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diff --git a/26142.txt b/26142.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9767081 --- /dev/null +++ b/26142.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6128 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel, by +Samuel William Johnson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel + +Author: Samuel William Johnson + +Release Date: July 28, 2008 [EBook #26142] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEAT AND ITS USES *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Barbara Kosker, Jeannie +Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + + + + PEAT AND ITS USES, + + AS + + FERTILIZER AND FUEL. + + + + BY + + SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, A. M., + + PROFESSOR OF ANALYTICAL AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, YALE COLLEGE. + + + + FULLY ILLUSTRATED. + + + + NEW-YORK: + ORANGE JUDD & COMPANY. + 245 BROADWAY. + + + + + Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by + + ORANGE JUDD & CO., + + At the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States + for the Southern District of New-York. + + + + LOVEJOY & SON, + ELECTROTYPERS AND STEREOTYPERS + 15 Vandewater street N. Y. + + + + + TO MY FATHER, + + MY EARLIEST AND BEST + + INSTRUCTOR IN RURAL AFFAIRS, + + THIS VOLUME + + IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED. + + S. W. J. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + Introduction vii + + PART I.--ORIGIN, VARIETIES, AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF PEAT. + + PAGE + 1. What is Peat? 9 + 2. Conditions of its Formation 9 + 3. Different Kinds of Peat 14 + Swamp Muck 17 + Salt Mud 18 + 4. Chemical Characters and Composition of Peat 18 + a. Organic or combustible part 19 + Ulmic and Humic Acids 19 + Ulmin and Humin--Crenic and Apocrenic Acids 20 + Ulmates and Humates 21 + Crenates and Apocrenates 22 + Gein and Geic Acid--Elementary Composition of Peat 23 + Ultimate Composition of the Constituents of Peat 25 + b. Mineral Part--Ashes 25 + 5. Chemical Changes that occur in the Formation of Peat 26 + + + PART II.--ON THE AGRICULTURAL USES OF PEAT AND SWAMP MUCK. + + 1. Characters that adapt Peat for Agricultural Use 28 + A. Physical or Amending Characters 28 + I. Absorbent Power for Water, as Liquid and Vapor 31 + II. " " for Ammonia 32 + III. Influence in Disintegrating the Soil 34 + IV. Influence on the Temperature of Soils 37 + B. Fertilizing Characters 38 + I. Fertilizing Effects of the Organic Matters, excluding + Nitrogen 38 + 1. Organic Matters as Direct Food to Plants 38 + 2. Organic Matters as Indirect Food to Plants 40 + 3. Nitrogen, including Ammonia and Nitric Acid 42 + II. Fertilizing Effects of the Ashes of Peat 46 + III. Peculiarities in the Decay of Peat 50 + IV. Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure 51 + 2. Characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that need + correction 54 + I. Possible Bad Effects on Heavy Soils 54 + II. Noxious Ingredients 55 + a. Vitriol Peats 55 + b. Acidity--c. Resinous Matters 57 + 3. Preparation of Peat for Agricultural Use 57 + a. Excavation 57 + b. Exposure, or Seasoning 59 + c. Composting 62 + Compost with Stable Manure 63 + " " Night Soil 68 + " " Guano 69 + " " Fish and other Animal Matters 70 + " " Potash-lye & Soda-ash; Wood-ashes, + Shell-marl, Lime 72 + " " Salt and Lime Mixture 73 + " " Carbonate of Lime, Mortar, etc 75 + 4. The Author's Experiments with Peat Composts 77 + 5. Examination of Peat with reference to its Agricultural Value 81 + 6. Composition of Connecticut Peats 84 + Method of Analysis 86 + Tables of Composition 88-89-90 + + + PART III.--ON PEAT AS FUEL + + 1. Kinds of Peat that Make the Best Fuel 92 + 2. Density of Peat 95 + 3. Heating Power of Peat as Compared with Wood and Anthracite 96 + 4. Modes of Burning Peat 102 + 5. Burning of Broken Peat 103 + 6. Hygroscopic Water of Peat-fuel 104 + 7. Shrinkage 105 + 8. Time of Excavation and Drying 105 + 9. Drainage 106 + 10. Cutting of Peat for Fuel--a. Preparations for Cutting 107 + b. Cutting by Hand; with Common Spade; German Peat Knife 108 + " with Irish Slane--System employed in East + Friesland 109 + c. Machines for Cutting Peat; Brosowsky's Machine; Lepreux's + Machine 113 + 11. Dredging of Peat 115 + 12. Moulding of Peat 116 + 13. Preparation of Peat-fuel by Machinery, etc 116 + A. Condensation by Pressure 116 + a. Of Fresh Peat 116 + Mannhardt's Method 117 + The Neustadt Method 119 + b. Of Air-dried Peat--Lithuanian Process 120 + c. Of Hot-dried Peat--Gwynne's Method; Exter's Method 121 + Elsberg's Process 125 + B. Condensation without Pressure 127 + a. Of Earthy Peat 128 + Challeton's Method, at Mennecy, France 128 + " " Langenberg, Prussia 130 + Roberts' " Pekin, N. Y. 132 + Siemens' " Boeblingen, Wirtemberg 134 + b. Condensation of Fibrous Peat--Weber's Method; Hot-drying 135 + Gysser's Method and Machine 140 + c. Condensation of Peat of all Kinds--Schlickeysen's + Machine 144 + Leavitt's Peat Mill, Lexington, Mass 146 + Ashcroft & Betteley's Machine 148 + Versmann's Machine, Great Britain 150 + Buckland's " " 151 + 14. Artificial Drying of Peat 152 + 15. Peat Coal 157 + 16. Metallurgical Uses of Peat 162 + 17. Peat as a Source of Illuminating Gas 165 + 18. Examination of Peat with regard to its Value as Fuel 167 + + + + + INTRODUCTION. + + +In the years 1857 and 1858, the writer, in the capacity of Chemist to +the State Agricultural Society of Connecticut, was commissioned to make +investigations into the agricultural uses of the deposits of peat or +swamp muck which are abundant in this State; and, in 1858, he submitted +a Report to Henry A. Dyer, Esq., Corresponding Secretary of the Society, +embodying his conclusions. In the present work the valuable portions of +that Report have been recast, and, with addition of much new matter, +form Parts I. and II. The remainder of the book, relating to the +preparation and employment of peat for fuel, &c., is now for the first +time published, and is intended to give a faithful account of the +results of the experience that has been acquired in Europe, during the +last twenty-five years, in regard to the important subject of which it +treats. + +The employment of peat as an amendment and absorbent for agricultural +purposes has proved to be of great advantage in New-England farming. + +It is not to be doubted, that, as fuel, it will be even more valuable +than as a fertilizer. Our peat-beds, while they do not occupy so much +territory as to be an impediment and a reproach to our country, as they +have been to Ireland, are yet so abundant and so widely +distributed--occurring from the Atlantic to the Missouri, along and +above the 40th parallel, and appearing on our Eastern Coast at least as +far South as North Carolina[1]--as to present, at numberless points, +material, which, sooner or later, will serve us most usefully when other +fuel has become scarce and costly. + +The high prices which coal and wood have commanded for several years +back have directed attention to peat fuel; and, such is the adventurous +character of American enterprise, it cannot be doubted that we shall +rapidly develop and improve the machinery for producing it. As has +always been the case, we shall waste a vast deal of time and money in +contriving machines that violate every principle of mechanism and of +economy; but the results of European invention furnish a safe basis from +which to set out, and we have among us the genius and the patience that +shall work out the perfect method. + +It may well be urged that a good degree of caution is advisable in +entering upon the peat enterprise. In this country we have exhaustless +mines of the best coal, which can be afforded at a very low rate, with +which other fuel must compete. In Germany, where the best methods of +working peat have originated, fuel is more costly than here; and a +universal and intense economy there prevails, of which we, as a people, +have no conception. + +If, as the Germans themselves admit, the peat question there is still a +nice one as regards the test of dollars and cents, it is obvious, that, +for a time, we must "hasten slowly." It is circumstances that make peat, +and gold as well, remunerative or otherwise; and these must be well +considered in each individual case. Peat is the name for a material that +varies extremely in its quality, and this quality should be investigated +carefully before going to work upon general deductions. + +In my account of the various processes for working peat by machinery, +such data as I have been able to find have been given as to cost of +production. These data are however very imperfect, and not altogether +trustworthy, in direct application to American conditions. The cheapness +of labor in Europe is an item to our disadvantage in interpreting +foreign estimates. I incline to the belief that this is more than offset +among us by the quality of our labor, by the energy of our +administration, by the efficiency of our overseeing, and, especially, by +our greater skill in the adaptation of mechanical appliances. While +counselling caution, I also recommend enterprise in developing our +resources in this important particular; knowing full well, however, that +what I can say in its favor will scarcely add to the impulse already +apparent among my countrymen. + +SAMUEL W. JOHNSON. + +_Sheffield Scientific School_,} +_Yale College, June, 1866._ } + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] The great Dismal Swamp is a grand peat bog, and doubtless other of +the swamps of the coast, as far south as Florida and the Gulf, are of +the same character. + + + + +PART I. + +THE ORIGIN, VARIETIES, AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS +OF PEAT. + +1. _What is Peat?_ + +By the general term Peat, we understand the organic matter or vegetable +soil of bogs, swamps, beaver-meadows and salt-marshes. + +It consists of substances that have resulted from the decay of many +generations of aquatic or marsh plants, as mosses, sedges, coarse +grasses, and a great variety of shrubs, mixed with more or less mineral +substances, derived from these plants, or in many cases blown or washed +in from the surrounding lands. + +2. _The conditions under which Peat is formed._ + +In this country the production of Peat from fallen and decaying plants, +depends upon the presence of so much water as to cover or saturate the +vegetable matters, and thereby hinder the full access of air. Saturation +with water also has the effect to maintain the decaying matters at a +low temperature, and by these two causes in combination, the process of +decay is made to proceed with great slowness, and the solid products of +such slow decay, are compounds that themselves resist decay, and hence +they accumulate. + +In the United States there appears to be nothing like the extensive +_moors_ or _heaths_, that abound in Ireland, Scotland, the north of +England, North Germany, Holland, and the elevated plains of Bavaria, +which are mostly level or gently sloping tracts of country, covered with +peat or turf to a depth often of 20, and sometimes of 40, or more, feet. +In this country it is only in low places, where streams become +obstructed and form swamps, or in bays and inlets on salt water, where +the flow of the tide furnishes the requisite moisture, that our +peat-beds occur. If we go north-east as far as Anticosti, Labrador, or +Newfoundland, we find true moors. In these regions have been found a few +localities of the _Heather_ (_Calluna vulgaris_), which is so +conspicuous a plant on the moors of Europe, but which is wanting in the +peat-beds of the United States. + +In the countries above named, the weather is more uniform than here, the +air is more moist, and the excessive heat of our summers is scarcely +known. Such is the greater humidity of the atmosphere that the +bog-mosses,--the so-called _Sphagnums_,--which have a wonderful avidity +for moisture, (hence used for packing plants which require to be kept +moist on journeys), are able to keep fresh and in growth during the +entire summer. These mosses decay below, and throw out new vegetation +above, and thus produce a bog, especially wherever the earth is springy. +It is in this way that in those countries, moors and peat-bogs actually +grow, increasing in depth and area, from year to year, and raise +themselves above the level of the surrounding country. + +Prof. Marsh informs the writer that he has seen in Ireland, near the +north-west coast, a granite hill, capped with a peat-bed, several feet +in thickness. In the Bavarian highlands similar cases have been +observed, in localities where the atmosphere and the ground are kept +moist enough for the growth of moss by the extraordinary prevalence of +fogs. Many of the European moors rise more or less above the level of +their borders towards the centre, often to a height of 10 or 20 and +sometimes of 30 feet. They are hence known in Germany as _high_ moors +(_Hochmoore_) to distinguish from the level or dishing _meadow-moors_, +(_Wiesenmoore_). The peat-producing vegetation of the former is chiefly +moss and heather, of the latter coarse grasses and sedges. + +In Great Britain the reclamation of a moor is usually an expensive +operation, for which not only much draining, but actual cutting out and +burning of the compact peat is necessary. + +The warmth of our summers and the dryness of our atmosphere prevent the +accumulation of peat above the highest level of the standing water of +our marshes, and so soon as the marshes are well drained, the peat +ceases to form, and in most cases the swamp may be easily converted into +good meadow land. + +Springy hill-sides, which in cooler, moister climates would become +moors, here dry up in summer to such an extent that no peat can be +formed upon them. + +As already observed, our peat is found in low places. In many instances +its accumulation began by the obstruction of a stream. To that +remarkable creature, the beaver, we owe many of our peat-bogs. These +animals, from time immemorial, have built their dams across rivers so as +to flood the adjacent forest. In the rich leaf-mold at the water's +verge, and in the cool shade of the standing trees, has begun the growth +of the sphagnums, sedges, and various purely aquatic plants. These in +their annual decay have shortly filled the shallow borders of the +stagnating water, and by slow encroachments, going on through many +years, they have occupied the deeper portions, aided by the trees, +which, perishing, give their fallen branches and trunks, towards +completing the work. The trees decay and fall, and become entirely +converted into peat; or, as not unfrequently happens, especially in case +of resinous woods, preserve their form, and to some extent their +soundness. + +In a similar manner, ponds and lakes are encroached upon; or, if +shallow, entirely filled up by peat deposits. In the Great Forest of +Northern New York, the voyager has abundant opportunity to observe the +formation of peat-swamps, both as a result of beaver dams, and of the +filling of shallow ponds, or the narrowing of level river courses. The +formation of peat in water of some depth greatly depends upon the growth +of aquatic plants, other than those already mentioned. In our Eastern +States the most conspicuous are the Arrow-head, (_Sagittaria_); the +Pickerel Weed, (_Pontederia_;) Duck Meat, (_Lemna_;) Pond Weed, +(_Potamogeton_;) various _Polygonums_, brothers of Buckwheat and +Smart-weed; and especially the Pond Lilies, _(Nymphoea_ and _Nuphar_.) +The latter grow in water four or five feet deep, their leaves and long +stems are thick and fleshy, and their roots, which fill the oozy mud, +are often several inches in diameter. Their decaying leaves and stems, +and their huge roots, living or dead, accumulate below and gradually +raise the bed of the pond. Their living foliage which often covers the +water almost completely for acres, becomes a shelter or support for +other more delicate aquatic plants and sphagnums, which, creeping out +from the shore, may so develop as to form a floating carpet, whereon the +leaves of the neighboring wood, and dust scattered by the wind collect, +bearing down the mass, which again increases above, or is reproduced +until the water is filled to its bottom with vegetable matter. + +It is not rare to find in our bogs, patches of moss of considerable area +concealing deep water with a treacherous appearance of solidity, as the +hunter and botanist have often found to their cost. In countries of more +humid atmosphere, they are more common and attain greater dimensions. In +Zealand the surfaces of ponds are so frequently covered with floating +beds of moss, often stout enough to bear a man, that they have there +received a special name "_Hangesak_." In the Russian Ural, there occur +lakes whose floating covers of moss often extend five or six feet above +the water, and are so firm that roads are made across them, and forests +of large fir-trees find support. These immense accumulations are in fact +floating moors, consisting entirely of peat, save the living vegetation +at the surface. + +Sometimes these floating peat-beds, bearing trees, are separated by +winds from their connection with the shore, and become swimming peat +islands. In a small lake near Eisenach, in Central Germany, is a +swimming island of this sort. Its diameter is 40 rods, and it consists +of a felt-like mass of peat, three to five feet in depth, covered above +by sphagnums and a great variety of aquatic plants. A few birches and +dwarf firs grow in this peat, binding it together by their roots, and +when the wind blows, they act as sails, so that the island is constantly +moving about upon the lake. + +On the Neusiedler lake, in Hungary, is said to float a peat island +having an area of six square miles, and on lakes of the high Mexican +Plateau are similar islands which, long ago, were converted in fruitful +gardens. + +3. _The different kinds of Peat._ + +Very great differences in the characters of the deposits in our +peat-beds are observable. These differences are partly of color, some +peats being gray, others red, others again black; the majority, when +dry, possess a dark brown-red or snuff color. They also vary remarkably +in weight and consistency. Some are compact, destitute of fibres or +other traces of the vegetation from which they have been derived, and on +drying, shrink greatly and yield tough dense masses which burn readily, +and make an excellent fuel. Others again are light and porous, and +remain so on drying; these contain intermixed vegetable matter that is +but little advanced in the peaty decomposition. Some peats are almost +entirely free from mineral matters, and on burning, leave but a few _per +cent._ of ash, others contain considerable quantities of lime or iron, +in chemical combination, or of sand and clay that have been washed in +from the hills adjoining the swamps. As has been observed, the peat of +some swamps is mostly derived from mosses, that of others originates +largely from grasses; some contain much decayed wood and leaves, others +again are free from these. + +In the same swamp we usually observe more or less of all these +differences. We find the surface peat is light and full of partly +decayed vegetation, while below, the deposits are more compact. We +commonly can trace distinct strata or layers of peat, which are often +very unlike each other in appearance and quality, and in some cases the +light and compact layers alternate so that the former are found below +the latter. + +The light and porous kinds of peat appear in general to be formed in +shallow swamps or on the surface of bogs, where there is considerable +access of air to the decaying matters, while the compacter, older, riper +peats are found at a depth, and seem to have been formed beneath the +low water mark, in more complete exclusion of the atmosphere, and under +a considerable degree of pressure. + +The nature of the vegetation that flourishes in a bog, has much effect +on the character of the peat. The peats chiefly derived from mosses that +have grown in the full sunlight, have a yellowish-red color in their +upper layers, which usually becomes darker as we go down, running +through all shades of brown until at a considerable depth it is black. +Peats produced principally from grasses are grayish in appearance at the +surface, being full of silvery fibres--the skeletons of the blades of +grasses and sedges, while below they are commonly black. + +_Moss peat_ is more often fibrous in structure, and when dried forms +somewhat elastic masses. _Grass peat_, when taken a little below the +surface, is commonly destitute of fibres; when wet, is earthy in its +look, and dries to dense hard lumps. + +Where mosses and grasses have grown together simultaneously in the same +swamp, the peat is modified in its characters accordingly. Where, as may +happen, grass succeeds moss, or moss succeeds grass, the different +layers reveal their origin by their color and texture. At considerable +depths, however, where the peat is very old, these differences nearly or +entirely disappear. + +The geological character of a country is not without influence on the +kind of peat. It is only in regions where the rocks are granitic or +silicious, where, at least, the surface waters are free or nearly free +from lime, that _mosses_ make the bulk of the peat. + +In limestone districts, peat is chiefly formed from _grasses_ and +_sedges_. + +This is due to the fact that mosses (sphagnums) need little lime for +their growth, while the grasses require much; aquatic grasses cannot, +therefore, thrive in pure waters, and in waters containing the requisite +proportion of lime, grasses and sedges choke out the moss. + +The accidental admixtures of soil often greatly affect the appearance +and value of a peat, but on the whole it would appear that its quality +is most influenced by the degree of decomposition it has been subjected +to. + +In meadows and marshes, overflowed by the ocean tides, we have +_salt-peat_, formed from Sea-weeds (_Algae_,) Salt-wort (_Salicornia_,) +and a great variety of marine or strand-plants. In its upper portions, +salt-peat is coarsely fibrous from the grass roots, and dark-brown in +color. At sufficient depth it is black and destitute of fibres. + +The fact that peat is fibrous in texture shows that it is of +comparatively recent formation, or that the decomposition has been +arrested before reaching its later stages. Fibrous peat is found near +the surface, and as we dig down into a very deep bed we find almost +invariably that the fibrous structure