recoil from the marriage, and the
+minister's elevation to the earldom of Essex seemed to proclaim his
+success.
+
+The marriage of Anne of Cleves, however, was but the first step in a
+policy which, had it been carried out as he designed it, would have
+anticipated the triumphs of Richelieu. Charles and the house of Austria
+could alone bring about a Catholic reaction strong enough to arrest and
+roll back the Reformation; and Cromwell was no sooner united with the
+princes of North Germany than he sought to league them with France for
+the overthrow of the Emperor.
+
+Had he succeeded, the whole face of Europe would have been changed,
+Southern Germany would have been secured for Protestantism, and the
+Thirty Years' War averted. But he failed as men fail who stand ahead of
+their age. The German princes shrank from a contest with the Emperor,
+France from a struggle which would be fatal to Catholicism; and Henry,
+left alone to bear the resentment of the house of Austria and chained to
+a wife he loathed, turned savagely on his minister.
+
+In June the long struggle came to an end. The nobles sprang on Cromwell
+with a fierceness that told of their long-hoarded hate. Taunts and
+execrations burst from the Lords at the council table as the Duke of
+Norfolk, who had been intrusted with the minister's arrest, tore the
+ensign of the garter from his neck. At the charge of treason Cromwell
+flung his cap on the ground with a passionate cry of despair. "This,
+then," he exclaimed, "is my guerdon for the services I have done! On
+your consciences, I ask you, am I a traitor?" Then, with a sudden sense
+that all was over, he bade his foes make quick work, and not leave him
+to languish in prison.
+
+Quick work was made. A few days after his arrest he was attainted in
+parliament, and at the close of July a burst of popular applause hailed
+his death on the scaffold.
+
+
+
+
+CARTIER EXPLORES CANADA
+
+FRENCH ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION
+
+A.D. 1534
+
+H. H. MILES
+
+
+     Early in the sixteenth century, when France, after the
+     Hundred Years' War with England, had begun to be a notable
+     European power, the nation, under the young and brilliant
+     Francis I, took up the project of prosecuting New World
+     discovery and obtaining a firm footing on the mainland of
+     America. The French King's attention had been directed to
+     the enterprise by his grand admiral, Philip de Chabot, who
+     seems to have been interested in the hardy mariner and
+     skilled navigator, Jacques Cartier, and wished to place him
+     at the head of an expedition to the New World, to prosecute
+     discovery on the northeastern coast of America. This was in
+     the year A.D. 1534, ten year after Verrazano had been in the
+     region and named it New France, in honor of the French King.
+     On April 20, 1534, Cartier, with two small vessels of about
+     sixty tons each, set sail from the Britanny port of St. Malo
+     for Newfoundland, on the banks of which Cartier's Breton and
+     Norman countrymen had long been accustomed to fish. The
+     incidents of this and the subsequent voyages of the St. Malo
+     mariner, with an account of the expedition under the Viceroy
+     of Canada, the Sieur de Roberval, will be found appended in
+     Dr. Miles' interesting narrative.
+
+
+Canada was discovered in the year 1534, by Jacques Cartier (or
+Quartier), a mariner belonging to the small French seaport St. Malo. He
+was a man in whom were combined the qualities of prudence, industry,
+skill, perseverance, courage, and a deep sense of religion. Commissioned
+by the King of France, Francis I, he conducted three successive
+expeditions across the Atlantic for the purpose of prosecuting discovery
+in the western hemisphere; and it is well understood that he had
+previously gained experience in seamanship on board fishing-vessels
+trading between Europe and the Banks of Newfoundland.
+
+He was selected and recommended to the King for appointment as one who
+might be expected to realize, for the benefit of France, some of the
+discoveries of his predecessor, Verrazano, which had been attended with
+no substantial result, since this navigator and his companions had
+scarcely done more than view, from a distance, the coasts of the
+extensive regions to which the name of New France had been given. It was
+also expected of Cartier that, through his endeavors, valuable lands
+would be taken possession of in the King's name, and that places
+suitable for settlement, and stations for carrying on traffic, would be
+established. Moreover, it was hoped that the precious metals would be
+procured in those parts, and that a passage onward to China (Cathay) and
+the East Indies would be found out. And, finally, the ambitious
+sovereign of France was induced to believe that, in spite of the
+pretensions of Portugal and Spain,[44] he might make good his own claim
+to a share in transatlantic territories.
+
+With such objects in view, Jacques Cartier set sail from St. Malo, on
+Monday, April 20, 1534.[45] His command consisted of two small vessels,
+with crews amounting to about one hundred twenty men, and provisioned
+for four or five months.
+
+On May 10th the little squadron arrived off Cape Bonavista,
+Newfoundland; but, as the ice and snow of the previous winter had not
+yet disappeared, the vessels were laid up for ten days in a harbor near
+by, named St. Catherine's. From this, on the 21st, they sailed northward
+to an island northeast of Cape Bonavista, situated about forty miles
+from the mainland, which had been called by the Portuguese the "Isle of
+Birds." Here were found several species of birds which, it appears,
+frequented the island at that season of the year in prodigious numbers,
+so that, according to Cartier's own narrative, the crews had no
+difficulty in capturing enough of them, both for their immediate use and
+to fill eight or ten large barrels (_pippes_) for future consumption.
+Bears and foxes are described as passing from the mainland, in order to
+feed upon the birds as well as their eggs and young.
+
+From the Isle of Birds the ships proceeded northward and westward until
+they came to the Straits of Belle-Isle, when they were detained by foul
+weather, and by ice, in a harbor, from May 27th until June 9th. The
+ensuing fifteen days were spent in exploring the coast of Labrador as
+far as Blanc Sablon and the western coast of Newfoundland. For the most
+part these regions, including contiguous islands, were pronounced by
+Cartier to be unfit for settlement, especially Labrador, of which he
+remarks, "it might, as well as not, be taken for the country assigned by
+God to Cain." From the shore of Newfoundland the vessels were steered
+westward across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and about June 25th arrived in
+the vicinity of the Magdalen Islands. Of an island named "Isle Bryon,"
+Cartier says it contained the best land they had yet seen, and that "one
+acre of it was worth the whole of Newfoundland." Birds were plentiful,
+and on its shores were to be seen "beasts as large as oxen and
+possessing great tusks like elephants, which, when approached, leaped
+suddenly into the sea." There were very fine trees and rich tracts of
+ground, on which were seen growing quantities of "wild corn, peas in
+flower, currants, strawberries, roses, and sweet herbs." Cartier noticed
+the character of the tides and waves, which swept high and strong among
+the islands, and which suggested to his mind the existence of an opening
+between the south of Newfoundland and Cape Breton.
+
+Toward the end of June the islands and mainland of the northwest part of
+the territory now called New Brunswick came in sight, and, as land was
+approached, Cartier began at once to search for a passage through which
+he might sail farther westward.
+
+The ships' boats were several times lowered, and the crews made to row
+close inshore in the bays and inlets, for the purpose of discovering an
+opening. On these occasions natives were sometimes seen upon the beach,
+or moving about in bark canoes, with whom the French contrived to
+establish a friendly intercourse and traffic, by means of signs and
+presents of hatchets, knives, small crucifixes, beads, and toys. On one
+occasion they had in sight from forty to fifty canoes full of savages,
+of which seven paddled close up to the French boats, so as to surround
+them, and were driven away only by demonstrations of force. Cartier
+learned afterward that it was customary for these savages to come down
+from parts more inland, in great numbers, to the coast, during the
+fishing season, and that this was the cause of his finding so many of
+them at that time. On the 7th day of the month a considerable body of
+the same savages came about the ships, and some traffic occurred. Gifts,
+consisting of knives, hatchets, and toys, along with a red cap for their
+head chief, caused them to depart in great joy.
+
+Early in July, Cartier found that he was in a considerable bay, which he
+named "La Baie des Chaleurs." He continued to employ his boats in the
+examination of the smaller inlets and mouths of the rivers flowing into
+the bay, hoping that an opening might be discovered similar to that by
+which, a month before, he had passed round the north of Newfoundland
+into the gulf. After the 16th the weather was boisterous, and the ships
+were anchored for shelter close to the shore several days. During this
+time the savages came there to fish for mackerel, which were abundant,
+and held friendly intercourse with Cartier and his people. They were
+very poor and miserably clad in old skins, and sang and danced to
+testify their pleasure on receiving the presents which the French
+distributed among them.
+
+Sailing eastward and northward, the vessels next passed along the coast
+of Gaspe, upon which the French landed and held intercourse with the
+natives. Cartier resolved to take formal possession of the country, and
+to indicate, in a conspicuous manner, that he did so in the name of the
+King, his master, and in the interests of religion. With these objects
+in view, on Friday, July 24th, a huge wooden cross, thirty feet in
+height, was constructed, and was raised with much ceremony, in sight of
+many of the Indians, close to the entrance of the harbor; three
+_fleurs-de-lys_ being carved under the cross, and an inscription, "_Vive
+le Roy de France_." The French formed a circle on their knees around it,
+and made signs to attract the attention of the savages, pointing up to
+the heavens, "as if to show that by the cross came their redemption."
+These ceremonies being ended, Cartier and his people went on board,
+followed from the shore by many of the Indians. Among these the
+principal chief, with his brother and three sons, in one canoe, came
+near Cartier's ship. He made an oration, in course of which he pointed
+toward the high cross, and then to the surrounding territory, as much as
+to say that it all belonged to him, and that the French ought not to
+have planted it there without his permission. The sight of hatchets and
+knives displayed before him, in such a manner as to show a desire to
+trade with him, made him approach nearer, and, at the same time, several
+sailors, entering his canoe, easily induced him and his companions to
+pass into the ship. Cartier, by signs, endeavored to persuade the chief
+that the cross had been erected as a beacon to mark the way into the
+harbor; that he would revisit the place and bring hatchets, knives, and
+other things made of iron, and that he desired the friendship of his
+people. Food and drink were offered, of which they partook freely, when
+Cartier made known to the chief his wish to take two of his sons away
+with him for a time. The chief and his sons appear to have readily
+assented. The young men at once put on colored garments, supplied by
+Cartier, throwing out their old clothing to others near the ship. The
+chief, with his brother and remaining son, were then dismissed with
+presents. About midday, however, just as the ships were about to move
+farther from shore, six canoes, full of Indians, came to them, bringing
+presents of fish, and to enable the friends of the chief's sons to bid
+them adieu. Cartier took occasion to enjoin upon the savages the
+necessity of guarding the cross which had been erected, upon which the
+Indians replied in unintelligible language. Next day, July 25th, the
+vessels left the harbor with a fair wind, making sail northward to 50 deg.
+latitude. It was intended to prosecute the voyage farther westward, if
+possible; but adverse winds, and the appearance of the distant
+headlands, discouraged Cartier's hopes so much that on Wednesday, August
+5th, after taking counsel with his officers and pilots, he decided that
+it was not safe to attempt more that season. The little squadron,
+therefore, bore off toward the east and northeast, and made Blanc Sablon
+on the 9th. Continuing thence their passage into the Atlantic, they
+were favored with fair winds, which carried them to the middle of the
+ocean, between Newfoundland and Bretagne. They then encountered storms
+and adverse winds, respecting which Cartier piously remarks: "We
+suffered and endured these with the aid of God, and after that we had
+good weather and arrived at the harbor of St. Malo, whence we had set
+out, on September 5, 1534." Thus ended Jacques Cartier's first voyage to
+Canada. As a French-Canadian historian of Canada has observed, this
+first expedition was not "sterile in results"; for, in addition to the
+other notable incidents of the voyage, the two natives whom he carried
+with him to France are understood to have been the first to inform him
+of the existence of the great river St. Lawrence, which he was destined
+to discover the following year.
+
+It is not certainly known how nearly he advanced to the mouth of that
+river on his passage from Gaspe Bay. But it is believed that he passed
+round the western point of Anticosti, subsequently named by him Isle de
+l'Assumption, and that he then turned to the east, leaving behind the
+entrance into the great river, which he then supposed to be an extensive
+bay, and, coasting along the shore of Labrador, came to the river
+Natachquoin, near Mount Joli, whence, as already stated, he passed
+eastward and northward to Blanc Sablon.
+
+Cartier and his companions were favorably received on their return to
+France. The expectations of his employers had been to a certain extent
+realized, while the narrative of the voyage, and the prospects which
+this afforded of greater results in future, inspired such feelings of
+hope and confidence that there seems to have been no hesitation in
+furnishing means for the equipment of another expedition. The Indians
+who had been brought to France were instructed in the French language,
+and served also as specimens of the people inhabiting his majesty's
+western dominions. During the winter the necessary preparations were
+made.
+
+On the May 19, 1535, Cartier took his departure from St. Malo on his
+second expedition. It was in every way better equipped than that of the
+preceding year, and consisted of three ships, manned by one hundred ten
+sailors. A number of gentlemen volunteers from France accompanied it.
+Cartier himself embarked on board the largest vessel, which was named
+La Grande Hermine, along with his two interpreters. Adverse winds
+lengthened the voyage, so that seven weeks were occupied in sailing to
+the Straits of Belle-Isle. Thence the squadron made for the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence, so named by Cartier in honor of the day upon which he entered
+it. Emboldened by the information derived from his Indian interpreters,
+he sailed up the great river, at first named the River of Canada, or of
+Hochelaga. The mouth of the Saguenay was passed on September 1st, and
+the island of Orleans reached on the 9th. To this he gave the name "Isle
+of Bacchus," on account of the abundance of grape-vines upon it.
+
+On the 16th the ships arrived off the headland since known as Cape
+Diamond. Near to this, a small river, called by Cartier St. Croix, now
+the St. Charles, was observed flowing into the St. Lawrence,
+intercepting, at the confluence, a piece of lowland, which was the site
+of the Indian village Stadacona. Towering above this, on the left bank
+of the greater river, was Cape Diamond and the contiguous highland,
+which in after times became the site of the Upper Town of Quebec. A
+little way within the mouth of the St. Croix, Cartier selected stations
+suitable for mooring and laying up his vessels; for he seems, on his
+arrival at Stadacona, to have already decided upon wintering in the
+country. This design was favored, not only by the advanced period of the
+season, but also by the fact that the natives appeared to be friendly
+and in a position to supply his people abundantly with provisions. Many
+hundreds came off from the shore in bark canoes, bringing fish, maize,
+and fruit.
+
+Aided by the two interpreters, the French endeavored at once to
+establish a friendly intercourse. A chief, Donacona, made an oration,
+and expressed his desire for amicable relations between his own people
+and their visitors. Cartier, on his part, tried to allay apprehension,
+and to obtain information respecting the country higher up the great
+river. Wishing also to impress upon the minds of the savages a
+conviction of the French power, he caused several pieces of artillery to
+be discharged in the presence of the chief and a number of his warriors.
+Fear and astonishment were occasioned by the sight of the fire and
+smoke, followed by sounds such as they had never heard before. Presents,
+consisting of trinkets, small crosses, beads, pieces of glass, and other
+trifles, were distributed among them.
+
+Cartier allowed himself a rest of only three days at Stadacona, deeming
+it expedient to proceed at once up the river with an exploring party.
+For this purpose he manned his smallest ship, the Ermerillon, and two
+boats, and departed on the 19th of September, leaving the other ships
+safely moored at the mouth of the St. Charles. He had learned from the
+Indians that there was another town, called Hochelaga, situated about
+sixty leagues above. Cartier and his companions, the first European
+navigators of the St. Lawrence, and the earliest pioneers of
+civilization and Christianity in those regions, moved very slowly up the
+river. At the part since called Lake St. Peter the water seemed to
+become more and more shallow. The Ermerillon, was therefore left as well
+secured as possible, and the remainder of the passage made in the two
+boats. Frequent meetings, of a friendly nature, with Indians on the
+river bank, caused delays, so that they did not arrive at Hochelaga
+until October 2d.
+
+As described by Cartier himself, this town consisted of about fifty
+large huts or cabins, which, for purposes of defence, were surrounded by
+wooden palisades. There were upward of twelve hundred inhabitants,[46]
+belonging to some Algonquin tribe.
+
+At Hochelaga, as previously at Stadacona, the French were received by
+the natives in a friendly manner. Supplies of fish and maize were freely
+offered, and, in return, presents of beads, knives, small mirrors, and
+crucifixes were distributed. Entering into communication with them,
+Cartier sought information respecting the country higher up the river.
+From their imperfect intelligence it appears he learned the existence of
+several great lakes, and that beyond the largest and most remote of
+these there was another great river which flowed southward. They
+conducted him to the summit of a mountain behind the town, whence he
+surveyed the prospect of a wilderness stretching to the south and west
+as far as the eye could reach, and beautifully diversified by elevations
+of land and by water. Whatever credit Cartier attached to their vague
+statements about the geography of their country, he was certainly struck
+by the grandeur of the neighboring scenery as viewed from the eminence
+on which he stood. To this he gave the name of Mount Royal, whence the
+name of Montreal was conferred on the city which has grown up on the
+site of the ancient Indian town Hochelaga.
+
+According to some accounts, Hochelaga was, even in those days, a place
+of importance, having subject to it eight or ten outlying settlements or
+villages.
+
+Anxious to return to Stadacona, and probably placing little confidence
+in the friendly professions of the natives, Cartier remained at
+Hochelaga only two days, and commenced his passage down the river on
+October 4th. His wary mistrust of the Indian character was not
+groundless, for bands of savages followed along the banks and watched
+all the proceedings of his party. On one occasion he was attacked by
+them and narrowly escaped massacre.
+
+Arriving at Stadacona on the 11th, measures were taken for maintenance
+and security during the approaching winter. Abundant provisions had been
+already stored up by the natives and assigned for the use of the
+strangers. A fence or palisade was constructed round the ships, and made
+as strong as possible, and cannon so placed as to be available in case
+of any attack. Notwithstanding these precautions, it turned out that, in
+one essential particular, the preparations for winter were defective.
+Jacques Cartier and his companions being the first of Europeans to
+experience the rigors of a Canadian winter, the necessity for warm
+clothing had not been foreseen when the expedition left France, and
+now, when winter was upon them, the procuring of a supply was simply
+impossible. The winter proved long and severe. Masses of ice began to
+come down the St. Lawrence on November 15th, and, not long afterward, a
+bridge of ice was formed opposite to Stadacona. Soon the intensity of
+the cold--such as Cartier's people had never before experienced--and the
+want of suitable clothing occasioned much suffering. Then, in December,
+a disease, but little known to Europeans, broke out among the crew. It
+was the scurvy, named by the French _mal-de-terre_.
+
+As described by Cartier, it was very painful, loathsome in its symptoms
+and effects, as well as contagious. The legs and thighs of the patients
+swelled, the sinews contracted, and the skin became black. In some cases
+the whole body was covered with purple spots and sore tumors. After a
+time the upper parts of the body--the back, arms, shoulders, neck, and
+face--were all painfully affected. The roof of the mouth, gums, and
+teeth fell out. Altogether, the sufferers presented a deplorable
+spectacle.
+
+Many died between December and April, during which period the greatest
+care was taken to conceal their true condition from the natives. Had
+this not been done, it is to be feared that Donacona's people would have
+forced an entrance and put all to death for the purpose of obtaining the
+property of the French. In fact, the two interpreters were, on the
+whole, unfaithful, living entirely at Stadacona; while Donacona, and the
+Indians generally, showed, in many ways, that, under a friendly
+exterior, unfavorable feelings reigned in their hearts.
+
+But the attempts to hide their condition from the natives might have
+been fatal, for the Indians, who also suffered from scurvy, were
+acquainted with means of curing the disease. It was only by accident
+that Cartier found out what those means were. He had forbidden the
+savages to come on board the ships, and when any of them came near the
+only men allowed to be seen by them were those who were in health. One
+day, Domagaya was observed approaching. This man, the younger of the two
+interpreters, was known to have been sick of the scurvy at Stadacona, so
+that Cartier was much surprised to see him out and well. He contrived to
+make him relate the particulars of his recovery, and thus found out
+that a decoction of the bark and foliage of the white spruce-tree
+furnished the savages with a remedy. Having recourse to this enabled the
+French captain to arrest the progress of the disease among his own
+people, and, in a short time, to bring about their restoration to
+health.
+
+The meeting with Domagaya occurred at a time when the French were in a
+very sad state--reduced to the brink of despair. Twenty-five of the
+number had died, while forty more were in expectation of soon following
+their deceased comrades. Of the remaining forty-five, including Cartier
+and all the surviving officers, only three or four were really free from
+disease. The dead could not be buried, nor was it possible for the sick
+to be properly cared for.
+
+In this extremity, the stout-hearted French captain could think of no
+other remedy than a recourse to prayers and the setting up of an image
+of the Virgin Mary in sight of the sufferers. "But," he piously
+exclaimed, "God, in his holy grace, looked down in pity upon us, and
+sent to us a knowledge of the means of cure." He had great apprehensions
+of an attack from the savages, for he says in his narrative: "We were in
+a marvellous state of terror lest the people of the country should
+ascertain our pitiable condition and our weakness," and then goes on to
+relate artifices by which he contrived to deceive them.
+
+One of the ships had to be abandoned in course of the winter, her crew
+and contents being removed into the other two vessels. The deserted hull
+was visited by the savages in search of pieces of iron and other things.
+Had they known the cause for abandoning her, and the desperate condition
+of the French, they would have soon forced their way into the other
+ships. They were, in fact, too numerous to be resisted if they had made
+the attempt.
+
+At length the protracted winter came to an end. As soon as the ships
+were clear of ice, Cartier made preparations for returning at once to
+France.
+
+On May 3, 1536, a wooden cross, thirty-five feet high, was raised upon
+the river bank. Donacona was invited to approach, along with his people.
+When he did so, Cartier caused him, together with the two interpreters
+and seven warriors, to be seized and taken on board his ship. His object
+was to convey them to France and present them to the King. On the 6th,
+the two vessels departed. Upward of six weeks were spent in descending
+the St. Lawrence and traversing the gulf. Instead of passing through the
+Straits of Belle-Isle, Cartier this time made for the south coast of
+Newfoundland, along which he sailed out into the Atlantic Ocean. On
+Sunday, July 17, 1536, he arrived at St. Malo.
+
+By the results of this second voyage, Jacques Cartier established for
+himself a reputation and a name in history which will never cease to be
+remembered with respect. He had discovered one of the largest rivers in
+the world, had explored its banks, and navigated its difficult channel
+more than eight hundred miles, with a degree of skill and courage which
+has never been surpassed; for it was a great matter in those days to
+penetrate so far into unknown regions, to encounter the hazards of an
+unknown navigation, and to risk his own safety and that of his followers
+among an unknown people. Moreover, his accounts of the incidents of his
+sojourn of eight months, and of the features of the country, as well as
+his estimate of the two principal sites upon which, in after times, the
+two cities, Quebec and Montreal, have grown up, illustrate both his
+fidelity and his sagacity. His dealings with the natives appear to have
+been such as to prove his tact, prudence, and sense of justice,
+notwithstanding the objectionable procedure of capturing and carrying
+off Donacona with other chiefs and warriors. This latter measure,
+however indefensible in itself, was consistent with the almost universal
+practice of navigators of that period and long afterward. Doubtless
+Cartier's expectation was that their abduction could not but result in
+their own benefit by leading to their instruction in civilization and
+Christianity, and that it might be afterward instrumental in producing
+the rapid conversion of large numbers of their people. However this may
+be, considering the inherent viciousness of the Indian character,
+Cartier's intercourse with the Indians was conducted with dignity and
+benevolence, and was marked by the total absence of bloodshed--which is
+more than can be urged in behalf of other eminent discoverers and
+navigators of those days or during the ensuing two centuries. Cartier
+was undoubtedly one of the greatest sea-captains of his own or any other
+country, and one who provided carefully for the safety and welfare of
+his followers, and, so far as we know, enjoyed their respect and
+confidence; nor were his plans hindered or his proceedings embarrassed
+by disobedience on their part or the display of mutinous conduct
+calculated to mar the success of a maritime expedition. In fine, Jacques
+Cartier was a noble specimen of a mariner, in an age when a maritime
+spirit prevailed.
+
+A severe disappointment awaited Cartier on his return home from his
+second voyage. France was now engaged in a foreign war; and at the same
+time the minds of the people were distracted by religious dissensions.
+In consequence of these untoward circumstances, both the court and the
+people had ceased to give heed to the objects which he had been so
+faithfully engaged in prosecuting in the western hemisphere. Neither he
+nor his friends could obtain even a hearing in behalf of the fitting out
+of another expedition, for the attention of the King and his advisers
+was now absorbed by weightier cares at home. Nevertheless, from time to
+time, as occasion offered, several unsuccessful attempts were made to
+introduce the project of establishing a French colony on the banks of
+the St. Lawrence. Meanwhile, Donacona, and the other Indian warriors who
+had been brought captives to France, pined away and died.
+
+At length, after an interval of about four years, proposals for another
+voyage westward, and for colonizing the country, came to be so far
+entertained that plans of an expedition were permitted to be discussed.
+But now, instead of receiving the unanimous support which had been
+accorded to previous undertakings, the project was opposed by a powerful
+party at court, consisting of persons who tried to dissuade the King
+from granting his assent. These alleged that enough had already been
+done for the honor of their country; that it was not expedient to take
+in hand the subjugation and settlement of those far-distant regions,
+tenanted only by savages and wild animals; that the intensely severe
+climate and hardships such as had proved fatal to one-fourth of
+Cartier's people in 1535, were certain evils, which there was no
+prospect of advantage to outweigh; that the newly discovered country had
+not been shown to possess mines of gold and silver; and, finally, that
+such extensive territories could not be effectively settled without
+transporting thither a considerable part of the population of the
+kingdom of France.
+
+Notwithstanding the apparent force of these objections, the French King
+did eventually sanction the project of another transatlantic enterprise
+on a larger scale than heretofore.
+
+A sum of money was granted by the King toward the purchase and equipment
+of ships, to be placed under the command of Jacques Cartier, having the
+commission of captain-general.[47] Apart from the navigation of the
+fleet, the chief command in the undertaking was assigned to M. de
+Roberval, who, in a commission dated January 15, 1540, was named viceroy
+and lieutenant-general over Newfoundland, Labrador, and Canada. Roberval
+was empowered to engage volunteers and emigrants, and to supply the lack
+of these by means of prisoners to be taken from the jails and hulks.
+Thus, in about five years from the discovery of the river St. Lawrence,
+and, six years after, of Canada, measures were taken for founding a
+colony. But from the very commencement of the undertaking, which, it
+will be seen, proved an entire failure, difficulties presented
+themselves. Roberval was unable to provide all the requisite supplies of
+small arms, ammunition, and other stores, as he had engaged to do,
+during the winter of 1540. It also was found difficult to induce
+volunteers and emigrants to embark. It was, therefore, settled that
+Roberval should remain behind to complete his preparations, while
+Cartier, with five vessels, provisioned for two years, should set sail
+at once for the St. Lawrence.
+
+On May 23, 1541, Cartier departed from St. Malo on his third voyage to
+Canada. After a protracted passage of twelve weeks, the fleet arrived at
+Stadacona. Cartier and some of his people landed and entered into
+communication with the natives, who flocked round him as they had done
+in 1535. They desired to know what had become of their chief, Donacona,
+and the warriors who had been carried off to France five years before.
+On being made aware that all had died, they became distant and sullen in
+their behavior. They held out no inducements to the French to
+reestablish their quarters at Stadacona. Perceiving this, as well as
+signs of dissimulation, Cartier determined to take such steps as might
+secure himself and followers from suffering through their resentment.
+Two of his ships he sent back at once to France, with letters for the
+King and for Roberval, reporting his movements, and soliciting such
+supplies as were needed. With the remaining ships he ascended the St.
+Lawrence as far as Cap-Rouge, where a station was chosen close to the
+mouth of a stream which flowed into the great river. Here it was
+determined to moor the ships and to erect such storehouses and other
+works as might be necessary for security and convenience. It was also
+decided to raise a small fort or forts on the highland above, so as to
+command the station and protect themselves from any attack which the
+Indians might be disposed to make. While some of the people were
+employed upon the building of the fort, others were set at work
+preparing ground for cultivation. Cartier himself, in his report, bore
+ample testimony to the excellent qualities of the soil, as well as the
+general fitness of the country for settlement.[48]
+
+Having made all the dispositions necessary for the security of the
+station at Cap-Rouge, and for continuing, during his absence, the works
+already commenced, Cartier departed for Hochelaga on September 7th, with
+a party of men, in two barges. On the passage up he found the Indians
+whom he had met in 1535 as friendly as before. The natives of Hochelaga
+seemed also well disposed, and rendered all the assistance he sought in
+enabling him to attempt the passage up the rapids situated above that
+town. Failing to accomplish this, he remained but a short time among
+them, gathering all the information they could furnish about the regions
+bordering on the Upper St. Lawrence. He then hastened back to Cap-Rouge.
+On his way down he found the Indians, who a short time before were so
+friendly, changed and cold in their demeanor, if not actually hostile.
+Arrived at Cap-Rouge, the first thing he learned was that the Indians
+had ceased to visit the station as at first, and, instead of coming
+daily with supplies of fish and fruit, that they only approached near
+enough to manifest, by their demeanor and gestures, feelings decidedly
+hostile toward the French. In fact, during Cartier's absence, former
+causes of enmity had been heightened by a quarrel, in which, although
+some of his own people had, in the first instance, been the aggressors,
+a powerful savage had killed a Frenchman, and threatened to deal with
+another in like manner.
+
+Winter came, but not Roberval with the expected supplies of warlike
+stores and men, now so much needed, in order to curb the insolence of
+the natives. Of the incidents of that winter passed at Cap-Rouge, there
+is but little reliable information extant. It is understood, however,
+that the Indians continued to harass and molest the French throughout
+the period of their stay, and that Cartier, with his inadequate force,
+found it difficult to repel their attacks. When spring came round, the
+inconveniences to which they had been exposed, and the discouraging
+character of their prospects, led to a unanimous determination to
+abandon the station and return to France as soon as possible.[49]
+
+At the very time that Cartier, in Canada, was occupied in preparations
+for the reembarkation of the people who had wintered at Cap-Rouge,
+Roberval, in France, was completing his arrangements for departure from
+Rochelle with three considerable ships. In these were embarked two
+hundred persons, consisting of gentlemen, soldiers, sailors, and
+colonists, male and female, among whom was a considerable number of
+criminals taken out of the public prisons. The two squadrons met in the
+harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland, when Cartier, after making his
+report to Roberval, was desired to return with the outward-bound
+expedition to Canada. Foreseeing the failure of the undertaking, or, as
+some have alleged, unwilling to allow another to participate in the
+credit of his discoveries, Cartier disobeyed the orders of his superior
+officer. Various accounts have been given of this transaction, according
+to some of which, Cartier, to avoid detention or importunity, weighed
+anchor in the night-time and set sail for France.
+
+Roberval resumed his voyage westward, and by the close of July had
+ascended the St. Lawrence to Cap-Rouge, where he at once established his
+colonists in the quarters recently vacated by Cartier.
+
+It is unnecessary to narrate in detail the incidents which transpired in
+connection with Roberval's expedition, as this proved a signal failure,
+and produced no results of consequence to the future fortunes of the
+country. It is sufficient to state that, although Roberval himself was a
+man endowed with courage and perseverance, he found himself powerless to
+cope with the difficulties of his position, which included
+insubordination that could be repressed only by means of the gallows and
+other extreme modes of punishment; disease, which carried off a quarter
+of his followers in the course of the ensuing winter; unsuccessful
+attempts at exploration, attended with considerable loss of life; and
+finally famine, which reduced the surviving French to a state of abject
+dependence upon the natives for the salvation of their lives. Roberval
+had sent one of his vessels back to France, with urgent demands for
+succor; but the King, instead of acceding to his petition, despatched
+orders for him to return home. It is stated, on somewhat doubtful
+authority, that Cartier himself was deputed to bring home the relics of
+the expedition; and, if so, this distinguished navigator must have made
+a fourth voyage out to the regions which he had been the first to make
+known to the world. Thus ended Roberval's abortive attempt to establish
+a French colony on the banks of the St. Lawrence.
+
+Of the principal actors in the scenes which have been described, but
+little remains to be recorded. Roberval, after having distinguished
+himself in the European wars carried on by Francis I, is stated to have
+fitted out another expedition, in conjunction with his brother, in the
+year 1549, for the purpose of making a second attempt to found a colony
+in Canada; but he and all with him perished at sea. The intrepid
+Cartier, by whose services in the western hemisphere so extensive an
+addition had been made to the dominions of the King of France, was
+suffered to retire into obscurity, and is supposed to have passed the
+remainder of his days on a small estate possessed by him in the
+neighborhood of his native place, St. Malo. The date of his decease is
+unknown.[50]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[44] The courts of Spain and Portugal had protested against any fresh
+expedition from France to the west, alleging that, by right of prior
+discovery, as well as the Pope's grant of all the western regions to
+themselves, the French could not go there without invading their
+privileges. Francis, on the other hand, treated these pretensions with
+derision, observing sarcastically that he would "like to see the clause
+in old Father Adam's will by which an inheritance so vast was bequeathed
+to his brothers of Spain and Portugal."
+
+[45] The dates in this and subsequent pages are in accordance with the
+"old style" of reckoning.
+
+[46] It has not been satisfactorily settled to what tribe the Indians
+belonged who were found by Cartier at Hochelaga. Some have even doubted
+the accuracy of his description in relation to their numbers, the
+character of their habitations, and other circumstances, under the
+belief that allowance must be made for exaggeration in the accounts of
+the first European visitors, who were desirous that their adventures
+should rival those of Cortes and Pizarro. It has also been suggested
+that the people were not Hurons, but remnants of the Iroquois tribes,
+who might have lingered there on their way southward. At any rate, when
+the place was revisited by Frenchmen more than half a century afterward,
+very few savages were seen in the neighborhood, and these different from
+those met by Cartier, while the town itself was no longer in existence.
+Champlain, upward of seventy years after Jacques Cartier, visited
+Hochelaga, but made no mention in his narrative either of the town or of
+inhabitants.
+
+[47] Commission dated October 20, 1540. In this document the French
+King's appreciation of Cartier's merits is strongly shown in the terms
+employed to express his royal confidence "in the character, judgment,
+ability, loyalty, dignity, hardihood, great diligence, and experience of
+the said Jacques Cartier." Cartier was also authorized to select fifty
+prisoners "whom he might judge useful," etc.
+
+[48] His description is substantially as follows: "On both sides of the
+river were very good lands filled with as beautiful and vigorous trees
+as are to be seen in the world, and of various sorts. A great many oaks,
+the finest I have ever seen in my life, and so full of acorns that they
+seemed like to break down with their weight. Besides these there were
+the most beautiful maples, cedars, birches, and other kinds of trees not
+to be seen in France. The forest land toward the south is covered with
+vines, which are found loaded with grapes as black as brambleberries.
+There were also many hawthorn-trees, with leaves as large as those of
+the oak, and fruit like that of the medlar-tree. In short, the country
+is as fit for cultivation as one could find or desire. We sowed seeds of
+cabbage, lettuce, turnips, and others of our country, which came up in
+eight days."
+
+[49] Early in the spring of 1542 Cartier seems to have made several
+small excursions in search of gold and silver. That these existed in the
+country, especially in the region of the Saguenay, was intimated to him
+by the Indians; and this information probably led Roberval afterward to
+undertake his unfortunate excursion to Tadousac. Cartier did find a
+yellowish material, which he styled "_poudre d'or_," and which he took
+to France, after exhibiting it to Roberval when he met him at
+Newfoundland. It is likely that this was merely fine sand intermixed
+with particles of mica. He also took with him small transparent stones,
+which he supposed to be diamonds, but which could have been no other
+than transparent crystals of quartz.
+
+[50] Cartier was born December 31, 1494. He was therefore in the prime
+of life when he discovered Canada, and not more than forty-nine years of
+age at the time when he returned home from his last trip to the west.
+
+
+
+
+MENDOZA SETTLES BUENOS AIRES
+
+A.D. 1535
+
+ROBERT SOUTHEY
+
+     By the discovery in 1515 of the Rio de la Plata ("River of
+     Silver"), the Spaniards opened for themselves a way to
+     colonization in South America. The first explorer, Juan Diaz
+     de Solis, was killed by the Indians on landing from the
+     river. But in 1519 Magellan, while on his great voyage of
+     circumnavigation, visited the Plata, and in 1526 Sebastian
+     Cabot, in the service of Charles I of Spain (the emperor
+     Charles V), ascended the river to the junction of the
+     Paraguay and the Parana, both of which he then explored for
+     a long distance.
+
+     Among the natives, whose silver ornaments, it is said, gave
+     origin to the name La Plata, as well as to that of
+     Argentina, Cabot passed two years in friendly intercourse.
+     He then sent to Spain an account of Paraguay, and a request
+     for authority and reenforcements to take possession of the
+     country with its rich resources. Although his request was
+     favorably received, no efficient action was taken upon it,
+     and, after waiting for five years, Cabot, despairing of the
+     necessary assistance, left the region.
