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diff --git a/26243.txt b/26243.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b73733f --- /dev/null +++ b/26243.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1785 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Discovery of Oxygen, Part 2, by Carl Wilhelm Scheele + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Discovery of Oxygen, Part 2 + +Author: Carl Wilhelm Scheele + +Release Date: August 9, 2008 [EBook #26243] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DISCOVERY OF OXYGEN, PART 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Viv and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +DISCOVERY OF OXYGEN + +PART 2 + +EXPERIMENTS BY + +CARL WILHELM SCHEELE + +(1777) + +Re issue Edition: + +Published for THE ALEMBIC CLUB + +BY + +E. & S. LIVINGSTONE LTD. + +16 & 17 TEVIOT PLACE + +EDINBURGH + +1964 + +[Illustration] + + + + +PREFACE + + +The portions of Scheele's "Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire" here +reproduced in English are intended to form a companion volume to No. 7 +of the Club Reprints, which contains Priestley's account of his +discovery of oxygen. Not only have the claims of Scheele to the +independent discovery of this gas never been disputed, but the valuable +volume of "Letters and Memoranda" of Scheele, edited by Nordenskjoeld, +which was published in 1892, places it beyond doubt that Scheele had +obtained oxygen by more than one method at least as early as Priestley's +first isolation of the gas, although his printed account of the +discovery only appeared about two years after Priestley's. The evidence +of this has been found in Scheele's laboratory notes, which are still +preserved in the Royal Academy of Science in Stockholm. + +In his "Chemical Treatise" Scheele endeavours, at considerable length, +to prove by experiments his views as to the compound character of heat +and of light. These portions of the work have been entirely omitted from +what is reproduced here. All the places where omissions have been made +are indicated. + +Every care has been taken in the endeavour to make the translation a +faithful reproduction of the meaning of the original, whilst literal +accuracy has been aimed at rather than literary elegance. + +L. D. + + + + +CHEMICAL TREATISE ON AIR AND FIRE.[A] + + ++1.+ It is the object and chief business of chemistry to skilfully +separate substances into their constituents, to discover their +properties, and to compound them in different ways. + +How difficult it is, however, to carry out such operations with the +greatest accuracy, can only be unknown to one who either has never +undertaken this occupation, or at least has not done so with sufficient +attention. + + ++2.+ Hitherto chemical investigators are not agreed as to how many +elements or fundamental materials compose all substances. In fact this +is one of the most difficult problems; some indeed hold that there +remains no further hope of searching out the elements of substances. +Poor comfort for those who feel their greatest pleasure in the +investigation of natural things! Far is he mistaken, who endeavours to +confine chemistry, this noble science, within such narrow bounds! Others +believe that earth and phlogiston are the things from which all material +nature has derived its origin. The majority seem completely attached to +the peripatetic elements. + + ++3.+ I must admit that I have bestowed no little trouble upon this +matter in order to obtain a clear conception of it. One may reasonably +be amazed at the numerous ideas and conjectures which authors have +recorded on the subject, especially when they give a decision respecting +the fiery phenomenon; and this very matter was of the greatest +importance to me. I perceived the necessity of a knowledge of fire, +because without this it is not possible to make any experiment; and +without fire and heat it is not possible to make use of the action of +any solvent. I began accordingly to put aside all explanations of fire; +I undertook a multitude of experiments in order to fathom this beautiful +phenomenon as fully as possible. I soon found, however, that one could +not form any true judgment regarding the phenomena which fire presents, +without a knowledge of the air. I saw, after carrying out a series of +experiments, that air really enters into the mixture of fire, and with +it forms a constituent of flame and of sparks. I learned accordingly +that a treatise like this, on fire, could not be drawn up with proper +completeness without taking the air also into consideration. + +[Footnote A: Carl Wilhelm Scheele's Chemische Abhandlung von der Luft +und dem Feuer. Upsala and Leipzig, 1777.] + + ++4.+ Air is that fluid invisible substance which we continually breathe, +which surrounds the whole surface of the earth, is very elastic, and +possesses weight. It is always filled with an astonishing quantity of +all kinds of exhalations, which are so finely subdivided in it that they +are scarcely visible even in the sun's rays. Water vapours always have +the preponderance amongst these foreign particles. The air, however, is +also mixed with another elastic substance resembling air, which differs +from it in numerous properties, and is, with good reason, called aerial +acid by Professor Bergman. It owes its presence to organised bodies, +destroyed by putrefaction or combustion. + + ++5.+ Nothing has given philosophers more trouble for some years than +just this delicate acid or so called fixed air. Indeed it is not +surprising that the conclusions which one draws from the properties of +this elastic acid are not favourable to all who are prejudiced by +previously conceived opinions. These defenders of the Paracelsian +doctrine believe that the air is in itself unalterable; and, with Hales, +that it really unites with substances thereby losing its elasticity; but +that it regains its original nature as soon as it is driven out of these +by fire or fermentation. But since they see that the air so produced is +endowed with properties quite different from common air, they conclude, +without experimental proofs, that this air has united with foreign +materials, and that it must be purified from these admixed foreign +particles by agitation and filtration with various liquids. I believe +that there would be no hesitation in accepting this opinion, if one +could only demonstrate clearly by experiments that a given quantity of +air is capable of being completely converted into fixed or other kind of +air by the admixture of foreign materials; but since this has not been +done, I hope I do not err if I assume as many kinds of air as experiment +reveals to me. For when I have collected an elastic fluid, and observe +concerning it that its expansive power is increased by heat and +diminished by cold, while it still uniformly retains its elastic +fluidity, but also discover in it properties and behaviour different +from those of common air, then I consider myself justified in believing +that this is a peculiar kind of air. I say that air thus collected must +retain its elasticity even in the greatest cold, because otherwise an +innumerable multitude of varieties of air would have to be assumed, +since it is very probable that all substances can be converted by +excessive heat into a vapour resembling air. + + ++6.+ Substances which are subjected to putrefaction or to destruction by +means of fire diminish, and at the same time consume, a part of the air; +sometimes it happens that they perceptibly increase the bulk of the air, +and sometimes finally that they neither increase nor diminish a given +quantity of air; phenomena which are certainly remarkable. Conjectures +can here determine nothing with certainty, at least they can only bring +small satisfaction to a chemical philosopher, who must have his proofs +in his hands. Who does not see the necessity of making experiments in +this case, in order to obtain light concerning this secret of nature? + + ++7. General properties of ordinary air.+ + +(1.) Fire must burn for a certain time in a given quantity of air. (2.) +If, so far as can be seen, this fire does not produce during combustion +any fluid resembling air, then, after the fire has gone out of itself, +the quantity of air must be diminished between a third and a fourth +part. (3.) It must not unite with common water. (4.) All kinds of +animals must live for a certain time in a confined quantity of air. (5.) +Seeds, as for example peas, in a given quantity of similarly confined +air, must strike roots and attain a certain height with the aid of some +water and of a moderate heat. + +Consequently, when I have a fluid resembling air in its external +appearance, and find that it has not the properties mentioned, even when +only one of them is wanting, I feel convinced that it is not ordinary +air. + + ++8. Air must be composed of elastic fluids of two kinds.+ + ++First Experiment.+--I dissolved one ounce of alkaline liver of sulphur +in eight ounces of water; I poured 4 ounces of this solution into an +empty bottle capable of holding 24 ounces of water, and closed it most +securely with a cork; I then inverted the bottle and placed the neck in +a small vessel with water; in this position I allowed it to stand for 14 +days. During this time the solution had lost a part of its red colour +and had also deposited some sulphur: afterwards I took the bottle and +held it in the same position in a larger vessel with water, so that the +mouth was under and the bottom above the water-level, and withdrew the +cork under the water; immediately water rose with violence into the +bottle. I closed the bottle again, removed it from the water, and +weighed the fluid which it contained. There were 10 ounces. After +subtracting from this the 4 ounces of solution of sulphur there remain 6 +ounces, consequently it is apparent from this experiment that of 20 +parts of air 6 parts have been lost in 14 days. + + ++9. Second Experiment.