becomes less and less evident +until at a certain depth it entirely disappears. + +It is not depth simply, but age or advancement in decomposition, which +determines these differences of texture. + +The "ripest," most perfectly formed peat, that in which the peaty +decomposition has reached its last stage,--which, in Germany, is termed +_pitchy-peat_ or _fat peat_, (_Pechtorf_, _Specktorf_)--is dark-brown or +black in color, and comparatively heavy and dense. When moist, it is +firm, sticky and coherent almost like clay, may be cut and moulded to +any shape. Dried, it becomes hard, and on a cut or burnished surface +takes a luster like wax or pitch. + +In Holland, West Friesland, Holstein, Denmark and Pomerania, a so-called +_mud-peat_ (_Schlammtorf_, also _Baggertorf_ and _Streichtorf_,) is +"fished up" from the bottoms of ponds, as a black mud or paste, which, +on drying, becomes hard and dense like the pitchy-peat. + +The two varieties of peat last named are those which are most prized as +fuel in Europe. + +_Vitriol peat_ is peat of any kind impregnated with sulphate of iron +(_copperas_,) and sulphate of alumina, (the astringent ingredient of +alum.) + +_Swamp Muck._--In New England, the vegetable remains occurring in +swamps, etc., are commonly called _Muck_. In proper English usage, muck +is a general term for manure of any sort, and has no special application +to the contents of bogs. With us, however, this meaning appears to be +quite obsolete, though in our agricultural literature--formerly, more +than now, it must be admitted,--the word as applied to the subject of +our treatise, has been qualified as _Swamp Muck_. + +In Germany, peat of whatever character, is designated by the single word +_Torf_; in France it is _Tourbe_, and of the same origin is the word +_Turf_, applied to it in Great Britain. With us turf appears never to +have had this signification. + +Peat, no doubt, is a correct name for the substance which results from +the decomposition of vegetable matters under or saturated with water, +whatever its appearance or properties. There is, however, with us, an +inclination to apply this word particularly to those purer and more +compact sorts which are adapted for fuel, while to the lighter, less +decomposed or more weathered kinds, and to those which are considerably +intermixed with soil or silt, the term muck or swamp muck is given. +These distinctions are not, indeed, always observed, and, in fact, so +great is the range of variation in the quality of the substance, that it +would be impossible to draw a line where muck leaves off and peat +begins. Notwithstanding, a rough distinction is better than none, and +we shall therefore employ the two terms when any greater clearness of +meaning can be thereby conveyed. + +It happens, that in New England, the number of small shallow swales, +that contain unripe or impure peat, is much greater than that of large +and deep bogs. Their contents are therefore more of the "mucky" than of +the "peaty" order, and this may partly account for New England usage in +regard to these old English words. + +By the term muck, some farmers understand leaf-mold (decayed leaves), +especially that which collects in low and wet places. When the deposit +is deep and saturated with water, it may have all the essential +characters of peat. Ripe peat, from such a source is, however, so far as +the writer is informed, unknown to any extent in this country. We might +distinguish as _leaf-muck_ the leaves which have decomposed under or +saturated with water, retaining the well established term leaf-mold to +designate the dry or drier covering of the soil in a dense forest of +deciduous trees. + +_Salt-mud._--In the marshes, bays, and estuaries along the sea-shore, +accumulate large quantities of fine silt, brought down by rivers or +deposited from the sea-water, which are more or less mixed with finely +divided peat or partly decomposed vegetable matters, derived largely +from Sea-weed, and in many cases also with animal remains (mussels and +other shell-fish, crabs, and myriads of minute organisms.) This black +mud has great value as a fertilizer. + +4. _The Chemical Characters and Composition of Peat._ + +The process of burning, demonstrates that peat consists of two kinds of +substance; one of which, the larger portion, is combustible, and is +_organic_ or vegetable matter; the other, smaller portion, remaining +indestructible by fire is _inorganic matter_ or _ash_. We shall consider +these separately. + +a. _The organic or combustible part of peat_ varies considerably in its +proximate composition. It is in fact an indefinite mixture of several or +perhaps of many compound bodies, whose precise nature is little known. +These bodies have received the collective names _Humus_ and _Geine_. We +shall employ the term _humus_ to designate this mixture, whether +occurring in peat, swamp-muck, salt-mud, in composts, or in the arable +soil. Its chemical characters are much the same, whatever its appearance +or mode of occurrence; and this is to be expected since it is always +formed from the same materials and under essentially similar conditions. + +_Resinous_ and _Bituminous matters_.--If dry pulverized peat be agitated +and warmed for a short time with alcohol, there is usually extracted a +small amount of _resinous_ and sometimes of _bituminous_ matters, which +are of no account in the agricultural applications of peat, but have a +bearing on its value as fuel. + +_Ulmic_ and _Humic acids_.--On boiling what remains from the treatment +with alcohol, with a weak solution of carbonate of soda (sal-soda), we +obtain a yellowish-brown or black liquid. This liquid contains certain +acid ingredients of the peat which become soluble by entering into +chemical combination with soda. + +On adding to the solution strong vinegar, or any other strong acid, +there separates a bulky brown or black substance, which, after a time, +subsides to the bottom of the vessel as a precipitate, to use a chemical +term, leaving the liquid of a more or less yellow tinge. This deposit, +if obtained from light brown peat, is _ulmic acid_; if from black peat, +it is _humic acid_. These acids, when in the precipitated state, are +insoluble in vinegar; but when this is washed away, they are +considerably soluble in water. They are, in fact, modified by the action +of the soda, so as to acquire much greater solubility in water than they +otherwise possess. On drying the bulky bodies thus obtained, brown or +black lustrous masses result, which have much the appearance of coal. + +_Ulmin_ and _Humin_.--After extracting the peat with solution of +carbonate of soda, it still contains ulmin or humin. These bodies cannot +be obtained in the pure state from peat, since they are mixed with more +or less partially decomposed vegetable matters from which they cannot be +separated without suffering chemical change. They have been procured, +however, by the action of muriatic acid on sugar. They are indifferent +in their chemical characters, are insoluble in water and in solution of +carbonate of soda; but upon heating with solution of hydrate of soda +they give dark-colored liquids, being in fact converted by this +treatment into ulmic and humic acids, respectively, with which they are +identical in composition. + +The terms ulmic and humic acids do not refer each to a single compound, +but rather to a group of bodies of closely similar appearance and +properties, which, however, do differ slightly in their characteristics, +and differ also in composition by containing more or less of oxygen and +hydrogen in equal equivalents. + +After complete extraction with hydrate of soda, there remains more or +less undecomposed vegetable matter, together with sand and soil, were +these contained in the peat. + +_Crenic_ and _apocrenic acids_.--From the usually yellowish liquid out +of which the ulmic and humic acids have been separated, may further be +procured by appropriate chemical means, not needful to be detailed +here, two other bodies which bear the names respectively of _Crenic +Acid_ and _Apocrenic Acid_. These acids were discovered by Berzelius, +the great Swedish chemist, in the water and sediment of the Porla +spring, in Sweden. + +By the action upon peat of carbonate of ammonia, which is generated to +some extent in the decay of vegetable matters and is also absorbed from +the air, ulmic and humic acids are made soluble, and combine with the +ammonia as well as with lime, oxide of iron, etc. In some cases the +ulmates and humates thus produced may be extracted from the peat by +water, and consequently occur dissolved in the water of the swamp from +which the peat is taken, giving it a yellow or brown color. + +_Ulmates_ and _Humates_.--Of considerable interest to us here, are the +properties of the compounds of these acids, that may be formed in peat +when it is used as an ingredient of composts. The ulmates and humates of +the alkalies, viz.: _potash_, _soda_, and _ammonia_, dissolve readily in +water. They are formed when the alkalies or their carbonates act on +ulmin and humin, or upon ulmates or humates of lime, iron, etc. Their +dilute solutions are yellow, or brown. + +The ulmates and humates of _lime_, _magnesia_, oxide of _iron_, oxide of +_manganese_ and _alumina_, are insoluble, or nearly so in water. + +In ordinary soils, the earths and oxides just named, predominate over +the alkalies, and although they may contain considerable ulmic and humic +acids, water is able to extract but very minute quantities of the +latter, on account of the insolubility of the compounds they have +formed. + +On the other hand, peat, highly manured garden soil, leaf-mold, rotted +manure and composts, yield yellow or brown extracts with water, from the +fact that alkalies are here present to form soluble compounds. + +An important fact established by Mulder is, that when solutions of +alkali-carbonates are put in contact with the insoluble ulmates and +humates, the latter are decomposed; soluble alkali-ulmates and humates +being formed, and _in these, a portion of the otherwise insoluble +ulmates and humates dissolve_, so that thus, in a compost, lime, +magnesia, oxide of iron, and even alumina may exist in soluble +combinations, by the agency of these acids. + +_Crenates_ and _Apocrenates_.--The ulmic and humic acids when separated +from their compounds, are nearly insoluble, and, so far as we know, +comparatively inert bodies; by further change, (uniting with oxygen) +they pass into or yield the crenic and apocrenic acids which, according +to Mulder, have an acid taste, being freely soluble in water, and in all +respects, decided acids. The compounds of both these acids with the +alkalies are soluble. The crenates of lime, magnesia, and protoxide of +iron are soluble, crenates of peroxide of iron and of oxide of manganese +are but very slightly soluble; crenate of alumina is insoluble. The +apocrenates of iron and manganese are slightly soluble; those of lime, +magnesia, and alumina are insoluble. All the insoluble crenates and +apocrenates, are soluble in solutions of the corresponding salts of the +alkalies. + +Application of these facts will be given in subsequent paragraphs. It +may be here remarked, that the crenate of protoxide of iron is not +unfrequently formed in considerable quantity in peat-bogs, and +dissolving in the water of springs gives them a chalybeate character. +Copious springs of this kind occur at the edge of a peat-bed at +Woodstock, Conn., which are in no small repute for their medicinal +qualities, having a tonic effect from the iron they contain. Such +waters, on exposure to the air, shortly absorb oxygen, and the substance +is thereby converted into crenate and afterwards into apocrenate of +peroxide of iron, which, being but slightly soluble, or insoluble, +separates as a yellow or brown ochreous deposit along the course of the +water. By further exposure to air the organic acid is oxidized to +carbonic acid, and hydrated oxide of iron remains. Bog-iron ore appears +often to have originated in this way. + +_Gein and Geic acid._--Mulder formerly believed another substance to +exist in peat which he called _Gein_, and from this by the action of +alkalies he supposed geic acid to be formed. In his later writings, +however, he expresses doubt as to the existence of such a substance, +and we may omit further notice of it, especially since, if it really +do occur, its properties are not distinct from those of humic acid. + +We should not neglect to remark, however, that the word gein has been +employed by some writers in the sense in which we use humus, viz.: to +denote the brown or black products of the decomposition of vegetable +matters. + +It is scarcely to be doubted that other organic compounds exist in peat. +As yet, however, we have no knowledge of any other ingredients, while it +appears certain that those we have described are its chief constituents, +and give it its peculiar properties. With regard to them it must +nevertheless be admitted, that our chemical knowledge is not entirely +satisfactory, and new investigations are urgently demanded to supply the +deficiencies of the researches so ably made by Mulder, more than twenty +years ago. + +_Elementary Composition of Peat._ + +After this brief notice of those organic _compounds_ that have been +recognized in or produced from peat, we may give attention to the +elementary composition of peat itself. + +Like that of the vegetation from which it originates, the organic part +of peat consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. In the +subjoined table are given the proportions of these elements as found in +the combustible part of sphagnum, of several kinds of wood, and in that +of a number of peats in various stages of ripeness. They are arranged in +the order of their content of carbon. + + -----------------------------------+----------+-----+-------+-----+------- + | |_Car-|_Hydro-|_Oxy-|_Nitro- + |_Analyst._|bon._| gen._ |gen._| gen._ + -----------------------------------+----------+-----+-------+-----+------- + 1--Sphagnum } | Websky |49.88| 6.54 |42.42| 1.16 + 2--Peach wood } undecomposed |Chevandier|49.90| 6.10 |43.10| 0.90 + 3--Poplar " } | " |50.30| 6.30 |42.40| 1.00 + 4--Oak " } | " |50.60| 6.00 |42.10| 1.30 + 5--Peat, porous, light-brown, | | | | | + sphagnous | Websky |50.86| 5.80 |42.57| 0.77 + 6-- " porous, red-brown. | Jaeckel |53.51| 5.90 | 40.59 + 7-- " heavy, brown. | " |56.43| 5.32 | 38.25 + 8-- " dark red-brown, | | | | | + well decomposed | Websky |59.47| 6.52 |31.51| 2.51 + 9-- " black, very dense | | | | | + and hard. | " |59.70| 5.70 |33.04| 1.56 + 10-- " black, heavy, }best quality| " |59.71| 5.27 |32.07| 2.59 + 11-- " brown, heavy, }for fuel. | " |62.54| 6.81 |29.24| 1.41 + -----------------------------------+----------+-----+-------+-----+------- + +From this table it is seen that sphagnum, and the wood of our forest +trees are very similar in composition, though not identical. Further, it +is seen from analyses 1 and 5, that in the first stages of the +conversion of sphagnum into peat--which are marked by a change of color, +but in which the form of the sphagnum is to a considerable extent +preserved--but little alteration occurs in ultimate composition; about +one _per cent._ of carbon being gained, and one of hydrogen lost. We +notice in running down the columns that as the peat becomes heavier and +darker in color, it also becomes richer in carbon and poorer in oxygen. +Hydrogen varies but slightly. + +As a general statement we may say that the ripest and heaviest peat +contains 10 or 12 _per cent._ more carbon and 10 or 12 _per cent._ less +oxygen than the vegetable matter from which it is produced; while +between the unaltered vegetation and the last stage of humification, the +peat runs through an indefinite number of intermediate stages. + +Nitrogen is variable, but, in general, the older peats contain the most. +To this topic we shall shortly recur, and now pass on to notice-- + +_The ultimate composition of the compounds of which peat consists._ + +Below are tabulated analyses of the organic acids of peat:-- + + _Carbon._ _Hydrogen._ _Oxygen._ + Ulmic acid, artificial from sugar 67.10 4.20 28.70 + Humic acid, from Frisian peat 61.10 4.30 34.60 + Crenic acid 56.47 2.74 40.78 + Apocrenic acid 45.70 4.80 49.50 + +It is seen that the amount of carbon diminishes from ulmic acid to +apocrenic, that of oxygen increases in the same direction and to the +same extent, viz.: about 21 _per cent._, while the hydrogen remains +nearly the same in all. + +b. _The mineral part of peat, which remains as ashes_ when the organic +matters are burned away, is variable in quantity and composition. +Usually a portion of sand or soil is found in it, and this not +unfrequently constitutes its larger portion. Some peats leave on burning +much carbonate of lime; others chiefly sulphate of lime; the ash of +others again is mostly oxyd of iron; silicic, and phosphoric acids, +magnesia, potash, soda, alumina and chlorine, also occur in small +quantities in the ash of all peats. + +With one exception (alumina) all these bodies are important ingredients +of agricultural plants. + +In some rare instances, peats are found, which are so impregnated with +soluble sulphates of iron and alumina, as to yield these salts to water +in large quantity; and sulphate of iron (green vitriol,) has actually +been manufactured from such peats, which in consequence have been +characterized as _vitriol peats_. + +Those bases (lime, oxide of iron, etc.,) which are found as carbonates +or simple oxides in the ashes, exist in the peat itself in combination +with the humic and other organic acids. When these compounds are +destroyed by burning, the bases remain united to carbonic acid. + +5.--_Chemical Changes that occur in the formation of Peat._ When a plant +perishes, its conversion into humus usually begins at once. When exposed +to the atmosphere, the oxygen of the air attacks it, uniting with its +carbon producing carbonic acid gas, and with its hydrogen generating +water. This action goes on, though slowly, even at some depth under +water, because the latter dissolves oxygen from the air in small +quantity,[2] and constantly resupplies itself as rapidly as the gas is +consumed. + +Whether exposed to the air or not, the organic matter suffers internal +decomposition, and portions of its elements assume the gaseous or liquid +form. We have seen that ripe peat is 10 to 12 _per cent._ richer in +carbon and equally poorer in oxygen, than the vegetable matters from +which it originates. Organic matters, in passing into peat, lose carbon +and nitrogen; but they lose oxygen more rapidly than the other two +elements, and hence the latter become relatively more abundant. The loss +of hydrogen is such that its proportion to the other elements is but +little altered. + +The bodies that separate from the decomposing vegetable matter are +carbonic acid gas, carburetted hydrogen (marsh gas), nitrogen gas, and +water. + +Carbonic acid is the most abundant gaseous product of the peaty +decomposition. Since it contains nearly 73 _per cent._ of oxygen and but +27 _per cent._ of carbon, it is obvious that by its escape the +proportion of carbon in the residual mass is increased. In the formation +of water from the decaying matters, 1 part of hydrogen carries off 8 +parts of oxygen, and this change increases the proportion of carbon and +of hydrogen. Marsh gas consists of one part of hydrogen to three of +carbon, but it is evolved in comparatively small quantity, and hence has +no effect in diminishing the _per cent._ of carbon. + +The gas that bubbles up through the water of a peat-bog, especially if +the decomposing matters at the bottom be stirred, consists largely of +marsh gas and nitrogen, often with but a small proportion of carbonic +acid. Thus Websky found in gas from a peat-bed + + Carbonic acid 2.97 + Marsh gas 43.36 + Nitrogen 53.67 + ------ + 100.00 + +Carbonic acid, however, dissolves to a considerable extent in water, and +is furthermore absorbed by the living vegetation, which is not true of +marsh gas and nitrogen; hence the latter escape while the former does +not. Nitrogen escapes in the uncombined state, as it always (or usually) +does in the decay of vegetable and animal matters that contain it. Its +loss is, in general, slower than that of the other elements, and it +sometimes accumulates in the peat in considerable quantity. A small +portion of nitrogen unites with hydrogen, forming ammonia, which remains +combined with the humic and other acids. + + +PART II. + +ON THE AGRICULTURAL USES OF PEAT AND +SWAMP MUCK. + + +After the foregoing account of the composition of peat, we may proceed +to notice: + +1.--_The characters that adapt it for agricultural uses._ + +These characters are conveniently discussed under two heads, viz.: + +Those which render it useful in improving the texture and physical +characters of the soil, and indirectly contribute to the nourishment of +crops,--characters which constitute it an _amendment_ to the soil (_A_); +and + +Those which make it a direct _fertilizer_ (_B_). + +A.