+
+     It was not long, however, before a somewhat extensive
+     settlement in those parts was projected. Don Pedro Mendoza,
+     a knight of Guadix, Granada, one of the royal household,
+     undertook the colonization of the country, and September 1,
+     1534, he sailed from San Lucar.
+
+
+Mendoza had enriched himself at the sackage of Rome by the Constable de
+Bourbon in 1527. Ill-gotten wealth has been so often ill-expended as to
+have occasioned proverbs in all languages; the plunder of Rome did not
+satisfy him, and, dreaming of other Mexicos and Cuzcos, he obtained a
+grant of all the country from the river Plata to the straits, to be his
+government, with permission to proceed across the continent to the South
+Sea.
+
+He undertook to carry out in two voyages, and within two years, a
+thousand men, a hundred horses, and stores for one year at his own
+expense, the King[51] granting him the title of _adelantado_, and a
+salary of two thousand ducats for life, with two thousand more from the
+fruits of the conquest in aid of his expenses. He was to build three
+fortresses, and be perpetual alcaid of the first; his heirs after him
+were to be first alguazils of the place where he fixed his residence,
+and after he had remained three years he might transfer the task of
+completing the colonization and conquest either to his heir or any other
+person whom it might please him to appoint--and with it the privileges
+annexed--if within two years the King approved the choice.
+
+A king's ransom was now understood to belong to the crown; but as a
+further inducement this prerogative was waived in favor of Mendoza and
+his soldiers, who were to share it, first having deduced the royal
+fifth, and then a sixth. If, however, the King in question were slain in
+battle, half the spoils should go to the crown. These terms were made in
+wishful remembrance of the ransom of Atabalipa.
+
+He was to take with him a physician, an apothecary, and a surgeon, and
+especially eight "religioners." Life is lightly hazarded by those who
+have nothing more to stake, but that a man should, like Mendoza, stake
+such riches as would content the most desperate life-gambler for his
+winnings is one of the many indications how generally and how strongly
+the contagious spirit of adventure was at that time prevailing.
+
+Mendoza had covenanted to carry five hundred men in his first voyage.
+Such was his reputation, and such the ardor for going to the Silver
+River, that more adventurers offered than it was possible for him to
+take, and he accelerated his departure on account of the enormous
+expense which such a host occasioned. The force with which he set forth
+consisted of eleven ships and eight hundred men. So fine an armament had
+never yet sailed from Europe for America: but they who beheld its
+departure are said to have remarked that the service of the dead ought
+to be performed for the adventurers. They reached Rio de Janeiro after a
+prosperous voyage, and remained there a fortnight, during which time the
+Adelantado, being crippled by a contraction of the sinews, appointed
+Juan Osorio to command in his stead. Having made this arrangement they
+proceeded to their place of destination, anchored at Isle St. Gabriel
+within the Plata, and then on its southern shore and beside a little
+river. There Don Pedro de Mendoza laid the foundation of a town which
+because of its healthy climate he named "Nuestra Senora de Buenos Aires"
+("Our Lady of Good Air"). It was not long before he was made jealous of
+Osorio by certain envious officers, and, weakly lending ear to wicked
+accusations, he ordered them to fall upon him and kill him, then drag
+his body into the plaza, or public market-place, and proclaim him a
+traitor. The murder was perpetrated, and thus was the expedition
+deprived of one who is described as an honest and generous good soldier.
+
+Experience had not yet taught the Spaniards that any large body of
+settlers in a land of savages must starve unless well supplied with food
+from other sources until they can raise it for themselves. The
+Quirandies, who possessed the country round about this new settlement,
+were a wandering tribe who, in places where there was no water, quenched
+their thirst by eating a root which they called _cardes_, or by sucking
+the blood of the animals which they slew.
+
+About three thousand of these savages had pitched their movable
+dwellings some four leagues from the spot which Mendoza had chosen for
+the site of his city. They were well pleased with their visitors, and
+during fourteen days brought fish and meat to the camp; on the fifteenth
+day they failed, and Mendoza sent a few Spaniards to them to look for
+provisions, who came back empty-handed and wounded. Upon this, he
+ordered his brother Don Diego, with three hundred soldiers and thirty
+horsemen, to storm their town, and kill or take prisoner the whole
+horde. The Quirandies had sent away their women and children, collected
+a body of allies, and were ready for the attack. Their weapons were bows
+and arrows and _tardes_--stone-headed tridents about half the length of
+a lance. Against the horsemen they used a long thong, having a ball of
+stone at either end. With this they were wont to catch their game;
+throwing it with practised aim at the legs of the animal it coiled round
+and brought it to the ground. In all former wars with the Indians the
+horsemen had been the main strength and often the salvation of the
+Spaniards. This excellent mode of attack made them altogether useless;
+they could not defend themselves. The commander and six hidalgos were
+thrown and killed, and the whole body of horse must have been cut off if
+the rest had not fled in time and been protected by the infantry. About
+twenty foot-soldiers were slain with tardes. But it was not possible
+that these people, brave as they were, could stand against European
+weapons and such soldiers as the Spaniards: they gave way at last,
+leaving many of their brethren dead, but not a single prisoner. The
+conquerors found in their town plenty of flour, fish, what is called
+"fish-butter"--which probably means inspissated oil--otter-skins, and
+fishing-nets. They left a hundred men to fish with these nets, and the
+others returned to the camp.
+
+Mendoza was a wretched leader for such an expedition. He seems,
+improvidently, to have trusted to the natives for provision and to have
+quarrelled with them unnecessarily. Very soon after his arrival six
+ounces of bread had been the daily allowance; it was now reduced to
+three ounces of flour, and, every third day, a fish. They marked out the
+city and began a mud wall for its defence, the height of a lance and
+three feet thick. It was badly constructed: what was built up one day,
+fell down the next; the soldiers had not as yet learned this part of
+their duties.
+
+A strong house was built within the circuit for the Adelantado; meantime
+their strength began to fail for want of food. Rats, snakes, and vermin
+of every eatable size were soon exterminated from the environs. Three
+men stole a horse and ate it; they were tortured to make them confess
+the fact and then hanged for it; their bodies were left upon the
+gallows, and in the night all the flesh below the waist was cut away.
+One man ate the corpse of his brother; some murdered their messmates for
+the sake of receiving their rations as long as they could conceal their
+death by saying they were ill. The mortality was very great. Mendoza,
+seeing that all must perish if they remained here, sent George Luchsan,
+one of his German or Flemish adventurers, up the river, with four
+brigantines, to seek for food. Wherever they came the natives fled
+before them and burned what they could not carry away. Half the men were
+famished to death, and all must have perished if they had not fallen in
+with a tribe who gave them barely enough maize to support them during
+their return.
+
+The Quirandies had not been dismayed by one defeat: they prevailed upon
+the Bartenes, the Zechuruas, and the Timbues to join them, and with a
+force which the besieged in their fear estimated at three-and-twenty
+thousand--though it did not probably amount to a third of that
+number--suddenly attacked the new city. The weapons which they used were
+not less ingeniously adapted to their present purpose than those which
+had proved so effectual against the horse. They are said to have had
+arrows which took fire at the point as soon as they were discharged,
+which were not extinguished until they had burned out, and which kindled
+whatever they touched. With these devilish instruments they set fire to
+the thatched huts of the settlers and consumed them all. The stone house
+of the Adelantado was the only dwelling which escaped destruction. At
+the same time, and with the same weapons, they attacked the ships and
+burned four; the other three got to a safe distance in time and at
+length drove them off with their artillery. About thirty Spaniards were
+slain.
+
+The Adelantado now left a part of his diminished force in the ships to
+repair the settlement, giving them stores enough to keep them from
+starving for a year, which they were to eke out as best they could; he
+himself advancing up the river with the rest in the brigantines and
+smaller vessels. But he deputed his authority to Juan de Ayolas, being
+utterly unequal to the fatigue of command--in fact he was, at this time,
+dying of the most loathsome and dreadful malady that human vices have
+ever yet brought upon human nature.
+
+About eighty-four leagues up the river they came to an island inhabited
+by the Timbues, who received them well. Mendoza presented their chief,
+Zchera Wasu, with a shirt, a red cap, an axe, and a few other trifles,
+in return for which he received fish and game enough to save the lives
+of his people. This tribe trusted wholly to fishing and to the chase for
+food. They used long canoes. The men were naked, and ornamented both
+nostrils with stones. The women wore a cotton cloth from the waist to
+the knee, and cut beauty-slashes in their faces. Here the Spaniards took
+up their abode, and named the place "Buena Esperanza," signifying "Good
+Hope." One Gonzalo Romero, who had been one of Cabot's people and had
+been living among the savages, joined them here. He told them there were
+large and rich settlements up the country, and it was thought advisable
+that Ayolas should proceed with the brigantines in search of them.
+
+Meantime Mendoza, who was now become completely crippled, returned to
+Buenos Aires, where he found a great part of his people dead, and the
+survivors struggling with famine and every species of wretchedness. They
+were relieved by the arrival of Gonzalo Mendoza, who, at the beginning
+of their distresses, had been despatched to the coast of Brazil in quest
+of supplies. Part of Cabot's people, after the destruction of his
+settlement, had sailed for Brazil and established themselves in a bay
+called Ygua, four-and-twenty leagues from St. Vicente. There they began
+to form plantations, and continued two years on friendly terms with the
+adjoining natives and with the Portuguese. Disputes then arose, and,
+according to the Castilian account (for no other remains), the
+Portuguese resolved to fall upon them and drive them out of the country;
+of this they obtained intelligence, surprised the intended invaders,
+plundered the town of St. Vicente, and, being joined by some
+discontented Portuguese from that infant colony, sailed in two ships for
+the island of St. Catalina. There these adventurers began a new
+settlement, but such was their restless spirit that, when Gonzalo
+Mendoza arrived there, they were easily persuaded to abandon the houses
+which they had just constructed, and the fields which were now beginning
+to afford them comfortable subsistence; and the whole colony, with their
+two ships, joined him and made for the Plata, to partake in the conquest
+and spoils of the Silver River.
+
+They brought a considerable supply of stores, and were themselves well
+armed and well supplied with ammunition. Some Brazilian Indians with
+their families accompanied them, and they themselves, being accustomed
+to the language and manners of the natives, were of the most essential
+service to the adventurers with whom they joined company. At sight of
+this seasonable relief Mendoza returned thanks to God, shedding tears of
+joy. He waited awhile in hopes of hearing good tidings from Ayolas, and
+at length sent Juan de Salazar with a second detachment in quest of him.
+His health grew daily worse and his hopes fainter; he had lost his
+brother in this expedition, and expended above forty thousand ducats of
+his substance; nor did there appear much probability of any eventual
+success to reimburse him, so he determined to sail for Spain, leaving
+Francisco Ruyz to command at Buenos Aires, and appointing Ayolas
+governor if he should return; and Salazar, in case of his death. His
+instructions were that, as soon as either of them should return, he was
+to examine what provisions were left, and allow no rations to any
+persons who could support themselves, nor to any women who were not
+employed in either washing or in some other such necessary service; that
+he should sink the ships, or dispose of them in some other manner, and,
+if he thought fit, proceed across the continent to Peru, where, if he
+met with Pizarro and Almagro, he was to procure their friendship in the
+Adelantado's name; and if Almagro should be disposed to give him one
+hundred fifty thousand ducats for a resignation of his government--as he
+had given to Pedro de Alvarado--he was to accept it--or even one hundred
+thousand--unless it should appear more profitable not to close with such
+an offer. How strong must his hope of plunder have been after four years
+of continued disappointment and misery!
+
+Moreover, he charged his successor, if it should please God to give him
+any jewel or precious stone, not to omit sending it him, as some help in
+his trouble, and he instructed him to form a settlement on the way to
+Peru, either upon the Paraguay or elsewhere, from whence tidings of his
+proceedings might be transmitted. Having left these directions Mendoza
+embarked, still dreaming of gold and jewels. On the voyage they were so
+distressed for provisions that he was obliged to kill a favorite bitch
+which had accompanied him through all his troubles. While he was eating
+this wretched meal his senses failed him--he began to rave, and died in
+the course of two days.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[51] Charles I of Spain, who was also the emperor Charles V.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDING OF THE JESUITS
+
+A.D. 1540
+
+ISAAC TAYLOR
+
+     Toward the middle of the sixteenth century definite
+     utterance began to be given to a widespread feeling in the
+     Church that the old monastic orders were no longer
+     fulfilling their purpose. Suggestions of new orders were
+     entertained by the church authorities, and plans for their
+     formation--not to supersede but to supplement the old--began
+     to assume shape.
+
+     Meanwhile an enthusiastic Spanish soldier, who had renounced
+     the profession of arms, independently gathered about himself
+     the nucleus of what was to be one of the most famous orders
+     in the history of the Church. This organization, called the
+     Company (or Society) of Jesus, but better known to many as
+     the Order of Jesuits, owes its foundation primarily to
+     Ignatius de Loyola (Inigo Lopez de Recalde), who was born at
+     the castle of Loyola, Guipuzcoa, Spain, in 1491. After being
+     educated as a page at the court of Ferdinand, he joined the
+     army, and during his recovery from a wound received at
+     Pamplona in 1521, he became imbued with spiritual ardor and
+     dedicated himself to the service of the Virgin. Henceforth
+     the "fiery Ignatius" devoted himself to the pursuit and, as
+     he believed, the purification of religion.
+
+     In 1528 he entered the University of Paris, and there, with
+     a few associates, in 1534 he projected the new religious
+     order, which in 1540 was confirmed by the Pope. _The
+     Constitution of the Order_ and _Spiritual Exercises_ were
+     written by him in Spanish. The object of these comrades was
+     to battle for the Church in that time of religious warfare,
+     to stop the spread of heresy, and especially to stay the
+     progress of Protestantism and win back those who had
+     abandoned the old faith. Exempting themselves from the
+     routine of monastic duties, the members of the new order
+     were to have freedom for preaching, hearing confessions, and
+     educating the young.
+
+     After considering and abandoning various plans for work
+     abroad, the band of fathers at last decided to devote
+     themselves to serving the Church within its own domains, and
+     the first step was a visit of some members of the fraternity
+     to Rome for the purpose of obtaining papal confirmation.
+
+
+Loyola himself, with his chosen colleagues, Faber and Lainez, undertook
+the mission to Rome, while the eight others were to disperse themselves
+throughout Northern Italy, and especially to gain a footing, if they
+could, and to acquire influence at those seats of learning where the
+youth of Italy were to be met with; such as Padua, Ferrara, Bologna,
+Siena, and Vicenza. Surprising effects resulted, it is said, from these
+labors; but we turn toward the three fathers, Ignatius, Lainez, and
+Faber, who were now making their way on foot to Rome.
+
+If Loyola's course of secular study, and if his various engagements as
+evangelist and as chief of a society, had at all chilled his devotional
+ardor, or had drawn his thoughts away from the unseen world, this fervor
+and this upward direction of the mind now returned to him in full force:
+we are assured that, on this pilgrimage, and "through favor of the
+Virgin," his days and nights were passed in a sort of continuous
+ecstasy. As they drew toward the city, and while upon the Siena road, he
+turned aside to a chapel, then in a ruinous condition, and which he
+entered alone. Here ecstasy became more ecstatic still; and, in a
+trance, he believed himself very distinctly to see Him whom, as holy
+Scripture affirms, "no man hath seen at any time." By the side of this
+vision of the invisible appeared Jesus, bearing a huge cross. The Father
+presents Ignatius to the Son, who utters the words, so full of meaning,
+"I will be favorable to you at Rome."
+
+It is no agreeable task thus to compromise the awful realities of
+religion, and thus to perplex the distinctions which a religious mind
+wishes to observe between truth and illusion; yet it seems inevitable to
+narrate that which comes before us, as an integral and important portion
+of the history we have to do with. And yet incidents such as these,
+while they will be very far from availing to bring us over as converts
+to the system which they are supposed supernaturally to authenticate,
+need not generate any extreme revulsion of feeling in an opposite
+direction. Good men, ill-trained, or trained under a system which to so
+great an extent is factitious, demand from us often, we do not say that
+which an enlightened Christian charity does not include, but a something
+which is logically distinguishable from it; we mean a philosophic habit
+of mind, accustomed to deal with human nature, and with its wonderful
+inconsistencies, on the broadest principles.
+
+Some diversities of language present themselves in the narratives that
+have come down to us of this vision. In that which, perhaps, is worthy
+of the most regard, the phraseology is such as to suggest the belief
+that its _exact_ meaning should not easily be gathered from the words.
+Loyola had asked of the blessed Virgin, "_ut eum cum filio suo
+poneret_"; and during this trance this request, whatever it might mean,
+was manifestly granted.
+
+From this vision, and from the memorable words "_Ego vobis Romae
+propitius ero_," the society may be said to have taken its formal
+commencement, and to have drawn its appellation. Henceforward it was the
+"Society of Jesus," for its founder, introduced to the Son of God by the
+eternal Father, had been orally assured of the divine favor--favor
+consequent upon his present visit to Rome. Here, then, we have exposed
+to our view the inner economy or divine machinery of the Jesuit
+Institute. The Mother of God is the primary mediatrix; the Father, at
+her intercession, obtains for the founder an auspicious audience of the
+Son; and the Son authenticates the use to be made of his name in this
+instance; and so it is that the inchoate order is to be the "Society of
+Jesus."
+
+An inquiry, to which in fact no certain reply could be given, obtrudes
+itself upon the mind on an occasion like this; namely, how far the
+infidelity and atheism which pervaded Europe in the next and the
+following century sprung directly out of profanation such as this?
+Merely to narrate them, and to do so in the briefest manner, does
+violence to every genuine sentiment of piety. What must have been the
+effect produced upon frivolous and sceptical tempers when with sedulous
+art such things were put forward as solemn verities not to be
+distinguished from the primary truths of religion, and entitled to the
+same reverential regard in our minds!
+
+Loyola, although thus warranted, as he thought, in assuming for his
+order so peculiar and exclusive a designation, used a discreet reserve
+at the first in bringing it forward, lest he should wound the self-love
+of rival bodies, or seem to be challenging for his company a superiority
+over other religious orders. So much caution as this his experience
+would naturally suggest to him; and that he felt the need of it is
+indicated by what he is reported to have said as he entered Rome.
+Although the words so recently pronounced still sounded in his ear,
+"_Ego vobis Romae propitius ero_," yet as he set foot within the city he
+turned to his companions and said, with a solemn significance of tone,
+"I see the windows shut!"--meaning that they should there meet much
+opposition, and find occasion for the exercise of prudence and of
+patient endurance of sufferings; of prudence, not less than of patience.
+
+But while care was to be taken not to draw toward themselves the envious
+or suspicious regards of the religious orders or of ecclesiastical
+potentates, there was even a more urgent need of discretion in avoiding
+those occasions of scandal which might spring from their undertaking the
+cure of the souls of the other sex. Into what jeopardy of their saintly
+reputation had certain eminent men fallen in this very manner; and how
+narrowly had they escaped the heaviest imputations! The fathers were not
+to take upon themselves the office of confessors to women--"_nisi essent
+admodum illustres_." That the risk must necessarily be less, or that
+there would be none in the instance of ladies of high rank, is not
+conspicuously certain; but if not, what were those special motives which
+should warrant the fathers in incurring this peril in such cases? Mere
+Christian charity would undoubtedly impel a man to meet danger for the
+welfare of the soul of a poor sempstress as readily as for that of a
+duchess or the mistress of a monarch. If, therefore, the peril is to be
+braved in the one case which ought to be evaded in the other, there must
+be present some motive of which Christian charity knows nothing. So
+acutely alive was Loyola to the evils that might spring to his order
+from this source that we find him at a later period not merely rejecting
+ladies, "_admodum illustres_," but bearding the Pope and the cardinals,
+and glaringly contravening his own vow of unconditional obedience to the
+Vicar of Christ, rather than give way to the solicitations of fair and
+noble penitents.
+
+Soon after the arrival of the three--_i.e._, Loyola, Faber, and
+Lainez--at Rome, in the year 1537, they obtained an audience of the
+Pope, who welcomed their return, and gave anew his sanction to their
+endeavors. Faber and Lainez received appointments as theological
+professors in the gymnasium; while Loyola addressed himself wholly to
+the care of souls and to the reform of abuses. To several persons of
+distinction and to some dignitaries of the Church he administered the
+discipline of the _Spiritual Exercises_, they, for this purpose,
+withdrawing to solitudes in the neighborhood of Rome, where they were
+daily conversed with and instructed by himself. At the same time he
+labored in hospitals, schools, and private houses to induce repentance
+and to cherish the languishing piety of those who would listen to him.
+Among such, who fully surrendered their souls to his guidance, were the
+Spanish procurator Peter Ortiz and Cardinal Gaspar Contarini, both of
+whom were led by him into a course of fervent devotion in which they
+persisted, and they, moreover, continued to use their powerful influence
+in favor of the infant society.
+
+The pulpits of many of the churches in the several cities where the
+fathers had stationed themselves, and some in Rome, had been opened to
+their use, and the energy and the freshness of their eloquence affected
+the popular mind in an extraordinary manner; sometimes, indeed, they
+brought upon themselves violent opposition, but in more frequent
+instances, their zeal and patient assiduity triumphing over prejudice,
+jealousy, ecclesiastical inertness, and voluptuousness, the tide of
+feeling set in with this new impulse, and a commencement was effectively
+made of that Catholic revival which spread itself throughout Southern
+Europe, turned back the Reformation wave, saved the papacy, and secured
+for Christendom the still needed antagonist influence of the Romish and
+of the reformed systems of doctrine, worship, and polity.
+
+At Rome, Loyola, by his personal exertions, effected great reforms in
+liturgical services--induced a more frequent and devout attention to the
+sacraments of confession and the eucharist; established and promoted the
+catechetical instruction of youth; and, in a word, restored to Romanism
+much of its vitality.
+
+The author and mover of so much healthful change did not escape the
+persecutions that are the lot of reformers. Such trials Loyola
+encountered, and passed through triumphantly--so we are assured; but in
+listening to the Jesuit writers, when telling their own story, where the
+credit of the order and the reputation of its founder are deeply
+implicated, it is with reservation that we follow them.
+
+So fearful a storm--yet a storm long before descried, it is said, by
+Loyola--fell suddenly upon him and his colleagues that it seemed as if
+the infant society could by no means resist the impetuous torrent that
+assailed it. The populace, as well as persons in authority, suddenly
+gave heed to rumors most startling which came in at once from Spain,
+from France, and from the North of Italy, and the purport of which was
+to throw upon the fathers the most grievous imputations affecting their
+personal character as well as their doctrine. These men were reported to
+be heretics, Lutherans in disguise, seducers of youth, and men of
+flagitious life.
+
+The author or secret mover of this assault is said to have been a
+Piedmontese monk of the Augustinian order, himself a secret favorer of
+the Lutheran heresy and "a tool of Satan," and who at last, throwing off
+the mask, avowed himself a Lutheran. This man, for the purpose of
+diverting from himself the suspicions of which his mode of preaching had
+made him the object at Rome, raised this outcry against Loyola and his
+companions, affirming of them slanderously and falsely what was quite
+true as to himself.
+
+The Pope and the court having been absent for some time from Rome, this
+disguised heresiarch had seized the opportunity for gaining the ear of
+the populace by inveighing against the vices of ecclesiastics, and
+insinuating opinions to which he gave a color of truth by citations from
+Scripture and the early fathers. Two of Loyola's colleagues, Salmeron
+and Lainez, who in their passage through Germany had become skilled in
+detecting Lutheran pravity, were deputed to listen to this noisy
+preacher; they did so, and reported that the audacious man was, under
+some disguise of terms, broaching rank Lutheranism in the very heart of
+Rome. Loyola, however, determined to treat the heresiarch courteously,
+and therefore sent him privately an admonition to abstain from a course
+which occasioned so much scandal, and which could not but afflict
+Catholic ears. The preacher took fire at this remonstrance, and openly
+attacked those who had dared thus to rebuke him.
+
+Thus attacked, Loyola and his colleagues, on their side, loudly
+maintained the great points of Catholic doctrine impugned by this
+preacher, such as the merit and necessity of good works, the validity of
+religious vows, and the supreme authority of the Church; and in
+consequence it became extremely difficult on his part to ward off the
+imputation of Lutheranism or to make it appear that he was anything
+else than a self-condemned heretic. He, however, so far commanded the
+popular mind that he maintained his reputation and his influence, and
+actually succeeded in rendering his accusers the objects of almost
+universal suspicion or hatred. Their powerful friends forsook them; all
+stood aloof, or all but a Spaniard named Garzonio, who, having lodged
+Loyola and some of his companions under his roof, knew well their
+soundness in the faith and their personal piety. Through his timely
+intervention the cardinal-dean of the sacred college was induced to
+inform himself, by a personal interview, of their doctrine and life.
+
+This dignitary was satisfied, and more than satisfied, of the innocence
+and piety of the fathers. Nevertheless, Loyola, looking far forward, and
+knowing well what detriment to his order might arise in remote quarters
+from slanders not authoritatively refuted and disallowed, demanded to be
+confronted with his accusers before the ecclesiastical authorities. He
+would be content with no vague and irregular expression of approval--he
+would accept no half acquittal. He sought, and at length obtained, an
+official exculpation in the amplest terms, with an acknowledgment of his
+orthodoxy on the part of the highest authority on earth, and this was
+granted under circumstances that gave it universal notoriety.
+
+In court the principal witness was confounded by proof, under his own
+hand, of the falseness of the allegation he had advanced; and at the
+same time testimonials from the highest quarters in favor of the
+fathers, severally and individually, arrived opportunely; in a word, the
+society, in this early and signal instance, triumphed over its
+assailants, and thenceforward it occupied a position the most lofty and
+commanding in the view of the Catholic world. Loyola and his colleagues
+saw the ruin of their adversaries, two of whom, falling into the hands
+of the inquisitors, were burned as heretics.
+
+The time was now come for effecting a permanent organization of the
+society and for installing a chief at its head. With these purposes in
+view, Loyola summoned his colleagues to Rome from the cities of Italy
+where they were severally laboring. The fathers being assembled, he
+commended to them anew the proposal which they had already accepted, but
+which he seemed anxious to fix irrevocably upon their consciences by
+often-repeated challenges of the most solemn kind. To impart the more
+solemnity to this repetition of their mutual engagements, and to
+preclude, by all means, the possibility of retraction, he advised that
+several days should be devoted to preliminary prayer and fasting, during
+which season each should, with an absolute surrender of himself to the
+will of God, await passively the manifestation of that will.
+
+"Heaven," said Loyola to his companions, "heaven has forbidden Palestine
+to our zeal--nevertheless that zeal burns with increasing intensity from
+day to day. Should we not hence infer that God has called us--not,
+indeed, to undertake the conversion of one nation or of a country, but
+of all the people and of all the kingdoms of the world?"
+
+Such was the founder's profession and such the limits of his ambition.
+The spiritual mechanism which he had devised, and which he was now
+putting in movement, intends nothing that is partial or circumscribed;
+its very purport is universality; it is absolutism carried out until it
+has embraced the human family and has brought every human spirit into
+its toils.
+
+But so small a band could hope for no success that should be indicative
+of ultimate triumph unless they would surrender themselves individually
+to a common will, which should be to each of them as the will of God,
+articulately pronounced. After renewing, therefore, the vows of poverty,
+of chastity, and of unconditional obedience to the Pope, the fathers
+assented to the proposal that one of their number should, by the
+suffrages of all, be constituted the superior or general of the order,
+and as such be invested with an authority as absolute as it was possible
+for man to exercise or for men to submit to. Yet to whose hands should
+be assigned--and for life--this irresponsible power over the bodies,
+souls, and understandings of his companions?
+
+It had not been until after a lengthened preparation of fasting, prayer,
+and night-watching that a resolution so appalling had been formed. Yet
+it was easier to consent to the proposal, abstractedly placed before
+them, than to yield themselves to all its undefined and irrevocable
+consequences, when the awful surrender of what is most precious to
+man--his individuality--was to be made, not to a chief unnamed, but to
+this or that one among themselves. To whose hands could the ten consign
+the irresponsible disposal of their souls and bodies? They had, however,
+already advanced too far to recede. They had, as they believed, in
+humble imitation of Christ the Lord, offered themselves as a living
+sacrifice to God--so far as concerned the body--by the vow of poverty
+and the vow of chastity. They had thus immolated the flesh, and had
+reserved to themselves nothing of worldly possessions, nothing of
+earthly solaces; all had been laid upon the altar. They, had, moreover
+professed their willingness to deposit there their very souls. The vow
+of unconditional obedience, as thus understood, was a holocaust of the
+immortal well-being. Each now, as an offering acceptable to God, was to
+pawn his interest in time and eternity, putting the pledge into the
+hands of one to be chosen by themselves. It was debated whether this
+absolute power should be conferred upon the holder of it for life or for
+a term of years only, and whether in the fullest sense it should be
+without conditions, or whether it should be limited by constitutional
+forms. At length, however, the election of a general for life was
+assented to, and especially for this reason--and it is well to note
+it--that the new society had been devised and formed for the very
+purpose of carrying forward vast designs which must demand a long course
+of years for their development and execution; and that no one who must
+look forward to the probable termination of his generalship at the
+expiration of a few years could be expected to undertake, or to
+prosecute with energy, any such far-reaching project. On the contrary,
+he should be allowed to believe that the limits of his life alone need
+be thought of as bounding his holy ambition. Provisions were made,
+however, for holding some sort of control over the individual to whom so
+much power was to be intrusted. The actual election of Loyola to the
+generalship did not formally take place until after the time when the
+order had received pontifical authentication. Meantime, all implicitly
+regarded him as their master; from him emanated the acts of the body;
+and to him was assigned the task--aided by Lainez--of preparing what
+should be the constitutions of the society.
+
+During the interval between the concerted organization of the order and
+the formal recognition of Loyola as the general he found several
+occasions highly favorable for extending and for enhancing his
+influence, as well among the common people as among ecclesiastical
+dignitaries. One such opportunity was afforded, soon after the
+above-mentioned exculpation of the fathers, by the occurrence of a
+famine during an unusually severe winter. The streets of Rome presented
+the spectacle of hundreds of half-naked and starving wretches who
+fruitlessly implored aid or who silently expired unaided. Loyola and his
+colleagues, themselves subsisting from day to day on alms, felt
+often--we are told--the nip of hunger, yet they needed no incitement
+which these scenes of woe did not spontaneously supply. They were at
+once alive to the claims of humanity and to the requirements of
+Christian duty. They begged for the perishing, took them to such shelter
+as was at their command, carefully and tenderly ministered to the sick,
+and, withal, used the advantage which these offices of kindness afforded
+them for purposes of religious instruction. Hundreds, rescued from death
+through cold and hunger, were thus brought to repentance on the path
+which the Church prescribes. A great impression in favor of the Jesuit
+fathers was made upon all classes by this course of conduct. In
+humanity, self-denying assiduity, and Christian zeal they had
+immeasurably surpassed any who might have pretended rivalry with them.
+
+It was now, therefore, that Loyola sought from the Pontiff that formal
+recognition which his personal assurances of regard and approval seemed
+to show he could not refuse. Paul III was, however, cautious in this
+instance, and seemed unwilling to commit himself and the Church at this
+critical moment, except so far as he knew himself to be supported by the
+feeling and opinion of those of the cardinals whom he most regarded. He
+referred Loyola's petition to three of them. The first of these was
+Barthelemi Guidiccioni, who had often declared himself to be decisively
+opposed to the multiplication of religious orders. The Church, he
+thought, had too many of these excrescences already, and, instead of
+adding another to the number, he would gladly have reduced them all to
+four. His two colleagues were easily induced to concur with him in this
+opinion, and thus it appeared as if the infant society, notwithstanding
+the advances it had lately made in securing the good opinion of persons
+of high rank, as well as in winning popular applause, was little likely
+to receive what was indispensable to its permanent establishment--a
+papal bull in its favor.
+
+Personally, however, the Pope did not conceal his cordial feeling toward
+Loyola and his companions. He seems to have perceived clearly that these
+men, resolute in their punctilious adherence to the doctrine and ritual
+of the Church, and committed by the most solemn engagements to its
+service--deep-purposed as they were, full of a well-governed energy,
+resolute in the performance of the most arduous duties, and, moreover,
+highly accomplished in secular and sacred learning--were the very
+instruments which the Church had need of in this crisis of its fate.
+Northern Europe was irrecoverably lost; Germany and Switzerland were
+held to Catholicism at points only; while France and Northern Italy were
+listening to the seductions of heresy. Scarcely could it be said, even
+of Spain, that it was clear of the same infection. The Church ought
+then, at such a moment, to embrace cordially, and by all means to favor,
+the efforts of men like Loyola and his distinguished companions.
+
+It was with this feeling that Paul III, while held back by his advisers
+from the course he would have adopted, went as far as he could in
+promoting and extending the influence of the society. At the same moment
+application had been made, on the part of several potentates, for the
+services of the fathers, who had already gained a high reputation at the
+courts near to which they had exercised their ministry. It was seen and
+understood by princes that these were the men--and these almost
+alone--to whom might be confided those arduous tasks which the perils of
+the times continually presented: none so well furnished as these
+fathers; none so self-denying and laborious; none so uncompromising in
+the maintenance of their principles. They were, therefore, despatched in
+various directions, and with the papal sanction, to undertake offices
+more or less spiritual, and in some instances purely secular. It was
+thus that a commencement was made in that course which has thrown
+unlimited power into the hands of the society, and which again has
+brought upon it suspicion, hatred, and reiterated ruin.
+
+But the most noted of these appointments was that which, in sending, as
+by an accident, Francis Xavier to India, detached from the Jesuit
+society the man who, had he remained at home, must have imparted his own
+character to its constitutions, and have guided its movements, and who
+probably would have dislodged Loyola from the generalship, and have held
+Lainez and Faber in a subordinate position. Not merely did Xavier's
+departure allow Jesuitism to take its form from the hands of these
+three, but it conferred upon the society, from a very early date, the
+incalculable advantage of that reflected power and reputation which the
+Indian missions secured for it. Xavier's apostleship in the East, with
+its real and with its romantic and exaggerated glories, was a fund upon
+which the society at home allowed itself to draw without limit. If it be
+admitted that Xavier effected something real for Christianity in pagan
+India, it may be affirmed that he accomplished at the same time, though
+indirectly, far more for Jesuitism throughout Europe. This course of
+events, so signal in its consequences as favoring the development and
+rapid extension of the Jesuit scheme throughout Christendom, and which
+yet could not be attributed to any forethought or machination on the
+part of Loyola, is well deserving of a distinct notice.
+
+The train of circumstances, as related and affirmed by the Jesuit
+writers, excludes the supposition of its taking its rise in any plot or
+intention. John III of Portugal--a religious prince--had long
+entertained the project of stretching the empire of the Church over
+those regions which his valiant and enterprising people were subjecting
+to his secular sway. In modern phraseology, he piously desired to
+consecrate his military triumphs in the East by spreading the Gospel
+among the subjugated heathen. His royal wish and intention had become
+known to Loyola's friend Govea, who wrote to him from Paris on the
+subject. This letter was as a spark at contact with which Loyola's zeal
+burst forth in a flame. He replied, however, that, as he and his
+companions had now solemnly surrendered themselves to the absolute and
+unconditional disposal of the Vicar of Christ, they could attempt
+nothing spontaneously. It is easy to imagine how speedily this
+declaration, conveyed to Govea, would produce its effect, would come
+round to its destination, and would assume the form of a pontifical
+injunction addressed to Loyola to despatch some of the fathers to the
+court of John, there to await the pleasure of so religious a prince.
+Six missionaries had been asked for. Loyola, with the consent of the
+Pope, assigned two--Rodriquez and Bobadilla--to his service. The latter,
+however, falling ill--so it is affirmed--Francis Xavier was appointed in
+his place. Xavier, it is said, leaped for joy when summoned, at a
+moment, to set out toward Portugal commissioned to convert India to the
+Christian faith. A few hours sufficed for his preparations; by noon of
+the next day he had sewed the tatters of his attire with his own hand,
+had packed his bundle, had bid adieu to his friends, and was forward on
+the road to Lisbon. Upon this desperate enterprise he set forward with
+his eye steadily fixed upon objects far more remote and more dazzling
+than the sunny plains of Hindostan. The immeasurable difficulty of his
+mission was to him its excitement; its dangers brightened in his view
+into martyrdom; its toils were to be his ease; its privations his
+solace, and despair the aliment of his hope. But at this initial point
+of his course we must take leave of Francis Xavier--the prince of
+missionaries. Bobadilla, with Loyola's consent, remained in Portugal,
+where his zeal found scope enough.