+--(_a._) I repeated the preceding experiment with +the same quantity of liver of sulphur, but with this difference that I +only allowed the bottle to stand a week, tightly closed. I then found +that of 20 parts of air only 4 had been lost. (_b._) On another occasion +I allowed the very same bottle to stand 4 months; the solution still +possessed a somewhat dark yellow colour. But no more air had been lost +than in the first experiment, that is to say 6 parts. + + ++10. Third Experiment.+--I mixed 2 ounces of caustic ley, which was +prepared from alkali of tartar and unslaked lime and did not precipitate +lime water, with half an ounce of the preceding solution of sulphur +which likewise did not precipitate lime water. This mixture had a yellow +colour. I poured it into the same bottle, and after this had stood 14 +days, well closed, I found the mixture entirely without colour and also +without precipitate. I was enabled to conclude that the air in this +bottle had likewise diminished, from the fact that air rushed into the +bottle with a hissing sound after I had made a small hole in the cork. + + ++11. Fourth Experiment.+--(_a._) I took 4 ounces of a solution of +sulphur in lime water; I poured this solution into a bottle and closed +it tightly. After 14 days the yellow colour had disappeared, and of 20 +parts of air 4 parts had been lost. The solution contained no sulphur, +but had allowed a precipitate to fall which was chiefly gypsum. (_b._) +Volatile liver of sulphur likewise diminishes the bulk of air. (_c._) +Sulphur, however, and volatile spirit of sulphur, undergo no alteration +in it. + + ++12. Fifth Experiment.+--I hung up over burning sulphur, linen rags +which were dipped in a solution of alkali of tartar. After the alkali +was saturated with the volatile acid, I placed the rags in a flask, and +closed the mouth most carefully with a wet bladder. After 3 weeks had +elapsed I found the bladder strongly pressed down; I inverted the flask, +held its mouth in water, and made a hole in the bladder; thereupon water +rose with violence into the flask and filled the fourth part. + + ++13. Sixth Experiment.+--I collected in a bladder the nitrous air which +arises on the dissolution of the metals in nitrous acid, and after I had +tied the bladder tightly I laid it in a flask and secured the mouth very +carefully with a wet bladder. The nitrous air gradually lost its +elasticity, the bladder collapsed, and became yellow as if corroded by +_aqua fortis_. After 14 days I made a hole in the bladder tied over the +flask, having previously held it, inverted, under water; the water rose +rapidly into the flask, and it remained only 2/3 empty. + + ++14. Seventh Experiment.+--(_a._) I immersed the mouth of a flask in a +vessel with oil of turpentine. The oil rose in the flask a few lines +every day. After the lapse of 14 days the fourth part of the flask was +filled with it; I allowed it to stand for 3 weeks longer, but the oil +did not rise higher. All those oils which dry in the air, and become +converted into resinous substances, possess this property. Oil of +turpentine, however, and linseed oil rise up sooner if the flask is +previously rinsed out with a concentrated sharp ley. (_b._) I poured 2 +ounces of colourless and transparent animal oil of Dippel into a bottle +and closed it very lightly; after the expiry of two months the oil was +thick and black. I then held the bottle, inverted, under water and drew +out the cork; the bottle immediately became 1/4 filed with water. + + ++15. Eighth Experiment.+--(_a._) I dissolved 2 ounces of vitriol of iron +in 32 ounces of water, and precipitated this solution with a caustic +ley. After the precipitate had settled, I poured away the clear fluid +and put the dark green precipitate of iron so obtained, together with +the remaining water, into the before-mentioned bottle (Sec. 8), and closed +it tightly. After 14 days (during which time I shook the bottle +frequently), this green calx of iron had acquired the colour of crocus +of iron, and of 40 parts of air 12 had been lost. (_b._) When iron +filings are moistened with some water and preserved for a few weeks in a +well closed bottle, a portion of the air is likewise lost. (_c._) The +solution of iron in vinegar has the same effect upon air. In this case +the vinegar permits the dissolved iron to fall out in the form of a +yellow crocus, and becomes completely deprived of this metal. (_d._) The +solution of copper prepared in closed vessels with spirit of salt +likewise diminishes air. In none of the foregoing kinds of air can +either a candle burn or the smallest spark glow. + + ++16.+ It is seen from these experiments that phlogiston, the simple +inflammable principle, is present in each of them. It is known that the +air strongly attracts to itself the inflammable part of substances and +deprives them of it: not only this may be seen from the experiments +cited, but it is at the same time evident that on the transference of +the inflammable substance to the air a considerable part of the air is +lost. But that the inflammable substance[B] alone is the cause of this +action, is plain from this, that, according to the 10th paragraph, not +the least trace of sulphur remains over, since, according to my +experiments this colourless ley contains only some vitriolated tartar. +The 11th paragraph likewise shews this. But since sulphur alone, and +also the volatile spirit of sulphur, have no effect upon the air (Sec. 11. +_c._), it is clear that the decomposition of liver of sulphur takes place +according to the laws of double affinity,--that is to say, that the +alkalies and lime attract the vitriolic acid, and the air attracts the +phlogiston. + +[Footnote B: "Das Brennbare."] + +It may also be seen from the above experiments, that a given quantity of +air can only unite with, and at the same time saturate, a certain +quantity of the inflammable substance: this is evident from the 9th +paragraph, _letter b_. But whether the phlogiston which was lost by the +substances was still present in the air left behind in the bottle, or +whether the air which was lost had united and fixed itself with the +materials such as liver of sulphur, oils, &c., are questions of +importance. + +From the first view, it would necessarily follow that the inflammable +substance possessed the property of depriving the air of part of its +elasticity, and that in consequence of this it becomes more closely +compressed by the external air. In order now to help myself out of these +uncertainties, I formed the opinion that any such air must be +specifically heavier than ordinary air, both on account of its +containing phlogiston and also of its greater condensation. But how +perplexed was I when I saw that a very thin flask which was filled with +this air, and most accurately weighed, not only did not counterpoise an +equal quantity of ordinary air, but was even somewhat lighter. I then +thought that the latter view might be admissible; but in that case it +would necessarily follow also that the lost air could be separated again +from the materials employed. None of the experiments cited seemed to me +capable of shewing this more clearly than that according to the 10th +paragraph, because this residuum, as already mentioned, consists of +vitriolated tartar and alkali. In order therefore to see whether the +lost air had been converted into fixed air, I tried whether the latter +shewed itself when some of the caustic ley was poured into lime water; +but in vain--no precipitation took place. Indeed, I tried in several +ways to obtain the lost air from this alkaline mixture, but as the +results were similar to the foregoing, in order to avoid prolixity I +shall not cite these experiments. Thus much I see from the experiments +mentioned, that the air consists of two fluids, differing from each +other, the one of which does not manifest in the least the property of +attracting phlogiston, while the other, which composes between the third +and the fourth part of the whole mass of the air, is peculiarly disposed +to such attraction. But where this latter kind of air has gone to after +it has united with the inflammable substance, is a question which must +be decided by further experiments, and not by conjectures. + +We shall now see how the air behaves towards inflammable substances when +they get into fiery motion. We shall first consider that kind of fire +which does not give out during the combustion any fluid resembling air. + + ++17. First Experiment.+--I placed 9 grains of phosphorus from urine in a +thin flask, which was capable of holding 30 ounces of water, and closed +its mouth very tightly. I then heated, with a burning candle, the part +of the flask where the phosphorus lay; the phosphorus began to melt, and +immediately afterwards took fire; the flask became filled with a white +cloud, which attached itself to the sides like white flowers; this was +the dry acid of phosphorus. After the flask had become cold again, I +held it, inverted, under water and opened it; scarcely had this been +done when the external air pressed water into the flask; this water +amounted to 9 ounces. + + ++18. Second Experiment.+--When I placed pieces of phosphorus in the same +flask and allowed it to stand, closed, for 6 weeks, or until it no +longer glowed, I found that 1/3 of the air had been lost. + + ++19. Third Experiment.+--I placed 3 teaspoonfuls of iron filings in a +bottle capable of holding 2 ounces of water; to this I added an ounce of +water, and gradually mixed with them half an ounce of oil of vitriol. A +violent heating and fermentation took place. When the froth had somewhat +subsided, I fixed into the bottle an accurately fitting cork, through +which I had previously fixed a glass tube A (Fig. 1). I placed this +bottle in a vessel filled with hot water, B B (cold water would greatly +retard the solution). I then approached a burning candle to the orifice +of the tube, whereupon the inflammable air took fire and burned with a +small yellowish-green flame. As soon as this had taken place, I took a +small flask C, which was capable of holding 20 ounces of water, and held +it so deep in the water that the little flame stood in the middle of the +flask. The water at once began to rise gradually into the flask, and +when the level had reached the point D the flame went out. Immediately +afterwards the water began to sink again, and was entirely driven out of +the flask. The space in the flask up to D contained 4 ounces, therefore +the fifth part of the air had been lost. I poured a few ounces of lime +water into the flask in order to see whether any aerial acid had also +been produced during the combustion, but I did not find any. I made the +same experiment with zinc filings, and it proceeded in every way +similarly to that just mentioned. I shall demonstrate the constituents +of this inflammable air further on; for, although it seems to follow +from these experiments that it is only phlogiston, still other +experiments are contrary to this. + +We shall now see the behaviour of air towards that kind of fire which +gives off, during the combustion, a fluid resembling air. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 1._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 2._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 3._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 4._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 5._] + + ++20. Fourth Experiment.+--It is well known that the flame of a candle +absorbs air; but as it is very difficult, and, indeed, scarcely +possible, to light a candle in a closed flask, the following experiment +was made in the first place:--I set a burning candle in a dish full +water; I then placed an inverted flask over this candle; at once there +arose from the water large air bubbles, which were caused by the +expansion, by heat, of the air in the flask. When the flame became +somewhat smaller, the water began to rise in the flask; after it had +gone out and the flask had become cold, I found the fourth part filled +with water. This experiment was very undecisive to me, because I was not +assured whether this fourth part of the air had not been driven out by +the heat of the flame; since necessarily in that case the external air +resting upon the water seeks equilibrium again after the flask has +become cold, and presses the same measure of water into the flask as of +air had been previously driven out by the heat. Accordingly, I made the +following experiment: + + ++21. Fifth Experiment.+--(_a._) I pressed upon the bottom of the dish A +(Fig. 2) a tough mass, of the thickness of two fingers, made of wax, +resin, and turpentine metal together; in the middle I fastened a thick +iron wire which reached to the middle of the flask B; upon the point of +this wire C, I stuck a small wax candle, whose wick I had twisted +together out of three slender threads. I then lighted the candle, and at +the same time placed over it the inverted flask B, which I then pressed +very deep into the mass. As soon as this was done, I filled the dish +with water. After the flame was extinguished and everything had become +quite cold, I opened the flask in the same position under the water, +when 2 ounces of water entered; the flask held 160 ounces of water. +Accordingly, there is wanting here so much air as occupies the space of +2 ounces of water. Has this air been absorbed by the inflammable +substance, or has the heat of the small flame driven it out even before +I could press the flask into the tough mass? The latter seems to have +taken place in this case, as I conclude from the following:--I took a +small flask capable of holding 20 ounces of water; in this I caused a +candle to burn as in the preceding; after everything had become cold, I +opened this flask likewise under water, whereupon similarly nearly 2 +ounces entered. Had the former 2 ounces measure of air been absorbed, +then there should have been only 2 drachms measure absorbed in this +experiment. + +(_b._) I repeated the preceding experiment with the large flask in +exactly the same way, except that I employed spirit of wine in place of +the candle. I fastened three iron wires, which were of equal length and +reached up to the middle of the flask, into the tough mass which was +firmly pressed on to the bottom of the dish. Upon these wires I laid a +four-cornered plate of metal, and upon this I placed a small vessel into +which spirit of wine was poured. I set fire to this and placed the flask +over it. After cooling, I observed that 3 ounces measure of air had been +driven out by the heat of the flame. + +(_c._) Upon the same stand I placed a few small glowing coals, and +allowed then go out in the same way under the flask. I found after +cooling that the heat of the coals had driven out three and a half +ounces measure of air. + +The experiments seem to prove that the transference of phlogiston to the +air does not always diminish its bulk, which, however, the experiments +mentioned in Sec.Sec. 8.16 shew distinctly. But the following will shew that +that portion of the air which unites with the inflammable substance, and +is at the same time absorbed by it, is replaced by the newly formed +aerial acid. + + ++22. Sixth Experiment.+--After the fire had gone out and everything had +become cold in the experiments mentioned above (Sec. 21. _a._ _b._ _c._), I +poured into each flask 6 ounces of milk of lime (lime water which has in +it more unslaked lime than the water can dissolve); I then placed my +hand firmly on the mouth of the flask and swung it several times up and +down; then I held the flask inverted under water and drew my hand a +little to one side, so that a small orifice might be made. Water +immediately rose into the flask. Then I shut the mouth again very +tightly with my hand under water, and afterwards shook it several times +up and down. I opened it again under water; this operation I repeated +twice more until no more water would rise into the flask, or until no +more aerial acid was present in it. I then perceived that in each +experiment between 7 and 8 ounces of water rose into the flasks, +consequently the nineteenth part of the air has been lost. This was +indeed something, but since in the combustion of phosphorus (Sec. 17) +nearly the third part of the air was lost, there must be another reason +besides, why as much is not absorbed in this case also. It is known that +one part of aerial acid mixed with 10 parts of ordinary air extinguishes +fire; and there are here in addition, expanded by the heat of the flame +and surrounding the latter, the watery vapours produced by the +destruction of these oily substances. It is these two elastic fluids, +separating themselves from such a flame, which present no small +hindrance to the fire which would otherwise certainly burn much longer, +especially since there is here no current of air by means of which they +can be driven away from the flame. When the aerial acid is separated +from this air by milk of lime, then a candle can burn in it again, +although only for a very short time. + + ++23. Seventh Experiment.+--I placed upon the stand (Sec. 21. _b._) a small +crucible which was filled with sulphur; I set fire to it and placed the +flask over it. After the sulphur was extinguished and everything had +become cold, I found that out of 160 parts of air, 2 parts were driven +out of the flask by the heat of the flame. I next poured 6 ounces of +clear lime water into the flask and dealt with it by shaking, as already +explained, and observed that the sixth part of all the air had been lost +in consequence of the combustion. The lime water was not in the least +precipitated in this case, an indication that sulphur gives out no +aerial acid during its combustion, but another substance somewhat +resembling air; this is the volatile acid of sulphur, which occupies +again the empty space produced by the union of the inflammable substance +with air. It is not, as may be seen, a trifling circumstance that +phlogiston, whether it separates itself from substances and enters into +union with air, with or without a fiery motion, still in every case +diminishes the air so considerably in its external bulk. + + ++24. Experiments which prove that ordinary air, consisting of two kinds +of elastic fluids, can be compounded again after these have been +separated from each other by means of phlogiston.+ + +I have already stated in Sec. 16 that I was not able to find again the lost +air. One might indeed object, that the lost air still remains in the +residual air which can no more unite with phlogiston; for, since I have +found that it is lighter than ordinary air, it might be believed that +the phlogiston united with this air makes it lighter, as appears to be +known already from other experiments. But since phlogiston is a +substance, which always presupposes some weight, I much doubt whether +such hypothesis has any foundation.... + + ++25.+ How often must not chemists have distilled the fuming acid of +nitre from oil of vitriol and nitre, when it is impossible that they +should not have observed how this acid went over red in the beginning, +white and colourless in the middle of the distillation, but at the end +red again; and indeed so dark-red that one could not see through the +receiver? It is to be noticed here that if the heat is permitted to +increase too much at the end of the distillation, the whole mixture +enters into such frothing that everything goes over into the receiver; +and, what is of the greatest importance, a kind of air goes over during +this frothing which deserves no small attention. If one takes for such +distillation a very black oil of vitriol, not only does the acid go over +at the beginning of a far darker red than when one takes a white oil of +vitriol, but further, when one introduces a burning candle into the +receiver after about an ounce has gone over, this goes out immediately. +On the other hand, when one places a burning candle in the receiver +filled with blood-red vapours, towards the end of the distillation when, +as has been said, the mixture froths strongly, not only will it continue +to burn, but this will take place with a much brighter light than in +ordinary air. The same thing occurs when one attaches, at the close of +the distillation, a receiver which is filled with an air in which fire +will not burn, for, when this has been attached for half an hour, a +candle will likewise continue to burn in the air. + +In this case there now arises in the first place the question: Are the +vapours of the acid of nitre naturally red? I beg leave to raise this +question here because I believe there are people who advance the redness +of this acid as a distinguishing characteristic. The colours of the acid +of nitre are accidental. When a few ounces of fuming acid of nitre are +distilled by a very gentle heat, the yellow separates itself from it and +goes into the receiver, and the residuum in the retort becomes white +and colourless like water. This acid has all the chief properties of +acid of nitre, except that the yellow colour is wanting. This I call the +pure acid of nitre; as soon, however, as it comes into contact with an +inflammable substance, it becomes more or less red. This red acid is +more volatile than the pure, hence heat alone can separate them from one +another; and, for exactly the same reason, the volatile spirit must go +over first in the distillation of Glauber's spirit of nitre. When this +has gone over, the colourless acid follows; but why does the acid make +its appearance again so blood-red at the end of the distillation? Why +has not this redness already been driven over at the beginning? Where +does it now obtain its phlogiston? This is the difficulty. + + ++26.