--Considered as an amendment, the value of peat depends upon + +_Its remarkable power of absorbing and retaining water, both as a liquid +and as a vapor_ (I): + +_Its power of absorbing ammonia_ (II): + +_Its effect in promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral +ingredients, that is the stony matters of the soil_ (III): _and_ + +_Its influence on the temperature of the soil_ (IV). + +The agricultural importance of these properties of peat is best +illustrated by considering the faults of a certain class of soils. + +Throughout the State of Connecticut, for instance, are found abundant +examples of light, leachy, hungry soils, which consist of coarse sand or +fine gravel; are surface-dry in a few hours after the heaviest rains, +and in the summer drouths, are as dry as an ash-heap to a depth of +several or many feet. + +These soils are easy to work, are ready for the plow early in the +spring, and if well manured give fair crops in wet seasons. In a dry +summer, however, they yield poorly, or fail of crops entirely; and, at +the best, they require constant and very heavy manuring to keep them in +heart. + +Crops fail on these soils from two causes, viz.; _want of moisture_ and +_want of food_. Cultivated plants demand as an indispensable condition +of their growth and perfection, to be supplied with water in certain +quantities, which differ with different crops. Buckwheat will flourish +best on dry soils, while cranberries and rice grow in swamps. + +Our ordinary cereal, root, forage and garden crops require a medium +degree of moisture, and with us it is in all cases desirable that the +soil be equally protected from excess of water and from drouth. Soils +must be thus situated either naturally, or as the result of improvement, +before any steadily good results can be obtained in their cultivation. +The remedy for excess of water in too heavy soils, is thorough drainage. +It is expensive, but effectual. It makes the earth more porous, opens +and maintains channels, through which the surplus water speedily runs +off, and permits the roots of crops to go down to a considerable depth. + +What, let us consider, is the means of obviating the defects of soils +that are naturally too porous, from which the water runs off too +readily, and whose crops "burn up" in dry seasons? + +In wet summers, these light soils, as we have remarked, are quite +productive if well manured. It is then plain that if we could add +anything to them which would retain the moisture of dews and rains in +spite of the summer-heats, our crops would be uniformly fair, provided +the supply of manure were kept up. + +But why is it that light soils, need more manure than loamy or heavy +lands? We answer--because, in the first place the rains which quickly +descend through the open soil, wash down out of the reach of vegetation +the soluble fertilizing matters, especially the nitrates, for which the +soil has no retentive power; and in the second place, from the porosity +of the soil, the air has too great access, so that the vegetable and +animal matters of manures decay too rapidly, their volatile portions, +ammonia and carbonic acid, escape into the atmosphere, and are in +measure lost to the crops. From these combined causes we find that a +heavy dressing of well-rotted stable manure, almost if not entirely, +disappears from such soils in one season, so that another year the field +requires a renewed application; while on loamy soils the same amount of +manure would have lasted several years, and produced each year a better +effect. + +We want then to _amend_ light soils by incorporating with them something +that prevents the rains from leaching through them too rapidly, and also +that renders them less open to the air, or absorbs and retains for the +use of crops the volatile products of the decay of manures. + +For these purposes, vegetable matter of some sort is the best and almost +the only amendment that can be economically employed. In many cases a +good peat or muck is the best form of this material, that lies at the +farmer's command. + +I.--_Its absorbent power for liquid water_ is well known to every farmer +who has thrown it up in a pile to season for use. It holds the water +like a sponge, and, according to its greater or less porosity, will +retain from 50 to 100 or more _per cent._ of its weight of liquid, +without dripping. Nor can this water escape from it rapidly. It dries +almost as slowly as clay, and a heap of it that has been exposed to sun +and wind for a whole summer, though it has of course lost much water, is +still distinctly wet to the eye and the feel a little below the surface. + +_Its absorbent power for vapor of water_ is so great that more than once +it has happened in Germany, that barns or close sheds filled with +partially dried peat, such as is used for fuel, have been burst by the +swelling of the peat in damp weather, occasioned by the absorption of +moisture from the air. This power is further shown by the fact that when +peat has been kept all summer long in a warm room, thinly spread out to +the air, and has become like dry snuff to the feel, it still contains +from 8 to 30 _per cent._ (average 15 _per cent._) of water. To dry a +peat thoroughly, it requires to be exposed for some time to the +temperature of boiling water. It is thus plain, as experience has +repeatedly demonstrated, that no ordinary summer heats can dry up a soil +which has had a good dressing of this material, for on the one hand, it +soaks up and holds the rains that fall upon it, and on the other, it +absorbs the vapor of water out of the atmosphere whenever it is moist, +as at night and in cloudy weather. + +When peat has once become _air-dry_, it no longer manifests this avidity +for water. In drying it shrinks, loses its porosity and requires long +soaking to saturate it again. In the soil, however, it rarely becomes +air-dry, unless indeed, this may happen during long drouth with a peaty +soil, such as results from the draining of a bog. + +II.--_Absorbent power for ammonia._ + +All soils that deserve to be called fertile, have the property of +absorbing and retaining ammonia and the volatile matters which escape +from fermenting manures, but light and coarse soils may be deficient in +this power. Here again in respect to its absorptive power for ammonia, +peat comes to our aid. + +It is easy to show by direct experiment that peat absorbs and combines +with ammonia. + +In 1858 I took a weighed quantity of air-dry peat from the New Haven +Beaver Pond, (a specimen furnished me by Chauncey Goodyear, Esq.,) and +poured upon it a known quantity of dilute solution of ammonia, and +agitated the two together occasionally during 48 hours. I then distilled +off at a boiling heat the unabsorbed ammonia and determined its +quantity. This amount subtracted from that of the ammonia originally +employed, gave the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained by the peat +at the temperature of boiling water. + +The peat retained ammonia to the amount of 0.95 of _one per cent._ + +I made another trial at the same time with carbonate of ammonia, adding +excess of solution of this salt to a quantity of peat, and exposing it +to the heat of boiling water, until no smell of ammonia was perceptible. +The entire nitrogen in the peat was then determined, and it was found +that the dry peat which originally contained nitrogen equivalent to 2.4 +_per cent._ of ammonia, now yielded an amount corresponding to 3.7 _per +cent._ The quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained at a temperature +of 212 deg., was thus 1.3 _per cent._ + +This last experiment most nearly represents the true power of +absorption; because, in fermenting manures, ammonia mostly occurs in the +form of carbonate, and this is more largely retained than free ammonia, +on account of its power of decomposing the humate of lime, forming with +it carbonate of lime and humate of ammonia. + +The absorbent power of peat is well shown by the analyses of three +specimens, sent me in 1858, by Edwin Hoyt, Esq., of New Canaan, Conn. +The first of these was the swamp muck he employed. It contained in the +air-dry state nitrogen equivalent to 0.58 _per cent._ of ammonia. The +second sample was the same muck that had lain under the flooring of the +horse stables, and had been, in this way, partially saturated with +urine. It contained nitrogen equivalent to 1.15 _per cent._ of ammonia. +The third sample was, finally, the same muck composted with white-fish. +It contained nitrogen corresponding to 1.31 _per cent._ of ammonia.[3] + +The quantities of ammonia thus absorbed, both in the laboratory and +field experiments are small--from 0.7 to 1.3 _per cent._ The absorption +is without doubt chiefly due to the organic matter of the peats, and in +all the specimens on which these trials were made, the proportion of +inorganic matter is large. The results therefore become a better +expression of the power of _peat_, in general, to absorb ammonia, if we +reckon them on the organic matter alone. Calculated in this way, the +organic matter of the Beaver Pond peat (which constitutes but 68 _per +cent._ of the dry peat) absorbs 1.4 _per cent._ of free ammonia, and 1.9 +_per cent._ of ammonia out of the carbonate of ammonia. + +Similar experiments, by Anderson, on a Scotch peat, showed it to +possess, when wet, an absorptive power of 2 _per cent._, and, after +drying in the air, it still retained 1.5 _per cent._--[Trans. Highland +and Ag'l Soc'y.] + +When we consider how small an ingredient of most manures nitrogen is, +viz.: from one-half to three-quarters of one _per cent._ in case of +stable manure, and how little of it, in the shape of guano for instance, +is usually applied to crops--not more than 40 to 60 lbs. to the acre, +(the usual dressings with guano are from 250 to 400 lbs. per acre, and +nitrogen averages but 15 _per cent._ of the guano), we at once perceive +that an absorptive power of one or even one-half _per cent._ is greatly +more than adequate for every agricultural purpose. + +III.--_Peat promotes the disintegration of the soil._ + +The soil is a storehouse of food for crops; the stores it contains are, +however, only partly available for immediate use. In fact, by far the +larger share is locked up, as it were, in insoluble combinations, and +only by a slow and gradual change can it become accessible to the plant. +This change is largely brought about by the united action of _water_ and +_carbonic acid gas_. Nearly all the rocks and minerals out of which +fertile soils are formed,--which therefore contain those inorganic +matters that are essential to vegetable growth,--though very slowly +acted on by pure water, are decomposed and dissolved to a much greater +extent by water, charged with carbonic acid gas. + +It is by these solvents that the formation of soil from broken rocks is +to a great extent due. Clay is invariably a result of their direct +action upon rocks. The efficiency of the soil depends greatly upon their +chemical influence. + +_The only abundant source of carbonic acid in the soil, is decaying +vegetable matter._ + +Hungry, leachy soils, from their deficiency of vegetable matter and of +moisture, do not adequately yield their own native resources to the +support of crops, because the conditions for converting their fixed into +floating capital are wanting. Such soils dressed with peat or green +manured, at once acquire the power of retaining water, and keep that +water ever charged with carbonic acid: thus not only the extraneous +manures which the farmer applies are fully economized; but the soil +becomes more productive from its own stores of fertility which now begin +to be unlocked and available. + +Dr. Peters, of Saxony, has made some instructive experiments that are +here in point. He filled several large glass jars, (2-1/2 feet high and +5-1/2 inches wide) with a rather poor loamy sand, containing +considerable humus, and planted in each one, June 14, 1857, an equal +number of seeds of oats and peas. Jar No. 2 had daily passed into it +through a tube, adapted to the bottom, about 3-1/4 pints of common air. +No. 3 received daily the same bulk of a mixture of air and carbonic acid +gas, of which the latter amounted to one-fourth. No. 1 remained without +any treatment of this kind, _i. e._: in just the condition of the soil +in an open field, having no air in its pores, save that penetrating it +from the atmosphere. On October 3, the plants were removed from the +soil, and after drying at the boiling point of water, were weighed. The +crops from the pots into which air and carbonic acid were daily forced, +were about _twice as heavy_ as No. 1, which remained in the ordinary +condition. + +Examination of the soil further demonstrated, that in the last two +soils, a considerably greater quantity of mineral and organic matters +had become soluble in water, than in the soil that was not artificially +aerated. The actual results are given in the table below in grammes, and +refer to 6000 grammes of soil in each case:-- + + ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID ON THE SOIL. + -----------------------------------+-----------+--------+------------ + | _No. 1, | | + | Without |_No. 2, | _No. 3, + _Substances soluble in water, etc._| Artificial| Common | Air and + | Supply of | Air | Carbonic + | Air._ | Added._|acid added._ + -----------------------------------+-----------+--------+------------ + Mineral matters | 2.04 | 3.71 | 4.99 + Potash | 0.07 | 0.17 | 0.14 + Soda | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.28 + Organic matters | 2.76 | 4.32 | 2.43 + | | | + Weight of Crops | 5.89 | 10.49 | 12.35 + -----------------------------------+-----------+--------+------------ + +It will be seen from the above that air alone exercised nearly as much +solvent effect as the mixture of air with one-fourth its weight of +carbonic acid; this is doubtless, in part due to the fact that the air, +upon entering the soil rich in humus, caused the abundant formation of +carbonic acid, as will be presently shown must have been the case. It +is, however, probable that organic acids (crenic and apocrenic,) and +nitric acid were also produced (by oxidation,) and shared with carbonic +the work of solution. + +It is almost certain, that the acids of peat exert a powerful +decomposing, and ultimately solvent effect on the minerals of the soil; +but on this point we have no precise information, and must therefore be +content merely to present the probability. This is sustained by the fact +that the crenic, apocrenic and humic acids, though often partly +uncombined, are never wholly so, but usually occur united in part to +various bases, viz.: lime, magnesia, ammonia, potash, alumina and oxide +of iron. + +The crenic and apocrenic acids (that are formed by the oxidation of +ulmic and humic acids,) have such decided acid characters,--crenic acid +especially, which has a strongly sour taste--that we cannot well doubt +their dissolving action. + +IV.--_The influence of peat on the temperature_ of light soils dressed +with it may often be of considerable practical importance. A light dry +soil is subject to great variations of temperature, and rapidly follows +the changes of the atmosphere from cold to hot, and from hot to cold. In +the summer noon a sandy soil becomes so warm as to be hardly endurable +to the feel, and again it is on such soils that the earliest frosts take +effect. If a soil thus subject to extremes of temperature have a dressing +of peat, it will on the one hand not become so warm in the hot day, and +on the other hand it will not cool so rapidly, nor so much in the night; +its temperature will be rendered more uniform, and on the whole, more +conducive to the welfare of vegetation. This regulative effect on +temperature is partly due to the stores of water held by peat. In a hot +day this water is constantly evaporating, and this, as all know, is a +cooling process. At night the peat absorbs vapor of water from the air, +and condenses it within its pores, this condensation is again accompanied +with the evolution of heat. + +It appears to be a general, though not invariable fact, that dark +colored soils, other things being equal, are constantly the warmest, or +at any rate maintain the temperature most favorable to vegetation. It +has been repeatedly observed that on light-colored soils plants mature +more rapidly, if the earth be thinly covered with a coating of some +black substance. Thus Lampadius, Professor in the School of Mines at +Freiberg, a town situated in a mountainous part of Saxony, found that he +could ripen melons, even in the coolest summers, by strewing a coating +of coal-dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In some of the +vineyards of the Rhine, the powder of a black slate is employed to +hasten the ripening of the grape. + +Girardin, an eminent French agriculturist, in a series of experiments on +the cultivation of potatoes, found that the time of their ripening +varied eight to fourteen days, according to the character of the soil. +He found, on the 25th of August, in a very dark soil, made so by the +presence of much humus or decaying vegetable matter, twenty-six +varieties ripe; in sandy soil but twenty, in clay nineteen, and in a +white lime soil only sixteen. + +It cannot be doubted then, that the effect of dressing a light sandy or +gravelly soil with peat, or otherwise enriching it in vegetable matter, +is to render it warmer, in the sense in which that word is usually +applied to soils. The upward range of the thermometer is not, indeed, +increased, but the uniform warmth so salutary to our most valued crops +is thereby secured. + +In the light soils stable-manure wastes too rapidly because, for one +reason, at the extremes of high temperature, oxidation and decay proceed +with great rapidity, and the volatile portions of the fertilizer are +used up faster than the plant can appropriate them, so that not only are +they wasted during the early periods of growth, but they are wanting at +a later period when their absence may prove the failure of a crop. + + +B. The ingredients and qualities which make peat _a direct fertilizer_ +next come under discussion. We shall notice: + +_The organic matters including nitrogen (ammonia and nitric acid)_ (I): + +_The inorganic or mineral ingredients_ (II): + +_Peculiarities in the decay of Peat_ (III), _and_ + +_Institute a comparison between peat and stable manure_ (IV). + +I.--Under this division we have to consider: + +1. _The organic matters as direct food to plants._ + +Thirty years ago, when Chemistry and Vegetable Physiology began to be +applied to Agriculture, the opinion was firmly held among scientific +men, that the organic parts of humus--by which we understand decayed +vegetable matter, such as is found to a greater or less extent in all +good soils, and _abounds_ in many fertile ones, such as constitutes the +leaf-mold of forests, such as is produced in the fermenting of stable +manure, and that forms the principal part of swamp-muck and peat,--are +the true nourishment of vegetation, at any rate of the higher orders of +plants, those which supply food to man and to domestic animals. + + +In 1840, Liebig, in his celebrated treatise on the "Applications of +Chemistry to Agriculture and Physiology," gave as his opinion that these +organic bodies do not nourish vegetation except by the products of their +decay. He asserted that they cannot enter the plant directly, but that +the water, carbonic acid and ammonia resulting from their decay, are the +substances actually imbibed by plants, and from these alone is built up +the organic or combustible part of vegetation. + +To this day there is a division of opinion among scientific men on this +subject, some adopting the views of Liebig, others maintaining that +certain soluble organic matters, viz., crenic and apocrenic acids are +proper food of plants. + +On the one hand it has been abundantly demonstrated that these organic +matters are not at all essential to the growth of agricultural plants, +and can constitute but a small part of the actual food of vegetation +taken in the aggregate. + +On the other hand, we are acquainted with no satisfactory evidence that +the soluble organic matters of the soil and of peat, especially the +crenates and apocrenates, are not actually appropriated by, and, so far +as they go, are not directly serviceable as food to plants. + +Be this as it may, practice has abundantly demonstrated the value of +humus as an ingredient of the soil, and if not directly, yet indirectly, +it furnishes the material out of which plants build up their parts. + +2. _The organic matters of peat as indirect food to plants._ Very nearly +one-half, by weight, of our common crops, when perfectly dry, consists +of _carbon_. The substance which supplies this element to plants is the +gas, carbonic acid. Plants derive this gas mostly from the atmosphere, +absorbing it by means of their leaves. But the free atmosphere, at only +a little space above the soil, contains on the average but 1/2500 of its +bulk of this gas, whereas plants flourish in air containing a larger +quantity, and, in fact, their other wants being supplied, they grow +better as the quantity is increased to 1/12 the bulk of the air. These +considerations make sufficiently obvious how important it is that the +soil have in itself a constant and abundant source of carbonic acid gas. +As before said, _organic matter, in a state of decay_, is the single +material which the farmer can incorporate with his soil in order to make +the latter a supply of this most indispensable form of plant-food. + +When organic matters decay in the soil, their carbon ultimately assumes +the form of Carbonic acid. This gas, constantly exhaling from the soil, +is taken up by the foliage of the crops, and to some extent is absorbed +likewise by their roots. + +Boussingault & Lewy have examined the air inclosed in the interstices of +various soils, and invariably found it much richer (10 to 400 times) +than that of the atmosphere above. Here follow some of their results: + + CARBONIC ACID IN SOILS. + -------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Key: + A - _Volumes of Carbonic acid in 100 of air in pores of Soil._ + B - _Cubic feet of air in acre to depth of 14 inches._ + C - _Cubic feet of Carbonic acid in acre to depth of 14 inches._ + D - _Volumes of Carbonic acid to 100 of air above the soil._ + E - _Cubic feet of air over one acre to height of 14 inches._ + F - _Cubic feet of Carbonic acid over one acre to a height of 14 inches._ + + --------------------------------------------------------+-----+------+---- + _Designation and Condition of Soil._ | A | B | C + --------------------------------------------------------+-----+------+---- + Sandy subsoil of forest |0.24 | 4,326| 14 + Loamy " " " |0.82 | 3,458| 28 + Surface soil " " |0.86 | 5,768| 56 + Clayey soil of artichoke field |0.66 |10,094| 71 + Soil of asparagus bed, unmanured for one year |0.79 |10,948| 86 + " " " " newly manured |1.54 |10,948| 172 + Sandy soil, six days after manuring, and three | | | + days of rain.