+
+At length--but it does not appear in what manner this change of opinion
+had been brought about--Cardinal Guidiccioni professed himself favorable
+to the suit of Loyola; probably an enhanced conviction that the Romish
+hierarchy was encountering a peril which called for extraordinary
+measures, and that the new order was likely to meet the occasion, had
+prevailed over considerations less urgent and of a more general kind.
+This opponent gained, no obstacle remained to be overcome. On October 3,
+1540 (or September 27th), was issued the bull which gave ecclesiastical
+existence to the new order under the name of the "Company of Jesus." At
+the first the society was forbidden to admit more than sixty professed
+members, but three years later another bull removed entirely this
+restriction.
+
+The time was now come when the decisive step must be taken which should
+enable the new institute to realize its intention, which should render
+Jesuitism _Jesuitism_ indeed. This was the election of a chief,
+individually, who thenceforward should be absolute lord of the bodies
+and souls, the will and well-being, of all the members. Until this
+election should be made and ratified, the society was a _project_ only;
+it would then become a dread reality.
+
+Those of the fathers who could leave their functions at foreign
+courts--and these were three only--were summoned to Rome; those who
+could not attend there sent forward their votes. But in what manner are
+we to deal with the account that is presented to us of that which took
+place on this occasion? How is it to be made to consist either with the
+straightforwardness and simplicity of intention that are the
+characteristics of great and noble natures, or how with those maxims of
+guilelessness which Christianity so much approves? The problem admits of
+only a partial and unsatisfactory solution; nor can we advance even so
+far as this unless we make a very large allowance in favor of Loyola
+personally, on the ground of the ill influence of the system within
+which he had received his moral and religious training. He conducted
+himself after the fashion of his Church: this must be his apology.
+
+It was he, unquestionably, who had conceived the primary idea of the
+society. He was author of the book which constitutes its germ and law,
+the _Spiritual Exercises_. He had been principal in digesting the
+constitutions, or actual code, of the society. It was he, individually,
+whom the others had always regarded as their leader and teacher. His
+personal influence was the cement which held the parts in union. It was
+Loyola who, while his colleagues dispersed themselves throughout Europe,
+remained in Rome, there to manage the common interests of all, and to
+carry forward those negotiations with the papal court which were of
+vital importance and of the highest difficulty. In a word, it was he who
+had convoked this meeting to elect a chief and who asked the proxies of
+the absent. Are we then to believe that this bold spirit, this
+far-seeing mind, this astute, inventive, and politic Ignatius, born to
+rule other minds, and able always to subjugate his own will; that this
+contriver of a despotism, after having carried the principle of
+unconditional obedience, after having won the consent of his companions
+to the proposal that their master should be their master _for life_--are
+we to believe that he had never imagined it as probable (much less
+wished) that the choice of his compeers should fall upon himself, or
+that he had peremptorily resolved, in such a case, to reject the
+proffered sovereignty? Surely those writers--the champions of the
+society--use us cruelly who demand that we should believe so much as
+this.
+
+Le Jay, Brouet, Lainez, and Loyola were those who personally appeared on
+this occasion. The absent members sent their votes in sealed letters.
+Three days having passed in prayer and silence, the four assembled on
+the fourth day, when the votes were ascertained. All but Loyola's own
+were in his favor; he voted for the one who should carry the majority of
+votes.
+
+Loyola, we are told, was in an equal degree distressed and amazed in
+discovering what was in the minds of his colleagues. _He_, indeed, to be
+general of the Society of Jesus!--how strange and preposterous a
+supposition! Positively he could think of no such thing. What a life had
+he led before his conversion! How abounding in weaknesses had been his
+course since! How could he aspire to rule others, who so poorly could
+rule himself? Days of prayer must yet be devoted to the purpose of
+imploring the divine aid in directing the minds of all toward one who
+should indeed be qualified for so arduous an office. At the end of this
+term Loyola was a second time elected, and again refused to comply with
+the wishes of his friends. He would barely admit their importunities;
+they could scarcely bring themselves to listen to his contrary reasons.
+Time passed on, and there seemed a danger lest the society should go
+adrift upon the rocks even in its first attempt to reach deep water. At
+length Loyola agreed to submit himself to the direction of his
+confessor. He might thus, perhaps, find it possible to thrust himself
+through his scruples by the loophole of passive obedience, for he
+already held himself bound to comply with the injunctions of his
+spiritual guide, be they what they might.
+
+This good man, therefore, a father Theodosius of the communion of Minor
+Brethren, is constituted arbiter of the destinies of the Society of
+Jesus. To his ear Loyola confides all the reasons, irresistible as they
+were, which forbade his compliance with the will of his friends. The
+confessor listens patiently to the long argument, but sets the whole of
+it at naught. In a word he declares that Loyola, in declining the
+proffered generalship, is fighting against God. Further resistance would
+have been a flagrant impiety.
+
+The installation of the general was carried forward in a course of
+services held in the seven principal churches of Rome, and with
+extraordinary solemnity in the Church of St. Paul without the city,
+April 23, 1541. On this occasion the vows of perpetual poverty,
+chastity, and obedience were renewed before the altar of the Virgin,
+where Loyola administered the communion to his brethren, they having
+vowed absolute obedience to him, and he the same to the Pope.
+
+
+
+
+DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI[52]
+
+A.D. 1541
+
+JOHN S. C. ABBOTT
+
+     From the eastern coast of Florida the Spaniards made early
+     explorations of the interior until they reached the
+     Mississippi River. Florida, which was discovered by Juan
+     Ponce de Leon in 1513, was soon visited by other voyagers,
+     and in 1528 Panfilo Narvaez made a disastrous march into the
+     forests. One survivor of his party, Cabaca de Vaca,
+     afterward crossed the Mississippi, near the site of Memphis,
+     and made his way to the Spanish settlements in Mexico.
+
+     Still the vast Florida region was unexplored, but in 1539
+     Hernando de Soto, the companion of Pizarro in the conquest
+     of Peru (1532) landed, with upward of six hundred men, at
+     what is now called Tampa Bay, on the west coast, in search
+     of the fabulous wealth believed to await him. "For month
+     after month and year after year the procession of priests
+     and cavaliers, cross-bowmen, arquebusiers, and Indian
+     captives laden with the baggage, wandered on through wild
+     and boundless wastes, lured hither and thither by the _ignis
+     fatuus_ of their hopes." Through untold hardships, increased
+     by fierce battles with the Indians, they traversed wide
+     regions now embraced in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi,
+     reaching the great river probably in the spring of 1541, and
+     still looking for the "phantom El Dorado."
+
+
+De Soto directed his footsteps in a westerly direction, carefully
+avoiding an approach to the sea, lest his troops should rise in mutiny,
+send for the ships, and escape from the ill-starred enterprise. This
+certainly indicates, under the circumstances, an unsound, if not a
+deranged, mind. For four days the troops toiled along through a dismal
+region, uninhabited, and encumbered with tangled forests and almost
+impassable swamps.
+
+At length they came to a small village called Chisca, upon the banks of
+the most majestic stream they had yet discovered. Sublimely the mighty
+flood, a mile and a half in width, rolled by them. The current was rapid
+and bore upon its bosom a vast amount of trees, logs, and driftwood,
+showing that its sources must be hundreds of leagues far away in the
+unknown interior. This was the mighty Mississippi, the "Father of
+Waters." The Indians at that point called it Chucagua. Its source and
+its embouchure were alike unknown to De Soto. Little was he then aware
+of the magnitude of the discovery he had made.
+
+"De Soto," says Irving, "was the first European who looked out upon the
+turbid waters of this magnificent river; and that event has more surely
+enrolled his name among those who will ever live in American history
+than if he had discovered mines of silver and gold."
+
+The Spaniards had reached the river after a four days' march through an
+unpeopled wilderness. The Indians of Chisca knew nothing of their
+approach, and probably had never heard of their being in the country.
+The tribe inhabiting the region of which Chisca was the metropolis was
+by no means as formidable as many whom they had already encountered. The
+dwelling of the cacique stood on a large artificial mound from eighteen
+to twenty feet in height. It was ascended by two ladders, which could of
+course be easily drawn up, leaving the royal family thus quite isolated
+from the people below.
+
+Chisca, the chieftain, was far advanced in years, a feeble, emaciated
+old man of very diminutive stature. In the days of his prime he had been
+a renowned warrior. Hearing of the arrival of the Spaniards he was
+disposed to regard them as enemies, and, seizing his tomahawk, he was
+eager to descend from his castle and lead his warriors to battle.
+
+The contradictory statements are made that De Soto, weary of the
+harassing warfare of the winter, was very anxious to secure the
+friendship of these Indians. Unless he were crazed, it must have been
+so; for there was absolutely nothing to be gained, but everything to be
+imperilled, by war. On the other hand, it is said that the moment the
+Spaniards descried the village they rushed into it, plundering the
+houses, seizing men and women as captives. Both statements may have been
+partially true. It is not improbable that the disorderly troops of De
+Soto, to his great regret, were guilty of some outrages, while he
+personally might have been intensely anxious to repress this violence
+and cultivate only friendly relations with the natives.
+
+But, whatever may have been the hostile or friendly attitude assumed by
+the Spaniards, it is admitted that the cacique was disposed to wage war
+against the new-comers. The more prudent of his warriors urged that he
+should delay his attack upon them until he had made such preparations as
+would secure successful results.
+
+"It will be best first," said they, "to assemble all the warriors of our
+nation, for these men are well armed. In the mean time let us pretend
+friendship, and not provoke an attack until we are strong enough to be
+sure of victory."
+
+The irascible old chief was willing only partially to listen to this
+advice. He delayed the conflict, but did not disguise his hostility. De
+Soto sent to him a very kindly message declaring that he came in peace,
+and wished only for an unmolested march through his country. The cacique
+returned an angry reply refusing all courteous intercourse.
+
+The Spaniards had been but three hours in the village when, to their
+surprise, they perceived an army of four thousand warriors, thoroughly
+prepared for battle, gathered around the mound upon which was reared the
+dwelling of their chief. If so many warriors could be assembled in so
+short a time, they feared there must be a large number in reserve who
+could soon be drawn in. The Spaniards, in their long marches and many
+battles, had dwindled away to less than five hundred men. Four thousand
+against five hundred were fearful odds; and yet the number of their foes
+might speedily be doubled or even quadrupled. In addition to this, the
+plains around the city were exceedingly unfavorable for the movements of
+the Spanish army, while they presented great advantages to the
+nimble-footed natives; for their region was covered with forests,
+sluggish streams, and bogs.
+
+By great exertions, De Soto succeeded in effecting a sort of compromise.
+The cacique consented to allow the Spaniards to remain for six days in
+the village to nurse the sick and the wounded. Food was to be furnished
+them by the cacique. At the end of six days the Spaniards were to leave,
+abstaining entirely from pillage, from injuring the crops, and from all
+other acts of violence.
+
+The cacique and all the inhabitants of the village abandoned the place,
+leaving it to the sole occupancy of the Spaniards. April, in that sunny
+clime, was mild as genial summer. The natives, with their simple habits,
+probably found little inconvenience in encamping in the groves around.
+On the last day of his stay, De Soto obtained permission to visit the
+cacique. He thanked the chief cordially for his hospitality, and, taking
+an affectionate leave, continued his journey into the unknown regions
+beyond.
+
+Ascending the tortuous windings of the river on the eastern bank, the
+Spaniards found themselves, for four days, in almost impenetrable
+thickets, where there were no signs of inhabitants. At length they came
+to quite an opening in the forest. A treeless plain, waving with grass,
+spread far and wide around them. The Mississippi River here was about
+half a league in width. On the opposite bank large numbers of Indians
+were seen, many of them warriors in battle array, while a fleet of
+canoes lined the shore.
+
+De Soto decided, for some unexplained reason, to cross the river at that
+point, though it was evident that the Indians had in some way received
+tidings of his approach, and were assembled there to dispute his
+passage. The natives could easily cross the river in their canoes, but
+they would hardly venture to attack the Spaniards upon the open plain,
+where there was such a fine opportunity for the charges of their
+cavalry.
+
+Here De Soto encamped for twenty days, while all who could handle tools
+were employed in building four large flat-boats for the transportation
+of the troops across the stream. On the second day of the encampment
+several natives from some tribe disposed to be friendly, on the eastern
+side of the river, visited the Spaniards. With very much ceremony of
+bowing and semibarbaric parade they approached De Soto and informed him
+that they were commissioned by their chief to bid him welcome to his
+territory, and to assure him of his friendly services. De Soto, much
+gratified by this message, received the envoys with the greatest
+kindness, and dismissed them highly pleased with their reception.
+
+Though this chief sent De Soto repeated messages of kindness, he did not
+himself visit the Spanish camp, the alleged reason being--and perhaps
+the true one--that he was on a sick-bed. He, however, sent large
+numbers of his subjects with supplies of food, and to assist the
+Spaniards in drawing the timber to construct their barges. The hostile
+Indians on the opposite bank frequently crossed in their canoes, and,
+attacking small bands of workmen, showered upon them volleys of arrows,
+and fled again to their boats.
+
+One day the Spaniards, while at work, saw two hundred canoes filled with
+natives, in one united squadron, descending the river. It was a
+beautiful sight to witness this fleet, crowded with decorated and plumed
+warriors, their paddles, ornaments, and burnished weapons flashing in
+the sunlight. They came in true military style; several warriors
+standing at the bow and stern of each boat, with large shields of
+buffalo-hide on their left arms, and with bows and arrows in their
+hands. De Soto advanced to the shore to meet them, where he stood
+surrounded by his staff. The royal barge containing the chief paddled
+within a few rods of the bank. The cacique then rose, and addressed De
+Soto in words which, translated by the interpreter, were as follows: "I
+am informed that you are the envoy of the most powerful monarch of the
+globe. I have come to proffer to you friendship and homage, and to
+assure you of my assistance in any way in which I can be of service."
+
+De Soto thanked him heartily for his offer and entreated him to land,
+assuring him that he should meet only with the kindest reception. The
+boats immediately returned for another load. Rapidly they passed to and
+fro, and the whole army was transported to the western bank of the
+Mississippi. The point where De Soto and his army crossed, it is
+supposed, was at what is called the lowest Chickasaw Bluff.
+
+"The river in this place," says the Portuguese narrative, "was a mile
+and a half in breadth, so that a man standing still could scarcely be
+discerned from the opposite shore. It was of great depth, of wonderful
+rapidity, and very turbid, and was always filled with floating trees and
+timber carried down by the force of the current."
+
+The army having all crossed, the boats were broken up, as usual, to
+preserve the nails. It would seem that the hostile Indians had all
+vanished, for the Spaniards advanced four days in a westerly direction,
+through an uninhabited wilderness, encountering no opposition. On the
+fifth day they toiled up a heavy swell of land, from whose summit they
+discerned, in a valley on the other side, a large village of about four
+hundred dwellings. It was situated on the fertile banks of a stream
+which is supposed to have been the St. Francis.
+
+The extended valley, watered by this river, presented a lovely view as
+far as the eye could reach, with luxuriant fields of Indian corn and
+with groves of fruit and trees. The natives had received some intimation
+of the approach of the Spaniards, and in friendly crowds gathered around
+them, offering food and the occupancy of their houses. Two of the
+highest chieftains subordinate to the cacique soon came, with an
+imposing train of warriors, bearing a welcome from their chief and the
+offer of his services.
+
+De Soto received them with the utmost courtesy, and, in the interchange
+of these friendly offices, both Spaniards and natives became alike
+pleased with each other. The adventurers remained in this village for
+six days, finding abundant food for themselves and their horses, and
+experiencing, in the friendship and hospitality of the natives, joys
+which certainly never were found in the horrors of war. The province was
+called by the name of Kaski, and was probably the same as that occupied
+by the Kaskaskia Indians.
+
+Upon commencing anew their march they passed through a populous and
+well-cultivated country, where peace, prosperity, and abundance seemed
+to reign. In two days, having journeyed about twenty miles up the
+western bank of the Mississippi, they approached the chief town of the
+province, where the cacique lived. It was situated, as is supposed, in
+the region now called Little Prairie, in the extreme southern part of
+the State of Missouri, not far from New Madrid. Here they found the
+hospitable hands of the cacique and his people extended to greet them.
+
+The residence of the chief stood upon a broad artificial mound,
+sufficiently capacious for twelve or thirteen houses, which were
+occupied by his numerous family and attendants. He made De Soto a
+present of a rich fur mantle, and invited him, with his suite, to occupy
+the royal dwellings for their residence. De Soto politely declined this
+offer, as he was unwilling thus to incommode his kind entertainer. He,
+however, accepted the accommodation of several houses in the village.
+The remainder of the army were lodged in exceedingly pleasant bowers,
+skilfully and very expeditiously constructed by the natives of bark and
+the green boughs of trees, outside the village.
+
+It was now the month of May. The weather was intensely hot, and these
+rustic bowers were found to be refreshingly cool and grateful. The name
+of the friendly chief was Casquin. Here the army remained for three
+days, without a ripple of unfriendly feeling arising between the
+Spaniards and the natives.
+
+It was a season of unusual drouth in the country, and, on the fourth day
+following, an extraordinary incident occurred. Casquin, accompanied by
+quite an imposing retinue of his most distinguished men, came into the
+presence of De Soto, and, stepping forward with great solemnity of
+manner, said to him: "Senor, as you are superior to us in prowess and
+surpass us in arms, we likewise believe that your God is better than our
+God. These you behold before you are the chief warriors of my dominions.
+We supplicate you to pray to your God to send us rain, for our fields
+are parched for the want of water." De Soto, who was a reflective man,
+of pensive temperament and devoutly inclined, responded: "We are all
+alike sinners, but we will pray to God, the Father of Mercies, to show
+his kindness to you."
+
+He then ordered the carpenter to cut down one of the tallest pine trees
+in the vicinity. It was carefully trimmed and formed into a perfect but
+gigantic cross. Its dimensions were such that it required the strength
+of one hundred men to raise and plant it in the ground. Two days were
+employed in this operation. The cross stood upon a bluff on the western
+bank of the Mississippi. The next morning after it was reared the whole
+Spanish army was called out to celebrate the erection of the cross by a
+solemn religious procession. A large number of the natives, with
+apparent devoutness, joined in the festival. Casquin and De Soto took
+the lead, walking side by side. The Spanish soldiers and the native
+warriors, composing a procession of more than a thousand, persons,
+walked harmoniously along as brothers to commemorate the erection of
+the cross--the symbol of the Christian's faith.
+
+The cross! It should be the emblem of peace on earth and good-will among
+men. Alas! how often has it been the badge of cruelty and crime!
+
+The priests--for there were several in the army--chanted their Christian
+hymns and offered fervent prayers. The Mississippi at this point is not
+very broad, and it is said that upon the opposite bank twenty thousand
+natives were assembled, watching with intensest interest the imposing
+ceremony, and apparently at times taking part in the exercises. When the
+priests raised their hands in prayer, they too extended their arms and
+raised their eyes, as if imploring the aid of the God of heaven and
+earth.
+
+Occasionally a low moan was heard wafted across the river--a wailing
+cry, as if woe-stricken children were imploring the aid of an almighty
+father. The spirit of De Soto was deeply moved to tenderness and
+sympathy as he witnessed this benighted people paying such homage to the
+emblem of man's redemption. After several prayers were offered, the
+whole procession, slowly advancing two by two, knelt before the cross,
+as if in brief ejaculatory prayer, and kissed it. All then returned with
+the same solemnity to the village, the priests chanting the grand
+anthem, _Te Deum Laudamus_.
+
+Thus more than three hundred years ago the cross, significant of the
+religion of Jesus, was planted upon the banks of the Mississippi, and
+the melody of Christian hymns was wafted across the silent waters and
+blended with the sighing of the breeze through the tree-tops. It is sad
+to reflect how little of the spirit of that religion has since been
+manifested in those realms in man's treatment of his brother-man.
+
+It is worthy of especial notice that upon the night succeeding this
+eventful day clouds gathered, and the long-looked-for rain fell
+abundantly. The devout Las Casas writes: "God, in his mercy, willing to
+show these heathen that he listeneth to those who call upon him in
+truth, sent down in the middle of the ensuing night a plenteous rain, to
+the great joy of the Indians."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52] By permission of the executor of the estate of the late John S. C.
+Abbott.
+
+
+
+
+REVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMY BY COPERNICUS
+
+A.D. 1543
+
+SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL
+
+     The promulgation of the accepted system of astronomy, called
+     the Copernican system, which represents the earth as
+     revolving on its axis and considers the sun as the centre of
+     motion for the earth and other planets, marked the greatest
+     of scientific revolutions.
+
+     Copernicus, whose name, thus Latinized, was Koppernigk or
+     Kopernik, was born at Thorn, Prussia, February 19, 1473, and
+     died at Frauenburg, Prussia, May 24, 1543. The founder of
+     modern astronomy was probably of German descent: according
+     to some authorities his father was a Germanized Slav, his
+     mother a German; and the honor of producing him is claimed
+     by both Germany and Poland.
+
+     With equal conciseness and lucidity, in the following pages
+     the eminent British astronomer furnishes important
+     particulars concerning the life of Copernicus; and he gives
+     an account, no less interesting than instructive, of the
+     evolution of the Copernican astronomy in its founder's mind.
+
+
+Copernicus, the astronomer, whose discoveries make him the great
+predecessor of Kepler and Newton, did not come from a noble family, as
+certain other early astronomers have done, for his father was a
+tradesman. Chroniclers are, however, careful to tell us that one of his
+uncles was a bishop. We are not acquainted with any of those details of
+his childhood or youth which are often of such interest in other cases
+where men have risen to exalted fame. It would appear that the young
+Nicolaus, for such was his Christian name, received his education at
+home until such time as he was deemed sufficiently advanced to be sent
+to the University at Cracow. The education that he there obtained must
+have been in those days of very primitive description, but Copernicus
+seems to have availed himself of it to the utmost. He devoted himself
+more particularly to the study of medicine, with the view of adopting
+its practice as the profession of his life. The tendencies of the future
+astronomer were, however, revealed in the fact that he worked hard at
+mathematics, and for him, as for one of his illustrious successors,
+Galileo, the practice of the art of painting had a very great interest,
+and in it he obtained some measure of success.
+
+By the time he was twenty-seven years old, it would seem that Copernicus
+had given up the notion of becoming a medical practitioner, and had
+resolved to devote himself to science. He was engaged in teaching
+mathematics, and appears to have acquired some reputation. His growing
+fame attracted the notice of his uncle the Bishop, at whose suggestion
+Copernicus took holy orders, and he was presently appointed to a canonry
+in the Cathedral of Frauenburg, near the mouth of the Vistula.
+
+To Frauenburg, accordingly, this man of varied gifts retired. Possessing
+somewhat of the ascetic spirit, he resolved to devote his life to work
+of the most serious description. He eschewed all ordinary society,
+restricting his intimacies to very grave and learned companions, and
+refusing to engage in conversation of any useless kind. It would seem as
+if his gifts for painting were condemned as frivolous; at all events, we
+do not learn that he continued to practise them. In addition to the
+discharge of his theological duties, his life was occupied partly in
+ministering medically to the wants of the poor, and partly with his
+researches in astronomy and mathematics. His equipment in the matter of
+instruments for the study of the heavens seems to have been of a very
+meagre description. He arranged apertures in the walls of his house at
+Allenstein, so that he could observe in some fashion the passage of the
+stars across the meridian. That he possessed some talent for practical
+mechanics is proved by his construction of a contrivance for raising
+water from a stream, for the use of the inhabitants of Frauenburg.
+Relics of this machine are still to be seen.
+
+The intellectual slumber of the Middle Ages was destined to be awakened
+by the revolutionary doctrines of Copernicus. It may be noted, as an
+interesting circumstance, that the time at which he discovered the
+scheme of the solar system coincided with a remarkable epoch in the
+world's history. The great astronomer had just reached manhood at the
+time when Columbus discovered the New World.
+
+Before the publication of the researches of Copernicus, the orthodox
+scientific creed averred that the earth was stationary, and that the
+apparent movements of the heavenly bodies were real movements. Ptolemy
+had laid down this doctrine fourteen hundred years before. In his theory
+this huge error was associated with so much important truth, and the
+whole presented such a coherent scheme for the explanation of the
+heavenly movements, that the Ptolemaic theory was not seriously
+questioned until the great work of Copernicus appeared. No doubt others
+before Copernicus had from time to time in some vague fashion surmised,
+with more or less plausibility, that the sun, and not the earth, was the
+centre about which the system really revolved. It is, however, one thing
+to state a scientific fact; it is quite another thing to be in
+possession of the train of reasoning, founded on observation or
+experiment, by which that fact may be established. Pythagoras, it
+appears, had indeed told his disciples that it was the sun, and not the
+earth, which was the centre of movement, but it does not seem at all
+certain that Pythagoras had any grounds which science could recognize
+for the belief which is attributed to him. So far as information is
+available to us, it would seem that Pythagoras associated his scheme of
+things celestial with a number of preposterous notions in natural
+philosophy. He may certainly have made a correct statement as to which
+was the most important body in the solar system, but he certainly did
+not provide any rational demonstration of the fact. Copernicus, by a
+strict train of reasoning, convinced those who would listen to him that
+the sun was the centre of the system. It is useful for us to consider
+the arguments which he urged and by which he effected that intellectual
+revolution which is always connected with his name.
+
+The first of the great discoveries which Copernicus made relates to the
+rotation of the earth on its axis. That general diurnal movement, by
+which the stars and all other celestial bodies appear to be carried
+completely round the heavens once every twenty-four hours, had been
+accounted for by Ptolemy on the supposition that the apparent movements
+were the real movements. Ptolemy himself felt the extraordinary
+difficulty involved in the supposition that so stupendous a fabric as
+the celestial sphere should spin in the way supposed. Such movements
+required that many of the stars should travel with almost inconceivable
+velocity. Copernicus also saw that the daily rising and setting of the
+heavenly bodies could be accounted for either by the supposition that
+the celestial sphere moved round and that the earth remained at rest, or
+by the supposition that the celestial sphere was at rest while the earth
+turned round in the opposite direction. He weighed the arguments on both
+sides as Ptolemy had done, and as the result of his deliberation
+Copernicus came to an opposite conclusion from Ptolemy. To Copernicus it
+appeared that the difficulties attending the supposition that the
+celestial sphere revolved were vastly greater than those which appeared
+so weighty to Ptolemy as to force him to deny the earth's rotation.
+
+Copernicus shows clearly how the observed phenomena could be accounted
+for just as completely by a rotation of the earth as by a rotation of
+the heavens. He alludes to the fact that, to those on board a vessel
+which is moving through smooth water, the vessel itself appears to be at
+rest, while the objects on shore appear to be moving past. If,
+therefore, the earth were rotating uniformly, we dwellers upon the
+earth, oblivious of our own movement, would wrongly attribute to the
+stars the displacement which was actually the consequence of our own
+motion.
+
+Copernicus saw the futility of the arguments by which Ptolemy had
+endeavored to demonstrate that a revolution of the earth was impossible.
+It was plain to him that there was nothing whatever to warrant refusal
+to believe in the rotation of the earth. In his clear-sightedness on
+this matter we have specially to admire the sagacity of Copernicus as a
+natural philosopher. It had been urged that, if the earth moved round,
+its motion would not be imparted to the air, and that therefore the
+earth would be uninhabitable by the terrific winds which would be the
+result of our being carried through the air. Copernicus convinced
+himself that this deduction was preposterous. He proved that the air
+must accompany the earth, just as one's coat remains round him,
+notwithstanding the fact that he is walking down the street. In this way
+he was able to show that all _a priori_ objections to the earth's
+movements were absurd, and therefore he was able to compare together the
+plausibilities of the two rival schemes for explaining the diurnal
+movement.
+
+Once the issue had been placed in this form, the result could not be
+long in doubt. Here is the question: Which is it more likely--that the
+earth, like a grain of sand at the centre of a mighty globe, should turn
+round once in twenty-four hours, or that the whole of that vast globe
+should complete a rotation in the opposite direction in the same time?
+Obviously, the former is far the more simple supposition. But the case
+is really much stronger than this. Ptolemy had supposed that all the
+stars were attached to the surface of a sphere. He had no ground
+whatever for this supposition, except that otherwise it would have been
+wellnigh impossible to devise a scheme by which the rotation of the
+heavens around a fixed earth could have been arranged. Copernicus,
+however, with the just instinct of a philosopher, considered that the
+celestial sphere, however convenient, from a geometrical point of view,
+as a means of representing apparent phenomena, could not actually have a
+material existence. In the first place, the existence of a material
+celestial sphere would require that all the myriad stars should be at
+exactly the same distances from the earth. Of course, no one will say
+that this or any other arbitrary disposition of the stars is actually
+impossible; but as there was no conceivable physical reason why the
+distances of all the stars from the earth should be identical, it seemed
+in the very highest degree improbable that the stars should be so
+placed.
+
+Doubtless, also, Copernicus felt a considerable difficulty as to the
+nature of the materials from which Ptolemy's wonderful sphere was to be
+constructed. Nor could a philosopher of his penetration have failed to
+observe that, unless that sphere were infinitely large, there must have
+been space outside it, a consideration which would open up other
+difficult questions. Whether infinite or not, it was obvious that the
+celestial sphere must have a diameter at least many thousands of times
+as great as that of the earth. From these considerations Copernicus
+deduced the important fact that the stars and other important celestial
+bodies must all be vast objects. He was thus enabled to put the question
+in such a form that it would hardly receive any answer but the correct
+one: Which is it more rational to suppose, that the earth should turn
+round on its axis once in twenty-four hours, or that thousands of mighty
+stars should circle round the earth in the same time, many of them
+having to describe circles many thousands of times greater in
+circumference than the circuit of the earth at the equator? The obvious
+answer pressed upon Copernicus with so much force that he was compelled
+to reject Ptolemy's theory of the stationary earth, and to attribute the
+diurnal rotation of the heavens to the revolution of the earth on its
+axis.
+
+Once this tremendous step had been taken, the great difficulties which
+beset the monstrous conception of the celestial sphere vanished, for the
+stars need no longer be regarded as situated at equal distances from the
+earth. Copernicus saw that they might lie at the most varied degrees of
+remoteness, some being hundreds or thousands of times farther away than
+others. The complicated structure of the celestial sphere as a material
+object disappeared altogether; it remained only as a geometrical
+conception, whereon we find it convenient to indicate the places of the
+stars. Once the Copernican doctrine had been fully set forth, it was
+impossible for anyone, who had both the inclination and the capacity to
+understand it, to withhold acceptance of its truth. The doctrine of a
+stationary earth had gone forever.
+
+Copernicus having established a theory of the celestial movements which
+deliberately set aside the stability of the earth, it seemed natural
+that he should inquire whether the doctrine of a moving earth might not
+remove the difficulties presented in other celestial phenomena. It had
+been universally admitted that the earth lay unsupported in space.
+Copernicus had further shown that it possessed a movement of rotation.
+Its want of stability being thus recognized, it seemed reasonable to
+suppose that the earth might also have some other kinds of movements as
+well. In this, Copernicus essayed to solve a problem far more difficult
+than that which hitherto occupied his attention. It was a comparatively
+easy task to show how the diurnal rising and setting could be accounted
+for by the rotation of the earth. It was a much more difficult
+undertaking to demonstrate that the planetary movements, which Ptolemy
+had represented with so much success, could be completely explained by
+the supposition that each of these planets revolved uniformly round the
+sun, and that the earth was also a planet, accomplishing a complete
+circuit of the sun once in the course of a year.
+
+It would be impossible, in a sketch like the present, to enter into any
+detail as to the geometrical propositions on which this beautiful
+investigation of Copernicus depended. We can only mention a few of the
+leading principles. It may be laid down in general that, if an observer
+is in movement, he will, if unconscious of the fact, attribute to the
+fixed objects around him a movement equal and opposite to that which he
+actually possesses. A passenger on a canal-boat sees the objects on the
+banks apparently moving backward with a speed equal to that by which he
+himself is advancing forward. By an application of this principle, we
+can account for all the phenomena of the movements of the planets, which
+Ptolemy had so ingeniously represented by his circles. Let us take, for
+instance, the most characteristic feature in the irregularities of the
+outer planets. Mars, though generally advancing from west to east among
+the stars, occasionally pauses, retraces his steps for a while, again
+pauses, and then resumes his ordinary onward progress. Copernicus showed
+clearly how this effect was produced by the real motion of the earth,
+combined with the real motion of Mars. When the earth comes directly
+between Mars and the sun, the retrograde movement of Mars is at its
+highest. Mars and the earth are then advancing in the same direction.
+We, on the earth, however, being unconscious of our own motion,
+attribute, by the principle I have already explained, an equal and
+opposite motion to Mars. The visible effect upon the planet is that Mars
+has two movements, a real onward movement in one direction, and an
+apparent movement in the opposite direction. If it so happened that the
+earth was moving with the same speed as Mars, then the apparent movement
+would exactly neutralize the real movement, and Mars would seem to be at
+rest relatively to the surrounding stars. Under the actual circumstances
+considered, however, the earth is moving faster than Mars, and the
+consequence is that the apparent movement of the planet backward exceeds
+the real movement forward, the net result being an apparent retrograde
+movement.
+
+With consummate skill, Copernicus showed how the applications of the
+same principles could account for the characteristic movements of the
+planets. His reasoning in due time bore down all opposition. The supreme
+importance of the earth in the system vanished. It had now merely to
+take rank as one of the planets.
+
+The same great astronomer now, for the first time, rendered something
+like a rational account of the changes of the seasons. Nor did certain
+of the more obscure astronomical phenomena escape his attention.
+
+He delayed publishing his wonderful discoveries to the world until he
+was quite an old man. He had a well-founded apprehension of the storm of
+opposition which they would arouse. However, he yielded at last to the
+entreaties of his friends, and his book[53] was sent to the press. But
+ere it made its appearance to the world, Copernicus was seized with
+mortal illness. A copy of the book was brought to him on May 23, 1543.
+We are told that he was able to see it and to touch it, but no more; and
+he died a few hours afterward.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[53] _De Orbium Coelestium Revolutionibus._
+
+
+
+
+COUNCIL OF TRENT AND THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
+
+A.D. 1545
+
+ADOLPHUS W. WARD
+
+     An important phase of history in the sixteenth century is
+     summarized by Macaulay when he says that "the Church of
+     Rome, having lost a large part of Europe, not only ceased to
+     lose, but actually regained nearly half of what she had
+     lost." Macaulay is speaking of what is known as the
+     "Counter-reformation," a reaction against the Protestant
+     movement, which was rapidly spreading in Europe. By the
+     Counter-reformation not only were the Roman Catholic losses
+     largely recovered, but an increased zeal for the
+     regeneration of the Church of Rome became fruitful of
+     results.
+
+     The reformation of the Church from within had been often
+     attempted by the ecclesiastical leaders. Several "reforming
+     councils" had been held, but the desired object had not been
+     accomplished. During the pontificate of Paul III (1534-1549)
+     the movement for regenerating the Church, as well as for
+     opposing the progress of Protestantism, was effectually
+     inaugurated. At the Council of Trent the new policy was
+     definitely set forth.
+
+     A general council had long been demanded by the Germans.
+     Even many of the leading Italians had come to desire it.
+     Charles V, who had his own reasons for temporizing with the
+     Protestants, had urged it year after year. Much as the
+     domination of the Emperor might be feared in such an
+     assembly, Paul at length decided to comply. Twice he ordered
+     the assembling of a council (1536 and 1538), but the
+     distracted state of Europe caused postponement. Meanwhile,
+     owing to the continued progress of the Protestants, Paul and
+     Charles came to an agreement that another summons should be
+     issued. A few prelates were gathered at Trent in 1542, but,
+     owing to the Emperor's war with France and the Turks, the
+     Pope next year dispersed them.
+
+     Finally a papal bull summoned all the bishops of Christendom
+     to Trent for March 15, 1545. The Pope showed much sagacity
+     in calling this council at the moment when Charles and his
+     inveterate enemy, Francis I, were concerting the suppression
+     of the Protestants.
+
+
+On December 13, 1545, three legates appointed by the Pope held their
+public entry into Trent, and the council was formally opened. Paul III's
+continued desire to conciliate the Emperor was shown by his adherence to
+Trent as the locality of the council, when the legates again urged the
+choice of a town on Italian soil. Yet the very Bishop of Trent, Cardinal
+Madruccio, was a prince of the Empire, and by descent attached to the
+house of Austria, whose interests he consistently represented during the
+first series of sessions. The papal legates, with whose control over the
+council the Emperor at the outset showed no intention of interfering,
+typified the different elements in the ecclesiastical policy of Paul
+III. The presiding legate, Cardinal del Monte--afterward Pope Julius
+III--while notable neither for religious zeal nor for wise self-control,
+was a thoroughgoing supporter of the interests of the Curia. Cardinal
+Cervino, afterward Pope Marcellus II, a prelate of blameless life, was
+animated by those ideas of ecclesiastical reform of which Pope Paul had
+encouraged the open expression; but he was more especially eager for the
+extirpation of heresy, and not over-scrupulous in the choice of means
+for reaching his ends. Lastly, Cardinal Pole's[54] presence at Trent, in
+which some have seen a mere papal ruse, must have surrounded the early
+proceedings of the council with a hopeful glamour in the eyes of those
+who, like himself, expected from it the reunion as well as the
+reinvigoration of Western Christendom.
