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diff --git a/26313.txt b/26313.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ead264 --- /dev/null +++ b/26313.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5996 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Young Farmer: Some Things He Should Know, by +Thomas Forsyth Hunt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Young Farmer: Some Things He Should Know + +Author: Thomas Forsyth Hunt + +Release Date: August 14, 2008 [EBook #26313] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE YOUNG FARMER *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Roch, ronnie sahlberg and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + +[Illustration: Hon. R. W. Dunlap, Kingston, Ohio, graduate of course in +agriculture, Ohio State University, 1895, noted football player, state +senator, state dairy and food commissioner. Farmer and institute +lecturer. Introduced alfalfa fourteen years ago into his farm and +community. Introduced commercial fertilizers and raised thereby more +wheat from 50 acres than his father did from 150 acres, thus convincing +his father and neighbors that when rightly used commercial fertilizers +paid. Mr. Dunlap claimed that the agricultural college made him a farmer, +because when he left for college he had no intention of returning to the +farm.] + + + The + Young Farmer + + Some Things He Should Know + + _By_ + + THOMAS F. HUNT + + + + + Imperial man! Co-worker with the wind + And rain and light and heat and cold, and all + The agencies of God to feed and clothe + And render beautiful and glad the world! + --_Stockard_ + + + NEW YORK + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + LONDON + KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limited + 1913 + + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + + ---------- + + + Entered at Stationers' Hall + _LONDON, ENGLAND_ + + PRINTED IN U. S. A. + + + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + CONTENTS + +CHAPTER PAGE + I ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESS 1 + II MEANS OF ACQUIRING LAND 14 + III FARM ORGANIZATION 31 + IV OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE 44 + V WHERE TO LOCATE 57 + VI SIZE OF FARM 64 + VII SELECTION OF FARM 71 + VIII THE FARM SCHEME 88 + IX THE ROTATION OF CROPS 101 + X THE EQUIPMENT 109 + XI HOW TO ESTIMATE PROFITS 117 + XII GRAIN AND HAY FARMING 135 + XIII THE COST OF FARMING OPERATIONS 148 + XIV THE PLACE OF INTENSIVE FARMING 162 + XV REASONS FOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 172 + XVI RETURNS FROM ANIMALS 185 + XVII FARM LABOR 195 + XVIII SHIPPING 210 + XIX MARKETING 220 + XX LAWS AFFECTING LAND AND LABOR 233 + XXI RURAL LEGISLATION 248 + XXII RURAL FORCES 268 + + + THE YOUNG FARMER: + SOME THINGS HE SHOULD KNOW + + ---------- + + + + + CHAPTER I + + ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESS + + +Columella, the much traveled Spanish-Roman writer of the first century +A. D., said that for successful farming three things are essential: +knowledge, capital and love for the calling. This statement is just as +true today as it was when written 1900 years ago by this early writer +on European agriculture. + +Every man who loves the calling and has an ambition to become a +successful farmer should understand that no two of these essentials +are sufficient, but that all three are necessary. Although this is so +simple as to be almost axiomatic, it is indeed surprising how few +people believe a knowledge of farming is really essential to success. + +America is strewn with cases of failure, in farming, by men investing +capital acquired in other business. In nine cases out of ten failure +has been due to lack of knowledge of farming. + +There is known to the writer an expert mineralogist and metallurgist. +On the subject of coal and gold mining he can give the most valuable +information. His advice is constantly sought on all such matters. +Instead of investing his money in mining, on which he is a recognized +authority, he has invested it in a farm, about which he knows next to +nothing. He has not even had the advantage of being raised on a farm, +since his father was a railroad man. + +A mechanical engineer remarked that if he had $25,000 he would invest +it in a farm. This man is supposed to be an expert in business methods +as applied to manufacturing in general, and he is especially +conversant with the manufacture and trade in automobiles. About all he +has seen of farming he has observed from the window of a Pullman car +or from the steering wheel of an automobile. Instead of investing his +earnings in some manufacturing business, about which he has spent +years of study and in which he has had some training, he would invest +it in farming, of which he has only the most rudimentary knowledge, if +only he had sufficient capital. As a matter of fact, he is more in +need of knowledge than of capital. + +Even farmers of experience do not always realize the training required +to succeed in farming. A letter was received by the dean of a certain +agricultural college saying that a graduate of another agricultural +college had taken one of the poorest farms in his neighborhood and was +raising better potatoes than anyone else could raise. The letter asked +that information be sent by return mail as to how this young man could +be beaten in raising potatoes. Of course the answer had to be sent +that while information upon raising potatoes could easily be supplied, +although not in the limits of an ordinary letter, the training in +observation, judgment and reasoning faculties essential to meet the +daily problems as they arise could not be supplied. + +There is no objection to men of other vocations adopting farming as an +avocation if they can afford it. It is a rational form of pleasure for +wealthy people, and one in which they can often be of great service. +This cannot be said of all forms of relaxation. Wealthy men have been +of special service to the cause of agriculture by promoting the +breeding of improved live stock. Men in other callings should clearly +understand, however, that if they have a farm merely as a place to +spend a week end, that they may expect to find the financial returns +unsatisfactory. + +To no one is there more significance in the old school aphorism +"knowledge is power" than to the young man who is to become a farmer. +While it is not necessary to be educated in schools in order to gain +knowledge, yet the schoolroom with all its limitations is usually the +most economical and most efficient method of acquiring certain forms of +knowledge essential to every successful man or woman. A farm-to-farm +canvass of a certain region of the state of New York discloses the fact +that farmers with college training are obtaining a higher income from +their farms than those whose school days ended with high school. +Similarly, those who have finished the high school are more prosperous +financially than those who never advanced beyond the grades. The +investigation showed, for example, that with the farmers under +observation the high school education was equivalent to $6,000 worth of +5% bonds. Farming is an occupation requiring keen observation, sound +judgment and accurate reasoning, all attributes which are strengthened +greatly by proper education. This is so true that many men, perhaps +most men, are forty before they have grasped the problems which the +truly successful farmer must solve. + +A considerable part of the knowledge essential to success in any +pursuit is acquired by actually working at the occupation, or, as we +say, by practical experience. Some features of any occupation can be +obtained in no other way. A preliminary education may, however, +greatly reduce the time necessary to acquire even this practical +experience. For example, a course in shop work as taught in technical +high schools and colleges, requiring two hours a day for five months, +may shorten the time of apprenticeship by one or more years, in +acquiring the trade of carpenter or iron worker. In the same manner a +course in butter making, cheese making or floriculture, may shorten +the time required to obtain the necessary practical details by ten +months or even more. Eventually, also, the man thus trained will be +the better man. + +If the industrial activities of the world be divided into farming, +mining, manufacturing, trade and transportation, it will be noted at +once that farming is the only one which deals with living things. In +fact, the definition of agriculture, in its broadest sense, is the +economic production of living things. The farmer is thus brought face +to face with some of the most difficult and intricate problems with +which the human race has to grapple. It is this fact that makes +farming, in some ways, the most uncertain as well as the most +fascinating occupation known to man. The fact that the farmer is +dealing with living things puts his occupation in a class by itself +for a number of reasons, one of which is germane to the subject of +this chapter. + +In most occupations a larger part of the knowledge necessary to success +can be acquired by doing than is the case in farming. Locomotive +engineers are trained for their responsible duty while firing the +engine. The brakeman becomes a conductor by assisting the latter. A +bank cashier is usually a promoted bank clerk. Each obtained the +knowledge essential to success largely by oft-repeated performance. + +While, of course, there is much the farmer can learn only by +experience, there are many things essential to his success that the +mere performance of the necessary farm operations will not teach him. +Spreading manure will never teach him that stable manure should be +supplemented with phosphoric acid in order to get the best results. The +growing of clover will not teach him that mineral fertilizer may keep +up the fertility of the soil where clover grows luxuriantly and occurs +in the rotation at definite intervals. Feeding cattle will not teach +him that a good ration for milch cows is one containing one pound of +digestible protein to seven pounds of digestible carbohydrates, +provided it is palatable and, at least, two-thirds of the total ration +is digestible. Nor will the feeding of such a ration teach the farmer +how to calculate the most economical ration from feeding stuffs at +current prices. The cause of potato blight and the methods of combating +it cannot be learned from the operation of planting and cultivating +potatoes. + +These are only a few illustrations--they might be multiplied +indefinitely--to show that farming is peculiar in that performance of +the daily duties does not give the knowledge essential to success in +the same measure that it does in such occupations as banking, trade +and transportation. Yet, curiously enough, while no man would +undertake to run a locomotive engine or perform the duties of cashier +of a bank without thorough training, there are many who will undertake +to farm without education or knowledge of the business. + +The young man who intends to become a farmer should fully understand +that if farming is not a business worthy of a thoroughly educated man, +it is not a business worthy of him; because every young man is worthy +of a thorough education, provided he is a man of clean habits and good +purposes. Do not allow yourself to be persuaded that you lack ability +to acquire a good education. All you require is opportunity, +determination and honesty of intention. + +Farming is worthy, moreover, of the most highly educated as well as +the most capable. If lack of means prevents a young man from taking a +four-years' training in agriculture, he will find a two years' course +offered by many of the state agricultural schools. While it is +obviously impossible to give in two years as much training as in four +years, these two years' courses contain the more technical subjects +and are usually very thorough and efficient. No young man, no matter +how thorough his previous training, need hesitate to pursue one of +them. + +There are, however, young men who cannot spare the time and expense of +even two years' training. For such many state agricultural colleges +offer winter terms of eight to twelve weeks. These courses are +arranged to allow the student to specialize along some particular +line. The better prepared the man is who enters these winter courses +the more he will benefit by them. This leads to the caution that such +courses should not be substituted for the education offered in the +public schools, but should only be sought after all the opportunities +for education at home have been exhausted. + +For the somewhat older young man who is now farming and cannot leave +his farm or for the younger man as a preparation for the short +courses, one or more correspondence courses will be found useful. Not +all colleges conduct correspondence courses, but fortunately those who +do will accept students from other states on equal terms. There are +many persons who will testify to their helpfulness. + +Every young farmer should have a carefully selected library of +standard books on agriculture, not only for reading but for reference. +An instance of the value of a standard book of reference came recently +to the attention of the writer. An educated young farmer in Iowa paid +$2.50 for a peck of crimson clover seed which he sowed in the spring +in his oats. A reference to any standard publication on forage crops +costing less than the peck of seed would have disclosed to him the +probable hopelessness of success under the conditions named. + +The books to include as well as to exclude from a select list will +depend upon the previous training of the man making the purchase, the +character of the farming to be pursued, and, to some extent, to the +section of the country where the farm is located. Any bookseller can +secure catalogs issued by firms making a specialty of publishing +agricultural books. For the average reader these catalogs are +sufficient to enable one to make intelligent purchases. + +Every farmer should take one or more agricultural journals. At present +journals are published on every phase of agriculture and many of them +are of high character. Publishers are always glad to send sample +copies free of charge. By examining these copies intelligent selection +may be made. + +The writer of this book has had rather unusual opportunity during more +than a quarter of a century of observing the influence of education +upon the success, financial and otherwise, of those who engage in +farming. As the result of these observations he wishes to urge every +young man to allow no one to persuade him that because he is to be a +farmer, he does not need a thorough education. Remember that you have +but one life to live, and if you let the golden opportunity pass, the +mistake can never be rectified. No man ever regretted that he had too +much education--thousands have regretted the lack of it. + +Every young man, no matter what his occupation is to be, should +receive some school training, however little it may be, every year +until he reaches the age of majority. Otherwise the age of majority +should be changed. In no occupation is this more important than in +farming, because the operations involved in farming fail to develop +certain attributes necessary to the largest success. + +A man cannot have a mind too well trained, although it is possible +that he may have too much undigested information. The mental condition +may not be unlike the physical condition of the man who is burdened +with too many clothes. When in action he may need to strip his mind of +unnecessary information in order to make the most efficient mental +effort. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + MEANS OF ACQUIRING LAND + + +Of the three essentials to successful farming--capital, knowledge and +love for the calling--only the first can be obtained on credit, and +this only in part. Usually when a man desires to buy a farm he must +have, at least, one-third of his desired investment in cash. The +amount to be invested will include, not only the cost of the land, but +the cost of the necessary equipment of the farm. The percentage of the +total capital which may be borrowed, however, will depend on many +circumstances and is usually a matter of first importance. No man +should borrow more than a banker or other reputable business man +considers a safe investment. + +Usually there is no better counselor as to a safe investment than the +local banker. The banker should, and generally does, stand in much the +same relation to the financial welfare of the community as the +physician to its physical, the minister to its moral and spiritual +welfare. The inexperienced person, even if he does not need to borrow +money, would do well to consult some responsible banker in the +neighborhood before making an investment in farm lands. + +The young man should, as early as possible in life, open an account +with the local bank, not merely for the sake of the habit of saving +which this will encourage, but in order to come into personal business +relations with the banker. Instead of concealing from the bank his +business operations, he should seek the advice of his banker on all +important financial matters. + +On an average, every farm changes hands at least three times in a +century. Every farm, therefore, must be acquired by purchase, +inheritance or gift at more or less irregular intervals. In the +neighborhood in which the author was born, there is not a farm but has +changed hands since he can remember. In many cases the farm is now in +the possession of a son; in some instances in that of a grandson of +the owner as known by the writer in his boyhood days. In this +particular community the acquirement of a farm by a person not related +to the former owner has occurred in relatively few instances. + +As a rule, when the farm has been acquired by a son, the latter has +operated the farm as tenant or partner for a period previous to his +ownership and during lifetime of the father. In some instances the son +has boarded with the parents or the parents with the son and his wife; +or, in the case of a daughter, with the daughter and son-in-law. + +Where there are several heirs, as is apt to be the case, the son +operating the farm is required to purchase or rent the interest of the +other heirs, unless the farm is large enough to be divided, which is +less seldom the case than is popularly supposed. Thus, if there are +200 acres of land worth $50 an acre, and five heirs, the young farmer +may inherit $2,000, and be required to assume the remaining $8,000 as +an obligation. He may borrow this money at the bank, placing a +mortgage upon the farm, thus settling with the other heirs at once. Or +he may pay the other heirs rent on their share of the farm. In any +case he will, if successful, gradually cancel his obligation and +become owner of the farm. That no heir is willing to assume this +responsibility is the most common reason for a farm changing from one +family to another, and the disruption of community interests. + +The customary, or normal, method of acquiring land has been and still +is a combination of tenancy, inheritance and mortgage. Without some +tenant system and without the farm mortgage, it would be impossible +for the average young man to acquire a farm. That men are constantly +advancing from farm tenant to landowner is shown by statistics giving +the percentage of tenants by ages. The majority of farmers under 30 +are renters. Most farmers over 45 are owners of farm land. Thus in +Illinois, in 1900, approximately 75% of the farmers under 25 years of +age rented their farms, while less than 20% of the farmers over 55 +years of age were tenants. + +The question for the young man to consider is not what effect the +tenant system has upon the welfare of the nation or what political +ills may be connected with farm mortgages, but how to make use of +these necessary and beneficent agencies for the acquirement of a farm. +A system of tenancy which leads to absent landlordism and a permanent +tenant class is thoroughly vicious, while a practice which enables a +man to become, within a reasonable period, a land-owning farmer is a +thoroughly approvable and, indeed, necessary method of acquiring land. + +As already indicated, most young men will need in some form or other +to employ more capital than they possess when they start farming. They +must, therefore, determine what is the best form of obtaining the +necessary capital, viz.: whether to borrow the money on a farm +mortgage, or whether to use the capital someone else has invested in a +farm by paying him rent for it. The conditions of tenancy in this +country are often not the most fortunate, yet the young man of +character may well find, for a time, at least, it would be best for +him to rent a farm and invest his own capital in the necessary +machinery and live stock to conduct it properly. + +Much will depend on the character of the arrangement which may be +made. Usually more favorable terms can be secured from landlords +owning large numbers of farms than from the owner of one or two farms. +The large landowner is content with a moderate income from each farm, +because in the aggregate his income is sufficient for his needs, while +the retired farmer who must live off the proceeds of a single farm is +apt to drive a hard bargain and may not be over particular concerning +the maintenance of said farm. The writer knows a farmer who owns a +good farm purchased from the proceeds of a rented farm. He continues +to live on the rented farm and rents his own, because, it is said, his +landlord is willing to make him more favorable terms than he makes to +his tenant. + +The more capable the tenant the more favorable the terms he may exact. +Certain tenants are in demand and can have their choice of farms. A +prosperous-looking man was pointed out recently as an example of a +tenant capable of buying a farm in one of the most highly developed +counties in the United States. It was stated that as a renter he could +have his choice of any farm in the county, but that he did not have a +dollar invested in farm land. Possibly he invests his surplus earnings +in stocks and bonds. + +It is not the present purpose to determine the relative merits of the +different systems of land tenure, but to try to be helpful to the +beginners by discussing the usual practices in order that he may know +whether the arrangement he is considering is customary and whether it +is likely to prove satisfactory. + +Every third farm in the United States is rented under one of three +methods: + +1. A definite money rent may be paid, ranging from $2 to $6 an acre +for land on which the ordinary, staple crops are raised. Perhaps $3 to +$4 is more commonly paid for such land. + +2. In the South it is common for the landlord to require a definite +number of pounds of cotton per acre or a certain number of bales of +cotton for a one or two-mule farm, as the case may be. This is +classified by the census authorities as "cash rent," but will here be +called "crop rent." Crop rent is less common than either cash or share +rent in the northern and western states, although perhaps the most +common form in the South. Crop rent, however, is met with in some +sections, as in western New York where certain large landowners +require a definite number of bushels of wheat, oats or maize and make +certain stipulations as to hay and straw. They charge a cash rent for +pasture. + +3. Much the most common form of tenancy, however, is that where a +certain percentage or share of the product is given the landlord for +the use of the land. + +Before entering into a discussion of the customary conditions under +which land is rented on shares it may be helpful to point out the +fundamental differences between cash rent, crop rent and share rent. +In case of cash rent, the landlord takes no risk, either as to the +price or the amount of product. In the case of crop rent, he shares +the risk as to the variation in price, but not as to the amount of +crop raised. The latter may depend upon the clemency of the weather or +upon the industry and skill of the tenant. In the case of share rent, +both landlord and tenant share equally as to variation in the price +and the amount of product. + +Three forms of share rent may be recognized: + +(a) Where landlord furnishes only real estate (land and buildings), +the tenant supplying everything else, including teams, machinery, +labor, seeds and fertilizers. Under these conditions it is customary +for the landlord to receive one-third and the tenant two-thirds of the +crop raised or the product produced. + +(b) The second form of share rent is where the landlord furnishes the +real estate; the tenant supplies teams, tools and labor, while the +landlord and tenant own equally all live stock other than teams, and +bear equally all other expenses, as for seeds, fertilizers and cost of +threshing. Under this system, it is customary for landlord and tenant +each to receive one-half of all sales. As each owns one-half of all +the live stock (teams excepted), each shares equally in all increase. +The landlord pays for the cost of permanent improvements such as new +buildings, fences, repairs and drainage. The tenant, in making these +improvements, in some cases, agrees to furnish two days' labor for one +day's pay. The theory is that, while the increased value of the real +estate is of advantage only to the landlord, the improved facilities +are of some benefit to the tenant. Since he can do this work at odd +times when not otherwise employed, he can afford to take a generous +view of the matter. It is obvious that if he remains on the farm long +enough the tenant will come into his share of the benefit, while if he +intends to leave the farm soon he may not. There is in the mind of the +writer a prosperous tenant who, after eighteen years on a single farm, +declared he had no desire to make a change, and doubtless there are +thousands of similar instances. + +Under the plan in which the tenant furnishes everything except the +real estate, the tendency of the farm is apt to be downward both as to +the improvements and the crop-producing power of the soil. The +interests of the landlord and tenant are not mutual. This condition of +tenancy leads to growing only those crops which can be readily sold +from the farm and to frequent changes of the tenant, with its +accompanying auction sales of property. In one region, where this +system prevails, it has been facetiously remarked that each tenant has +a sale every year to determine how much he is worth. It is less +trouble than taking an inventory. + +In the second form of share rent, the interests of landlord and tenant +are more nearly mutual. Under this system, animal husbandry is +possible, which, generally, involves pasturing and feeding a +considerable part of the crops upon the farm, and even the purchase of +nitrogenous by-products. All this leads to permanency of tenant, since +the landlord and tenant are both interested in the live stock and +other personal property, which cannot be divided, with economy, each +year. It is interesting to note that the house is the least likely to +be kept in repair. The improvement of the barns and fences or the +laying of tile drains increases the landlord's income, but he has no +financial interest in the house, so long as the tenant is willing to +live in it. + +There are, of course, many variations in the arrangement of details +between the landlord and tenant. On many dairy farms in the northeastern +states it is customary for the landlord to own the cows. While the +landlord and tenant share equally from the sale of milk, butter or +cheese, in such cases the increase in the herd belongs to the owner of +the land. Hence, money from the sale of any animal, old or young, goes +to him. This is because the landlord must keep up the herd. If a cow is +sold, he must furnish another to take her place. + +(c) The third type of tenant farming is where the tenant furnishes +nothing but his labor and managerial ability, and receives a share of +the sales, which may be one-third. This is rather an unusual type of +tenancy, since, where the landlord furnishes all the capital, it is +much more common to employ a farm manager at a monthly wage. The wage +varies greatly, but is seldom below forty dollars or above seventy-five +dollars per month without board, especially to those who have not +hitherto had much managerial experience. + +Various attempts at profit sharing have been made. A recent instance +is of a young married man taking 160 acres of tillable land where the +landlord has a fairly well-stocked farm. The young man is to have a +house and everything in the way of living the farm can furnish. He is +to receive $20 a month and one-half the net proceeds, or, what is +called in Chapter XI, the farm income. In considering a contract of +this kind it is necessary to make a careful distinction between: (1) +Gross sales, (2) net proceeds, viz.: the gross sales less the expenses +of running the farm, and (3) profits, which may be defined for the +purpose of this discussion as the net proceeds less the interest on +the investment.[A] + +Assuming 160 acres of land, all tillable, devoted to dairy farming in +eastern United States, gross sales may be estimated at $20 an acre, or +an annual gross income of $3,200, and the net proceeds at $10 an acre, +or $1,600. Under these conditions the young man's income would be +$240, received as wages, plus $800, as his share of the net proceeds, +or a total of $1,040 a year. + +Generally speaking, probably a more satisfactory method, both for +landlord and the farm manager, would be to pay the latter as nearly as +may be what his services should be worth and give him in addition +one-half the profits; that is, one-half of that which was left after +deducting the expenses of running the farm and interest on the capital +invested. + +Merely for illustrating the method of calculation, let us assume this +farm with its equipment to be worth $100 an acre, or $16,000. Let the +farm manager be paid $840 a year. Assume the same gross income, +$3,200, and the same cost of operating, $1,600, to which add $600, the +additional salary of the manager. The total expense is then $2,200, +and the net proceeds $1,000. If 4%, or $640, was charged on the +investment, there would be $360 to be divided between landlord and +manager, making the salary of manager $1,020. A simple calculation +will show that if 5% were charged, the salary of the manager would be +$940 a year, and if 6%, $860 a year. The advantage of the latter +method of employment is that the young man runs less risk, while both +receive equally any surplus beyond fair wages and fair interest on the +investment. + +In this connection it is important to consider how much may be +reasonably paid for managerial ability. A study of the figures on page +133 will show that the labor income from a considerable number of +farms of the better class was about 7% of the capital invested in the +farms. The inference is, therefore, that if a man has $10,000 wisely +invested in a farm he may pay $700 for a working manager; or, to put +it in another form, before the owner of a farm can afford to pay +$1,200 a year for a farm manager, he should have about $17,000 +invested. Moreover, this investment must be in a form calculated to +return an income. If part of it consists of investments for pleasure +or fancy, such investment will not only not add to the income, but +will detract from it by increasing the cost of maintenance. + +This is scarcely less important to the employee than it is to the +employer, since if the owner pays a higher salary than the manager can +earn, he quite surely will sooner or later discharge his manager. This +may result disastrously for the discharged young man, not merely on +account of the loss of employment, but because his failure may +militate against his securing satisfactory employment elsewhere. When +an employer is seeking a man, he looks for one who has succeeded. +There is an old saying, "Nothing succeeds like success," and it is +only too true that nothing fails like failure. + +----- + + [A] Profit is sometimes defined as that part of the product which + the producer can consume without reducing his means of production. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + FARM ORGANIZATION + + +In the last chapter were discussed the most common methods by which a +young man acquires an opportunity to engage in farming. This chapter +will discuss some less common arrangements by which may be bridged +that period between the time the son is ready to go into the business +and the time he may assume the complete control of the ancestral or +other farm. It will also suggest a method for the continuous business +management of a farm enterprise. + +As stated, the most common reason for a farm changing from one family +to another is the fact that no heir is willing to assume the +obligation which is involved in paying for the interest of the other +heirs. Connected with this problem is the further fact that the father +is not usually ready to give up the management of the farm at the time +one of his sons reaches the age to go into active business. + +The reason for this state of affairs is made clear by the results of +insurance statistics. The period that a man may be expected to live +can be obtained by taking the difference between his present age and +90 and dividing the remainder by two. Thus, a young man who is 20 may +reasonably expect to live 35 years, or until he is 55 years old. A man +at 50, however, still has an expectation of life of 20 years, and the +man of 70 of 10 years. + +A farmer of 50 will usually have one or more sons ready to go to +farming if they ever expect to engage in farming. But, as has been +shown, a man of 50 has a reasonable expectation of 20 more years of +life and cannot turn over the farm to his son, completely, without +destroying his own opportunity for earning a livelihood. As things are +usually arranged, therefore, there is no place on the average farm for +the son, except as a hired hand, which is not desired permanently by +either father or son. + +Frequently the father fails to appreciate the earning power of his +son, and, what is more important, that the boy has grown into a man. +One day a teacher called a student of agriculture to his office, when +the following conversation occurred: + +[Illustration: John Armstrong, Austinburg, Ashtabula county, Ohio, was a +dairy tenant farmer for twenty years with nothing to show for his labor +but a debt of $500. He then bought the farm of 144 acres on which he +lives, without cash payment, assuming a debt of $7,000. At the end of ten +years he owned his farm and equipment valued at $20,000. He has two sons +who have been important factors in his success. A year ago one of them +married and went to a farm of his own, the father paying him $3,000 for +his former labor.] + +[Illustration: John M. Hunt, Ackley, Iowa, two years a student at Iowa +State College. He returned to the home farm of 120 acres, which, without +any capital, he rented from his father. At the age of 25 his gross +receipts from this farm were a little over $4,000. After paying rent, +living, keeping a family of four, a few trips to fairs and corn shows, +he had net $1,500 for his year's work. Picture shows home with father, +mother and sister in the foreground.] + +"The Bureau of Soils at Washington," said the teacher, "has asked me +to recommend several of our students to them for positions as field +assistants. If you desire to have me do so, I would be glad to +recommend you for one of these positions. The compensation is $1,000 a +year and field expenses." + +"I do not believe that I can accept," said Mr. Manning, "my father is +in poor health and needs my help on the farm." + +"Does your father want you to take charge of the farm and manage it so +that you can make your training count?" + +"No; my father expects to continue to manage the farm. He wishes me to +work for him." + +"How much does your father expect to pay you?" + +"Thirty dollars a month." + +The teacher found it extremely difficult not to interfere, but he +merely said, "This is a case of filial duty which you must settle for +yourself. I must have nothing further to say." + +The young man returned to the ancestral home and is probably still +there. It is, of course, impossible to determine the merits of an +individual case, but this incident represents a type of cases where +the son makes two important sacrifices from the sense of duty. + +First, he sacrifices present, and, perhaps, future opportunity to earn +the wages of which he is capable and to which he is justly entitled. +And, second, and more important, he sacrifices the opportunity to +develop his own powers and make concrete his own abstract self. + +There are two things that every young man should do. One is to earn a +living. A man that cannot or does not earn a living is of no value to +himself or to anyone else. The other is to develop within himself his +latent possibilities. He must apply himself to some problem, or +problems, and through them develop his own personality. There is no +place where more intricate and satisfying problems may be found than +in the development of a successful farming enterprise. In the instance +cited, the father may have been unable to pay his son the wage he +might have obtained elsewhere, but he did not need to dwarf his son's +development by treating him merely as a hired hand. His willingness to +do so was probably due to his failure to appreciate that his son had +become a man. + +Sometimes a father is astute enough to reorganize his business so as to +retain a place for himself while giving to his sons that opportunity +which every man must have who develops himself normally. + +An Ohio farmer once came to the Dean's office. He had a son in college +who was just completing the first year of a two years' course in +agriculture. + +"I should like to have you find a place for my son in a cheese factory +during the coming summer," said Mr. McKinley. + +"I own a farm of 130 acres on which I have a herd of Jersey cattle," +continued the father. "I have two sons and one daughter. I would like +to have my sons about me, but there is no place for them on my farm +because I am there and cannot get away. In fact, I do not desire to +give up the management of the farm and the development of the herd of +cattle." + +"Not every father sees the situation as clearly as you do," interjected +the Dean. + +"This is my plan. After my son has spent a summer in a cheese factory, +I want him to come back to your school for another year. I want him to +learn, especially, all you teach about dairying. I will then build a +cheese factory on my own farm and my son will make into cheese the +milk of my own herd, and also from the herds of our neighbors. By the +time he has completed his work with you, my younger son will have +finished the high school. He has some liking for trading, and he will +sell the cheese at wholesale and deliver it to the surrounding towns +where markets are unexcelled. As for the daughter," continued this +practical man, "she will get married and that will take care of her." + +What became of the daughter is not known to the writer, but the rest +of the program was carried out successfully and continued for many +years. + +A German came to this country and settled in New Jersey, where he +established a large orchard. In course of time his two sons grew into +manhood. While, of course, requiring plenty of laborers, the +orchardist did not need the sons in the management of his farm. He, +therefore, established one of these sons in the commission business in +Philadelphia, thus, at least, keeping the profits on the sale of the +products of his orchard in the family. He also needed cold storage for +his fruit. The other son started a cold storage plant, which plays an +important part in the profitable management of the orchard. Thus both +sons have independent employment requiring managerial ability and the +orchard is much more profitable than it otherwise would be. + +Our land laws, our traditions and our practices are based upon the +idea that a farm is to provide activity and support for but one +family. In order, therefore, that the son may marry and begin to +develop his life in his own way, it is essential to reorganize in some +manner the method of managing the farm or to enlarge or, perhaps, +specialize its activities. This may be accomplished on a simple +partnership basis, or it may be in some such line as outlined in the +illustrations which have been given. In other occupations such +co-operative effort is the rule rather than the exception. That it is +more difficult to effect satisfactory arrangements in farming must be +conceded, else they would be more common. Doubtless it will often tax +the ingenuity of father and son to devise the plans best suited to +meet their particular problem. + +There still remains to consider another form of business relation as +applied to farming which has become almost universal in trade and +transportation. The following incident may illustrate and emphasize +the problem better than abstract discussion: One day a man walked into +an office and stated that a friend had a half million dollars to +invest in farming, provided that he could be convinced that the money +would be invested profitably. + +"Does your friend desire to buy land in any particular locality?" + +"Yes," replied the promoter, "he wishes to buy land near ----. He has +some sentiment about it. He was born in that neighborhood." + +"Well, that is a rather bad beginning. Farming on sentiment is +dangerous, especially when the sentiment is in no way related to the +business." + +The facts were that the region indicated was recognized to be one of +the most unpromising sections of the state. + +"If you undertake to invest a half million dollars in one neighborhood," +continued the adviser, "you will pretty certainly fail to earn interest +on your investment." + +"Why?" inquired the promoter. + +"Before you could possibly buy any considerable part of the land the +owners of the farms you desire to buy would have doubled or perhaps +trebled the price asked for their holdings. It is one thing to earn +interest on an investment of $30 an acre and quite another to earn an +equal per cent on $60 or $90 an acre. + +"In the second place, farmers are content to accept less per cent on +their capital than they would if it was loaned at interest, because +the farm furnishes a home as well as a business. When you buy up all +these farms and convert them into a single enterprise you will destroy +their home value. You cannot hope to compete with the man, who, +because his farm furnishes him a home, is content with an otherwise +small return on his investment." + +There were other reasons, of course, why such an enterprise would +fail, which the speaker did not stop to explain. + +"You are mistaken," challenged the promoter. "I intend to meet both +your objections. My plan is to form a corporation and issue both +preferred and common stock. The preferred stock shall bear 5% and that +will belong to my friend who furnishes the money. I will retain the +common stock. Five per cent is all the owner of the money is entitled +to, while if the business returns more than that amount, it will be +due to my management. I, and those associated with me, are entitled to +all that is made above five per cent. By retaining the common stock +the surplus income will come to us. Neither will I destroy the home +value, because I shall associate the former owners with me in the +conduct of the estate and may give them some of the common stock, so +that they will be interested with me in making a profitable return. If +they wish to keep their money invested in the farm, they will be given +preferred stock in place of cash for their farms." + +It is needless to say that the promoter never convinced his friend +that he could successfully invest for him a half million dollars along +the lines indicated. Nevertheless the corporate plan is not without +merit. For example, if a father should incorporate his farm, he could +provide for the inheritance of the preferred stock, among the heirs, +as he desires. He could give to the son who operates the farm all the +common stock, together with what preferred stock he is entitled or the +father may desire him to have. The common stock would provide the +means by which the income from the farm, which was due to the sons +skill and management, might go to him. As time went on the son could +acquire additional preferred stock from the father or other heirs, or +he could invest his earnings elsewhere, as might seem most expedient. +On the death of the parents, the preferred stock would be distributed +as inheritance or the will provided without in any way interfering +with the continuity of the farm enterprise. If at any time the son +desired to discontinue the management of the farm, all he would need +to do would be to dispose of his interest in the common stock at +whatever he might be able to secure from the man who succeeded to its +management. He could sell or retain his preferred stock. + +Farming is the one remaining great industry that has not been +organized so that a single enterprise may have a continuous existence. +A corporation never dies, but at least three generations of men occupy +the farms of the United States each century. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE + + +Some years ago, a prominent magazine contained an article entitled +"The American Farmer's Balance Sheet," in which a descendant of the +second and sixth Presidents of the United States was shown to have +made in one year a profit of over $19,000 from a 6,000-acre wheat farm +in North Dakota, and over $50,000 from a 6,000-acre corn farm in Iowa. +A few months later there appeared in the same magazine another +article, the purport of which was that great wealth, whether it be +obtained from farming, the mining of coal, the manufacture of steel or +the selling of merchandise, is the exception, while the man, in +whatever calling, who rears and educates a family and at the same time +lays by a small competence is the normal American product. The moral +is that a $500-a-year-income farm is a more important factor to the +national welfare than a $50,000-a-year-income farm. + +In the latter article the writer tells of two brothers who had been +reared on a Michigan farm. Reuben was tired of the country. He went to +the city and apprenticed himself to a harnessmaker. Against the advice +of young friends, Lucien bought sixty acres of land and ran in debt +for it. + +In a year Reuben was earning a dollar a day. He wore a white shirt and +pointed shoes, not because they were more comfortable, but because +other people did. He had no debts. Lucien had fair crops, but they +yielded no more than enough to pay interest on the mortgage. He wore a +ragged shirt, patched breeches and cowhide boots. People said that +Reuben was making a gentleman of himself and learning a trade in the +bargain. + +In two years, Reuben had completed his apprenticeship. He was now +earning $10 a week. He lived in a house that had a fancy veranda and +green blinds. His clothing improved. Lucien was still ragged, but he +paid his interest and $300 each year upon the principal. People said +that Reuben, the harnessmaker, was bound to come to the front. + +In ten years more, Reuben was still foreman of the shop at $50 a +month. He lived in the same house, and smoked Havana cigars. Lucien +built a new house and a barn. He smoked a pipe. The neighbors saw that +every year he made some improvement on the farm. He wore a white shirt +when he went to town, and he had a pair of button shoes. People said +that Lucien was becoming a prominent man. His word was good at the +bank. + +Reuben began to complain that harnessmaking was too confining. His +health was breaking down. The proprietor was selfish. He would not die +and leave the business to him. Harnessmaking was not what it used to +be. Lucien bought more land. He went fishing when he wanted to. Reuben +came out now and then to spend Sunday. The birds seemed to sing more +sweetly than ever before and the grass was greener. Lucien endorsed +Reuben's note. + +Lucien has pigs, and cows, and sheep, and chickens, and turkeys, and +horses. He raises potatoes and beans, and corn, and wheat, and garden +stuff, and fruit. He buys his groceries and clothing and tobacco. +Reuben buys everything. At the close of the year Lucien puts from $100 +to $300 in the bank or takes a trip to Washington. Reuben does well if +he come out even. Lucien does not fret; Reuben grumbles. + +The picture is true to life. It has been enacted and re-enacted in +every one of the older communities of the United States. + +It has always seemed to the writer, however, that the author of this +suggestive story left out two important personages. They were Sarah, +the wife of Reuben, and Mary, the wife of Lucien. Sarah liked to make +tatting and to go to pink teas. Mary preferred to raise flowers and +fluffy little chickens. Nothing is to be said for or against the taste +of either. Each has a right to her preference, but their point of view +cannot be left out of the problem when a young man is considering his +future occupation. + +It has been said, and probably with considerable truth, that most +congressmen would not hang around Washington if it were not for their +wives. + +No one must mistake this story as an attempt to compare harness making +with farming, much less to compare living in the city with life in the +open country. + +What it does is to compare the struggle and the development of the man +who goes into business for himself with the man who accepts employment +at wages. + +Because of less responsibility and less sacrifices at the beginning, +the tendency is for young men to work for wages rather than to engage +in business for themselves. This is becoming more and more true as +industrial methods make it more and more difficult for the young man +to command the requisite capital. + +The man who works for wages usually has the larger income and appears +the most prosperous during the earlier years as compared with his +brother who enters business. The business man, however, who, while +young, economizes and invests his savings in his business gradually +outstrips his wage-earning brother. During later life he is able to +enjoy the fruits of his earlier economy and investments, while failing +powers and keen competition of younger and better trained men restrict +the opportunities of the wage earner, who has generally spent his +wages in better living, or at least in more outward show. + +This is well shown by the fact that it is customary to make provision +by means of pensions for wage earners of all sorts, while no such +arrangement is made for men who engage in business, be that farming, +trade or transportation. + +For many reasons, however, young men will continue to seek employment +at wages, even if only for a few years, or until some capital has been +acquired which may be invested in business. + +The question arises, therefore, what opportunities there may be for +the young man who desires to engage, eventually, in the business of +farming to work for wages along lines that will not be too far removed +from the business in which he is subsequently to engage. It will be +assumed that the young man has prepared himself in that same +painstaking way that he would if he were preparing to become an +engineer, a lawyer or a physician. + +There is a constant demand for men with proper training as managers of +farms. As stated elsewhere, the wages are seldom less than $40 nor more +than $75 a month to beginners, although for men of experience $5,000 a +year has been paid in exceptional cases for the management of large +enterprises. These positions often constitute ideal opportunities for +capable young men. They require, however, not only an intimate +knowledge of farming, but the ability, also, to manage men. + +The ability to manage men requires the combination of decision and +tact, not possessed by all, and not easily acquired by education or +practice. Not only must the farm manager be able to manage workmen, +but oftentimes he must manage his employer, who may have little +knowledge of farming but still insists upon having his own ideas +executed, as he, of course, has a perfect right to do. + +Another danger is the fact that where the farm is owned by a man +engaged in other business, many circumstances may arise to cause the +owner to change his plans or sell his property. There is often, +therefore, a lack of permanency in these positions. + +The United States Department of Agriculture employs upward of 5,000 +people. There is a constant demand for young men to recruit this +service, including experts in soils, plant production, animal +husbandry, dairying, chemistry and forestry. Beginners receive from +$800 to $1,000 a year. When they are sent out of Washington into field +service, as many of them are, they receive their expenses, including +subsistence in addition. Young men may rise rather rapidly by +promotion to $1,600 a year, then more slowly to $2,000, while an +occasional man is promoted to the more responsible position paying +$3,000 to $4,000 a year. + +The positions are all filled through the competitive civil service +examinations. Examinations are held at more or less irregular +intervals, usually several times a year, in various sections of the +country. A letter addressed to the United States Civil Service +Commission will secure the necessary information concerning openings +and the general requirements for the examinations. + +Employment in the United States Department of Agriculture often +affords opportunity for varied experience and wide observation of +farming methods throughout the country. Such employment is generally +to be considered desirable if not continued for too long a period. As +a matter of fact, men are constantly leaving the service to engage in +practical or other work, a fact which makes the demand for young men +greater than would otherwise be the case. + +The various agricultural colleges and experiment stations are +constantly seeking men. It would seem that the demand would eventually +be satisfied. As a matter of fact, however, it grows greater year by +year, both because these institutions continue to grow and because +young men are attracted more and more to practical work. It is stated +that in one institution there were 46 graduates in the course in +animal husbandry and that 44 went into practical work and only two +sought employment in college or station. The salaries are about the +same as in government positions. + +Agricultural newspaper work offers an attractive field for young men +who are properly trained and have a taste for this kind of work. + +There is also beginning to be quite a demand for teachers of +agriculture in the high schools. As a rule a man is wanted who can +teach, in addition, the sciences usually taught in secondary school. +The customary salary is from $70 to $100 a month on an eight to ten +months' basis. An experience of one or two years as a teacher in a +high school, or even the lower grades of the public school, should be +invaluable to the young man who expects subsequently to engage in +farming. This is particularly true if he has not had the opportunity +of a college training. + +It is, perhaps, unnecessary to state that the salaries mentioned in +this chapter are obtained only by young men who possess certain +qualifications. To secure them, they must be men of ability, +integrity, virtue and industry. No man who is not willing to make the +preparation necessary to master his subject can expect to succeed. He +must, also, be a man of absolute honesty, and he must lead a clean +life. It was Bismarck who said, of German university students, +"One-third die out; one-third rot out; the other third rule Germany." +Every man who will may choose whether he will belong to Bismarck's +second or third class. + +The question for the young man of 20 is not merely as to the morrow, +but what is likely to be the trend of events during the next 35 to 50 +years. + +"In 1800 the United States nowhere crossed the Mississippi and nowhere +touched the Gulf of Mexico." In 1850 the country west of the +Mississippi River was agriculturally largely an undiscovered region. +Since 1870 we have much more than doubled our population and our +agriculture. Since that time we have subdued more of the open country +to the uses of man than we had been able to do in 250 years of our +previous history. + +During the past 300 years we have prided ourselves upon being an +agricultural people. We have been an agricultural people, but our +problems have not been chiefly those of the agriculturist, but those +of the engineer. + +Our problem, in the past, has not been to make two blades of grass to +grow where but one grew before. Our problem has been to harvest and +transport two bushels of wheat or two bales of cotton with the labor +previously required to harvest one. Our crops have been so abundant +that the agricultural problems connected with the growing of them has +been secondary to the engineering problems of their harvesting and +transportation. The self-binder and the steam locomotive have been our +achievements. + +If the writer mistakes not, the future problem will not be so much the +harvesting and transporting, as the growth of the crops. In the +future, young men will be needed who have studied the science of +living things in order that they may make, literally, two blades of +grass to grow where but one grew. To men who will be able to do so, +will come success and honor. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + WHERE TO LOCATE + + +Unless the young farmer expects to return to the ancestral home, the +first question he must settle is where he is going to locate. Indeed, +one of the most common questions asked is, What do you think of this +state or that state or this region or that as a place to farm? There +are few questions harder to answer. This is due, among other reasons, +to the fact that every place has its advantages and disadvantages. The +sum of the advantages may be greater in one place than in another, but +if these advantages are known they must generally be paid for. + +New adaptations, however, may change materially the value of the land +in a given locality as, for example, the discovery that a region is +especially adapted to raising alfalfa, onions, cabbages, apples or +peaches. Changing conditions, as the growth of population or better +transportation facilities, may materially affect the attractiveness of +a region from the standpoint of the farmer. + +The competition of other regions which grow similar crops is a potent +factor in determining the desirability of a region. For example, the +farmers east of the Allegheny mountains during the nineteenth century +competed with the farmers of the central West who had free, fertile, +easily tilled land on which to grow maize, wheat and oats. Cattle and +sheep were pastured on the open range. The twentieth century has found +the land of this region settled and capitalized in some instances +beyond that of the eastern states; thus one factor at least of +competition has been eliminated. + +While farm values readjust themselves in time, it often happens, +especially in the older settled regions, that farm values are slow in +reflecting these changes in economic conditions. Changed conditions +often call for a change in farm methods which the habits and +traditions of even one generation prevent. To the man who is able to +apply the proper methods the region may be a desirable one, although +under existing conditions the results may be unsatisfactory. The young +man, however, is cautioned at this point not to be overconfident of +his own ability. Under such circumstances it is well to study the +problem with great care, because the methods which seem unwise to the +casual observer may, after all, be found to be based upon sound +economic principles. + +A man of 25 who is looking for a location should not only study the +present conditions of the locality, but try to predict what is likely +to be the future of the region during the next third of a century, +since this is the period in which he may reasonably expect to be +personally interested, although later in life he will find himself +quite as much interested in the more distant future on account of his +children. + +Nothing is more self-evident than that one should choose a region, +especially as regards soil and climate, which is adapted to the crop +or crops to be raised, yet there are probably more failures due to a +lack of crop adaptation than to any other cause that is not personal +to the man himself. Not only do apples, for their best success, +require certain soil types, but different varieties of apples require +for their best development, distinctly different types of soil as, for +example, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, York Imperial and Grime's +Golden. Each reaches its best development on different types of soil +and some require different climatic conditions. In like manner apples +and peaches require distinctly different types of soil for the best +success of each and for this reason peaches are not desirable as +fillers in apple orchards. + +If at the proper season of the year one goes from Pittsburg to Chicago +via Columbus and Indianapolis, he will see great fields of winter +wheat and a considerable number of permanent pastures. From Chicago to +Omaha he will see only occasionally a field of wheat and scarcely any +permanent pasture. Oats have taken the place of wheat. In parts of +Eastern Kansas and Oklahoma the predominant crop is winter wheat. +Throughout the whole region from Pittsburg to Topeka, Kansas, the +characteristic crop is maize or Indian corn. Between St. Paul and +Fargo, the main crops are spring wheat and oats. One may travel from +Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Calgary, Alberta, a distance of over one +thousand miles without seeing a field of maize. In some portions the +main crop is wheat, in others it is oats. + +These are illustrations of the crop adaptation over large areas, which +has come about unconsciously, as has most crop adaptation. In other +parts of the United States are to be found even more striking examples +of crop adaptation, although the areas are much smaller, as in the +case of tobacco, potatoes, celery, onions, apples, peaches and other +fruits. Regions containing residual soils are more variable in crop +adaptation than drift soils and require more careful watchfulness on +the part of those who may wish to buy land. + +As previously stated, advantages, if known, must usually be paid for. +It comes about, therefore, that if a region or a farm is adapted to +the raising of a certain crop which is more profitable than the +average, such as maize, tobacco, alfalfa, celery, apples or peaches, +this land will, other things being equal, command a higher price than +land which does not possess this characteristic. + +There is an underlying economic principle which the man who goes out +to choose a farm should clearly understand. The principle has been +stated by Fairchild as follows: "The normal value of products capable +of indefinite multiplication tends always toward the value of least +costly. On the other hand, if any production cannot be largely +extended, so that the supply barely meets the requirements of the +purchasers, the tendency of normal values is toward the cost of the +most costly part of the product required to meet wants." + +This principle explains why land especially adapted to raising maize +is higher priced than land primarily adapted to raising wheat. Maize +which enters into commerce is raised almost exclusively in ten states +of the United States. Wheat is harvested practically every month of +every year in different parts of the world. The young farmer should +consider, therefore, whether he is undertaking to raise crops in which +there is unlimited competition, or whether soil or other conditions +cause the output to be relatively limited. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + SIZE OF FARM + + +The size of the farm is another of those questions on which there is +endless debate and to which no general answer can be given. There are, +however, certain rather definite principles which may help in settling +an individual problem. + +The size of the farm is related to the income per acre. If one's ideal +or purpose is a gross income of $1,000 or $3,000 or $5,000 a year, he +must consider how large a farm will be necessary to bring this return. + +Assume, for the sake of discussion, it is desired to obtain a gross +income of $4,000. In the eastern United States 200 acres of tillable +land devoted to general farming may bring this amount. If the land is +especially adapted to potatoes, and this crop takes a prominent place +in the rotation, 100 acres might be sufficient to return the income +named. Likewise a 100-acre retail milk dairy farm may produce a +similar result. Forty acres devoted to truck farming or market +gardening may be sufficient. + +There is another way that the size of the farm needed may be +estimated. There is a general relation between the gross income and +the amount invested. In 1900 the gross income of the farms of the +United States was 18 per cent of the total investment, which includes +land, buildings, tools, and live stock. The average gross income +varied for the different types of farming common to the northern +United States from 16 to 19 per cent. This represents, of course, a +great deal of very poor farming. The income of prosperous farmers must +be somewhat better than this. If we assume that by careful methods the +gross income is 25% of the total investment, then an investment of +$16,000 will be required to bring a gross income of $4,000. While it +is true that the gross income has no necessary relation to net income +or profit, yet it is well to remember that a gross income is a +necessary antecedent of a net income. The net profit from the +production of a bushel of wheat, a dozen of eggs, or a pound of butter +is of comparatively small consequence unless a sufficient quantity is +produced. + +A recent investigation by the Cornell station appears to show that +with the type of farming now existing in Tompkins and Livingston +counties, New York, where the investigation chanced to be made, the +larger farms yielded the most profitable returns and that while +present conditions exist, the size of farms is likely to increase +rather than decrease. The fundamental reason seems to be the +substitution of horse-drawn machinery for hand labor. + +The following table shows the labor income on 586 farms operated by +the owners, classified according to size: + + Number Average + of size Labor + Acres farms (acres) income + 30 or less 30 21 $168 + 31 to 60 108 49 254 + 61 to 100 214 83 373 + 101 to 150 143 124 436 + 151 to 200 57 177 635 + over 200 34 261 946 + ---- ---- + Average 103 $415 + +While the larger the farm, the more prosperous was the operating owner +or tenant, the size of the farm did not seem to affect the profit of +the landlord. + +The amount of land one individual may own is unlimited; the size of +the farm unit is limited. After a farm unit has reached a certain +size, depending upon the type of farming, the general arrangement of +the farm and the skill in management, any further increase will +increase the cost of operation, and as the increase continues +eventually cause a decrease in profits. Assuming this to be true, it +follows as a mathematical necessity that as the farm increases in size +the total profits will increase as the farm increases up to a given +point and then the profits will decrease. The following table +illustrates this law: + + Size of A B + farm Net profit Net profit Net Profit Net Profit + acres per acre per farm per acre per farm + 160 $5.00 $800 $5.00 $800 + 200 4.50 900 4.75 950 + 240 4.00 960 4.50 1,080 + 280 3.50 980 4.25 1,190 + 320 3.00 960 4.00 1,280 + 360 2.50 900 3.75 1,350 + 400 2.00 800 3.50 1,400 + 440 1.50 660 3.25 1,430 + 480 1.00 480 3.00 1,440 + 520 .50 260 2.75 1,430 + 560 -- -- 2.50 1,400 + +In both case A and case B it is assumed that the greatest net profit +per acre is to be obtained with 160 acres, and that the net profit per +acre when the farm is of that size is $5. In case A it is assumed that +the net profit would decrease $1 for each 80 acres added, while in +case B the decrease is assumed to be only one-half as rapid. In the +first instance the net profit per farm increases until 280 acres are +reached, when the net profit per farm decreases, until at 560 acres no +profit would be obtained. In case B the net profit per farm increases +until 480 acres are reached. Everyone is cautioned not to accept these +figures as representing what would actually happen. All that can be +said is that as the farm unit increases in size there will come a +point at which the net profit per acre will decrease because of the +physical difficulty of managing a large area, and, therefore, there is +a limit to the size of a single farm. Fifteen thousand acres may lay +in one tract and be owned by one individual, firm or corporation, but +its economic management requires for purely physical reasons, not to +mention others, that it be managed in several units more or less +distinct from one another. Just what the size of this unit will be no +one knows and it will vary with the type of farming, the type of +farmer and many other circumstances. For example, a very common unit +for a tenant cotton farm is between 20 and 50 acres, both the product +and the farmer being a limiting factor. + +Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from a study of this +table is that it is wise for some men to operate a farm of 320 acres, +others of 160 acres and still others of 80 acres, because each size of +farm presents a task suited to different abilities. It would be as +futile for one fitted to operate only an 80-acre farm to attempt to +manage 320 acres as it would be unwise for the man capable of conducting +320 acres to confine his attention to 80 acres. Unfortunately while this +principle is not difficult to perceive and is easily stated, it is +practically impossible to make any application of it to an individual +case. Only time and the inexorable laws of competition will adjust men +to their several tasks. + +It will be of interest to note what influence in actual practice the +type of farming has upon the size of the farm. The census reports the +average size of all farms in the United States as 147 acres, with the +different types as follows: Vegetables, 65 acres; fruits, 75 acres; +dairy products, 120 acres; hay and grain, 159 acres; and live stock, +227 acres. Speaking in a very general way, only about one-half the +land on these farms is in cultivated crops, while only 40% of the +income may be from the products which cause the farm to be thus +classified. The young farmer will do well to have these figures in +mind when he starts out in life, for while they are not to be followed +literally, they give him a measuring stick with which to compare his +operations. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + SELECTION OF FARM + + +Having some of these preliminary questions settled, or at least well +in mind, the young farmer is ready to inspect individual farms with a +view to purchasing or renting. He should examine each farm from four +general aspects, namely: (1) The character and topography of the soil, +(2) the climatic conditions, including healthfulness and water supply, +(3) the location, and (4) the improvements. + +It may be well at the outset to emphasize the advantage which even a +small difference in fertility may bring. Suppose one farm is capable +of raising fifteen bushels of wheat per acre and another twenty +bushels. If wheat is 80 cents a bushel, then the gross income is $12 +and $16 respectively. If it is assumed that it costs in either case +for seed, labor and interest on investment $8 an acre to raise and +harvest the crop, then it will be seen that an increase of five +bushels an acre doubles the profit. The comparison is perhaps not +quite fair, since it costs slightly more to harvest the larger crop, +but it serves to illustrate the point. + +Neither the crop adaptation nor the crop-producing power of the soil +can be determined by taking a sample and submitting it to a chemist +for analysis. These factors can best be determined by the character of +the vegetation, both domestic and wild, and by a knowledge obtained +through observation or reading as to what this particular soil type +usually does. Every type of soil has certain characteristics which +under like conditions it may be expected to reproduce, much in the +same manner as each species of animal reproduces its characteristics. + +The first essential is to be able to recognize the different soil +types. This can only be done by close observation and study. The second +essential is to determine what the crop-producing characteristics of +these types of soil are. This knowledge may be obtained by personal +observation; but as most persons' opportunities are limited in this +direction, it should be supplemented wherever possible by a study of +the soil surveys of the United States Department of Agriculture +wherever these are available. When this is not possible samples of soil +may be submitted to the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department +of Agriculture or to the soil division of the state experiment station, +together with a suitable description and such knowledge of the history +of the land as is obtainable. In this way you may obtain information as +to the natural adaptation of the particular type of soil. + +[Illustration: Walter S. Tomlinson, Bryan, Ohio, began thirteen years +ago with 225 acres, partly rented, to determine whether a farm could be +made a satisfying enterprise. As tenant he has paid to himself as +landlord $1,000 each year for rental and $500 each year as salary. The +rest of the profits have been invested in 240 acres of additional land +and in improvements. Mr. Tomlinson's specialty has been hogs, but he +says it does not matter so much about the lines one adopts as the +attention that is given them.] + +[Illustration: Dr. W. I. Chamberlain, Hudson, Ohio, graduate of Western +Reserve University, former state secretary of agriculture, later college +president. Farmer and institute lecturer and widely known for his +editorial work on farm journals; has been able, amid his other +activities, to manage his farm of 116 acres. The net cash income above +all expenses from the farm for 1890 to 1907 was $113,966 or $1,370 per +year. Of this income $8,877 were obtained from a ten-acre apple orchard.] + +There will still remain the question of the present condition of the +land. For example, the Pennsylvania station obtained in a certain +season 42 loads of hay from nine acres of land. The same season, from +exactly the same soil type, the station obtained eight loads of hay +from 20 acres. The condition of the soil was different, which the +previous history of the two tracts of land fully explains. + +It is of the utmost importance, therefore, to distinguish between the +natural fertility of the soil and the condition of the soil. A further +example will help to illustrate this point. At the Rothamsted Station +a certain type of soil has for over 60 years produced annually about +12 bushels of wheat an acre without fertilizer, while with a complete +fertilizer the same type has produced 30 or more bushels. The 12 +bushels may be said to represent the natural fertility of the soil, +while the additional 18 bushels may be said to represent the condition +of the soil due to fertilizers or to other conditions. On the other +hand, the natural condition of some other soil type might be only +eight bushels, or still another type might be 16 bushels. + +This principle is of considerable practical importance, especially in +the eastern third of the United States. Generally speaking, clay and +silt soils have a greater natural fertility than sandy soils; +limestone soils than those that are deficient in lime. Thus soils that +naturally grow chestnut trees, indicating a low lime content, have a +tendency to deteriorate under exhaustive cropping much more rapidly +than limestone soils. More fertilizers and other methods of soil +improvement are necessary in the case of chestnut soils than in the +case of limestone valley soils. One of the first questions to ask, +therefore, concerning an unknown farm in Pennsylvania is whether or +not chestnut trees grow naturally. It does not follow, however, that +chestnut soils are undesirable. Much will depend upon the crop or +crops it is desired to raise. For example, in some regions they are +well adapted to potatoes and peaches. In these cases the cost of the +fertilizers necessary to keep the soil in proper condition is small +compared with the total return from the crop. + +The pioneer's best guide as to the value of new land was and is the +vegetation growing upon it, and, especially in a wooded country, the +native trees. Basswood, crab apple, wild plum, black walnut, ash, +hickory and hard maple generally indicate a fertile soil. White oak +indicates only a moderate soil; bur oak, a somewhat warmer and better +drained soil. Beech indicates a rather poor soil; a heavy clay, +lacking in organic matter. Certain species of elms, maples and oaks, +as red maple and the Spanish swamp oak, indicate wet soils. + +The occurrence and vigor of certain herbaceous plants are especially +indicative of fertility of the soil, as, for example, ragweed, +bindweed, certain plants of the sunflower family, such as goldenrod, +asters and wild sunflowers. Soils adapted to red clover and alfalfa are +usually well drained and contain plenty of lime. Alsike clover will +grow on a soil too wet or containing too little lime for either of the +former. Soils that produce sorrel and redtop when red clover and +timothy are sown need drainage or liming or both. Sedges usually +indicate a wet soil, although certain species grow on dry, sandy soils. +The point of this paragraph, however, is not to give comprehensive +advice but to cause the young farmer to observe the conditions and make +his own applications, which will vary in different regions and under +different circumstances. + +Perhaps the one feature that the young farmer is most likely to +overlook in the selection of a farm is the relative proportion of +tillable land. One farm of 200 acres, may, on account of stony land, +wet land, comparatively unproductive woodland, or because of the +arrangement of fences and roadways, contain only eighty acres of +tillable land, while another may contain 160 acres. This is one reason +why a 160-acre farm in the central West may be more valuable than a +farm of the same size in the northeastern United States. + +Columella says with regard to the selection of land that there are two +things chiefly to be considered, the wholesomeness of the air and the +fruitfulness of the place, "of which if either the one or the other +should be wanting, and notwithstanding anyone should have a mind to +dwell there, he must have lost his senses and ought to be conveyed to +his kinfolk to take care of him." + +In selecting a farm do not fail to inquire whether there has been any +recent illness, and if so the nature of it, either among the persons +living there or the domestic animals kept. + +Aside from healthfulness, climate is a fundamental and controlling +factor, both in productiveness and economic farm management. +Temperature and rainfall affect the number of days that work can be +performed upon the land and hence affect materially the economy of +labor. It is this fact that prevents the systematic organization of +labor so common in manufacturing and transportation. The climate also +affects the cost of producing live stock by modifying the food and +shelter required. + +The climate of a region is best studied from the reports of the United +States Weather Bureau rather than from the statements published by +interested parties. So far as the production of crops is concerned the +distribution of rainfall is more important than the annual amount, as +may be shown by comparing the rainfall in such places as Columbus, +Ohio, and Lincoln, Nebraska. + +The average temperature during the growing season is, of course, of +more importance from the standpoint of crop production than the +average annual temperature. Maximum and minimum temperatures or the +range of temperature must be considered as well as the average +temperature. + +One of the most practical questions to determine is the average date +of the last killing frost in the spring and the date of the first +killing frost in the autumn; in other words, the length of the growing +season. Both altitude and topography enter into this problem. In a +given locality killing frosts will occur on a still night in the +valley before they do on the elevations, because the air as it cools +becomes heavier and flows down into the lowest places just as water +would do. On the other hand, as the altitude increases the growing +season shortens. + +Whenever I am asked a question involving the production of farm crops +by a Pennsylvania farmer before answering, I ask three questions: (1) +Where are you located? (2) Do chestnut trees grow naturally upon your +land? (3) What is your altitude? + +One factor that is often overlooked by the young farmer needs only to +be mentioned to be thoroughly appreciated. It is the amount and +character of the water supply. Not only is this of the utmost +importance from the standpoint of the household, but it is fundamental +to the best farm management. Thus, if the water supply is limited the +amount of live stock kept will be curtailed, and thus the proper +utilization of farm products prevented and maintenance of the +fertility of the soil made more difficult. + +The young farmer should recognize that some kinds of farming are more +dependent upon the climatic conditions than others and should, +therefore, select the location best suited to the type of farming +desired or else modify his type of farming to suit the climatic +conditions. If one studies critically the types of farming in various +parts of the United States, it will be seen that they have already +been adjusted in large degree, either consciously or unconsciously, to +the climatic conditions. The young farmer should be careful that he +does not undertake to butt his head against a stone wall. + +Having found a farm that suits our ideal as to the natural conditions, +such as the crop adaptation, fertility, topography and climate, what +may be called the artificial conditions must be studied. + +The location may be studied, both as to local and distant markets and +the means of reaching each, which includes roadways and shipping +facilities. Here again much will depend upon the products which are to +be sold. The man who raises tobacco, hogs or beef cattle does not +suffer any great economic disadvantage by living ten miles from a +shipping station, but a man does who produces milk, peaches, potatoes +or hay. + +In these days there is not much danger that the character of the +roadway will be overlooked by the intending purchaser of the farm, +although sufficient importance may not be given to the advantage of +really good roads, both as to grade and surface. Perhaps the one most +important question to consider in connection with the transportation +facilities is whether products may be shipped without change from the +shipping station to the market it is desired to reach. + +Although at first glance we may not like the thought, it must be +conceded that neighbors are not only important morally and socially, +but they also may have economic advantages and disadvantages. While it +may sometimes happen that it will be wise to raise in a given +neighborhood some product that no one else has undertaken to supply, +yet as a rule, if a given neighborhood is raising Jersey, or Guernsey +or Holstein cattle or Chester White, Berkshire or Poland China hogs, +or Southdown or Shropshire or Cotswold sheep, it will be wise to raise +the breed commonly raised instead of the least commonly raised breed, +as it is sometimes supposed. The more potato growers or cabbage +growers or celery raisers or orchardists in a locality the better for +all concerned, for a number of reasons, among which may be mentioned +(1) the more and the better the products raised the more buyers will +seek the region and hence the higher will be the price obtained for +the product; (2) the more of a given product there is to ship the +better the shipping facilities for that product are likely to be; (3) +all the necessary supplies for the type of farming can be more readily +and cheaply obtained; (4) there will be a better knowledge of the +business when more men have had experience in raising the particular +crop. + +These principles apply in all classes of business; thus we find woolen +factories in Philadelphia, silk factories at Paterson, N. J., cotton +factories at Lowell, Mass., plow factories at Moline, Ill., and steel +mills at Pittsburg. Many of these centers possessed originally some +natural advantages which caused the location of the first factory, but +others have been drawn there on account of the principles enunciated. +The farmers of a given region have a community of interest as well as +railroads. The young farmer should recognize this fact and if +necessary should exert himself to develop such interest in his +community, both for his own benefit and that of his neighbors. + +There are two classes of farms for which the purchaser is in danger of +paying too much, one on which there are extensive improvements and one +on which there are none at all. A farm with just barely enough +improvements for the conduct of the type of farming it is proposed to +develop can usually be purchased most advantageously. The purchaser +should understand clearly that the previous cost of the improvements +has no necessary relation to their present value, any more than the +value of a second-hand suit of clothes is dependent upon its original +cost. All depends on how badly they are worn and how well they are +adapted to present conditions. The value of farm improvements is not +unlike those in other business enterprises in this respect. Their +value depends upon present and prospective earning capacity and not on +former cost. + +No rule can be laid down as to the relation which should exist between +the value of land itself and the value of the improvements. In +practice it varies greatly. In the United States the farm improvements +constitute on an average 21% of the total value of land, being as high +as 45% in Massachusetts and as low as 15% in Texas. The young farmer +may well consider, therefore, whether he can earn interest on his +investment when the improvements cost more than 25% of the total value +of the real estate. Certainly when it becomes one-half it is +excessive. The man who runs a farm as an avocation usually errs in +putting too much money into permanent improvements for the farm to be +a paying investment. + +If it is admitted that the farm unit is limited because of the +physical difficulties of managing large areas, then it must at once be +seen how important the arrangement of the farmsteading must be to the +successful conduct of the farm. In the older farming communities where +the present farm holdings are the result of several purchases or sales +the shape of the farm, the arrangement of the fields and the place of +the farm buildings become an extremely important matter. Sometimes +satisfactory rearrangements are easily made, at other times they are +quite impossible. No attempt will be made to discuss this subject in +detail here, but the young farmer should bring to this question all +the experience and study possible. + +When the young farmer goes to inspect a farm it is to be assumed that +he will be conducted over the farm by the owner or his authorized +agent. It is proper to give respectful attention to everything that is +told him, provided he follows carefully the California adage to +"believe nothing you hear and only one-half what you see." + +If a farm consists of 200 or 300 acres of land, it is possible for the +agent to convey the purchaser over the farm in such a way as to +prevent the least desirable portions being seen. If the farm has +attracted the seeker of land, he should not purchase until he has made +another visit, preferably some days or weeks after the first one. He +may then very properly visit the farm alone, passing over quite a +different course from that pursued hitherto. Sketches and notes will +be found very helpful, and if the use of the soil auger is understood +it may be well employed to study the character of both soil and +subsoil. During the interval between visits some casual inquiries may +be made among those who know the history of the farm in question, +because the past history of the farm obtained from unprejudiced +witnesses is of prime importance in arriving at a conclusion +concerning its value. + +A farm is much more attractive when a crop is growing upon it than +when it is without active vegetation. Poor land looks relatively +better than good land during or just after a rain. Many matters +concerning the selection of a farm can only be learned by some years +of practical experience. The young farmer will do well, therefore, to +secure the help of some more experienced person. If he has among his +acquaintances a successful farmer of mature years he will be fortunate +if he can secure his advice. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE FARM SCHEME + + +Farming is no pink tea. It is a serious business. After the young +farmer has selected the farm he must develop his farm scheme. He must +contemplate well and seriously the philosophy which underlies his +plans. Unless he sees clearly what he is striving to attain and unless +he understands the effect of his methods, he must fail in great +measure to obtain his goal. + +Satisfactory results in farming cannot be obtained as a general +practice if the man is only interested in the results of a single +year. For this reason the itinerant tenant system will not be +satisfactory unless the landlord has worked out a satisfactory scheme +which he requires his tenant to follow. + +It is not enough that a man shall grow a single large crop, but it is +necessary that he should continue to grow a satisfactory crop at least +at regular intervals. For example, a piece of land may be adapted to +cabbage, celery, potatoes or hay. Assume for the moment it is adapted +to cabbage and that by one or more seasons of preparation an enormous +crop of cabbages may be secured. This fact is of little value unless +sufficient quantity is raised and the process can be repeated +annually. Cabbages cannot be grown again on this particular piece of +land for from four to six years on account of club root. If the farmer +does not have other areas which he can bring into cabbages year after +year, for from three to five years, then he becomes a failure as a +cabbage raiser. Even a perennial, like alfalfa or asparagus, should +form a part of the general scheme of crop production if the most +satisfactory results are to be obtained. + +There are two general questions at the basis of all farm schemes: (1) +How to obtain a fairly uniform succession of cash products year after +year, and (2) how to keep up or improve the fertility of the soil +economically while doing so. In other words, how to keep the +investment from decreasing while it is earning a satisfactory and +fairly uniform income. + +It is necessary, therefore, to consider what products are to be sold +and what are simply subsidiary to the cash products. The cash products +may, of course, be soil products or animal products, but more likely +they will be both. When animals form a large part of the enterprise +the cropping system must be carefully adjusted to meet the needs of +these animals. Many apparently trivial details must be considered, as +for example, whether the cropping system furnishes too little or too +much bedding for the live stock. + +In considering profits the enterprise as a whole must be kept in view. +For example, if a man is producing milk, it may be cheaper, so far as +the production of milk is concerned, to allow the liquid excrement to +run to waste rather than to arrange for sufficient bedding. If, +however, by using an abundance of bedding and saving all the +high-priced nitrogen and the larger part of the potash in the manure, +he is able to raise twelve tons of silage in place of eight tons, or +three tons of hay in place of two tons, his enterprise as a whole will +be more profitable when he uses the extra amount of bedding, although +so far as the production of a quart of milk is concerned the cost is +increased. It may be that by feeding corn to cattle or sheep one will +obtain only 50 cents a bushel for his maize, while his neighbor is +selling it to the elevator at 60 cents. If, however, the man who feeds +his maize year after year thereby raises 60 bushels instead of 40 +bushels, his enterprise, as a whole, may be more profitable than that +of his neighbor. + +As a matter of fact, the Pennsylvania experiment station has +substantially these two conditions in certain of its fertilizer plats. +When for 25 years the conditions have been similar to those where +crops are sold from the farm, the yields have been: Maize, 42 bushels; +oats, 32 bushels; wheat, 14 bushels; and hay, 2,783 pounds per acre. +But when conditions exist which represent the feeding of corn, oats +and hay and the return of manure to the soil, the yields have been: +Maize, 58 bushels; oats, 41 bushels; wheat, 23 bushels; and hay 4,190 +pounds per acre. In the first instance the value of the products has +been $15.75 an acre, while in the other case it has been $22.90 an +acre. + +Having worked out a cropping system that gives the proper yearly +production of several crops desired, the next question to decide is +how this cropping system and the disposition of the crops is going to +affect the fertility of the soil. From a financial or economic point +of view the most important soil element is nitrogen. First, because it +costs from 18 to 20 cents a pound, while phosphoric acid can be +purchased at five cents, potash at four cents; and, second, because of +the readiness with which nitrogen may disappear from the soil under +improper management, either through nitrification and leaching or by +denitrification and passing back into the air. + +Assuming a given type of management, the question is, How much of the +required nitrogen will be obtained from the legumes in the cropping +system, how much from the manure, and how much must be purchased in +commercial fertilizers? No satisfactory cropping system can be devised +at the present prices of farm products and cost of fertilizers for the +production of the ordinary cereals and hay that does not include the +production of some legume. Assuming a legume in the cropping scheme, +the fertility of the soil may be maintained by yard manure alone or by +commercial fertilizers alone. Illustrations of both methods are to be +found in actual practice. Generally speaking, however, the use of yard +manure supplemented with commercial fertilizers will be found more +scientific and in the end the most economical. + +A factor entering into this problem will be the amount of purchased +feed. If considerable amounts of purchased feeds are used and the +resulting manure carefully preserved and judiciously applied, the +commercial fertilizers required will be reduced to the minimum. + +A concrete illustration may bring out the philosophy underlying farm +schemes better than abstract problems. + +The following outline shows a five-course rotation with the method of +fertilization which the results of the Pennsylvania Station indicated +would be advisable, at least on limestone soils in eastern United +States. + + 1. Maize yard manure, 8 tons per acre. + 2. Oats nothing. + 3. Wheat acid phosphate, 350 lbs. + muriate of potash, 100 lbs. + 4. Clover and timothy nothing. + 5. Timothy nitrate of soda, 150 lbs. + acid phosphate, 150 lbs. + muriate of potash, 50 lbs. + +This rotation is suggested for the purpose of maintaining a farm that +is already in a fairly fertile condition and one on which there is no +considerable amount of purchased feed. Where concentrates are +purchased liberally, yard manure should be available to use on the +timothy and meadow in place of the commercial fertilizers. + +Where there is plenty of manure and it is desired to increase the +amount of maize and hay and reduce the amount of oats and wheat, the +following rotation and method of fertilization would be indicated: + + 1. Maize acid phosphate, 200 lbs. + 2. Maize yard manure, 8 tons. + 3. Oats nothing. + 4. Wheat acid phosphate, 350 lbs. + muriate of potash, 100 lbs. + 5. Clover and timothy nothing. + 6. Timothy nitrate of soda, 150 lbs. + acid phosphate, 150 lbs. + muriate of potash, 50 lbs. + 7. Timothy yard manure, 8 tons. + +Where there is plenty of yard manure, it would be also applied to +maize under No. 1, or the yard manure could be applied to maize under +No. 1, and commercial fertilizer applied to timothy under No. 6 could +be repeated under No. 7. If the land is more or less depleted, an +application of 200 pounds of acid phosphate to the oats would be +advisable. However, the purpose is not to prescribe exact methods, but +to point out underlying principles and their possible application. + +As further illustration, it seems probable that the practice of a +market gardener in using excessive amounts of stable manure might, in +some instances at least, be modified to good advantage by reducing the +amount of manure and increasing the amount of commercial fertilizer +used. Unfortunately there is no experimental evidence bearing upon +this question. + +Potash required to maintain fertility is largely to be found in the +coarse fodder, such as hay, maize stover and silage, and in the straw +used for bedding; hence where these substances are used in abundance +and returned to the soil the amount of potash required to be supplied +in fertilizers is reduced to a minimum. Where, however, the amount of +live stock is limited and the products sold contain large quantities +of potash, such as hay and straw, the supply furnished in fertilizers +must be liberal. + +Phosphoric acid is always being slowly depleted from the soil either +from the sale of farm crops or animal products. There is no way of +returning this loss completely, except from the addition of a +commercial fertilizer. + +The above fertilizer suggestions are based on the experiments covering +a period of more than 25 years on a limestone soil. Soils may modify +materially the amount and application of the fertilizers, but not the +principles enunciated. For example, a soil on which common red clover +grows luxuriantly and has a prominent place in the farm scheme will +require less nitrogen in commercial fertilizers in order to maintain +the fertility than where legumes are raised with difficulty or do not +form a part of the farm scheme. + +One of the most important points to be emphasized is the fact that +haphazard fertilization is not effective in maintaining soil +fertility. If one starts out to establish a five-course rotation and +build up his soil through a rational system of fertilization, he will +obviously not obtain the full benefit of the rotation until he begins +to get crops from the second round, which will be the sixth year from +the beginning. It may happen, and unfortunately it has perhaps usually +happened in the past, that during the first rotation the increase in +crops has not paid for the cost of the fertilizers applied. In many +instances a rational system of fertilization has not been introduced +because the owner of the land could not afford to wait six years for +his return. Profit in farming, therefore, does not consist in raising +one big crop or even in obtaining a large balance on the right side of +the ledger in a single year. It is both interesting and valuable to +know that five tons of timothy hay, 45 bushels of wheat, 100 bushels +of maize and 40 tons of cabbage may be raised on an acre, but the real +profit in farming only comes through a lifetime of effort. To the man +of capacity who prepares for his work the results will surely come, +but they will not come all at once and, as in every other business, he +must pay the price in hard work and close application to details. + +In this connection it may be emphasized that one of the difficulties +in successful farming is to find one man both interested and capable +along the various lines essential to a successful farm enterprise. The +danger is that a man will ride his hobby to the detriment of the other +activities of the farm. A farmer friend of the writer, who keeps a +horse and buggy, cares so little for a horse that for several years he +has walked two miles each morning and each evening rather than to take +the trouble to hitch up his horse. If one visits a high-grade breeder +of dairy cattle, he is very apt to find his pigs of ordinary +character. On the other hand, a specialist in hogs is likely to keep +scrub cows. A man may be an excellent wheat raiser and a poor potato +grower, and the reverse. The breeder of live stock is likely to be +lacking in his methods of producing farm crops, while the up-to-date, +so-called general farmer is not likely to be a special lover of live +stock. In like manner, the man may be a successful farmer, dairyman or +horticulturist from the producing side, but be a poor salesman. In +fact, those qualities of mind and heart which make for the best +success from the standpoint of production, whether soil products or +animal products, is not that which makes the best trader. + +It is not expected that the young farmer will be materially different +from his hundreds of thousands of predecessors, but the better a man +is trained and the more fully he studies his own adaptabilities and +deficiencies, the more likely he is to succeed in the open country. +For this reason, the young man should be careful to get as broad a +training as possible. It is, therefore, often more important for him +to study those things which he dislikes than to study the things for +which he has a natural taste. + + There was a man in our town + And he was wondrous wise. + He knew that if he wanted crops + He'd have to fertilize. + + "Its nitrogen that makes things green," + Said this man of active brain; + "And potash makes the good strong straw, + And phosphate plumps the grain. + But it's clearly wrong to waste plant food + On a wet and soggy field; + I'll surely have to put in drains + If I'd increase the yield. + + "And after I have drained the land + I must plow it deep all over; + And even then I'll not succeed + Unless it will grow clover. + Now, acid soils will not produce + A clover sod that's prime; + So if I have a sour soil, + I'll have to put on lime. + + "And after doing all these things, + To make success more sure, + I'll try my very best to keep + From wasting the manure. + So I'll drain, and lime, and cultivate, + With all that that implies; + And when I've done that thoroughly + I'll manure and fertilize." + _Vivian_ + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + THE ROTATION OF CROPS + + +The two essential reasons for a rotation of crops are: (1) The +possibility of obtaining for the soil a supply of nitrogen from the +air by introducing a legume at regular intervals, and (2) the +prevention of injury to the crops from fungous diseases, insect +enemies, weeds or other causes. Other reasons are often advanced, some +of which are entirely erroneous, while others are of quite secondary +importance. + +The rotation should be carefully studied with reference to the farm +scheme as previously outlined. Reasons for modifying the rotations are: +(1) To change the kind or proportion of crops grown, (2) to change the +amount of labor required, or (3) to increase the crop-producing power +of the soil. + +During 25 years the four crops of maize, oats, wheat, timothy and +clover hay have been taken in rotation from the four tiers of plats at +the Pennsylvania State College, so that the influence of the soil has +been entirely eliminated. At the December farm prices for the decade +ending December 1, 1906, the value of these four crops per acre have +been: Maize, $29.67; oats, $14.49; wheat, $18.49; and hay, $18.05. It +will be noted that during 25 years the average income from an acre of +maize has been almost exactly twice that from an acre of oats. The +region where these results were obtained is relatively unfavorable to a +large yield of maize. It is obvious, therefore, that a modification in +the rotation may modify the average income from the farm materially, +provided such modification does not reduce the fertility of the soil. +Thus, while the average income per acre during 25 years for the +four-course rotation above mentioned was $20.17, if the rotation were +increased to a five-course rotation by the addition of another year of +maize, the average income would be $22.45 an acre. + +It may be desirable to modify the rotation in order to increase or +decrease a certain crop usually fed upon the farm. Thus, with a +four-course rotation of maize, oats, wheat, clover and timothy, +one-fourth the area would produce hay; while with a six-course +rotation, composed of maize, oats, wheat, each one year, and hay three +years, one-half the area would produce hay. If it is desired to still +further reduce the area in oats and wheat, a seven-course rotation +could be arranged with maize, two years in succession. This is the +rotation that would be desirable for a dairy farm where it is planned +to keep as many cows as practicable and to buy the concentrates +largely. Either the wheat or the oats could be taken out of this +rotation if either the one or the other were thought undesirable and a +still greater amount of roughage desired. + +On the other hand, there are places where the minimum amount of +roughage is wanted. There are certain sections of the central West +where it is possible to sow oats on corn stubble without plowing and +where occasionally a rotation is practiced of maize, oats and mammoth +clover. The clover is plowed for maize, the oats are disked in upon +the corn stubble and the next year the clover is pastured until about +June 1, when it is allowed to go to seed. In this rotation the only +roughage obtained is the corn stover and the oat straw. + +Another result reached by this rotation is that only one-third the +land is plowed annually. In the four-course rotation mentioned above +three-fourths of the land must be plowed, while in the six-course +rotation one-half is plowed each year. In other ways the character of +the rotation modifies the labor. For example, the labor and cost of +harvesting an acre of hay is much less than that of producing, +harvesting and threshing an acre of wheat. + +Rotations may often be planned with reference to the main or cash +crop. Thus in the Aroostook (Maine) potato district the rotation is +potatoes, oats and clover. The chief purpose of the oats and clover is +to keep down the blight in potatoes and add through the clover +nitrogen and organic matter to the soil. + +A system of cropping that is best when the owner operates the farm may +not be desirable when the farmer is a tenant. When a farm is rented, +the lease should provide that clover or other legumes occur with +sufficient frequency to keep up the supply of nitrogen without the +purchase of a considerable quantity in chemical fertilizers. The lease +should be so drawn as to make it necessary for the tenant to keep live +stock in order to realize the largest profit. The landlord should +provide an equitable proportion of the mineral fertilizers when such +are required. + +The provisions of the lease and the character of the rotation will +necessarily vary with circumstances, but the following system of +tenant farming which has been employed for many years in Maryland will +illustrate the principles just stated: + +The lease provides for a five-course rotation consisting of maize, +wheat, clover, wheat, clover. The landlord and the tenant share the +maize and wheat equally, but the clover for hay or pasture goes +entirely to the tenant, unless hay is sold, when it is divided +equally. They each provide one-half the commercial fertilizer and +one-half the seed, except clover seed, which the tenant is required to +furnish. + +This lease provides for two clover crops out of every five crops +raised, thus supplying nitrogen abundantly, and the terms of the lease +are such that it is necessary for the tenant to keep live stock to +consume these clover crops in order to secure the most profitable +returns. The feeding of the clover makes it necessary to feed some or +all the maize and may lead to buying additional concentrates. + +Stable manure is thereby supplied for the field which is to raise +maize, while mineral fertilizers may be applied to the fields sown to +wheat. On the limestone soils of the eastern states 50 pounds each of +phosphoric acid and potash per acre applied to the wheat, and 10 loads +of stable manure per acre to the maize will probably be found +sufficient to maintain the crop producing power of the soil. + +In laying out a farm for a rotation it is desirable to plan the number +of fields or tracts that will go in a rotation and try to get these as +nearly equal size as possible. Having decided upon the number of years +the rotation is to run and having adjusted the fields or tracts +accordingly, it is quite possible to modify the proportion of crops by +adding one crop and dropping another at the same time. Thus, if there +are six 20-acre fields, any one of the following rotations might be +used and the change from one to another easily made: + + 1. Maize Maize Maize Maize Maize + 2. Oats Maize Maize Maize Barley + 3. Wheat Oats Oats Wheat Alfalfa + 4. Clover and Wheat Clover and Clover and Alfalfa + timothy timothy timothy + 5. Timothy Clover and Timothy Timothy Alfalfa + timothy + 6. Timothy Timothy Timothy Timothy Alfalfa + +During the first year the 20-acre field could be divided into four +tracts of five acres each, containing potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes and +sweet corn, and then followed for four or five years by any succession +of crops above outlined. The point is that a definite adjustment of +the farm to some general method of rotation and a definite system of +fertilization and soil renovation do not prevent a considerable +latitude in the crops raised. It will be obvious that the longer the +rotation the more flexible it becomes in this particular, which is a +point to be considered in laying out the farm and in adjusting fields +and fences. + +In some cases it may be desirable on account of the arrangement of the +farm or the character of the crops to be raised to have two distinct +rotations of crops. For example, if the farm lends itself to be +divided into eight tracts, a five-course rotation of maize, oats, +wheat, each one year, and clover and timothy two years, and a +three-course rotation of potatoes, oats or wheat and clover may be +arranged. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + THE EQUIPMENT + + +The workman is known by his tools. The problem of obtaining the most +efficient machinery for the conduct of the farm without having an +excessive amount is not easy of solution. + +It is probable that the cost of maintaining machinery and tools is not +less than 15%, 10% for upkeep and 5% for interest, even under the most +careful management. Doubtless in practice it is as much as 25%. If +this is conceded there must be a limit to the amount which may be +economically invested in equipment. This is a place where the lead +pencil may be used profitably. For example, if $125 is invested in a +self-binder, the annual cost of the machine at 15% will be $18.75. If +one has but 15 acres of grain to harvest, it may be better to hire a +self-binder at $1 an acre. On the other hand, it may be necessary to +own a self-binder in order to get the grain harvested at the proper +time. + +Among the machines requiring a considerable investment for the number +of days used may be mentioned hay loaders, hay tedders, corn-binding +harvesters and lime spreaders. There is a certain class of labor-saving +devices, however, for which there is more or less constant need, as, +for example, means of pumping water, methods of handling manure, both +from the stable to the manure shed, and from the manure shed to the +field. This leads to the remark that there is at present great need of +modifying our traditional ideas concerning farm barns. Why do persons +usually sleep on the second floor, while horses and cattle are placed +in the basement? Three things have brought about the need of a radical +revision of our practices concerning the planning of barns: (1) Our +present knowledge of the difference in the function of food in keeping +the animal warm, and that of producing work, flesh or milk; (2) the +discovery of the bacillus of tuberculosis; and (3) the invention of the +hay carrier. It is not the purpose here to discuss barn buildings, but +merely to call attention to the fact that the traditional barn has long +since outlived its usefulness, and that the young farmer should plan +his farm buildings to serve the purposes required in the light of +modern knowledge. + +Various attempts have been made to manufacture combined machines; that +is, a machine which, by an interchange of parts or other modification, +may be used for two or more purposes, as, for example, harvesting +small grain and cutting grass. Such attempts have usually been +unsuccessful. On the other hand, the young farmer should consider the +range of usefulness of any given type of machine or tool; thus, a disk +harrow is more efficient for some purposes than a spring-tooth harrow. +For other purposes the spike-tooth harrow is better than the spring +tooth. The spring-tooth harrow, however, will do fairly well wherever +the disk harrow or the spike-tooth harrow is needed. When, therefore, +only one of these tools can be afforded, the spring tooth may be a +better tool to buy than either the disk or the spike-tooth, although +it is not for certain purposes as efficient as either of the others. + +The kind of machine should obviously be adjusted to the conditions, +as, for example, the size of the farm, and the character of the +farming. Riding plows may be desirable on level land, but where it is +necessary to plow up and down hill, walking plows should be used. The +extra weight of the wheel plow is not a serious matter on level land, +because the sliding friction has been transferred to rolling friction, +but no mechanical device has been or can be invented which will +decrease the power necessary to raise a given weight a given height. +The various machines requiring horse power should be adjusted, as far +as possible, to require the same number of horses. If the main unit is +three horses, then, as far as possible, all machines should require +three horses, such as plows, harrows, manure spreaders, harvesters, +etc. If the activities of the farm are sufficient to require six +horses then some of the tools may require three horses each, while +others require a pair. + +[Illustration: Mr. R. H. Garrahan, Kingston, Pa., is one of the most +successful growers of celery in the United States. After graduating from +the Wyoming Seminary he spent one year studying horticulture at the +Pennsylvania State College. For several years he was assistant in +horticulture at the University of Tennessee. He now has at Kingston 60 +acres under intensive cultivation. His principal crops are celery, +asparagus, cabbage, tomatoes and onions.] + +[Illustration: H. H. Richardson, Brooklyn Heights, Ohio, agricultural +graduate, Ohio State University, 1892. Fourteen years ago inherited 35 +acres of land and an indebtedness of $1,750. He has raised a family of +four children, has what is seen in the picture plus the land and $6,000 +invested elsewhere. Mr. Richardson has held some local public office +continuously during the past ten years, being at present member of school +and water boards, member of advisory board of bank, secretary of +Cleveland Fruit and Vegetable Growers' Association and Ohio +vice-president of the National Vegetable Growers' Association.] + +A farm with six work horses is rather a desirable one from several +aspects. Among other things, it enables the farm owner to employ two +men who can perform most of the team work with two three-horse teams, +while at other times three pairs of horses may be arranged when the +owner needs to use a team. This leaves the farmer time to attend to +many activities not requiring horses, and time to plan the work and to +look with more care after the purchases and sales. The size of such a +farm will depend entirely on the nature of the activities. If it is a +so-called general farm with a minimum of live stock, it would, +perhaps, consist of from 150 to 180 acres of tillable land with some +additional pasture and woodland. Ideally, every farm should have +sufficient activity to make it something of a center. It should be an +organism. It is difficult to organize one man. + +It will be useful, when we come to discuss how profits may be +estimated, to divide the capital into three general groups: (1) The +plant, which in addition to the real estate, will include the machines +and tools, horses used for labor, and other animals used for breeding +purposes or for the production of animal products, such as butter, +wool or eggs; (2) materials, which will include animals which are to +be fattened for sale, and all seeds, fertilizers and foods intended to +be turned into products to be sold; (3) supplies, which may include +foods for teams, and money with which to pay labor, be this labor that +of the farmer or his employees. + +The purpose of this classification is to bring sharply into view the +fact that the nature of different kinds of equipment varies. All the +things named under the plant are in the nature of an annual charge +against income. The charge under materials may or may not be an annual +charge. If a man invests $2,000 in 50 head of cattle, which he intends +to feed and sell for $3,250 at the end of one hundred days, he does +not have to calculate interest on $2,000 for a year, but only for 100 +days. Cattle paper is held in large quantities by banks in the cattle +feeding districts of the United States. The farmer would, in fact, be +unwise to keep $2,000 in the bank nine months in the year in order to +use it three months. Like any other business man, if he has the money, +he invests it and borrows the money to buy his cattle. The same thing +applies to food and fertilizers. If the food is fed to cattle, some of +the money invested in the food must pay interest during the fattening +period. Food fed to dairy cattle and chickens may be paid for out of +each day's income. In practice, the amount of money invested in food +for dairy cattle and chickens is dependent only upon the most +economical unit of purchase. One may apply fertilizers to buckwheat, +give a three months' note for the fertilizer, and pay the note out of +the proceeds of the crop. If the fertilizer is applied to one-year-old +apple trees, this investment may be required to pay interest for +fifteen years. + +The same principle applies to supplies. If one starts into raising +horses for sale, he needs to have some money or other income on which +his laborers and his own family can live, say for five years, this +being the age at which a horse is supposed to become salable. More +people would raise apples and horses if they could afford to wait for +the return on the investment. + +While this is a serious handicap, it is an advantage to the man who +arranges his farming methods so that he can secure an income from some +other source in the interim. The young farmer will do wisely to so +arrange his farm methods that a portion, perhaps the major portion of +his farm, will give him quick returns while making some long-time +investments, which later in life will give him a greater return +because so few people are sufficiently forehanded to make them. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + HOW TO ESTIMATE PROFITS + + +No man who engages in manufacturing or merchandising knows how much he +is going to make annually during life. Much less does he know how much +he will be worth when he dies. Neither does the man who works for a +salary or practices some profession for fees know what his annual +income will be even during the following decade. Neither one nor the +other knows whether he will die a millionaire or a pauper. It is a +problem too complex for any human mind to analyze. It is less certain +than what the weather will be on this day next year, because it is the +resultant of more variable factors. + +In some respects there is more hazard in farming than in manufacturing +or in merchandising, while in other respects there is much less. The +profit which may be obtained from farming is neither easier nor more +difficult to estimate than is that of other commercial enterprises. +However, there is no business in which more foolish estimates are made +as to the probable profits, except, perhaps, in mining. + +The purpose of this chapter is not to give advice as to possible or +probable profits, but rather to point out the general character of the +data required for any individual problem, where the data may be +obtained and how it may be applied. + +There are two forms or methods of stating the financial gain that has +been obtained from farming or other business ventures during a year or +other specific period. The first may be called the interest on the +investment method, and the second the labor income method. + +With the interest on the investment method, all expenses may be +subtracted from all the sales. From the cash balance thus obtained the +increase or decrease in inventory may be added or subtracted. This +balance may then be divided by the capital invested, to determine the +rate of interest received. + +The rate of interest method is the usual method in the commercial +world. The prosperity of the railroad or industrial concern is judged +by the rate of interest it pays its stockholders on the par value of +the stock. The stock itself takes on the capitalization in accordance +with the present and prospective dividends. The fact that this method +is generally used in the commercial world is evidence that it is well +suited to its needs. + +The young farmer who wishes to know whether the operation of a given +tract of land in a certain manner offers him a worthy opportunity will +not find the interest on the investment method the best suited for his +purpose. This is especially true when applied to a single product. For +example, it may be shown that 50 hens will, when properly managed, in +connection with other farm enterprises, return a remarkable interest +on the capital employed. It does not follow, however, that a man can +make a living with fifty hens or even 500 hens. If a man has an +investment of $5,000, on which he obtains 10 per cent, his income +would be $500. If, on the other hand, he has an investment of $25,000 +and obtains a return of only 6%, his income is $1,500, or three times +the former amount. In neither case, however, does this form of +statement tell a man how much of his income is due to his brain and +brawn and how much to the capital invested. + +What the young farmer wishes to know is how much will he receive for +his own time, energy and skill, after deducting all expenses and a +reasonable interest charge on his investment--such a rate of interest +as he could get by placing his money in good securities or what he +would be required to pay for his capital if he borrowed it. This is +best obtained by the labor income method. With this method all +expenses are subtracted from all sales and to the cash balance thus +obtained is added or subtracted the increase or decrease in the +inventory. This balance may be called the farm income. Thus far the +procedure is just the same as the interest on the investment method. +From the farm income is now subtracted a reasonable interest on the +investment, the balance remaining is called the labor income. This is +the return which the farmer has obtained by and for his own efforts. +If this balance is zero, then he should change his methods or get into +some other business. + +This statement of his income, whatever it may be, enables him to +compare his prosperity with that of the man who is employed upon a +salary. Here, again, however, it is difficult to make comparisons +because of the differences in expenses of living. The chief difference, +however, in the expense of the wage earner in the city and the farmer +is in the matter of house rent. For example, if the wage earner pays +$300 a year house rent that must be deducted from his income in +comparing it with the labor income of the farmer. It is often stated +that the farmer also has his living from the farm. This was much more +true formerly than it is at present. Under present methods of +distributing food products and with modern types of farming, the amount +of food supplied the table from the farm is comparatively small. The +rancher in Montana eats foods canned in Maine or Delaware, while the +New Hampshire farmer buys his vegetables from Boston commission +merchants. The Minnesota farmer cannot supply his breakfast table with +oranges, grapefruit or oatmeal. Many of them buy, if not their bread, +at least their flour, and also their butter. The fact that the city man +indulges in high living is no argument in favor of the country man +expecting less wages. Some of those things which are necessary to make +the country an ideal place to live are expensive. Some of them are more +expensive to obtain in the country than in the city, as, for example, +educational facilities. In justifying his purchase of an automobile, a +young farmer recently stated that his wife had certain cares, +responsibilities and even privations which her city friends did not +have. He thought that the automobile would help to offset them. + +To my mind there is no more ideal place to live and rear a family than +in the open country when the conditions are what they should be and +may be. I believe, however, it is well to insist that it costs +something to live in the country as well as in the city if one lives +as well as every farmer has a right to expect to live. + +Let us now consider the steps necessary in order to arrive at a fair +estimate of the labor income. To make the matter concrete, we will +assume a farm of 200 acres worth $60 an acre located in central +Pennsylvania on a limestone clay loam soil over 1,000 feet above sea +level. This farm is to contain 20 acres of timber, a 30-acre apple +orchard two years old, 40 acres of pasture, 96 acres of cultivated +land divided into six 16-acre fields. The rest of the 200 acres +consists of small yards, roadways and waste land. One-half of each of +the six 16-acre fields is to consist of a rotation of maize, oats and +wheat, each one year, and hay three years, the latter clover and +timothy followed by timothy. The other half is to consist of maize, +barley, followed by alfalfa four years. In the young orchard there +will be grown for a few years potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages and garden +peas. After the orchard attains a size which forbids these intertilled +crops, a portion of the pasture may be broken up so that these market +garden crops may be raised. There will be kept six horses, 20 milch +cows, 20 ewes of some mutton breed of sheep, five brood sows and 50 +hens. + +First of all, let attention be called to the broad knowledge of +farming required to operate this moderate-sized and comparatively +simple farm. The crops to be raised are maize, oats, wheat, clover, +alfalfa, timothy, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, garden peas and +apples. The animal products sold will be chiefly butter fat, wool, +mutton, veal, pork and eggs. This is neither a long nor complex list +of products. They are all adapted to the farm which the writer has in +mind. Yet the man who operates this farm to the highest success will +need to have a knowledge of agronomy, or the raising of field crops, +of horticulture, animal husbandry, including poultry husbandry and +dairying. He needs to have a good understanding of the principles of +agricultural chemistry, to have a knowledge of how to prevent and +combat fungous diseases and insect enemies. To get the most out of his +timber land he should know at least some of the first principles of +forestry, and if he has gained some instruction in the study of +landscape gardening, his home will be more attractive, and his farm a +source of greater pleasure to him. + +To proceed with the estimate, the first thing to be done is to make a +record of the cropping system, giving the areas and the estimated +production of each crop. How is the yield per acre to be determined? +Clearly, one cannot afford to estimate his profits on the basis of +some unusual yields. If one could be assured of 40 bushels of wheat, +60 bushels of oats, five tons of hay, 300 bushels of potatoes, or 200 +bushels of apples per acre, or 500 pounds of butter fat per cow, or +150 eggs per hen per year, there would be no difficulty about +obtaining a snug labor income. Such results are possible and are +appropriate ideals for which to strive, but are not safe as estimates +on which to do business. + +The year books of the United States Department of Agriculture contain +the annual estimate of the yields, and the average December farm price +of staple crops by states. These figures may serve as a basis for +making estimates. If the natural conditions are about the average +stated, one may properly assume that he can obtain an increase of 50%. +He may even hope to double the yield, although it is not safe to +assume such an increase in making an estimate of profits. If the +natural conditions are more favorable or less favorable than the +average, he must take the fact into consideration in his estimates. In +the same way he may consider whether the average December farm price +represents fairly his expectation of the price, or whether because of +favorable location or superior quality of the article purchased he can +expect higher remuneration. + +It is here assumed that the young farmer is himself going to be more +than an average farmer. If he is not he will only get average results, +in which case his labor income will be only that of the ordinary day +laborer. + +To repeat the idea in concrete terms. If the young farmer is located +in central Pennsylvania and finds that the average yield of wheat for +the state is 17 bushels an acre, he may safely estimate that his +improved methods will bring him 25 bushels of wheat to the acre. He +may even hope for 34 bushels per acre. At the Pennsylvania station +several varieties of wheat have, during the past 18 years, averaged +over 30 bushels per acre. One year one variety produced 43 bushels. It +would not be safe, however, to use such figures in estimating profits. + +Having outlined the cropping system and made a careful estimate of the +total annual production of each crop, the next step is to determine +the amount of food and bedding required for the live stock. From this +data it may be determined what products will be available for sale, +and what foodstuffs must be bought. Thus, it may be found, for +example, that the amount of oats raised just meets the requirement, +while more maize must be purchased, together with nitrogenous +concentrates, and that a portion of the hay is available for sale. In +the farm under consideration there will, of course, be wheat, +potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, garden peas and the animal products +previously mentioned for sale, and later there will be apples and some +lumber from the wood lot. + +The data are now at hand by which to estimate the total receipts. +Having made the estimates of receipts, the expenses are estimated, and +the difference gives the cash balance, if there is any. The most +important items of expense will be labor, feed, seeds, fertilizers, +harvesting and threshing expenses, spraying material, shipping +packages, blacksmithing and repairs. After all expenses that can be +thought of are included not less than 10% should be added for +incidental expenses. + +The amount of commercial or natural fertilizers to be purchased is, of +course, related to the yard manure which will be produced on the farm; +therefore some estimate of the probable amount is desirable. In a +roughly empirical way the amount of manure produced may be estimated +at twice the amount of dry food and bedding used, provided it is +hauled daily to the field. Where stored and drawn to the field at +stated periods, the shrinkage in weight, although not necessarily in +plant food, may be as much as one-half. + +The estimate of what the inventory should be at the beginning and end +of the year is not so simple a matter as it may at first seem to be. +The purpose of taking the inventory is twofold: First, to determine +whether the inventory has increased or decreased, and second, to +determine on what amount of capital interest is to be calculated. For +example, one must carry forward each year seed for the next year's +crop. Feed must be carried over to feed live stock until other food +becomes available, and there must be money on hand with which to pay +for labor unless there is a cash income from the sale of products +sufficient to care for the labor bills. + +In the case of the farm under consideration there is a young orchard +of about one thousand trees. This orchard is not bringing in any +income, but there is a constant expenditure of money on it, and a +constant increase in its value. While, therefore, it decreases the +cash income it increases the farm income and the labor income. On the +other hand, it increases the interest charges because the plant or +farm is increasing in value. How much will it increase in value? In +some sections it is customary to consider that an orchard increases in +value $1 per tree per year. If this is a correct estimate, this +1,000-tree orchard will increase the value of the farm $1,000 a year +until it comes into full bearing. The farm under consideration was +purchased two years ago for $9,500. On the assumption just stated, at +the end of 15 years from date of purchase this farm should be worth +$25,000, at least $15,000 of which will be due to a 30-acre orchard. +This is at the rate of $500 an acre for the orchard itself. + +In order to bring out some of the phases of the inventory more clearly +the following classification of items is given below: + + INVENTORY + + A. PLANT. + + The real estate, 200 acres at $60 per acre. + The live stock. + Work horses and breeding stock. + Machinery. + + B. MATERIALS. + + Seeds, potatoes, oats, maize, wheat. + Feed, hay for cattle and sheep, silage for cows, maize for + pigs. + Growing wheat, 8 acres at $6 per acre. + Live stock, calves, lambs and pigs. + + C. SUPPLIES. + + Hay and oats for horses. + Money for current expenses. + +In estimating the inventory at the end of the year, a deduction should +be made for the decrease in the value of the live stock under the +plant and also for the machinery. Perhaps 5% for the live stock and +10% for the machinery and tools will be a fair deduction. Under +materials and supplies those items have been inventoried which are to +be carried over each year from the preceding year. In the case of +seeds the amount required must be deducted from the amount sold, or +they must appear as a charge in the expense account. Ordinarily they +are carried over from year to year and thus become a part of the +permanent investment. Since on the farm under consideration there is a +considerable monthly income from the sale of butter fat and eggs, it +may be possible that no allowance will be needed in the inventory for +current expenses, although it is always desirable to carry a bank +account in order to be able to make favorable purchases when +opportunity offers. + +As a part of the work in a course in farm management, the writer asked +each student to secure the financial history of an actual farm +covering a period of three years. The financial history of 30 farms +during the years 1901 to 1903, inclusive, and 28 farms during the +years 1902-1904, inclusive, was thus obtained and is given herewith. + + SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL HISTORY OF FARMS + + Average size of farm, acres 143.21 133 + Average area in crops (includes pasture), acres 121.1 112 + + Capital at end of three-year period $14,009 $8,893 + Capital at beginning three-year period 12,962 7,704 + ------- ------ + Difference $ 1,047 $1,189 + + Interest on capital, $13,485, at 5 per cent[B] $ 674 $ 415 + Increase in capital per annum 349 396 + Average yearly receipts 3,613 2,208 + Average yearly disbursements 1,907 1,221 + Average yearly cash balance 1,706 987 + Average yearly farm income 2,055 1,383 + Average yearly labor income 1,381 968 + +These figures show the application of principles enunciated in this +chapter. A careful reader will have no difficulty in recognizing how +the different items have been obtained. For example, the difference +between the receipts and disbursements in the first column gives the +cash balance of $1,706. The farm income, $2,055, is obtained by adding +to the cash balance $349, which is the annual increase in the capital. +The labor income is obtained by subtracting from the farm income the +interest on the capital at five per cent. The amount of capital is +determined by dividing by two the sum of the inventories at the +beginning and end of the period.[C] + +It will be noted that the gross receipts, the expenses, the farm +income and the labor income on these actual farms are all more closely +related to the capital invested than the size of the farm. Thus, on +the 30 farms with a capitalization of about $13,500, the average +yearly receipts were about $25 an acre, while on the 28 farms with a +capitalization of about $8,300, the average yearly receipts were about +$16 an acre. Likewise on the high-priced farms the labor income was +approximately $10 an acre, while on the lower priced ones it was about +$7. + +----- + + [B] Obtained by dividing by two the sum of capital at beginning and + end of three-year period. + + [C] For further details see Hunt, "How to Choose a Farm," Chaps. X and + XI. + + + + + CHAPTER XII + + GRAIN AND HAY FARMING + + +An important and primary factor in the production of all wealth is +labor. Aside from the professional and domestic classes, the people of +the world devote themselves to three forms of work: (1) Changes in +substance, or natural products; (2) changes in form, or mechanical +products; (3) changes in place, or exchange of products. The second of +these forms of work gives rise to manufacturing; the third, to trade +and commerce. Under the first sub-division two classes of natural +products may be recognized; first, what, for want of a better name, +may be called chemical products, such as ores, coal and salt, from +which are derived mining and the metallurgical arts; and second, vital +products, or, in other words, vegetation and animals. It is work +applied to the production of vegetation and animals that gives rise to +agriculture. Agriculture is labor applied to the production of living +things. + + KINDS OF AGRICULTURE + +The industries which deal with the production of living things may be +divided, theoretically, largely on the basis of the character of the +results, but to some extent upon the nature of the activities +involved. + + { Grain Farming--Cereals and } + { grasses. } + { } Agriculture + { Plantations--Cotton, sugar, } + { tobacco, coffee. } + Plant Production { + (Soil Culture) { Truck Farming, Market } + { Gardening--Vegetables. } + { } Horticulture + { Fruit Growing--Fruits. } + { } + { Forestry--Trees, shrubs. } + + { Stock Raising--Work, meat, fats, hides. + { Stock Feeding--Meat, fats. + { Stock Breeding--Animals. + Animal Production { Dairy Farming--Milk, butter and cheese. + (An. Husbandry) { Sheep Husbandry--Wool raising. + { Poultry Raising--Eggs. + { Beekeeping--Honey. + + Mixed Husbandry + +The manner in which this theoretical classification has worked out in +actual practice will be indicated in some measure by the inquiries of +the United States Census Bureau. The twelfth census has classified +farms on the basis of their principal income. If 40% or more of the +gross income of the farm was from dairy products, it was called a +dairy farm; if from live stock, a live stock farm; if from cotton, a +cotton farm. If no product constituted 40% of the gross receipts, the +farm was classified as a miscellaneous or general farm. + +In 1900 there were 5,740,000 farms in the United States, which were, +according to the rule just stated, classified as follows: + + FARMS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO PRINCIPAL + SOURCE OF INCOME + + Gross + Average income + Total area, size per + Kind of farm. acres. Number. acres. farm. + + Hay and grain 210,243,000 1,320,000 159 $760 + Vegetables 10,157,000 156,000 65 665 + Fruits 6,150,000 82,000 75 915 + Live stock 335,009,000 1,565,000 227 788 + Dairy produce 43,284,000 358,000 120 787 + Tobacco 9,574,000 106,000 90 615 + Cotton 89,587,000 1,072,000 84 430 + Rice 1,088,000 6,000 190 1,335 + Sugar 2,689,000 7,000 363 5,317 + Flowers and plants 43,000 6,000 7 2,991 + Nursery products 166,000 2,000 82 4,971 + Miscellaneous 113,144,000 1,059,000 107 440 + ----------- --------- --- ----- + Total 844,000,000 5,740,000 147 $656 + +Including miscellaneous or general farms, there are just a dozen kinds +of farms mentioned. Of this number, nine kinds obtained at least 40% +of their products, and probably much more, from vegetable rather than +from animal forms. However, live stock and dairy farms constitute +about one-third of the total number of farms, and almost one-half the +farm acreage. There are four kinds of farms on which the production of +grain and hay forms an important part of their activities; namely, the +hay and grain farm, the live stock farm, the dairy farm, and general +farm. These constitute, in the aggregate, 75% of the farms of the +United States, and by virtue of their larger area, they occupy 85% of +the total farm area. + + GRAIN AND HAY STATISTICS + +At the close of the nineteenth century less than one-half the area of +the United States was owned in farms. Only one-half of this farm area +was considered to be under cultivation. The total area in cereals was +one-tenth the total land area, while 3% was devoted to hay and 2% to +all other crops except pasture. + +Without going into details, it may be stated with reasonable assurance +that: (1) During the last half of the last century, the production of +cereals has increased much faster than the population. For example, in +1850, there were raised in the United States one ton of cereal grains +per capita; by 1900 this amount had increased to one and one-half tons +for each inhabitant. + +(2) Since the number of persons engaged in agriculture has decreased +in proportion to population, the quantity of cereals produced in +proportion to persons engaged in agriculture has increased in still +greater ratio. So far, therefore, as the amount of cereals is +concerned, the farmer has been getting an increasingly larger return +for his labor. + +(3) The quantity of cereals has increased in proportion to the arable +land. This may be due to one or more of three causes: (a) greater +average yield per acre; (b) greater proportion of cereals to other +crops; or (c) to a change in the ratio of the different cereal crops. +The following table, giving the average yield of grain, reduced to +pounds per acre, shows not only how the substitution of one cereal for +another might affect the total production of cereal grains, but also +suggests to the young farmer how he may modify the total product of +his farm: + + Yield Lb. Lb. + in bu. per bu. per acre + Maize 24.2 56 1355 + Barley 23.7 48 1138 + Rye 15.0 56 840 + Oats 26.2 32 838 + Wheat 13.2 60 792 + Rice Paddy 746 + Buckwheat 14.0 48 672 + +Yields will vary relatively in different regions and with different +types of soil, and should be studied with reference to one's +conditions. + +(4) The wheat and oat crops have increased about six and one-half +times in 50 years, the hay crop five and one-half times, while maize +has increased four and one-half times. Cotton, the only other great +staple crop, has increased four times in the same period. The oat crop +has increased the most rapidly of any since 1880. It is interesting, +and may be significant, to note that, while the production of wheat +and barley in Great Britain has decreased about one-half in thirty +years, the production of oats has increased somewhat. + +(5) The greatest rate of increase in the production of cereals in the +United States during the last half century has taken place since 1870. +This increase is coincident with three other facts of the utmost +importance: (a) The development of the central West, a treeless +plain--prior to this period much of the farm land in the United States +had been hewn out of the forest, tree by tree; (b) the consolidation +of the steam railways into transcontinental lines; and (c) the +introduction of the self-binding harvester. Formerly it took at least +five men to do what is done today by one man in the harvesting of +cereals. + + ADVANTAGES OF GRAIN FARMING + +(1) The cost of land excepted, the production of hay and grain +requires a small outlay of money. During the past fifty years, many +thousands of persons have been able to obtain farms of 160 acres at +almost no cost. With a few hundred dollars invested in horses and +tools with which to plow the prairie and sow the seed, these fortunate +persons have oftentimes been able to pay the whole of their expenses, +capital included, from the first crop. The renter who operates a hay +and grain farm usually has but a small capital invested in his +business. + +(2) The cereals bring a quick return. Wheat may be sown in September +and sold in July; maize may be planted in May and sold in November; +oats may be planted in April and sold in August. The short period +between seed time and harvest makes the oat crop a favorite one among +renters. On the other hand, it takes from three to seven years to +produce a marketable horse. It may take ten to fifteen years to begin +to realize on an apple orchard. + +(3) The products are not easily perishable, and hence can be held +almost indefinitely. The development of the magnificent elevator +system, based upon the principle that the cereals can be handled like +water, greatly simplifies the holding and preservation of these staple +products. + +(4) The products are in constant demand, and hence they always find a +market. + +Agricultural commodities may be divided into three classes, depending +upon the area which controls the price of the commodity, as follows: (a) +price units world-wide, as wheat, cotton, pork; (b) price units local to +large districts--products too bulky to ship long distances--such as hay, +potatoes and apples; (c) price units local to relatively small areas, +such as strawberries and green vegetables. It is obvious that the larger +the area which controls the price, the more constant will be the demand. + + OBJECTIONS TO GRAIN FARMING + +(1) It exhausts the soil. About two-thirds of the wheat of the United +States is consumed outside the county in which it is raised. + +(2) It requires a large quantity of land to produce a competence. Land +must be low in price, or the interest on the money invested in the +land will consume the profits. The relation of crop to income is +suggested by comparing the gross returns from an acre of potatoes or +tobacco with an acre of maize. The average gross income during a +decade was, from an acre of maize, $9.50; an acre of potatoes, $38; +and from an acre of tobacco, $61.50. + +(3) Only such part of the land as is suited to tillage can be used. + +(4) The marketing of cereals requires the transportation of bulky +products. Hay is handicapped much more seriously. The distance a +product can be shipped depends somewhat on the price per pound +received for it. If it costs one cent a pound to ship maize to a grain +market, obviously it cannot be transported without loss when it brings +only 50 cents a bushel. On the other hand, two cents a pound may +easily be paid for shipping butter which is worth 25 cents a pound. +The transportation of $2,000 worth of maize to a railway station ten +miles distant is a laborious and expensive operation, but when this +same maize is turned into beef or pork, it will transport itself to +the station with comparatively little trouble. Notwithstanding the +excellent transportation facilities which the farmers of the United +States enjoy, 80% of the maize is consumed in the county in which it +is raised. Cereal production demands better transportation facilities +than cotton farming, tobacco growing or the rearing of domestic +animals. + +(5) Capital must lie idle much of the time. The self-binding harvester +or the hay rake is only used a few weeks, or perhaps more often only a +few days, each year. A cream separator or a churn may be used every +day in the year. In the first instance, there is not only interest on +unemployed capital, but the capital is actually deteriorating through +nonuse. + +(6) The production of hay and grain does not give continuous +employment. The slightest consideration of the following table must +show that unless live stock is kept, there are considerable periods of +the year in which very little labor is required, while at other times +considerable work is necessary to prevent loss. + + TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE ACREAGE PER + FARM OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. + + New York Ohio Wisconsin Virginia + Maize 3 13 9 11 + Wheat 2 12 3 6 + Oats 5 4 14 1 + Barley, rye or buckwheat 2 -- 5 0 + Hay and forage 23 11 14 4 + Potatoes, beans or other + vegetables 3 1 2 1 + Fruits 2 2 0 1 + Miscellaneous crops 2 1 0 2 + Pasture, wood or unimproved + land 58 45 70 93 + --- -- --- --- + Total size of farm 100 89 117 119 + +(7) Much depends upon natural forces. While there is opportunity for +the use of knowledge and judgment in the production of high-grade +seeds and even of large yields, there is not the same scope for skill +that there is in some other lines of agricultural enterprise. Skill +means the capacity to do something difficult, and the more effort +required to produce an object the more value it has, provided its +utility is unlimited. The farming which requires the most skill pays +the best if one has the skill to apply to it. This is because those +who do not have the requisite skill are usually unsuccessful. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII + + THE COST OF FARMING OPERATIONS + + +Several millions of the inhabitants of the United States, not to +mention those of other countries, are engaged each year in the +preparation of the soil for the cereal and forage crops and on the +work of seeding and harvesting them. The welfare of one-third the +population is directly and that of the other two-thirds, although less +directly, is quite as surely dependent upon the effectiveness of this +effort. If, for example, as sometimes happens, one-third the +population receives on account of untoward seasonal conditions but +four-fifths of the usual product, everyone must suffer on account of +this unrewarded labor. Many, perhaps most, financial panics have their +origin in crop failures aided, doubtless, by an improper financial +system. + +Although widely and sometimes bitterly discussed, little is really +known concerning the relation between the effort expended and the +returns obtained in producing the great staple farm products; yet one +of the most important and vital considerations in the organization of +a farm enterprise is the income, both gross and net, which may be +expected from the different crops contemplated. Obviously the yield +and price of the several crops will vary with the locality and with +the season. It is, therefore, impossible to predict for any year +either what yield may be obtained or what price will be secured. If, +however, a sufficient number of years are selected, an average may be +found which will form a basis for calculating the probable result for +another series of years. The following table gives the yield and the +average farm values per acre for five staple crops for five years, +1905-1909 inclusive, for the United States and for four widely +separated states, viz., Pennsylvania, Iowa, Texas and Oregon. + + AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE, 1905-1909. + + Pennsylvania Iowa Texas Oregon + Maize, bu. 36.6 33.4 21.1 27.3 + Wheat, bu. 17.8 15.5 9.6 20.6 + Oats, bu. 28.9 28.9 26.6 32.8 + Potatoes, bu. 84.4 85.8 67.0 119.0 + Hay, tons 1.39 1.56 1.32 2.11 + + + AVERAGE FARM VALUE PER ACRE, 1905-1909 + + Pennsylvania Iowa Texas Oregon + Maize $22.59 $13.80 $12.17 $19.58 + Wheat 16.61 12.42 9.11 16.10 + Oats 13.33 9.28 12.97 15.20 + Potatoes 55.87 44.75 65.15 71.18 + Hay 18.74 10.13 13.92 19.60 + +Such figures as the above may be compiled by anyone at any time for +any year or series of years from the yearbooks of the United States +Department of Agriculture. They form a fairly sound basis for +calculating the gross income which may be expected from the staple +farm crops, particularly for the cereals, potatoes, hay, cotton and +tobacco. Five questions, however, present themselves, which should, as +far as possible, be settled before applying them to an individual +problem. + +(1) How nearly do the conditions, especially those of soil and +climate, of the given location correspond to the averages of the +state? The question can be settled only by a thorough study of soils +and their crop adaptation. It is a matter requiring study, experience +and judgment. + +(2) How much larger yields may be expected on account of better +methods employed? It is here that most mistakes are made in estimating +possible farm profits. Necessarily, all statistical averages of +production are much below those which an enterprising farmer considers +an average crop and habitually produces. Not more than 50% increase +upon these figures, however, should be anticipated by reason of the +improved methods which one is going to employ. + +While the average yield of maize, even in the so-called corn states, +is not far from 30 bushels an acre, and while it is quite common for +good farmers to produce 60 to 75 bushels of maize per acre, it would +not be safe to assume a yield of more than 45 bushels unless the +conditions are more than ordinarily favorable. + +The application of the averages given on pages 149-150 to an +individual farm enterprise may be illustrated by calculating the +possible results which might be obtained on 80 acres of arable land in +Iowa and Pennsylvania with the four great soil products of northern +United States. + + Iowa Pennsylvania + Acres Income Acres Income + Maize 40 $552.00 15 $340.85 + Oats 20 185.60 15 200.25 + Wheat 5 62.10 15 249.25 + Hay 15 151.95 35 655.90 + Total 80 $951.65 80 $1,446.25 + +If 50% is added for the increased yields which may be expected on +account of the employment of better methods, the total yield from 80 +acres of arable land would become for Iowa $1,428 and for Pennsylvania +$2,169. This does not mean that farming is necessarily more profitable +in Pennsylvania than in Iowa. Not only may the cost of cultivating an +acre of arable land be greater in Pennsylvania, but usually a larger +territory must be owned in order to obtain 80 acres of arable land. +Eighty acres of these four crops is probably as often grown on a farm of +100 acres in Iowa as on one of 160 acres in Pennsylvania. The total farm +acreage in Iowa is, in round numbers, 35 millions; in Pennsylvania, 19 +millions. In Iowa about one-half the farm area is in the farm crops +under consideration, while in Pennsylvania these four crops occupy only +one-third the farm area. + +[Illustration: Mr. R. D. Maurice Wertz, after several years in railroad +offices, took charge of his fathers farm at Quincy, Pa., in 1891, and +converted it into a fruit farm. He now has about 220 acres in peaches and +apples. It is understood that he has sent from the above shipping station +and one other about $200,000 worth of fruit in the last six years.] + +[Illustration: Mr. T. E. Martin, Rush, N. Y., is one of the most +successful potato growers in the United States. He has a farm of 57 acres +of the Dunkirk series of soil. He has three 18-acre fields in rotation +consisting of potatoes, wheat and clover and alfalfa. Mr. Martin has +increased the yield of potatoes from 60 bushels per acre in 1892 to 417 +bushels in 1906. In 1906 he produced 7,510 bushels on 18 acres. In 1907 +he sold $2,807.89 worth of potatoes from 18 acres, or $160 per acre. He +attributes his large yields mainly to drainage, thorough preparation of +the soil, good tillage, spraying, clover and alfalfa, manure and +commercial fertilizers.] + +(3) Will there be a general increase or decrease in the price of crops +during the coming years? + +The following table gives the average farm price for Missouri by +five-year periods. + + THE AVERAGE DECEMBER FARM PRICE BY + PREVIOUS DECADES COMPARED WITH + AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1906-10. + + 1866 1875 1886 1896 1906 + to to to to to + 1875 1885 1895 1905 1910 + cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. + Maize, bu. 40 33 33 35 49 + Wheat, bu. 103 87 64 71 87 + Oats, bu. 30 27 26 27 39 + Potatoes, bu. 57 48 49 53 68 + Hay, ton 902 799 704 700 875 + +An examination of the last column shows that the average price of +these staple farm products has been considerably greater during five +recent years than during the previous thirty years. Will this increase +in price continue, or will there be a series of years of unusually low +prices which will bring the average price of the decade down to that +of the previous three decades? Few persons will care to venture an +answer to this question, which is of the utmost importance to all +farmers and especially to the beginner. + +(4) The figures employed are taken from the yearbook of the United +States Department of Agriculture and are the estimated farm price on +December 1 of each year. Can the commodities be sold for the December +farm price? Will potatoes sold at the time of digging bring less than +the December price? Will wheat or maize held until May bring a higher +price? To what extent, by the judicious holding of products, can +advance in price be obtained? + +(5) Will the products be sold for cash, or may they be turned into +animal products at an increased profit? In some sections of the United +States animals are reared primarily because of the increased profit +due to manufacturing soil products into animal products; in other +regions, however, they are kept primarily for the purpose of +maintaining the fertility of the soil and only incidentally on account +of the increased profits. + + COST OF PRODUCTION + +For a number of reasons it is difficult to determine the cost of +growing farm crops. One reason deserves to be especially emphasized. In +any business enterprise it may be necessary to run at a loss, because +to stop would entail a still greater loss. This is particularly true in +farming, where men are employed by the month in order that they may be +had when needed. Since they are receiving pay, it is better that such +men should be employed some days at farm operations which return only a +portion of their wages rather than not to have them employed at all. +Under such circumstances, therefore, the cost of producing a given crop +may be greater than is indicated by the time actually employed in its +production. + +Many other factors also enter, as the average number of hours per day +which it is possible to work. This is greatly influenced by weather +conditions. The Minnesota station determined that the working day on +about thirty farms in that state varied from seven and one-half to +eight and one-half hours, with two to three and one-half hours on +Sunday. The average length of the working day for horses varied from +3.1 to 3.3 hours. + +The cost for labor of cultivating a given area of land will depend not +only on the crop or crops to be raised, the climate, the topography +and character of the soil, the size and shape of the fields and the +system of cropping, but also upon the man's ability for organization. +It is said that the European farmers, and even the farmers from +eastern Canada, are several years in adjusting themselves to farming +in western Canada. When the farmers from Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska or +surrounding states move into western Canada with their three-horse +teams and other suitable equipment, applying their thorough knowledge +of prairie farming, they are at once successful. The man is thus an +important factor. + + TIME REQUIRED FOR CULTURAL OPERATIONS + +The following table will be helpful as showing time required to +perform certain operations, since it is a record of labor actually +employed on a field of 18 acres of easily tilled land in central Ohio. +All labor was employed at prices named, board for man and food for +horses being furnished in addition at the prices estimated. The owner +of the land furnished the horse for the harvester. + + Plowing 7.5 days at $2 $15.00 + Harrowing 3 days at 2 6.00 + Planting 2 days at 2 4.00 + Cultivating (4 times) 7 days at 2 14.00 + Cultivating with harvester 6 days at 1 6.00 + Husking and cribbing by the job 45.54 + Estimated cost of board 25-1/2 days 7.95 + Estimated team maintenance 25-1/2 days 4.90 + ------- + $103.39 + +According to these figures the cost for labor of raising the crop and +the cost of harvesting was almost exactly the same, each being a +little less than $3 an acre. + + THE COST OF PRODUCING FARM CROPS + +The Minnesota station has determined the cost of growing the staple +farm crops on 45 farms in different sections of the State. The total +expense per acre for an average of six years is shown in the following +table, not including land rental or cost of marketing. + + COST OF PRODUCING FARM CROPS IN MINNESOTA. + + Spring wheat, land fall plowed $5.54 + Oats, land fall plowed 5.80 + Barley, land spring plowed 6.89 + Maize, husked from standing stalks 9.41 + Hay, timothy and clover 3.68 + Potatoes, land not fertilized 23.36 + Potatoes, land fertilized 34.72 + +Some years ago the writer made an estimate of the cost of producing +maize, oats, wheat and clover hay in a four-course rotation on a +tenant farm in central Pennsylvania. The soil was a heavy clay and +required plowing for each crop, except, of course, the hay crop, one +acre a day being considered a good day's work. + +Counting the expense of man and team at $2 per day, the labor cost per +acre was found to be $7 for maize, $5.10 for both wheat and oats, and +$2.30 for hay, or an average of about $4.90 per acre for the four +crops. The interest on the capital invested in operating this farm, +exclusive of the land, was estimated at $1.45 per acre. + + INFLUENCE OF YIELD UPON THE COST OF + PRODUCTION + +The Illinois station has prepared a set of estimates upon the cost of +producing an acre of maize, showing variations in cost due to +differences in yield. In these estimates, instead of making a charge +for the actual cost of manure or fertilizer applied, an estimate is +made of the value of the plant food removed. + + COST OF PRODUCING ONE ACRE OF MAIZE IN + ILLINOIS AS MODIFIED BY YIELD. + + Yield Yield Yield Yield + 50 bu. 75 bu. 100 bu. 35 bu. + Disking $0.40 $0.40 $0.40 $0.40 + Plowing 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 + Preparation .75 .75 .75 .75 + Planting .15 .15 .15 .15 + Seed .35 .35 .35 .35 + Cultivation 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 + Plant food 1.02 1.53 2.04 .71 + Husking 1.25 1.87 2.50 .88 + Marketing 1.00 1.50 2.00 .70 + ----- ----- ------ ----- + Cost per acre $6.92 $8.55 $10.19 $5.94 + Cost per bushel .14 .11 .10 .17 + +The average yield per acre in Illinois for 12 years preceding date of +this estimate was 35 bushels per acre; the average price per bushel +during the same period was 32 cents. + + LABOR COST OF PRODUCING A BUSHEL OF + GRAIN + +Not counting rent of land or interest on capital invested in +equipment, nor depreciation of soil fertility, it has been shown that +under favorable conditions, the labor cost of growing and harvesting +an acre of wheat or oats may be as low as $4.50, and that of maize as +low as $5 per acre. Assuming the average labor cost of producing an +acre of wheat or oats at $5.50 and of maize at $6 per acre, and taking +the average yields per acre for a series of years to be 13.8 for +wheat, 30.9 bushels for oats and 24.9 bushels for maize, the average +labor cost per bushel will be: Wheat, 40 cents; oats, 17-1/2 cents; +and maize, 28 cents. + +The data given in this chapter are to be accepted as suggestive rather +than as determinative. The chief purpose in presenting them is to +place before the young farmer an appreciation of some of the problems +involved in the production of the chief and basic agricultural +commodities. The young farmer's success will be modified by the role +which they occupy in his farming system and by his ability to adjust +them to the economic conditions in which he may find himself placed. A +thorough understanding of the principle underlying the data submitted +will go far toward enabling him to make this adjustment, although none +of the illustrations given may have been obtained under conditions +identical to his own. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV + + THE PLACE OF INTENSIVE + FARMING + + +The doctrine of the survival of the most fit applies equally to the +field of biology and to the field of economics. The general introduction +of vegetables and fruits into the human dietary has, by banishing the +loathsome diseases of the Middle Ages, greatly increased human +efficiency. It follows that those peoples or nations who employ +vegetables and fruits in abundance, other things being equal, will be +most fit to survive and must outstrip others less fortunately situated. +We may for this reason alone look forward to the increasing importance +of vegetable growing and fruit raising; but there is a more obvious and +perhaps more direct reason. There is in the production of vegetables, at +least, a method of satisfying the dietetic needs of an increasing +population. The employment of a part of the area now in cereals and +forage crops for the production of potatoes, cabbages, legumes, roots +and tomatoes is one of the most ready means of increasing the food +supply. Whether such substitution will be advantageous to the human race +depends, however, not so much upon the food returns from a given area of +land as upon the products from a given amount or unit of labor. + + KINDS OF HORTICULTURE + +In that form of intensive agriculture to which is given the designation +horticulture, there may be recognized several more or less distinct +divisions, as fruit growing, market gardening, truck farming and +floriculture. Each has its own special problems, based upon conditions +of culture and market. While, as in all classifications, there is more +or less overlapping, the tendency is for them to become more and more +distinct. The market gardener is the producer of vegetables for a local +market, while the truck farmer produces similar products for a larger +or wider distribution. The former grows a great variety of products, +disposing of them in relatively small quantity, not infrequently +directly to the consumer. The latter raises a few highly specialized +crops which he sells in gross, usually through a commission merchant. +Truck farming has developed since 1860, in consequence of the growth of +large cities, which require enormous supplies of vegetables of fairly +uniform quality, and on account of the continuous demand for fresh +vegetables as nearly as possible throughout the year. Watermelons and +sweet potatoes can be raised in the southern states and laid down in +New York City or Boston more cheaply than they can be raised in the +suburbs of these cities, and, what is equally important, they will be +of superior quality. + +The extension of railway facilities, the introduction of refrigerator +cars and the building of cold storage plants has made it possible to +grow in one climate products to be consumed in another. Cold storage +has enabled the fruit growers of California to supply the eastern +markets with peaches and other fresh fruit. Chicago, to give only one +example, begins to receive strawberries, cabbages and tomatoes from +the shores of the Gulf of Mexico early in the year and continues to +receive these products, until finally they are being shipped late in +the summer from the shores of Lake Superior. It is estimated that the +change of locality from which these products come, travels northward +at the rate of from 13 to 15 miles a day. + + IMPORTANT FACTORS IN INTENSIVE FARMING + +In the neighborhood of large cities, notably in the environs of Paris, +market gardeners often produce their vegetables in made soil. The +local character of the soil under such conditions is a matter of +comparative indifference, since a board floor would answer every +requirement as a resting place for the artificial soil. The large +expense in preparing and constantly renewing the seed bed is only +economically possible, however, where proximity to a large city +out-weighs all other considerations. + +Ordinarily climatic and soil adaptation are prime factors in +successful horticulture--much more than in any other branch of +agriculture. Each fruit has a restricted climatic range, and in most +cases the number of soil types on which a given fruit can be made a +commercial success is likewise limited. Thus, in general, apples and +pears require heavier soils than peaches. Success in commercial apple +growing requires even greater discrimination, since different +varieties of apples demand different soil conditions. Thus Baldwins +are grown the most successfully where a northern climate is modified +by proximity to the Great Lakes. Rhode Island Greenings will succeed +on soils too heavy for many other varieties. The York Imperial has not +yet achieved a great commercial success save on one type of soil. Some +varieties of apples are much more restricted in their adaptation than +others. Thus, while the King is quite restricted, the Ben Davis has a +fairly wide cultural adaptation. No one should plant an orchard until +he has made a thorough study of his soil and climatic conditions and +has received the highest possible expert assistance in choosing the +varieties best adapted to his conditions. + +There is an increasing tendency to specialize in vegetable growing. +The production of celery, onions, muskmelons, watermelons, cabbages, +cauliflowers, tomatoes and sweet corn, to mention only some of the +most striking examples, are becoming more and more localized. Even +where vegetables and flowers are grown under glass, not only is each +house devoted to a single species, but, notably in the case of roses, +growers are restricting themselves more and more to a few varieties. +This is due to the fact that it is impossible to give in one house, or +even in one establishment, the special set of conditions required for +the most economic development of each species or variety of plant, +just as in the open air the natural conditions are best adapted to a +limited number of horticultural products. + +So much being admitted, it follows that it is folly to attempt to grow +plants under unfavorable climatic and soil conditions when competing +in the same market with those possessing favorable ones. It is true, +of course, that where one man fails another often succeeds, but this +is no reason why a man should apply his talents under unfavorable +circumstances. In fact, one of the important attributes of most +successful men is their ability to recognize and apply their energies +under conditions which will give them the most effective return for a +given effort. There is no virtue in unnecessary toil. Progress in any +enterprise, as progress in the human race, can be accomplished only in +reducing the amount of labor required to produce a desired result. + +All this is axiomatic. The purpose of emphasizing it here is that it +is fundamental to the success of those who attempt to produce +horticultural products. The necessity for the emphasis lies in the +fact that these factors are so often disregarded. They are of most +vital importance to the man who attempts to raise tree fruits. A +mistake in the planting of celery, cabbage, or onions may be rectified +the following season, but if a mistake is made in planting tree +fruits, it may, as in the case of apples, require ten or even 20 years +to discover the error. + +The growth in commercial orcharding is due in part to the need of +special knowledge and facilities for combating fungous diseases and +insect enemies and to the better markets which a large production of +uniform quality makes possible. While these are extremely important +considerations, there is a more fundamental reason, which may in the +long run exercise an even more potent influence. The location of the +ordinary family orchard, so called, has been determined in almost +every instance by the location of the farm buildings. There is no +necessary relation between a good site for a farm dwelling and a +suitable location for an orchard. It happens, therefore, that family +orchards, taken as a whole, are not grown under as favorable +conditions as are commercial orchards. This is a sufficient reason in +itself, even if the other reasons above mentioned did not exist, why +the commercial orchard must, in time, supplant these accidental +plantings. + + ADVANTAGES OF HORTICULTURE + +The advantages of this intensive form of agriculture as compared with +the more extensive forms discussed in Chapter XII may be stated as +follows: + +(1) A large gross income per acre may be obtained. An investigation of +truck farming made some years ago indicated a gross return per acre +about 40 times as great as that obtained on an average from all forms +of agriculture. + +(2) There is a large opportunity for the use of skill in raising and +preparing products for market and an equal opportunity for the +exercise of judgment in choosing the best markets. + + DISADVANTAGES OF HORTICULTURE + +(1) It requires considerable capital, particularly for machinery and +labor. In the investigation in truck farming above mentioned the +capital per acre invested in land, buildings, implements and teams was +eight times that in the more general forms of agriculture. + +(2) The products are for the most part readily perishable, requiring +special facilities if held for any length of time. + +(3) Growing out of above-mentioned fact, the market is easily +overstocked at any given point, and hence prices often fluctuate +widely. + +(4) The yield is also quite variable, this class of products being +especially influenced by seasonal conditions and particularly subject +to insect attacks and fungous diseases. Since large capital is +invested in labor, the horticulturist may be involved in financial +ruin through causes which he is unable to control. + +(5) The labor question, in certain forms of horticulture more than in +others, involves difficulties, among which is need of large quantities +of cheap labor for short periods of time. + + + + + CHAPTER XV + + REASONS FOR ANIMAL + HUSBANDRY + + +Animal products in the United States nearly equal in value those of +all other farm products. Those soil supplies which constitute the food +of domestic animals are not implied. Practically every farm in the +United States keeps domestic animals, either for their labor or their +products, and nearly every household in both city and country keeps +one or more animals for companionship. The domestication of animals +has been a prime factor in the civilization of the human race by +furnishing man with motive force by which he has been able to increase +his productive power; by giving him a larger, better and more regular +food supply; and by furnishing the materials for clothing, making it +possible for him to inhabit temperate and even arctic climates. +Animals have not been less important in advancing the spiritual +welfare of the human race, by inculcating habits of regularity and +kindliness, which the care of domestic animals imposes. + + INCREASE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION + +During the last half century animals have not increased in numbers as +rapidly as have the inhabitants, but the value of animals has increased +much more rapidly. While a part of this increase in value is due +perhaps to a greater cost of production, a couple of illustrations will +suffice to show that part of this increase in value has been due to +increase in the individual merit of the animals. In 1850 sheep in this +country produced 2.4 pounds of wool per fleece; in 1910 they produced +6.9 pounds per fleece. Thus, while in 50 years sheep have not quite +doubled in numbers, the production of wool has increased more than five +times. This is a striking example of the value of improvement in +breeding, because the improvement in wool production is due to the +influence of heredity in far greater degree than to the effect of +improved feeding. Wool, like the hair on one's head, is not greatly +influenced by the food supply, assuming it to be reasonably ample. Beef +cattle offer another illustration of the way in which animal products +have been increased without increasing the number of animals. Formerly +beef cattle were matured in their fourth and fifth years, or even their +sixth year. They are now placed upon the market in their second and +third years. If animals can be matured in their third instead of their +fifth year, it is obvious that a much smaller number of animals must be +kept upon the farm in order to provide an equal annual supply for +slaughter. + +The increase in the size of our horses and the increased production of +butter fat per cow which have occurred in the past half century are +hardly less important factors in increasing the value of domestic +animals and their products. + + THE FUTURE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS + +One of the most striking features of recent progress in domestic +animals is the large increase in the number of horses and the still +greater increase in their value. There are those who have believed +that the invention of many beneficent forms of mechanical power would +in time, if not in the very near future, supplant the use of animals +as a motive power. The fact seems to be, however, that they merely +augment man's resources and increase his opportunities without +lessening his need for animal power. + +It appears reasonable to suppose that there will be witnessed in the +United States a gradual shifting of live stock centers. During the +past half century, the great central West has been noted for the +production of live stock, particularly for beef, mutton and wool, as +an incident of its pioneer development. Already the production of +large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep has disappeared for the +central West, and is now confined largely to Texas and the mountain +states. The northeastern states are unrivaled in the production of +grass, and have considerable areas less fitted for tillage than the +prairie states. In time, therefore, the tendency will be for the +regions best fitted to rear animals to increase their numbers of +breeding animals. On the other hand, those states which produce grain +in relatively large abundance may give more attention to fattening +animals and to the production of dairy products which can be shipped +long distances. As time advances, the history of other countries will +doubtless be repeated. A greater distinction between the breeding and +rearing of animals, and their fattening and preparation for market +will occur. + + ADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE STOCK + +Since animals occupy a place in practically all farm organizations, it +is desirable to state briefly the advantages and disadvantages which +may accrue to any individual enterprise. The most striking advantages +affecting the farmer are: + +(1) Animals make it possible to use land that would otherwise be +wholly or partly unproductive. Hillsides and mountain slopes, soil too +stony to cultivate, fields traversed by winding streams, and land +partially covered with trees, are familiar examples. As previously +mentioned, only about one-half the farm area in this country is +improved land, and only two-thirds, even of the improved land, is in +cultivated crops. The other third of the improved land and a +considerable portion of that half of the farm area known as unimproved +land are utilized as pasture for domestic animals. + +(2) They make use of farm crops which would be entirely or partially +wasted. Straw, the stalks of maize, clover and alfalfa hay and other +leguminous forage crops would not have sufficient value to pay for +raising if animals were not kept to convert them into useful products. +In fact, the usefulness of a given animal may be judged by the economy +with which he converts these otherwise useless products into food or +other materials for the use of man. The most profound studies are +being made to determine the conditions under which this takes place. + +(3) In thus acting as machines in manufacturing raw materials into +finished products animals convert these coarse and bulky materials +into those which are much more concentrated, thus making their +transportation economically possible. A pound of beef has required +food containing ten pounds of dry substance, and a pound of butter has +required thirty pounds of dry matter to produce it. + +These refined products may be shipped around the world, while the raw +materials may not be profitably transported beyond the county in which +they are raised. Moreover, the farmer has the profit which comes from +manufacturing the raw materials into refined products. + +(4) In the production of these finer products much of the essential +materials of plant growth are left upon the farm. The experiments of +Lawes and Gilbert show conclusively that in fattening animals more +than nine pounds out of ten of the essential fertilizing ingredients +of the food reappear in the solid and liquid excrements. Prothero +says: "Farming in a circle, unlike logic, is a productive process." + +The fiscal policy of one of the great nations of the globe is based +upon this idea. Everything possible is done by Germany to encourage +the keeping of live stock, because the more live stock that is kept, +the more productive will be the soil. The larger the crops raised the +more people will be required to harvest them and the larger will be +the population to recruit the army and navy. The Kaiser and the German +scientist recognize that the fighting force of the Empire is related +to the number of domestic animals reared. The meat supplies of the +people are, therefore, taxed to bring about this end. + +(5) The rearing of live stock makes it possible to arrange a better +rotation of crops. A five-year and, even better, a six-year rotation, +is more effective than a four-year in maintaining the crop-producing +power of the soil and enables the farmer to reduce his cost of +production. It is possible to keep a larger proportion of the farm in +grass and other forage crops, thus reducing the amount of land plowed +annually and at the same time decreasing the exhaustion of the land, +provided the forage crops are fed to live stock upon the farm. + +There is an old Flemish proverb which reads: + + "No grass, no cattle; + No cattle, no manure; + No manure, no crops." + +The point of this proverb is that good grass is the basis of good +agriculture. Investigations have shown that one may go farther and say +that one of the most ready means of increasing the crop-producing +power of the soil is by adding fertilizers to grass land. The large +number of plants per acre enables the plants to utilize the fertilizer +to the highest degree, and plowing under the resulting dense sod is +one of the most effective methods of enriching the soil. + +(6) Animals require constant care, thus making possible a