|2.21 |11,536| 257 + " " ten " " " " " | | | + " " " |9.74 |11,536|1144 + Compost of vegetable mold |3.64 |20,608| 772 + | | | + _Carbonic Acid in Atmosphere_ | D | E | F + |-----+------+---- + |0.025|50,820| 14 + --------------------------------------------------------+-----+------+---- + +From the above it is seen that in soils containing little decomposing +organic matters--as the forest sub-soils--the quantity of carbonic acid +is no greater than that contained in an equal bulk of the atmosphere. It +is greater in loamy and clayey soils; but is still small. In the +artichoke field (probably light soil not lately manured), and even in an +asparagus bed unmanured for one year, the amount of carbonic acid is not +greatly larger. In newly manured fields, and especially in a vegetable +compost, the quantity is vastly greater. + +The organic matters which come from manures, or from the roots and other +residues of crops, are the source of the carbonic acid of the soil. +These matters continually waste in yielding this gas, and must be +supplied anew. Boussingault found that the rich soil of his kitchen +garden (near Strasburg) which had been heavily manured from the +barn-yard for many years, lost one-third of its carbon by exposure to +the air for three months (July, August and September,) being daily +watered. It originally contained 2.43 _per cent._ At the conclusion of +the experiment it contained but 1.60 _per cent._, having lost 0.83 _per +cent._ + +Peat and swamp-muck, when properly prepared, furnish carbonic acid in +large quantities during their slow oxidation in the soil. + +3. _The Nitrogen of Peat, including Ammonia and Nitric Acid._ + +The sources of the nitrogen of plants, and the real cause of the value +of nitrogenous fertilizers, are topics that have excited more discussion +than any other points in Agricultural Chemistry. This is the result of +two circumstances. One is the obscurity in which some parts of the +subject have rested; the other is the immense practical and commercial +importance of this element, as a characteristic and essential ingredient +of the most precious fertilizers. It is a rule that the most valuable +manures, _commercially considered_, are those containing the most +nitrogen. Peruvian guano, sulphate of ammonia, soda-saltpeter, fish and +flesh manures, bones and urine, cost the farmer more money per ton than +any other manures he buys or makes, superphosphate of lime excepted, and +this does not find sale, for general purposes, unless it contains +several _per cent._ of nitrogen. These are, in the highest sense, +nitrogenous fertilizers, and, if deprived of their nitrogen, they would +lose the greater share of their fertilizing power. + +The importance of the nitrogen of manures depends upon the fact that +those forms (compounds) of nitrogen which are capable of supplying it to +vegetation are comparatively scarce. + +It has long been known that peat contains a considerable quantity of +nitrogen. The average amount in thirty specimens, analyzed under the +author's direction, including peats and swamp mucks of all grades of +quality, is equivalent to 1-1/2 _per cent._ of the air-dried substance, +or more than thrice as much as exists in ordinary stable or yard manure. +In several peats the amount is as high as 2.4 _per cent._, and in one +case 2.9 _per cent._ were found. + +Of these thirty samples, one-half were largely mixed with soil, and +contained from 15 to 60 _per cent._ of mineral matters. + +Reducing them to an average of 15 _per cent._ of water and 5 _per cent._ +of ash, they contain 2.1 _per cent._ of nitrogen, while the organic +part, considered free from water and mineral substances, contains on the +average 2.6 _per cent._ See table, page 90. + +The five peats, analyzed by Websky and Chevandier, as cited on page 24, +considered free from water and ash, contain an average of 1.8 _per +cent._ of nitrogen. + +We should not neglect to notice that peat is often comparatively poor in +nitrogen. Of the specimens, examined in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, +several contained but half a _per cent._ or less. So in the analyses of +Websky, one sample contained but 0.77 _per cent._ of the element in +question. + +As concerns the state of combination in which nitrogen exists in peat, +there is a difference of opinion. Mulder regards it as chiefly occurring +in the form of _ammonia_ (a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen), united +to the organic acids from which it is very difficult to separate it. +Recent investigations indicate that in general, peat contains but a +small proportion of ready-formed ammonia. + +The great part of the nitrogen of peat exists in an insoluble and inert +form: but, by the action of the atmosphere upon it, especially when +mixed with and divided by the soil, it gradually becomes available to +vegetation to as great an extent as the nitrogen of ordinary +fertilizers. + +It appears from late examinations that weathered peat may contain +_nitric acid_ (compound of nitrogen with oxygen) in a proportion which, +though small, is yet of great importance, agriculturally speaking. What +analytical data we possess are subjoined. + + PROPORTIONS OF NITROGEN, ETC., IN PEAT. + ---------+-------------+------------+------------+---------+------------ + | | | Total |Ammonia, | + | | Analyst. | Nitrogen. |per cent.|Nitric acid. + ---------+-------------+------------+------------+---------+------------ + 1--Brown | | | | | + Peat|Air dry (?) |Boussingault| 2.20 | 0.018 | 0.000 + 2--Black | | | | | + Peat| " | " |Undetermined| 0.025 |Undetermined + 3--Peat |Dried at 212 deg.|Reichardt[4]| " | 0.152 | 0.483 + 4--Peat | " | " | " | 0.165 | 0.525 + 5--Peat | " | " | " | 0.305 | 0.241 + 6--Peat | " | " | " | 0.335 | 0.421 + ---------+-------------+------------+------------+---------+------------ + +Specimens 3, 4 and 5, are swamp (or heath) mucks, and have been +weathered for use in flower-culture. 3 and 4 are alike, save that 3 has +been weathered a year longer than 4. They contain respectively 41, 56 +and 67 _per cent._ of organic matter. + +Sample 6, containing 86 _per cent._ of organic matter, is employed as a +manure with great advantage, and probably was weathered before analysis. +It contained 85 _per cent._ of organic substance. + +More important to us than the circumstance that this peat contains but +little or no ammonia or nitric acid, and the other contains such or such +a fraction of one _per cent._ of these bodies, is the grand fact that +all peats may yield a good share of their nitrogen to the support of +crops, when properly treated and applied. + +Under the influence of Liebig's teachings, which were logically based +upon the best data at the disposal of this distinguished philosopher +when he wrote 25 years ago, it has been believed that the nitrogen of a +fertilizer, in order to be available, must be converted into ammonia and +presented in that shape to the plant. It has been recently made clear +that nitric acid, rather than ammonia, is the form of nitrogenous food +which is most serviceable to vegetation, and the one which is most +abundantly supplied by the air and soil. The value of ammonia is however +positive, and not to be overlooked. + +When peat, properly prepared by weathering or composting, is suitably +incorporated with a poor or light soil, it slowly suffers decomposition +and wastes away. If it be wet, and air have access in limited quantity, +especially if _lime_ be mixed with it, a portion of its nitrogen is +gradually converted into ammonia. With full access of air _nitric acid_ +is produced. In either case, it appears that a considerable share of the +nitrogen escapes in the free state as gas, thereby becoming useless to +vegetation until it shall have become converted again into ammonia or +nitric acid. It happens in a cultivated soil that the oxygen of the air +is in excess at the surface, and less abundant as we go down until we +get below organic matters: it happens that one day it is saturated with +water more or less, and another day it is dry, so that at one time we +have the conditions for the formation of ammonia, and at another, those +favorable to producing nitric acid. In this way, so far as our present +knowledge warrants us to affirm, organic matters, decaying in the soil, +continuously yield portions of their nitrogen in the forms of ammonia +and nitric acid for the nourishment of plants. + +The farmer who skillfully employs as a fertilizer a peat containing a +good proportion of nitrogen, may thus expect to get from it results +similar to what would come from the corresponding quantity of nitrogen +in guano or stable manure. + +But the capacity of peat for feeding crops with, nitrogen appears not +to stop here. Under certain conditions, _the free nitrogen of the air +which cannot be directly appropriated by vegetation, is oxidized in the +pores of the soil to nitric acid, and thus, free of expense to the +farmer, his crops are daily dressed with the most precious of all +fertilizers_. + +This gathering of useless nitrogen from the air, and making it over into +plant-food cannot go on in a soil destitute of organic matter, requires +in fact that vegetable remains or humified substances of some sort be +present there. The evidence of this statement, whose truth was maintained +years ago as a matter of opinion by many of the older chemists, has +recently become nearly a matter of demonstration by the investigations of +Boussingault and Knop, while the explanation of it is furnished by the +researches of Schoenbein and Zabelin. To attempt any elucidation of it +here would require more space than is at our disposal. + +It is plain from the contents of this paragraph that peat or swamp muck +is, in general, an abundant source of nitrogen, and is often therefore +an extremely cheap means of replacing the most rare and costly +fertilizers. + +II.--With regard to the _inorganic matters of peat_ considered as food +to plants, it is obvious, that, leaving out of the account for the +present, some exceptional cases, they are useful as far as they go. + +In the ashes of peats, we almost always find small quantities of +sulphate of lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid. Potash and soda too, are +often present, though rarely to any considerable amount. Carbonate and +sulphate of lime are large ingredients of the ashes of about one-half, +of the thirty-three peats and swamp mucks I have examined. The ashes of +the other half are largely mixed with sand and soil, but in most cases +also contain considerable sulphate of lime, and often carbonates of +lime and magnesia. + +In one swamp-muck, from Milford, Conn., there was found but two _per +cent._ of ash, at least one-half of which was sand, and the remainder +sulphate of lime, (gypsum.) In other samples 20, 30, 50 and even 60 _per +cent._ remained after burning off the organic matter. In these cases the +ash is chiefly sand. The amount of ash found in those peats which were +most free from sand, ranges from five to nine _per cent._ Probably the +average proportion of true ash, viz.: that derived from the organic +matters themselves, not including sand and accidental ingredients, is +not far from five _per cent._ + +In twenty-two specimens of European peat, examined by Websky, Jaeckel, +Walz, Wiegmann, Einhof and Berthier, eleven contained from 0.6 to 3.5 +_per cent._ of ash. The other eleven yielded from 5.3 to 22 _per cent._ +The average of the former was 2.4, that of the latter 12.7 _per cent._ +Most of these contained a considerable proportion of sand or soil. + +Variation in the composition as well as in the quantity of ash is very +great. + +Three analyses of peat-ashes have been executed at the author's instance +with the subjoined results: + + + ANALYSES OF PEAT-ASHES. + ---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------- + | A. | B. | C. + Potash. | 0.69 | 0.80 | 3.46 + Soda. | 0.58 | | trace. + Lime. | 40.52 | 35.59 | 6.60 + Magnesia. | 6.06 | 4.92 | 1.05 + Oxide of iron and alumina. | 5.17 | 9.08 | 15.59 + Phosphoric acid. | 0.50 | 0.77 | 1.55 + Sulphuric acid. | 5.52 | 10.41 | 4.04 + Chlorine. | 0.15 | 0.43 | 0.70 + Soluble silica. | 8.23 | 1.40 } | + Carbonic acid. | 19.60 | 22.28 } | 67.01 + Sand. | 12.11 | 15.04 } | + +-----------+-----------+---------- + | 99.13 | 100.74 | 100.00 + ---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------- + +A was furnished by Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., and comes +from a peat which he uses as fuel. + +B was sent by Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn. + +C was sent from Guilford, Conn., by Mr. Andrew Foote.[5] + +A and B, after excluding sand, are seen to consist chiefly of carbonates +and sulphates of lime and magnesia. III. contains a very large +proportion of sand and soluble silica, much iron and alumina, less lime +and sulphuric acid. Potash and phosphoric acid are three times more +abundant in C than in the others. + +Instead of citing in full the results of Websky, Jaeckel and others, it +will serve our object better to present the maximum, minimum and average +proportions of the important ingredients in twenty-six recent analyses, +(including these three,) that have come under the author's notice. + + VARIATIONS AND AVERAGES IN COMPOSITION OF PEAT-ASHES. + + _Minimum._ _Maximum._ _Average._ + Potash 0.05 to 3.64 0.89 per cent. + Soda none " 5.73 0.83 " + Lime 4.72 " 58.38 24.00 " + Magnesia none " 24.39 3.20 " + Alumina 0.90 " 20.50 5.78 " + Oxide of iron none " 73.33 18.70 " + Sulphuric acid none " 37.40 7.50 " + Chlorine " " 6.50 0.60 " + Phosphoric acid " " 6.29 2.56 " + Sand 0.99 " 56.97 25.50 " + +It is seen from the above figures that the ash of peat varies in +composition to an indefinite degree. Lime is the only ingredient that is +never quite wanting, and with the exception of sand, it is on the +average the largest. Of the other agriculturally valuable components, +sulphuric acid has the highest average; then follows magnesia; then +phosphoric acid, and lastly, potash and soda: all of these, however, may +be nearly or quite lacking. + +Websky, who has recently made a study of the composition of a number of +German peats, believes himself warranted to conclude that peat is so +modified in appearance by its mineral matters, that the quantity or +character of the latter may be judged of in many cases by the eye. He +remarks, (_Journal fuer Praktische Chemie, Bd. 92, S. 87_,) "that while +for example the peats containing much sand and clay have a red-brown +powdery appearance, and never assume a lustrous surface by pressure; +those which are very rich in lime, are black, sticky when moist, hard +and of a waxy luster on a pressed surface, when dry: a property which +they share indeed with very dense peats that contain little ash. Peats +impregnated with iron are easily recognized. Their peculiar odor, and +their changed appearance distinguish them from all others." + +From my own investigations on thirty specimens of Connecticut peats, I +am forced to disagree with Websky entirely, and to assert that except as +regards sand, which may often be detected by the eye, there is no +connection whatever between the quantity or character of the ash and the +color, consistency, density or any other external quality of the peat. + +The causes of this variation in the ash-content of peat, deserve a +moment's notice. The plants that produce peat contain considerable +proportions of lime, magnesia, alkalies, sulphuric acid, chlorine and +phosphoric acid, as seen from the following analysis by Websky. + + COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF SPHAGNUM. + + Potash. 17.2 + Soda. 8.3 + Lime. 11.8 + Magnesia. 6.7 + Sulphuric acid. 6.5 + Chlorine. 6.2 + Phosphoric acid. 6.7 + _Per cent._ of ash, 2.5. + +The mineral matters of the sphagnum do not all become ingredients of +the peat; but, as rapidly as the moss decays below, its soluble matters +are to a great degree absorbed by the vegetation, which is still living +and growing above. Again, when a stream flows through a peat-bed, +soluble matters are carried away by the water, which is often dark-brown +from the substances dissolved in it. Finally the soil of the adjacent +land is washed or blown upon the swamp, in greater or less quantities. + +III.--_The decomposition of peat in the soil offers some peculiarities_ +that are worthy of notice in this place. Peat is more gradual and +regular in decay than the vegetable matters of stable dung, or than that +furnished by turning under sod or green crops. It is thus a more steady +and lasting benefit, especially in light soils, out of which ordinary +vegetable manures disappear too rapidly. The decay of peat appears to +proceed through a regular series of steps. In the soil, especially in +contact with soluble alkaline bodies, as ammonia and lime, there is a +progressive conversion of the _insoluble_ or _less soluble_ into +_soluble_ compounds. Thus the inert matters that resist the immediate +solvent power of alkalies, absorb oxygen from the air, and form the +humic or ulmic acids soluble in alkalies; the humic acids undergo +conversion into crenic acid, and this body, by oxidation, passes into +apocrenic acid. The two latter are soluble in water, and, in the porous +soil, they are rapidly brought to the end-results of decay, viz.: water, +carbonic acid, ammonia and free nitrogen. + +Great differences must be observed, however, in the rapidity with which +these changes take place. Doubtless they go on most slowly in case of +the fibrous compact peats, and perhaps some of the lighter and more +porous samples of swamp muck, would decay nearly as fast as rotted +stable dung. + +It might appear from the above statement, that the effect of exposing +peat to the air, as is done when it is incorporated with the soil, would +be to increase relatively the amount of soluble organic matters; but the +truth is, that they are often actually diminished. In fact, the +oxidation and consequent removal of these soluble matters (crenic and +apocrenic acids,) is likely to proceed more rapidly than they can be +produced from the less soluble humic acid of the peat. + +IV.--_Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure._ + +The fertilizing value of peat is best understood by comparing it with +some standard manure. Stable manure is obviously that fertilizer whose +effects are most universally observed and appreciated, and by setting +analyses of the two side by side, we may see at a glance, what are the +excellencies and what the deficiencies of peat. In order rightly to +estimate the worth of those ingredients which occur in but small +proportion in peat, we must remember that it, like stable manure, may +be, and usually should be, applied in large doses, so that in fact the +smallest ingredients come upon an acre in considerable quantity. In +making our comparison, we will take the analysis of Peat from the farm +of Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., and the average of +several analyses of rotted stable dung of _good quality_. + +No. _I_, is the analysis of Peat; No. _II_, that of well rotted stable +manure:-- + + _I._ _II._ + Water expelled at 212 degrees. 79.000 79.00 + {Soluble in dilute solution } + Org. { of carbonate of soda. 7.312 } + Matter. {Insoluble in solution } 14.16 + { of carbonate of soda. 12.210 } + Potash. 0.010 0.65 + Soda. 0.009 + Lime. 0.608 0.57 + Magnesia. 0.091 0.19 + Phosphoric acid. 0.008 0.23 + Sulphuric acid. 0.082 0.27 + Nitrogen. 0.600 0.55 + Matters, soluble in water. 0.450 4.42 + +To make the comparison as just as possible, the peat is calculated with +the same content of water, that stable dung usually has. + +We observe then, that the peat contains in a given quantity, _about +one-third more organic matter, an equal amount of lime and nitrogen_; +but is _deficient in potash, magnesia, phosphoric and sulphuric acids_. + +The deficiencies of this peat in the matter of composition may be +corrected, as regards potash, by adding to 100 lbs. of it 1 lb. of +potash of commerce, or 5 lbs. of unleached wood-ashes; as regards +phosphoric and sulphuric acids, by adding 1 lb. of good superphosphate, +or 1 lb. each of bone dust and plaster of Paris. + +In fact, the additions just named, will convert _any fresh peat_, +containing not more than 80 _per cent._ of water and not less than 20 +_per cent._ of organic matter, into a mixture having as much fertilizing +matters as stable dung, with the possible exception of nitrogen. + +It is a fact, however, that two manures may reveal to the chemist the +same composition, and yet be very unlike in their fertilizing effects, +because their conditions are unlike, because they differ in their +degrees of solubility or availability. + +As before insisted upon, it is true in general, that peat is more slow +of decomposition than yard-manure, and this fact, which is an advantage +in an amendment, is a disadvantage in a fertilizer. Though there may be +some peats, or rather swamp mucks, which are energetic and rapid in +their action, it seems that they need to be applied in larger quantities +than stable manure in order to produce corresponding fertilizing +effects. In many cases peat requires some preparation by weathering, or +by chemical action--"fermentation"--induced by decomposing animal +matters or by alkalies. This topic will shortly be discussed. + +We adopt, as a general fact, the conclusion that peat is inferior in +fertilizing power to stable manure. + +Experience asserts, however, with regard to some individual kinds, that +they are equal to common yard manure without any preparation whatever. + +Mr. Daniel Buck, of Poquonock, Conn., says, of the 'muck,' over-lying +the peat, whose composition has just been compared with stable manure, +that it "has been applied fresh to meadow with good results; the grass +is not as tall but thicker and finer, and of a darker green in the +spring, than when barn-yard manure is spread on." + +A swamp muck, from Mr. A. M. Haling, Rockville, Conn., "has been used as +a top-dressing, on grass, with excellent results. It is a good +substitute for barn-yard manure." + +A peat, from Mr. Russell U. Peck, of Berlin, Conn., "has been used +fresh, on corn and meadow, with good effect." + +Of the peat, from the 'Beaver Pond,' near New Haven, Mr. Chauncey +Goodyear, says, "it has been largely used in a fresh state, and in this +condition is as good as cow dung." + +Mr. Henry Keeler, remarks, concerning a swamp muck occurring at South +Salem, N. Y., that "it has been used in the fresh state, applied to corn +and potatoes, and appears to be equal to good barn manure:" +further:--"it has rarely been weathered more than two months, and then +applied side by side with the best yard manure has given equally good +results." + +A few words as to the apparent contradiction between Chemistry, which +says that peat is not equal to stable dung as a fertilizer, and +Practice, which in these cases affirms that it is equal to our standard +manure. + +In the first place, the chemical conclusion is a general one, and does +not apply to individual peats, which, in a few instances, may be +superior to yard manure. The practical judgment also is, that, in +general, yard manure is the best. + +To go to the individual cases; second: A peat in which nitrogen exists +in as large a proportion as is found in stable or yard manure, being +used in larger quantity, or being more durable in its action, may for a +few seasons produce better results than the latter, merely on account of +the presence of this one ingredient, it may in fact, for the soil and +crop to which it is applied, be a better fertilizer than yard manure, +because nitrogen is most needed in that soil, and yet for the generality +of soils, or in the long run, it may prove to be an inferior fertilizer. + +Again; third--the melioration of the physical qualities of a soil, the +amendment of its dryness and excessive porosity, by means of peat, may +be more effective for agricultural purposes, than the application of +tenfold as much fertilizing, _i. e._ plant-feeding materials; in the +same way that the mere draining of an over-moist soil often makes it +more productive than the heaviest manuring. + +2.