+
+Nothing, as had probably been foreseen at Rome, could have better
+facilitated the immediate establishment of the ascendency in the council
+of the papal policy than the composition of its opening meeting. Of the
+thirty-four ecclesiastics present, only five were Spanish and two French
+bishops, and no German bishop had crossed the Alps. Nor had any secular
+power except the Emperor and King Ferdinand sent their ambassadors. The
+business machinery of the council, which the legates lost no time in
+getting into order, was altogether in favor of their influence as
+managers. Learned doctors, without being, as in former councils, allowed
+to take part in the debates, prepared the work of the three committees
+or congregations, who in their turn brought it up for discussion to the
+general congregations.
+
+The sessions in which the decrees thus prepared were actually passed
+had a purely formal character, but before they were successively held
+opportunity enough was given for manipulation and delay. The voting in
+the council was by heads, instead of by nations, as at Constance and
+Basel; and care was taken to refresh by occasional additions the working
+majority of Italian bishops, mostly, in comparison with the
+"ultramontane" prelates, holders of petty sees. Some of these are even
+stated to have bound themselves by a sworn engagement to uphold the
+interests of the holy see, though by no means all of the Italian bishops
+were servile Curialists; witness those of Chioggia and of Fiesole. The
+council in its second session (January 7, 1546) waived the form of title
+by which previous councils had implicitly declared their representative
+authority paramount. On the other hand, it boded well for the cause of
+reform that, by an early resolution, virtually all abbots and members of
+the monastic orders except five generals were excluded.
+
+Clearly, episcopal interest was resolved upon asserting itself. So long,
+however, as the German bishops were detained in their dioceses by the
+duty of repressing heresy there, while the great body of the French were
+kept away by the vigilant jealousy of their government, the episcopal
+interest and the episcopal principle were mainly represented in the
+council by the Spanish prelates, the loyal subjects of Charles. Their
+leader was Pacheco, Cardinal of Jaen. With him came eminent theological
+professors, who in the early period of the council at least were without
+rivals--Dominico de Soto, whom Queen Mary afterward placed in Peter
+Martyr's chair at Oxford, and Bartolomeo Carranza, afterward primate of
+all Spain and for many years a prisoner of the Inquisition. Through the
+Emperor's ambassador, the accomplished and indefatigable but not
+invariably discreet Mendoza, the Spanish bishops were carefully apprised
+of the wishes of their sovereign.
+
+The crucial question as to the order in which the council should debate
+the two divisions of subjects which it had met to settle had to be
+decided at once; and the compromise arrived at showed both the strength
+of the minority and the unwillingness of the leaders of the majority,
+the presiding legates, to push matters to an extreme. Their instructions
+from the Pope were to give the declaration of dogma the preference over
+the announcement of disciplinary reforms; for it seemed to him of
+primary necessity to draw, while there was time, a clear line of
+demarcation between the Church and heresy; and for this, as he correctly
+judged, the assistance of the council was absolutely indispensable. The
+Emperor, on the other hand, was still unwilling to shut the door
+completely against the Protestants, while both he and the episcopal
+party at the council were eager for that reformation of the life and
+government of the Church which seemed to them her most crying need.
+
+Ultimately it was agreed that the declaration of dogma and the
+reformation of abuses should be treated _pari passu_, the decrees
+formulated in each case being from time to time announced
+simultaneously. Taking into account the subsequent history of the
+council, one can hardly deny that this arrangement saved the work of the
+assembly from being left half done. Nor was the progress made in the
+period ending with the eighth session of the council (March 11, 1547),
+intrigues and quarrels notwithstanding, by any means trifling. On the
+doctrinal side, the foundations of the faith were in the first instance
+examined, and the whole character of the doctrinal decrees of the
+council was in point of fact determined, when the authority of the
+tradition of the Church, including of course the decrees of her
+ecumenical councils, was acknowledged by the side of that of Scripture.
+Little to the credit of the council's capacity for taking pains, the
+authenticity of the Vulgate was proclaimed, a pious wish being added
+that it should be henceforth printed as correctly as possible. At first,
+Pope Paul III hesitated about giving his assent to these decrees, which
+had been passed before receiving his approval, and showed some anxiety
+to prevent a similar course being taken in the matter of discipline by
+publishing a regulatory bull on his own authority. But on being more
+fully advised by the legates of the nature of the situation, he
+consented to allow the debates to proceed, provided always that the
+decrees should be submitted to him before publication.
+
+During the next months (April to June, 1546) the work of the council was
+accordingly vigorously continued in both its branches. In that of
+discipline, the episcopal and the monastic interests at once came into
+conflict on the subject of the license for preaching; and still more
+excitement was aroused by the question of episcopal residence, which
+brought into conflict the highest purposes of the episcopal office and
+the selfish profits of the Roman Curia. The discussions on preaching
+ended with a reasonable compromise, monks being henceforth prohibited
+from preaching without the bishop's license in any churches but those of
+their own order. The question of residence was by the Pope's wish
+adjourned.
+
+Thus the council, now augmented by Swiss and many other bishops, while
+all the chief Catholic powers except Poland were represented by
+ambassadors, could venture to approach those questions of dogma which
+the Emperor would gladly have seen postponed, so long as he was still
+pausing on the brink of his conflict with the German Protestants. The
+Pope, on the contrary, while ostentatiously displaying on the frontier
+the auxiliary forces which he had promised to the Emperor, was eager to
+proclaim through the council as distinctly as possible the solid unity
+of the orthodox Church. The doctrine concerning original sin having been
+promulgated in the teeth of imperial opposition, the legates pressed for
+the issue of the decree concerning justification. In the midst of the
+debates the Smalkaldic War broke out (July, 1546).
+
+For a time it seemed as if at Trent, too, the opposing interests would
+have proved irreconcilable. Pole, as the justification decree began to
+shape itself, had, "for reasons of health," withdrawn to Padua;
+Madruccio and Del Monte exchanged personal insults; Pacheco accused the
+legates of gross chicanery, and they in their turn threatened a removal
+of the council to an Italian city, where, in accordance with what they
+knew to be the papal wish, the council might deliberate without being
+either overawed by the Emperor or menaced by his Protestant adversaries.
+Soon, however, the case was altered by the manifest collapse of the
+latter, notwithstanding their expectations of support from England,
+Denmark, and France, long before their final catastrophe in the battle
+of Muhlberg, April 24, 1547. The Emperor would not hear of the removal
+of the council to Lucca, Ferrara, or any other Italian town, and in
+consequence the plan of campaign at Trent was modified, in order at all
+events to make the breach with the Protestants impassable. The debates
+on justification were eagerly pushed on, and, after some further trials
+of _finesse_, the decree on the subject which anathematized the
+fundamental doctrines of the Lutheran Reformation was passed in the
+sixth session of the council, January 13, 1547.
+
+On the other hand, the decree on residence was again postponed, and a
+very high tone was taken toward the prelates absent from the
+council--the Germans being, of course, those principally glanced at. In
+the next session (March 5th) decrees followed asserting the orthodox
+doctrine of the Church concerning the sacraments, and baptism and
+confirmation in particular, and with these was at last issued the decree
+concerning residence. It avoided pronouncing on the view which had been
+so ardently advocated by the Spanish bishops and argued by the pen of
+Archbishop Carranza, that the duty of residence was imposed by divine
+law, and it took care to safeguard the dispensing authority of the Roman
+see. Yet, though at times evaded or overridden, the prohibition of
+pluralism contained in this decree, together with certain other
+provisions for the _bona-fide_ execution of bishops' functions, has
+indisputably proved most advantageous to the vigor and vitality of the
+episcopacy of the Church of Rome.
+
+Paul III's attitude toward the Emperor had meanwhile grown more and more
+suspicious. Partly they had become antagonists on the great question of
+Church reorganization; partly the Emperor was becoming disposed to
+thwart the dynastic policy of the Farnese; partly, again, the Pope now
+thought himself able to fall back on the alliance of France. In January
+Paul III recalled the auxiliaries and stopped the subsidies which he had
+furnished to Charles V; and in March Henry II succeeded to the French
+throne, whose intrigues with the German Protestants, though leaving
+unaffected his fanatical rigor against his own heretics at home, seemed
+likely to break the current of imperial success. Thus at Trent the
+struggle against the Spanish bishops acquired an intense significance;
+and in the eighth session, March 11th, the legates at last made use of
+the power intrusted to them, it was said, eighteen months before, and
+carried, against the votes of Spain, the removal of the council to
+Bologna, on the plea of an outbreak of the plague at Trent. By the
+Emperor's desire, the Spanish bishops, plague or no plague, remained in
+the city.
+
+"The obstinate old man," said Charles, "would end by ruining the
+Church;" and sanguine Protestants might dream of a renewal of the
+situation of 1526-1527. The progress of events widened the breach
+between the Emperor and the Pope. After Muhlberg Charles V seemed
+irresistible, and, as he would hear of no solution but a return of the
+council to Trent, there seemed no choice between submission and
+defiance. Gradually, however, it became clear that he had no wish again
+to drive things to extremes, and least of all to provoke anything of the
+nature of a schism. Moreover, France, where the Guises were now in the
+ascendant, was becoming more hostile to him; and the murder of the
+Pope's son at Piacenza, followed by the occupation of that city by
+Spanish troops, September, 1547, nearly brought about the conclusion of
+a Franco-Italian league against Charles. But though French bishops
+arrived at Bologna, their attitude there was by no means acceptable to
+the Pope, and Henry II had no real intention of making war upon the
+Emperor. Thus the latter thought himself able to take into his own hands
+the settlement of the religious difficulty.
+
+In the midst of further disappointments and of fresh designs, the
+immediate purposes of which are not altogether clear, Pope Paul III
+died, November 15, 1549. That the most generous of the aspirations which
+had under his reign first found full opportunity for asserting
+themselves had survived his manoeuvring, was shown by the favorable
+reception, both outside and inside the conclave, of the proposal that
+Reginald Pole should be his successor. But Pole refused to be elected by
+the impulsive method of adoration, and in the end the Farnese[55]
+interest, supported by the French, prevailed, and Cardinal del Monte was
+chosen.
+
+The papal government of Julius III (1550 to 1555) showed hardly more of
+temperate wisdom than had marked his conduct of the presidency at Trent;
+but he had the courage at the very outset to decide upon the safest
+course. After a few conditions, most of them quite in the spirit of the
+imperial policy, had been proposed and accepted, the bull summoning the
+council to Trent for the following spring was issued without further ado
+(November).
+
+Yet even before the council actually reopened, _i.e._, May 1, 1551, it
+had become evident that the papal view of its purposes remained as
+widely divergent from the Imperial as in the days of Paul III. The
+nomination of Cardinal Crescentio, a Roman by birth, as president of the
+council, with two Italian prelates, Pighino of Siponto and Lippomano of
+Verona, by his side, was in itself ominous; and the German Protestants,
+upon whom the Emperor pressed safe-conducts at Augsburg (1551),
+perceived the papal intention of treating the council as a mere
+continuation of that which had previously sat at Trent. Still, several
+of them, as well as the Catholic electors, finally promised to attend.
+On the other hand, Henry II of France prohibited the appearance of a
+single French prelate, and began to talk of a Gallican council. Thus the
+brief series of sessions held at Trent from May, 1551, to April, 1552,
+proved in the main, though not altogether, barren of results. Unless the
+assembled fathers were prepared to reconsider the decrees already
+passed, and to force the assent of the Pope to a religious policy of
+quite unprecedented breadth, another deadlock was at hand; and already,
+in the early months of 1552, the council, this time with the manifest
+connivance of Rome, began to thin. When, in April, Maurice of Saxony,
+now the ally of France, approached the southern frontier of the Empire,
+the Pope, whose own French war had taken a disastrous turn, had reason
+enough for shunning further cooperation with the Emperor. The council
+dwindled apace in spite of the efforts of Charles V, who had never
+ceased to believe in his schemes. Finally, however, he could not prevent
+the remnants of the council from passing a decree suspending its
+sessions for two years, which was opposed by not more than a dozen loyal
+Spanish votes, April 28, 1552.
+
+Charles V's resignation of his thrones (1554-1556) resulted, though far
+from being so intended, in a confession of his failure. While it was in
+progress, Julius III died (March 23, 1555), leaving behind him scant
+evidence to support the rumor of his having indulged, at all events in
+the last period of his reign, in ideas of church reformation. But the
+choice of his successor, Marcellus II (April-May, 1555), shows that
+these ideas were not yet extinct in the sacred college, notwithstanding
+the simultaneous creation by Julius III of fourteen cardinals; for
+Cervino had always been reckoned a member, though a moderate one, of the
+reforming party. Far greater, however, was the significance attaching to
+the election of the Pope who speedily took the place of Marcellus.
+
+The pontificate of Paul IV (Gian Pietro Caraffa, May, 1555-August, 1559)
+forms one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of the
+Counter-reformation, which in him seemed under both its aspects to have
+secured the mastery of the Church. God's will alone, he was convinced,
+had placed him where he stood; for he was unconscious of having achieved
+anything through the favor of man. He was now seventy-nine years of age,
+but he had never been more eager to devote himself to his chosen
+purpose--the establishment in the eyes of all peoples of a pure and
+spiritually active church, free from all impediments of corruptions and
+abuses, and purged of all poison of heresy and schism.
+
+Fully aware--though he had belonged to it himself--of the virtual
+failure of Paul III's commission of reform, Paul IV, in his first bull,
+solemnly promised an effectual reform of the Church and the Roman Curia,
+and lost no time in instituting a congregation for the purpose. The
+commission, which consisted of three divisions, each of them composed
+jointly of cardinals, bishops, and doctors, wisely addressed itself in
+the first instance to the question of ecclesiastical appointments. The
+new Pope likewise issued orders for the specific reform of monastic
+establishments, and his energy seemed to stand in striking contrast with
+the hesitations and delays of the recently suspended council.
+
+But once more the seductions of the temporal power overcame its holder.
+Caraffa's residence in Spain, and enthusiasm for the religious ideals
+and methods prevalent there, had not eradicated the bitterly
+anti-Spanish feeling inborn in him as a Neapolitan, and Charles V,
+returning hatred for hatred, had done his utmost to offend the dignity
+and damage the interests of the Cardinal. To these personal and
+national sentiments had been added the conviction that the Emperor's
+dealings with the German Protestants had encouraged them to deal a
+deadly blow to the unity and strength of the Church; and thus Paul IV
+allowed himself to be borne away by passion. His fiery temperament,
+fretted rather than soothed by old age, left him and those around him no
+peace; he maltreated the imperialist cardinals and the dependents of the
+Emperor within his reach, and sought to instigate the French government
+to take up arms once more.
+
+Of a sudden, as if in another gust of passion, he made a clean sweep of
+the obstacles which his own perversity had placed in his path, and then
+took up in terrible earnest the work of church reform. He would allow no
+appointment savoring of corruption to any spiritual office; he would
+hear of no exception to the duty of residence; he completely abolished
+dispensations for marriages within prohibited degrees. Into the general
+management of the churches of the city, as well as into that of his own
+papal court, he introduced so strict a discipline that Rome was likened
+to a well-conducted monastery. But the agency which above all others he
+encouraged was that which his own advice had established in the centre
+of the Catholic world--the Inquisition. From the sacred college
+downward, no sphere of life was exempted from its control; and his
+intolerance extended itself to the very Jews whose privileges in the
+papal states he ruthlessly revoked. On his death-bed he recommended the
+Inquisition with the holy see itself to the pious cardinals surrounding
+him. It was afterward observed that many reforms decreed in its third
+period by the Council of Trent were copied from the ordinances issued by
+Paul IV in this memorable _biennium_. But inasmuch as during his
+pontificate the Church of Rome had lost ground in almost every country
+of Europe except Italy and Spain, his death (August 18, 1559) naturally
+brought with it a widespread renewal of the demand for remedies more
+effective than those supplied by his feverish activity and by the
+operations of his favorite institution.
+
+Personally, Pius IV (1559-1566) was regarded, and probably chosen, as an
+opponent of the late Pope; his family history inclined him to the
+Imperial interest, and he was understood to favor concessions to
+Germany with a view of bringing her stray sheep back into the fold. But
+in general he furthered rather than arrested the religious reaction.
+Above all, the Inquisition, though he is not known to have done anything
+to intensify its rigor or augment its authority, went on as before.
+Carlo Borromeo,[56] the nephew of Pius IV, served the holy see in a
+spirit of unselfish devotion, and began those efforts on behalf of
+religion which in the end obtained for him a place among the saints of
+the Church--a position not reached by many popes' nephews. With the aid
+of this influence, Pius IV came to perceive that the future, both of the
+Church and of the papacy, depended on the spirit of confidence and
+cohesion which could be infused into the former; nor had he from the
+very outset of his pontificate ever doubted the expediency of
+reassembling the council at Trent.
+
+The emperor Ferdinand and the French Government, who persisted in
+treating the reunion of the Church as the primary object of the council,
+at first strongly urged the substitution for Trent of a genuinely German
+or French town, where the German bishops, and perhaps even the
+Protestants, would feel no scruple about attending. But a totally free
+and _new_ council of this description lay outside the horizon of the
+papacy; and Pius IV might have let fall the plan altogether but for the
+fear of the entire separation in that event of the Gallican Church from
+Rome. In France, Protestantism had made considerable strides during the
+reign of Henry II (1547-1559). About six weeks before the death of Henry
+the first national synod of Protestants was held at Paris (May, 1559).
+Under Francis II the Guise influence became paramount, and the
+persecution of the Protestants continued. But though the suppression,
+just before this, of the so-called conspiracy of Amboise had temporarily
+added to the power of the Guises, it had also made the Queen-mother,
+Catherine de' Medici, resolve not to let the power of the state pass
+wholly out of her hands. Hence the appointment of the large-hearted
+L'Hopital as chancellor, and the assembly of notables at Fontainebleau
+(August), where the grievances against Rome found full expression, and
+where arrangements were made for a meeting of the States-general and a
+national council of the French Church. This resolution determined Pius
+IV to lose no further time. On November 29, 1560, he issued a bull
+summoning all the prelates and princes of Christendom to Trent for the
+following Easter. The invitation included both Eastern schismatics and
+Western heretics, Elizabeth of England among the rest; but neither she
+nor the German Protestant princes assembled at Naumburg, nor the kings
+of the Scandinavian North, would so much as receive the papal summons.
+In France the death of Francis II (December 5, 1560) further depressed
+the Guise influence; and Catherine entered into negotiations with the
+Pope with a view to concessions such as would satisfy the Huguenots
+while approved by the French bishops. The "Edict of January" (1562),
+which followed, long remained a sort of standard of fair concessions to
+the Huguenots.
+
+The first deliberations of the reassembled council were barren. The
+question which really came home to the fathers of the Church assembled
+at Trent presented itself again when the sacrament of orders had in due
+course to be debated. The imperial and French ambassadors still
+cooperated as actively as ever, and the episcopal party, the Spanish
+prelates in particular, entered upon the struggle with a full sense of
+its critical importance. If the right divine of episcopacy could be
+declared, with it would be established the divine obligation of
+residence. Pius IV accordingly showed considerable shrewdness in
+instructing the legates at once to formulate a decree on residence,
+which, while leaving the question of divine obligation open, imposed
+penalties on nonresidence--except for lawful reasons--sufficient to meet
+practical requirements. But though such a decree was passed by the
+council, the debates on the origin of the episcopal office, which
+involved nothing less than the origin and nature of the papal supremacy,
+continued (November); and the critical nature of the discussion was the
+more apparent when in the midst of it there at last arrived nearly a
+score of French bishops, headed by the Cardinal of Lorraine. Hitherto
+France had been represented at the council by spokesmen of the French
+court and of the Parliament of Paris; now the foremost among the
+prelates of the monarchy, whose abilities, however, unfortunately fell
+far short of his pretensions, announced in full conciliar assembly the
+demands of his branch of the Church. The recent January edict proved the
+strength of the Huguenots in France; and though the Cardinal's first
+speech at Trent breathed nothing but condemnation of these heretics, it
+suited him to pose as the advocate of as extensive a series of reforms
+as had yet been urged upon the council.
+
+Further additions were made in the "libel," which was shortly afterward
+(January, 1563) presented by the French ambassador, and perfect harmony
+existed between the French and the imperial policy at the council. What
+decision, then, was to be expected on the crucial question as to the
+relations between papal and episcopal authority? How could a recognition
+of the Pope's claim to be regarded as _rector universalis ecclesiae_ be
+expected from such a union of the ultramontane forces? The current was
+not likely to be stopped by the papal court, which about this time Pius
+IV announced on his own account at Rome; it seemed on the point of
+rising higher than ever when (February, 1563) the Cardinal of Lorraine
+and some other prelates waited upon the Emperor at Innsbruck. In truth,
+however, a turning-point in the history of the council was close at
+hand. The Cardinal of Lorraine had left Trent for Innsbruck with threats
+of a Gallican synod on his lips. Ferdinand I had arrived there very
+wroth with the council, and had received the Bishop of Zante
+(Commendone), whom the legates sent to deprecate his vexation, with
+marked coolness. The remedies proposed to the Emperor by the Cardinal
+were drastic enough; the council was to be swamped by French, German,
+and Spanish bishops, and the Emperor, by repairing to Trent in person,
+was to awe the assembly into discussing the desired reforms, whether
+with or without the approval of the legates. But Ferdinand I, by nature
+moderate in action, and taught by the example of his brother, Charles V,
+the danger of violent courses, preferred to resort to a series of direct
+and by no means tame appeals to the Pope. The latter, indisposed as he
+was to support a fresh proposition for the removal of the council to
+some German town, urged by France, but resisted by Spain, which at the
+same time persistently opposed the concession of the cup demanded by
+both France and the Emperor, saw his opportunity for taking his
+adversaries singly. The deaths about this time (March, 1563) of the
+presiding legate, Cardinal Gonzaga, and of his colleague Cardinal
+Seripando, both of whom had occasionally shown themselves inclined to
+yield to the reforming party, were likewise in his favor. Their places
+were filled by Cardinals Morone, formerly a prisoner indicted by the
+Inquisition, now an eager champion of papal claims, and Navagero, a
+Venetian by birth, but not in his political sentiments. Morone, though
+he had left Rome almost despairing of any favorable issue of the
+council, at once began to negotiate with the Emperor through the Jesuit
+Canisius. The leverage employed may, in addition to the distrust between
+Ferdinand and his Spanish nephew, and the ancient jealousy between
+Austria and France, have included some reference to the heterodox
+opinions and the consequently doubtful prospects of the Emperor's eldest
+son, Maximilian.
+
+In a word, the papal government about this time formed and carried out a
+definite plan for inducing the Emperor to abandon his conciliar policy.
+The consideration offered for his assenting to a speedy termination of
+the council was the promise that, so soon as that event should have
+taken place, the desired concession of the cup should be made to his
+subjects. Ferdinand I, without becoming a thoroughgoing partisan of the
+papal policy, accepted the bargain as seemingly the shortest road to the
+end which, for the sake of the peace of the empire, he had at heart.
+Thus, notwithstanding the continued opposition of the French bishops,
+the decrees concerning the episcopate began to shape themselves more
+easily, and the Pope of his own accord submitted to the council certain
+canons of a stringent kind reforming in a similar way the discipline of
+the cardinalate (June). And when, in the course of a violent quarrel
+about precedence between the kings of France and Spain, the latter,
+enraged at his demands not being enforced by the Pope, had threatened,
+by insisting on the admission of Protestants to the council,
+indefinitely to prolong it, the Emperor intervened against the proposal.
+But the conflict between the papal and the episcopal authority seemed
+still incapable of solution, and, though Lainez audaciously demanded
+the reference of all questions of reform to the sole decision of the
+Pope, and denounced the opposition of the French bishops as proceeding
+from members of a schismatic church, this opposition steadily continued
+in conjunction with that of the Spaniards, and still found a leader in
+the Cardinal of Lorraine.
+
+Yet at this very time a change began to be perceptible in the conduct of
+this versatile and ambitious prelate. The Cardinal was supposed to have
+himself aspired to the office of presiding legate, and, though he had
+missed this place of honor and power, the condition of things in France
+was such as naturally to incline him in the direction of Rome. The
+assassination of his brother Francis, Duke of Guise (February, 1563),
+deprived his family and interest of their natural chief, and inclined
+Catherine de' Medici to transact with the Huguenots. The Cardinal
+accordingly became anxious at the same time to return to France and
+prevent the total eclipse of the influence he had hitherto exercised at
+court, and to secure himself by an understanding with the Pope.
+
+A letter which about this time arrived from Mary, Queen of Scots,
+declaring her readiness to submit to the decrees of the council, and,
+should she ascend the throne of England, to reduce that country to
+obedience to the holy see, may perhaps be connected with these
+overtures. Pius IV, delighted to meet the Cardinal half way, sent
+instructions in this sense to the legates, whom the recent display of
+Spanish arrogance had already disposed favorably toward France. Thus the
+decree on the sacrament of orders was passed in the colorless condition
+desired by the papal party, in a session held on July 15th, the Spanish
+bishops angrily declaring themselves betrayed by the French Cardinal.
+Other decrees were passed in this memorable session, among them one of
+substantial importance for the establishment of diocesan seminaries for
+priests. Clearly, the council had now become tractable and might
+speedily be brought to an end. In this sense the Pope addressed urgent
+letters to the three great Catholic monarchs, and found willing
+listeners except in Spain.
+
+Meanwhile the remaining decrees, both of doctrine and of discipline,
+were eagerly pushed on. The sacrament of marriage gave rise to much
+discussion; but the proposal that the marriage of priests should be
+permitted, though formerly included in both the imperial and the French
+libel, was now advocated only by the two prelates who spoke directly in
+the name of the Emperor. But in the decree proposed on the all-important
+subject of the reformation of the life and morals of the clergy, the
+legates presumed too far on the yielding mood of the governments. It not
+only contained many admirable reforms as to the conditions under which
+spiritual offices, from the cardinalate downward, were to be held or
+conferred, but the papacy had wisely and generously surrendered many
+existing usages profitable to itself. At the same time, however, it was
+proposed not only to deprive the royal authority in the several states
+of a series of analogous profits, but to take away from it the
+nomination of bishops and the right of citing ecclesiastics before a
+secular tribunal. To the protest which the ambassadors of the powers
+inevitably raised against these proposals, the legates replied by
+raising a cry that the "reformation of the princes" should be
+comprehended in the decrees. It became necessary to postpone the
+objectionable article; but now the fears of the supporters of the
+existing system began to be excited, both at Rome and at Trent, and it
+was contrived to introduce so many modifications into the proposed
+decree as seriously to impair its value. Then, though the Cardinal of
+Lorraine himself, during a visit to Rome (September), showed his
+readiness to support the papal policy, the French ambassadors at the
+council carried their opposition to its encroachments upon the claims of
+their sovereign so far as to withdraw to Venice. And above all, the
+Spanish bishops, upheld by the persistency of their King, stood firmly
+by the original form of the reformation decree, and finally obtained its
+restoration to a very considerable extent. Thus the greater portion of
+the decree was at last passed in the penultimate session of the council
+(November 11th).
+
+With the exception of Spain, all the powers now made known their consent
+to winding up the business of the council without further loss of time.
+But Count Luna still immovably resisted the closing of the council
+before the express assent of King Philip should have been received; nor
+was it till the news--authentic or not--arrived of a serious illness
+having befallen the Pope that the fear of the complications which might
+arise in the event of his death put an end to further delay.
+
+Summoned in all haste, the fathers met on December 3d for their
+five-and-twentieth session, and on this and the following day rapidly
+discussed a series of decrees, some of which were by no means devoid of
+intrinsic importance. In the doctrinal decrees concerning purgatory and
+indulgences, as in those concerning the invocation of saints and the
+respect due to their relics and images, it was sought to preclude a
+reckless exaggeration or distortion of the doctrines of the Church on
+these heads, and a corrupt perversion of the usages connected with them.
+
+Of the disciplinary decrees, the most important and elaborate related to
+the religious of both sexes. It contained a clause, inserted on the
+motion of Lainez, which the Jesuits afterward interpreted as generally
+exempting their society from the operation of this decree. Another
+decree enjoined sobriety and moderation in the use of the ecclesiastical
+penalty of excommunication. For the rest, all possible expedition was
+used in gathering up the threads of the work done or attempted by the
+council. The determination of the Index, as well as the revision of
+missal, breviary, ritual, and catechism, was remitted to the Pope. Then
+the decrees debated in the last session and at its adjourned meeting
+were adopted, being subscribed by 234 (or 255?) ecclesiastics; and the
+decrees passed in the sessions of the council before its reassembling
+under Pope Pius IV were read over again, and thus its continuity
+(1545-1563) was established without any use being made of the terms
+"approbation" and "confirmation." A decree followed, composed by the
+Cardinal of Lorraine and Cardinal Madruccio, solemnly commending the
+ordinances of the council to the Church and to the princes of
+Christendom, and remitting any difficulties concerning the execution of
+the decrees to the Pope, who would provide for it either by summoning
+another general council or as he might determine. A concluding decree
+put an end to the council itself, which closed with a kind of general
+thanksgiving intoned by the Cardinal of Lorraine.
+
+The decrees of the council were shortly afterward (January 26, 1564)
+ratified by Pius IV, against the wish of the more determined
+Curialists, while others would have wished him to guard himself by
+certain restrictions. These were, however, unnecessary, as he reserved
+to himself the interpretation of doubtful or disputed decrees. This
+reservation remained absolute as to decrees concerning dogma; for the
+interpretation of those concerning discipline, Sixtus V afterward
+appointed a special commission under the name of the "congregation of
+the Council of Trent." While the former became _ipso facto_ binding on
+the entire Church, the decrees on discipline and reformation could not
+become valid in any particular state till after they had been published
+in it with the consent of its government. This distinction is of the
+greatest importance. The doctrinal system of the Church of Rome was now
+enduringly fixed; the area which the Church had lost she could
+henceforth only recover if she reconquered it.
+
+Many attempts at reunion by compromise have since been made from the
+Protestant side, and some of these have perhaps been met half way by the
+generous wishes of not a few Catholics; but the Council of Trent has
+doomed all these projects to inevitable sterility. The gain of the
+Church of Rome from her acquisition at Trent of a clearly and sharply
+defined "body of doctrine" is not open to dispute, except from a point
+of view which her doctors have steadily repudiated. And it is difficult
+to suppose but that, in her conflict with the spirit of criticism which
+from the first in some measure animated the Protestant Reformation and
+afterward urged it far beyond its original scope, the Church of Rome
+must have proved an unequal combatant had not the Council of Trent
+renewed the foundations of the authority claimed by herself and of that
+claimed by her head on earth.
+
+The effect of the disciplinary decrees of the council, though more
+far-reaching and enduring than has been on all sides acknowledged, was
+necessarily in the first instance dependent on the reception given to
+them by the several Catholic powers. The representatives of the Emperor
+at once signed the whole of the decrees of the council, though only on
+behalf of his hereditary dominions; and he had his promised reward when,
+a few months afterward (April), the German bishops were, under certain
+restrictions, empowered to accord the cup in the eucharist to the
+laity. But neither the Empire through its diet, nor Hungary, ever
+accepted the Tridentine decrees, though several of the Catholic estates
+of the Empire, both spiritual and temporal, individually accepted them
+with modifications. The example of Ferdinand was followed by several
+other powers; but in Poland the diet, to which the decrees were twice
+(1564 and 1578) presented as having been accepted by King Sigismund
+Augustus, refused to accord its own acceptance, maintaining that the
+Polish Church, as such, had never been represented at the council.
+
+In Portugal and in the Swiss Catholic cantons the decrees were received
+without hesitation, as also by the Seigniory of Venice, whose
+representatives at Trent had rarely departed from an attitude of studied
+moderation, and who now merely safeguarded the rights of the republic.
+True to the part recently played by him, the Cardinal of Lorraine, on
+his own responsibility, subscribed to the decrees in the name of the
+King of France. But the Parliament of Paris was on the alert, and on his
+return home the Cardinal had to withdraw in disgrace to Rheims. Neither
+the doctrinal decrees of the council nor the disciplinary, which in part
+clashed with the customs of the kingdom and the privileges of the
+Gallican Church, were ever published in France. The ambassador of Spain,
+whose King and prelates had so consistently held out against the closing
+of the council, refused his signature till he had received express
+instructions. Yet as it was Spain which had hoped and toiled for the
+achievement at the council of solid results, so it was here that the
+decrees fell on the most grateful soil, when, after considerable
+deliberation and delay, their publication at last took place,
+accompanied by stringent safeguards as to the rights of the King and the
+usages of his subjects (1565). The same course was adopted in the
+Italian and Flemish dependencies of the Spanish monarchy.
+
+The disciplinary decrees of the council, on the whole, fell short in
+completeness of the doctrinal. But while they consistently maintained
+the papal authority and confirmed its formal pretensions, the episcopal
+authority, too, was strengthened by them, not only as against the
+monastic orders, but in its own moral foundations. More than this, the
+whole priesthood, from the Pope downward, benefited by the warnings
+that had been administered, by the sacrifices that had been made, and by
+the reforms that had been agreed upon. The Church became more united,
+less worldly, and more dependent on herself. These results outlasted the
+movement known as the Counter-reformation, and should be ignored by no
+candid mind.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[54] Pole became archbishop of Canterbury (1556) and chief adviser to
+Queen Mary, under whom he was largely responsible for the persecution of
+English Protestants.
+
+[55] The Farnese were an illustrious Italian family. Alessandro Farnese
+was Pope Paul III.
+
+[56] Count Carlo Borromeo, Italian cardinal, Archbishop of Milan, was
+one of the most noted of the ecclesiastical reformers. He was canonized
+in 1610.
+
+
+
+
+PROTESTANT STRUGGLE AGAINST CHARLES V
+
+THE SMALKALDIC WAR
+
+A.D. 1546
+
+EDWARD ARMSTRONG
+
+     In 1530 Charles V convened a diet at Augsburg for the
+     settlement of religious disputes in Germany and preparation
+     for war against the Turks, who were advancing into the
+     empire. The diet issued a decree condemning most of the
+     Protestant tenets. In consequence of this the Protestant
+     princes of Germany at once entered into a league, known as
+     the Smalkaldic League, from Smalkald, Germany, where it was
+     formed. They bound themselves to assist each other by arms
+     and money in defence of their faith against the Emperor, and
+     to act together in all religious matters. They concluded an
+     alliance with Francis I, King of France, and from Henry VIII
+     of England they received moral support and some material
+     assistance.
+
+     Charles was not yet ready to proceed to extremities. In 1531
+     terms of pacification were agreed upon, and the Emperor
+     received earnest support from Protestant Germany in his
+     preparations against the Turks, who after all withdrew
+     without a battle. During the next few years there was no
+     open hostility between the two religious parties, but all
+     attempts at reconciliation failed. In 1538 the Catholic
+     princes formed a counter-league, called the Holy League, and
+     violent disputes continued.
+
+     At last Charles determined to crush the Reformation in
+     Germany by military force. The German Protestants refused to
+     be bound by the decrees of the Council of Trent (1545),
+     because it was held in a foreign country and presided over
+     by the Pope. Their attitude confirmed the Emperor in his
+     resolve, and in 1546 began the conflict known as the
+     Smalkaldic War, of which Armstrong gives us a spirited and
+     impartial account.
+
+
+War was actually opened neither by Emperor nor princes, but by the
+Protestant towns. The capable _condottiere_ Sebastian Schartlin von
+Burtenbach led the forces of Augsburg and Ulm briskly southward, seized
+Fussen in the Bishop of Augsburg's territory on July 9th, and then
+surprised the small force guarding the pass of Ehrenberg, which gave
+access to the Inn valley. The religious character of the war was
+emphasized by plunder of churches and ill usage of monks and clergy. Two
+obvious courses were now open to the insurgent princes. Either they
+could march direct on Regensburg, where a mere handful of troops
+protected Charles from a strongly Protestant population, or in support
+of Schartlin they could clear Tyrol of imperialists, close the passes to
+Spanish and Italian reenforcements, and even pay a domiciliary visit to
+the Council of Trent. This latter was Schartlin's programme; the
+Tyrolese had Protestant sympathies and dreaded the advent of the foreign
+troops; Charles averred that even their government was ill-affected.
+Schartlin would even have persuaded the Venetians and Grisons to forbid
+passage to the Emperor's troops, and have enlisted the services of
+Ercole of Ferrara, the enemy of the Pope. But either of the two
+strategic movements was too bold for the Smalkaldic council of war. The
+first would have violated the neutrality of Bavaria, in which the league
+still believed, while it had no quarrel with Ferdinand, who was
+ostensibly conciliatory. The towns, moreover, wished to keep their
+captain within hail, for they feared the possibility of attack either
+from Regensburg or from Ferdinand's paltry forces in the Vorarlberg.