+ I intimated in the preceding paragraph that the candle went out in +the receiver at the beginning of the distillation. The reason is to be +found in the experiment which I have cited in Sec. 13. In this case the +acid of nitre, passing over in vapours, takes to itself the inflammable +substance, whose presence is indicated by the black colour of the oil of +vitriol; as soon as this has taken place it meets with the air, which +again robs the now phlogisticated acid of its inflammable substance; by +this means a part of the air contained in the receiver becomes lost, +hence the fire introduced into it must go out (Sec. 15). + + ++27.+ The acid of nitre can attract phlogiston in varying quantity, when +it likewise receives other properties with each proportion. (_a._) When +it becomes, as it were, saturated with it, a true fire arises, and it is +then completely destroyed. (_b._) When the inflammable principle is +present in smaller quantity, this acid is converted into a kind of air +which will not unite either with the alkalies or with the absorbent +earths, and with water only in very small quantity. When this acid of +nitre, resembling air, meets with the air, the latter takes the +inflammable substance from it again, it loses its elasticity (Sec. 13), the +vapours acquire redness, and the air undergoes at the same time this no +less remarkable than natural alteration, that it is not only diminished, +but also becomes warm. (_c._) When the acid of nitre receives still +somewhat less phlogiston, it is likewise converted into a kind of air, +which, like the air, is also invisible, but unites with the alkalies and +earths, and along with them can bring forth real intermediate salts. +This phlogisticated acid is, however, so loosely united with these +absorbing substances, that even the simple mixture with the vegetable +acids can drive it out. It is present in this condition in nitre which +has been made red hot, and also in _Nitrum Antimoniatum_. When this acid +of nitre meets the air it also loses its elasticity and is converted +into red vapours. When it is mixed in a certain quantity with water, +this acquires a blue, green, or yellow colour. (_d._) When the pure acid +of nitre receives but very little of the inflammable substance, the +vapours only acquire a red colour, and are wanting in expansive power; +it is, however, more volatile than the pure acid. This acid holds this +small quantity of phlogiston so firmly that even the air, which so +strongly attracts the inflammable substance, is not able to separate +this from it. + + * * * * * + ++29.+ I took a glass retort which was capable of holding 8 ounces of +water, and distilled fuming acid of nitre according to the usual method. +In the beginning the acid went over red, then it became colourless, and +finally all became red again; as soon as I perceived the latter, I took +away the receiver and tied on a bladder, emptied of air, into which I +poured some thick milk of lime (Sec. 22) in order to prevent the corrosion +of the bladder. I then proceeded with the distillation. The bladder +began to expand gradually. After this I permitted everything to cool, +and tied up the bladder. Lastly I removed it from the neck of the +retort. I filled a bottle, which contained 10 ounces of water, with this +gas (Sec. 30, _e._), I then placed a small lighted candle in it; scarcely +had this been done when the candle began to burn with a large flame, +whereby it gave out such a bright light that it was sufficient to dazzle +the eyes. I mixed one part of this air with three parts of that kind of +air in which fire would not burn; I had here an air which was like the +ordinary air in every respect. Since this air is necessarily required +for the origination of fire, and makes up about the third part of our +common air, I shall call it after this, for the sake of shortness, +Fire-air; but the other air which is not in the least serviceable for +the fiery phenomenon, and makes up about two-thirds of our air, I shall +designate after this with the name already known, of Vitiated Air. + + ++30.+ Anyone might ask me in what way I bring air from one vessel into +another. I find it necessary therefore to describe this in the first +place. My arrangements and vessels are the very simplest that one can +possibly have: flasks, retorts, bottles, glasses, and ox bladders are +the things which I employ. The bladders, while they are still fresh, are +rubbed, and blown up very fully, then tightly tied and hung up to dry. +When I wish to use such a bladder and find it blown up just as fully as +at first, I am thereby assured that it is tight. + +(_a._) When I wish to collect any kind of air in a bladder, for example +the phlogisticated acid of nitre (Sec. 13), I take a soft bladder smeared +inside with a few drops of oil, and place in it some filings of a metal, +as iron, zinc, or tin; I then press the air as completely as possible +out of the bladder and tie it very tightly over a small bottle into +which some _aqua fortis_ has been poured; I then partly unfold the +bladder so that a few iron filings may fall into the _aqua fortis_, +according as this dissolves the bladder becomes expanded. When I have +collected enough of the air so produced, I tightly tie up the bladder +with a thread close above the mouth of the bottle, and then detach it +from the bottle. (_b._) If this phlogisticated acid of nitre is mixed +with aerial acid, which is the case when the acid of the nitre is +extracted over sugar, I tie a bladder, softened with some water, to the +extreme end of the neck of the retort A (Fig. 3); in order, however, +that I may properly prevent the escape of the air it is necessary to +scratch the neck of the retort somewhat at this place with a flint. +(Retorts which I employ for investigations of this kind I have blown not +larger than to be capable of holding only from one half to three ounces +of water, but which have at the same time a neck which is about half an +ell long, and that for this reason that the attached bladder may not be +destroyed during the operation by the heat of the furnace or by the hot +vapours.) Into this bladder I pour some milk of lime (Sec. 22), and press +the air out as fully as possible. This lime will absorb the aerial acid +during the distillation, and leave the phlogisticated acid of nitre +untouched. (_c._) In exactly the same way as is described in _a_ I also +collect aerial acid and the inflammable air of sulphur (of which I shall +speak further on). But if the bladders are moist, or even if only the +air surrounding them is so, both these kinds of air penetrate completely +through the bladders in a few days; if the bladders and air are dry, +however, this does not take place. I obtain inflammable air from the +metals, as iron or zinc, in exactly the same way, except that I place +the bottle in warm sand. This air is still more subtle than the +preceding; it penetrates through the fine pores of the bladder in a few +days, although air and bladder are dry. I frequently experienced this +to my vexation. (_d._) I not infrequently catch air in bladders, without +any bottles. I place in a soft bladder (AA, Fig. 4) the material from +which I intend to collect the air, for example, chalk; above this chalk +I draw the bladder together with twine BB; I then pour above it the acid +diluted with water and press out the air as completely as possible; I +finally tie up the bladder above at CC. I then untie the twine B, when +the acid runs upon the chalk; it immediately drives out the aerial acid, +whereupon the bladder must expand. (_e._) When I require to get an air +out of the bladder into a flask, glass, retort, or bottle, I fill such +apparatus with water and place in it a tightly fitting cork; I then tie +the bladder which contains the air, that is, the opening from C to D +(Fig. 4), very firmly over such bottle; I then invert the bottle so that +the bladder comes below and the bottle above, whereupon I hold the +bottle with the left hand and with the right I withdraw the cork; I hold +this cork firmly between both fingers inside the bladder until the water +has flowed out of the bottle into the bladder, and the air has mounted +out of the bladder into the bottle; I then put in the cork and detach +the bladder from the bottle. When I wish to preserve the air for a long +time I place the neck of the bottle in a vessel with water. (_f._) When +there is aerial acid in the bladder, or another air which can unite with +water, and I wish to unite it with water neatly, I fill a bottle with +cold water, and, after it has been attached to the bladder, I permit +about the fourth part to run into the bladder; I then push the cork, +which, as previously, was firmly held within the bladder, into the +bottle again; I then shake the bottle gently, when the air will dissolve +in the water. Thereupon