--_On the characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that may +sometimes need correction before it is agriculturally useful._ + +I.--_Bad effects on wet heavy soils._ + +We have laid much stress on the amending qualities of peat, when applied +to dry and leachy soils, which by its use are rendered more retentive of +moisture and manure. These properties, which it would seem, are just +adapted to renovate very light land, under certain circumstances, may +become disadvantageous on heavier soils. On clays no application is +needed to retain moisture. They are already too wet as a general thing. + +Peat, when put into the soil, lasts much longer than stubble, or green +crops plowed in, or than long manure. If buried too deeply, or put into +a heavy soil, especially if in large quantity, it does not decay, but +remains wet, and tends to make a bog of the field itself. + +For soils that are rather heavy, it is therefore best to compost the +peat with some rapidly fermenting manure. We thus get a compound which +is quicker than muck, and slower than stable manure, etc., and is +therefore better adapted to the wants of the soil than either of these +would be alone. + +Here it will be seen that much depends on the character of the peat +itself. If light and spongy, and easily dried, it may be used alone with +advantage on loamy soils, whereas if dense, and coherent, it would most +likely be a poor amendment on a soil which has much tendency to become +compact, and therefore does not readily free itself from excess of +water. + +But even a clay soil, if _thorough-drained and deeply plowed_, may be +wonderfully improved by even a heavy dressing of muck, as then, the +water being let off, the muck can exert no detrimental action; but +operates as effectually to loosen a too heavy soil, as in case of sand, +it makes an over-porous soil compact or retentive. A clay may be made +friable, if well drained, by incorporating with it any substance as +lime, sand, long manure or muck, which interposing between the clayey +particles, prevents their adhering together. + +II.--_Noxious ingredients._ + +a. _Vitriol peat._ Occasionally a peat is met with which is injurious if +applied in the fresh state to crops, from its containing some substance +which exerts a poisonous action on vegetation. The principal detrimental +ingredients that occur in peat, appear to be sulphate of protoxide of +iron,--the same body that is popularly known under the names copperas +and green-vitriol,--and sulphate of alumina, the astringent component of +alum. + +I have found these substances ready formed in large quantity in but one +of the peats that I have examined, viz.: that sent me by Mr. Perrin +Scarborough; of Brooklyn, Conn. This peat dissolved in water to the +extent of 15 _per cent._, and the soluble portion, although containing +some organic matter and sulphate of lime, consisted in great part of +green-vitriol. + +Portions of this muck, when thrown up to the air, become covered with "a +white crust, having the taste of alum or saltpeter." + +The bed containing this peat, though drained, yields but a little poor +bog hay, and the peat itself, even after weathering for a year, when +applied, mixed with one-fifth of stable manure to corn in the hill, gave +no encouraging results, though a fair crop was obtained. It is probable +that the sample analyzed was much richer in salts of iron and alumina, +than the average of the muck. + +Green-vitriol in minute doses is not hurtful, but rather beneficial to +vegetation; but in larger quantity it is fatally destructive. + +In a salt-marsh mud sent me by the Rev. Wm. Clift, of Stonington, Conn., +there was found sulphate of iron in considerable quantity. + +This noxious substance likewise occurred in small amount in swamp muck +from E. Hoyt, Esq., New Canaan, Conn., and in hardly appreciable +quantity in several others that I have examined. Besides green-vitriol, +it is possible that certain organic salts of iron, may be deleterious. + +The poisonous properties of vitriol-peats may be effectually corrected +by composting with lime, or wood-ashes. By the action of these +substances, sulphate of lime, (plaster of Paris) is formed, while the +iron separates as peroxide, which, being insoluble, is without +deleterious effect on vegetation. Where only soluble organic salts of +iron (crenate of iron) are present, simple exposure to the air suffices +to render them innocuous. + +b. _The acidity of Peats._--Many writers have asserted that peat and +muck possess a hurtful "acidity" which must be corrected before they can +be usefully employed. It is indeed a fact, that peat consists largely of +acids, but, except perhaps in the vitriol-peats, (those containing +copperas,) they are so insoluble, or if soluble, are so quickly modified +by the absorption of oxygen, that they do not exhibit any "acidity" that +can be deleterious to vegetation. It is advised to neutralize this +supposed acidity by lime or an alkali before using peat as a fertilizer +or amendment, and there is great use in such mixtures of peat with +alkaline matters, as we shall presently notice under the head of +composts. + +By the word acidity is conveyed the idea of something hurtful to plants. +This something is, doubtless, in many cases, the salts of iron we have +just noticed. In others, it is simply the inertness, "coldness" of the +peat, which is not positively injurious, but is, for a time at least, of +no benefit to the soil. + +c. _Resinous matters_ are mentioned by various writers as injurious +ingredients of peat, but I find no evidence that this notion is +well-founded. The peat or muck formed from the decay of resinous wood +and leaves does not appear to be injurious, and the amount of resin in +peat is exceedingly small. + +3.--_The Preparation of Peat for Agricultural use._ + +a. _Excavation._--As to the time and manner of getting out peat, the +circumstances of each case must determine. I only venture here to offer +a few hints on this subject, which belongs so exclusively to the farm. +The month of August is generally the appropriate time for throwing up +peat, as then the swamps are usually most free from water, and most +accessible to men and teams; but peat is often dug to best advantage in +the winter, not only on account of the cheapness of labor, and from +there being less hurry with other matters on the farm at that season, +but also, because the freezing and thawing of the peat that is thrown +out, greatly aid to disintegrate it and prepare it for use. + +A correspondent of The _Homestead_, signing himself "Commentator," has +given directions for getting out peat that are well worth the attention +of farmers. He says:-- + + "The composting of muck and peat, with our stable and + barn-yard manures, is surely destined to become one of the + most important items in farm management throughout all the + older States at least. One of the difficulties which lie in + the way, is the first removal of the muck from its low and + generally watery bed; to facilitate this, in many locations, + it is less expensive to dry it before carting, by beginning an + excavation at the border of the marsh in autumn, sufficiently + wide for a cart path, throwing the muck out upon the surface + on each side, and on a floor of boards or planks, to prevent + it from absorbing moisture from the wet ground beneath; this + broad ditch to be carried a sufficient length and depth to + obtain the requisite quantity of muck. Thus thrown out, the + two piles are now in a convenient form to be covered with + boards, and, if properly done, the muck kept covered till the + succeeding autumn, will be found to be dry and light, and in + some cases may be carted away on the surface, or it may be + best to let it remain a few months longer until the bottom of + the ditch has become sufficiently frozen to bear a team; it + can then be more easily loaded upon a sled or sleigh, and + drawn to the yards and barn. In other localities, and where + large quantities are wanted, and it lies deep, a sort of + wooden railroad and inclined plane can be constructed by means + of a plank track for the wheels of the cart to run upon, the + team walking between these planks, and if the vehicle is + inclined to 'run off the track,' it may usually be prevented + by scantlings, say four inches thick, nailed upon one of the + tracks on each side of the place where the wheel should run. + Two or more teams and carts may now be employed, returning + into the excavation outside of this track. As the work + progresses, the track can be extended at both ends, and by + continuing or increasing the inclination at the upper end, a + large and high pile may be made, and if kept dry, will answer + for years for composting, and can be easily drawn to the barn + at any time." + +b. _Exposure, weathering, or seasoning of peat._--In some cases, the +chief or only use of exposing the thrown-up peat to the action of the +air and weather during several months or a whole year, is to rid it of +the great amount of water which adheres to it, and thus reduce its bulk +and weight previous to cartage. + +The general effect of exposure as indicated by my analyses, is to reduce +the amount of matter soluble in water, and cause peats to approach in +this respect a fertile soil, so that instead of containing 2, 4, or 6 +_per cent._ of substances soluble in water, as at first, they are +brought to contain but one-half these amounts, or even less. This +change, however, goes on so rapidly after peat is mingled with the soil, +that previous exposure on this account is rarely necessary, and most +peats might be used perfectly fresh but for the difficulty often +experienced, of reducing them to such a state of division as to admit of +proper mixture with the soil. + +The coherent peats which may be cut out in tough blocks, must be +weathered, in order that the fibres of moss or grass-roots, which give +them their consistency, may be decomposed or broken to an extent +admitting of easy pulverization by the instruments of tillage. + +The subjection of fresh and wet peat to frost, speedily destroys its +coherence and reduces it to the proper state of pulverization. For this +reason, fibrous peat should be exposed when wet to winter weather. + +Another advantage of exposure is, to bring the peat into a state of more +active chemical change. Peat, of the deeper denser sorts, is generally +too inert ("sour," cold) to be directly useful to the plant. By exposure +to the air it appears gradually to acquire the properties of the humus +of the soil, or of stable manure, which are vegetable matters, altered +by the same exposure. It appears to become more readily oxidable, more +active, chemically, and thus more capable of exciting or rather aiding +vegetable growth, which, so far as the soil is concerned, is the result +of chemical activities. + +Account has been already given of certain peats, which, used fresh, are +accounted equal or nearly equal to stable manure. Others have come under +the writer's notice, which have had little immediate effect when used +before seasoning. + +Mr. J. H. Stanwood says of a peat, from Colebrook, Conn., that it "has +been used to some extent as a top-dressing for grass and other crops +with satisfactory results, _although no particular benefit was +noticeable during the first year_. After that, the effects might be seen +for a number of years." + +Rev. Wm. Clift observes, concerning a salt peat, from Stonington, +Conn.:--"It has not been used fresh; is too acid; even potatoes do not +yield well _in it the first season_, without manure." + +The nature of the chemical changes induced by weathering, is to some +extent understood so far as the nitrogen, the most important fertilizing +element, is concerned. The nitrogen of peat, as we have seen, is mostly +inert, a small portion of it only, existing in a soluble or available +form. By weathering, portions of this nitrogen become converted into +nitric acid. This action goes on at the surface of the heap, where it is +most fully exposed to the air. Below, where the peat is more moist, +ammonia is formed, perhaps simply by the reduction of nitric acid--not +unlikely also, by the transformation of inert nitrogen. On referring to +the analyses given on page 44, it is seen, that the first two samples +contain but little ammonia and no nitric acid. Though it is not stated +what was the condition of these peats, it is probable they had not been +weathered. The other four samples were weathered, and the weathering had +been the more effectual from the large admixture of sand with them. They +yielded to the analyst very considerable quantities of ammonia and +nitrates. + +When a peat contains sulphate of protoxide of iron, or soluble organic +salts of iron, to an injurious extent, these may be converted into other +insoluble and innocuous bodies, by a sufficient exposure to the air. +Sulphate of protoxide of iron is thus changed into sulphate of peroxide +of iron, which is insoluble, and can therefore exert no hurtful effect +on vegetation, while the soluble organic bodies of peat are oxydized and +either converted into carbonic acid gas, carbonate of ammonia and water, +or else made insoluble. + +It is not probable, however, that merely throwing up a well +characterized vitriol-peat into heaps, and exposing it thus imperfectly +to the atmosphere, is sufficient to correct its bad qualities. Such +peats need the addition of some alkaline body, as ammonia, lime, or +potash, to render them salutary fertilizers. + +c. _This brings us to the subject of composting_, which appears to be +the best means of taking full advantage of all the good qualities of +peat, and of obviating or neutralizing the ill results that might follow +the use of some raw peats, either from a peculiarity in their +composition, (soluble organic compounds of iron, sulphate of protoxide +of iron,) or from too great indestructibility. The chemical changes +(oxidation of _iron_ and _organic acids_), which prepare the inert or +even hurtful ingredients of peat to minister to the support of +vegetation, take place most rapidly in presence of certain other +substances. + +The substances which rapidly induce chemical change in peats, are of two +kinds, viz.: 1.--animal or vegetable matters that are highly susceptible +to alteration and decay, and 2.--alkalies, either _ammonia_ coming from +the decomposition of animal matters, or _lime_, _potash_ and _soda_. + +A great variety of matters may of course be employed for making or +mixing with peat composts; but there are comparatively few which allow +of extensive and economical use, and our notice will be confined to +these. + +First of all, the composting of peat with _animal manures_ deserves +attention. Its advantages may be summed up in two statements. + +1.--It is an easy and perfect method of economizing all such manures, +even those kinds most liable to loss by fermentation, as night soil and +horse dung; and, + +2.--It develops most fully and speedily the inert fertilizing qualities +of the peat itself. + +Without attempting any explanation of the changes undergone by a peat +and manure compost, further than to say that the fermentation which +begins in the manure extends to and involves the peat, reducing the +whole nearly, if not exactly, to the condition of well-rotted dung, and +that in this process the peat effectually prevents the loss of nitrogen +as ammonia,--I may appropriately give the practical experience of +farmers who have proved in the most conclusive manner how profitable it +is to devote a share of time and labor to the manufacture of this kind +of compost. + +_Preparation of Composts with Stable Manure._--The best plan of +composting is to have a water tight trench, four inches deep and twenty +inches wide, constructed in the stable floor, immediately behind the +cattle, and every morning put a bushel-basketful of muck behind each +animal. In this way the urine is perfectly absorbed by the muck, while +the warmth of the freshly voided excrements so facilitates the +fermentative process, that, according to Mr. F. Holbrook, Brattleboro, +Vt., who has described this method, _much more muck can thus be well +prepared for use_ in the spring, than by any of the ordinary modes of +composting. When the dung and muck are removed from the stable, they +should be well intermixed, and as fast as the compost is prepared, it +should be put into a compact heap, and covered with a layer of muck +several inches thick. It will then hardly require any shelter if used in +the spring. + +If the peat be sufficiently dry and powdery, or free from tough lumps, +it may usefully serve as bedding, or litter for horses and cattle, as it +absorbs the urine, and is sufficiently mixed with the dung in the +operation of cleaning the stable. It is especially good in the pig-pen, +where the animals themselves work over the compost in the most thorough +manner, especially if a few kernels of corn be occasionally scattered +upon it. + +Mr. Edwin Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., writes:--"Our horse stables are +constructed with a movable floor and pit beneath, which holds 20 loads +of muck of 25 bushels per load. Spring and fall, this pit is filled with +fresh muck, which receives all the urine of the horses, and being +occasionally worked over and mixed, furnishes us annually with 40 loads +of the most valuable manure." + +"Our stables are sprinkled with muck every morning, at the rate of one +bushel per stall, and the smell of ammonia, etc., so offensive in most +stables, is never perceived in ours. Not only are the stables kept +sweet, but the ammonia is saved by this procedure." + +When it is preferred to make the compost out of doors, the plan +generally followed is to lay down a bed of weathered peat, say eight to +twelve inches thick; cover this with a layer of stable dung, of four to +eight inches; put on another stratum of peat, and so, until a heap of +three to four feet is built up. The heap may be six to eight feet wide, +and indefinitely long. It should be finished with a thick coating of +peat, and the manure should be covered as fast as brought out. + +The proportions of manure and peat should vary somewhat according to +their quality and characters. Strawy manure, or that from milch-cows, +will "ferment" less peat than clear dung, especially when the latter is +made by horses or highly fed animals. Some kinds of peat heat much +easier than others. There are peats which will ferment of themselves in +warm moist weather--even in the bog, giving off ammonia in perceptible +though small amount. Experience is the only certain guide as to the +relative quantities to be employed, various proportions from one to five +of peat for one of manure, by bulk, being used. + +When the land is light and needs amending, as regards its retentive +power, it is best to make the quantity of peat as large as can be +thoroughly fermented by the manure. + +The making of a high heap, and the keeping it trim and in shape, is a +matter requiring more labor than is generally necessary. Mr. J. H. +Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn., writes me:-- + +"My method of composting is as follows: I draw my muck to the barn-yard, +placing the loads as near together as I can tip them from the cart. Upon +this I spread whatever manure I have at hand, and mix with the feet of +the cattle, and heap up with a scraper." + +Peat may be advantageously used to save from waste the droppings of the +yard. + +Mr. Edwin Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., says:--"We use muck largely in our +barn-yards, and after it becomes thoroughly saturated and intermixed +with the droppings of the stock, it is piled up to ferment, and the yard +is covered again with fresh muck." + +Mr. N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., writes:--"In the use of muck +we proceed as follows: Soon after haying we throw up enough for a year's +use, or several hundred loads. In the fall, the summer's accumulation in +hog-pens and barn cellars is spread upon the mowing grounds, and a +liberal supply of muck carted in and spread in the bottoms of the +cellars, ready for the season for stabling cattle. When this is well +saturated with the drippings of the stables, a new supply is added. The +accumulation of the winter is usually applied to the land for the corn +crop, except the finer portion, which is used to top-dress meadow land. +A new supply is then drawn in for the swine to work up. This is added to +from time to time, and as the swine are fed on whey, they will convert a +large quantity into valuable manure for top-dressing mowing land." + +A difference of opinion exists as to the treatment of the compost. Some +hold it indifferent whether the peat and manure are mixed, or put in +layers when the composting begins. Others assert, that the fermentation +proceeds better when the ingredients are stratified. Some direct, that +the compost should not be stirred. The general testimony is, that +mixture, at the outset, is as effectual as putting up in layers; but, +if the manure be strawy, it is, of course, difficult or impracticable to +mix at first. Opinion also preponderates in favor of stirring, during or +after the fermentation. + +Mr. Hoyt remarks:--"We are convinced, that the oftener a compost pile of +yard manure and muck is worked over after fermenting, the better. We +work it over and add to it a little more muck and other material, and +the air being thus allowed to penetrate it, a new fermentation or +heating takes place, rendering it more decomposable and valuable." + +Rev. Wm. Clift, writes:--"Three or four loads of muck to one of stable +manure, put together in the fall or winter in alternate layers, forked +over twice before spreading and plowing in, may represent the method of +composting." + +Mr. Adams White, of Brooklyn, Conn., proceeds in a different manner. He +says:--"In composting, 20 loads are drawn on to upland in September, and +thrown up in a long pile. Early in the spring 20 loads of stable manure +are laid along side, and covered with the muck. As soon as it has heated +moderately, the whole is forked over and