+
+Schartlin retired on Augsburg, but on July 20th, reenforced by a
+Wuertemberg contingent, occupied Donauworth, and was here joined on
+August 4th by the Elector and Landgrave. The insurgent army now numbered
+fifty thousand foot and seven thousand horse. The very size of this
+force, by far the largest that Germany could remember, is a disproof of
+the not uncommon assertion that Charles took the Lutherans by surprise.
+
+On a rumor that the enemy were crossing the Danube to separate him from
+the troops on the march from Italy, Charles moved on Landshut with some
+six thousand men, not much more than a tenth of the opposing force. He
+was determined, he wrote, to remain in Germany alive or dead, rejecting
+as idle vanity the notion that it was beneath his dignity to lead a
+small force. At Landshut he met papal auxiliaries under Ottavio Farnese
+and Alessandro Vitelli, with detachments of light horse sent by the
+Dukes of Florence and Ferrara. When the Spanish foot and Neapolitan
+cavalry had joined, he could muster at Regensburg twenty-eight thousand
+men, over whom he placed Alba in command. The Elector and Landgrave, in
+renunciation of their fealty, had sent in a herald with a broken staff
+addressed to Charles self-styled the Fifth and Roman Emperor. To him was
+delivered the ban of the empire against his masters, condemning them,
+not for heresy, but for acts of violence and rebellion, for the Pack
+plot, the attack on Wuertemberg, and the seizure of Brunswick.
+
+The campaign now began in earnest. While the Lutherans timidly wasted
+their opportunities, Charles with his greatly inferior force made a
+hazardous night march on Ingolstadt. The movement was executed with much
+disorder, resembling a flight rather than an advance. The league
+neglected the chance of making a flank attack on the hurrying,
+straggling line as it followed the right bank of the Danube until it was
+conveyed across the river at Neustadt. To add to the Emperor's danger,
+his German troops were mostly Lutherans, hating the priests and the
+Spanish and Italian regiments. Many had early deserted from their
+general, the Marquis of Marignano; all cherished ill-feeling against
+Charles' confessor as being the cause of the civil war. Even the
+population of Bavaria, professedly a friendly territory, was in great
+part a Lutheran.
+
+At Ingolstadt Charles could draw supplies from Bavaria, whose neutrality
+the league had foolishly respected, and thither the Count of Buren with
+the Netherland army might find his way. He was by no means out of
+danger, encamped as he was with but feeble artillery outside the city
+walls. But the Lutheran princes with all their bluster had little
+stomach for stand-up fights. From August 31st to September 3d they
+bombarded the city with one hundred ten guns, to which Charles'
+thirty-two pieces could make scant reply. They did not dare attack the
+impoverished trenches. "I would have done it," wrote the Landgrave, "had
+I been alone." On the other hand it was reported that the Lutherans laid
+the blame on Philip, that he had refused to move, "for every fox must
+save his own skin." The Cockerel, as the confessor, De Soto, had
+contemptuously prophesied, had crowed better than he fought. Charles, on
+the other hand, was at his best. He rode round the trenches, exhorting
+his soldiers to stand firm, with the assurance that artillery made more
+noise than mischief. In vain Granvelle sent the confessor to persuade
+him that Christianity needed an emperor less gallant and more sensible.
+He answered that no king nor emperor had ever been killed by a
+cannon-ball, and, if he were so unfortunate as to make a start, it would
+be better so to die than to live. When Ferdinand afterward expostulated
+with his brother, Charles assured him that his self-exposure had been
+exaggerated, but that they were short of hands, and it was not a time to
+set bad example.
+
+The division of Lutheran command was already giving Charles the expected
+opportunities. The princes withdrew westward, a palpable confession of
+weakness. They had been the aggressors, and yet they now surrendered the
+initiative to Charles. Their retirement enabled the Count of Buren to
+march in with his Netherland division, and with him the troops of Albert
+and Hans of Hohenzollern. This march of Buren was the strategic feat of
+the war. He had led the hostile forces which were watching him a dance
+up and down the Rhine, and slipped across it unopposed. He had brought
+his troops three hundred miles, mainly through the heart of Protestant
+Germany, with no certain knowledge where he should find the Emperor, for
+communications could only be maintained by means of long detours.
+Finally he marched boldly past the vastly superior army of the league,
+which had professedly retired from Ingolstadt to bar his passage.
+
+Charles now took the offensive, pushing the enemy slowly up the Danube,
+and steadily forcing his way toward Ulm. The strongly Protestant Count
+Palatine of Neuburg, Otto Henry, was the first prince to lose his
+territory, which, indeed, his debts had already forced him to desert.
+
+The Lutherans now showed more fight, and during the last fortnight of
+October the advance came almost to a standstill. Charles was ill, money
+and supplies were falling short, Spaniards and Italians were suffering
+from the cold rains of the Danube valley. The papal contingent was
+demoralized for want of pay; three thousand men deserted in a day,
+whereas the Lutherans were reenforced. Yet Charles, in spite of
+professional advice, refused to go into winter quarters. He counted on
+divisions in the League, on the selfish interests of the towns, on the
+penury of the princes, and reckoned aright. The fighting was never more
+than skirmishing; not arms but ducats were deciding the issue; the fate
+of war was literally hanging on a fortnight's pay.
+
+The Emperor had said that a league between towns and princes could never
+last. The financial burden pressed mainly on the cities, and they
+refused to raise further subsidies. The richer classes had always
+disliked the war; the great merchants were often, as the Fuggers of
+Augsburg, zealous Catholics. Trade was at a standstill, and they could
+protest that all their capital was at the Emperor's mercy, at Antwerp,
+at Seville, in the Indies, or else in Portugal. It was convenient to
+forget the brisk traffic which still continued with friendly Lyons. Zeal
+for the Lutheran cause seemed limited to a Catholic, Piero Strozzi the
+Florentine exile, who in his hatred for the Hapsburgs was vainly
+spending his fortune on revenge, striving for aid from Venice,
+negotiating loans from France. There was, moreover, no real solidarity
+between Northern and Southern Germany. Neither the Protestant princes
+nor the wealthy cities of the Baltic had as yet stirred a finger for the
+cause. Under any circumstances the Lutheran army must have broken up.
+The leaders had resolved to retire to the Rhineland for the winter, live
+at free quarters on the ecclesiastical princes, and renew the struggle
+in the spring.
+
+At this critical moment Maurice of Saxony came into action. Hitherto his
+conduct had been ambiguous. This was probably due less to deliberate
+deceit than to genuine hesitation. The incompetence of the Lutheran
+leaders and Ferdinand's expressed intention of invading Ernestine Saxony
+determined him. Persuading his estates with difficulty that it was
+necessary to save the Electorate for the house of Wettin, he undertook
+to execute the ban in his cousin's state. His reward was the title of
+elector and the Ernestine territories. The correspondence of Charles and
+his brother on the subject was characteristic of both. Ferdinand, always
+greedy of territory, had bargained for partition, but Charles persuaded
+him to be content with John Frederick's Bohemian fiefs.
+
+Charles, cautious and suspicious, was unwilling to grant the title until
+Maurice had proved his loyalty; Ferdinand, more impetuous, induced him
+to pay the bribe and give credit for the service. The Albertine and
+Austrian troops soon overran the defenceless land. This determined the
+manner of the Danubian campaign, and the Saxon phase of the war began.
+John Frederick must withdraw his troops to defend their homes, and he
+plundered _en route_ the neutral ecclesiastical territories through
+which he passed. "In a papal country," he told the burgomaster of
+Aschaffenburg, "there is nothing neutral." The campaign of the Danube
+was suddenly over. Philip of Hesse retired sullenly to his two wives, as
+Schartlin put it. As he passed through Frankfurt he hoisted banners with
+the crucifix, flails, and mattocks, to incite the lower classes to
+revolt; he had failed to bend the powers above him, he would fain stir
+Acheron.
+
+Charles could now complete the subjection of Southern Germany.
+Granvelle, the last to be convinced of the necessity of war, was the
+first convert to the policy of peace, which the Landgrave and the towns
+desired. Peace would relieve the financial strain and prevent the
+Germans from becoming desperate; peace would enable Charles to turn his
+arms against the Turks. Charles thought it undignified to negotiate with
+an army in the field: peace entailed the abandonment of Maurice, and
+henceforth no other prince would dare serve him; Augsburg and Ulm, if
+they were persuaded that he had no wish to establish a tyranny in
+Germany, were likely to capitulate, and after a victory his generosity
+in leaving Germany her liberty would appear the greater. Charles did not
+at this moment fear the Turk, and it was in his power at any moment to
+propitiate the French. Pedro de Soto urged the continuance of the war,
+to avert the danger of a papal-French combination, which would be the
+natural result of Paul's indignation at a compromise with heretics.
+
+The deserted princes and towns of South Germany now one by one made
+submission. Very pathetic was the Emperor's meeting with the Elector
+Palatine, the friend of his youth, the whilom lover of his sister, the
+husband of his niece. Charles did not extend his hand: the Elector made
+three low bows, after which Charles drew out a paper which he read and
+then spoke to him in French--"It has grieved me most of all that you in
+your old age should have been my enemies' companion, when we have been
+brought up together in our youth." The Elector answered almost in a
+whisper, and left "like a skinned cat," the Emperor half raising his
+cap, but no one else. He was ordered to go to Granvelle, and the
+minister played the doctor and healed the wound. He returned with tears
+in his eyes, and then Charles forgave him. "My cousin, I am content that
+your past deserts toward me should cancel the errors which you have
+recently committed." Henceforth the old friendship was renewed.
+
+Ulrich of Wuertemberg escaped less lightly. He paid a large indemnity,
+received Spanish garrisons in his fortresses, and engaged to serve
+against his late allies. He had no resource, for his subjects hated him;
+from the windows of the cottages fluttered the red and white Burgundian
+colors as a token of what was in the peasants' hearts. Ferdinand pressed
+warmly for the restoration of the duchy to Austria, but Charles replied
+that the aim of the war was the service of God and the revival of
+imperial authority: to seek their private advantage would only quicken
+the envy with which neighboring powers regarded the house of Hapsburg.
+Farther north the octogenarian of the Elector of Cologne resigned his
+see, and the evangelization of the Middle Rhine was at an end. Ulm gave
+in with a good grace, but Augsburg long delayed. Charles' original
+intention was, apparently, to garrison these towns, as Milan and Naples,
+with reliable Spanish troops, and perhaps to destroy their walls and
+dominate them by fortresses. But he treated the cities leniently. He
+left here and there companies of imperial troops, levied moderate
+contributions, replaced at Ulm and Augsburg the democratic constitution
+of the trades by the old wealthy aristocracies, but promised to respect
+the existing religion. Strasburg, which, in spite of French entreaties,
+capitulated in February, 1547, was almost exempt from punishment; it was
+feared that the distant, wealthy, and headstrong city might hold out a
+hand to the Swiss and become a canton.
+
+In Southern and Western Germany there was no longer an enemy in the
+field, but, in the North, Maurice's treachery had brought its penalty.
+John Frederick, acting with unusual vigor, recovered his dominions,
+received homage from the feudatories of Halberstadt and Magdeburg, and
+overran Maurice's territories, until he was checked before the walls of
+Leipsic. When Ferdinand prepared to aid Maurice, the German Protestants
+of Lusatia and Silesia refused their contingents, and the Bohemian
+Utraquists made common cause with the Lutherans. The Utraquist nobility
+and towns formed a league in defence of national and religious
+liberties; they convoked a diet and raised an army. Ferdinand was faced
+by a general Bohemian revolt. His position was weakened by his wife's
+death in February, for it was pretended that he was merely consort. Only
+the Catholic nobles were for the Hapsburg King; the roads were
+barricaded to prevent the passage of his artillery; and John Frederick,
+entering Bohemia, received a hearty welcome. The North German maritime
+and inland cities were now in arms, and the Lutheran princes of
+Oldenburg and Mansfield were threatening the Netherlands. Charles sent
+his best troops to Ferdinand's aid, and despatched Hans and Albert
+Hohenzollern in support of Maurice. But Germans could still beat
+Germans. Albert was surprised and taken at Rochlitz. Ferdinand eagerly
+pressed Charles to march north in person. The Emperor was unwilling, and
+Granvelle strongly dissuaded it. The despatch of Alba was the
+alternative, but Charles did not trust his generalship. He was delayed,
+partly by gout, and partly by fear of a fresh rising in the Swabian
+towns. Here he had left seven thousand men, but he could not himself
+safely stay in Nuremberg without a garrison of three thousand, and could
+not afford to lock these up. His sole presence in the North, wrote Piero
+Colonna, was worth twenty-five thousand foot, and Charles, ill as he
+was, must march.
+
+The unexpected turn which the war had taken in Saxony was not Charles'
+only trouble. Paul III had been alarmed by the Emperor's progress, which
+had been more rapid and complete than he expected, and at the end of six
+months, for which he had promised his contingent, he withdrew it. The
+material loss was slight, but the whole aspect of the war was altered.
+Charles could scarcely now profess to be fighting for submission to Pope
+and council, for the council in March transferred itself, after violent
+altercations with the Spanish bishops and imperial envoys, to Bologna.
+Rome rejoiced at the successes of John Frederick. In the late French war
+the Turks had figured as the Pope's friends and had spared his shores;
+it now seemed possible that the Lutherans might be the Pope's allies.
+It was certain that, if time were given, the Pope's defection would
+stimulate the active hostility of France. Charles must have done with
+the rebellion, and that quickly.
+
+Tortured by gout and fearing that his forces would prove inferior to the
+Saxons, Charles moved painfully from Nordlingen to Regensburg and thence
+to Eger, where he was joined by Ferdinand, Maurice, and the electoral
+prince of Brandenburg. Spending Easter at Eger, he crossed the Saxon
+frontier on April 13, 1547, with eighteen thousand foot and eight
+thousand horse. Ten days of incessant marching brought him within touch
+of the Elector, who was guarding the bridge of Meissen. John Frederick
+had foolishly frittered away his forces in Saxon and Bohemian garrisons.
+He now burned the bridge and retired down the Elbe to Muehlberg, hoping
+to concentrate his scattered forces under the walls of Wittenberg, while
+his bridge of boats would keep open communications with the left bank.
+
+Charles was too quick for the ponderous Elector. He marched at midnight
+on April 23-24, and at 9 A.M. reached the Elbe, nearly opposite
+Muehlberg. As the mist cleared, Alba's light horse descried the bridge
+of boats swinging from the farther bank, and a dozen Spaniards, covered
+by an arquebuse fire, swam the river with swords between their teeth,
+routed the guard, and brought the boats across. Meanwhile Alba and
+Maurice found a ford by which the light horse crossed with arquebusiers
+_en croupe_. Charles and Ferdinand followed, with the water up to the
+girths, the Emperor pale as death and thin as a skeleton. The Elector,
+after attending his Sunday sermon, was enjoying his breakfast; he made
+no attempt to defend his strong position on the higher bank, but
+withdrew his guns and infantry, covering the retreat in person with his
+cavalry. The bulk of the imperial forces had crossed by the bridge of
+boats, and the day was passed in a running rear-guard action. It was a
+long-drawn sunset, and not till between six and seven did Alba, as ever
+making sure, deliver his decisive attack. The Saxon horse had turned
+fiercely on the pursuing light cavalry some nine miles from Muehlberg,
+and then the imperialists, striking home, converted the retreat into a
+headlong flight. More than a third of the Saxon forces were left upon
+the field; the whole of their artillery and baggage train was taken.
+John Frederick regained his timid generalship by his personal bravery.
+Left almost single-handed in the wood through which his troops retired,
+he slashed at the Neapolitan light-horsemen and Hungarian hussars who
+surrounded him, but at length surrendered to Ippolito da Porto of
+Vicenza, who led him, his forehead streaming with blood, to Charles.
+
+Of the interview between the Emperor and his enemy there are several
+versions, but none inconsistent. "Most powerful and gracious Emperor,"
+said the Elector, vainly endeavoring to dismount, "I am your prisoner."
+"You recognize me as Emperor now?" rejoined Charles. "I am to-day a poor
+prisoner; may it please your majesty to treat me as a born prince." "I
+will treat you as you deserve," said Charles. Then broke in Ferdinand,
+"You have tried to drive me and my children from our lands."
+
+The evidence as to the angry scene seems conclusive. Charles had been
+twenty-one hours in the saddle; he had been exasperated by the insolence
+of the Princess, who had addressed him as "Charles of Ghent, self-styled
+Emperor." Yet his harsh reception of a wounded prisoner contrasts
+unpleasantly with the generosity which his biographers have ascribed to
+him.
+
+Muehlberg was little more than a skirmish, and yet it was decisive. In a
+far more murderous battle the imperialists were beaten. The forces of
+the maritime towns had compelled Eric of Brunswick to raise the siege of
+Bremen, and on his retreat had defeated him near Drakenberg with a heavy
+loss. But victories belated or premature do not turn the scale against
+an opportune success. The sole result of the battle was to delay the
+Landgrave's surrender a little longer. Philip had sworn to die like a
+mad-dog before he would surrender his fortresses, but he yielded
+ultimately without a blow. He found discontent rife among his nobles; he
+was threatened alike from the Netherlands and by the Count of Buren; for
+months he wavered between capitulation and resistance. Arras assured the
+nuncio that he was a scoundrel and a coward; that he had implored
+Maurice to intercede, first for all Lutheran Germany, then for John
+Frederick and himself, and finally for himself alone. "See what men
+these are," added the Bishop later. "Philip has even offered to march
+against the Duke of Saxony; he is a sorry fellow and of evil nature: he
+is such a scoundrel that his majesty cannot trust him in any promise
+that he may make, for he has never kept one yet."
+
+The imperial minister's judgment upon the Landgrave was too severe. He
+long struggled for honor against fear, and, but for his son-in-law,
+Maurice's influence might have made a better fight. Maurice had from the
+first striven to detach Philip from John Frederick, while in turn he was
+expected by the Landgrave to strike in for a free Germany and a free
+gospel against the Hungarian hussars and the black Spanish devils. When
+the two Lutheran leaders parted in November, 1546, on no good terms,
+Philip warned his son-in-law that the Elector was on the march against
+him, but begged to intercede with Charles for a general peace. Maurice
+would have no peace with his Ernestine cousins, but offered to use all
+his influence on behalf of Philip, who must hasten to decide, for Buren
+was "on his legs" and the Emperor was an obstinate man. From this moment
+the Landgrave's irresolution was piteous; the negotiations crippled all
+enterprise, and yet he could not persuade himself to abandon his ally,
+although the natural expiry of the League of Smalkald on February 27,
+1547, gave him a tolerable pretext. Maurice waxed impatient at the
+recurring hesitation, at the perpetual amendment of all suggested terms:
+Philip could not bargain with Charles as though he were a tradesman; he
+need have no fear for religion, but he must make it clear to the Emperor
+and Ferdinand that he was against John Frederick. Then came the defeat
+of Muehlberg, which at least relieved Philip from obligations to his
+late ally. It was now the surrender of his fortresses and his artillery
+that he could not stomach, and the victory of Drakenberg raised his once
+martial ardor to a final flicker.
+
+The flicker died away, and at length Philip yielded to the pressure of
+Maurice and Joachim of Brandenburg. Charles insisted on unconditional
+surrender, but promised the mediators that punishment should not extend
+to personal injury or perpetual imprisonment--this only, however, on
+their pledge that Philip should not be informed of these limitations. It
+was agreed that he should dismantle his fortresses with one exception,
+surrender his artillery, and pay an indemnity, but that his territory
+should remain intact and its religion undisturbed.
+
+With Philip's surrender the war seemed virtually at an end. Magdeburg,
+indeed, still held out, for fear of falling again under its Catholic
+Hohenzollern Archbishop. There was no reason to believe that the city
+would prove more courageous than its fellows. Charles did not dare spend
+his four thousand Spaniards in the assault, but in this case
+extravagance would have proved to be economy. When he knew his subject,
+his opinion was usually well founded; he had little knowledge, however,
+of North Germany, and confused Magdeburg with Ulm or Augsburg. It were
+better for Charles had his Spaniards been decimated on its parapet than
+that they should lord it in security over the churches and taverns of
+Southern Germany.
+
+Apart from his two last mistakes, in the campaign against the league,
+Charles, whether as a soldier or statesman, is seen at his best. When
+once the drums beat to arms there was an end to irresolution. He had
+that reserve of energy upon which an indolent, lethargic nature can
+sometimes at a crisis draw. The Netherlands seemed threatened from east
+to west; yet in perfect calm he ordered his agitated sister Mary to
+watch her frontiers, but to send every man and gun that could be spared
+under Buren to the front. Taking advantage of his enemies' delays, he
+made with greatly inferior forces the forward move on Ingolstadt, and
+was there seen under heavy fire "steady as a rock and smiling." Racked
+by gout he now sought sleep in his litter behind a bastion, now warmed
+his aching limbs in a little movable wooden room heated by a stove. In
+the cold, wet November, when generals and ministers fell sick, and
+soldiers of every nationality deserted, he resolutely rejected expert
+advice to withdraw into winter quarters. He would not give his enemies,
+he said, the least chance of outstaying him. All success, wrote the
+Marquis of Marignano, was due to the Emperor's resolution to keep the
+field. Charles vexed the fiery Buren by shrinking from a general
+engagement, because he knew that his combinations would break up the
+league without the risk of a battle. But when once danger really
+pressed, ill as he was, he marched across Germany, and followed fast
+upon the Elector's heels until he tripped and took him.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO JAPAN
+
+A.D. 1549
+
+JOHN H. GUBBINS
+
+     Lands discovered or settled by Europeans after the founding
+     of the Jesuits were quickly chosen by the zealous members of
+     that order as scenes of missionary work. In the case of
+     Japan, missions followed discovery with unusual rapidity.
+
+     Excepting what was told by Marco Polo, who visited the coast
+     of Japan in the thirteenth century, nothing was learned of
+     that country by the Western World until its discovery by the
+     Portuguese. In 1541 King John III requested Francis Xavier,
+     one of the Jesuit founders, with other members of his order,
+     to undertake missionary work in the Portuguese colonies.
+     Through his labors in India, Xavier became known as the
+     "Apostle of the Indies." Before sailing to Japan he had
+     established a flourishing mission with a school, called the
+     Seminary of the Holy Faith, at Goa, on the Malabar coast of
+     India.
+
+
+It was to Portuguese enterprise that Christianity owed its introduction
+into Japan in the sixteenth century. As early as 1542 Portuguese trading
+vessels began to visit Japan, where they exchanged Western commodities
+for the then little-known products of the Japanese islands; and seven
+years afterward three Portuguese missionaries (Xavier, Torres, and
+Fernandez) took passage in one of these merchant ships and landed at
+Kagoshima.
+
+The leading spirit of the three, it need scarcely be said, was Xavier,
+who had already acquired considerable reputation by his missionary
+labors in India. After a short residence the missionaries were forced to
+leave Satsuma, and after as short a stay in the island of Hirado, which
+appears to have been then the rendezvous of trade between the Portuguese
+merchants and the Japanese, they crossed over to the mainland and
+settled down in Yamaguchi in Nagato, the chief town of the territories
+of the Prince of Choshiu. After a visit to the capital, which was
+productive of no result, owing to the disturbed state of the country,
+Xavier (November, 1551) left Japan with the intention of founding a
+Jesuit mission in China, but died on his way in the island of Sancian.
+
+In 1553 fresh missionaries arrived, some of whom remained in Bungo,
+where Xavier had made a favorable impression before his departure, while
+others joined their fellow-missionaries in Yamaguchi. After having been
+driven from the latter place by the outbreak of disturbances, and having
+failed to establish a footing in Hizen, we find the missionaries in 1557
+collected in Bungo, and this province appears to have become their
+headquarters from that time. In the course of the next year but one,
+Vilela made a visit to Kioto, Sakai, and other places, during which he
+is said to have gained a convert in the person of the _daimio_, of the
+small principality of Omura, who displayed an imprudent excess of
+religious zeal in the destruction of idols and other extreme measures,
+which could only tend to provoke the hostility of the Buddhist
+priesthood. The conversion of this prince was followed by that of
+Arima-no-Kami (mistakenly called the Prince of Arima by the Jesuits).
+
+Other missionaries arriving in 1560, the circle of operations was
+extended; but shortly afterward the revolution, headed by Mori,
+compelled Vilela to leave Kioto, where he had settled, and a
+simultaneous outbreak in Omura necessitated the withdrawal of the
+missionaries stationed there. Mori, of Choshiu, was perhaps the most
+powerful noble of the day, possessing no fewer than ten provinces, and,
+as he was throughout an open enemy to Christianity, his influence was
+exercised against it with much ill result.
+
+On Vilela's return to Kioto from Sakai, where a branch mission had been
+established, he succeeded in gaining several distinguished converts.
+Among these were Takayama, a leading general of the time, and his
+nephew. He did not, however, remain long in the capital. The recurrence
+of troubles in 1568 made it necessary for him to withdraw, and he then
+proceeded to Nagasaki, where he met with considerable success. In this
+same year we come across Valegnani preaching in the Goto Isles, and
+Torres in the island of Seki, where he died. Almeida, too, about this
+time founded a Christian community at Shimabara, afterward notorious as
+the scene of the revolt and massacre of the Christians.
+
+Hitherto we find little mention of Christianity in Japanese books. This
+may partly be explained by the fact that the labors of the missionaries
+were chiefly confined to the southern provinces, Christianity having as
+yet made little progress at Kioto, the seat of literature. But the
+scarcity of Japanese records can scarcely be wondered at in the face of
+the edict issued later in the next century, which interdicted not only
+books on the subject of Christianity, but any book in which even the
+name of _Christian_ or the word _Foreign_ should be mentioned.
+
+Short notices occur in several native works of the arrival in Kioto at
+this date of the Jesuit missionary Organtin, and some curious details
+are furnished respecting the progress of Christianity in the capital and
+the attitude of Nobunaga in regard to it.
+
+The _Saikoku Kirishitan Bateren Jitsu Roku_, or "True Record of
+Christian Padres in Kiushiu," gives a minute account of the appearance
+and dress of Organtin, and goes on to say: "He was asked his name and
+why he had come to Japan, and replied that he was the Padre Organtin and
+had come to spread his religion. He was told that he could not be
+allowed at once to preach his religion, but would be informed later on.
+Nobunaga accordingly took counsel with his retainers as to whether he
+should allow Christianity to be preached or not. One of these strongly
+advised him not to do so, on the ground that there were already enough
+religions in the country. But Nobunaga replied that Buddhism had been
+introduced from abroad and had done good in the country, and he
+therefore did not see why Christianity should not be granted a trial.
+Organtin was consequently allowed to erect a church and to send for
+others of his order, who, when they came, were found to be like him in
+appearance. Their plan of action was to tend the sick and relieve the
+poor, and so prepare the way for the reception of Christianity, and then
+to convert everyone and make the sixty-six provinces of Japan subject to
+Portugal."
+
+The _Ibuki Mogusa_ gives further details of this subject, and says that
+the Jesuits called their church _Yierokuji_, after the name of the
+period in which it was built, but that Nobunaga changed the name to
+_Nambanji_, or "Temple of the Southern Savages." The word _Namban_ was
+the term usually applied to the Portuguese and Spaniards.
+
+During the next ten years Organtin and other missionaries worked with
+considerable success in Kioto under Nobunaga's immediate protection.
+This period is also remarkable for the conversion of the Prince of
+Bungo, who made open profession of Christianity and retired into private
+life, and for the rapid progress which the new doctrine made among the
+subjects of Arima-no-Kami. This good fortune was again counterbalanced
+by the course of events in the Goto Islands, where Christianity lost
+much ground owing to a change of rulers.
+
+Ten years thus passed away, when the Christian communities sustained
+great loss in the disgrace of Takayama, who was banished to Kaga for
+taking part in an unsuccessful intrigue against Nobunaga which was
+headed by the Prince of Choshiu. Takayama's nephew, Ukon, however,
+declared for Nobunaga, and the latter gave a further proof of his
+friendly feeling toward Christianity by establishing a church in
+Adzuchi-no-Shiro, the castle town which he had built for himself in his
+native province of Omi.
+
+In 1582 a mission was sent to the papal see on the part of the Princes
+of Bungo and Omura, and Arima-no-Kami. This mission was accompanied by
+Valegnani, and reached Rome in 1585, returning five years later to
+Japan.
+
+In the following year Nobunaga was assassinated and Hideyoshi, who
+succeeded him in the chief power, was content, for the first three or
+four years of his administration, to follow in the line of policy marked
+out by his predecessor. Christianity, therefore, progressed in spite of
+the drawbacks caused by the frequent feuds between the southern
+_daimios_, and seminaries were established under Hideyoshi's auspices at
+Osaka and Sakai. During this period Martinez arrived in the capacity of
+bishop; he was charged with costly presents from the Viceroy of Goa to
+Hideyoshi, and received a favorable audience.
+
+Hideyoshi's attitude toward Christianity at this time is easily
+explained. The powerful southern barons were not willing to accept him
+as Nobunaga's successor without a struggle, and there were other reasons
+against the adoption of too hasty measures. Two of his generals, Kondera
+and Konishi Setsu-no-Kami, who afterward commanded the second division
+of the army sent against Corea, the Governor of Osaka, and numerous
+other officers of state and nobles of rank and influence, had embraced
+Christianity, and the Christians were therefore not without influential
+supporters. Hideyoshi's first act was to secure his position. For this
+purpose he marched into Kiushiu at the head of a large force and was
+everywhere victorious. This done, he threw off the mask he had been
+wearing up to this time, and in 1587 took the first step in his new
+course of action by ordering the destruction of the Christian church at
+Kioto--which had been in existence for a period of eighteen years--and
+the expulsion of the missionaries from the capital.
+
+It will be seen by the following extract from the _Ibuki Mogusa_ that
+Nobunaga at one time entertained designs for the destruction of
+Nambanji.
+
+"Nobunaga," we read, "now began to regret his previous policy in
+permitting the introduction of Christianity. He accordingly assembled
+his retainers and said to them: 'The conduct of these missionaries in
+persuading people to join them by giving money does not please me. It
+must be, I think, that they harbor the design of seizing the country.
+How would it be, think you, if we were to demolish Nambanji?' To this
+Mayeda Tokuzenin replied: 'It is now too late to demolish the temple of
+Nambanji. To endeavor to arrest the power of this religion now is like
+trying to arrest the current of the ocean. Nobles both great and small
+have become adherents of it. If you would exterminate this religion now,
+there is fear lest disturbances be created even among your own
+retainers. I am, therefore, of opinion that you should abandon your
+intention of destroying Nambanji.' Nobunaga in consequence regretted
+exceedingly his previous action with regard to the Christian religion,
+and set about thinking how he could root it out."
+
+The Jesuit writers attribute Hideyoshi's sudden change of attitude to
+three different causes, but it is clear that Hideyoshi was never
+favorable to Christianity, and that he only waited for his power to be
+secure before taking decided measures of hostility. His real feeling in
+regard to the Christians and their teachers is explained in the _Life of
+Hideyoshi_, from which work we learn that even before his accession to
+power he had ventured to remonstrate with Nobunaga for his policy toward
+Christianity.
+
+Hideyoshi's next act was to banish Takayama Ukon to Kaga, where his
+uncle already was, and he then in 1588 issued a decree ordering the
+missionaries to assemble at Hirado and prepare to leave Japan. They did
+so, but finding that measures were not pushed to extremity they
+dispersed and placed themselves under the protection of various nobles
+who had embraced Christianity. The territories of these princes offered
+safe asylums, and in these scattered districts the work of Christianity
+progressed secretly while openly interdicted.
+
+In 1591 Valegnani had a favorable audience of Hideyoshi, but he was
+received entirely in an official capacity, namely, in the character of
+envoy of the Viceroy of Goa.
+
+Christianity was at its most flourishing stage during the first few
+years of Hideyoshi's administration. We can discern the existence at
+this date of a strong Christian party in the country, though the
+turning-point had been reached, and the tide of progress was on the ebb.
+It is to this influence probably, coupled with the fact that his many
+warlike expeditions left him little leisure to devote to religious
+questions, that we must attribute the slight relaxation observable in
+his policy toward Christianity at this time.
+
+"Up to this date," says Charlevoix, "Hideyoshi had not evinced any
+special bitterness against Christianity, and had not proceeded to
+rigorous measures in regard to Christians. The condition of Christianity
+was reassuring. Rodriguez was well in favor at court, and Organtin had
+returned to Kioto along with several other missionaries, and found means
+to render as much assistance to the Christians in that part of the
+country as he had been able to do before the issue of the edict against
+Christianity by Hideyoshi."
+
+The inference which it is intended should be drawn from these remarks,
+taken with the context, is clear; namely, that, had the Jesuits been
+left alone to prosecute the work of evangelizing Japan, the ultimate
+result might have been very different. However, this was not to be.
+
+Hitherto, for a period of forty-four years, the Jesuits had it all their
+own way in Japan; latterly, by virtue of a bull issued by Pope Gregory
+XIII in 1585--the date of the appointment of the first bishop and of the
+arrival at Rome of the Japanese mission--and subsequently confirmed by
+the bull of Clement III in 1600, by which the _religieux_ of other
+orders were excluded from missionary work in Japan. The object of these
+papal decrees was, it seems, to insure the propagation of Christianity
+on a uniform system. They were, however, disregarded when the time came,
+and therefore, for a new influence which was brought to bear upon
+Christianity at this date--not altogether for its good, if the Jesuit
+accounts may be credited--we must look to the arrival of an embassy from
+the Governor of the Philippines, whose ambassador was accompanied by
+four Franciscan priests.
+
+These new arrivals, when confronted by the Jesuits with the papal bull,
+declared that they had not transgressed it, and defended their action on
+the ground that they had come attached to an embassy and not in the
+character of missionaries; but they argued at the same time, with a
+casuistry only equalled by their opponents, that, having once arrived in
+Japan, there was nothing to hinder them from exercising their calling as
+preachers of Christianity.
+
+The embassy was successful, and Baptiste, who appears to have conducted
+the negotiations in place of the real envoy, obtained Hideyoshi's
+consent to his shrewd proposal that, pending the reference to Manila of
+Hideyoshi's claim to the sovereignty of the Philippines, he and his
+brother missionaries should remain as hostages. Hideyoshi, while
+consenting, made their residence conditional on their not preaching
+Christianity--a condition which it is needless to say was never
+observed.
+
+Thus, at one and the same time, the Spaniards, who had long been
+watching with their jealous eyes the exclusive right of trade enjoyed by
+the Portuguese, obtained an opening for commerce, and the Franciscans a
+footing for their religious mission.
+
+It was not long before the newly-arrived missionaries were called upon
+to prove their devotion to their cause. In 1593, in consequence of the
+indiscreet statements of the pilot of a Spanish galleon, which, being
+driven by stress of weather into a port of Tosa, was seized by
+Hideyoshi, nine missionaries--namely, six Franciscans and three
+Jesuits--were arrested in Kioto and Osaka, and, having been taken to
+Nagasaki, were there burned. This was the first execution carried out by
+the government.
+
+Hideyoshi died in the following year (1594), and the civil troubles
+which preceded the succession of Iyeyasu to the post of administrator,
+in which the Christians lost their chief supporter, Konishi, who took
+part against Iyeyasu, favored the progress of Christianity in so far as
+diverting attention from it to matters of more pressing moment.
+
+Iyeyasu's policy toward Christianity was a repetition of his
+predecessor's. Occupied entirely with military campaigns against those
+who refused to acknowledge his supremacy, he permitted the Jesuits, who
+now numbered one hundred, to establish themselves in force at Kioto,
+Osaka, and Nagasaki. But as soon as tranquillity was restored, and he
+felt himself secure in the seat of power, he at once gave proof of the
+policy he intended to follow by the issue of a decree of expulsion
+against the missionaries. This was in 1600. The Jesuit writers affirm
+that he was induced to withdraw his edict in consequence of the
+threatening attitude adopted by certain Christian nobles who had
+espoused his cause in the late civil war, but no mention is made of this
+in the Japanese accounts.
+
+So varying, and indeed so altogether unintelligible, was the action of
+the different nobles throughout Kiushiu in regard to Christianity during
+the next few years, that we see one who was not a Christian offering an
+asylum in his dominions to several hundred native converts who were
+expelled from a neighboring province; another who had systematically
+opposed the introduction of Christianity actually sending a mission to
+the Philippines to ask for missionaries; while a third, who had hitherto
+made himself conspicuous by his almost fanatical zeal in the Christian
+cause, suddenly abandoned his new faith, and, from having been one of
+its most ardent supporters, became one of its most bitter foes.
+
+The year 1602 is remarkable for the despatch of an embassy by Iyeyasu to
+the Philippines, and for the large number of _religieux_ of all orders
+who flocked to Japan.