more +constant use of labor and other capital. The wheat farmer of North +Dakota sows his wheat in April and May and harvests it in July and +August. He usually threshes it immediately, and is practically without +employment for himself, his teams or his men from September until +April. On live stock farms the labor employed in the summer in the +field is needed in the winter in paddocks and stables. + +(7) The management of live stock, including the rearing of poultry and +the manipulation of dairy products, may be made to require a higher +skill than the production of farm crops as ordinarily practiced. The +communities which have given the most attention to dairying and to the +rearing and fattening of animals have generally been the most +prosperous. + + DISADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE STOCK + +(1) Keeping live stock increases the capital required to operate a +given area of land, especially where animals are kept in connection +with the production of hay and grain. Not only must there be capital +with which to purchase animals, but usually more is invested in +buildings. In a self-contained farm--that is, one which raises +sufficient food for the requirements of the live stock--ten dollars an +acre may be considered a moderate investment for animals. If, however, +the plan is to raise only the coarse feed, while the necessary grain +as well as other concentrates is largely purchased, a farm may easily +carry from $25 to $35 worth of live stock per acre. Lack of capital is +one of the most potent influences in preventing a larger production of +animals and animal products. Cattle paper, or notes given to secure +money for the purchase of fattening animals, is a common bank asset in +the feeding districts of the central West. + +(2) The very perishable nature of animals entails a great risk in the +investment of capital in live stock. Not only the products of a single +year, but the growth of a number of years, may be suddenly swept away +by disease. This may include the crops of several years, thus +destroying capital invested in the production of the crops as well as +the capital originally invested in the animals. Many a farmer has seen +the gradual accumulations of years rapidly melt away in the presence +of some contagious disease. Tuberculosis in cattle, cholera in hogs +and liver rot in sheep are striking examples of diseases that have +caused the farmers of this country untold losses. + +(3) When an animal has been properly fattened he must be sold. If held +for any great length of time, not only is there a constant outlay for +food to maintain the animal, but the condition of the animal may +actually deteriorate. Hence it is not possible to hold animals for a +better market for a long period of time, as is possible in the case of +the cereal grains. + +(4) Serious losses may occur where profit was expected through a rise +in the price of foodstuffs. Scarcity in food supplies, due to an +unfavorable season, often compels the stockman to sacrifice animals +that he has been raising for two or three years. It is sometimes +asserted that, although society suffers from short crops, the farmer +is benefited, because the increase in price is greater than the +decrease in yield. One year, for example, the decrease in the +production of maize was 30%, while the increase in price was 50%. If, +therefore, the crop had been sold it would have brought more than the +crop of the previous year. The farmers, however, require about 80% of +the maize crop in the production of their live stock, so that when +there was a decrease of 30% in the yield of maize, many had none to +sell, while others had to purchase maize at increased prices or use +other crops, such as oats, which they might otherwise have sold. Still +others would be compelled to sell, at reduced prices, their partially +fattened animals. There is a constant fluctuation in the price of +animals and animal products, due to variation in yield and hence in +price of food supplies. It requires continual vigilance on the part of +the stockman to secure food supplies at such cost as will enable him +to secure a profitable return from his animals. + + + + + CHAPTER XVI + + RETURNS FROM ANIMALS + + +In any well-considered plan of farm operations it is essential to have +some basis for estimating the amount of food required to carry live +stock through the year in order to know, on the one hand, what portion +of the crops raised are available for sale and, on the other hand, +what food supplies must be purchased. A requisite of any successful +farm enterprise is a proper consideration of these market conditions. +While domestic animals consume a variety of foods, and each class of +animals has special food requirements, the basis of calculation of the +needed supplies is fortunately not complicated. Twenty-five pounds of +dry matter are required per day for each thousand pounds of live +weight of horses, cattle and sheep, and for swine about 40 pounds for +each thousand pounds of live weight. It may be more convenient to +calculate the food requirement of swine on the basis of increase in +live weight, allowing five pounds of dry matter for each pound of +increase. Some further details as to food requirements will be found +in the paragraphs which follow. + + COST OF PRODUCING HOGS + +Pigs possess two characteristics which make them unique among domestic +animals. They consume concentrated and easily digested foods only, and +they produce nothing but meat, fat and bristles. Cattle furnish milk +and hides; sheep, wool, hides and sometimes milk; fowls furnish eggs +and feathers. On account of their limited range of usefulness and +because of the high value of much of the food consumed, it would not +be possible to rear swine economically were it not for their +prolificacy and the fact that they are employed largely as scavengers. +Many cattle are fattened without direct profit. The indirect profit +comes from the sale of the pigs which have followed the cattle. It is +customary to mature one hog with little or no additional food while +fattening two steers. In many well-known ways, pigs consume products +which would otherwise be wasted. This is especially true in the more +densely settled sections of the world. + +On account of their prolificacy, the returns obtained for the amount +of capital invested is greater than in the case of sheep, cattle or +horses. Ten sows, worth $100 to $150, are sufficient to produce 100 +pigs; 75 to 80 ewes, worth from $300 to $500, are required to produce +an equal number of lambs; 110 cows, worth $4,500 to $6,000, to produce +100 calves; and 200 mares, worth from $20,000 to $30,000, to guarantee +100 foals. To put the matter in another way, the capital invested in +swine may be reproduced in the offspring ten times in one year; the +capital invested in horses not more than once in five years. + +In general, 500 pounds of maize will produce 100 pounds of pork, which +is equivalent to eleven pounds of pork from a bushel. Since hogs are +so largely produced from maize, the price of maize and the price of +pork are very closely related. For example, if maize is worth fifty +cents a bushel, the grain required to produce a pound of increase in +live weight will cost about 5 cents; if 40 cents a bushel, 4 cents; if +30 cents a bushel, 3 cents; and so on. + + COST OF PRODUCING SHEEP + +In the classic investigations by Lawes and Gilbert, food containing +100 pounds of dry matter produced a live-weight increase of nine +pounds in steers and 11 pounds in sheep. At the Wisconsin station, +sheep required less food than steers per pound of gain. During rapid +fattening of sheep 500 pounds of clover hay and 400 pounds of maize +may produce 100 pounds of increase in live weight. While swine require +a less weight of food for a pound of increase than sheep, on account +of the more digestible character of the food eaten, yet the Wisconsin +station found that the expense of producing a pound of increase was +less in sheep on account of the less expensive character of the food. + + MEAT AND MILK PRODUCTION COMPARED + +A summary of the investigations of American experiment stations shows +that 100 pounds of dry matter produced ten pounds of increase in live +weight of steers. The same quantity of food when fed to milch cows +produced 74 pounds of milk, plus one pound of increase in live weight. +This 74 pounds of milk contained 3-1/4 pounds of fat. In general, +therefore, the food required to produce a pound of butter fat is about +three times that required to produce a pound of increase in steers. + + COST OF STEER FEEDING + +The fattening of beef animals is largely conducted by farmers who make +a specialty of it. This is particularly true in the so-called corn +belt. Into this region are gathered the two and three-year-old and, +more rarely, yearling steers, many of which have been reared in Texas +or in the mountain states where the supply of maize is not sufficiently +ample to fatten them. These are placed in paddocks with open sheds, +where they are fed from 90 to 150 days, after which they are sent to +market for slaughter. The food consists usually of maize fodder, maize +stover, hay, maize (usually in the ear), a little bran, linseed or +cottonseed oil meal. The ration per day during rapid fattening is about +20 pounds of dry matter per 1,000 pounds of live weight, containing 16 +pounds of digestible substance, of which 1.25 to 1.75 is digestible +protein. One hundred pounds of increase may be obtained under average +conditions from 150 pounds stover, 325 pounds of hay, 775 pounds of +maize and 75 pounds of cottonseed meal. + +Great variations will occur, however, depending upon the condition of +the animals at the beginning of the feeding period and the degree of +fatness or finish to which the animals are brought before placing upon +the market. In any case, the food consumed will cost more than the +value of the increase. The only way that steers can be profitably +fattened is by increasing the value per pound of the animal. Thus an +800-pound steer may be purchased at five cents per pound, or $40. +After feeding, say 150 days, he may weigh 1,100 pounds, when to bring +a profitable return he should sell for 6 cents a pound, or $65. This +is a gain of $25, eight of which came from the increase in value of +the original 800 pounds. Usually steers cannot be fattened profitably +unless there is an increase of at least three-quarters of a cent per +pound in the value of the animals and then, as previously explained, +only in connection with the hogs which follow them. + + COST OF PRODUCING MILK AND BUTTER FAT + +Well-selected and properly fed cows may produce 240 pounds of butter +fat annually. The amount of fat obtained will depend upon the richness +of the milk. Thus, 8,000 pounds of 3% milk, 6,000 pounds of 4% milk, +or a trifle less than 5,000 pounds of 5% milk, will give this quantity +of butter fat. These are customary returns from different types of +cows. + +If each cow in the herd is dry for six weeks each year the daily +average of the cows actually milked will be three-quarters of a pound +of butter fat. There are herds which make an average of nine-tenths of +a pound of butter fat per day, but to secure this result requires +superior cattle, careful feeding and more than ordinary care. + +The standard ration for milch cows weighing from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds +is 25 pounds of dry matter, two-thirds of which is digestible. The +ration should contain not less than two pounds of digestible protein. +In ordinary practice, about ten pounds of the dry matter of the ration +is obtained from maize silage, nine pounds from hay and about six +pounds from grain or other concentrates. In general, this is obtained +by feeding 35 pounds of maize silage, ten pounds of hay and seven to +eight pounds of concentrates. The silage may be estimated at one-tenth +to one-eighth of a cent a pound, hay at from one-fourth to one-half +cent and concentrates at from three-quarters to one and one-quarter +cents per pound, varying, of course, with the different sections of +the country. The amount of food needed will vary somewhat with the +size of the animals, but will depend much more largely upon the amount +of milk and butter fat given. While maintaining substantially the +general average just given for the whole herd, it is the practice of +careful feeders to vary the amount of concentrates fed to each +individual in accordance with the amount of butter fat or milk given. + +[Illustration: Mr. Gabriel Hiester, Harrisburg, Pa., graduate of the +Pennsylvania State College, for many years trustee of the college and +president of the State Horticultural Society, had a beautiful farm home +near Harrisburg. During the first twenty years in bearing his orchard, of +which one-fourth the trees were unprofitable varieties, returned an +average of $80 per acre with apples selling at 60 cents to $1 per bushel. +Mr. Hiester believed, with a proper selection of varieties and a +favorable location, that any well-managed orchard can be made to do much +better.] + +[Illustration: Dr. J. H. Funk, Boyertown, Pa., graduate of the +University of Pennsylvania, 1865, farmers' institute lecturer, former +state pomologist, has 50 acres of apples and peaches. Returns from his +plantings begun in 1896 are so phenomenal that he is afraid to permit the +publication of his profits. It is known, however, that he has sold $5,000 +each of peaches and apples in one year.] + + COST OF MAINTAINING WORK HORSES + +At the Minnesota station, the total cost of feeding and maintaining a +farm work horse for one year was estimated to be from $75 to $90, of +which about $20 was charged for interest and depreciation. On the +basis of 3.3 hours as the length of the working day, the cost per +horse per hour was estimated to be 7-1/2 cents. At the Ohio state +university, it was found that four horses weighing about 1,400 pounds +were chosen to perform 2,185 hours of labor during one year, while +under like conditions four horses, weighing about 200 pounds less, +worked on an average but 1,641 hours each. For each secular day, +therefore, the former worked about 7-1/2 hours, while the latter were +employed but five and one-half hours. The cost of food was estimated +at $54; cost of shoeing, repairs of harness and stable supplies at +$6.50; and the cost of feeding, grooming and cleaning of stables at +$23.50, or a total cost of $84 per year. Nothing was charged for +interest or depreciation, but the expense of feeding and caring for +three colts was included in the estimates given. The annual expense of +maintaining a horse was practically the same in both states, but the +cost per hour of labor performed was less because of the possibility +of employing the horses at productive labor a larger portion of the +time. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the need of planning a +farm organization which will give continuous employment to horses as +well as to men in order to realize the most profitable returns. An +industrial system that makes it necessary to maintain work animals +three days in order to secure one day's work falls far short of an +ideal. + + + + + CHAPTER XVII + + FARM LABOR + + +The problem of farm labor demands thoughtful and frank consideration. +Since work is an essential element in the production of all wealth, it +follows that every industry has its labor problem. The adjustment of +labor to the production of the various forms of wealth must ever +constitute one of the most important problems in any organized +society. It is often remarked that the labor problem is the chief +difficulty in farming. In a certain sense this is true, since work is +a primary element in the production of agricultural as well as all +other wealth. It is not true, however, that the problem of labor is +more difficult or more intricate than that of other industries. In +fact, that problem is less delicate than in some other occupations, +because farming is less industrialized. + +It is not possible to settle once for all the problem of labor for any +occupation, since changing conditions will give rise to new questions +or new phases of the old problem. Moreover, the problem of labor on +the farm will grow more difficult as farming becomes more specialized +and as the methods of production become more complex. + +However, the labor problem on the farm is different from that in the +manufacturing industries or in trade and transportation. This chapter +will not concern itself with an attempt to settle the farm labor +problem, but will undertake to state the character of some of the +differences between it and other forms of labor and to discuss some of +the changes in recent years. + +A large proportion of farm work is done by the farm owner, or renter, +and his family. There is not much opportunity to profit by the labor +of other persons. In 1900 there were in the United States 1,812 +industrial establishments each of which employed between 500 and 1,000 +persons, while there were 675 establishments each of which had more +than one thousand employees. In the same year there were 5,739,657 +farms, which employed in the aggregate 4.4 millions of people, not +including the owners of the farms. Moreover, over one-half of the 4.4 +million persons thus employed were members of the families of the +farmer. In other words, aside from members of the family, there was +less than one employee to every two farmers. Since a considerable +number of farmers employ more than one person, it follows that the +majority of farmers employ no help other than members of the family. + +In another particular farm labor differs from that of other forms of +labor even more widely. There are sociologic as well as economic +questions involved. Baldly stated, custom permits, and necessity often +requires, the laborer to eat at the same table with the farm owner and +in other particulars he mingles intimately with the farmer's family. +In all its bearings, this is a very important fact. It constitutes one +of the greatest difficulties in the problem of securing suitable farm +help. Industrial corporations employ as common laborers largely +Italians, Hungarians, Poles and negroes. The English, the Irish, the +German, the Swede and the Norwegian have been readily received and +assimilated in the American farming communities. The peoples of +Eastern and Southern Europe are often criticized because they do not +become farm laborers. That they do not is in large part due to the +fact that the farm hand is usually a member of the farmer's family. +Thus the supply of common labor which is today used by the rest of the +industrial world is not open to the farmer. + +Farming differs from some other occupations in that it does not +ordinarily offer the laborer much opportunity for advancement. The +fireman on a railway train becomes the engineer; the brakeman becomes +a conductor. There are opportunities in many establishments for the +advancement of the industrious and clever. A man may enter their +service with the hope of being able to marry and support a family. On +the other hand, all our land laws are based upon the idea that each +farm should be of sufficient size to support only one family. Where it +does support two families, the relation is usually that of landlord +and tenant. The farm laborer, therefore, must look upon his employment +as more or less temporary. The young man who intends to become a +farmer will find employment upon the farm a desirable if not essential +preparation for his future occupation. + +The introduction of farm machinery has had the effect of increasing +the price of farm labor while at the same time decreasing the amount +of labor needed. The reason is that the introduction, not alone of +farm machinery, but all forms of machinery, has made man's labor much +more efficient than formerly. Farm wages have doubled since the +introduction of horse-drawn machinery. The labor income in the +different sections of the United States is influenced by the extent +and efficiency with which machinery is used. The relation of labor +income to the use of horse power is shown by the following table taken +from a recent census: + + INFLUENCE OF FARM MACHINERY AS SHOWN BY + THE RELATION OF LABOR INCOME + TO HORSES AND MULES. + + Number of horses + and mules to + Divisions of the 1,000 persons + United States Labor Income in agriculture + North Atlantic $299 1,655 + South Atlantic 163 808 + North Central 402 3,036 + South Central 211 1,603 + Western 510 5,476 + ----------------------------------------------- + United States $288 2,105 + +In one of the states of the South Atlantic division the average price +of farm labor, without board, was $12 per month, while in one of the +states of the western division the price on the same date was $31. +Why? Because in the latter case a man's labor was more productive. In +the South Atlantic division, in producing the chief crops cotton and +maize, a man uses one mule in preparing and cultivating the soil. In +the western division plowing and harrowing with six-horse teams is +common and nine-horse teams are not unusual. The cotton picker in one +day will be able to gather not to exceed 300 pounds of seed cotton, +worth not more than $15. The western wheat will be harvested by a +machine drawn by 28 horses. In the same time four men with this outfit +will cut and thresh 700 bushels of wheat, worth $500. + +When the threshing machine was first introduced in Ohio, it was +stubbornly opposed by all farm laborers. "They claimed it," says +Bateman, "as a right to thresh with a flail, and regarded the +introduction of machinery to effect the same object in a few days +which would require their individual exertion during the whole winter, +not only as an invasion of a time-honored custom, but as absolutely +depriving them of the means of obtaining an honest livelihood. At a +later date, when a reaper had been introduced into a field of ripe +wheat as a matter of experiment only, every one of the harvest hands +deliberately marched out of the field and told the proprietor that he +might secure his crop as best he could, that the threshing machine had +deprived them of their regular winter work twenty years ago and now +the reaper would deprive them of the pittance they otherwise could +earn during harvest." How short-sighted they were! No class gained so +much from the introduction of labor-saving machinery as did those who +did the labor. The reason for the increase in well-being, the reason +society enjoys luxuries and comforts beyond the fondest dreams of +former generations, is due to the fact that the labor of each man has +been made so much more effective through these labor-saving devices. +The humblest citizen shares in this improvement. Not all share alike +and not all share equitably, but each generation sees its members +sharing more equitably than those of any generation which preceded it. + +The proposition is an extremely simple one. If a man produces just +enough food for himself and family, he will have nothing for clothing, +shelter, or education. If, however, a man produces four times as much +food as he and his family consume, he may exchange one-fourth for +shelter, one-fourth for clothing and have remaining a fourth for +education, and recreation or savings. This is only another way of +saying that the greater the amount of any useful commodity produced by +a single day's labor the larger will be the laborer's income or wages. + +Although the increase in intensive agriculture and the diversification +in farming tend to increase the need of farm laborers, the introduction +of farm machinery has much more than offset this demand. The tendency +of farm laborers to become farm tenants; or, to state it in other +words, the tendency of landowners to rent their land rather than to +continue to operate it themselves, is not without its influence upon +the labor problem. + +The invention and introduction of farm machinery has accentuated the +difficulty of keeping the farm laborer continuously employed. The +decrease in the demand for farm labor and the increasing lack of +uniformity in the amount required have caused a gradual depletion of +the smaller villages and hamlets which were a source of labor supply +during harvest and other busy seasons. + +The problem of keeping labor continuously employed has always been a +difficult one on the farm, because of the change of seasons and +because of the variations in the weather from day to day. There is a +wide difference between those industries which are carried on within +doors and farming, which is subject to the caprices of the weather. +Natural causes produce tremendous variations in the return for labor. +For example, in 1901 there were produced in the aggregate 3,006 +million bushels of wheat, maize and oats, while in 1902 there were +harvested 4,180 million bushels. Here is an increase of over a +thousand million bushels. The same farmers tilled the same soil in the +same way as far as natural causes would allow, and yet there was a +difference in result amounting to 39 per cent. A variation of one +hundred million bushels of wheat from year to year, due to climatic +conditions solely, is not at all unusual. + +The manufacturer also has far greater control of his labor. When it +rains, he has a roof over his workmen, and hence the work is not +interrupted. When it grows dark, he turns on the light and the work +continues. If it gets cold, he lights the fire and still the work +continues comfortably. It is not so in agriculture. There is a great +variation in the working efficiency of men employed in farming. In a +certain locality there were twenty-one days of rain in the thirty-one +days of May. The next year between June 5 and September 5 in the same +locality there was not half an inch of rainfall at any one time. + +What is true of labor is also true of machinery. The farmer must +purchase machinery which he can use only a few days in the year, while +the manufacturer, for the most part, employs his machinery continuously, +sometimes day and night. While natural causes prevent the farmer from +using the same business methods, or from being able to calculate his +profits with the same precision as is possible by those following +manufacturing and mercantile pursuits, it is nevertheless important that +farming should be planned to avoid, as far as possible, the influence of +natural causes. Certain kinds of farming are less dependent upon natural +causes than others. Wisdom and foresight can do much to avoid, in all +farming, untoward influences. The clever farmer seldom complains about +the weather. + +Farm machinery has made unnecessary, and hence unprofitable, some of +the labor at which children were formerly employed. In the not distant +past many, perhaps most farmers, owed their prosperity in large +measure to the labor of their children. A large family, especially of +boys, was a valuable asset. Even a generation ago conditions were not +far different, and two generations ago were quite the same as those +described by Homer: + + "Another field rose high with waving grain: + With bended sickles stand the reaper train: + Here, stretch'd in ranks, the level'd swaths are found; + Sheaves heaped on sheaves here thicken up the ground. + With sweeping stroke the mowers strow the lands; + The gath'rers follow, and collect in bands: + And last the children, in whose arms are borne + (Too short to gripe them) the brown sheaves of corn. + The rustic monarch of the field descries, + With silent glee, the heaps around him rise. + A ready banquet on the turf is laid + Beneath an ample oak's expanded shade. + The victim ox the sturdy youth prepare: + The reapers due repast, the women's care." + +There is also another reason why the age of the employed has been +raised. It is due to the growth of higher education. Where formerly +the farmer's children between the ages of twelve and twenty-one did +most of the farm work, now many of them at the same age are attending +schools and colleges. The sons of a man, who a generation ago found no +opportunity to get beyond the district school, graduate from high +school and college, and thus spend most of their time in study until +they are past twenty-one years of age. + +Labor unions have doubtless caused a scarcity of farm labor by +increasing the proportion of the created wealth which goes to the man +who labors without capital. When a man can obtain fifty cents an hour +for laying brick, he does not wish to work in the hay field at twenty +cents an hour, even though the difference in the cost of living may in +great measure offset the difference in wages. + +There is a growing tendency to perform work by what is called contract +labor. Thus a person may agree to weed and hoe sugar beets at a +certain rate per acre. He, in turn, employs a force of cheap laborers +which he sends from farm to farm to do this work. The harvesting of +fruits and garden crops is not infrequently done in some such manner. +In one instance a contractor of laborers of foreign birth has been +furnishing them for all kinds of farm work. He keeps 20 to 40 of these +laborers on a small farm, furnishing them a dwelling and selling them +food supplies. Farmers telephone for help when in need. The contractor +receives $1.65 for a day's work and pays the laborer $1.50. + +It appears from the preceding considerations that there are open to +every farmer at least three methods of increasing the efficiency of +farm labor. He may make every day's labor more efficient by use of +labor-saving machinery and the employment of it in the most efficient +manner; as, for example, using three 1,500-pound horses to his farm +machinery instead of a pair of 1,200-pound horses. He may modify the +character of his farming in order that profitable labor will be more +continuous. He may modify the method of employing labor; as, for +example, by introducing the system of contracting labor for specific +purposes where feasible. + +Increase in the price of farm labor is not an evil. It is an +indication that labor applied to agriculture is becoming more +productive and hence more profitable. Since more than one-half the +labor of the farm is done by the owner and his family, the farmer is +benefited through the rise in price of farm wages. The more that labor +can be made to earn upon the farm, the better it will be not only for +the farm owner but for society in general. + + + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + SHIPPING + + +The means of facile transportation and the machinery of trade are the +need and the development of a complex civilization. The importance of +these useful adjuncts of everyday life is indicated by the fact that +about one-fourth of all the people engaged in gainful occupations in +civilized communities are employed in them. Nevertheless the expense +of transportation and trade constitutes a tax upon the consumer which +it is the aim of modern methods to reduce to the lowest limits. Recent +investigations indicate that for every thirteen dollars the consumer +expends for farm products the producers receive six dollars. In some +directions most remarkable results have been accomplished. A recent +quotation on wheat per bushel was as follows: Chicago, $0.93; Antwerp, +$1.04; London, $1.06; Hamburg, $1.07. Eleven to 14 cents per bushel +represents the cost of haul and commissions between Chicago and the +European cities named. Methods of handling have been so perfected that +from the time the western farmer places the bundle of wheat at the +mouth of the threshing machine the grain literally flows through the +channels of trade until it reaches the flour sack. On an average the +English miller pays about 20 cents a bushel more for wheat than the +American farmer receives for it. + +The cost of distributing many other farm products is greater, although +the range of distribution is much less. The cost of haulage and +selling potatoes is from 25 to 50% of the retail price, while with hay +it is still higher. The cost of distributing all forms of truck and +market garden produce is high and often wasteful. Many attempts have +been made to eliminate a part of this cost as well as to better the +conditions of the supplies when they reach the consumer. While many +individuals have been quite successful in dealing directly with the +consumer, little has thus far been accomplished that affects general +trade conditions. Great improvements have been made in methods of +transportation and methods of preservation. Cold storage and canned +goods have been the direction in which progress has been notable. + + WASTEFUL METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION + +Owing to customs and traditions there is frequently a great waste of +effort in some of the methods of trade. The meat trade of France is an +excellent illustration. Certain sections of France make a specialty of +rearing cattle. At a suitable age these animals are purchased by other +farmers who fatten them. Many of the small towns maintain market +places at which fairs are held to facilitate these negotiations. +Frequently there is a shipment from one region to another, which is +conducted by a middleman. When fattened the steers are collected by a +stock buyer, who may ship them to La Villette, the live stock market +of Paris. Here they are placed on sale through commission men. There +are the usual charges for yardage and food. After being sold the +animals are driven to the slaughterhouses. The carcasses are then +taken by wagon to the great market of Paris located near the center of +the city. Here the retail vender of meats comes, makes his purchase, +reloads the meat, which may have been unloaded less than an hour +before, carries it to his shop, where the consumer seeks it. The +number of people concerned and the amount of hand labor have been +excessive. + +Nor is the American system without its faults. The Iowa or Illinois +farmer fattens cattle that may have been reared in Montana or Texas. +After the stock buyer, the commission man and the stock yard company +have each taken his toll, the packer ships the carcasses back to the +very region where the animals were fattened, when the stockman may +purchase it of the local vender of meats. The facilities and +perfection with which these many transactions are accomplished is one +of the wonderful sights of our country. Nevertheless the producer of +meat products may well consider whether some more economical system of +distribution may not be devised. + + SHIPMENTS: SOURCES OF INFORMATION + +All railroad rates are now carefully supervised by the federal +government and are open to the inspection of the public. Such +information as is ordinarily needed may be obtained from the local +station agent, who is always glad to be of service to patrons of his +road. If information of a special character is required, it may be +obtained by addressing the division freight agent of the railroad in +the region under consideration. The name of this officer is to be +found in the circulars and upon the posters of the railroad. + +In addition to the freight facilities offered by any individual +railroad, there are what are known as fast freight lines. These +agencies enable through and prompt shipment from inland points in our +own country to inland points in another. An individual railroad may +operate in connection with several such agencies. A certain railroad, +for example, is combined with nine fast freight lines. Freight agents +of local roads in the principal towns usually represent the fast +freight lines and are prepared to transact business. + +In seaport cities there are firms styling themselves foreign freight +contractors, outward freight agents, steamship agents, or ship +brokers. These firms are prepared to quote prices on shipments to any +part of the world on either regular or tramp ships. They will give +freely to intending shippers full information concerning methods and +conditions of shipment. There is nothing mysterious about the business +of shipping farm products. The necessary details may be acquired by +inquiry in the channels indicated and by a little study of the data, +which will be cheerfully furnished. + + RAILROAD RATES + +A great many factors are involved in determining the rate which is +charged for transporting different products. In a certain sense it is +doubtless true that the rate charged is based upon what the traffic +will bear. The purpose here, however, is to state some of the customs +which exist rather than to discuss the philosophy or justice of them. + +The rate may vary with the value of the product, without any regard to +the cost of the haul. Suppose the cost of shipping a ten-gallon can of +fresh milk between two points to be 32 cents, the cost of shipping a +similar can of cream may be 50 cents. The cost of shipping a carload +of hay is less than a carload of wheat. + +In some instances, zones or belts have been recognized, the rate from +all towns within each zone being the same for a given product. Certain +railroads centering in New