well mixed." + +Those who have practiced making peat composts with their yard, stable, +and pen manure, almost invariably find them highly satisfactory in use, +especially upon light soils. + +A number of years ago, I saw a large pile of compost in the farm-yard of +Mr. Pond, of Milford, Conn., and witnessed its effect as applied by that +gentleman to a field of sixteen acres of fine gravelly or coarse sandy +soil. The soil, from having a light color and excessive porosity, had +become dark, unctuous, and retentive of moisture, so that during the +drouth of 1856, the crops on this field were good and continued to +flourish, while on the contiguous land they were dried up and nearly +ruined. This compost was made from a light muck, that contained but +three _per cent._ of ash (more than half of which was sand), and but 1.2 +_per cent._ of nitrogen, in the air-dry state--(twenty _per cent._ of +water). Three loads of this muck were used to one of stable manure. + +Here follow some estimates of the value of this compost by practical +men. They are given to show that older statements, to the same effect, +cannot be regarded as exaggerated. + +Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn., says:--"Experiments made by +myself, have confirmed me in the opinion that a compost of equal parts +of muck and stable manure is equal to the same quantity of stable +manure." + +Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., remarks:--"8 loads of muck +and 4 of manure in compost, when properly forked over, are equal to 12 +loads of barn-yard manure on sandy soil." + +Rev. Wm. Clift, of Stonington, Conn., writes:--"I consider a compost +made of one load of stable manure and three of muck, equal in value to +four loads of yard manure." + +Mr. N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., observes of a peat sent by +him for analysis:--"We formerly composted it in the yard with stable +manure, but have remodeled our stables, and now use it as an absorbent +and to increase the bulk of manure to double its original quantity. We +consider the mixture more valuable than the same quantity of stable +manure." Again, "so successful has been the use of it, that we could +hardly carry on our farming operations without it." + +Mr. Adams White, of Brooklyn, Conn., states:--"The compost of equal +bulks of muck and stable manure, has been used for corn (with plaster in +the hill,) on dry sandy soil to great advantage. I consider the compost +worth more per cord than the barn-yard manure." + +_Night Soil_ is a substance which possesses, when fresh, the most +valuable fertilizing qualities, in a very concentrated form. It is also +one which is liable to rapid and almost complete deterioration, as I +have demonstrated by analyses. The only methods of getting the full +effect of this material are, either to use it fresh, as is done by the +Chinese and Japanese on a most extensive and offensive scale; or to +compost it before it can decompose. The former method, will, it is to be +hoped, never find acceptance among us. The latter plan has nearly all +the advantages of the former, without its unpleasant features. + +When the night soil falls into a vault, it may be composted, by simply +sprinkling fine peat over its surface, once or twice weekly, as the case +may require, _i. e._ as often as a bad odor prevails. The quantity thus +added, may be from twice to ten times the bulk of the night soil,--the +more within these limits, the better. When the vault is full, the mass +should be removed, worked well over and after a few days standing, will +be ready to use to manure corn, tobacco, etc., in the hill, or for any +purpose to which guano or poudrette is applied. If it cannot be shortly +used, it should be made into a compact heap, and covered with a thick +stratum of peat. When signs of heating appear, it should be watched +closely; and if the process attains too much violence, additional peat +should be worked into it. Drenching with water is one of the readiest +means of checking too much heating, but acts only temporarily. Dilution +with peat to a proper point, which experience alone can teach, is the +surest way of preventing loss. It should not be forgotten to put a thick +layer of peat at the bottom of the vault to begin with. + +Another excellent plan, when circumstances admit, is, to have the +earth-floor where the night soil drops, level with the surface of the +ground, or but slightly excavated, and a shed attached to the rear of +the privy to shelter a good supply of peat as well as the compost +itself. Operations are begun by putting down a layer of peat to receive +the droppings; enough should be used to absorb all the urine. When this +is nearly saturated, more should be sprinkled on, and the process is +repeated until the accumulations must be removed to make room for more. +Then, once a week or so, the whole is hauled out into the shed, well +mixed, and formed into a compact heap, or placed as a layer upon a +stratum of peat, some inches thick, and covered with the same. The +quantity of first-class compost that may be made yearly upon any farm, +if due care be taken, would astonish those who have not tried it. James +Smith, of Deanston, Scotland, who originated our present system of +Thorough Drainage, asserted, that the excrements of one man for a year, +are sufficient to manure half an acre of land. In Belgium the manure +from such a source has a commercial value of $9.00 gold. + +It is certain, that the skillful farmer may make considerably more than +that sum from it in New England, _per annum_. Mr. Hoyt, of New Canaan, +Conn., says:-- + +"Our privies are deodorized by the use of muck, which is sprinkled over +the surface of the pit once a week, and from them alone we thus prepare +annually, enough "poudrette" to manure our corn in the hill." + +_Peruvian Guano_, so serviceable in its first applications to light +soils, may be composted with muck to the greatest advantage. Guano is an +excellent material for bringing muck into good condition, and on the +other hand the muck most effectually prevents any waste of the costly +guano, and at the same time, by furnishing the soil with its own +ingredients, to a greater or less degree prevents the exhaustion that +often follows the use of guano alone. The quantity of muck should be +pretty large compared to that of the guano,--a bushel of guano will +compost six, eight, or ten of muck. Both should be quite fine, and +should be well mixed, the mixture should be moist and kept covered with +a layer of muck of several inches of thickness. This sort of compost +would probably be sufficiently fermented in a week or two of warm +weather, and should be made and kept under cover. + +If no more than five or six parts of muck to one of guano are employed, +the compost, according to the experience of Simon Brown, Esq., of the +Boston _Cultivator_, (Patent Office Report for 1856), will prove +injurious, if placed in the hill in contact with seed, but may be +applied broadcast without danger. + +The _Menhaden_ or "_White fish_", so abundantly caught along our Sound +coast during the summer months, or any variety of fish may be composted +with muck, so as to make a powerful manure, with avoidance of the +excessively disagreeable stench which is produced when these fish are +put directly on the land. Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons, of New Canaan, +Conn., make this compost on a large scale. I cannot do better than to +give entire Mr. Edwin Hoyt's account of their operations, communicated +to me several years ago. + +"During the present season, (1858,) we have composted about 200,000 +white fish with about 700 loads (17,500 bushels) of muck. We vary the +proportions somewhat according to the crop the compost is intended for. +For rye we apply 20 to 25 loads per acre of a compost made with 4,500 +fish, (one load) and with this manuring, no matter how poor the soil, +the rye will be as large as a man can cradle. Much of ours we have to +reap. For oats we use less fish, as this crop is apt to lodge. For corn, +one part fish to ten or twelve muck is about right, while for grass or +any top-dressing, the proportion of fish may be increased." + +"We find it is best to mix the fish in the summer and not use the +compost until the next spring and summer. Yet we are obliged to use in +September for our winter rye a great deal of the compost made in July. +We usually compost the first arrivals of fish in June for our winter +grain; after this pile has stood three or four weeks, it is worked over +thoroughly. In this space of time the fish become pretty well +decomposed, though they still preserve their form and smell +outrageously. As the pile is worked over, a sprinkling of muck or +plaster is given to retain any escaping ammonia. At the time of use in +September the fish have completely disappeared, bones and fins +excepted." + +"The effect on the muck is to blacken it and make it more loose and +crumbly. As to the results of the use of this compost, we find them in +the highest degree satisfactory. We have raised 30 to 35 bushels of rye +per acre on land that without it could have yielded 6 or 8 bushels at +the utmost. This year we have corn that will give 60 to 70 bushels per +acre, that otherwise would yield but 20 to 25 bushels. It makes large +potatoes, excellent turnips and carrots." + +Fish compost thus prepared, is a uniform mass of fishy but not +putrefactive odor, not disagreeable to handle. It retains perfectly all +the fertilizing power of the fish. Lands, manured with this compost, +will keep in heart and improve: while, as is well known to our coast +farmers, the use of fish alone is ruinous in the end, on light soils. + +It is obvious that _any other easily decomposing animal matters, as +slaughter-house offal, soap boiler's scraps, glue waste, horn shavings, +shoddy, castor pummace, cotton seed-meal, etc., etc._, may be composted +in a similar manner, and that several or all these substances may be +made together into one compost. + +In case of the composts with yard manure, guano and other animal +matters, the alkali, _ammonia_, formed in the fermentation, greatly +promotes chemical change, and it would appear that this substance, on +some accounts, excels all others in its efficacy. The other alkaline +bodies, _potash_, _soda_ and _lime_, are however scarcely less active in +this respect, and being at the same time, of themselves, useful +fertilizers, they also may be employed in preparing muck composts. + +_Potash-lye_ and _soda-ash_ have been recommended for composting with +muck; but, although they are no doubt highly efficacious, they are too +costly for extended use. + +The other alkaline materials that may be cheaply employed, and are +recommended, are _wood-ashes_, leached and unleached, _ashes of peat_, +_shell marl_, (consisting of carbonate of lime,) _quick lime_, _gas +lime_, and what is called "_salt and lime mixture_." + +With regard to the proportions to be used, no very definite rules can be +laid down; but we may safely follow those who have had experience in the +matter. Thus, to a cord of muck, which is about 100 bushels, may be +added, of unleached wood ashes twelve bushels, or of leached wood ashes +twenty bushels, or of peat ashes twenty bushels, or of marl, or of gas +lime twenty bushels. Ten bushels of quick lime, slaked with water or +salt-brine previous to use, is enough for a cord of muck. + +Instead of using the above mentioned substances singly, any or all of +them may be employed together. + +The muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible, and must be +intimately mixed with the other ingredients by shoveling over. The mass +is then thrown up into a compact heap, which may be four feet high. When +the heap is formed, it is well to pour on as much water as the mass will +absorb, (this may be omitted if the muck is already quite moist,) and +finally the whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck, so as +to retain moisture and heat. If the heap is put up in the Spring, it may +stand undisturbed for one or two months, when it is well to shovel it +over and mix it thoroughly. It should then be built up again, covered +with fresh muck, and allowed to stand as before until thoroughly +decomposed. The time required for this purpose varies with the kind of +muck, and the quality of the other material used. The weather and +thoroughness of intermixture of the ingredients also materially affect +the rapidity of decomposition. In all cases five or six months of summer +weather is a sufficient time to fit these composts for application to +the soil. + +Mr. Stanwood of Colebrook, Conn., says: "I have found a compost made of +two bushels of unleached ashes to twenty-five of muck, superior to +stable manure as a top-dressing for grass, on a warm, dry soil." + +N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., states: "I have mixed 25 bushels +of ashes with the same number of loads of muck, and applied it to 3/4 of +an acre. The result was far beyond that obtained by applying 300 lbs. +best guano to the same piece." + +The use of "_salt and lime mixture_" is so strongly recommended, that a +few words may be devoted to its consideration. + +When quick-lime is slaked with a brine of common salt (chloride of +sodium), there are formed by double decomposition, small portions of +caustic soda and chloride of calcium, which dissolve in the liquid. If +the solution stand awhile, carbonic acid is absorbed from the air, +forming carbonate of soda: but carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium +instantly exchange their ingredients, forming insoluble carbonate of +lime and reproducing common salt. + +When the fresh mixture of quick-lime and salt is incorporated with _any +porous body_, as soil or peat, then, as Graham has shown, _unequal +diffusion_ of the caustic soda and chloride of calcium occurs from the +point where they are formed, through the moist porous mass, and the +result is, that the small portion of caustic soda which diffuses most +rapidly, or the carbonate of soda formed by its speedy union with +carbonic acid, is removed from contact with the chloride of calcium. + +Soda and carbonate of soda are more soluble in water and more strongly +alkaline than lime. They, therefore, act on peat more energetically than +the latter. It is on account of the formation of soda and carbonate of +soda from the lime and salt mixture, that this mixture exerts a more +powerful decomposing action than lime alone. Where salt is cheap and +wood ashes scarce, the mixture may be employed accordingly to advantage. +Of its usefulness we have the testimony of practical men. + +Says Mr. F. Holbrook of Vermont, (Patent Office Report for 1856, page +193.) "I had a heap of seventy-five half cords of muck mixed with lime +in the proportion of a half cord of muck to a bushel of lime. The muck +was drawn to the field when wanted in August. A bushel of salt to six +bushels of lime was dissolved in water enough to slake the lime down to +a fine dry powder, the lime being slaked no faster than wanted, and +spread immediately while warm, over the layers of muck, which were about +six inches thick; then a coating of lime and so on, until the heap +reached the height of five feet, a convenient width, and length enough +to embrace the whole quantity of the muck. In about three weeks a +powerful decomposition was apparent, and the heap was nicely overhauled, +nothing more being done to it till it was loaded the next Spring for +spreading. The compost was spread on the plowed surface of a dry sandy +loam at the rate of about fifteen cords to the acre, and harrowed in. +The land was planted with corn and the crop was more than sixty bushels +to the acre." + +Other writers assert that they "have decomposed with this mixture, spent +tan, saw dust, corn stalks, swamp muck, leaves from the woods, indeed +every variety of inert substance, and in _much shorter time than it +could be done by any other means_." (Working Farmer, Vol. III. p. 280.) + +Some experiments that have a bearing on the efficacy of this compost +will be detailed presently. + +There is no doubt that the soluble and more active (caustic) forms of +alkaline bodies exert a powerful decomposing and solvent action on peat. +It is asserted too that the _nearly insoluble and less active matters of +this kind_, also have an effect, though a less complete and rapid one. +Thus, _carbonate of lime_ in the various forms of chalk, shell marl,[6] +old mortar, leached ashes and peat ashes, (for in all these it is the +chief and most "alkaline" ingredient,) is recommended to compost with +peat. Let us inquire whether carbonate of lime can really exert any +noticeable influence in improving the fertilizing quality of peat. + +In the case of vitriol peats, carbonate of lime is the cheapest and most +appropriate means of destroying the noxious sulphate of protoxide of +iron, and correcting their deleterious quality. When carbonate of lime +is brought in contact with sulphate of protoxide of iron, the two bodies +mutually decompose, with formation of sulphate of lime (gypsum) and +carbonate of protoxide of iron. The latter substance absorbs oxygen from +the air with the utmost avidity, and passes into the peroxide of iron, +which is entirely inert. + +The admixture of any earthy matter with peat, will facilitate its +decomposition, and make it more active chemically, in so far as it +promotes the separation of the particles of the peat from each other, +and the consequent access of air. This benefit may well amount to +something when we add to peat one-fifth of its bulk of marl or leached +ashes, but the question comes up: Do these insoluble mild alkalies exert +any direct action? Would not as much soil of any kind be equally +efficacious, by promoting to an equal degree the contact of oxygen from +the atmosphere? + +There are two ways in which carbonate of lime may exert a chemical +action on the organic matters of peat. Carbonate of lime, itself, in the +forms we have mentioned, is commonly called insoluble in water. It is, +however, soluble to a very slight extent; it dissolves, namely, in about +30,000 times its weight of pure water. It is nearly thirty times more +soluble in water saturated with carbonic acid; and this solution has +distinct alkaline characters. Since the water contained in a heap of +peat must be considerably impregnated with carbonic acid, it follows +that when carbonate of lime is present, the latter must form a +solution, very dilute indeed, but still capable of some direct effect on +the organic matters of the peat, when it acts through a long space of +time. Again, it is possible that the solution of carbonate of lime in +carbonic acid, may act to liberate some ammonia from the soluble +portions of the peat, and this ammonia may react on the remainder of the +peat to produce the same effects as it does in the case of a compost +made with animal matters. + +Whether the effects thus theoretically possible, amount to anything +practically important, is a question of great interest. It often happens +that opinions entertained by practical men, not only by farmers, but by +mechanics and artisans as well, are founded on so untrustworthy a basis, +are supported by trials so destitute of precision, that their accuracy +may well be doubted, and from all the accounts I have met with, it does +not seem to have been well established, practically, that composts made +with carbonate of lime, are better than the peat and carbonate used +separately. + +Carbonate of lime (leached ashes, shell marl, etc.), is very well to use +_in conjunction with_ peat, to furnish a substance or substances needful +to the growth of plants, and supply the deficiencies of peat as regards +composition. Although in the agricultural papers, numerous accounts of +the efficacy of such mixtures are given, we do not learn from them +whether these bodies exert any such good effect upon the peat itself, as +to warrant the trouble of making a _compost_. + +4.