+
+Affairs remained _in statu quo_ for the next two or three years, during
+which the Christian cause was weakened by the death of two men which it
+could ill afford to lose. One of these was the noble called Kondera by
+Charlevoix, but whose name we have been unable to trace in Japanese
+records. The other was Organtin, who had deservedly the reputation of
+being the most energetic member of the Jesuit body.
+
+The number of Christians in Japan at this time is stated to have been
+one million eight hundred thousand. The number of missionaries was of
+course proportionally large, and was increased by the issue in 1608 of a
+new bull by Pope Paul V allowing to _religieux_ of all orders free
+access to Japan.
+
+The year 1610 is remarkable for the arrival of the Dutch, who settled in
+Hirado, and for the destruction in the harbor of Nagasaki of the annual
+Portuguese galleon sent by the traders of Macao. In this latter affair,
+which rose out of a dispute between the natives and the people of the
+ship, Arima-no-Kami was concerned, and his alliance with the
+missionaries was thus terminated.
+
+In 1611 no less than three embassies arrived in Japan from the Dutch,
+Spanish, and Portuguese respectively, and in 1613 Saris succeeded in
+founding an English factory in Hirado, where the Dutch had already
+established themselves. It was early in the following year that
+Christianity was finally proscribed by Iyeyasu. The decree of expulsion
+directed against the missionaries was followed by a fierce outbreak of
+persecution in all the provinces in which Christians were to be found,
+which was conducted with systematic and relentless severity.
+
+The Jesuit accounts attribute this resolution on the part of Iyeyasu to
+the intrigues of the English and Dutch traders. Two stories, by one of
+which it was sought to fix the blame on the former and by the other on
+the latter, were circulated, and will be found at length in Charlevoix's
+history.
+
+We have no wish to enter upon a defence either of our countrymen or of
+the Dutch, and fully admit the possibility of such intrigues having
+occurred. Indeed, considering in what relations both Spanish and
+Portuguese stood at that time to both of the other nations, and how high
+religious feeling ran in the seventeenth century, it would be strange if
+some intrigue had not taken place. Still we should like to point out
+that there were, we think, causes, other than those to which the Jesuit
+writers confine themselves, quite sufficient in themselves to account
+for the extreme measures taken against Christianity at this date.
+
+There was the predetermination against Christianity already shown by
+Iyeyasu; there were the new avenues of trade opened up by the arrival of
+the English and Dutch; there was the increased activity displayed by the
+missionaries at a time when Christianity was in a weak state, and lastly
+there was the influence of the Buddhist priesthood.
+
+That this edict of expulsion issued by Iyeyasu was the effect of no
+sudden caprice on his part, is clear from the general view which we have
+of his whole policy, which was similar to that of his predecessor. His
+early tolerance of Christianity is susceptible of the same explanation
+as that shown by Hideyoshi. His mind was evidently made up, and he was
+only biding his time.
+
+It is also highly probable that the new facilities for trade offered by
+the advent of the Dutch and English may have had some influence upon the
+action of Iyeyasu. It is impossible that he can have been altogether
+blind to the fact that the teaching of Christianity had not been
+unattended with certain evils, dangerous, to say the least, to the
+tranquillity of the country; and it cannot have escaped his notice that,
+whereas the respective admissions of Portuguese and Spaniards had been
+followed by the introduction of Christian missionaries, who in numbers
+far exceeded the traders, the same feature was not a part of the policy
+of the two other nations, whose proceedings had no connection whatsoever
+with religion. Possibly, too, reports may have reached his ears of the
+growing supremacy of the Dutch in the East, and have induced him to
+transfer his favor from the Portuguese and Spaniards to the new
+arrivals.
+
+As regards the condition of Christianity at this time, the Jesuit
+accounts supply us with facts which show that, numerically speaking, the
+Christian cause was never so strong as at this period. There were some
+two millions of converts, whose spiritual concerns were administered by
+no fewer than two hundred missionaries, three-fourths of whom were
+Jesuits. According to the _Kerisuto-Ki_, a native work, there were
+Christian churches in every province of Kiushiu except Hiuga and Osumi,
+and also in Kioto, Osaka, Sendai, and Kanagawa in Kaga; and it was only
+in eight provinces of Japan that Christianity had gained no footing. An
+increased activity in the operations of the missionaries is discernible
+about this time. The Dominicans in Satsuma, the Franciscans in Yedo
+(Tokio), and the Jesuits in the capital and southern provinces, seem to
+have been vying with each other which should gain most converts; and the
+circuit made by Cerqueyra, in which he visited all the Jesuit
+establishments throughout the country, was probably not without effect
+in exciting fresh enthusiasm among the converts everywhere, which,
+again, would naturally draw attention to the progress of Christianity.
+But, strong as the position of the Christians was numerically, we must
+not judge of the strength of their cause merely by the number of
+converts, or by the number of missionaries resident in Japan. If we
+consider the facts before us, we find that Christianity lacked the best
+of all strength--influence in the state. All its principal supporters
+among the aristocracy were either dead, had renounced their new faith,
+or were in exile; and here we have the real weakness of the Christian
+cause. While, therefore, circumstances combined to draw attention to its
+progress, it was in a state which could ill resist any renewed activity
+of persecution which might be the result of the increased interest which
+it excited. Without influence at the court and without influence in the
+country, beyond what slight influence the mass of common people
+scattered through various provinces, who were Christians, might be said
+to possess, Christianity presented itself assailable with impunity.
+
+The last cause we have mentioned, as being probably connected with the
+decisive measures adopted by Iyeyasu, is the influence of the Buddhist
+priesthood. Japanese history mentions the great power attained by the
+priesthood prior to Nobunaga's administration. Although that power was
+broken by Nobunaga, Hideyoshi did not inherit the former's animosity
+toward the priests, and Iyeyasu from the first came forward as their
+patron. And, again, we must not lose sight of the fact that a
+deep-rooted suspicion of foreigners was ever present in the minds of the
+Japanese Government; a suspicion which the course of events in China, of
+which we may presume the Japanese were not altogether ignorant--the
+jealousy of the native priests; the control of their converts exercised
+by the missionaries, which doubtless extended to secular matters; the
+connection of Christianity with trade; and the astounding progress made
+by it in the space of half a century--all tended to confirm. Enough has
+been said to show that we need not go so far as the intrigues, real or
+imaginary, of the English and Dutch, to look for causes for the renewed
+stimulus given at this date to the measures against Christianity.
+
+In 1614 the edict was carried into effect, and the missionaries,
+accompanied by the Japanese princes who had been in exile in Kaga, and a
+number of native Christians, were made to embark from Nagasaki. Several
+missionaries remained concealed in the country, and in subsequent years
+not a few contrived to elude the vigilance of the authorities and to
+reenter Japan. But they were all detected sooner or later, and suffered
+for their temerity by their deaths.
+
+Persecution did not stop with the expulsion of the missionaries, nor at
+the death of Iyeyasu was any respite given to the native Christians. And
+this brings us to the closing scene of this history--the tragedy of
+Shimabara. In the autumn of 1637 the peasantry of a convert district in
+Hizen, driven past endurance by the fierce ferocity of the persecution,
+assembled to the number of thirty thousand, and, fortifying the castle
+of Shimabara, declared open defiance to the Government; their opposition
+was soon overborne; troops were sent against them, and after a short but
+desperate resistance all the Christians were put to the sword. With the
+rising of Shimabara, and its sanguinary suppression by the Government,
+the curtain falls on the early history of Christianity in Japan.
+
+
+
+
+COLLAPSE OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V
+
+FRANCE SEIZES GERMAN BISHOPRICS
+
+A.D. 1552
+
+LADY C. C. JACKSON
+
+     Henry II, son of Francis I, ascended the throne of France in
+     1547. It had been the ambition of the French to establish
+     the eastern boundary of their country on the Rhine, and
+     thence along the summit of the Alps to the Mediterranean
+     Sea. Jealousy of the growing power of his father's old
+     enemy, the emperor Charles V, probably added to the French
+     King's eagerness to fulfil the desire of his people for
+     extension of their borders.
+
+     Charles was now occupied with the religious wars in Germany,
+     and Henry prepared to improve his opportunity by taking full
+     advantage of the Emperor's situation. The fact that the
+     Protestants among his own subjects were cruelly persecuted
+     did not deter the French monarch from furthering his
+     ambition by consenting to assist the German Protestants
+     against their own sovereign.
+
+     In 1551, when for six years there had been no actual war
+     between France and the empire, Henry entered into an
+     alliance with German princes against the Emperor. Several of
+     those princes, headed by Maurice of Saxony, had secretly
+     formed a league to resist by force of arms the "measures
+     employed by Charles to reduce Germany to insupportable and
+     perpetual servitude."
+
+
+Charles V was on the point of becoming as despotic in Germany as he was
+in Spain. The long interval of peace, though not very profound--war
+being always threatened and attempts to provoke it frequent--yet was
+sufficiently so to enable him to devote himself to his favorite scheme
+of humbling the princes and free states of the empire. He had sown
+dissension among them, succeeded in breaking up the League of Smalkald,
+and detained in prison, threatened with perpetual captivity, the
+Landgrave of Hesse and the elector John Frederick of Saxony. They had
+been sentenced to death, having taken up arms against him. Frequently
+appealed to to release them, Charles declared that to trouble him
+further on their account would be to bring on them the execution of the
+sentence they so richly merited.
+
+His political aims he believed to be now accomplished, and the spirit of
+German independence nearly, if not wholly, extinguished. But with this
+he was not content. The time had arrived, he thought, for the full and
+final extirpation of heresy, and the carrying out of his grand scheme of
+"establishing uniformity of religion in the empire." The formula of
+faith, called the "Interim," which he had drawn up for general
+observance until the council reassembled, had been for the sake of peace
+accepted with slight resistance, except at Magdeburg, which, for its
+obstinate rejection of it, was placed under the ban of the empire. But
+the prelates were assembling at Trent, and the full acquiescence of all
+parties in their decisions--given, of course, in conformity with the
+views of Charles V--was to be made imperative.
+
+Henry II had already renewed the French alliance with Sultan Solyman,
+and was urged to send his lieutenants to ravage the coast of Sicily--a
+suggestion he was not at all loath to follow. Yet the proposal of an
+alliance with the heretic German princes--though the league was not
+simply a Protestant one--met with strenuous opposition from that
+excellent Catholic, Anne de Montmorency. The persecuting King, too,
+anxious as he was to oppose his arms to those of the Emperor, feared to
+do so in alliance with heretics, lest he should compromise his soul's
+salvation.
+
+But the princes had offered him an irresistible bribe. They
+proposed--even declared they thought it right--that the seigneur King
+should take possession of those imperial cities which were not Germanic
+in language--as Metz, Cambray, Toul, Verdun, and similar ones--and
+retain them in quality of vicar of the Holy Empire. As a further
+inducement, they promised--having accomplished their own objects--to aid
+him with their troops to recover from Charles his heritage of Milan.
+This was decisive.
+
+On October 5th a pact was signed with France by the Lutheran elector
+Maurice, in his own name and that of the confederate princes, Henry's
+ambassador being the Catholic Bishop of Bayonne. Extensive preparations
+for war were immediately set on foot and new taxes levied; for the King
+had promised aid in money also--a considerable sum monthly as long as
+hostilities continued.
+
+He, however, deemed it expedient, before joining his army, to give some
+striking proof of his continued orthodoxy; first, by way of
+counterbalancing his heretical alliance with the Lutherans and his
+infidel one with the Mussulmans; next, to destroy the false hopes
+founded on them by French reformers. The heretics, during his absence,
+were therefore to be hunted down with the utmost rigor. The Sorbonne was
+charged "to examine minutely all books from Geneva, and no unlettered
+person was permitted to discuss matters of faith." All cities and
+municipalities were strictly enjoined to elect none but good Catholics
+to the office of mayor or sheriff, exacting from them a certificate of
+Catholicism before entering on the duties of their office. Neglect of
+this would subject the electors themselves to the pains and penalties
+inflicted on heretics.
+
+A grand inquisitor was appointed to take care of the faith in Lyons, and
+the daily burnings on the Place de Greve went on simultaneously with the
+preparations in the arsenals, and no less vigorously. Thus the King was
+enabled to enter on this war with a safe conscience. Montmorency,[57]
+unwilling always to oppose the Emperor, was compelled, lest he should
+seem less patriotic than his rivals, to add his voice also in favor of
+the project that promised the realization of the views of Charles VII
+and Francis I that the natural boundary of France was the Rhine.
+
+To return to Germany and the Emperor--whose complicated affairs are so
+entangled with those of France that they cannot be wholly separated,
+each in some measure forming the complement of the other. The
+command-in-chief of the German army was given to Maurice of Saxony--an
+able general, full of resource, daring and dauntless in the field,
+crafty and cautious in the cabinet as Charles himself. Throughout the
+winter he secretly assembled troops, preparing to take the field early
+in the spring, yet adroitly concealing his projects, and lulling into
+security "the most artful monarch in Europe."
+
+The Emperor had left Augsburg for Innspruck that he might at the same
+time watch over the council and the affairs of Germany and Italy. He was
+suffering from asthma, gout, and other maladies, chiefly brought on by
+his excesses at table, and rendered incurable by his inability to put
+any restraint on his immoderate appetite.
+
+In his retreat some rumors had reached him that the movements of Maurice
+of Saxony were suspicious, and that he was raising troops in
+Transylvania. But he gave little heed to this, or to warnings pressed on
+him by some of his partisans. For Maurice, to serve his own ambitious
+views, had in fact, though professing the reformed faith, aided Charles
+to acquire that power and ascendency, that almost unlimited despotism in
+Germany he now proposed to overthrow. For his services he had obtained
+the larger part of the electoral dominions of his unfortunate relative,
+John Frederick of Saxony, whose release, as also that of the Landgrave,
+now formed part of his programme for delivering Germany from her fetters
+ere the imperial despot could--as Maurice saw he was prepared to
+do--rivet them on her. To renew the Protestant league, to place himself
+at its head and defy the despot, was more congenial to Maurice's
+restless, aspiring mind than to play the part of his lieutenant.
+
+The winter passed away without any serious suspicions on Charles' part.
+To throw him off his guard Maurice had undertaken to subdue the
+Magdeburgers. The leniency of his conduct toward "those rebels" with
+whom he was secretly in league did at last excite a doubt in Charles'
+mind. Maurice was summoned to Innspruck, ostensibly to confer with him
+respecting the liberation of his father-in-law, the Landgrave of Hesse.
+But Maurice was far too wary to put himself in his power, and readily
+found some plausible excuse to delay his journey from time to time. But
+when, early in March, at the head of twenty-five thousand men,
+thoroughly equipped, he announced that he was about to set out on his
+journey, the information was accompanied with a declaration of war. "It
+was a war," he said, "for the defence of the true religion, its
+ministers and preachers; for the deliverance of prisoners detained
+against all faith and justice; to free Germany from her wretched
+condition, and to oppose the Emperor's completion of that absolute
+monarchy toward which he had so long been aiming."
+
+To this manifesto was appended another from the King of France. Therein
+Henry announced himself the "defender of the liberties of Germany, and
+protector of her captive princes"; further stating "that, broken-hearted
+[_le coeur navre_] at the condition of Germany, he could not refuse to
+aid her, but had determined to do so to the utmost power of his ability,
+even to personally engaging in this war, undertaken for liberty and not
+for his personal benefit." This document--written in French--was headed
+by the representation of a cap between two poniards, and around it the
+inscription "The Emblem of Liberty." It is said to have been copied from
+some ancient coins, and to have been appropriated as the symbol of
+freedom by Caesar's assassins. Thus singularly was brought to light by a
+king of the French Renaissance that terrible cap of liberty, before
+which the ancient crown of France was one day destined to fall.
+
+The declaration of the German princes and that of their ally, the King
+of France, fell like a thunderbolt on the Emperor--so great was his
+astonishment and consternation at the events so unexpected. With rapid
+marches Maurice advanced on Upper Germany, while other divisions of the
+army, headed by the confederate princes, hastened on toward Tyrol, by
+way of Franconia and Swabia, everywhere being received with open arms as
+"Germany's liberators." Maurice reached Augsburg on April 1st, and took
+possession of that important city--the garrison offering no resistance,
+and the inhabitants receiving him joyfully. There, as in other towns on
+his march which had willingly opened their gates to him, the Interim was
+abolished; the churches restored to the Protestants; the magistrates
+appointed by the Emperor displaced, and those he had rejected
+reinstated. Money, too, was freely offered him, and the deficiency in
+his artillery supplied. At Trent the news that the Protestant princes,
+joined by several of the Catholics and free states, "had taken up arms
+for liberty," caused a terrible panic. The fathers of the council,
+Italian, Spanish, and German, at once made a precipitate retreat, and
+this famous council, without authority from pope or emperor, dissolved
+itself, to reassemble only after even a longer interval than before.
+When Maurice began his march Henry II had joined his army at Chalons,
+and was on his way to Lorraine. Toul, on his approach, presented the
+keys of the city to the constable commanding the vanguard--the King
+afterward making his entry, and receiving the oath of fidelity from the
+inhabitants, having previously sworn to maintain their rights and
+privileges inviolate. After this easy conquest the French army continued
+its march toward Metz. This old free republican city did not so readily
+as Toul yield to the French. The municipal authorities very politely
+offered provisions to the army, but declined to deliver the keys of the
+city to the constable. They were, however, willing to admit the King and
+the princes who accompanied him within their walls. "Troops were not
+permitted to enter Metz, whatever their nation." This was one of their
+privileges.
+
+Montmorency cared little for privileges, and violence would probably
+have been used but that the Bishop of Metz, who was a Frenchman,
+prevailed on the principal burgesses to allow the constable to enter
+with an escort of two ensigns, each with his company of infantry.
+Montmorency availed himself of this permission to give his ensigns
+fifteen hundred of his best troops. The city gates were thrown open, and
+the burgesses then perceived their error, but too late to remedy it.
+They were firmly repulsed when attempting to exclude the unwelcome
+visitors; there was, however, no bloodshed. The people were soon
+reconciled to the change; and the chief sheriff and town council on the
+King's entry having assembled on the cathedral porch, Henry there, in
+the presence of an anxious multitude who crowded around him to hear him,
+made oath strictly to maintain their franchises and immunities. Thus
+easily was captured the former capital of the ancient Austrian kings,
+which remained under the dominion of France until separated from her by
+the misfortunes of the second empire.
+
+The city of Verdun followed the example of Toul; so that Henry's defence
+of the liberties of Germany was thus far nothing more than a military
+promenade, with grand public entries, banquets, and general festivity.
+The inhabitants of Metz--like the rest of his conquests, French in
+language and manners--petitioned the King not to restore their city to
+the empire, of which it had been a vassal republic from the beginning of
+the feudal era; they feared the Emperor's revenge. Henry, however, had
+no thought of relinquishing Metz; he was too well pleased with his new
+possession, and "proposed to make it one of the ramparts of France."
+
+But while Henry for the defence of German independence was making
+conquests and annexing them to his dominions, Charles V had fled before
+Maurice's vigorous pursuit, and had only escaped capture by a mere
+mischance that briefly retarded his pursuers' progress. When Augsburg
+was taken, Charles felt that he was not safe at Innspruck. He was
+neither in a position to crush the rebellious princes nor to resist the
+invasion of the King of France. Want of means had induced him to disband
+a large part of his army; Mexico and Peru for some time had failed to
+make any remittances to his treasury; the bankers of Venice and Genoa
+were not willing to lend him money, and it was only by placing Piombino
+in the hands of Cosmo de' Medici that he obtained from him the small sum
+of two hundred thousand crowns.
+
+His first impulse was to endeavor to pass over the route of the
+Netherlands by the valleys of the Inn and the Rhine; but as he could
+only move, owing to his gout, from place to place in a litter, he was
+compelled, from physical suffering, after proceeding a very short
+distance on his journey, to return to Innspruck. There he remained with
+a small body of soldiers sufficient to guard himself personally--having
+sent all he could possibly spare to hold the mountain pass leading to
+the almost inaccessible castle of Ehrenberg. But, guided by a shepherd,
+the heights of Ehrenberg were reached by the troops under George of
+Brandenburg, after infinite fatigue and danger. The walls were scaled,
+and the garrison, terrified by the appearance of this unlooked-for
+enemy, threw down their arms and surrendered.
+
+A few hours only separated Innspruck from Ehrenberg, and Maurice
+proposed to push on rapidly so as to anticipate the arrival there of any
+accounts of the loss of the castle, hoping to surprise the Emperor and
+his attendants in an open, defenceless town, and there to dictate
+conditions of peace. The dissatisfaction of a portion of the troops at
+not immediately receiving the usual gratuity for taking a place by
+assault occasioned a short delay in the advance of Maurice's army. He
+arrived at Innspruck in the middle of the night, and learned that the
+Emperor had fled only two hours before to Carinthia, followed by his
+ministers and attendants, on foot, on horses, in litters, as they
+could, but in the greatest hurry and confusion.
+
+The night was stormy; rain was falling in torrents when the modern
+Charlemagne, unable to move, was borne in a litter by the light of
+torches across steep mountain paths with a swiftness most surprising;
+terror adding wings to the footsteps of his bearers, lest they and their
+gouty burden should fall into the hands of the heretic army, said to be
+in pursuit. But pursuit was soon given up, for the troops were worn and
+weary with forced marches and climbing the heights of Ehrenberg; they
+needed rest, and there was the imperial palace of Innspruck to pillage,
+Maurice having given it up to them.
+
+Negotiations for peace were opened on May 20th at Passau on the Danube.
+The King of France was informed of this, it being found necessary to put
+some check on his proceedings; to remind him that he was the "defender
+of the liberties of Germany," not Germany's oppressor. He and his army
+had advanced into Alsace, and Montmorency had assured him that it would
+be "as easy to enter Strasburg and other cities of the Rhine as to
+penetrate butter." However, when they knocked at the gates of Strasburg
+and courteously requested that the Venetian, Florentine, and other
+ambassadors might be permitted to enter and admire the beautiful city,
+they found the Strasburgers insensible to these amenities--butter by no
+means easily melted; for not only they refused to gratify the
+_soi-disant_ ambassadors with a sight of their fine city, but mounted
+and pointed their cannon, as a hint to their visitors that they would do
+well to withdraw.
+
+Henry, perceiving that he would be unable in the present campaign to
+extend his dominions to the banks of the Rhine, contented himself,
+"before turning his back on it, with the fact that the horses of his
+army had drunk of the waters of that stream." The Austrasian expedition
+was less brilliant in its results than he had expected; nevertheless,
+whether he was to be included in the peace then negotiating or not, he
+resolved to retain the three bishoprics--Toul, Metz, and Verdun.
+
+Meanwhile the conference of Passau, between Maurice with his princes of
+the league on the one part; Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and the
+Emperor's plenipotentiaries on the other, proceeded less rapidly than
+Maurice desired. By prolonging the negotiation Charles hoped to gain
+time to assemble an army, when the Catholic princes might rally around
+him. But even those who had joined the league were exceedingly lukewarm
+toward their Emperor; his despotism, they considered, being as dangerous
+to them as to the Protestants. Even his brother Ferdinand--who was on
+such excellent terms with Maurice that it would almost seem that he had
+connived at an enterprise he could not openly join in--is said to have
+seen with satisfaction the check put on Charles by the dauntless leader
+of the league.
+
+But Maurice's propositions being at first rejected, and no counter ones
+proposed, he at once set off for his army to renew hostilities, as
+though the negotiations were closed. Charles doubtless renounced the
+realization of the dream of his life with a pang of despair. That it
+should vanish at the very moment when he looked for its fulfilment was
+anguish to him. But pressed by Ferdinand, convinced, too, that
+resistance is useless, Charles yields an unwilling assent to the demands
+of the princes, and the "Treaty of Public Peace" is signed on August 2d.
+Henceforth "the two religions are to be on a footing of equality in the
+empire"; Germany divided between Luther and the Pope, who are to live
+side by side in peace, neither interrupting the other. The ban of the
+empire to be withdrawn from all persons and places; the captive princes,
+detained for five years in prison if not in fetters, released; while
+many other matters relating to imperial encroachments are to be
+satisfactorily settled within six months.
+
+"The defender of German liberty" was not included in this treaty. As he
+proposed to keep the cities he was to occupy but as vicar of the empire,
+he would have to fight a battle for them with Charles himself. Though
+compelled to renounce absolute sway over Germany, he yet thought it
+incumbent on him to reestablish the territory of the empire in its full
+integrity. His valiant sister, the Dowager-queen of Hungary, who
+governed the Netherlands so ably for him, was diligently collecting an
+army for the destitute monarch of many kingdoms, and troops were on
+their way from Spain.
+
+In spite of his infirmities, Charles was in such haste to chastise the
+French, and revenge himself on Henry--having succeeded in raising an
+army sixty thousand strong, besides seven thousand pioneers--that he
+rejected the prudent counsels of his generals, who begged him to wait
+until the spring, when Metz might be attacked with much greater
+advantage. But his excessive obstinacy, which had led to so many of his
+disasters, again prevailed. The Duc de Guise, now Governor of Metz, had
+put the citadel into a state of defence. The garrison was numerous, and,
+as was usual wherever he commanded, thither followed all the young,
+ardent spirits among the great families of France.
+
+The siege of Metz was a terrible disaster for the Emperor. The extreme
+severity of the winter, a scant supply of clothing and other
+necessaries, were soon followed by sickness, typhus, and many deaths.
+Desertions were numerous; for the sufferings of the troops had quenched
+all war and subverted all discipline. Desperate efforts to take Metz
+were continued for nearly three months without avail, when Charles,
+thoroughly disheartened, and unable to rise from his couch except for
+removal to his litter, raised the siege--abandoning the greater part of
+his artillery, which was half buried in the mud. "Fortune," he
+exclaimed, "I perceive is indeed a woman; she prefers a young king to an
+old emperor." The spectacle that met the eyes of the victorious
+defenders of Metz, on issuing forth in pursuit of the enemy, is said to
+have been one of so harrowing a nature that even rough soldiers,
+accustomed to the horrors of war, looked on the misery around them with
+emotions of deepest pity. There lay the dying and the dead heaped up
+together; the wounded and those who had been stricken down by fever
+stretched side by side on the gory, muddy earth. Others had sunk into
+it, and, unable to extricate themselves, were frozen to their knees, and
+plaintively asked for death to put an end to their wretchedness.
+Scattered along the route of the retreat lay dead horses, tents, arms,
+portions of the baggage, and many sick soldiers who had fallen by the
+way in their efforts to keep up with the hasty march of the remnant of
+the army--a sad and terrible scene indeed in a career called one of
+glory.
+
+Francois de Guise greatly distinguished himself as a general, and added
+to his military renown by his defence of Metz; but far greater glory
+attaches to his name for his humane and generous conduct to the
+suffering, abandoned troops of Charles' army. All whose lives could be
+saved, or sufferings relieved, received every care and attention that he
+and the surgeons of his army could bestow on them. Following his
+example, instead of the savage brutality with which the victors were
+then accustomed to treat their fallen foes, kindness and good offices
+were rendered by all to the poor victims of the Emperor's revenge for
+the loss of Metz. So utterly contrary was such treatment to the practice
+of the age that the generosity and humanity of Francois de Guise toward
+an enemy's troops passed into a proverb as the "_Courtoisie de Metz_."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[57] Anne de Montmorency, Marshal and Constable of France. He was
+distinguished in the wars against Charles V.
+
+
+
+
+THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF AUGSBURG
+
+ABDICATION OF CHARLES V
+
+A.D. 1555
+
+WILLIAM ROBERTSON
+
+     By the victory of Charles V at Muehlberg, in 1547, the
+     Emperor obtained a decided advantage over the Smalkaldic
+     League, and seemed to be master of the situation in Germany.
+     He convened a diet at Augsburg, and promulgated an
+     "interim," or provisional arrangement for peace, but it was
+     imperfectly carried out. Later interims also proving
+     unsatisfactory, various other attempts at settlement were
+     made, and finally, by the Peace of Passau (1552), religious
+     liberty was granted to the Protestants.
+
+     Charles now appeared to be at the height of his power; but
+     new danger threatened him from France. The alliance of King
+     Henry II with Maurice of Saxony, and other Protestant
+     princes, was followed by what is sometimes called the second
+     Smalkaldic War. Charles was quickly worsted, and only
+     escaped capture by fleeing into Switzerland. In a later
+     attack upon France he gained but little success.
+
+     The Emperor was now more than ever anxious for peace, and
+     only awaited the meeting of a diet which had been summoned
+     soon after the Treaty of Passau. This meeting was delayed by
+     violent commotions raised in Germany by Albert, Margrave of
+     Brandenburg. It was further delayed by the engrossment in
+     his own affairs of Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary.
+     He was the brother of Charles, had exerted himself, though
+     with slight success, to settle the religious disputes in
+     Germany, and Charles needed his presence at the Diet,
+     whereby he hoped to secure a final pacification.
+
+
+As a diet was now necessary on many accounts, Ferdinand, about the
+beginning of the year 1555, had repaired to Augsburg. Though few of the
+princes were present either in person or by their deputies, he opened
+the assembly by a speech, in which he proposed a termination of the
+dissensions to which the new tenets and controversies with regard to
+religion had given rise, not only as the first and great business of the
+diet, but as the point which both the Emperor and he had most at heart.
+He represented the innumerable obstacles which the Emperor had to
+surmount before he could procure the convocation of a general council,
+as well as the fatal accidents which had for some time retarded, and had
+at last suspended, the consultations of that assembly. He observed that
+experience had already taught them how vain it was to expect any remedy
+for evils which demanded immediate redress from a general council, the
+assembling of which would either be prevented, or its deliberations be
+interrupted, by the dissensions and hostilities of the princes of
+Christendom; that a national council in Germany, which, as some
+imagined, might be called with greater ease, and deliberate with more
+perfect security, was an assembly of an unprecedented nature, the
+jurisdiction of which was uncertain in its extent, and the form of its
+proceedings undefined; that in his opinion there remained but one method
+for composing their unhappy differences, which, though it had been often
+tried without success, might yet prove effectual if it were attempted
+with a better and more pacific spirit than had appeared on former
+occasions, and that was, to choose a few men of learning, abilities, and
+moderation, who, by discussing the disputed articles in an amicable
+conference, might explain them in such a manner as to bring the
+contending parties either to unite in sentiment, or to differ with
+charity.
+
+This speech being printed in common form, and dispersed over the empire,
+revived the fears and jealousies of the Protestants; Ferdinand, they
+observed with much surprise, had not once mentioned, in his address to
+the Diet, the Treaty of Passau, the stipulations of which they
+considered as the great security of their religious liberty. The
+suspicions to which this gave rise were confirmed by the accounts which
+were daily received of the extreme severity with which Ferdinand treated
+their Protestant brethren in his hereditary dominions; and as it was
+natural to consider his actions as the surest indication of his
+intentions, this diminished their confidence in those pompous
+professions of moderation, and of zeal for the reestablishment of
+concord, to which his practice seemed to be so repugnant.
+
+The arrival of the cardinal, Morone, whom the Pope had appointed to
+attend the Diet as his nuncio, completed their conviction, and left them
+no room to doubt that some dangerous machination was forming against
+the peace or safety of the Protestant Church. Julius, elated with the
+unexpected return of the English nation from apostasy, began to flatter
+himself that, the spirit of mutiny and revolt having now spent its
+force, the happy period was come when the Church might resume its
+ancient authority, and be obeyed by the people with the same tame
+submission as formerly. Full of these hopes, he had sent Morone to
+Augsburg with instructions to employ his eloquence to excite the Germans
+to imitate the laudable example of the English, and his political
+address in order to prevent any decree of the Diet to the detriment of
+the Catholic faith. But Julius died, and as soon as Morone heard of this
+he set out abruptly from Augsburg, where he had resided only a few days,
+that he might be present at the election of the new pontiff.
+
+One cause of their suspicions and fears being thus removed, the
+Protestants soon became sensible that their conjectures concerning
+Ferdinand's intentions, however specious, were ill-founded, and that he
+had no thoughts of violating the articles favorable to them in the
+Treaty of Passau. Charles, from the time that Maurice had defeated all
+his schemes in the empire, and overturned the great system of religious
+and civil despotism which he had almost established there, gave little
+attention to the internal government of Germany, and permitted his
+brother to pursue whatever measures he judged most salutary and
+expedient. Ferdinand, less ambitious and enterprising than the Emperor,
+instead of resuming a plan which he, with power and resources so far
+superior, had failed of accomplishing, endeavored to attach the princes
+of the empire to his family by an administration uniformly moderate and
+equitable. To this he gave, at present, particular attention, because
+his situation at this juncture rendered it necessary to court their
+favor and support with more than usual assiduity.
+
+Charles had again resumed his favorite project of acquiring the imperial
+crown for his son Philip, the prosecution of which, the reception it had
+met with when first proposed had obliged him to suspend, but had not
+induced him to relinquish. This led him warmly to renew his request to
+his brother, that he would accept of some compensation for his prior
+right of succession, and sacrifice that to the grandeur of the house of
+Austria. Ferdinand, who was as little disposed as formerly to give such
+an extraordinary proof of self-denial, being sensible that, in order to
+defeat this scheme, not only the most inflexible firmness on his part,
+but a vigorous declaration from the princes of the empire in behalf of
+his title, were requisite, was willing to purchase their favor by
+gratifying them in every point that they deemed interesting or
+essential.
+
+At the same time he stood in need of immediate and extraordinary aid
+from the Germanic body, as the Turks, after having wrested from him a
+great part of his Hungarian territories, were ready to attack the
+provinces still subject to his authority with a formidable army, against
+which he could bring no equal force into the field. For this aid from
+Germany he could not hope, if the internal peace of the empire were not
+established on a foundation solid in itself, and which should appear,
+even to the Protestants, so secure and so permanent as might not only
+allow them to engage in a distant war with safety, but might encourage
+them to act in it with vigor.
+
+A step taken by the Protestants themselves, a short time after the
+opening of the Diet, rendered him still more cautious of giving them any
+new cause of offence. As soon as the publication of Ferdinand's speech
+awakened the fears and suspicions which have been mentioned, the
+electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, together with the Landgrave of
+Hesse, met at Naumburg, and, confirming the ancient treaty of
+confraternity which had long united their families, they added to it a
+new article, by which the contracting parties bound themselves to adhere
+to the Confession of Augsburg, and to maintain the doctrine which it
+contained in their respective dominions.
+
+Ferdinand, influenced by all these considerations, employed his utmost
+address in conducting the deliberations of the Diet, so as not to excite
+the jealousy of a party on whose friendship he depended, and whose
+enmity, as they had not only taken the alarm, but had begun to prepare
+for their defence, he had so much reason to dread. The members of the
+Diet readily agreed to Ferdinand's proposal of taking the state of
+religion into consideration previous to any other business. But, soon as
+they entered upon it, both parties discovered all the zeal and animosity
+which a subject so interesting naturally engenders, and which the
+rancor of controversy, together with the violence of civil war, had
+inflamed to the highest pitch.
+
+The Protestants contended that the security which they claimed in
+consequence of the Treaty of Passau should extend, without limitation,
+to all who had hitherto embraced the doctrine of Luther, or who should
+thereafter embrace it. The Catholics, having first of all asserted the
+Pope's right, as the supreme and final judge with respect to all
+articles of faith, declared that though, on account of the present
+situation of the empire, and for the sake of peace, they were willing to
+confirm the toleration granted by the Treaty of Passau to such as had
+already adopted the new opinions, they must insist that this indulgence
+should not be extended either to those cities which had conformed to the
+"interim," or to such ecclesiastics as should for the future apostatize
+from the Church of Rome. It was no easy matter to reconcile such
+opposite pretensions, which were supported, on each side, by the most
+elaborate arguments, and the greatest acrimony of expression, that the
+abilities or zeal of theologians long exercised in disputation could
+suggest. Ferdinand, however, by his address and perseverance; by
+softening some things on each side; by putting a favorable meaning upon
+others; by representing incessantly the necessity as well as the
+advantages of concord; and by threatening, on some occasions, when all
+other considerations were disregarded, to dissolve the Diet, brought
+them at length to a conclusion in which they all agreed.