I make a small opening by means of the cork, +when air passes out of the bladder into the bottle in order to fill up +again the space which has become empty, without any water running into +the bladder; I then push the cork again into the bottle and shake the +water contained in it. I repeat this operation two or three times more, +when the water is saturated with this air. (_g._) When I wish to mix +together two kinds of air in a flask or bottle, I permit in the first +place just as much water, by measure, to run from the bottle filled with +water, into the bladder, as I wish to have of air. I then tie the bottle +over with a bladder filled with another kind of air and permit the +remaining water to run into the bladder, whereupon I immediately replace +the cork in the bottle, as soon as the last of the water has run out. +(_h._) When I wish to have in a bladder an air collected in a bottle, I +reverse the operation. That is to say, I fill the bladder with as much +water as I wish to have in it of air and tie it up at the top; I then +tie this bladder tightly over the top of the bottle and untie the +ligature of the bladder, draw the cork out of the bottle and so permit +the water to run out of the bladder into the bottle. I then tie up the +bladder, which now contains the air out of the bottle, and detach it +from the bottle. (_i._) When I have in a bottle an air mixed with +another kind of air which can be absorbed by water or lime, but wish to +know how much of each kind is present in the bottle, I tie over it a +bladder into which so much milk of lime has been poured that the bottle +can be filled with it; I then withdraw the cork and permit the water or +milk of lime to run into the bottle. I afterwards invert the bottle and +permit the milk of lime to flow again into the bladder; I repeat this +running out and in several times. So much air by measure has been +absorbed as there now remains behind of milk of lime in the bottle. + +These are the methods which I employed in my investigations of air. I +admit that they will not particularly please some, because they do not +decide with great exactness. They afforded me satisfaction, however, in +all my investigations; and people will often split a hair where it is +not in the least necessary. + + ++31. Continuation of the Experiment mentioned in Sec. 29+ ... + +Anyone might object and say that the air obtained according to Sec. 29 is +perhaps nothing else than a dry acid of nitre converted into elastic +vapours. But if this opinion had any foundation, this air should not +only be corrosive, but should also produce nitre anew with alkalies. +This, however, does not occur. Nevertheless, this objection would +possess considerable weight were I not able to prove that several +substances produce the same air as the acid of nitre does during +distillation. But proof of this is not wanting. + +I have proved in a treatise on manganese, which is to be found in the +Transactions of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for the year 1774, +that this mineral is not soluble in any acid unless an inflammable +substance be added, which communicates the phlogiston to the manganese, +and by this means effects an entrance of the latter into the acids. I +have shown in the same place that vitriolic acid, nevertheless, during a +strong distillation with powdered manganese, unites with it and makes it +soluble in water; and if this manganese is separated again from the +vitriolic acid by means of precipitating agents, there are found in it +the most distinct traces of the inflammable substance.... I had already +observed a few years ago, that if in the calcination of manganese with +oil of vitriol in an open crucible, some coal dust was driven by the +current of air over the surface of this mixture, these fine coals took +fire in the same instant with very great brilliancy. I accordingly made +the following experiments. + + ++32. First Experiment.+--I mixed so much concentrated oil of vitriol +with finely powdered manganese that it became a stiff magma. I distilled +this mixture from a small retort on the open fire. In place of a +receiver I made use of a bladder, empty of air, and, in order that the +vapours which might pass over should not attack the bladder, I poured +into it some milk of lime (Sec. 30, letter _b_). As soon as the bottom of +the retort became red hot, an air passed over which gradually expanded +the bladder. This air had all the properties of a pure fire-air. + + ++33. Second Experiment.+--When I distilled two parts of finely +pulverised manganese with one part of the phosphorous acid of urine in +the same way as is indicated in the preceding paragraph, I likewise +obtained fire-air. + + ++34. Third Experiment.+--(_a._) I dissolved in _aqua fortis_ the white +magnesia employed in medicine; I evaporated this solution to dryness. I +then placed the salt in a small retort for distillation, as is described +in Sec. 32. Even before the retort was red hot the acid of nitre separated +from the magnesia, and that in blood-red vapours; and at the same moment +the bladder began to expand. The air thus obtained was my fire-air. + +It is thus seen constantly that the acid of nitre goes off again +blood-red when separated by means of heat from the metals which had been +dissolved in this menstruum. + +(_b._) I distilled mercurial nitre in the foregoing manner until the +acid of nitre had separated from the residual red precipitate. In this +case also I obtained our fire-air.... Whence comes the boiling of nitre, +fused in a crucible and obscurely red-hot? Neither smoke nor vapours are +seen to rise from it, and yet coal dust flying above the open crucible +takes fire, burning brilliantly. Whence comes it that such nitre +maintained in red-hot fusion in a glass retort for half an hour, becomes +moist in open air and deliquesces after cooling, and still does not +show any trace of alkali? (Sec. 27, letter _c._) What is the reason that +this liquefied nitre permits its volatile acid to escape immediately, +when rubbed or mixed with the vegetable acids?... If the chemists of the +preceding century had thought worthy of a more particular examination, +the elastic fluids resembling air which manifest themselves in so many +operations, how advanced should we now be! They desired to see +everything in corporeal form, and to collect everything as drops in the +receiver. This is now for the first time better inquired into, and the +air has begun to be carefully examined: and who is there who does not +perceive the advantage which the results of such experiments carry with +them? + + * * * * * + ++35. Fourth Experiment.+--I put an ounce of purified nitre into a glass +retort for distillation and made use of a bladder, moistened and emptied +of air, in place of a receiver (Fig. 3). As soon as the nitre began to +glow it also began to boil, and at the same time the bladder was +expanded by the air that passed over. I proceeded with the distillation +until the boiling in the retort ceased, and the nitre was about to force +its way through the softened retort. I obtained in the bladder the pure +fire-air which occupied the space of 50 ounces of water. This is the +cheapest and best method of obtaining fire-air. + + * * * * * + ++38. Fifth Experiment.+--I took a silver solution prepared with acid of +nitre, and precipitated it with alkali of tartar; I washed the +precipitate thus obtained and dried it. I then placed this calx of +silver in a small glass retort on the open fire for reduction, and +fastened an empty bladder to the neck. The bladder was immediately +expanded by the air which passed over. After the end of the distillation +I found the calx of silver half melted together in the retort, with its +metallic lustre; however, as I had effected the precipitation with +alkali of tartar, and this is always united with a quantity of aerial +acid which attaches itself to the calx of silver in the precipitation, +so this acid was necessarily present also in the bladder. This acid was +removed from it by milk of lime (Sec. 30, letter _i._), and there remained +behind one-half of pure fire-air. + + ++39. Sixth Experiment.+--I precipitated with alkali of tartar a solution +of gold which was made with _aqua regia_; I reduced in the foregoing +manner the washed and dried calx of gold. I obtained in this case the +same fire-air, except that no aerial acid accompanied it. This is not to +be wondered at, because the saturated solution of gold effervesces with +the alkali, which does not take place with the solution of silver. + + ++40. Seventh Experiment.+--It is likewise known that the red precipitate +of mercury regains its flowing condition without the addition of an +inflammable substance. Since mercury, however, really loses its +phlogiston as well by means of vitriolic acid as of the acid of nitre, +it must necessarily assume this again as soon as it recovers its +metallic property. + +(_a._) I added a solution of alkali of tartar, drop by drop, to a +solution of corrosive sublimate. I washed the brown-red precipitate +obtained, and dried it; then I placed it, for reduction, upon the open +fire in a small retort, which was provided with a bladder empty of air. +As soon as the calx began to glow, the bladder became expanded, and +quicksilver rose into the neck. The fire-air obtained had some aerial +acid mixed with it. + +(_b._) Mercury converted into calx by the acid of nitre, or red +precipitate, treated in the same way behaved similarly. In this case I +obtained a pure fire-air, without any aerial acid in it. + + ++41. Eighth Experiment.