--_Experiments by the author on the effect of alkaline bodies in +developing the fertilizing power of Peat._ + +During the summer of 1862, the author undertook a series of experiments +with a view of ascertaining the effect of various composting materials +upon peat. + +Two bushels of peat were obtained from a heap that had been weathering +for some time on the "Beaver Meadow," near New Haven. This was +thoroughly air-dried, then crushed by the hand, and finally rubbed +through a moderately fine sieve. In this way, the peat was brought to a +perfectly homogeneous condition. + +Twelve-quart flower-pots, new from the warehouse, were filled as +described below; the trials being made in duplicate:-- + +Pots 1 and 2 contained each 270 grammes of peat. + +Pots 3 and 4 contained each 270 grammes of peat, mixed-with 10 grammes +of ashes of young grass. + +Pots 5 and 6 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 10 grammes of carbonate of lime. + +Pots 7 and 8 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 10 grammes of slaked (hydrate of) lime. + +Pots 9 and 10 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 5 grammes of lime, slaked with strong solution of common salt. + +Pots 11 and 12 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 3 grammes of Peruvian guano. + +In each case the materials were thoroughly mixed together, and so much +water was cautiously added as served to wet them thoroughly. Five +kernels of dwarf (pop) corn were planted in each pot, the weight of each +planting being carefully ascertained. + +The pots were disposed in a glazed case within a cold grapery,[7] and +were watered when needful with pure water. The seeds sprouted duly, and +developed into healthy plants. The plants served thus as tests of the +chemical effect of carbonate of lime, of slaked lime, and of salt and +lime mixture, on the peat. The guano pots enabled making a comparison +with a well-known fertilizer. The plants were allowed to grow until +those best developed, enlarged above, not at the expense of the peat, +etc., but of their own lower leaves, as shown by the withering of the +latter. They were then cut, and, after drying in the air, were weighed +with the subjoined results. + + VEGETATION EXPERIMENTS IN PEAT COMPOSTS. + KEY + A - _Weight of crops in grammes._ + B - _Comparative weight of crops, the sum of 1. and 2. taken as unity._ + C - _Ratio of weight of crops to weight of seeds, the latter assumed + as unity._ + + -------------------------------------------+---------------+----+------- + _Nos._ _Medium of Growth._ | A | B | C + -------------------------------------------+---------------+----+------- + 1 } | 1.61} | | + 2 } Peat alone. | 2.59} 4.20 | 1 | 2-1/2 + | | | + 3 } | 14.19} | | + 4 } Peat, and ashes of grass, | 18.25} 32.44 | 8 | 20-1/2 + | | | + 5 } | 18.19} | | + 6 } Peat, ashes, and carbonate of lime, | 20.25} 38.44 | 9 | 25-1/2 + | | | + 7 } | 21.49} | | + 8 } Peat, ashes, and slaked lime, | 20.73} 42.22 | 10 | 28-1/2 + | | | + 9 } | 23.08} | | + 10 } Peat, ashes, slaked lime, and salt, | 23.34} 46.42 | 11 | 30-1/2 + | | | + 11 } | 26.79} | | + 12 } Peat, ashes, and Peruvian Guano, | 26.99} 53.78 | 13 | 35-1/2 + -------------------------------------------+---------------+----+------- + +Let us now examine the above results. The experiments 1 and 2, +demonstrate that the peat itself is deficient in something needful to +the plant. In both pots, but 4.2 grammes of crop were produced, a +quantity two and a half times greater than that of the seeds, which +weighed 1.59 grammes. The plants were pale in color, slender, and +reached a height of but about six inches. + +Nos. 3 and 4 make evident what are some of the deficiencies of the peat. +A supply of mineral matters, such as are contained in all plants, being +made by the addition of _ashes_, consisting chiefly of phosphates, +carbonates and sulphates of lime, magnesia and potash, a crop is +realized nearly eight times greater than in the previous cases; the +yield being 32.44 grammes, or 20-1/2 times the weight of the seed. The +quantity of ashes added, viz.:--10 grammes, was capable of supplying +every mineral element, greatly in excess of the wants of any crop that +could be grown in a quart of soil. The plants in pots 3 and 4 were much +stouter than those in 1 and 2, and had a healthy color. + +The experiments 5 and 6 appear to demonstrate that _carbonate of lime_ +considerably aided in converting the peat itself into plant-food. The +ashes alone contained enough carbonate of lime to supply the wants of +the plant in respect to that substance. More carbonate of lime could +only operate by acting on the organic matters of the peat. The amount of +the crop is raised by the effect of carbonate of lime from 32.44 to +38.44 grammes, or from 20-1/2 to 25-1/2 times that of the seed. + +Experiments 7 and 8 show, that _slaked lime_ has more effect than the +carbonate, as we should anticipate. Its influence does not, however, +exceed that of the carbonate very greatly, the yield rising from 38.44 +to 42.22 grammes, or from 25-1/2 to 28-1/2 times the weight of the seed. +In fact, quick-lime can only act as such for a very short space of time, +since it rapidly combines with the carbonic acid, which is supplied +abundantly by the peat. In experiments 7 and 8, a good share of the +influence exerted must therefore be actually ascribed to the carbonate, +rather than to the quick-lime itself. + +In experiments 9 and 10, we have proof that the "_lime and salt +mixture_" has a greater efficacy than lime alone, the crop being +increased thereby from 42.22, to 46.42 grammes, or from 28-1/2 to 30-1/2 +times that of the seed. + +Finally, we see from experiments 11 and 12 that in all the foregoing +cases it was a limited supply of _nitrogen_ that limited the crop; for, +on adding Peruvian guano, which could only act by this element (its +other ingredients, phosphates of lime and potash, being abundantly +supplied in the ashes), the yield was carried up to 53.78 grammes, or +35-1/2 times the weight of the seed, and 13 times the weight of the crop +obtained from the unmixed peat. + + +5.--_The Examination of Peat (muck and marsh-mud) with reference to its +Agricultural Value._ + +Since, as we are forced to conclude, the variations in the composition +of peat stand in no recognizable relations to differences of appearance, +it is only possible to ascertain the value of any given specimen by +actual trial or by chemical investigation. + +The method _by practical trial_ is usually the cheaper and more +satisfactory of the two, though a half year or more is needful to gain +the desired information. + +It is sufficient to apply to small measured plots of ground, each say +two rods square, known quantities of the fresh, the weathered, and the +composted peat in order, by comparison of the growth and _weight_ of the +crop, to decide the question of their value. + +Peat and its composts are usually applied at rates ranging from 20 to 40 +wagon or cart loads per acre. There being 160 square rods in the acre, +the quantity proper to a plot of two rods square (= four square rods,) +would be one half to one load. + +The composts with stable manure and lime, or salt and lime mixture, are +those which, in general, it would be best to experiment with. From the +effects of the stable manure compost, could be inferred with safety the +value of any compost, of which animal manure is an essential ingredient. + +One great advantage of the practical trial on the small scale is, that +the adaptation of the peat or of the compost to the _peculiarities of +the soil_, is decided beyond a question. + +It must be borne in mind, however, that the results of experiments can +only be relied upon, when the plots are accurately measured, when the +peat, etc., are applied in known quantities, and when the crops are +separately harvested and carefully weighed. + +If experiments are made upon grass or clover, the gravest errors may +arise by drawing conclusions from the appearance of the standing crop. +Experience has shown that two clover crops, gathered from contiguous +plots differently manured, may strikingly differ in appearance, but +yield the same amounts of hay. + +The _chemical examination_ of a peat may serve to inform us, without +loss of time, upon a number of important points. + +To test a peat for _soluble iron salts_ which might render it +deleterious, we soak and agitate a handful for some hours, with four or +five times its bulk of warm soft water. From a _good fresh-water peat_ +we obtain, by this treatment, a yellow liquid, more or less deep in +tint, the taste of which is very slight and scarcely definable. + +From a _vitriol peat_ we get a dark-brown or black solution, which has a +bitter, astringent, metallic or inky taste, like that of copperas. + +_Salt peat_ will yield a solution having the taste of salt-brine, unless +it contains iron, when the taste of the latter will prevail. + +On evaporating the water-solution to dryness and heating strongly in a +China cup, a _vitriol peat_ gives off white choking fumes of sulphuric +acid, and there remains, after burning, brown-red oxide of iron in the +dish. + +The above testings are easily conducted by any one, with the ordinary +conveniences of the kitchen. + +Those that follow, require, for the most part, the chemical laboratory, +and the skill of the practised chemist, for satisfactory execution. + +Besides testing for soluble iron compounds, as already indicated, the +points to be regarded in the chemical examination, are:-- + +1st. _Water or moisture._--This must be estimated, because it is so +variable, and a knowledge of its quantity is needful, if we will compare +together different samples. A weighed amount of the peat is dried for +this purpose at 212 deg. F., as long as it suffers loss. + +2d. The _proportions of organic matter and ash_ are ascertained by +carefully burning a weighed sample of the peat. By this trial we +distinguish between peat with 2 to 10 _per cent._ of ash and peaty soil, +or mud, containing but a few _per cent._ of organic matter. + +This experiment may be made in a rough way, but with sufficient accuracy +for common purposes, by burning a few lbs. or ozs. of peat upon a piece +of sheet iron, or in a sauce pan, and noting the loss, which includes +both _water_ and _organic matter_. + +3d. As further regards the organic matters, we ascertain _the extent to +which the peaty decomposition has taken place_ by boiling with dilute +solution of carbonate of soda. This solvent separates the humic and +ulmic acids from the undecomposed vegetable fibers. + +For practical purposes this treatment with carbonate of soda may be +dispensed with, since the amount of undecomposed fiber is gathered with +sufficient accuracy from careful inspection of the peat. + +Special examination of the organic acids is of no consequence in the +present state of our knowledge. + +4th. The _proportion of nitrogen_ is of the first importance to be +ascertained. In examinations of 30 samples of peat, I have found the +content of nitrogen to range from 0.4 to 2.9 _per cent._, the richest +containing seven times as much as the poorest. It is practically a +matter of great moment whether, for example, a Peruvian guano contains +16 _per cent._ of nitrogen as it should, or but one-seventh that amount, +as it may when grossly adulterated. In the same sense, it is important +before making a heavy outlay in excavating and composting peat, to know +whether (as regards nitrogen) it belongs to the poorer or richer sorts. +This can only be done by the complicated methods known to the chemist. + +5th. The estimation of _ammonia_ (actual or ready-formed,) is a matter +of scientific interest, but subordinate in a practical point of view. + +6th. _Nitric acid_ and _nitrates_ can scarcely exist in peat except +where it is well exposed to the air, in a merely moist but not wet +state. Their estimation in composts is of great interest, though +troublesome to execute. + +7th. As regards the ash, its red color indicates _iron_. Pouring +hydrochloric acid upon it, causes effervescence in the presence of +_carbonate of lime_. This compound, in most cases, has been formed in +the burning, from humate and other organic salts of lime. _Sand_, or +_clay_, being insoluble in the acid, remains, and may be readily +estimated. + +_Phosphoric acid_ and alkalies, especially _potash_, are, next to lime, +the important ingredients of the ash. _Magnesia_ and _sulphuric acid_, +rank next in value. Their estimation requires a number of tedious +operations, and can scarcely be required for practical purposes, until +more ready methods of analyses shall have been discovered. + +8th. The quantity of _matters soluble in water_ has considerable +interest, but is not ordinarily requisite to be ascertained. + +6.--_Composition of Connecticut Peats_. + +In the years 1857 and 1858, the author was charged by the Connecticut +State Agricultural Society[8] with the chemical investigation of 33 +samples of peat and swamp muck, sent to him in compliance with official +request. + +In the foregoing pages, the facts revealed by the laborious analyses +executed on these samples, have been for the most part communicated, +together with many valuable practical results derived from the +experience of the gentlemen who sent in the specimens. The analytical +data themselves appear to me to be worthy of printing again, for the +information of those who may hereafter make investigations in the same +direction.--See Tables I, II, and III, p.p. 89, 90, and 91. + +The specimens came in all stages of dryness. Some were freshly dug and +wet, others had suffered long exposure, so that they were air-dry; some +that were sent in the moist state, became dry before being subjected to +examination; others were prepared for analysis while still moist. + +A sufficient quantity of each specimen was carefully pulverized, +intermixed, and put into a stoppered bottle and thus preserved for +experiment. + +The analyses were begun in the winter of 1857 by my assistant, Edward H. +Twining, Esq. The samples 1 to 17 of the subjoined tables were then +analyzed. In the following year the work was continued on the remaining +specimens 18--33 by Dr. Robert A. Fisher. The method of analysis was the +same in both cases, except in two particulars. + +In the earlier analyses, 1 to 17 inclusive, the treatment with carbonate +of soda was not carried far enough to dissolve the whole of the soluble +organic acids. It was merely attempted to make _comparative_ +determinations by treating all alike for the same time, and with the +same quantity of alkali. I have little doubt that in some cases not more +than one-half of the portion really soluble in carbonate of soda is +given as such. In the later analyses, 18 to 33, however, the treatment +was continued until complete separation of the soluble organic acids was +effected. + +By acting on a peat for a long time with a hot solution of carbonate of +soda, there is taken up not merely a quantity of organic matter, but +inorganic matters likewise enter solution. Silica, oxyd of iron and +alumina are thus dissolved. In this process too, sulphate of lime is +converted into carbonate of lime. + +The total amount of these soluble inorganic matters has been determined +with approximate accuracy in analyses 18 to 33. + +In the analyses 1 to 17 the collective amount of matters soluble in +water was determined. In the later analyses the proportions of organic +and inorganic matters in the water-solution were separately estimated. + +The process of analysis as elaborated and employed by Dr. Fisher and the +author, is as follows: + +I. To prepare a sample for analysis, half a pound, more or less, of the +substance is pulverized and passed through a wire sieve of 24 meshes to +the inch. It is then thoroughly mixed and bottled. + +II. 2 grammes of the above are dried (in tared watch-glasses) at the +temperature of 212 degrees, until they no longer decrease in weight. The +loss sustained represents the _amount of water_, (according to MARSILLY, +Annales des Mines, 1857, XII., 404, peat loses carbon if dried at a +temperature higher than 212 degrees.) + +III. The capsule containing the residue from I. is slowly heated to +incipient redness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic +matter is entirely consumed. The loss gives the total amount of +_organic_, the residue the total amount of _inorganic_ matter. + +NOTE.--In peats containing sulphate of the protoxide of iron, the loss +that occurs during ignition is partly due to the escape of sulphuric +acid, which is set free by the decomposition of the above mentioned salt +of iron. But the quantity is usually so small in comparison with the +organic matter, that it may be disregarded. The same may be said of the +combined water in the clay that is mixed with some mucks, which is only +expelled at a high temperature. + +IV. 3 grammes of the sample are digested for half an hour, with 200 +cubic centimeters (66.6 times their weight,) of boiling water, then +removed from the sand bath, and at the end of twenty-four hours, the +clear liquid is decanted. This operation is twice repeated upon the +residue; the three solutions are mixed, filtered, concentrated, and +finally evaporated to dryness (in a tared platinum capsule,) over a +water bath. The residue, which must be dried at 212 degrees, until it +ceases to lose weight, gives the _total amount soluble in water_. The +dried residue is then heated to low redness, and maintained at that +temperature until the organic matter is burned off. The loss represents +the amount of _organic matter soluble in water_, the ash gives the +quantity of _soluble inorganic matter_. + +V. 1 gramme is digested for two hours, at a temperature just below the +boiling point, with 100 cubic centimeters of a solution containing 5 +_per cent._ of crystallized carbonate of soda. It is then removed from +the sand bath and allowed to settle. When the supernatant liquid has +become perfectly transparent, it is carefully decanted. This operation +is repeated until all the organic matter soluble in this menstruum is +removed; which is accomplished as soon as the carbonate of soda solution +comes off colorless. The residue, which is to be washed with boiling +water until the washings no longer affect test papers, is thrown upon a +tared filter, and dried at 212 degrees. It is the _total amount of +organic and inorganic matter insoluble in carbonate of soda_. The loss +that it suffers upon ignition, indicates the amount of _organic matter_, +the ash gives the _inorganic_ matter. + +NOTE.--The time required to insure perfect settling after digesting with +carbonate of soda solution, varies, with different peats, from 24 hours +to several days. With proper care, the results obtained are very +satisfactory. Two analyses of No. 6, executed at different times, gave +_total insoluble in carbonate of soda_--1st analysis 23.20 _per cent._; +2d analysis 23.45 _per cent._ These residues yielded respectively 14.30 +and 14.15 _per cent._ of ash. + +VI. The quantity of _organic matter insoluble in water but soluble in +solution of carbonate of soda_, is ascertained by deducting the joint +weight of the amounts soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of +soda, from the total amount of organic matter present. The _inorganic +matter insoluble in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda_, is +determined by deducting the joint weight of the amounts of inorganic +matter soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the +total inorganic matter. + +VII. The amount of nitrogen is estimated by the combustion of 1 gramme +with soda-lime in an iron tube, collection of the ammonia in a standard +solution of sulphuric acid, and determination of the residual free acid +by an equivalent solution of caustic potash and a few drops of tincture +of cochineal as an indicator. + +The results of the analyses are given in the following Tables. Table I. +gives the direct results of analysis. In Table II. the analyses are +calculated on dry matter, and the nitrogen upon the organic matters. +Table III. gives a condensed statement of the external characters and +agricultural value[9] of the samples in their different localities, and +the names of the parties supplying them. + + + TABLE I.-COMPOSITION OF CONNECTICUT PEATS AND MUCKS. + + KEY: + A - _Soluble in water._ + B - _Insol. in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda._ + C - _Insol. in water and carbonate of soda._ + D - _Total._ + E - _Water._ + F - _Nitrogen._ + G - _Total matters soluble in water._ + + -------------------------+-----------------------+ + | ORGANIC MATTER. | + _From Whom and |-----+-----+-----+-----+ + Whence Received_ | A | B | C | D | + -------------------------+~~~~~v~~~~~+-----+-----+ + 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | + Goshen Conn. | 17.63 |34.79|52.42| + 2. " " " | 60.02 |11.65|71.67| + 3. " " " | 50.60 |29.75|80.35| + 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | + " Milford Conn. | 65.15 |11.95|77.10| + 5. " " " | 67.75 |16.65|84.40| + 6. Samuel Camp. | | | | + Plainville Conn. | 43.20 | 8.90|52.10| + 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | + Berlin Conn. | 38.49 |30.51|69.00| + 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | + Griswold Conn. | 42.30 |10.15|52.45| + 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | + Colebrook Conn. | 49.65 | 7.40|57.05| + 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | + West Cornwall Conn.| 55.11 |10.29|65.40| + 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | + North Granby " | 38.27 | 2.89|41.16| + 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | + Poquonock " | 27.19 |48.84|76.03| + 13. " " " | 33.66 |40.51|74.17| + 14. Philip Scarborough | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | 51.45 |25.00|76.45| + 15. Adams White. | | | | + Brooklyn " | 54.38 |23.14|77.52| + 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | + Brooklyn " | 18.86 | 5.02|23.88| + 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | 43.27 |16.83|60.10| + 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | + Collinsville Conn.| 2.21|20.57| 8.25|31.03| + 19. " " " | 1.12| 9.19| 5.10|15.41| + 20. " " " | 0.72| 9.31| 3.65|13.68| + 21. S. Mead. | | | | | + New Haven Conn. | 3.30|40.52| 8.20|52.02| + 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | + New Canaan " | 2.84|13.42| 7.55|23.81| + 23. " " " | 2.34|13.49| 8.05|23.88| + 24. " " " | 1.15|17.29| 8.00|26.44| + 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | + Rockville " | 3.43|52.15| 8.65|64.23| + 26. " " " | 3.87|71.57| 8.44|83.88| + 27. " " " | 3.87|44.04| 4.25|52.16| + 28. Albert Day. | | | | | + Brooklyn " | 2.45|46.25| 6.35|55.05| + 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | + New Haven " | 1.80|45.42|10.35|57.57| + 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | + Stonington " | 3.33|51.68| 9.80|64.81| + 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | + South Salem N. Y. | 2.13|45.12|12.05|59.30| + 32. John Adams. | | | | | + Salisbury Conn. | 1.71|42.87|10.65|55.23| + 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | + Stonington " | 5.40|16.72| 7.25|29.37| + | | |-----| | + Average | | | 2.06| | + + -------------------------+-----------------------+-----+-----+----- + | INORGANIC MATTER. | | | + _From Whom and |-----+-----+-----+-----| | | + Whence Received_ | A | B | C | D | E | F | G + -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- + 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | | | | + Goshen Conn. | | | |35.21|12.37| 1.28| 1.54 + 2. " " " | | | | 8.00|20.33| 1.85| + 3. " " " | | | | 4.52|15.13| 1.90| 2.51 + 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | | | | + " Milford Conn. | | | | 3.23|19.67| 1.20| 1.63 + 5. " " " | | | | 2.00|13.60| .95| 3.42 + 6. Samuel Camp. |~~~~~v~~~~~| | | | | + Plainville Conn. | 14.90 |14.80|29.20|18.70| 2.10| 2.50 + 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | | | | + Berlin Conn. | | | |13.59|17.41| 1.62| 2.61 + 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | | | | + Griswold Conn. | | | |34.70|12.85| 1.31| 1.64 + 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | | | | + Colebrook Conn. | | | | 4.57|38.38| 1.23| 1.83 + 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | | | | + West Cornwall Conn.| | | |14.89|19.71| 2.10| 6.20 + 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | | | | + North Granby " | | | |47.24|11.60| 1.00| .75 + 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | | | | + Poquonock " | | | | 5.92|18.05| 2.40| 2.94 + 13. " " " | | | | 8.63|17.20| 2.40| 1.80 + 14. Philip Scarborough. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | | | | 7.67|15.88| 1.20| 1.43 + 15. Adams White. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn " | | | | 9.03|13.45| 2.89| 5.90 + 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn " | | | |67.77| 8.35| 1.03| 2.63 + 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | | | |25.78|14.12| 0.86|15.13 + 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | | | | + Collinsville Conn.