+
+Conformably to this, a recess was framed, approved of, and published
+with the usual formalities. The following are the chief articles which
+it contained: That such princes and cities as have declared their
+approbation of the Confession of Augsburg shall be permitted to profess
+the doctrine and exercise the worship which it authorizes, without
+interruption or molestation from the Emperor, the King of the Romans, or
+any power or person whatsoever; that the Protestants, on their part,
+shall give no disquiet to the princes and states who adhere to the
+tenets and rites of the Church of Rome; that, for the future, no attempt
+shall be made toward terminating religious differences but by the gentle
+and pacific methods of persuasion and conference; that the Popish
+ecclesiastics shall claim no spiritual jurisdiction in such states as
+receive the Confession of Augsburg; that such as had seized the
+benefices or revenues of the Church, previous to the Treaty of Passau,
+shall retain possession of them, and be liable to no persecution in the
+imperial chamber on that account; that the supreme civil power in every
+state shall have right to establish what form of doctrine and worship it
+shall deem proper, and, if any of its subjects refuse to conform to
+these, shall permit them to remove with all their effects whithersoever
+they shall please; that if any prelate or ecclesiastic shall hereafter
+abandon the Romish religion, he shall instantly relinquish his diocese
+or benefice, and it shall be lawful for those in whom the right of
+nomination is vested to proceed immediately to an election, as if the
+office were vacant by death or translation, and to appoint a successor
+of undoubted attachment to the ancient system.
+
+Such are the capital articles in this famous recess, which is the basis
+of religious peace in Germany, and the bond of union among its various
+states, the sentiments of which are so extremely different with respect
+to points the most interesting as well as important. In our age and
+nation, to which the idea of toleration is familiar, and its beneficial
+effects well known, it may seem strange that a method of terminating
+their dissensions, so suitable to the mild and charitable spirit of the
+Christian religion, did not sooner occur to the contending parties. But
+this expedient, however salutary, was so repugnant to the sentiments and
+practice of Christians during many ages that it did not lie obvious to
+discovery. Among the ancient heathens, all whose deities were local and
+tutelary, diversity of sentiments concerning the object or rites of
+religious worship seems to have been no source of animosity, because the
+acknowledging veneration to be due to any one god did not imply denial
+of the existence or the power of any other god; nor were the modes and
+rites of worship established in one country incompatible with those
+which other nations approved of and observed. Thus the errors in their
+system of theology were of such a nature as to be productive of concord;
+and, notwithstanding the amazing number of their deities, as well as the
+infinite variety of their ceremonies, a sociable and tolerating spirit
+subsisted almost universally in the Pagan world.
+
+But when the Christian revelation declared one Supreme Being to be the
+sole object of religious veneration, and prescribed the form of worship
+most acceptable to him, whoever admitted the truth of it held, of
+consequence, every other system of religion, as a deviation from what
+was established by divine authority, to be false and impious. Hence
+arose the zeal of the first converts to the Christian faith in
+propagating its doctrines, and the ardor with which they labored to
+overturn every other form of worship. They employed, however, for this
+purpose no methods but such as suited the nature of religion. By the
+force of powerful arguments, they convinced the understandings of men;
+by the charms of superior virtue, they allured and captivated their
+hearts. At length the civil power declared in favor of Christianity; and
+though numbers, imitating the example of their superiors, crowded into
+the church, many still adhered to their ancient superstitions. Enraged
+at their obstinacy, the ministers of religion, whose zeal was still
+unabated, though their sanctity and virtue were much diminished, forgot
+so far the nature of their own mission, and of the arguments which they
+ought to have employed, that they armed the imperial power against these
+unhappy men, and, as they could not persuade, they tried to compel them
+to believe.
+
+The Diet of Augsburg was soon followed by the Emperor's resignation of
+his hereditary dominions to his son Philip; together with his resolution
+to withdraw entirely from any concern in business or the affairs of this
+world, in order that he might spend the remainder of his days in
+retirement and solitude. Though it requires neither deep reflection nor
+extraordinary discernment to discover that the state of royalty is not
+exempt from cares and disappointment; though most of those who are
+exalted to a throne find solicitude, and satiety, and disgust to be
+their perpetual attendants in that envied preeminence, yet to descend
+voluntarily from the supreme to a subordinate station, and to relinquish
+the possession of power in order to attain the enjoyment of happiness,
+seems to be an effort too great for the human mind. Several instances,
+indeed, occur in history, of monarchs who have quitted a throne, and
+have ended their days in retirement. But they were either weak princes,
+who took this resolution rashly, and repented of it as soon as it was
+taken, or unfortunate princes, from whose hands some stronger rival had
+wrested their sceptre, and compelled them to descend with reluctance
+into a private station. Diocletian is perhaps the only prince capable of
+holding the reins of government who ever resigned them from deliberate
+choice, and who continued during many years to enjoy the tranquillity of
+retirement without fetching one penitent sigh, or casting back one look
+of desire toward the power or dignity which he had abandoned.
+
+No wonder, then, that Charles' resignation should fill all Europe with
+astonishment, and give rise, both among his contemporaries and among the
+historians of that period, to various conjectures concerning the motives
+which determined a prince, whose ruling passion had been uniformly the
+love of power, at the age of fifty-six, when objects of ambition
+continue to operate with full force on the mind, and are pursued with
+the greatest ardor, to take a resolution so singular and unexpected.
+But, while many authors have imputed it to motives so frivolous and
+fantastical as can hardly be supposed to influence any reasonable mind;
+while others have imagined it to be the result of some profound scheme
+of policy, historians more intelligent and better informed neither
+ascribe it to caprice, nor search for mysterious secrets of state, where
+simple and obvious causes will fully account for the Emperor's conduct.
+Charles had been attacked early in life with the gout; and,
+notwithstanding all the precautions of the most skilful physicians, the
+violence of the distemper increased as he advanced in age, and the fits
+became every year more frequent as well as more severe. Not only was the
+vigor of his constitution broken, but the faculties of his mind were
+impaired by the excruciating torments which he endured. During the
+continuance of the fits, he was altogether incapable of applying to
+business; and even when they began to abate, as it was only at intervals
+that he could attend to what was serious, he gave up a great part of his
+time to trifling and even childish occupations, which served to relieve
+or amuse his mind, enfeebled and worn out with excess of pain. Under
+these circumstances, the conduct of such affairs as occurred of course
+in governing so many kingdoms was a burden more than sufficient; but to
+push forward and complete the vast schemes which the ambition of his
+more active years had formed, or to keep in view and carry on the same
+great system of policy, extending to every nation in Europe, and
+connected with the operations of every different court, were functions
+which so far exceeded his strength that they oppressed and overwhelmed
+his mind. As he had been long accustomed to view the business of every
+department, whether civil or military or ecclesiastical, with his own
+eyes, and to decide concerning it according to his own ideas, it gave
+him the utmost pain, when he felt his infirmities increase so fast upon
+him, that he was obliged to commit the conduct of all his affairs to his
+ministers. He imputed every misfortune which befell him, and every
+miscarriage that happened, even when the former was unavoidable or the
+latter accidental, to his inability to take the inspection of business
+himself. He complained of his hard fortune in being opposed, in his
+declining years, to a rival who was in the full vigor of life; and that,
+while Henry could take and execute all his resolutions in person, he
+should now be reduced, both in counsel and in action, to rely on the
+talents and exertions of other men. Having thus grown old before his
+time, he wisely judged it more decent to conceal his infirmities in some
+solitude than to expose them any longer to the public eye, and prudently
+determined not to forfeit the fame or lose the acquisitions of his
+better years by struggling, with a vain obstinacy, to retain the reins
+of government, when he was no longer able to hold them with steadiness,
+or to guide them with address.[58]
+
+But though Charles had revolved this scheme in his mind for several
+years, and had communicated it to his sisters the dowager queens of
+France and Hungary, who not only approved of his intention, but offered
+to accompany him to whatever place of retreat he should choose, several
+things had hitherto prevented his carrying it into execution. He could
+not think of loading his son with the government of so many kingdoms
+until he should attain such maturity of age and of abilities as would
+enable him to sustain that weighty burden. But as Philip had now reached
+his twenty-eighth year, and had been early accustomed to business, for
+which he discovered both inclination and capacity, it can hardly be
+imputed to the partiality of paternal affection that his scruples with
+regard to this point were entirely removed; and that he thought he might
+place his son, without further hesitation or delay, on the throne which
+he himself was about to abandon. His mother's situation had been another
+obstruction in his way. For although she had continued almost fifty
+years in confinement, and under the same disorder of mind which concern
+for her husband's death had brought upon her, yet the government of
+Spain was still vested in her jointly with the Emperor; her name was
+inserted, together with his, in all the public instruments issued in
+that kingdom; and such was the fond attachment of the Spaniards to her,
+that they would probably have scrupled to recognize Philip as their
+sovereign, unless she had consented to assume him as her partner on the
+throne. Her utter incapacity for business rendered it impossible to
+obtain her consent. But her death, which happened this year, removed
+this difficulty; and as Charles, upon that event, became sole monarch
+of Spain, it left the succession open to his son. The war with France
+had likewise been a reason for retaining the administration of affairs
+in his own hands, as he was extremely solicitous to have terminated it,
+that he might have given up his kingdoms to his son at peace with all
+the world. But as Henry had discovered no disposition to close with any
+of his overtures, and had even rejected proposals of peace which were
+equal and moderate, in a tone that seemed to indicate a fixed purpose of
+continuing hostilities, he saw that it was vain to wait longer in
+expectation of an event which, however desirable, was altogether
+uncertain.
+
+As this, then, appeared to be the proper juncture for executing the
+scheme which he had long meditated, Charles resolved to resign his
+kingdoms to his son with a solemnity suitable to the importance of the
+transaction, and to perform this last act of sovereignty with such
+formal pomp as might leave a lasting impression on the minds not only of
+his subjects, but of his successor. With this view he called Philip out
+of England, where the peevish temper of his queen, which increased with
+her despair of having issue, rendered him extremely unhappy; and the
+jealousy of the English left him no hopes of obtaining the direction of
+their affairs. Having assembled the states of the Low Countries at
+Brussels, on October 25th, Charles seated himself for the last time in
+the chair of state, on one side of which was placed his son, and on the
+other his sister the Queen of Hungary, regent of the Netherlands, with a
+splendid retinue of the princes of the empire and grandees of Spain
+standing behind him. The president of the council of Flanders, by his
+command, explained in a few words his intention in calling this
+extraordinary meeting of the states. He then read the instrument of
+resignation, by which Charles surrendered to his son Philip all his
+territories, jurisdiction, and authority in the Low Countries, absolving
+his subjects there from their oath of allegiance to him, which he
+required them to transfer to Philip, his lawful heir, and to serve him
+with the same loyalty and zeal which they had manifested, during so long
+a course of years, in support of his government.
+
+Charles then rose from his seat, and leaning on the shoulder of the
+Prince of Orange, because he was unable to stand without support, he
+addressed himself to the audience, and from a paper which he held in his
+hand, in order to assist his memory, he recounted with dignity, but
+without ostentation, all the great things which he had undertaken and
+performed since the commencement of his administration. He observed
+that, from the seventeenth year of his age, he had dedicated all his
+thoughts and attention to public objects, reserving no portion of his
+time for the indulgence of his ease, and very little for the enjoyment
+of private pleasure; that, either in a pacific or hostile manner, he had
+visited Germany nine times, Spain six times, France four times, Italy
+seven times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice, Africa as
+often, and had made eleven voyages by sea; that while his health
+permitted him to discharge his duty, and the vigor of his constitution
+was equal, in any degree, to the arduous office of governing such
+extensive dominions, he had never shunned labor, nor repined under
+fatigue; that now, when his health was broken, and his vigor exhausted
+by the rage of an incurable distemper, his growing infirmities
+admonished him to retire; nor was he so fond of reigning as to retain
+the sceptre in an impotent hand, which was no longer able to protect his
+subjects, or to secure to them the happiness which he wished they should
+enjoy; that instead of a sovereign worn out with diseases, and scarcely
+half alive, he gave them one in the prime of life, accustomed already to
+govern, and who added to the vigor of youth all the attention and
+sagacity of maturer years; and if, during the course of a long
+administration, he had committed any material error of government, or
+if, under the pressure of so many and great affairs, and amid the
+attention which he had been obliged to give to them, he had either
+neglected or injured any of his subjects, he now implored their
+forgiveness; that, for his part, he should ever retain a grateful sense
+of their fidelity and attachment, and would carry the remembrance of it
+along with him to the place of his retreat, as his sweetest consolation,
+as well as the best reward for all his services, and in his last prayers
+to Almighty God would pour forth his most earnest petitions for their
+welfare.
+
+Then, turning toward Philip, who fell on his knees and kissed his
+father's hand--"If," said he, "I had left you by my death this rich
+inheritance, to which I have made such large additions, some regard
+would have been justly due to my memory on that account; but now, when I
+voluntarily resign to you what I might have still retained, I may well
+expect the warmest expression of thanks on your part. With these,
+however, I dispense, and shall consider your concern for the welfare of
+your subjects, and your love of them, as the best and most acceptable
+testimony of your gratitude to me. It is in your power, by a wise and
+virtuous administration, to justify the extraordinary proof which I this
+day give of my paternal affection, and to demonstrate that you are
+worthy of the confidence which I repose in you. Preserve an inviolable
+regard for religion; maintain the Catholic faith in its purity; let the
+laws of your country be sacred in your eyes; encroach not on the rights
+and privileges of your people; and if the time should ever come when you
+shall wish to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a son
+endowed with such qualities that you can resign your sceptre to him with
+as much satisfaction as I give up mine to you."
+
+As soon as Charles had finished this long address to his subjects and to
+their new sovereign, he sank into the chair, exhausted and ready to
+faint with the fatigue of such an extraordinary effort. During his
+discourse the whole audience melted into tears, some from admiration of
+his magnanimity, others softened by the expressions of tenderness toward
+his son, and of love to his people; and all were affected with the
+deepest sorrow at losing a sovereign who, during his administration, had
+distinguished the Netherlands, his native country, with particular marks
+of his regard and attachment.
+
+Philip then arose from his knees, and after returning thanks to his
+father, with a low and submissive voice, for the royal gift which his
+unexampled bounty had bestowed upon him, he addressed the assembly of
+the states, and, regretting his inability to speak the Flemish language
+with such facility as to express what he felt on this interesting
+occasion, as well as what he owed to his good subjects in the
+Netherlands, he begged that they would permit Granvelle, bishop of
+Arras, to deliver what he had given him in charge to speak in his name.
+Granvelle, in a long discourse, expatiated on the zeal with which
+Philip was animated for the good of his subjects, on his resolution to
+devote all his time and talents to the promoting of their happiness, and
+on his intention to imitate his father's example in distinguishing the
+Netherlands with peculiar marks of his regard. Maes, a lawyer of great
+eloquence, replied in the name of the states, with large professions of
+their fidelity and affection to their new sovereign.
+
+Then Mary, Queen dowager of Hungary, resigned the regency with which she
+had been intrusted by her brother during the space of twenty-five years.
+Next day Philip, in the presence of the states, took the usual oaths to
+maintain the rights and privileges of his subjects; and all the members,
+in their own name and in that of their constituents, swore allegiance to
+him.
+
+A few weeks after this transaction, Charles, in an assembly no less
+splendid and with a ceremonial equally pompous, resigned to his son the
+crowns of Spain, with all the territories depending on them, both in the
+Old and in the New world. Of all these vast possessions, he reserved
+nothing for himself but an annual pension of a hundred thousand crowns,
+to defray the charges of his family, and to afford him a small sum for
+acts of beneficence and charity.
+
+As he had fixed on a place of retreat in Spain, hoping that the dryness
+and the warmth of the climate in that country might mitigate the
+violence of his disease, which had been much increased by the moisture
+of the air and rigor of the winters in the Netherlands, he was extremely
+impatient to embark for that kingdom, and to disengage himself entirely
+from business, which he found to be impossible while he remained in
+Brussels. But his physicians remonstrated so strongly against his
+venturing to sea at that cold and boisterous season of the year, that he
+consented, though with reluctance, to put off his voyage for some
+months.
+
+He retained the imperial dignity, not from any unwillingness to
+relinquish it, for, after having resigned the real and extensive
+authority that he enjoyed in his hereditary dominions, to part with the
+limited and often ideal jurisdiction which belongs to an elective crown
+was no great sacrifice. His sole motive for delay was to gain a few
+months for making one trial more, in order to accomplish his favorite
+scheme in behalf of his son. At the very time Charles seemed to be most
+sensible of the vanity of worldly grandeur, and when he appeared to be
+quitting it not only with indifference but with contempt, the vast
+schemes of ambition, which had so long occupied and engrossed his mind,
+still kept possession of it. He could not think of leaving his son in a
+rank inferior to that which he himself had held among the princes of
+Europe. As he had, some years before, made a fruitless attempt to secure
+the imperial crown to Philip, that, by uniting it to the kingdoms of
+Spain and the dominions of the house of Burgundy, he might put it in his
+power to prosecute, with a better prospect of success, those great plans
+which his own infirmities had obliged him to abandon, he was still
+unwilling to relinquish this flattering project as chimerical or
+unattainable.
+
+Notwithstanding the repulse which he had formerly met with from his
+brother Ferdinand, he renewed his solicitations with fresh importunity,
+and during the summer had tried every art, and employed every argument,
+which he thought could induce him to quit the imperial throne to Philip,
+and to accept of the investiture of some province, either in Italy or in
+the Low Countries, as an equivalent. But Ferdinand, who was so firm and
+inflexible with regard to this point that he had paid no regard to the
+solicitations of the Emperor, even when they were enforced with all the
+weight of authority which accompanies supreme power, received the
+overture, that now came from him in the situation to which he had
+descended, with great indifference, and would hardly deign to listen to
+it. Charles, ashamed of his own credulity in having imagined that he
+might accomplish now that which he had attempted formerly without
+success, desisted finally from his scheme. He then resigned the
+government of the empire, and, having transferred all his claims of
+obedience and allegiance from the Germanic body to his brother the King
+of the Romans, he executed a deed to that effect, with all the
+formalities requisite in such an important transaction. The instrument
+of resignation he committed to William, Prince of Orange, and empowered
+him to lay it before the college of electors.
+
+Nothing now remained to detain Charles from that retreat for which he
+languished. The preparations for his voyage having been made for some
+time, he set out for Zuitburg, in Zealand, where the fleet which was to
+convoy him had orders to assemble. In his way thither he passed through
+Ghent, and after stopping there a few days, to indulge that tender and
+pleasing melancholy which arises in the mind of every man in the decline
+of life on visiting the place of his nativity, and viewing the scenes
+and objects familiar to him in his early youth, he pursued his journey,
+accompanied by his son Philip, his daughter the archduchess, his sisters
+the dowager Queens of France and Hungary, Maximilian his son-in-law, and
+a numerous retinue of the French nobility. Before he went on board he
+dismissed them with marks of his attention or regard, and, taking leave
+of Philip with all the tenderness of a father who embraced his son for
+the last time, he set sail on September 17th, under the convoy of a
+large fleet of Spanish, Flemish, and English ships. He declined a
+pressing invitation from the Queen of England to land in some part of
+her dominions, in order to refresh himself, and that she might have the
+comfort of seeing him once more. "It cannot, surely," said he, "be
+agreeable to a queen to receive a visit from a father-in-law who is now
+nothing more than a private gentleman."
+
+His voyage was prosperous, and he arrived at Laredo, in Biscay, on the
+eleventh day after he left Zealand. As soon as he landed he fell
+prostrate on the ground, and, considering himself now as dead to the
+world, he kissed the earth and said, "Naked came I out of my mother's
+womb, and naked I now return to thee, thou common mother of mankind."
+From Laredo he pursued his journey to Burgos, carried sometimes in a
+chair and sometimes in a horse-litter, suffering exquisite pain at every
+step, and advancing with the greatest difficulty. Some of the Spanish
+nobility repaired to Burgos, in order to pay court to him, but they were
+so few in number, and their attendance was so negligent, that Charles
+observed it, and felt, for the first time, that he was no longer a
+monarch. Accustomed from his early youth to the dutiful and officious
+respect with which those who possess sovereign power are attended, he
+had received it with the credulity common to princes, and was sensibly
+mortified when he now discovered that he had been indebted to his rank
+and power for much of that obsequious regard which he had fondly thought
+was paid to his personal qualities. But though he might have soon
+learned to view with unconcern the levity of his subjects, or to have
+despised their neglect, he was more deeply afflicted with the
+ingratitude of his son, who, forgetting already how much he owed to his
+father's bounty, obliged him to remain some weeks at Burgos before he
+paid him the first moiety of that small pension which was all that he
+had reserved of so many kingdoms. As, without this sum, Charles could
+not dismiss his domestics with such rewards as their services merited,
+or his generosity had destined for them, he could not help expressing
+both surprise and dissatisfaction. At last the money was paid, and
+Charles having dismissed a great number of his domestics, whose
+attendance he thought would be superfluous or cumbersome in his
+retirement, he proceeded to Valladolid. There he took a last and tender
+leave of his two sisters, whom he would not permit to accompany him to
+his solitude, though they requested him with tears, not only that they
+might have the consolation of contributing by their attendance and care
+to mitigate or to soothe his sufferings, but that they might reap
+instruction and benefit by joining with him in those pious exercises to
+which he had consecrated the remainder of his days.
+
+From Valladolid he continued his journey to Plazentia in Estremadura. He
+had passed through this place a great many years before, and having been
+struck at that time with the delightful situation of the monastery of
+St. Justus, belonging to the order of St. Jerome, not many miles distant
+from the town, he had then observed to some of his attendants that this
+was a spot to which Diocletian might have retired with pleasure. The
+impression had remained so strong in his mind that he pitched upon it as
+the place of his own retreat. It was seated in a vale of no great
+extent, watered by a small brook, and surrounded by rising grounds,
+covered with lofty trees; from the nature of the soil, as well as the
+temperature of the climate, it was esteemed the most healthful and
+delicious situation in Spain. Some months before his resignation he had
+sent an architect thither to add a new apartment to the monastery, for
+his accommodation; but he gave strict orders that the style of the
+building should be such as suited his present station, rather than his
+former dignity. It consisted only of six rooms, four of them in the form
+of friars' cells, with naked walls; the other two, each twenty feet
+square, were hung with brown cloth, and furnished in the most simple
+manner. They were all on a level with the ground, with a door on one
+side into a garden, of which Charles himself had given the plan, and had
+filled it with various plants which he intended to cultivate with his
+own hands. On the other side, they communicated with the chapel of the
+monastery, in which he was to perform his devotions. Into this humble
+retreat, hardly sufficient for the comfortable accommodation of a
+private gentleman, did Charles enter, with twelve domestics only. He
+buried there, in solitude and silence, his grandeur, his ambition,
+together with all those vast projects which, during almost half a
+century, had alarmed and agitated Europe, filling every kingdom in it,
+by turns, with the terror of his arms, and the dread of being subdued by
+his power.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[58] Don Levesque, in his memoirs of Cardinal Granvelle, gives a reason
+for the Emperor's resignation, which, as far as I recollect, is not
+mentioned by any other historian. He says that, the Emperor having ceded
+the government of the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of Milan to his
+son upon his marriage with the Queen of England, Philip, notwithstanding
+the advice and entreaties of his father, removed most of the ministers
+and officers whom he had employed in those countries, and appointed
+creatures of his own to fill the places which they held. That he aspired
+openly, and with little delicacy, to obtain a share in the
+administration of affairs in the Low Countries. That he endeavored to
+thwart the Emperor's measures and to limit his authority, behaving
+toward him sometimes with inattention, and sometimes with haughtiness.
+That Charles, finding that he must either yield on every occasion to his
+son, or openly contend with him, in order to avoid either of these,
+which were both disagreeable and mortifying to a father, he took the
+resolution of resigning his crowns, and of retiring from the world (vol.
+i. p. 24, etc.). Don Levesque derived his information concerning these
+curious facts, which he relates very briefly, from the original papers
+of Cardinal Granvelle. But as that vast collection of papers, which has
+been preserved and arranged by M. l'Abbe Boizot of Besancon, though one
+of the most valuable historical monuments of the sixteenth century, and
+which cannot fail of throwing much light on the transactions of Charles
+V, is not published, I cannot determine what degree of credit should be
+given to this account of Charles' resignation. I have, therefore, taken
+no notice of it in relating this event.
+
+
+
+
+AKBAR ESTABLISHES THE MOGUL EMPIRE IN INDIA
+
+A.D. 1556
+
+J. TALBOYS WHEELER
+
+     Between the years 1494 and 1526 Baber, great-grandson of
+     Timur (Tamerlane), the Tartar conqueror, made extensive
+     conquests in India. There he laid the first foundations of
+     the Mahometan Tartar empire of the Moguls, as his followers
+     are called. This empire reached its height under Akbar
+     (Jel-al-eddin Mahomet), who succeeded his father Humayun,
+     son of Baber, in 1556. Humayun did little toward uniting the
+     various territories which Baber had conquered.
+
+     Akbar was the contemporary of Queen Elizabeth of England,
+     and his reign is as important in the history of India as is
+     hers in the history of the western world. He ascended the
+     throne at the age of fourteen. At the time of his accession
+     he was in the Punjab warring against the revolted Afghans.
+     The commander of the Mogul armies was Bairam Khan, and when
+     Humayun died that general became Akbar's guardian.
+
+     Wheeler's account of this great ruler's achievements
+     presents throughout a most interesting portrayal of his
+     personality and character, and is especially remarkable for
+     its simplicity and its oriental atmosphere.
+
+
+The reign of Akbar bears a strange resemblance to that of Asoka.[59]
+Indeed, the likeness between Akbar and Asoka is one of the most
+remarkable phenomena in history. They were separated from each other by
+an interval of eighteen centuries; the main features of their respective
+lives were practically the same. Asoka was putting down revolt in the
+Punjab when his father died; so was Akbar. Asoka was occupied for years
+in conquering and consolidating his empire; so was Akbar. Asoka
+conquered India to the north of the Nerbudda; so did Akbar. Asoka was
+tolerant of other religions; so was Akbar. Asoka went against the
+priests; so did Akbar. Asoka taught a religion of his own; so did Akbar.
+Asoka abstained from flesh meat; so did Akbar. In the end Asoka took
+refuge in Buddha, the law, and the assembly. In the end Akbar recited
+the formula of Islam: "There is but one God, and Mahomet is his
+prophet."
+
+Some of these coincidents are mere accidents. Others reveal a similarity
+in the current of religious thought, a similarity in the stages of
+religious development; consequently they add a new chapter to the
+history of mankind.
+
+The wars of Akbar are only interesting so far as they bring out types of
+character. When the news reached the Punjab that Humayun was dead, other
+news arrived. Hemu had recovered Agra and Delhi; he was advancing with a
+large army into the Punjab. The Mogul force was very small. The Mogul
+officers were in a panic; they advised a retreat into Kabul. Akbar and
+Bairam Khan resolved on a battle. The Afghans were routed. The Hindu
+general was wounded in the eye and taken prisoner. Bairam Khan bade
+Akbar slay the Hindu, and win the title of "champion of the faith."
+Akbar drew his sword, but shrunk back. He was as brave as a lion; he
+would not hack a wounded prisoner. Bairam Khan had no such sentiment. He
+beheaded Hemu with his own sword.
+
+This story marks the contrast between the prince and his guardian. Akbar
+was brave and skilful in the field; he was outwardly gracious and
+forgiving when the fight was over. Bairam Khan was loyal to the throne;
+he slaughtered enemies in cold blood without mercy. It was impossible
+that the two should agree. Akbar grew more and more impatient of his
+guardian; for years he was self-constrained at Rama. He thought a great
+deal, but did nothing; he bided his time.
+
+Within four years Bairam Khan had laid the foundations of the Mogul
+empire. Its limits were as yet restricted. The Mogul pale only covered
+the Punjab, the northwest provinces, and Oude; it is only extended from
+the Indus to the junction of the Jumna and Ganges. On the south it was
+bounded by Rajputana. It included the three capitals of Lahore, Delhi,
+and Agra. So far it coincided with the kingdom of Ala-ud-din, who
+conquered the Deccan and Peninsula.
+
+At the end of the four years Akbar was a young man of eighteen. He
+resolved to throw off the authority of his guardian. He carried out his
+designs with the artifice of an Asiatic. He pretended that his mother
+was sick. He left the camp where Bairam Khan commanded, in order to pay
+her a visit. He proclaimed that he had assumed the authority of
+Padishah; that no orders were to be obeyed save his own. Bairam Khan was
+taken by surprise. Possibly, had he known what was coming, he would have
+put Akbar out of the way; but his power was gone. He tried to work upon
+the feelings of Abkar; he found that the Padishah was inflexible. He
+revolted, but was defeated and forgiven. Akbar offered him any post save
+that of minister; he would be minister or nothing. In the end he elected
+to go to Mecca, the last refuge for Mussulman statesmen. Everything was
+ready for his embarkation; suddenly he was assassinated by an Afghan. It
+was the old story of Afghan revenge. He had killed the father of the
+assassin in some battle: in revenge the son had stabbed him to death.
+
+Akbar was now free to act. The political situation was one of extreme
+peril. The Afghans were fighting one another in Kabul in the northwest;
+they were also fighting one another in Behar and Bengal in the
+southeast. When he marched against one, his territories were exposed to
+the raids of the other. Meantime his Mogul officers often set his
+sovereignty at defiance; when brought to task they broke out in mutiny
+and rebellion. Two events at this period will show the actual state of
+affairs.
+
+Far away in the south of Rajputana lies the remote territory of Malwa.
+It was originally conquered by Ala-ud-din. During the decline of the
+Tughlaks the governor Malwa became an independent ruler. At the
+beginning of the reign of Akbar, Baz Bahadur was ruler of Malwa. He was
+a type of the Mussulman princes of the time; no doubt he went to mosque;
+he surrounded himself with Hindu singing and dancing girls; he became
+more or less Hinduized. Akbar sent an officer named Adham Khan to
+conquer Malwa. Adham Khan had no difficulty. Baz Bahadur abandoned his
+treasures and harem and fled. Adham Khan distributed part of the spoil
+to the Padishah. Akbar could not brook such disobedience.
+Notwithstanding the distance he hurried to Malwa. He received his
+rightful share of the plunder; he professed to accept the excuses of the
+defaulter. When he returned to Agra he recalled Adham Khan to court; he
+sent another governor to Malwa. Adham Khan obeyed; he went to Agra; he
+found that he had lost favor. Commands were given to others. He could
+get nothing. He was driven mad by delay and disappointment. He did not
+suspect Akbar; he threw the blame upon the minister. One day he went to
+the palace; he stabbed the minister to death in the hall of audience; he
+ran up to an outer terrace. Akbar heard the uproar; he rushed in and
+beheld the bleeding corpse. He saw the stupefied murderer on the
+terrace; he half drew his sword, but remembered himself. Adham Khan
+seized his hands and begged for mercy. Akbar shook him off and ordered
+the servants to throw him from the terrace. The order was obeyed; Adham
+Khan was killed on the spot.
+
+Another officer, named Khan Zeman, played a similar game in Behar. He
+was warned that Akbar was on the move; he escaped punishment by making
+over the spoil before Akbar came up. This satisfied Akbar; he returned
+part of the spoil and went back to Agra. Henceforth Khan Zeman was a
+rebel at heart. Some Usbeg chiefs revolted in Oudh; they were joined by
+Khan Zeman. Akbar was called away to the Punjab by an Afghan invasion;
+on his return the rebels were in possession of Oudh and Allahabad. Akbar
+marched against them in the middle of the rains. He outstripped his
+army; he reached the Ganges with only his bodyguard. The rebels were
+encamped on the opposite bank; they had no fear; they expected Akbar to
+wait until his army came up. That night Akbar swam the river with his
+bodyguard. At daybreak he attacked the enemy. The rebels heard the
+thunder of the imperial kettle-drums; they could not believe their ears.
+They fled in all directions. Khan Zeman was slain in the pursuit. The
+other leaders were taken prisoners; they were trampled to death by
+elephants. Thus for a while the rebellion was stamped out.
+
+These incidents are only types of others. In plain truth, the Mussulman
+power in India had spent its force. The brotherhood of Islam had ceased
+to bind together conflicting races; it could not hold together men of
+the same race. The struggle between Shiah and Sunni was dividing the
+world of Islam. Moguls, Turks, and Afghans were fighting against each
+other; they were also fighting among themselves. Rebels of different
+races were combining against the Padishah. Meantime any scruples that
+remained against fighting fellow-Mussulmans were a hinderance to Akbar
+in putting down revolts. The Mussulman power was crumbling to pieces.
+The dismemberment had begun two centuries earlier in the revolt of the
+Deccan. Since then the strength which remained in the scattered
+fragments was wasted in wars and revolts; the whole country was drifting
+into anarchy.
+
+No one could save the empire but a born statesman. Akbar had already
+proved himself a born soldier. Had he been only a soldier he might still
+have held his own against Afghans and Usbegs from Peshawur to Allahabad.
+Had he been bloodthirsty and merciless, like Bairam Khan, he might have
+stamped out revolt and mutiny by massacre and terrorism. But he would
+have left no mark in history, no lessons for posterity, no political
+ideas for the education of the world. He might have made a name like
+Genghis Khan or Timur; but the story of his life would have dropped into
+oblivion. After his death every evil that festered in the body politic
+would have broken out afresh. His successors would have inherited the
+same wars, the same revolts, and the same mutinies; unless they had
+inherited his capacity, they would have died out in anarchy and in
+revolution.
+
+Akbar had never been educated. He had never learned to write, nor even
+to read. He had not gone with his father to Persia, where he might have
+been schooled in Mussulman learning. He had spent a joyless boyhood with
+a cruel uncle in Kabul; he had been schooled in nothing but war. But he
+had listened to histories, and pondered over histories, until grand
+ideas began to seethe in his brain.
+
+The problem before him was the resuscitation of the empire, or rather
+the creation of a new empire out of the existing chaos. Fresh blood was
+wanted to infuse life and strength into the body politic; to enable the
+Mogul Shiahs to subdue the Afghan Sunnis. Akbar saw with the eye of
+genius that the necessary force was latent in the Rajputs. Henceforth he
+devoted all the energies of his nature to bring that force into healthy
+play.
+
+In 1575 Akbar was about thirty-four years of age. Twenty years had
+passed away since the boy had been installed as padishah. He had not as
+yet conquered Kabul in the northwest, nor Bengal in the southeast; he
+had not made any sensible advance into the Deccan. But he had gained a
+succession of victories. He had restored order in the Punjab and
+Hindustan. He had subdued Malwa, Guzerat, and Rajputana. Many Rajputs
+were still in arms against him; he had nothing to fear from them. He had
+fixed his capital at Agra; his favorite residence, however, was at
+Fathipur Sikri, about twelve miles from Agra.
+
+It is easy to individualize Akbar. He was haughty, like all the Moguls;
+he was outwardly clement and affable. He was tall and handsome; broad in
+the chest and long in the arms. His complexion was ruddy, a nut-brown.
+He had a good appetite and a good digestion. His strength was
+prodigious. His courage was very remarkable. While yet a boy he
+displayed prodigies of valor in the battle against Hemu. He would spring
+on the backs of elephants who had killed their keepers; he would compel
+them to do his bidding. He kept a herd of dromedaries; he gained his
+victories by the rapidity of his marches. He was an admirable marksman.
+He had a favorite gun which had brought him thousands of game. With that
+same gun he shot Jeimal the Rajput at the siege of Chitor.
+
+Akbar, like his father and grandfather, professed to be a Mussulman. His
+mother was a Persian; he was a Persian in his thoughts and ways. He was
+imbued with the old Mogul instinct of toleration. He was lax and
+indifferent, without the semblance of zeal. He consulted soothsayers who
+divined with burned rams' bones. He celebrated the Persian festival of
+the Nau-roz, or new year, which had no connection with Islam. He
+reverenced the seven heavenly bodies by wearing a dress of different
+color every day in the week. He joined in the Brahmanical worship and
+sacrifices of his Rajput queens. Still he was outwardly a Mussulman. He
+had no sons; he vowed that if a son was born to him he would walk to the
+tomb of a Mussulman saint at Ajmir; it was more than two hundred miles
+from Fathipur. In 1570 his eldest son Seli was born; Akbar walked to
+Ajmir; he offered up his prayers at the tomb.
+
+Meantime the Ulama were growing troublesome at Agra. The Ulama comprised
+the collective body of Mussulman doctors and lawyers who resided at the
+capital. The Ulama have always possessed great weight in a Mussulman
+state. Judges, magistrates, and law officers in general are chosen from
+their number. Consequently the opinion of the collective body was
+generally received as the final authority. The Ulama at Agra were
+bigoted Sunnis. They hated and persecuted the Shiahs. Especially they
+persecuted the teachers of the Sufi heresy, which had grown up in Persia
+and was spreading in India. They had grown in power under the Afghan
+sultans. They had been quiet in the days of Humayun and Bairam Khan;
+both were confessedly Shiahs; the Ulama were too courtly to offend the
+power which appointed the law officers. When, however, Akbar threw over
+Bairam Khan and asserted his own sovereignty, the Ulama became more
+active. They were anxious to keep the young Padishah in the right way.