+--I have proved, in a treatise on arsenic +communicated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, that this +poisonous substance is compounded of a peculiar acid and an inflammable +substance. I also shewed in the same treatise how this acid can be +sublimed into ordinary arsenic simply by continued heat; and although I +clearly perceived the reason for this, even at that time, still I was +unwilling to mention it there in order to avoid prolixity. I placed some +of this fixed acid of arsenic in a small retort with a bladder attached, +for distillation. When the acid had gone into fusion, and glowed +brightly, it began to boil; during this ebullition arsenic rose into the +neck and the bladder became expanded; I continued with this heat as long +as the retort would hold out. The air collected was likewise fire-air. +In the same treatise I made mention of a peculiar explosion which took +place in the distillation of zinc with the acid of arsenic. How clear, +how manifest does the explanation of this phenomenon not become when one +is satisfied that in this case fire-air is present in the retort in its +greatest purity, and the zinc is in red hot fusion? What more is +necessary for its ignition? + +I have very often regarded with pleasure the brightly glowing sparks +which are produced in a retort by heat alone, during the reduction of +metallic calces, when only a very little coal dust is mixed along with +it. + +We shall now see whether this fire-air is not the same air which had +been lost without fire (Sec.Sec. 8-15), and with fire (Sec.Sec. 17-23). + + ++42. First Experiment.+--I filled a bottle which was capable of holding +16 ounces of water with pure fire-air according to the method which is +described in Sec. 30, letter e. I placed the bottle, inverted, in a glass +which was filled with a solution of liver of sulphur. The solution rose +a little into the bottle hour by hour, and after the lapse of 2 days the +bottle was filled with it. + + ++43. Second Experiment.+--I mixed in a bottle 14 parts of that air from +which the fire-air had been removed by liver of sulphur (Sec. 8), and which +I have called vitiated air (Sec. 29), with 4 parts of our fire-air, and +placed the bottle, inverted and open, in a vessel which was also filled +with a solution of liver of sulphur. After 14 days the 4 parts of +fire-air were lost, and the solution had risen into their place. + + ++44. Third Experiment.+--After I had filled a bottle with our air, I +poured some colourless animal oil into it and closed it tightly. After a +few hours it had already become brown, and by the next day black. It is +no small inconvenience to preserve this oil white in apothecaries' +shops. It is found necessary to pour this oil into small phials, and to +preserve it most carefully from the access of air. When such a +colourless oil is mixed with any acid, the acid, as well as the oil, +becomes black even in an hour, although it has been diluted with water. +Even vinegar has the same effect. There is no other reason, therefore, +why the oil becomes at once black in the air, than that the fire-air +present in the air deprives it of its phlogiston, and thereby develops a +subtle acid, previously united with this phlogiston, which produces the +blackness. + + ++45. Fourth Experiment.+--(_a._) Into a bottle of 7 ounces, which was +filled with fire-air, I put a piece of phosphorus from urine and closed +it with a cork. I then heated, by means of a burning candle, the place +where the phosphorus lay; the phosphorus took fire with very great +brilliancy. As soon as the flame had gone out, the bottle broke into +fragments. + +(_b._) As the bottle in the foregoing experiment was very thin, I +repeated it with a somewhat thicker bottle, and after everything had +become cold I wanted to take the cork out of the bottle under water. It +was not possible for me to do this, however, so tightly did the +external air press the cork into the bottle. Accordingly I forced it +inside the bottle; thereupon water entered the bottle and filled it +almost completely. Since the first bottle was only very thin, the reason +that it was crushed must be ascribed to the external air. + +(_c._) When I mixed vitiated air with one third of fire-air, and burned +a piece of phosphorus in the mixture, only 1/3 of it was absorbed. + + ++46. Fifth Experiment.+--I also repeated the same experiment which is +described in Sec. 19, only with this difference that I took the tube +longer, and filled the flask with my fire-air. It was pleasing to +observe how the water rose gradually into the flask; and how the flame +went out when 7/8 of the flask were full of water. + + ++47. Sixth Experiment.+--I laid some glowing coals upon the stand (Sec. 21, +letter _c_), and placed over them a flask which was filled with +fire-air. The coals had not even reached the air in the flask before +they began to burn very brilliantly. + +After everything had become cold, I made an aperture under the flask, +whereupon the fourth part became filled with water. But when I removed, +by means of milk of lime, the aerial acid which was present in the +residual air (Sec. 22) there remained in the flask only the fourth part. In +this air a candle could still burn. + + ++48. Seventh Experiment.+--I also examined the behaviour of fire-air +with sulphur (Sec. 23). As soon as the burning sulphur came into contact +with the fire-air contained in the flask, the flame became much larger +and brighter. When this fire had gone out, the water in the dish had +found a way to come through the mass into the flask, which became 3/4 +filled with it. As I employed for these last 3 experiments a flask which +was only of 30 ounces measure, I was obliged to arrange the stand (Sec. 21) +to suit. + + ++49.+ I have mentioned (Sec. 16) that I found vitiated air lighter than +ordinary air. Must it not follow from this that the fire-air is heavier +than our air? As a matter of fact, I actually found, when I accurately +weighed as much fire-air as occupied the space of 20 ounces of water, +that this was almost 2 grains heavier than the same bulk of common air. + + ++50.+ These experiments shew, therefore, that this fire-air is just that +air by means of which fire burns in common air; only it is there mixed +with a kind of air which seems to possess no attraction at all for the +inflammable substance, and this it is which places some hindrance in the +way of the otherwise rapid and violent inflammation. And in fact, if air +consisted of nothing but fire-air, water would surely render small +service in extinguishing outbreaks of fire. Aerial acid mixed with this +fire-air, has the same effect as vitiated air. I mixed one part of +fire-air with 4 parts of aerial acid; in this mixture a candle still +burned moderately well. The heat which lurks in the small interstices of +the inflammable substance cannot possibly make up so much heat as is +felt in fire; and I think I am not mistaken when I conclude from my +experiments that the heat is really brought forth and produced in the +first place from fire-air and the phlogiston of the inflammable +substance.... + + * * * * * + + ++80.+ I had long wished to have some of the precipitate of mercury _per +se_, in order to see whether it also would yield fire-air during +reduction by means of heat alone. At length I obtained some from my much +esteemed friend Doctor Gahn. This so-called precipitate had the +appearance of small dark-red crystals resembling cinnabar. Now, as I +know that mercury cannot be dissolved in muriatic acid unless it has +lost its phlogiston, which takes place during its solution in acid of +nitre or in vitriolic acid; and as this is also the reason why nitre +must be present in a mixture of calcined vitriol, common salt, and +quicksilver, I therefore poured muriatic acid upon a part of this red +precipitate; the solution was soon formed and was somewhat hot; I +evaporated it to dryness and increased the heat. Everything sublimed, +and a true corrosive sublimate was formed. Hence this precipitate, +produced by heat alone, is a calcined mercury. I then placed the other +part of this precipitate over the fire in a small glass retort to which +I had fastened an empty bladder. As soon as the retort became red hot +the bladder became expanded, and at the same time the reduced mercury +rose into the neck. In this case no red sublimate arose as customarily +takes place with that calx which is prepared by the acid of nitre. The +air obtained was a pure fire-air. This is a remarkable circumstance, +that the fire-air which had previously removed from the mercury its +phlogiston in a slow calcination, gives this same phlogiston up to it +again when the calx is simply made red-hot. Still we have several such +phenomena, where heat similarly alters the attractive forces between +substances. + + * * * * * + + ++83. Air is a Dulcified Elastic Acid.+ + +In the foregoing experiments I have demonstrated the two proximate +constituents of common air, because it was not necessary to know +anything more about it for a clear knowledge of fire. I shall now go +further, and see whether a still deeper decompounding of air is +possible. + ++First Experiment.+--I placed a rat in a flask capable of holding 4 +quarts of water; I gave it some bread softened in milk and closed the +flask with a wet bladder. It died 31 hours afterwards. I then held the +flask, inverted, under water and made a hole in the bladder, when two +ounces of water rose into it. This small diminution of the air was +probably caused by the heat which the rat took with it, which had +previously driven the air out. + + ++84. Second Experiment.+--I took a large soft bladder and fastened a +tube into its opening; then I filled it with the air out of my lungs, +and held the tube and bladder with my right hand and closed my nostrils +with the left. I respired the air as long as I could, and was able to +make 24 inspirations (regarding which it is to be observed that at the +last I was obliged to draw the whole bladder full of air into my lungs +at once, while at the beginning only the half of it was necessary). I +then closed the tube with my finger, and tied up the bladder. This air +had properties similar to the preceding in which the rat died. That is +to say, it contained one-thirtieth part of aerial acid, which I +separated from it by milk of lime; and a burning candle at once went out +in it. + + ++85. Third Experiment.