York recognize four zones for the shipment +of milk and cream, as follows: + + Zone A--First 40 miles. + Zone B--Between 40 and 100 miles. + Zone C--Between 100 and 190 miles. + Zone D--Beyond 190 miles. + +It will be noticed that the size of these zones varies and may be the +subject of adjustment between railroads and shippers. + +While less understood by the public, railroads recognize zones or, +more properly, groups of towns in making rates to them instead of from +them, as in the instance above mentioned. It is possible to change the +rate on a product to a given town by classifying it in another group. +The rate on bran and other stock foods from central western points to +certain towns in New York state has been the same as that charged to +Boston, Mass., while other towns in New York not far removed have +taken a lower rate. + +Differential rates are recognized to be legitimate. Railroads are +allowed to charge a less rate for wheat intended for export than that +intended for local consumption. There has sometimes been a wide +difference between the freight rate on wheat between Kansas City and +Galveston, Texas, depending upon whether the wheat was to be exported +or intended for domestic use. + +In certain sections and for certain products the railroad rate varies +with the season, because of difference in competition. The railroad +rate between Chicago and New York on grain is higher while the +navigation of the Great Lakes is suspended. As an illustration of the +cheapness of transportation by water, it is stated that sometimes it +is cheaper to ship wheat from Chicago to Buffalo by boat than to store +it in a grain elevator for an equal period of time. + +Products may sometimes be sent by baggage to greater advantage than by +express, special arrangements for which are generally required. + + FACILITIES FOR FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION + +American railway facilities are, perhaps, unrivaled among the nations +of the world, but the United States is still behind other nations in +the matter of means of local transportation, in which good roads is +only a part of the problem. In France, the so-called _messagers_ are a +common feature of local traffic. Thus in the Department of Touraine +there are 246 towns each having from one to four _messagers_, who with +their great two-wheel carts, each with single draft horse, make one or +two trips to Tours each week. The _messagers_ carry freight both ways +precisely in the same capacity as railroads do. While the railroads +are fairly abundant these local agencies continue to thrive because +delivery can be made directly to the consignee and delivery at the +exact time and place is more certain. The enormous loads conveyed in +these two-wheel carts by one horse is an element in this system to +which the good roads of France now contribute. In 1799, France had +constructed 25,000 miles of roadway. Since that time, over 300,000 +miles of roadway have been completed and about 30,000 miles of railway +have been constructed--ten miles of roadway for each mile of steam +railway. The good roads of France are of comparatively recent origin, +contributing materially to the improvement in well-being which has +taken place during the same period. + + + + + CHAPTER XIX + + MARKETING + + +Without stopping to inquire the reasons, it may be recalled that there +are two rather distinct forms of trade, wholesale and retail. The +wholesale trade is conducted by three classes of persons: dealers or +merchants, commission men, and brokers. The dealer is one who buys the +goods outright and takes his own risk on making a favorable sale to +the retailer. The commission man is one who receives the goods, sells +them at such price as he may be able to obtain and remits to the +seller the amount obtained less expenses and his commission. The +broker is a man who effects a sale without coming in contact in any +way with the materials sold. A cheese broker, for example, receives +instruction from different factories to sell for them a certain +quantity of cheese of a given kind and quality each week or month as +the case may be. At the same time he receives from grocery stores +which retail cheese orders for various amounts, kinds and quality of +cheeses. With this information at hand, he directs the various +factories intrusting their business to him to ship the kind, quantity, +and quality of cheese required by his several customers. For such +service he receives a brokerage, which is less than that charged by a +commission man because he is not required to handle or store the +material. + +Since the different farm products are purchased by different classes +of retailers, and since their handling and sale require different +facilities and special knowledge, there have arisen in the great +centers of trade different kinds of markets, each having its +particular facilities for the handling, care and sale, and each +conducted by commission men or brokers with a special knowledge of the +trade. Furthermore, certain cities have become, on account of their +favorable position--to mention but one reason--headquarters for +certain products or groups of products. Thus Petersburg, Virginia, has +the principal wholesale market for peanuts. Elgin, Illinois, has been +noted for its butter market. St. Louis is the leading mart for mules. + +In a general way, the following five more or less distinct and +important classes of markets for farm products may be recognized: +Grain, Live Stock, Produce, Cotton and Tobacco. + + METHODS OF TRADE + +The brokers or commission men doing business in any one of these +markets usually form an association called a board of trade, chamber +of commerce or similar title for the purpose of assisting "each other +in the pursuit of common ends." The result has been uniformity of +methods and charges; but above all in importance, perhaps, has been +the definition of classes and grades of the products placed on sale. +The tendency is for the associations in the different cities to adopt +uniform rules for the grading of products, so that No. 2 red winter +wheat may mean the same thing in Toledo and New York; that the +quotation on prime beef may refer to the same quality of cattle in +Pittsburgh as it does in Chicago; and that No. 1 Timothy hay in +Baltimore and St. Louis may be alike. While the tendency is towards +uniformity, much yet remains to be accomplished. The shipper must be +on his guard lest he suffer loss through the variations in the +classification or variations in their interpretations on the different +markets. + +There has grown up around these markets some agency which stands as a +disinterested party between seller and buyer impartially determining +the weight and in some cases the quality of the object under +negotiation. The State of Illinois employs agents who inspect all cars +of grain consigned to the Chicago market. These inspectors determine +the kind, grade and weight of the grain in each car. The car is then +delivered under seal to the purchaser. If either seller or buyer is +dissatisfied with the inspector's decision he may, by complying with +certain regulations, have this decision reviewed by a higher +authority. The decision of this higher authority is final and must be +accepted by both parties. Brokers selling grain in carload lots ship +the cars subject to the weight and grade as determined by the +inspector at Chicago. Grain of a specific grade may thus be bought in +Chicago or other great grain markets with almost perfect security as +to weight and quality by persons living in any part of this or any +other country. At Elgin the quality of butter is determined by a +committee appointed by the Board of Trade from its own members. In the +live stock markets, the stock yards company, in addition to furnishing +yards, shelter, food and water, acts as agent between seller and buyer +in determining the weight of the animals. The purchaser or his agent +must determine for himself the quality of the animals he buys. + + GRAIN MARKETS + +The Chicago and St. Paul Boards of Trade and the New York Produce +Exchange are the three great agencies for dealing in grain in the +United States. Buffalo, Duluth, Baltimore and Philadelphia are also +important markets. Adjuncts to these markets are the great terminal +elevators capable of holding almost indefinitely enormous quantities +of wheat and other grain. On the Pacific Coast all the wheat is +handled in the bags, as is the custom in the other markets of the +world. Canada and the United States alone have recognized the +principle that wheat and other grains will run like water, which has +been a prime factor in their competition with other nations. + +Country elevators charge two cents a bushel for storage during the +first 15 days and 1/2 cent for each additional 15 days. The charge for +storage at terminal elevators for the first 15 days is 3/4 cent. The +farmer may thus store his wheat in an elevator in place of his farm if +he chooses so to do, although the wheat he thus puts in storage may +have been made into flour and consumed before he sells it. This may be +looked upon as a sort of intermediary step between storing wheat in +one's own granary and dealing in futures. + +The country shipper pays 1/2 cent a bushel commission for the sale of +wheat. There is also a charge for inspection and insurance, and, in +case there is an advance payment, for interest. After five days there +are storage charges. This has given rise to the expression, gilt edge, +regular and short receipts, depending upon the length of time there +remains before storage charges must be paid. Every market has a grade +known as contract grade, meaning the quality that must be furnished +when wheat or other grain is sold without specifying the grade. In +Chicago No. 2 red winter wheat is the contract grade. Where grain is +sold or purchased by a broker, the brokerage is usually 1/8 cent per +bushel. + + HAY MARKETS + +At least twenty cities have adopted the rules of the National hay +association as to classes and grades of hay and straw. The southern +states constitute an important market for the hay of the north central +states, while Boston, New York and the mining towns of Pennsylvania +are important markets for the northeastern states. The size of bale +varies from 75 to 200 pounds. Small bales of 100 pounds each are +preferred in Baltimore, medium bales of 110 to 140 pounds in +Philadelphia, while New York and Boston usually deal in the larger +bales. The commission charges vary from 50 cents to $1 per car. In New +York, $1 pays all charges. At Chicago, $3 per car has been charged for +the inspection, divided equally between seller and buyer. + + PRODUCE MARKETS + +Every town of any consequence has its produce market. The South Water +street district in Chicago and the West Washington street market in +New York are noted for their extent and variety. There are also many +special markets for certain classes of produce. Thus Elgin, Chicago +and New York have butter exchanges. Wisconsin, Utica, Watertown and +Cuba (New York) maintain exchanges where cheese is placed on sale each +week during the manufacturing season. There is also a board of trade +for cheese in New York City. The prices quoted upon these exchanges +are made the basis of many transactions between buyer and seller, who +never enter these markets. Not only do buyers and sellers agree to +abide by the quotations of one or the other of these markets, but the +quotations are also used as a basis of settlement for milk furnished +the creamery or factory. These agencies are thus impartial arbiters in +countless financial transactions. + +The rate of commission varies in different markets and for different +products. Generally, however, produce is handled on a 5% basis, but +for individual products which are especially bulky and difficult to +handle, such as cabbage, 10% may be charged. In some cases commission +is by quantity instead of on a percentage basis. Thus for potatoes the +commission is sometimes 10% and in other cases 4 or 5 cents a bushel. + + LIVE STOCK MARKETS + +While poultry and game, as well as the carcasses of the smaller +animals, may be handled through the produce markets, the large animals +require separate facilities. The United States is noted for its large +live stock markets and for the perfection and size of the packing +houses which have grown up about them. The most famous example of +these combined agencies is to be found at Chicago, but important live +stock markets are also maintained at St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, +Pittsburgh, Buffalo and more recently Fort Worth, Texas. The +commission charges vary from 50 cents to $1 per head for cattle and +from 10 to 25 cents per head for calves, sheep and hogs. In some +markets, the commission on hogs is 2% of the gross returns. When +located within 150 miles of a central market, it is customary to allow +50 cents per hundred pounds for cattle and 40 cents for hogs to cover +shrinkage, and cost of freight, yardage, food, bedding and commission. +It is possible for an owner to sell his own live stock in these yards, +but the commission man, because of his superior knowledge of existing +trade conditions, is almost universally employed. Firms which handle +cattle, sheep and hogs seldom sell horses. Although handled by +different commission firms, important horse markets are maintained at +Chicago and Buffalo immediately adjacent to the market for meat +animals. In New York the horse markets are in a different section of +the city, that for draft and common work horses on one street, while +the American Horse Exchange, located at another point, handles +high-class light horses. The usual custom is to sell horses at +auction, although they may be purchased at private treaty. In whatever +manner purchased, it is essential to understand precisely the +character of the guarantee. + + COTTON, WOOL AND TOBACCO MARKETS + +Because of their higher value per pound and the ease with which they +can be stored, cotton, wool and tobacco are dealt in somewhat +differently than other farm products. The two great cotton exchanges +are located at New Orleans and New York, the quotations on these +markets controlling the financial transactions in cotton throughout the +world. The principal wool markets are Boston, New York, Philadelphia +and St. Louis. The principal tobacco markets are at Richmond and +Danville, Va., Durham, N. C., and Louisville, Ky. + +[Illustration: Mr. C. W. Wald, graduate of the Ohio State University, +farmer, formerly assistant horticulturist of the New Hampshire and Ohio +Experiment Stations, is shown above in one of the New Carlisle (Ohio) +greenhouses, in which three crops of lettuce occur in one bed. One crop +is ready to cut, another planted and a third in pots between the other +plants, to be planted in another bed when large enough. The net returns +from a quarter of an acre under glass has been greater than from 160 +acres devoted to general farm crops.] + +[Illustration: C. W. Zuck & Sons, Erie, Pa. One son was a student in +agriculture at the Pennsylvania State College. Father and three sons, +beginning six years ago with a run-down farm of 55 acres, have built an +acre of glass and a heating plant of 260 horsepower. During the period +they have spent $5,000 on the place and at the end of season they will +have very nearly cleared their improvements. "Tell the youthful +readers of your book to get as much education as possible and then go in +partnership with their fathers or brothers. If they do, success will be +theirs."] + +The country shipper or the young farmer wishing to place his products +in the ordinary channels of trade must consider and determine among +other things the following: What cities have favorable markets for his +products; choose some commission man or broker to handle them; +calculate the expenses for freight, commission and other customary +items; familiarize himself with the rules for grading his products in +the market or markets under consideration; and determine what agency +there may be for protecting him as to the weight and quality when +sales are effected. Whenever practicable, a visit to the market in +question and a personal study of the conditions under which selling is +done will be wise. Having done so, and perhaps having made a number of +sales through these usual channels of trade, he will be in a position +to consider whether he may organize to advantage some more direct +method of getting his products to the consumer. + + + + + CHAPTER XX + + LAWS AFFECTING LAND AND + LABOR + + +Thus far property has been treated as invested capital upon which +interest must be charged in determining the labor income. Labor, +likewise, has been considered principally in its effect upon profits. +Society has thrown around the transfer of property and the use of +labor certain restraints for the protection of all individuals. + +Through the ages certain procedures have become fixed by custom. These +legal practices are largely the inheritance of old Roman law and are +usually known as common law. Various legislative bodies having +jurisdiction enact from time to time other laws. This body of enacted +law is called statute law and is much more variable than common law. +In the briefest possible manner it is the purpose here to state a few +of the principles and applications of the law, chiefly the common law, +as it affects the farmer in acquiring or disposing of his property and +in his dealings with labor. + + PROPERTY + +Property may be defined as anything which is a subject of ownership. +It possesses the characteristics of being acquired, held, sold, willed +or inherited and is of two kinds: (1) Real property, real estate or +realty; (2) chattels or personal property. These two kinds of property +are subject to quite distinct legal practices. In general, real estate +consists of land, things attached to it, such as trees, buildings, +fences and certain rights and profits arising out of or annexed to the +land. The term land as ordinarily used includes all these things, so +that when land is said to be worth so much an acre it includes all +fixtures. Ponds and streams are, under this definition, land. The land +not only has surface dimensions, but extends upward indefinitely and +down to the center of the earth, and hence includes a right to ores, +coal, oil, gas or other materials whatsoever. + +An article may, however, be real property or personal property +depending upon circumstances. Thus a tree growing on the land is real +property, but when cut into cord wood becomes personal property. New +fence posts ready for use are personal property. When set in the +ground they become real estate. Just what goes with a farm or what are +fixtures is frequently a subject for legal determination. + + FIXTURES + +The general rule is that "fixtures are any chattels which have become +substantially and permanently annexed to the land or to buildings or +other things which are clearly a part of the land."[D] The annexation +may, however, be purely theoretical, since the keys to the house or +barn, which may be in the owner's pocket, are real estate. One rule +concerning fixtures is that they must be so annexed that they cannot +be severed without injuring the freehold. The intention of the party +making the annexation also often determines, since if the article is +annexed with the intention of making it permanent, it then becomes a +part of the land. Among the things held to be fixtures, and therefore +a part of the land, are: (1) All buildings and everything which is a +part of any building, such as doors, blinds, keys, etc.; (2) fence +materials which have been once used and are piled up to be used again +are a part of the land, but new fence material not yet used is +personal property. (3) Growing crops are real property. They go to the +purchaser of the land unless specially reserved in the deed. A verbal +agreement is not sufficient. (4) Trees, if blown down or cut down and +still lying where they fell, are real property; if cut or corded up +for sale they become personal property. (5) All manure made on the +farm is real estate and passes with the land. (6) All the ordinary +portable machines and tools are considered personal property, but +certain machines held to be of permanent use upon the land are real +estate. Among the things which courts have held to go with the land +are cotton gins, copper kettles encased in brick and mortar for +cooking food for hogs, cider mills, pumps, water pipes bringing water +from distant springs. In general, motive power machinery and the +shafting go with the land, but the machinery impelled may or may not, +depending upon the way it is annexed. (7) If stones have been quarried +for the purpose of using upon the farm, they go with the farm, but if +quarried for sale they are personal property. + + CONTRACTS + +The difference between personal property and real property may be +indicated by considering the essential features of a contract. A +contract is an agreement between two or more persons. The foundation +rule concerning a contract is that every man must fulfill every +agreement he makes. An ethical practice grows out of this legal rule +which, if strictly adhered to, will save much embarrassment, viz., +make but few promises and always keep your engagements. + +There are seven requirements generally necessary to a valid contract. +(1) Possibility. The thing to be done must be possible. (2) Legality. +It must not be forbidden by law. (3) Proper parties. The parties to a +contract must be competent. Contracts with idiots or drunken persons +are not binding. Some contracts with minors are not binding, although +contracts for the necessities of life are. (4) Mutual assent. A +proposition not assented to by both parties is not binding on either. +(5) Valid consideration. A man is not regarded as injured by the +breaking of a promise for which he has paid, or is to pay, nothing. +(6) Fraud or deceit. A contract obtained by fraud is void as against +the party using the fraud, but may be enforced by the innocent party +if he sees fit. (7) Written contracts. Here comes the most important +difference between real and personal property. Real property can only +be conveyed by a written instrument, properly executed and recorded, +while personal property passes by mere possession. Contracts relating +to the sale of real estate are not binding unless in writing, while +verbal contracts are sufficient for personal property if accompanied +by payment of a part of the purchase price or the acceptance of the +goods. For amounts under $50 verbal agreement in itself is binding. + + TRANSFER OF REAL ESTATE + +The purchaser should require of the seller evidence that the title to +the land is straight and clear; if not, exactly what the defects are. +This is done through an abstract of title, which should be prepared by +a competent lawyer. This is not an official document, and its value +depends largely upon the ability and watchfulness of the party making +the abstract. Ownership of land is conveyed by means of a deed. A deed +is an instrument conveying at least a life interest in the land. Care +should be taken that the deed contains the essential parts and that it +is properly executed. + + DEEDS + +Deeds are of two kinds: Quit claim deeds, which convey all the rights, +title and interest which the seller has in the land, but does not +warrant the title; and warranty deeds, which, in addition to what a +quit claim does, contain covenants which agree that the seller and his +heirs, etc., shall warrant and defend the title to the purchaser +against the lawful claims of all persons. + + THE REQUISITES OF A DEED + +The requisites of a deed are: The parties to the deed, the +consideration, the description; and with a warranty deed, the +covenants. The seller must be of full age, sound mind and if married +his wife should always join in the deed. Her name should appear +following his at the beginning of the instrument. She should sign and +acknowledge the deed, and the certificate of acknowledgment should +state that she is the wife of the seller. If the seller is a married +woman, her husband does not need to join in the sale of her own +property. It is customary to state the consideration upon which the +deed is given, but this is not necessary, nor will a false statement +as to the amount paid invalidate the deed. + +The description of the land conveyed should be as minute and careful +as possible, and preferably in the exact language of former deeds. In +case former description is in error, it should be referred to and +correct description given. Where land is conveyed by metes and bounds, +this description governs, although it may not convey the number of +acres of land stated. In describing boundaries the location of +monuments takes precedence of distances mentioned. + + EXECUTION OF THE DEED + +A deed must be signed, witnessed, acknowledged, delivered and +recorded. In some states deeds must be sealed, but in other states the +law has dispensed with this formality. Witnesses to deeds are not +required in all states. Some states require one, but usually two +witnesses are required. The parties signing the deed are required to +appear before an official designated by statute, usually any +magistrate, justice or notary public, and acknowledge the same to be +his or her free act and deed. + +A deed has no effect until delivered, and should be immediately +recorded by the purchaser. Generally an unrecorded deed is not good as +against a subsequent purchaser in good faith. It is well to note that +the laws relating to the transfer of land are those of the place where +the land lies and not necessarily those of the place where the deed is +made. + + METHOD OF LAYING OUT PUBLIC LANDS + +The public lands of the United States are, whenever practicable, laid +out into townships each six miles square, "as near as may be," whose +sides run due north and south and east and west. The townships are +laid off north and south of a base line which is a parallel of +latitude, and are numbered north and south from the base line: Thus, +T. 3 S., means Township No. 3 south from the base line. Each row of +townships running north and south is called a range, and is numbered +east or west of the principal meridian: Thus, R. 2 E., means Range 2 +east of the given meridian. + +The townships are then laid off into sections or square miles of 640 +acres, "as near as may be," and these are numbered, beginning always +at the northeast section, as shown in the accompanying diagram. + + N + +-----------------------------+ + | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | + |----+----+----+----+----+----| + | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | + |----+----+----+----+----+----| + W | 18 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 13 | E + |----+----+----+----+----+----| + | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | + |----+----+----+----+----+----| + | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | + |----+----+----+----+----+----| + | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | + +-----------------------------+ + S + +Each quarter section is referred to as the northeast or southwest +quarter of the section, and each forty acres as the northwest or +southeast quarter of a particular quarter. For example, an eighty-acre +field may be referred to as the west half of the southwest quarter of +Section 3, Township 5 North, Range 3, west of ----. Base line and +meridian, or in some cases merely the meridian is mentioned. + +The curvature of the earth's surface makes it impossible for the sides +of townships to be truly north and south and at the same time six +miles square. The excesses and the deficiencies due to the convergency +of meridians and the curvature of the earth are by law added to or +deducted from the western and northern ranges of sections and half +sections of the townships. While the above has been the rule in laying +out public lands for more than a century, there are many exceptions, +due to many causes. + +In the older settled sections the land was laid out in lots, often in +a very irregular manner, although in some cases within a given tract +the area was more or less regular. In these cases, the land must be +described minutely and carefully by metes and bounds. In some of the +southern and western states, also, where there were Spanish grants, +much irregularity in the surveys exists. Over much of the north +Central states this rectangular system of laying out lands obtains and +has worked well in most respects. + + THE LANDLORD AND TENANT + +Leases of real estate follow the same procedure as deeds, except that +a verbal lease, if for a term of not to exceed one year, is valid in +most states. A written lease should be carefully drawn, because, +according to common law, there are few things implied in a lease that +are not stated. Definite statement concerning repairs and insurance is +desirable. A tenant should also acquaint himself with the law of the +state concerning the surrender of the farm upon the expiration of his +term. + +It is the duty of the tenant not only to guard the property, but to +conduct the farm in a husbandlike manner. Unless otherwise stated in +the contract, the tenant must pursue those methods of husbandry which +are customary in the vicinity. + + THE RELATION OF THE FARMER TO HIS + WORKMEN + +The requirements of a valid contract, as previously stated, control +most of the relations which the employer has with his employees. +Contracts for labor, unless for more than one year, need not be in +writing. If, however, the service to be rendered is unusual, the +agreement should be reduced to writing, because, in the absence of +specific agreement, the law assumes that customary service and wages +are implied. + +Like all other employers of labor the farmer is under obligation to +protect his workman from injury. He must not subject them to unusual +and unreasonable risks. He must hire workmen suited to the employment. +For example, if he employs a young boy to drive a fractious horse, he +would be liable for any injury that might occur. In like manner, he +must exercise proper care concerning the safety of the machinery +placed in the hands of his workmen. He must keep his premises in a +safe condition and must not expose his workmen to risks not incident +to the employment for which they are hired. + +The farmer is liable in damages for the acts of his workmen which are +within the scope of their employment, although the authority may not +have been expressly conferred. "He who acts by another acts himself." +In case one is sued for the acts of his employee, the burden is upon +him to prove that the act of the workman was without authority, +expressed or implied. + +----- + + [D] Haigh's "Manual of Law," p. 69. + + + + + CHAPTER XXI + + RURAL LEGISLATION + + +Various laws have been enacted by federal and state legislatures for the +better protection of producer and consumer. Much of this legislation +affects in a very special way the interests of the farmer. Not +infrequently, in fact, generally, the state department of agriculture +has more or less direct jurisdiction over their enforcement. State +departments of agriculture usually publish a collection of the laws of +this character. These laws vary greatly in the different states and only +the most general outline, as they affect the interests of the farmer, +can be given here. Persons can inform themselves as to the details as +enforced in a given state by applying to the state secretary of +agriculture. + +A number of these acts affect interstate commerce, concerning which +the United States Constitution says: "No state shall, without the +consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or +exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its +inspection laws." By a series of judicial decisions it has been +determined that a State has a right to enforce laws affecting +interstate commerce when traffic in the articles thus modified or +prohibited affects the public welfare. When it is necessary to have a +police regulation to prevent fraud in the traffic of an article or for +the purpose of guarding the public health or morals, police laws, so +called, may be enacted and enforced. Around this general question +there has waged a bitter controversy which has occupied some of the +best legal minds and is one involving some difficulty. + + FERTILIZER CONTROL + +One of the first of the "control" measures to be enacted, and the one +which has been most universally adopted by the several states, is the +law requiring the manufacturer and dealer in commercial fertilizers to +guarantee the percentage of the so-called essential fertilizing +elements--nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium--contained in each bag of +fertilizer offered for sale. Subsequent control laws have been modeled +more or less closely after this law. Hence a description of the +operation and execution of it will serve for all. + +The execution of this law is usually under the immediate supervision +of the state secretary of agriculture, while the necessary chemical +analyses are made by the state experiment station. In some states the +enforcement of the law is in charge of the state experiment station, +while in others the state department of agriculture has its own +laboratories or employs a private chemist. It is, however, becoming a +more and more settled policy to place all police regulations in charge +of the state department of agriculture, while at the same time the +chemical analyses and other scientific and technological inquiries are +made at the state experiment station. + +In order to facilitate the taking of samples and in order to raise +funds for the execution of the law, the manufacturer is required to +take out a license and to make a statement of the brands of fertilizers +which he will place upon the market in the given state during the given +season. + +During the spring and fall season agents traverse the state and sample +the bags of fertilizers as found on sale by local merchants. The +samples are sent by number under seal to the designated chemist, while +at the same time the agent transmits to the state officer in charge of +the enforcement of the law the necessary information concerning these +samples. Upon the receipt of the analysis made by the chemist, who has +had no knowledge of the origin of the sample, the state officer +compares them with the guarantee of the manufacturer, and if he finds +it necessary enters legal complaint. While these laws have been in +force for many years in some states and in many states for some years, +prosecution has seldom been found necessary. The honest manufacturer is +protected from dishonest competition, and the dishonest manufacturer, +if there be such, cannot afford the publicity which noncompliance with +the law would entail. + +It has been customary to publish, with the results of analysis, also +an estimate of the commercial value per ton of each brand of +fertilizer. This estimated commercial value is obtained by multiplying +the pounds of each element or combinations of the element in a ton by +a value per pound. To the value of the fertilizer thus obtained is +added something for cost of mixing, bagging and freight, and something +for profit. The price per pound given to each element or combinations +of the elements is based upon the commercial value of the element when +purchased in raw materials. The price for each year is usually +determined by a conference of those in control of the execution of the +law in the several states for certain groups of states. As a matter of +fact, the price varies little from year to year. + +The published figures, therefore, constitute a table of comparative +commercial values as determined by the most expert knowledge. While +not constituting a statement of absolute commercial value for any +given locality, they do enable the purchaser to determine whether the +price quoted on a given brand of fertilizer is within reason. Persons +who are unacquainted with the principles controlling the use of +commercial fertilizers may, however, be led to believe that the price +of the fertilizer is an indication of its value for the production of +a given crop. As is well known to all students of the subject, there +is no necessary relation between the commercial value of a fertilizer +and the fitness of its formula for a given soil and crop. For these +and other reasons, the publication of tables of commercial value has +been strongly opposed by some manufacturers, and in certain states the +custom has been discontinued. While granting that tables of commercial +value are subject to misinterpretation, it is perhaps fair to say that +such tables have been of most benefit, and, moreover, have been of +great value to those who were most likely to misinterpret them. + +It has been customary in most states to make analyses only of mixed +fertilizers. Thus such raw materials as nitrate of soda, sulphate of +ammonia, dried