+
+Akbar and his vizier Abul Fazl were certainly men of genius. They are
+still the bright lights of Indian history. They were the foremost men of
+their time. But each had a characteristic weakness. Akbar was a born
+Mogul. With all his good qualities he was proud, ignorant, inquisitive,
+and self-sufficient. Abul Fazl was a born courtier. With all his good
+qualities he was a flatterer, a time-server, and a eulogist; he made
+Akbar his idol; he bowed down and worshipped him. They became close
+friends; they were indeed necessary to each other. Akbar looked to his
+minister for praise; Abul Fazl looked to his master for advancement. It
+is difficult to admire the genius of Akbar without seeing that he has
+been worked upon by Abul Fazl. It is equally difficult to admire the
+genius of Abul Fazl without seeing that he is pandering to the vanity of
+Akbar.
+
+When Akbar made the acquaintance of Abul Fazl he was in sore perplexity.
+He was determined to rule men of all creeds with even hand. The Ulama
+were thwarting him. The chief justice at Agra had sentenced men to death
+for being Shiahs and heretics. The Ulama were urging the Padishah to do
+the same. He was reluctant to quarrel with them; he was still more
+reluctant to sanction their high-handed proceedings toward men who
+worshipped the same God, but after a different fashion.
+
+How far Akbar opened his soul to Abul Fazl is unknown. No doubt Abul
+Fazl read his thoughts. Indeed, he had his own wrongs to avenge. The
+Ulama had persecuted his father and driven him into exile. The Ulama
+were ignorant, bigoted, and puffed up with pride and orthodoxy. Their
+learning was confined to Arabic and the _Koran_. They ignored what they
+did not know and could not understand. Abul Fazl must have hated and
+despised them. He was far too courtly, too astute, to express his real
+sentiments. The Ulama were at variance with the Padishah; they were also
+at variance among themselves. Possibly he foresaw that if they disputed
+before Akbar they might excite his contempt. How far he worked upon
+Akbar can never be ascertained. In the end Akbar ordered that the Ulama
+should discuss all questions in his presence; he would then decide who
+was right and who was wrong.
+
+There is no evidence that Abul Fazl suggested this course. It was,
+however, the kind of incense that a courtier would offer to a sovereign
+like Akbar. The learned men were to lay their opinions before the
+Padishah; he was to sit and judge. If he needed help, Abul Fazl would be
+at his side. Indeed, Abul Fazl would ask questions and invite opinions.
+He, the Padishah, would only hear and decide. Accordingly, preparations
+were made for the coming debates.
+
+The discussions were held on Thursday evenings. They were carried on in
+a large pavilion; it was built for the purpose in the royal garden at
+Fathpur Sikri. All the learned men at Agra were invited to attend. The
+Padishah and all the grandees of the empire were present. Abul Fazl
+acted as a kind of director. He started questions; he expounded his
+master's policy of toleration. Akbar preserved his dignity as padishah.
+He listened with majestic gravity to all that was said. Occasionally he
+bestowed praises and presents upon the best speakers.
+
+For many evenings the proceedings were conducted with due decorum. As,
+however, the speakers grew accustomed to the presence of the Padishah,
+the spirit of dissension began to work. One evening it led to an uproar;
+learned men reviled each other before the Padishah. No doubt Abul Fazl
+did his best to make the Ulama uncomfortable. He shifted the discussion
+from one point to another. He started dangerous subjects. He placed them
+in dilemmas. If they sought to please the Padishah they sinned against
+the _Koran_; if they stuck to the _Koran_ they offended the Padishah. A
+question was started as to Akbar's marriages. One orthodox magistrate
+was too conscientious to hold his tongue; he was removed from his post.
+The courtiers saw that the Padishah delighted in the discomfiture of
+the Ulama with inconsistency, trickery, and cheating. The law officers
+were unable to defend themselves. Their authority and orthodoxy was set
+at naught. They were fast drifting into disgrace and ruin. They had
+cursed one another in their speech; probably in their hearts they were
+all agreed in cursing Abul Fazl.
+
+By this time Akbar held the Ulama in small esteem. He was growing
+sceptical of their religion. He had listened to the history of the
+caliphate; he yearned toward Ali and his family; he became in heart a
+Shiah. Already he may have doubted Mahomet and the _Koran_. Still he was
+outwardly a Mussulman. His object now was to overthrow the Ulama
+altogether; to become himself the supreme spiritual head, the pope or
+caliph of Islam. Abul Fazl was laboring to invest him with the same
+authority. He mooted the question one Thursday evening. He raised a
+storm of opposition; for this he was prepared. He had started the idea;
+he exerted all his tact and skill to carry it out.
+
+The debates proved that there were differences of opinion among the
+Ulama. Abul Fazl urged that there were differences of opinion between
+the highest Mussulman authorities; between those who were accepted as
+infallible, and were known as Mujtahids. He thus inserted the thin edge
+of the wedge. He proposed that when the Mujtahids disagreed, the
+decision should be left to the Padishah. Weeks and months passed away in
+these discussions. Nothing could be said against the measure excepting
+that it would prove offensive to the Padishah.
+
+Meantime a document was drawn up in the names of the chief men among the
+Ulama. It gave the Padishah the power of deciding between the
+conflicting authorities. It gave him the still more dangerous power of
+issuing fresh decrees, provided they were in accordance with some verse
+of the _Koran_ and were manifestly for the benefit of the people. The
+document was in the handwriting of Sheik Mubarak; Abul Fazl, Abdul Faiz,
+and probably Akbar himself had each a hand in the composition. The chief
+men among the Ulama were required to sign it. Perhaps if they had been
+priests or divines they might have resisted to the last. But they were
+magistrates and judges; their posts and emoluments were in danger. In
+the end they signed it in sheer desperation. From that day the power of
+the Ulama was gone; they had abdicated their authority to the padishah;
+they became mere ciphers in Islam. A worse lot befell their leaders. The
+head of the Ulama and the obnoxious chief justice were removed from
+their posts and forced to go to Mecca.
+
+The breaking up of the Ulama is an epoch in history of Mussulman India.
+The Ulama may have been ignorant and bigoted; they may have sought to
+keep religions and the government of the empire within the narrow
+grooves of orthodoxy. Nevertheless, they had played an important part
+throughout Mussulman rule. As exponents of the law of Mahomet they had
+often proved a salutary check upon despotism of the sovereign. They had
+forced every minister, governor, and magistrate to respect the
+fundamental principles of the _Koran_. They led and controlled public
+opinion among the Mussulman population. They formed the only body in the
+state that ever ventured to oppose the will of the sovereign.
+
+The Thursday evenings had done their work. Within four years they had
+broken up the power of the Ulama. Abul Fazl had another project in his
+brain; it combined the audacity of genius with the mendacity of a
+courtier. He declared that Akbar was himself the twelfth imam, the lord
+of the period, who was to reconcile the seventy-two sects of Islam, to
+regenerate the world, to usher in the millennium. The announcement took
+the court by surprise. It fitted, however, into current ideas; it paved
+the way for further assumptions. Akbar grasped the notion with
+eagerness; it fascinated him for the remainder of his life; it bound him
+in the closest ties of friendship and confidence with Abul Fazl.
+
+The religious life of Akbar had undergone a vast change. He was testing
+religion by morality and reason. His faith in Islam was fading away.
+Mahomet had married a girl of ten; he had taken another man's wife;
+therefore he could not have been a prophet sent by God. Akbar
+disbelieved the story of his night-journey to heaven. Meantime Akbar was
+eagerly learning the mysteries of other religions. He entertained
+Brahmans, Sufis, Parsis, and Christian fathers. He believed in the
+transmigration of the soul, in the supreme spirit, in the ecstatic
+reunion of the soul with God, in the deity of fire and the sun. He
+leaned toward Christianity; he rejected the trinity and incarnation.
+
+The gravitations of Akbar toward Christianity are invested with singular
+interest. He had been impressed with what he heard of the Portuguese in
+India; their large ships, impregnable forts, and big guns. He sent a
+letter to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa inviting Christian fathers to
+come to his court at Fathpur Sikri and instruct him in the sacred books.
+The religious world at Goa was thrown into a ferment at the prospect of
+converting the Great Mogul. Every priest in Goa prayed that he might be
+sent on the mission. Three fathers were despatched to Fathpur, which was
+more than twelve hundred miles away. Akbar awaited their arrival with
+the utmost impatience. He received them with every mark of favor. They
+delivered their presents, consisting of a polyglot Bible in four
+languages and the images of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. To their
+unspeakable delight the Great Mogul placed the Bible on his head and
+kissed the images. So eager was he for instruction that he spent the
+whole night in conversation with the fathers. He provided them with
+lodgings in the precincts of his palace; he permitted them to set up a
+chapel and altar.
+
+Akbar had ceased to be a Mussulman; he still maintained appearances. He
+set apart Saturday evenings for controversies between the fathers and
+the mollahs. In the end the fathers convinced Akbar of the superiority
+of Christianity. They contrasted the sensualities of Mahomet with the
+pure morality of the Gospel; the wars of Mahomet and the caliphs with
+the preachings and sufferings of the Apostles. The Mussulman historian
+curses the fathers; he states that Akbar became a Christian. The
+fathers, however, could never induce Akbar to be baptized. He gave them
+his favorite son Amurath, a boy of thirteen, to be educated in
+Christianity and the European sciences. He directed Abul Fazl to prepare
+a translation of the Gospel. He entered the chapel of the fathers, and
+prostrated himself before the image of the Saviour. He permitted the
+fathers to preach Christianity in any part of his empire; to perform
+their rites in public, in opposition to Mussulman law. A Portuguese was
+buried at Fathpur with all the pomp of the Roman Catholic ritual; the
+cross was carried through the streets for the first time. But Akbar
+would not become a Christian; he waited, he said, for the divine
+illumination.
+
+"He hated the Mussulman religion. He overthrew the mosques and converted
+them into stables. He trusted and employed the Hindus more than the
+Mussulmans. Many of the Mussulmans rebelled against him; they stirred up
+his brother, the Governor of Kabul, to take up arms against him; but
+Akbar defeated the rebels and restored order.
+
+"It is uncertain what really was the religion of Akbar. Some said that
+he was a Hindu; others that he was a Christian. Some said that he
+belonged to a fourth sect, which was not connected with either of the
+three others. He acknowledged one God who was best content with a
+variety of sects and worshippings. Early in the morning, and again at
+noon, evening, and midnight, he worshipped the sun. He belonged to a new
+sect, of which the followers regarded him as their prophet."
+
+Akbar was no fanatic. He was not carried away by religious craze. His
+religion was the outcome of his policy; it was political rather than
+superstitious; it began with him and ended with him. Probably the lack
+of fanaticism caused its failure. Abul Fazl speaks of the numbers who
+joined it; the list which he has preserved only contains the names of
+eighteen courtiers, including himself, his father, and his brother. Only
+one Hindu is on the list; namely, Bir Bar, the Brahman.
+
+Akbar tried hard to improve the morals of his subjects, Hindus as well
+as Mussulmans. He placed restrictions upon prostitution; he severely
+punished seducers. He permitted the use of wine; he punished
+intoxication. He prohibited the slaughter of cows. He forbade the
+marriage of boys before they were sixteen, and of girls before they were
+fourteen. He permitted the marriage of Hindu widows. He tried to stop
+sati among the Hindus, and polygamy among the Mussulmans.
+
+There was much practical simplicity in Akbar's character. It showed
+itself in a variety of ways. It was not peculiar to Akbar; it was an
+instinct which shows itself in Moguls generally. His emirs cheated him
+by bringing borrowed horses to muster; he stopped them by branding every
+horse with the name of the emir to which it belonged as well as with the
+imperial mark. He appointed writers to record everything he said or
+did. He sent writers into every city and province to report to him
+everything that was going on. He hung up a bell at the palace; any man
+who had a grievance might ring the bell and obtain a hearing.
+
+Akbar was very inquisitive. He sent an expedition to discover the
+sources of the Ganges. He made a strange experiment to discover what
+language was first spoken by mankind. This experiment is typical of the
+man. The Mussulmans declared that the first language was Arabic; the
+Jews said it was Hebrew; the Brahmans said it was Sanskrit. Akbar
+ordered twelve infants to be brought up by dumb nurses; not a word was
+to be spoken in their presence until they were twelve years of age. When
+the time arrived the children were brought before Akbar. Proficients in
+the learned tongues were present to catch the first words, to decide
+upon the language to which it belonged. The children could not say a
+word; they spoke only by signs. The experiment was an utter failure.
+
+The character of Akbar had its dark side. He was sometimes harsh and
+cruel. His persecution of Mussulmans was unpardonable. He had another
+way of getting rid of his enemies which is revolting to civilization. He
+kept a prisoner in his pay. He carried a box with three
+compartments--one for betel; another for digestive pills; a third for
+poisoned pills. No one dared to refuse to eat what was offered him by
+the Padishah; the offer was esteemed an honor. How many were poisoned by
+Akbar is unknown. The practice was in full force during the reigns of
+his successors.
+
+Akbar required his emirs to prostrate themselves before him. This rule
+gave great offence to Mussulmans; prostration is worship; no strict
+Mussulman will perform worship except when offering his prayers to God.
+Abul Fazl says that Akbar ordered it to be discontinued. The point is
+doubtful. It was certainly performed by members of the "divine faith."
+It was also performed during the reign of his son and successor.
+
+The Mogul government was pure despotism. Every governor and viceroy was
+supreme within his province; the Padishah was supreme throughout his
+empire. There was nothing to check provincial rulers but fear of the
+Padishah; there was nothing to check the Padishah but fear of rebellion.
+All previous Mussulman sovereigns had been checked by the Ulama and the
+authority of the _Koran_. Akbar had broken up the Ulama and set aside
+the _Koran_; he governed the empire according to his will; his will was
+law. The old Mogul khans had held diets; no trace of a diet is to be
+found in the history of Mogul India prior to the reign of Aurungzeb.
+There may have been a semblance of a diet on the accession of a new
+padishah; all the emirs, rajas, and princes of the empire paid their
+homage, presented gifts, and received titles and honors. But there was
+no council or parliament of any sort or kind. The Padishah was one and
+supreme.
+
+Akbar dwelt many years at Lahore. There he seems to have reached the
+height of human felicity. A proverb became current, "As happy as Akbar."
+He established his authority in Kabul and Bengal. He added Cashmere to
+his dominions. His empire was as large as that of Asoka.
+
+During the reign of Burhan, Akbar sent ambassadors to the sultans of the
+Deccan to invite them to accept him as their suzerain. In return he
+would uphold them on their thrones; he would prevent all internecine
+wars. One and all refused to pay allegiance to the Mogul. Akbar was
+wroth at the refusal. He sent his son Amurath to command in Guzerat; he
+ordered Amurath to seize the first opportunity for interfering in the
+affairs of Ahmadnagar.
+
+The moment soon arrived. Burhan died in 1594. A war ensued between rival
+claimants for the throne. The minister invited Amurath to interfere.
+Amurath advanced to Ahmadnagar. Meantime the minister and queen came to
+terms; they united to resist the Moguls. The Queen dowager, known as
+Chand Bibi, arrayed herself in armor; she veiled her face and led the
+troops in person. The Moguls were driven back. At last a compromise was
+effected. Berar was ceded to the Padishah; Amurath retired from
+Ahmadnagar.
+
+About this time a strange event took place at Lahore. On Easter Sunday,
+1597, the Padishah was celebrating the Nau-roz, or feast of the new
+year, in honor of the sun. Tented pavilions were set up in a large
+plain. An image of the sun, fashioned of gold and jewels, was placed
+upon a throne. Suddenly a thunderbolt fell from the skies. The throne
+was overturned. The royal pavilion was set on fire; the flames spread
+throughout the camp; the whole was burned to the ground. The fire
+reached the city and burned down the palace. Nearly everything was
+consumed. The imperial treasures were melted down, and molten gold and
+silver ran through the streets of Lahore.
+
+This portentous disaster made a deep impression on Akbar. He went away
+to Cashmere; he took one of the Christian fathers with him. He began to
+question the propriety of his new religion; he could not bring himself
+to retract, certainly not to become an open Christian. When the summer
+was over he returned to Lahore.
+
+In 1598 Akbar left Lahore and set out for Agra. He was displeased with
+the conduct of the war in the Deccan. His son Amurath was a drunkard.
+The commander-in-chief, known as the Khan Khanan, who accompanied
+Amurath, was intriguing and treacherous; he had probably been bribed by
+the Deccanis. Abul Fazl was still the trusted servant and friend; he had
+been raised to the rank of commander of two thousand five hundred. Akbar
+had already recalled the Khan Khanan. He now sent Abul Fazl into the
+Deccan to bring away Amurath, or to send him away, as should seem most
+expedient.
+
+Abul Fazl departed on his mission. He arrived at Burhanpur, the capital
+of Khandesh. He soon discovered the luke-warmness of Bahadur Khan, the
+ruler. He insisted that Bahadur Khan should join him and help the
+imperial cause. Bahadur Khan was disinclined to help Akbar to conquer
+the Deccan. He thought to back out by sending rich presents to Abul
+Fazl. Abul Fazl was too loyal to be bribed; he returned the presents and
+went alone toward Ahmadnagar.
+
+Meanwhile Amurath was retreating from Ahmadnagar. He encamped in Berar;
+he drank more deeply than ever; he died very suddenly the very day that
+Abul Fazl came up. The death of Amurath removed one complication, but it
+led to the question of advance. The imperial officers urged a retreat.
+Abul Fazl had been bred in a cloister; he was approaching his fiftieth
+year; he had never before been in active service, but he had the spirit
+of a soldier; he refused to retreat from an enemy's country; he pushed
+manfully on for Ahmadnagar. His efforts were rewarded with success. The
+Queen-regent was assailed by other enemies, and yielded to her fate.
+She agreed that if Abul Fazl would punish her enemies, she would
+surrender the fortress of Ahmadnagar.
+
+Tidings had now reached Akbar that his son Amurath was dead. He resolved
+to go in person to the Deccan. He left his eldest son, Selim, in charge
+of the government. He sent an advance force under his other son, Danyal,
+associated with the Khan Khanan. The advance force reached Burhanpur.
+There the disloyalty of Bahadur Khan was manifest; he refused to pay
+respects to Danyal. Akbar was encamped at Ujain when the news reached
+him. He ordered Abul Fazl to join him; he ordered Danyal to go on to
+Ahmadnagar; he then prepared for the subjugation of Bahadur Khan.
+
+The story of the operations may be told in a few words. Danyal advanced
+to Ahmadnagar. Chand Bibi was slaughtered by her own soldiers.
+Ahmadnagar was occupied by the Moguls. Meanwhile Bahadur Khan abandoned
+Burhanpur and took refuge in the strong fortress of Asirghur. Akbar was
+joined by Abul Fazl and laid siege to Asirghur. The siege lasted six
+months. At last Bahadur Khan surrendered; his life was spared;
+henceforth he fades away from history.
+
+So far Akbar had prospered; he had conquered the great highway into the
+Deccan--Malwa, Khandesh, Berar, and Ahmadnagar. He raised Abul Fazl to
+the command of four thousand. He resolved on conquering the Deccan. He
+was about to strike when his arm was arrested. His eldest son Selim had
+broken out in revolt. He had gone to Allahabad and assumed the title of
+padishah.
+
+Akbar returned alone to Agra; he was falling on evil days. He effected a
+reconciliation with Selim; he saw that Selim was still rebellious at
+heart; that his best officers were inclining toward his undutiful son.
+In his perplexity he sent to the Deccan for Abul Fazl. The trusted
+servant hastened to join his imperial master. But Selim had always hated
+Abul Fazl. He instigated a Rajput chief of Bundelkund to waylay Abul
+Fazl. This chief was Bir Singh of Urchah. Bir Singh fell upon Abul Fazl
+near Nawar, killed him, and sent his head to Selim. Bir Singh fled from
+the wrath of the Padishah; he led the life of an outlaw in the jungle
+until he heard of the death of Akbar.
+
+Akbar was deeply wounded by the murder of Abul Fazl. He thereby lost his
+chief support, his best trusted friend. Henceforth he seemed to yield to
+circumstances rather than to struggle against the world. Other
+misfortunes befell him: his mother died; his youngest son, Danyal,
+killed himself with drink in the Deccan; his own life was beginning to
+draw to a close.
+
+The last events in the reign of Akbar are obscure. Outwardly he became
+reconciled to Selim. Outwardly he abandoned scepticism and heresy; he
+professed himself a Mussulman. At heart he was anxious that Selim should
+be set aside; that Khuzru, the eldest son of Selim, should succeed him
+to the throne. It is impossible to unravel the intrigues that filled the
+court at Agra. At last Akbar was smitten with mortal disease. For some
+days Selim was refused admittance to his father's chamber. In the end
+there was a compromise. Selim swore to maintain the Mussulman religion.
+He also swore to pardon his son Khuzru and all who had supported Khuzru.
+He was then brought into the presence of Akbar. The old Padishah was
+past all speech. He made a sign with his hand that Selim should take the
+imperial diadem and gird on the imperial sword. Selim obeyed. He
+prostrated himself upon the ground before the couch of his dying father;
+he touched the ground with his head. He then left the chamber. A few
+hours had passed away and Akbar was dead. He died in October, 1605, aged
+sixty-three.
+
+The burial of Akbar was performed after a simple fashion. His grave was
+prepared in a garden at Secundra, about four miles from Agra. The body
+was placed upon a bier. Selim and his three sons carried it out of the
+fortress. The young princes, assisted by the officers of the imperial
+household, carried it to Secundra. Seven days were spent in mourning
+over the grave. Provisions and sweetmeats were distributed among the
+poor every morning and evening throughout the mourning. Twenty readers
+were appointed to recite the _Koran_ every night without ceasing.
+Finally, the foundations were laid of that splendid mausoleum which is
+known far and wide as the tomb of Akbar.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[59] Asoka was an illustrious king of the Maurya dynasty in India, who
+died about B.C. 225. He did much for the advancement of Buddhism, and
+has been called the "Buddhist Constantine."--ED.
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
+
+EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
+
+A.D. 1517-1557
+
+JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
+
+
+Events treated at length are here indicated in large type; the numerals
+following give volume and page.
+
+Separate chronologies of the various nations, and of the careers of
+famous persons, will be found in the INDEX VOLUME, with volume and page
+references showing where the several events are fully treated.
+
+* Denotes date uncertain.
+
+A.D.
+
+1517. Protest of Luther against the sale of indulgences. See "LUTHER
+BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY," ix, 1.
+
+Overthrow of the mameluke power in Egypt, by Selim I, who annexes that
+country to the Ottoman empire.
+
+Balboa beheaded by Pedrarias Davila, the new Governor of Darien, on a
+charge of contemplated revolt.
+
+Negro slaves first introduced into America. See "NEGRO SLAVERY IN
+AMERICA," ix, 36.
+
+
+1518. First preaching of the reformed doctrines by Zwingli, in
+Switzerland.
+
+Conquest of Arabia by the Ottomans.
+
+
+1519. Death of Maximilian I; his grandson, Charles I of Spain--jointly
+with Ferdinand his brother, in his hereditary realm--elected as Emperor
+Charles V. Union under one crown of the German Empire, Spain, the
+Netherlands, the Sicilies, Sardinia, and the Spanish Indies.
+
+Cortes first enters Mexico. See "CORTES CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO,"
+ix, 72.
+
+Mouth of the Mississippi discovered by Francisco de Garay.
+
+Magellan starts on his expedition to circumnavigate the world. See
+"FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE," ix, 41.
+
+
+1520. Papal bull of Leo X against Luther, who publicly burns it. See
+"LUTHER BEGINS THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY," ix, 1.
+
+Execution of nobles at Stockholm, following the successful invasion of
+Sweden by King Christian II of Denmark; Sten Sture, the Protector, is
+mortally wounded at Bogesund; Christian proclaimed king.
+
+Henry VIII of England agrees to meet Francis I of France. See "THE FIELD
+OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD," ix, 59.
+
+Solyman the Magnificent, Sultan of the Ottomans, succeeds Selim I.
+
+
+1521. Conquest of Belgrade by the Ottoman Turks.
+
+Issue of the first of the Placards, edicts of Emperor Charles V against
+heresy, in the Netherlands.
+
+First of the wars between Charles V and Francis I; Navarre
+unsuccessfully invaded by the French; France invaded from the north;
+Milan lost to the French.
+
+Treaty of Bruges between Henry VIII and Charles V.
+
+Execution of the Duke of Buckingham for high treason; the office of
+constable of England, his inheritance, abolished.
+
+"CORTES CAPTURES THE CITY OF MEXICO." See ix, 72.
+
+Magellan reaches the Ladrones and the Philippines; he is slain on an
+island of the latter group.
+
+
+1522. Conquest of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John by the Turks,
+under Solyman the Magnificent.
+
+Battle of La Biococca; the French defeated by the forces of Charles
+under Colonna.
+
+France invaded by the English under the Earl of Surrey.
+
+A ship belonging to Magellan's fleet completes the circumnavigation of
+the globe.
+
+Luther publishes his New Testament; he writes his Reply to Henry VIII,
+who had been dubbed "Defender of the Faith" by Pope Leo X, in
+acknowledgment of a book, _A Defence of the Seven Sacraments_, written
+against Luther.
+
+
+1523. Invasion of France by Henry VIII and Charles V.
+
+Italy invaded by the French.
+
+Abrogation of the mass and image-worship in Switzerland.
+
+Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden. See "LIBERATION OF SWEDEN," ix,
+79.
+
+Frederick I, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, succeeds to the throne of
+Christian II of Denmark, who is deposed by his subjects.
+
+
+1524. Retreat of Bonnivet; death of Bayard, "the knight without fear and
+without reproach." Italy invaded by Francis I; he occupies Milan and
+lays siege to Pavia.
+
+"THE PEASANTS' WAR IN GERMANY." See ix, 93.
+
+Voyage to the North American coast by Verrazano, an Italian navigator,
+on behalf of France.
+
+
+1525. Defeat of Francis I at Pavia. See "FRANCE LOSES ITALY," ix, 111.
+
+Bloody conclusion of the Peasants' War.
+
+A hereditary Protestant principality formed in East Prussia by the grand
+master of the Teutonic Knights; the suzerain being Sigismund, King of
+Poland.
+
+
+1526. Treaty of Madrid; release of Francis I. See "FRANCE LOSES ITALY,"
+ix, 111.
+
+Battle of Mohacs; the Hungarians are overwhelmed by Solyman; Louis II
+slain. Rival elections of John Zapolya and Ferdinand of Austria to the
+vacant throne.
+
+Foundation of the Mongol dynasty of India by Baber, who conquers Ibrahim
+Lodi of Delhi at Paniput.
+
+Tyndale's version of the English Bible printed at Worms.
+
+
+1527. Storming of Rome; it is pillaged by the troops of the Constable de
+Bourbon. See "SACK OF ROME BY THE IMPERIAL TROOPS," ix, 124.
+
+Restoration of the republic in Florence; the Medici expelled.
+
+Winning of the Hungarian crown by Ferdinand of Austria; Zapolya expelled
+the country.
+
+
+1528. War declared against Charles V by Henry VIII and Francis I.
+
+Deliverance of Genoa from the French yoke, by Andrea Doria.
+
+After tyrannizing over Scotland for more than two years, the Earl of
+Angus is driven out of the realm.
+
+
+1529. Fall of Cardinal Wolsey. See "GREAT RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT IN
+ENGLAND," ix, 137.
+
+Presentation of the Protest by the German reformers at the Diet of
+Spire; from this the reformers take the name of Protestants.[60]
+
+Peace of Cambrai between Francis I and Charles V.
+
+Siege of Florence; united attempt of Charles V and Pope Clement VII to
+restore the rule of the Medici.
+
+Vienna unsuccessfully besieged by Solyman the Magnificent; he gives to
+Zapolya the rule in Hungary.
+
+Establishment in Sweden of Lutheranism as the state church.
+
+
+1530. Coronation of Charles V, Pope Clement VII, at Bologna, performing
+the ceremony, the last crowning by any pope of a German emperor.
+
+Restoration of the Medici on the submission of Florence to the invaders.
+
+Malta ceded to the Knights of St. John by Charles V, who also hands over
+the Moluccas to the Portuguese.
+
+Formulation of the reform (Protestant) profession of faith at the Diet
+of Augsburg; prepared and read before the Diet by Melanchthon.
+
+
+1531. Breach between Henry VIII and Pope Clement VII.
+
+Battle of Kappel; defeat of the army of Zurich by Swiss Catholics; fall
+of Zwingli.
+
+Henry VIII of England first addressed as "supreme head of the Church."
+
+Publication of Michel Servetus' treatise on the _Errors of the Trinity_.
+
+
+1532. Restoration of religious peace, with freedom of worship, in
+Germany, secured by the Pacification of Nuremberg.
+
+Conquest of Peru. See "PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU," ix, 156.
+
+
+1533. Cranmer annuls the marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine of
+Aragon; he marries Anne Boleyn; her coronation.
+
+Marriage of the Dauphin Henry with Catherine de' Medici.
+
+Enforced flight of Calvin from Paris. See "CALVIN IS DRIVEN FROM PARIS,"
+ix, 176.
+
+Queen Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I, avows heretical
+opinions; her mysteries, farces, and novels give a great impulse to
+literature in France.
+
+A taste for poetry and refinement of the English language follows the
+writings of Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, in England.
+
+
+1534. Throwing off of the papal authority in England. See "ENGLISH ACT
+OF SUPREMACY," ix, 203.
+
+Establishment of their disorderly reign of the Anabaptists, under the
+lead of John of Leyden, in Muenster.
+
+Unsuccessful attempt of the Bishop of Geneva and the Duke of Savoy to
+reestablish their authority over Geneva; it is henceforth free.
+
+First fierce persecution of the reformers in France begins.
+
+Discovery of the St. Lawrence by Jacques Cartier.* See "CARTIER EXPLORES
+CANADA," ix, 236.
+
+
+1535. Suppression of the monasteries in England.
+
+Publication in England by Tyndale and Coverdale of a new translation of
+the Bible.
+
+Settlement of Paraguay and founding of Buenos Aires. See "MENDOZA
+SETTLES BUENOS AIRES," ix, 254.
+
+Downfall of the Anabaptists at Muenster; John of Leyden put to death.
+
+After being created a cardinal, Fisher is beheaded in England; the like
+befalls Sir Thomas More.
+
+
+1536. Completion of the union between England and Wales.
+
+Henry VIII, on the charge of infidelity, commits Anne Boleyn to the
+Tower of London; she is executed. Marriage of Henry to Jane Seymour.
+
+Francis I takes Turin and attempts the surprise of Genoa.
+
+Provence invaded by Charles V.
+
+Discovery of California by Cortes.
+
+
+1537. Death of Jane Seymour, Queen of England.
+
+Further enslavement of the Indians forbidden by a brief of Pope Paul
+III.
+
+
+1538. General suppression of monasteries and destruction of relics in
+England.
+
+Truce of Nice, for ten years, between France and Spain.
+
+Marriage of Mary de Guise with James V of Scotland.
+
+John Calvin expelled Geneva.
+
+
+1539. Publication of Cranmer's Bible in England.
+
+Calvin, head of the Reformers, founds the University of Geneva.
+
+Beginning of the explorations of De Soto, after his landing in Florida.
+
+Emperor Charles V drives the citizens of Ghent into revolt against his
+exactions.
+
+
+1540. Marriage of Henry VIII to Anne of Cleves; she is divorced; the
+King marries Catherine Howard.
+
+Submission of Ghent to Charles V; he destroys its liberties; many of the
+citizens find refuge in England.
+
+Papal sanction given to the Society of Jesus. See "FOUNDING OF THE
+JESUITS," ix, 261.
+
+Cherry-trees, carried from Flanders, first planted in England.
+
+First known printing in America; done in Mexico. See "ORIGIN AND
+PROGRESS OF PRINTING," viii, 1.
+
+
+1541. Charles V heads an unsuccessful expedition against Algiers.
+
+Hungary overrun by the Turks, under Solyman the Magnificent.
+
+King John III of Portugal requests Francis Xavier and other Jesuits to
+undertake missions to his colonies.
+
+De Soto reaches the Mississippi River. See "DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE
+MISSISSIPPI," ix, 277.
+
+
+1542. Discovery of Japan by the Portuguese.*
+
+Execution of Catherine Howard, fifth queen-consort of Henry VIII. He
+assumes the title of king of Ireland.
+
+Battle of Solway Moss; successful invasion of Scotland by the English.
+
+War renewed between Francis I and Charles V.
+
+Trade with Japan by the Portuguese permitted.
+
+
+1543. Marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine Parr.
+
+"REVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMY BY COPERNICUS." See ix, 285.
+
+Birth and accession of Mary Stuart to the throne of Scotland; Earl of
+Arran is regent.
+
+
+1544. Invasion of Scotland by the English under the Earl of Hertford;
+they burn Edinburgh.
+
+Mary and Elizabeth restored to the right of succession to the English
+throne.
+
+
+1545. Attempted invasion of England by the French.
+
+Nineteenth general council. See "COUNCIL OF TRENT AND THE
+COUNTER-REFORMATION," ix, 293.
+
+Spanish discovery of the silver mines of Potosi.
+
+Massacre of the Vaudois in Southern France.
+
+
+1546. Burning of George Wishart as a heretic, by order of Cardinal
+Beaton, the Scottish primate; he is assassinated.
+
+Beginning of the War of the Smalkald League. See "PROTESTANT STRUGGLE
+AGAINST CHARLES V," ix, 313.
+
+
+1547. Death of Henry VIII; Edward VI succeeds his father on the English
+throne; the Duke of Somerset protector.
+
+Henry II succeeds to the throne of France, on the death of his father,
+Francis I.
+
+Capture of John Knox, the Scottish reformer; he is condemned to the
+French galleys.
+
+In Russia the Grand Prince of Moscow, Ivan IV (the Terrible), assumes
+the title of czar or tsar.
+
+
+1548. Publication of the Augsburg Interim. See "PROTESTANT STRUGGLE
+AGAINST CHARLES V," ix, 313.
+
+
+1549. In England the Act of Uniformity, regulating public worship, is
+passed.
+
+Formal uniting of the Netherlands with the Spanish crown by Charles V.
+
+Francis Xavier lands in Japan. See "INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO
+JAPAN," ix, 325.
+
+Book of Common Prayer adopted in England, under Edward VI.
+
+
+1550. Promulgation against the heretics in the Netherlands by Charles;
+the hateful Inquisition established there.
+
+Peace between England and France; Boulogne restored to the latter.
+
+Publication of his _Lives of the Painters_, by Giorgio Vasari.
+
+
+1551. After a long siege Magdeburg is taken by Maurice of Saxony.
+
+Turkish ravages on the coast of Sicily; an attack on Malta fails;
+Tripoli surrenders to them.
+
+Palestrina, the first to reconcile musical science with musical art,
+made _maestro di capella_ by Pope Julius III.
+
+
+1552. Adoption of the Forty-two Articles of the Church of England; these
+were afterward reduced to Thirty-nine.
+
+Alliance of Maurice of Saxony with France; they make war on Charles V,
+on behalf of the Protestants. The Peace of Passau follows. See "COLLAPSE
+OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V," ix, 337 and 348.
+
+Seizure of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun by Henry II of
+France. See "COLLAPSE OF THE POWER OF CHARLES V," ix, 337.
+
+Subjugation of the Tartars of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible of Russia.
+
+
+1553. Death of Edward VI; his sister, Mary, succeeds to the English
+throne.
+
+Unsuccessful attempt of the Duke of Northumberland to place his
+daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne.
+
+After a stubborn defence by Francis, Duke of Guise, Charles V is
+compelled to raise the siege of Metz.
+
+Burning of Servetus at Geneva, with Calvin's approval.
+
+
+1554. Rebellion of Wyatt, in support of Lady Jane Grey's attempt on the
+crown of England; she is executed.
+
+Queen Mary, of England, marries Philip of Spain.
+
+Regency of Mary de Guise, mother of Mary Stuart, in Scotland.
+
+Astrakhan conquered by Ivan the Terrible.
+
+
+1555. Peace of Augsburg between the Roman Catholic and Lutheran parties
+in Germany. See "THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF AUGSBURG," ix, 348.
+
+Persecution of the Protestants begun by Queen Mary in England; burning
+of Latimer and Ridley.
+
+The sovereignty of the Netherlands resigned by Charles V to his son,
+Philip II.
+
+Return to Scotland of John Knox.
+
+Completion of the version of the Psalms, in English metre, by Sternhold
+and Hopkins.
+
+
+1556. Burning of Cranmer.
+
+Emperor Charles V resigns the crown of Germany. See "RELIGIOUS PEACE OF
+AUGSBURG," ix, 348.
+
+"AKBAR ESTABLISHES THE MOGUL EMPIRE IN INDIA." See ix, 366.
+
+
+1557. Philip II of Spain arrives in England; he obtains a declaration of
+war against France and departs. Battle of St. Quentin; the Earl of
+Pembroke joins the army of Philip II in Flanders, with 10,000 English
+soldiers; defeat of the French.
+
+Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant, "even to the knife," by
+Scottish Lords of the Congregation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[60] Sometimes given as 1530.
+
+
+
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