+--I placed a few flies in a bottle into which I +had put some honey smeared upon paper. After a few days they had died. +They likewise had not absorbed any air; milk of lime, however, +diminished this air about one fourth part, and the remainder +extinguished fire. + +I then took a bottle of 20 ounces measure and bored a hole in the bottom +of it with the corner of a broken file (Fig. 5, A). Into this bottle I +put a small piece of unslaked lime, and closed the mouth with a cork +through which I had previously fixed a tube B. Round about this cork I +placed a ring of pitch, and placed over it an inverted glass C, into +which I had previously put a large bee and had given it some honey which +was smeared upon paper; but in order that no air could penetrate within +the ring of pitch, I pressed the glass firmly in; I afterwards placed +the bottle in the dish D, into which I poured so much water that it was +half immersed in it; as soon I observed that the bottle was raised by +the water, I put a small weight upon the glass. The water rose a little +into the bottle every day through the opening A; and I also shook the +bottle a little sometimes in order that the skin which formed over the +milk of lime might break. After the lapse of seven days the water had +risen to E, and the bee was dead. Occasionally I put 2 bees into the +glass C, when just as much air was converted into aerial acid in half +the time. Caterpillars and butterflies behaved in exactly the same way. + + ++86. Fourth Experiment.+--I placed some peas in a small flask, which was +capable of holding 24 ounces of water, and poured so much water upon +them that they were half covered with it; I then closed the flask. The +peas began to strike roots, and grew up. As I found after 14 days that +they would not increase further, I opened the flask, inverted, under +water, and found the air neither increased nor diminished. The fourth +part, however, was absorbed by milk of lime, and the remaining air +extinguished flame. I kept fresh roots, fruits, herbs, flowers, and +leaves, each by itself, in the flask, and after a few days I likewise +observed the fourth part of the air converted into aerial acid. If flies +are placed in such air they die immediately. + + ++87.+ These are accordingly strange circumstances, that the air is not +noticeably absorbed by animals endowed with lungs, contains in it very +little aerial acid, and yet extinguishes fire. On the other hand insects +and plants alter the air in exactly the same way, but still they convert +the fourth part of it into aerial acid. Accordingly I was curious to +know whether the fire-air was not that which was here converted into +aerial acid, because in these latter experiments just as much of the air +was converted into aerial acid as there was of fire-air present in it. + + ++88. Fifth Experiment.+--In a bottle of 20 ounces capacity, I mixed one +part of fire-air with 3 parts of the preceding air in which peas would +not any longer grow, and from which the aerial acid was separated. (That +is to say, I filled the bottle with water, and placed 4 peas in it; I +then allowed one fourth of the water to run into the bladder in which +fire-air was contained, and the remainder into another bladder in which +this vitiated air was contained (Sec. 30, _g._), while I took care that the +peas did not fall into the bladder. I also left so much water behind, +that the peas were half covered with it.) Here also I observed the peas +growing up, and after they would not increase any more I found this air +likewise not absorbed, but almost the fourth part was absorbed by milk +of lime. Hence it is the fire-air which is here converted into aerial +acid. In 3 parts of aerial acid and one part of fire-air peas do not +grow. I mixed vitiated air (Sec. 20) with fire-air which behaved in just +the same way: that is to say the fire-air was converted into aerial +acid. + + ++89. Sixth Experiment.+--I mixed, in the same proportions, fire-air and +air vitiated by peas, and filled a bladder with it. Then when I had +completely exhaled the air present in my lungs, I respired this newly +compounded air as many times as possible. I then found that it contained +very little aerial acid in it, and when this was separated from it, it +extinguished fire. I believe that one must ascribe to the blood present +in the pulmonary veins, the effect which animals endowed with lungs have +upon the air. The following experiment gives me cause for this. + +It is known that freshly drawn blood, when it stands in the open air, +assumes a fine red on the surface, and that the under portions likewise +become red when they come into contact with the air. Does the air in +this case undergo any alteration? I filled a flask one third part with +freshly drawn ox blood, closed it tightly with a bladder, and shook up +the blood frequently. Eight hours afterwards I neither found aerial acid +in this air, nor that its bulk was diminished; but the flame of a candle +was immediately extinguished in it. I made this experiment in winter +time, from which may be gathered that the effect cannot be ascribed to +any putrefaction, for this blood was found still fresh 6 days +afterwards, and besides, all putrefactions produce aerial acid. I was +now curious to know how fire-air by itself would behave with animals and +plants. + + ++90. Seventh Experiment.+--(_a._) I put 2 ounces of nitre into a small +glass retort upon glowing coals, and attached a large bladder softened +with water (Sec. 35), and allowed the nitre to boil until I had received +3/4 of a quart of fire-air in the bladder. I then tied up the bladder +and separated it from the retort; I then placed a tube in its opening, +and after I had completely emptied my lungs, I began to respire air from +this bladder (Sec. 84). This proceeded very well, and I was able to make 40 +inspirations before it became difficult for me; eventually I expelled +the air again from my lungs as completely as possible. It did not seem +to have diminished particularly, and when I filled a bottle with it and +introduced a burning candle, this still burned. I then began to respire +this air anew, and was able to make 16 more inspirations. It now +extinguished the flame, but I found only some traces of aerial acid in +it. (_b._) I was surprised that I was not able the first time to take +away from this air the property of allowing fire to burn in it; I +thought that perhaps the great humidity prevented me from drawing this +air into my lungs so often as was really possible. Accordingly I +repeated the same experiment, only with this difference, that I put a +handful of potashes into the bladder before the fire-air was driven into +it. I then began to draw this air into my lungs, and counted 65 +inspirations before I was compelled to desist. But when I lowered a +burning candle into this air, it still burned well, although only for a +few seconds. + + ++91. Eighth Experiment.+--I closed the hole in the bottle at A (Fig. 5) +with a cork, as also the tube B, and then filled the bottle with +fire-air (Sec. 30, _e._). Then I had at hand the glass C, in which I had +placed 2 large bees, and had provided some honey for their stay. I +opened the stopped-up tube, placed this glass over it as quickly as +possible, and pressed it into the ring of pitch. I afterwards placed the +whole in the dish D, which I had filled with milk of lime, and withdrew +the cork at A. In this case I observed the milk of lime to rise a little +into the bottle every day, and after 8 days had elapsed the bottle was +almost completely filled with it, and the bees were dead. + + ++92. Ninth Experiment.+--Plants, however, will not grow noticeably in +pure fire-air. I filled with this air a bottle capable of holding 16 +ounces of water, and which contained 4 peas (Sec. 88). They got roots, but +did not grow up at all; with milk of lime the twelfth part was absorbed. +I then filled this air into another bottle which also contained 4 peas. +After 14 days they had got roots, but also did not grow up, and with +milk of lime likewise only the twelfth part was absorbed. I repeated +this experiment 3 times more with the same air, and it was observed that +the fourth and fifth times the peas had grown upwards a little. There +still remained one-half of the whole air, and in this fire could still +burn. There is no doubt that the whole quantity of fire-air could have +been converted into aerial acid if I had continued the operation longer. +It may also be observed that the peas act more strongly upon the +fire-air when they send out roots than subsequently. + + ++93.+ Hence it is the fire-air by means of which the circulation of the +blood and of the juices in animals and plants is so fully maintained. +Still it is a peculiar circumstance that blood and the lungs have not +such action upon fire-air as insects and plants have, for the latter +convert it into aerial acid, and the former into vitiated air (Sec.Sec. 29, +89, 90). It is not so easy to furnish the reason for this, yet I will +risk it. It is known that the acids lose those properties by which they +reveal themselves as acids, by the addition of the inflammable +substance, as sulphur, the elastic acid of nitre, regulus of arsenic, +sugar, and the like, plainly shew. I am inclined to believe that +fire-air consists of a subtle acid substance united with phlogiston, and +it is probable that all acids derive their origin from fire-air. Now, if +this air penetrates into plants, these must attract the phlogiston, and +consequently the acid, which manifests itself as aerial acid, must be +produced. This they again give up. The objection that so great a +quantity of aerial acid is nevertheless obtained in the destruction of +plants, and that, consequently, these must attract the aerial acid, has +no weight, since otherwise the air in my vessels in which the peas were +contained must have become for the most part lost, which, however, did +not take place.... If plants abstract the phlogiston from the air, the +aerial acid must be lighter. But experiment shows me the opposite; I +found it, after careful weighing, somewhat heavier, but this is not +contrary to my opinion; as it is known that all acids retain water +strongly, the aerial acid must possess the same property, and this may +consequently cause the most of the weight. If all this is accurate, +another question then arises: Why do not blood and the lungs likewise +convert fire-air into such an aerial acid? I take the liberty here also +of giving my opinion of this, for how would all these laboriously +executed experiments help me if I had not the hope of coming by means +of them nearer to my ultimate object, the truth? Phlogiston, which makes +most substances with which it unites liquid as well as mobile and +elastic, must have the same effect upon blood. The globules of blood +must attract it from the air through the small pores of the lungs. By +this union they become separated from one another, and are consequently +made more liquid. They then appear bright red (Sec. 89). They must, +however, give this attracted phlogiston up again during the circulation, +and in consequence, be placed in a condition to absorb the inflammable +substance anew from the air at that place where they are in the most +intimate contact with it, that is, in the lungs. Where this phlogiston +has gone to during the circulation of the blood, I leave to others to +ascertain. The attraction which the blood has for phlogiston cannot be +so strong as that with which plants and insects attract it from the air, +and then the blood cannot convert air into aerial acid; still it becomes +converted into an air which lies midway between fire-air and aerial +acid, that is, a vitiated air; for it unites neither with lime nor with +water after the manner of fire-air and it extinguishes fire, after that +of aerial acid. But that the blood really attracts the inflammable +substance I have additional experiment to prove, since I have removed +phlogiston by help of my lungs from inflammable air, and have converted +this into vitiated air. + +I filled a bladder with the air which one obtains from iron filings and +vitriolic acid (Sec. 30, _c._), and respired it in the manner previously +described (Sec. 84). I was only able to inhale it 20 times, and after I had +somewhat recovered, I expelled the air once more from my lungs as +completely as possible, and again inhaled this inflammable air: after 10 +inhalations I was compelled to desist from it, and observed that it +could no longer be kindled, and also would not unite with lime water. +In one word it was a vitiated air. + +I kept a piece of sulphur in continuous ebullition over the fire in a +retort, capable of holding 12 ounces of water, with an empty bladder +attached in place of a receiver, the retort also placed so that the +sulphur which rose into the neck could run back again. After all had +become cold, I found the air neither increased nor diminished: it smelt +slightly hepatic, and extinguished a burning candle. I shall prove +further on that sulphur can unite with more phlogiston; and it seems to +me to follow from this experiment that something inflammable from the +air had deposited itself upon the sulphur, and that the air had thereby +acquired the property of a vitiated air. It is, however, also remarkable +that other bodies which attract the inflammable substance more strongly, +as for example, the fuming acid of nitre, do not abstract it from the +air. It is likewise strange that I was able to inhale the inflammable +air into my lungs only 20 times; and I observe here as something +peculiar that, if I mistake not, I became very warm a quarter of an hour +afterwards. It is also to be observed that fire-air, vitiated by the +lungs, extinguishes fire; why does not the aerial acid attract the +phlogiston again? why not also the vitiated air? Mr. Priestley indeed +has accomplished this, but it did not succeed with me however much I +also wished it. He has converted aerial acid into wholesome air by means +of a mixture of iron filings, sulphur, and some water. When I desired to +repeat this experiment, the aerial acid was always absorbed by the iron +filings. I likewise powdered finely some iron filings which had been +fused together with excess of sulphur, moistened this with water, and +preserved it in a bottle which was filled with aerial acid: but with the +same result. After 2 two days the aerial acid was almost entirely +absorbed. This philosopher also says that he has made vitiated air +wholesome again by agitation with water. I must admit, however, that +with me this likewise failed. I filled a flask one fourth part with +vitiated air, and the remainder with fresh water; I closed the flask +very tightly, and shook it up and down for almost a whole hour. Then +when I collected this air in a bladder, and from this in a bottle, I +found that the candle was extinguished afterwards as it was before. He +mixed with water, by agitation, the inflammable air from metals; this +also would not succeed with me, although I used only little inflammable +air, and much water. He also observed that plants made vitiated air +wholesome again. It follows from my experiments that they vitiate air. I +kept plants, in the dark as well as exposed to sunlight, in a flask +which was filled with vitiated air and carefully secured (which careful +securing must really be attended to). I tested a little of this air +every 2 days, and always found it vitiated. + + ++94.+ Water has the peculiar property of separating the proximate +constituents of air; of uniting with fire-air; and of entering into no +kind of union with vitiated air. (1.) I filled a large bottle with +boiled water which had been cooled shortly before, and permitted the +tenth part to run out. I then placed the bottle, inverted and open, in a +vessel with water. I observed the quantity of air to diminish a little +every day, and when this diminution ceased, I collected the remaining +air first in a bladder (Sec. 30, _h._), and from the bladder in a bottle (Sec. +30, _c._), and brought a burning candle into the bottle; it had scarcely +reached the mouth when it went out. (2.) I then took the same kind of +water freed from air, filled a bottle with it, and permitted the tenth +part of it to run into a bladder filled with vitiated air. I next placed +the bottle, inverted, in a vessel with water, and observed the space +which the air occupied in it. I found, 14 days afterwards, that the +water had not absorbed the smallest quantity of it. (3.) I placed a +large bottle, from which the bottom was knocked out, in a deep kettle +with water, so that the water outside reached above the top of the +bottle. I then tied a bladder, empty of air, over the top of the bottle, +and made the water boil up once over the fire. The air which was in that +portion of the water contained under the bottle rose into the bladder; +and after I had tied up the bladder, and detached it front the bottle, I +filled a phial with it, and put a small burning candle into it; it +burned there more brightly than in ordinary air. + +This fire-air, dissolved in water, must be as indispensable for aquatic +animals as for those which live upon the earth. They must draw it into +their bodies, and convert it either into aerial acid or into vitiated +air. Into whichever kind it is, however, it must always become separated +from the water again, for as aerial acid it does not remain with the +water in the open air, and vitiated air cannot unite with water at all +(No. 2), the water is then in a condition again to absorb fire-air anew, +and to convey it to the animals. My experiments made with respect to +this matter agree with this entirely. I allowed a few leeches to remain +in a bottle, which was half filled with water and well closed, until +they died. I then examined the air standing over this water. It had no +smell, nor had the water; it appeared to have increased a little and it +extinguished fire. It seems that these creatures live only upon the +phlogiston in fire-air, perhaps also upon the heat. I have preserved +them alive in water, and that the same water, for two years; the bottle +was only tied over with gauze. I have a convenient method to ascertain +whether fire-air is present in water or not. I take, for example, an +ounce of it, and add to it about 4 drops of a solution of vitriol of +iron, and 2 drops of a solution of alkali of tartar which has been +somewhat diluted with water. A dark green precipitate is immediately +formed, which, however becomes yellow in a couple of minutes if the +water contains fire-air; but if the water has been boiled, and has +become cold without access of air, or if it is even a recently distilled +water, the precipitate retains its green colour, and does not become +yellow sooner than an hour afterwards, and not yellow at all if it is +protected from access of air in full bottles. I have already shown (Sec. +15) that the green precipitate of iron owes its colour to phlogiston +which still adheres to the earth, and it follows from this that +fire-air, although not in the elastic condition, is able to attract +phlogiston. The following experiment likewise shewed me that aquatic +animals take fire-air from the water. I placed a leech in a bottle which +was completely filled with water, and was protected from every kind of +air. After two days it was almost dead. I then examined the water in the +manner described above, and found that the earth of iron retained its +green colour. The swelling up of peas in cold water is to be ascribed +mainly to the fire-air present in the water. If a bottle is filled full +of water and a few peas are placed in it, after 24 hours the water +contains aerial acid it is true, but no fire-air. In water boiled and +become cold, peas swell up only a little. I perceive in this the reason +why the waters distilled from plants not only lose their smell, but why +also a mucilaginous substance settles to the bottom, when the bottles +are frequently opened, whereas the same waters, in perfectly full +bottles, retain their smell and clearness unchanged. All plants +communicate to water some mucilaginous material which is carried over +along with it. Fire-air is the chief cause of this corruption; if this +enters the water again, it attracts to itself the inflammable substance +from the subtle oily and mucilaginous matter, and alters the whole of +the water. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Note + +All bold text has been surrounded by + signs. 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