blood, bone meal, rock phosphate, tankage, muriate of +potash, sulphate of potash, have not been brought under the operation +of the law. If one wishes to purchase nitrate of soda, muriate of +potash and tankage with the intention of mixing them according to a +formula of his own, he may not find any protection in his state. +However, these products can be obtained through reputable dealers who +will willingly guarantee the contents. In case of doubt, the purchaser +may secure an analysis by his state experiment station at a moderate +cost. + +The law requires that there shall be affixed to every package of +fertilizer offered for sale a statement about as follows: + + The minimum per centum of each of the following constituents + which may be contained therein: + + (a) Nitrogen. + + (b) Soluble, available and total phosphoric acid, except in + cases of undissolved bone, basic slag phosphate, wood ashes, + unheated phosphate rock, garbage tankage and pulverized natural + manures, when the minimum per centum of total phosphoric acid + may be substituted. This latter applies only in those states + where raw materials are subject to inspection. + + (c) Potash soluble in distilled water. + +It is possible to comply with the law and yet state the guarantee upon +each bag of fertilizer in such a manner as to mislead the uninformed. +It is not the purpose of this book to deal with such technical +details, but if the purchaser of commercial fertilizers is not already +well acquainted with fertilizer terms, he should secure an elementary +textbook on the subject or write to his state experiment station for a +bulletin discussing them. + + FEEDING STUFF CONTROL + +The law controlling the sale of stock foods is of more recent origin +than the fertilizer control act and has not been so universally +adopted up to the present time. The necessity for such a law arises +from the growing use as stock foods of various by-products in the +manufacture of liquors, starch, glucose, sugar, cottonseed and linseed +oils and breakfast foods. Various mixtures, varying widely in chemical +composition, especially in protein and crude fiber, were placed upon +the market. In some instances mixtures were grossly adulterated with +such things as oat hulls and ground corn cobs. + +The adoption of this law by certain states has served to make other +states the dumping ground for inferior stock foods, thus increasing +the necessity for similar protection. The law does not apply to the +ordinary grains produced by farmers or to the usual by-products of +millers. + + SEED CONTROL + +From time immemorial it has been the universal custom of seedsmen to +disclaim all responsibility for the purity and germinating power of +their seeds. But as the importance of good seed--good in hereditary +power, good in germination, good in its freedom from adulteration, good +in its absence of noxious weed seed--has become better understood demand +for some method of control has arisen. In at least one state there is a +seed-control law modeled quite closely after the fertilizer-control law. +However, the usual method of protection consists in purchasing by sample +or the insistence of a guarantee, with a subsequent "analysis" of a +sample of the purchased seed. + +The germinating power and purity of seed can be determined cheaply by +an expert within from five to twenty days, depending upon the species. +The federal government has a division of seed control in its +Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. Any person may send a +sample of seed to this division and have its purity and germinating +power determined, and in some of the states the experiment station +will perform similar services without charge. Clover, alfalfa, grass +and other small seeds should always be purchased subject to such +inspection, unless the purchaser is prepared to make his own +inspection, which a very little training makes possible. + + NURSERY INSPECTION + +There is no national law concerning the importation of insect-infested +or diseased plant stock. + +Several of the states have passed both state and interstate regulations +concerning the sale of nursery stock. The insects usually legislated +against are San Jose scale, gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, while the +diseases usually interdicted are yellows, black knot, peach rosette, +and pear blight. + +The enforcement of the law is usually placed in charge of a person +having special knowledge of economic insects and fungous diseases. In +addition to these police regulations this officer may, by various +means, attempt to bring into practice methods calculated to eradicate +or, at least, lessen the severity of existing attacks. + +Commerce in vinegar, dried fruits, insecticides and fungicides is also +regulated in some states. + + DAIRY, FOOD AND DRUG INSPECTION + +An adequate discussion of the rise and development of the control in +the sale of dairy and food products would require a chapter by itself, +if not an entire volume. Suffice it to say here that the laws on this +general subject have acquired an importance in many ways quite beyond +that of any of the other control measures discussed in this chapter. +In the extent of funds handled, the number of agents employed and the +public interest incited, the office of dairy and food commissioner +outranks any other control agency. In some states the office is an +elective one, and the questions with which the office has to deal +become a part of the state political campaign. + +The importance of the inspection of dairy and food products grows out +of the fact that not only is the consumer, hence all the world, +interested, but the execution of these laws touch large commercial +interests. Not only are meat packers, distillers and brewers deeply +interested, but the wholesale and retail grocers and, more recently, +the manufacturing and prescribing druggists, are vitally concerned. + +Not many years ago the inspection of dairy products, particularly +control of the traffic in oleomargarine, was the chief function of +this office. To-day the enforcement of laws concerning pure foods, +liquor and drugs is of much greater importance. + +Interstate commerce in oleomargarine is now regulated through the +enactment of an internal revenue law requiring a tax of ten cents a +pound on colored oleomargarine and one-fourth of a cent a pound on +uncolored oleomargarine and, further, by prescribing the character of +package and method of marking all oleomargarine entering into +interstate commerce. State agencies are charged with the duty of +requiring the compliance of local dealers and restaurateurs with the +general features of the federal law. Some states, however, prohibit +entirely the sale of colored oleomargarine within the state. + + PURITY IN DAIRY PRODUCTS + +Attempts to define what is pure milk, cream, butter or cheese have been +fraught with much difficulty. Thus, for example, legal definitions of +pure milk have resulted in some cows giving illegal milk. In some +instances the law has declared simply that whole milk is milk from +which no cream has been removed; in others, the minimum amount of +butter fat has been prescribed; in still others, the minimum amount of +total solids containing a minimum proportion of butter fat has been +made the basis of legal milk. In like manner full cream cheese has been +defined as cheese made from whole milk or from milk from which only a +given amount of cream has been removed, while in other instances the +minimum amount of butter fat which full cream cheese may contain is +prescribed. The wide variation in the amount of butter fat carried by +cream has caused much jocular comment and some serious discussion as to +what is cream. + +While it is not feasible to indicate the laws for the several states, +the ruling of the federal government as to what constitutes purity in +dairy products under the national food and drug act may be accepted as +a general guide. A circular giving the required information may be +secured by addressing the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. + + LIVE STOCK SANITATION + +The control of contagious diseases in domestic animals and the +inspection of meat products have been the chief work of the Bureau of +Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture since +its establishment. + +The bureau inspects all imported live animals and under certain +conditions will inspect live animals intended for exportation. It +inspects all meat products intended for export. Its inspection of +meats intended for interstate commerce is less rigid than that +exported. Meats sold within the state in which they are slaughtered +cannot be required by the federal government to undergo inspection. It +thus happens that the people of the several states enjoy less +protection in the consumption of meat than the foreign purchaser of +American meats unless there is a state meat inspection law. However, +it is becoming more and more the custom for the large packers to have +all their products inspected without regard to their destination. The +meats slaughtered in the locality in which they are consumed are the +ones that receive the least supervision. + +The federal government has been especially active and efficient in the +prevention of interstate commerce in cattle suffering with Texas +fever, and sheep attacked with scab and foot rot. Through the agency +of the bureau dipping tanks have been provided in all the great live +stock markets for the disinfection of cattle and sheep when needed. + +Several of the states have laws controlling the importation of +diseased animals from other states and the transfer of them within the +state. The following are the diseases most commonly mentioned in the +laws of the several states: Anthrax, black quarter, hog cholera, swine +plague, rabies, glanders and tuberculosis. The law is generally +enforced by a state veterinarian, whose acts are supervised either by +a state live stock commission or the state secretary of agriculture or +these two agencies acting conjointly. + +Perhaps the disease which has required the greatest amount of +attention in the several states is tuberculosis in milch cows. It is +customary for this office to apply the tuberculin test, free of +charge, under certain stipulations, to any herd upon the request of +the owner and to supervise the slaughter and disposition of the +reacting animals. In some states the owner is indemnified in part or +in whole for his loss. The amount of indemnity as well as the general +features of the law concerning the control of tuberculosis in domestic +animals has been the subject of much controversy and cannot be said to +have reached an altogether satisfactory solution in most states. + +The young farmer should clearly understand that under no circumstances +can he afford to have a tuberculous animal in his herd. The contact of +a diseased animal with other animals of the herd is certain to entail +a greater loss than the destruction of the diseased animal. The farmer +must in his own interest rear healthy animals whether or not it is +necessary for the protection of the consumer. + + FISH AND GAME LAWS + +The motives underlying the enactment of laws concerning fish and game +are varied. The controversies over these laws in the legislatures of +the several states indicate that there is a belief, whatever may be +the fact, that there are opposing interests; viz., those of the hunter +or sportsman on the one hand, and those of the farmer or landowner on +the other. The law of trespass has been one over which has raged much +bitterness, both with regard to the form of the law to be enacted and +concerning its subsequent enforcement. Sportsmen have usually held +that a distinction existed between wild animals occupying private +property and domestic animals. The landowner has urged that others +should not trespass upon his property for the purpose of shooting wild +animals, although his proprietary right in them was no greater. + +In like manner, laws concerning the closed season, made to protect +animals during the breeding period, are the subject of extended +discussion and are being constantly changed; both because there is a +difference of opinion concerning the habits of the different species +and because the motive varies for maintaining the supply. Some animals +are protected on account of their benefit, supposed or real, to +agriculture. Other animals are protected because of their gaming +qualities, even to the extent of sometimes injuring farm crops. The +money spent by sportsmen in the pursuit of game is an element in the +varied interests involved. Humane motives and a desire to prevent the +further restriction of a not too varied fauna have helped, also, to +save certain species from extinction. On the other hand, in some +states commercial interests are involved, as where large quantities of +birds are taken for their plumage. + +Some attempts have been made to introduce foreign species, as the +Japanese pheasant. It is, however, with fish that the most has been +accomplished in replenishment. The federal government and several of +the states have been active in regularly restocking, each season, +certain streams with "fry" of edible and game fish. + +Information concerning the open season can be obtained from the proper +state officer. The fish and game laws are usually under the control of +a commission with a secretary as the executive officer. + + + + + CHAPTER XXII + + RURAL FORCES + + +The United States is a vast domain. Its material resources are +enormous. Its fertile and easily tilled soil, its magnificent forests, +its great stores of ore, coal, oil and gas; its fine water-power sites +and its temperate and healthful climate have all contributed to the +making of a prosperous and progressive nation. Without these natural +resources the United States could not be what it is. + +The waste of some of these resources is almost beyond belief. In +mining, one-half the anthracite and one-third the soft coal is left in +the ground in such a manner that it may never be economically +recovered. A ton of coal will produce 1,400 pounds of coke, worth +$1.50, and 20 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, worth 50 cents. If all +the nitrogen in coal which is turned into coke in Pennsylvania were +recovered, it would furnish enough of this element to supply the needs +of every acre of tillable soil in that state. Only about 44% of the +wood in the trees now harvested in the United States is incorporated +into buildings, apparatus and furniture. The rest is wasted in the +process of cutting, sawing and manufacturing into the finished +products. + +Facts like these have led the nation to realize that the conservation +of our natural resources is an immediate and pressing problem. The +United States has, however, a greater inheritance than these great and +beneficent gifts of nature and a more fundamental problem than the +preservation and efficient use of them. In a single sentence, the +greatest inheritance of the American people is their Puritan ancestry. +The word Puritan is here used to apply not only to the New England +Pilgrims, but to all our early forefathers, whose traditions and +practices have served to set this country apart from the other +countries of the world. Because of the traditions which have been +handed down to us, we are healthier-bodied and cleaner-minded men and +women. We are more efficient, not merely in making money, but in +everything that goes to make a full and well-rounded life. + +It is well to realize the resources of other nations. The agricultural +possibilities of France appear to the casual observer to compare +favorably with any equal area in the United States. One may see farm +land in Italy which has been cultivated for at least two thousand +years which is evidently as fertile as any of the limestone valleys of +the Atlantic States, the prairies of the Mississippi valley or the +Palouse district of the Northwest. Russia has enormous areas of +fertile soil. Careful observers report that in Manchuria there are +great stretches of country, which today possess natural opportunities +similar to those which the Mississippi valley offered one hundred +years ago. The recent stories of the deposits of coal and mineral +wealth in China are almost fabulous. Europe has rich mines, great +forests and unrivaled water-power. + +Some years ago a native of Argentina and a native of the United States +were dining together. The Argentinian had served his government as +consul to Canada. He related that he had recently written an official +letter in which he had occasion to refer to the people of Canada and to +those of this country. He explained that in alluding to the former he +could say the Canadians, but the latter he could not call Americans, +since his people were also Americans. After due consideration he +referred to us as "the Yankees." "But," turning to his hearer, he said, +with great emphasis, "I do not look upon the people of the United +States as a nation, but as a new civilization." In other words, our +nation is not simply one of fertile farms, enormous mines, great +forests, unparalleled railroad systems, palatial stores, or wealthy +cities, but he saw that we are a people of different economic, +political, educational, social, moral and religious ideals. + +There are in every rural neighborhood certain forces whose objects are +to increase the educational advantages, the social opportunities and +the moral aspirations of the people. This subject need not be +discussed merely in the abstract. There are in every community +concrete evidences of these forces. There is the rural church. There +is the rural school. In many localities are to be found, also, +buildings, for social and fraternal purposes, as grange halls, +structures for holding fairs and picnics. These are tangible evidences +that there are rural agencies at work in the community whose chief +purpose is to increase the educational advantages, the social +opportunities and the moral aspirations of the people. + +How are these existing rural forces to be made more effective? If +co-operation in financial affairs is essential under modern conditions, +it is more needed in social matters. Such co-operation does not imply +that these separate forces shall be fused into a single one. Each of +them has its particular and peculiar work to do, but each should work +in harmony and not in the spirit of antagonism with the others. + +There should be formed in each locality a committee for which the +following name is proposed: The Community Committee of Rural Forces. +Emphasis should be placed upon the word "community." Like all moral +movements, progress must come from within, and not from without. The +movement must be adapted to its environment. Like the plants that grow +there, it must be indigenous to the soil. + +[Illustration: Jared Van Wagenen, Jr., has a son Jared, 3d, who is the +fifth of the name that has lived upon a farm of 224 acres at Lawyerville, +N. Y. Mr. Van Wagenen graduated from Cornell University in 1891, and is a +noted farmers' institute lecturer. He has taken great interest in the +country church and the betterment of the rural community. The view shows +the pond that furnishes the power for the farm's electric light plant. +The plant was installed by Mr. Van Wagenen with his own hands and has +proved a really satisfying success.] + +[Illustration: Mr. Lowell B. Gable, Glen Gable Farms, Wybrooke, Pa., +a graduate of Cornell University, is developing 812 acres of land in +Chester county. He has a herd of 80 Guernsey cows in milk and is breeding +Percheron, registered polling horses and Chester White hogs. Mr. Gable +has been supervisor of the township for two years, during which time nine +and one-half miles of macadam road have been built without materially +increasing the taxes. Mr. Gable firmly believes that one of the best +opportunities to be of help to a rural community lies in the work to be +done for the improvement of social conditions--"to help make what +little leisure there is clean and refreshing." Hence on return from +college he played baseball and football with local teams and helped out +at every opportunity at dances, musicales and other social +entertainments.] + +This committee should be composed of representatives of the churches, +the schools, farmers' clubs, granges, fair associations, farmers' +institutes; and other organizations which are striving to increase the +educational advantages, the social opportunities and the moral +aspirations of the people. + +Oftentimes the object of these rural forces is confused with efforts +to increase the financial prosperity of the farmer. It goes without +saying that the maintenance of the fertility of the soil is essential +to the food supply of the nation. The problems of the economic +production of plants and animals are of great importance to the +prosperity of the farmer. The idea, however, that the proper solution +of these economic problems is to be the means of solving the +educational, social and religious problems is simply putting the cart +before the horse. Economic questions can only be satisfactorily +adjusted through the application of intelligence and right ideas. + +Let it be supposed that when a young man decides to pay attention to a +young woman that instead of meeting her at the church door, or it may +be at the railway station, it is considered better form for him to get +permission of the mother to call upon the young woman in her own home. +This is the most fundamental question in every neighborhood. What has +it to do with the price of wheat? + +This illustration has been used to emphasize two points. First, there +are many problems in every community that are in no way related to the +material prosperity of the neighborhood. Second, there is, at present, +no single force in the community with sufficient influence to cope +properly with many of these problems. + +A young college graduate who is now managing eight hundred acres of land +recently wrote: "I firmly believe that one of the best opportunities to +be of help to a rural community lies in the work that is to be done for +the improvement of social conditions--to help make what little leisure +there is clean and refreshing." Hence on return from college this young +man has found time to play football and baseball with local teams and to +help whenever opportunity offered at dances, musicales and similar +entertainments. Games and other forms of recreation may be clean and +wholesome, or they may be quite the reverse. It would be the duty of the +community committee to see that dances occurred under proper +environment--not next an open saloon--and that the young women were +properly chaperoned. + +In many communities the boys and girls are almost wholly dependent +upon the neighboring towns for their amusement. This condition may or +may not be desirable. If the town and country are virtually one +community, there is every reason why the boys and girls from the farms +should find recreation and social intercourse with the boys and girls +of the village. It is a relationship that should be fostered wherever +possible. When, however, the town and the country are separate +communities, which prevent the ordinary social relationships, it is +usually unfortunate when the young people of the one community are +dependent upon the other community for their amusements. + +A deeply earnest man recently said: "I was born and raised upon the +farm. I never knew a dull day in my life. I went fishing. I went +hunting and----" + +"Stop right there," said the listener. "There is not the same +opportunity today for a boy to go hunting that there was when you were +a boy." + +"That is true." + +"Our ideas about such things have changed, also." + +"Yes," he replied, humbly enough, for he was a man of fine fiber. + +"I propose a substitute," said the listener. "There is much more +pleasure and recreation to be obtained from photographing animals than +from killing them. What is needed in every rural community is a camera +club." + +When a boy wishes to go hunting, he merely has to buckle on his +ammunition pouch, shoulder his gun and he is ready. A camera club, +however, requires a social organization and a social center. The +community committee would thus be required to decide whether the +facilities for developing and printing pictures may best be located at +the church, the schoolhouse, the grange hall or elsewhere. + +A little reflection will show how many possibilities such a club might +have on its social, moral and educational side. The suggestion has +been made here, however, only as an illustration of the problems which +arise when a rural community is organized for social welfare. The +organization of a book club, or a magazine club in a rural community +presents precisely the same problems. Some method must be devised for +exchanging the books or magazines. Whether they are exchanged at the +church, the grange hall or through the school children will depend +upon local conditions requiring a community committee to decide. + +This community committee will do something more than reach immediate +results. It may project its influence far into the future. Not all of +life is comprised in a porcelain bathtub and nickel adornments. +Nevertheless modern methods of heating and plumbing are desirable in +the country as well as in the city. In Indiana there is a one-room +school building. In the basement there has been placed a furnace and a +gasoline engine. The engine is used not only to teach the boys how to +run a gasoline engine, but it makes possible a modern system of +plumbing. + +It is well known that many of the states within the past decade have +voted to abolish or very materially restrict the sale of alcoholic +beverages. No great temperance orators have roused the people as was +the case thirty years or more ago. Why, then, has such progress been +made in recent years? In large part because twenty-five years ago, the +teaching of physiology was introduced into the public schools, which +taught the evil effects of alcohol to the human system. During the +past decade young men who studied these physiologies have been voting. + +What has the teaching of physiology to do with the one-room schoolhouse +in Indiana with its modern system of plumbing? The girls between the +ages of six and fourteen are now becoming accustomed to modern systems +of plumbing. When they grow older and marry they will find some way to +introduce similar conveniences into their homes without regard to the +price of wheat. A wise community committee will find many ways to +influence future generations. Such a committee would be a priceless +heritage to any community. + +The natural resources of the United States are necessary to the +prosperity of the people. The preservation and economic use of these +resources are of vast importance. The natural resources of the world +were, however, as great five thousand years ago as they are today. The +soil was no less fertile then than now. The difference between the +prosperity of the human race at these two periods is caused by a +difference in human motive and efficiency. It is the result of ideals +and knowledge. Sit at the banquet table with men who are the real +powers in shaping the affairs of the world. The chances are that the +champagne remains untouched. These men are not in the habit of +partaking of midnight suppers. They must keep themselves fit for the +next day's work. They have the approval and loyalty of their wives +because they deserve it. In other words, the men who do the world's +work are not drunkards. They are not gluttons. They are not libertines. +They are efficient because they have healthy bodies and clean minds. It +is this efficiency which the critic from Argentina saw when he said, "I +do not look upon the people of the United States as a nation, but as a +new civilization." + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + STANDARD BOOKS + + PUBLISHED BY + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + + NEW YORK CHICAGO + ASHLAND BUILDING People's Gas Building + 315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue + + ---------- + +_Any of these books will be sent by mail, postpaid, to any part of the +world, on receipt of catalog price. We are always happy to correspond +with our patrons, and cordially invite them to address us on any +matter pertaining to rural books. Send for our large illustrated +catalog, free on application._ + + ---------------------------------------- + +=First Principles of Soil Fertility= + +By ALFRED VIVIAN. There is no subject of more vital importance to the +farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the +soil. The very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which +have been under cultivation for a number of years, combined with the +increased competition and the advanced price of labor, have convinced +the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based +upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the +past. We have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief, +and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on this important subject +of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's experience as a teacher in the +short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in +a popular style. In this little book he has given the gist of the +subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical and +scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," and will be found +especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subject, +and who intend to do subsequent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 +pages. Cloth. + + Net, $1.00 + +=The Study of Corn= + +By PROF. V. M. SHOESMITH. A most helpful book to all farmers and +students interested in the selection and improvement of corn. It is +profusely illustrated from photographs, all of which carry their own +story and contribute their part in making pictures and text matter a +clear, concise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. +100 pages. Cloth. + + Net, $0.50 + +=Profitable Stock Raising= + +By CLARENCE A. SHAMEL. This book covers fully the principles of +breeding and feeding for both fat stock and dairying type. It tells of +sheep and mutton raising, hot house lambs, the swine industry and the +horse market. Finally, he tells of the preparation of stock for the +market and how to prepare it so that it will bring a high market +price. Live stock is the most important feature of farm life, and +statistics show a production far short of the actual requirements. +There are many problems to be faced in the profitable production of +stock, and these are fully and comprehensively covered in Mr. Shamel's +new book. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. + + Net, $1.50 + +=The Business of Dairying= + +By C. B. LANE. The author of this practical little book is to be +congratulated on the successful manner in which he has treated so +important a subject. It has been prepared for the use of dairy +students, producers and handlers of milk, and all who make dairying a +business. Its purpose is to present in a clear and concise manner +various business methods and systems which will help the dairyman to +reap greater profits. This book meets the needs of the average dairy +farmer, and if carefully followed will lead to successful dairying. It +may also be used as an elementary textbook for colleges, and +especially in short-course classes. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 300 +pages. Cloth. + + Net, $1.25 + +=Questions and Answers on Buttermaking= + +By CHAS A. PUBLOW. This book is entirely different from the usual type +of dairy books, and is undoubtedly in a class by itself. The entire +subject of butter-making in all its branches has been most thoroughly +treated, and many new and important features have been added. The +tests for moisture, salt and acid have received special attention, as +have also the questions on cream separation, pasteurization, +commercial starters, cream ripening, cream overrun, marketing of +butter, and creamery management. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. +Cloth. + + Net, $0.50 + +=Questions and Answers on Milk and Milk Testing= + +By CHAS. A. PUBLOW, and HUGH C. TROY. A book that no student in the +dairy industry can afford to be without. No other treatise of its kind +is available, and no book of its size gives so much practical and +useful information in the study of milk and milk products. Illustrated. +5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. + + Net, $0.50 + +=Soils= + +By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT, Director Kansas Agricultural Experiment +Station. The most complete and popular work of the kind ever +published. As a rule, a book of this sort is dry and uninteresting, +but in this case it reads like a novel. The author has put into it his +individuality. The story of the properties of the soils, their +improvement and management, as well as a discussion of the problems of +crop growing and crop feeding, make this book equally valuable to the +farmer, student and teacher. Illustrated. 303 pages. 5-1/2x8 inches. +Cloth. Net, $1.25 + +=Weeds of the Farm Garden= + +By L. H. PAMMEL. The enormous losses, amounting to several hundred +million dollars annually in the United States, caused by weeds +stimulate us to adopt a better system of agriculture. The weed +question is, therefore, a most important and vital one for American +farmers. This treatise will enable the farmer to treat his field to +remove weeds. The book is profusely illustrated by photographs and +drawings made expressly for this work, and will prove invaluable to +every farmer, land owner, gardener and park superintendent. 5x7 +inches. 300 pages. Cloth. + + Net, $1.50 + +=Farm Machinery and Farm Motors= + +By J. B. DAVIDSON and L. W. CHASE. Farm Machinery and Farm Motors is +the first American book published on the subject of Farm Machinery +since that written by J. J. Thomas in 1867. This was before the +development of many of the more important farm machines, and the +general application of power to the work of the farm. Modern farm +machinery is indispensable in present-day farming operations, and a +practical book like Farm Machinery and Farm Motors will fill a +much-felt need. The book has been written from lectures used by the +authors before their classes for several years, and which were +prepared from practical experience and a thorough review of the +literature pertaining to the subject. Although written primarily as a +textbook, it is equally useful for the practical farmer. Profusely +illustrated. 5-1/2x8 inches. 520 pages. Cloth. + + Net, $2.00 + +=The Book of Wheat= + +By P. T. DONDLINGER. This book comprises a complete study of +everything pertaining to wheat. It is the work of a student of +economic as well as agricultural conditions, well fitted by the broad +experience in both practical and theoretical lines to tell the whole +story in a condensed form. It is designed for the farmer, the teacher, +and the student as well. Illustrated. 5-1/2x8 inches. 370 pages. +Cloth. + + Net, $2.00 + +=Farmer's Cyclopedia= + +=of Agriculture= + +_A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice on Farm, Orchard +and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals._ + +=_By_ EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph. D.= + +=_and_ CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M. S.= + +_Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States +Department of Agriculture_ + +This is a new, practical, and complete presentation of the whole +subject of agriculture in its broadest sense. It is designed for the +use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on +all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for +the actual farmer. The volume contains + + =Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, + orchard, and garden crop= + +grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect +pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It +contains an account of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm +stock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm +animals and poultry are described, and the most recent remedies +suggested for controlling them. + +Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is +authoritative, practical and easily found, and no effort has been +spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and +7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal +8vo pages and nearly 500 superb half-tone and other original +illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agriculture ever +attempted. + +=_Handsomely bound in cloth. $3.50; half morocco (very sumptuous), +$4.50. postpaid_= + + ---------------------------------------- + + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 315-321 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. 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