| 0.32| 9.41|48.05|57.78|11.19| 0.64| 2.53 + 19. " " " | 0.28| 1.08|48.65|50.01|34.58| 0.34| 1.40 + 20. " " " | 0.25| 0.76|28.20|29.21|57.11| 0.28| .97 + 21. S. Mead. | | | | | | | + New Haven Conn. | 2.60|10.02|23.90|36.52|11.46| 1.51| 5.90 + 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | | | + New Canaan " | 2.72|19.88|46.30|68.90| 7.29| 0.45| 5.56 + 23. " " " | 1.54|12.42|56.20|70.16| 5.96| 0.90| 3.88 + 24. " " " | 1.67|14.13|51.10|66.90| 6.66| 1.01| 2.82 + 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | | | + Rockville " | 0.35| 0.16| 4.90| 5.41|30.36| 1.62| 3.78 + 26. " " " | 0.23| | 1.98| 2.21|13.91| 1.32| 4.10 + 27. " " " | 0.51| 4.07| 5.05| 9.63|38.21| 1.88| 4.38 + 28. Albert Day. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn " | 0.32| 0.65| 5.40| 6.37|38.58| 0.84| 2.77 + 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | | | + New Haven " | 0.35| 7.98|18.80|27.13|15.30| 1.68| 2.15 + 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | | | + Stonington " | 2.82| | 5.86| 8.68|26.51| 0.95| 6.15 + 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | | | + South Salem N. Y. | 0.78| 3.79|16.70|21.27|19.43| 1.57| 2.91 + 32. John Adams. | | | | | | | + Salisbury Conn. | 1.02| 1.33|14.35|16.70|28.07| 1.76| 2.73 + 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | | | + Stonington " | 7.40| 6.40|48.05|61.85| 8.78| 1.32| 2.80 + | | |-----| | |-----|----- + Average | | | 1.44| | | 1.37| 3.72 + + + +TABLE II.-COMPOSITION OF CONNECTICUT PEATS AND MUCKS. +_Calculated in the dry state: the percentage of nitrogen +calculated also on organic matters._ + + KEY: + A - _In this table the matters soluble in water and the + nitrogen are calculated to two places of decimals; + the other ingredients are expressed in round + numbers._ + B - _Soluble in water._ + C - _Insol. in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda._ + D - _Insol. in water and carbonate of soda._ + E - _Total._ + F - _Total matters soluble in water._ + G - _Nitrogen._ + H - _Nitrogen in per cent. of the organic matter._ + + -------------------------+-----------------------+ + | ORGANIC MATTER. | + |-----+-----+-----+-----+ + A | B | C | D | E | + -------------------------+~~~~~v~~~~~+-----+-----+ + 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | + Goshen Conn. | 20 | 40 | 60 | + 2. " " " | 75 | 15 | 90 | + 3. " " " | 60 | 35 | 95 | + 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | + " Milford Conn. | 81 | 15 | 96 | + 5. " " " | 79 | 19 | 98 | + 6. Samuel Camp. | | | | + Plainville Conn. | 53 | 11 | 64 | + 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | + Berlin Conn. | 46 | 37 | 83 | + 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | + Griswold Conn. | 48 | 11 | 59 | + 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | + Colebrook Conn. | 75 | 11 | 86 | + 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | + West Cornwall Conn.| 69 | 13 | 82 | + 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | + North Granby " | 43 | 4 | 47 | + 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | + Poquonock " | 33 | 60 | 93 | + 13. " " " | 41 | 49 | 90 | + 14. Philip Scarborough. | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | 61 | 30 | 91 | + 15. Adams White. | | | | + Brooklyn " | 63 | 27 | 90 | + 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | + Brooklyn " | 21 | 5 | 26 | + 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | 62 | 8 | 70 | + 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | + Collinsville Conn.| 2.48| 23 | 9 | 35 | + 19. " " " | 1.72| 14 | 8 | 23 | + 20. " " " | 1.67| 22 | 8 | 32 | + 21. Solomon Mead. | | | | | + New Haven Conn. | 3.70| 48 | 9 | 60 | + 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | + New Canaan " | 3.05| 14 | 8 | 26 | + 23. " " " | 2.47| 14 | 8 | 25 | + 24. " " " | 1.23| 18 | 9 | 28 | + 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | + Rockville " | 4.90| 75 | 12 | 92 | + 26. " " " | 4.50| 83 | 10 | 97 | + 27. " " " | 6.24| 71 | 7 | 84 | + 28. Albert Day. | | | | | + Brooklyn " | 4.01| 76 | 10 | 90 | + 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | + New Haven " | 2.11| 54 | 12 | 68 | + 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | + Stonington " | 4.56| 71 | 13 | 88 | + 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | + South Salem N. Y. | 2.66| 56 | 15 | 73 | + 32. John Adams. | | | | | + Salisbury Conn. | 2.37| 59 | 15 | 76 | + 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | + Stonington " | 5.93| 18 | 8 | 32 | + -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + -------------------------+-----------------------+-----+-----+----- + | INORGANIC MATTER. | | | + |-----+-----+-----+-----| | | + A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H + -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- + 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | | | | + Goshen Conn. | | | | 40 | 1.75| 1.46| 2.25 + 2. " " " | | | | 10 | | 2.32| 2.58 + 3. " " " | | | | 5 | 2.95| 2.23| 2.36 + 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | | | | + " Milford Conn. | | | | 4 | 2.03| 1.49| 1.55 + 5. " " " |~~~~~v~~~~~| | 2 | 3.97| 1.09| 1.12 + 6. Samuel Camp. | 18 | 18 | | | | + Plainville Conn. | | | | 36 | 3.08| 2.58| 4.03 + 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | | | | + Berlin Conn. | | | | 17 | 3.27| 1.96| 2.34 + 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | | | | + Griswold Conn. | | | | 41 | 1.88| 1.50| 2.49 + 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | | | | + Colebrook Conn. | | | | 14 | 2.77| 1.99| 2.15 + 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | | | | + West Cornwall Conn.| | | | 18 | 7.75| 2.61| 3.21 + 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | | | | + North Granby " | | | | 53 | .85| 1.13| 2.43 + 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | | | | + Poquonock " | | | | 7 | 3.58| 2.92| 3.15 + 13. " " " | | | | 10 | 2.16| 2.89| 2.23 + 14. Philip Scarborough. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | | | | 9 | 1.70| 1.42| 1.57 + 15. Adams White. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn " | | | | 10 | 6.78| 3.33| 3.72 + 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn " | | | | 74 | 2.85| 1.12| 4.31 + 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn Conn. | | | | 30 |17.59| 1.00| 1.43 + 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | | | | + Collinsville Conn.| 0.35| 11 | 54 | 65 | 2.83| 0.72| 2.06 + 19. " " " | .43| 2 | 75 | 77 | 2.15| 0.51| 2.20 + 20. " " " | .58| 2 | 66 | 68 | 2.25| 0.65| 2.04 + 21. Solomon Mead. | | | | | | | + New Haven Conn. | 2.92| 11 | 27 | 40 | 6.62| 1.70| 2.90 + 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | | | + New Canaan " | 2.92| 21 | 50 | 74 | 6.07| 0.48| 1.88 + 23. " " " | 1.63| 13 | 60 | 75 | 4.10| 0.95| 3.76 + 24. " " " | 1.79| 15 | 55 | 72 | 3.02| 1.08| 3.82 + 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | | | + Rockville " | .50| | 7 | 8 | 5.40| 2.32| 2.52 + 26. " " " | .27| | 2 | 3 | 4.77| 1.53| 1.57 + 27. " " " | .82| 7 | 8 | 16 | 7.06| 3.04| 3.64 + 28. Albert Day. | | | | | | | + Brooklyn " | .52| 1 | 8 | 10 | 4.58| 1.36| 1.52 + 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | | | + New Haven " | .40| 9 | 22 | 32 | 2.51| 1.98| 2.91 + 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | | | + Stonington " | 3.86| | 8 | 12 | 8.42| 1.29| 1.46 + 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | | | + South Salem N. Y. | .97| 5 | 21 | 27 | 3.63| 1.98| 2.64 + 32. John Adams. | | | | | | | + Salisbury Conn. | 1.40| 2 | 20 | 24 | 3.77| 2.44| 3.18 + 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | | | + Stonington " | 8.13| 7 | 53 | 68 |14.06| 1.44| 4.49 + -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- + + +TABLE III.--DESCRIPTION, ETC., OF PEATS AND MUCKS. + + _No._ _Color._ + + 1. Lewis M. Norton |chocolate-brown,| + | |. + 2. " " | " " | + | | + 3. " " |light-brown, | + | | + 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles|chocolate-brown,| + | | + | | + 5. " " |brownish-red, | + | | + 6. Samuel Camp |black, | + | | + 7. Russell U. Peck |chocolate-brown,| + | | + 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop |grayish-brown, | + | | + | | + 9. J. H. Stanwood |chocolate-brown,| + | | + 10. N. Hart, Jr |brownish-black, | + 11. A. L. Loveland |black, | + | | + 12. Daniel Buck, Jr |chocolate-brown,| + | | + 13. " " | " " | + 14. Philip Scarborough | | + | | + 15. Adams White |chocolate-brown,| + | | + 16. Paris Dyer |grayish-black, | + | | + 17. Perrin Scarborough |chocolate-brown,| + | | + | | + 18. Geo. K. Virgin |light | + | brownish-gray | + | | + 19. " " |chocolate-brown,| + | | + 20. " " |black, | + 21. Solomon Mead |grayish-brown, | + | | + | | + 22. Edwin Hoyt |brownish-gray, | + | | + 23. " " | " | + | | + 24. " " | " | + | | + 25. A. M. Haling |chocolate-brown,| + 26. " " | " " | + 27. " " | " " | + | | + 28. Albert Day |dark-brown, | + | | + | | + 29. C. Goodyear |black, | + | | + 30. Rev. Wm. Clift |chocolate-brown,| + | | + | | + 31. Henry Keeler |light-brown, | + | | + 32. John Adams | " | + | | + 33. Rev. Wm. Clift |dark ash-gray, | + | | + + _Condition at Time of Analysis, + _No._ Reputed value, etc._ + + 1. Lewis M. Norton |air-dry, tough, compact, heavy; from bottom; + | 3 to 4 feet deep; very good in compost. + 2. " " | " tough, compact, heavier than 1, from + | near surface; very good in compost. + 3. " " | " coherent but light, from between 1 and + | 2, very good in compost. + 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles| " coherent but light, surface peat, + | considered better than No. 5; good in + | compost. + 5. " " | " very light and loose in texture, from + | depth of 3 feet, good in compost. + 6. Samuel Camp | " hard lumps, half as good as yard manure, + | in compost equal to yard manure. + 7. Russell U. Peck | " is good fresh, long exposed, half as + | good as barn-yard manure. + 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop | " light, easily crushed masses containing + | sand, has not been used alone, good in + | compost. + 9. J. H. Stanwood |moist, hard lumps, used fresh good after first + | year; excellent in compost. + 10. N. Hart, Jr |air-dry, hard lumps, excellent in compost. + 11. A. L. Loveland | " hard lumps, contains grains of coarse + | sand. + 12. Daniel Buck, Jr | " coherent cakes, good as top dressing on + | grass when fresh; excellent in compost. + 13. " " | " light surface layers of No. 12. + 14. Philip Scarborough | " after exposure over winter, has + | one-third value of yard-manure. + 15. Adams White | " hard lumps, good in compost, causes + | great growth of straw. + 16. Paris Dyer | " easily crushed lumps, largely admixed + | with soil. + 17. Perrin Scarborough | " well-characterized "vitriol peat;" in + | compost, after 1 year's exposure, gives + | indifferent results. + 18. Geo. K. Virgin | " light, coherent surface peat; sample + | long exposed; astonishing results on + | sandy soil. + 19. " " |moist, crumbly, contains much sand, four feet + | from surface. + 20. " " |wet. + 21. Solomon Mead |air-dry, light, porous, coherent from grass + | roots; long weathered, good; fresh, + | better in compost. + 22. Edwin Hoyt | " loose, light, much mixed with soil, + | good in compost. + 23. " " | " No. 22 saturated with horse urine, + | darker than No. 22. + 24. " " | " No. 22 composted with white fish, + | darker than No. 23; fish-bones evident. + 25. A. M. Haling |moist, fresh dug. + 26. " " |air-dry, No. 25 after two year's weathering. + 27. " " |moist, fresh dug, good substitute for yard + | manure as top-dressing on grass. + 28. Albert Day | " coherent and hard; fresh dug, but from + | surface where weathered; injurious to + | crops; vitriol peat. (?) + 29. C. Goodyear |air-dry, very hard tough cakes; when fresh dug, + | "as good as cow dung." + 30. Rev. Wm. Clift |moist, from an originally fresh water bog, + | broken into 100 years ago by tide, now + | salt marsh; good after weathering. + 31. Henry Keeler |air-dry, leaf-muck, friable; when fresh, appears + | equal to good yard manure. + 32. John Adams |moist, overlies shell marl, fresh or weathered + | does not compare with ordinary manure. + 33. Rev. Wm. Clift |air-dry, from bottom of salt ditch, where tide + | flows daily; contains sulphate of iron. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] The oxygen thus absorbed by water, serves for the respiration of +fish and aquatic animals. + +[3] This sample contained also fish-bones, hence the larger content of +nitrogen was not entirely due to absorbed ammonia. + +[4] Reichardt's analyses are probably inaccurate, and give too much +ammonia and nitric acid. + +[5] These analyses were executed--A by Professor G. F. Barker; B by Mr. +O. C. Sparrow; C by Mr. Peter Collier. + +[6] _Shell marl_, consisting of fragments and powder of fresh-water +shells, is frequently met with, underlying peat beds. Such a deposit +occurs on the farm of Mr. John Adams, in Salisbury, Conn. It is eight to +ten feet thick. An air-dry sample, analyzed under the writer's +direction, gave results as follows: + + "Water 30.62 + {soluble in water 0.70} + Organic matter { } 6.52 + {insoluble in water 5.82} + Carbonate of lime 57.09 + Sand 1.86 + Oxide of iron and alumina, with traces of potash, + magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acid 3.91 + ------- + 100.00 + +Another specimen from near Milwaukee, Wis., said to occur there in +immense quantities underlying peat, contained, by the author's +analysis-- + + Water 1.14 + Carbonate of lime 92.41 + Carbonate of magnesia 3.43 + Peroxide of iron with a trace of phosphoric acid 0.92 + Sand 1.60 + ------ + 99.50 + + + +[7] To the kindness of Joseph Sheffield, Esq., of New Haven, the author +is indebted for facilities in carrying on these experiments. + +[8] At the instigation of Henry A. Dyer, Esq., at that time the +Society's Corresponding Secretary. + +[9] Derived from the communications published in the author's Report. +Trans. Conn. State Ag. Soc. 1858 p.p. 101-153. + + + + + +PART III. + +ON PEAT AS FUEL. + + +1.--_Kinds of peat that make the best fuel._ + +The value of peat for fuel varies greatly, like its other qualities. +Only those kinds which can be cut out in the shape of coherent blocks, +or which admit of being artificially formed into firm masses, are of use +in ordinary stoves and furnaces. The powdery or friable surface peat, +which has been disintegrated by frost and exposure, is ordinarily +useless as fuel, unless it be rendered coherent by some mode of +preparation. Unripe peat which contains much undecomposed moss or grass +roots, which is therefore very light and porous, is in general too bulky +to make an effective heating material before subjection to mechanical +treatment. + +The best peat for burning, is that which is most free from visible fiber +or undecomposed vegetable matters, which has therefore a homogeneous +brown or black aspect, and which is likewise free from admixture of +earthy substances in the form of sand or clay. Such peat is unctuous +when moist, shrinks greatly on drying, and forms hard and heavy masses +when dry. It is usually found at a considerable depth, where it has been +subjected to pressure, and then has such consistence as to admit of +cutting out in blocks; or it may exist as a black mud or paste at the +bottom of bogs and sluices. + +The value of peat as fuel stands in direct ratio to its content of +carbon. We have seen that this ranges from 51 to 63 _per cent. of the +organic matter_, and the increase of carbon is related to its ripeness +and density. The poorest, youngest peat, has the same proportion of +carbon as exists in wood. It does not, however, follow that its heating +power is the same. The various kinds of wood have essentially the same +proportion of carbon, but their heating power is very different. The +close textured woods--those which weigh the most per cord--make the best +fuel for most purposes. We know, that a cord of hickory will produce +twice as much heat as a cord of bass-wood. Peat, though having the same +or a greater proportion of carbon, is generally inferior to wood on +account of its occupying a greater bulk for a given weight, a necessary +result of its porosity. The best qualities of peat, or poor kinds +artificially condensed, may, on the other hand, equal or exceed wood in +heating power, bulk for bulk. One reason that peat is, in general, +inferior to wood in heating effect, lies in its greater content of +incombustible ash. Wood has but 0.5 to 1.5 _per cent._ of mineral +matters, while peat contains usually 5 to 10 _per cent._, and often +more. The oldest, ripest peats are those which contain the most carbon, +and have at the same time the greatest compactness. From these two +circumstances they make the best fuel. + +It thus appears that peat which is light, loose in structure, and much +mixed with clay or sand, is a poor or very poor article for producing +heat: while a dense pure peat is very good. + +A great drawback to the usefulness of most kinds of peat-fuel, lies in +their great friability. This property renders them unable to endure +transportation. The blocks of peat which are commonly used in most parts +of Germany as fuel, break and crumble in handling, so that they cannot +be carried far without great waste. Besides, when put into a stove, +there can only go on a slow smouldering combustion as would happen in +cut tobacco or saw-dust. A free-burning fuel must exist in compact lumps +or blocks, which so retain their form and solidity, as to admit of a +rapid draught of air through the burning mass. + +The bulkiness of ordinary peat fuel, as compared with hard wood, and +especially with coal, likewise renders transportation costly, especially +by water, where freights are charged by bulk and not by weight, and +renders storage an item of great expense. + +The chief value of that peat fuel, which is simply cut from the bog, and +dried without artificial condensation, must be for the domestic use of +the farmer or villager who owns a supply of it not far from his +dwelling, and can employ his own time in getting it out. Though worth +perhaps much less cord for cord when dry than hard wood, it may be +cheaper for home consumption than fuel brought from a distance. + +Various processes have been devised for preparing peat, with a view to +bringing it into a condition of density and toughness, sufficient to +obviate its usual faults, and make it compare with wood or even with +coal in heating power. + +The efforts in this direction have met with abundant success as regards +producing a good fuel. In many cases, however, the cost of preparation +has been too great to warrant the general adoption of these processes. +We shall recur to this subject on a subsequent page, and give an +account of the methods that have been proposed or employed for the +manufacture of condensed peat fuel. + +2.--_Density of Peat._ + +The apparent[10] specific gravity of peat in the air-dry state, ranges +from 0.11 to 1.03. In other words, a full cubic foot weighs from +one-tenth as much as, to slightly more than a cubic foot of water, = +62-1/3 lbs. Peat, which has a specific gravity of but 0.25, may be and +is employed as fuel. A full cubic foot of it will weigh about 16 lbs. In +Germany, the cubic foot of "good ordinary peat" in blocks,[11] ranges +from 15 to 25 lbs. in weight, and is employed for domestic purposes. The +heavier peat, weighing 30 or more lbs. per cubic foot in blocks, is used +for manufacturing and metallurgical purposes, and for firing +locomotives. + +Karmarsch has carefully investigated more than 100 peats belonging to +the kingdom of Hanover, with reference to their heating effect. He +classifies them as follows:-- + +A. _Turfy peat_, (_Rasentorf_,) consisting of slightly decomposed mosses +and other peat-producing plants, having a yellow or yellowish-brown +color, very soft, spongy and elastic, sp. gr. 0.11 to 0.26, the full +English cubic foot weighing from 7 to 16 lbs. + +B. _Fibrous peat_, unripe peat, which is brown or black in color, less +elastic than turfy peat, the fibres either of moss, grass, roots, +leaves, or wood, distinguishable by the eye, but brittle, and easily +broken; sp. gr. 0.24 to 0.67, the weight of a full cubic foot being from +15 to 42 lbs. + +C. _Earthy peat._--Nearly or altogether destitute of fibrous structure, +drying to earth-like masses which break with more or less difficulty, +giving lustreless surfaces of fracture; sp. gr. 0.41 to 0.90, the full +cubic foot weighing, accordingly, from 25 to 56 lbs. + +D. _Pitchy peat_, (_Pechtorf_,) dense; when dry, hard; often resisting +the blows of a hammer, breaking with a smooth, sometimes lustrous +fracture, into sharp-angled pieces. Sp. gr. 0.62 to 1.03, the full cubic +foot weighing from 38 to 55 lbs. + +In Kane and Sullivan's examination of 27 kinds of Irish peat, the +specific gravities ranged from 0.274 to 1.058. + +3.--_Heating power of peat as compared with wood and anthracite._ + +Karmarsch found that in absolute heating effect + + 100 lbs. of turfy, air-dry peat, on the average = 95 lbs. of pine wood. + " fibrous " " " = 108 " " + " earthy " " " = 104 " " + " pitchy " " " = 111 " " + +The comparison of heating power by bulk, instead of weight, is as +follows:-- + + 100 cubic ft. of turfy peat, on the average[12] = 33 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks. + " " fibrous " " = 90 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks. + " " earthy " " = 145 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks. + " " pitchy " " = 184 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks. + +According to Brix, the weight per English cord and relative heating +effect of several air-dry peats--the heating power of an equal bulk of +oak wood being taken at 100 as a standard--are as follows, _bulk for +bulk_:[13] + + _Weight per _Heating + cord._ effect._ + Oak wood 4150 lbs. 100 + Peat from Linum, 1st quality, dense and pitchy 3400 " 70 + " " 2d " fibrous 2900 " 55 + " " 3d " turfy 2270 " 53 + Peat from Buechsenfeld, 1st quality, pitchy, + very hard and heavy 3400 lbs. 74 + Peat from Buechsenfeld, 2d quality 2730 " 64 + +These statements agree in showing, that, while weight for weight, the +ordinary qualities of peat do not differ much from wood in heating +power; the heating effect of _equal bulks_ of this fuel, as found in +commerce, may vary extremely, ranging from one-half to three quarters +that of oak wood. + +Condensed peat may be prepared by machinery, which will weigh more than +hard wood, bulk for bulk, and whose heating power will therefore exceed +that of wood. + +Gysser gives the following comparisons of a good peat with various +German woods and charcoals, equal weights being employed, and split +beech wood, air-dry, assumed as the standard.[14] + + Beech wood, split, air dry 1.00 + Peat, condensed by Weber's & Gysser's method,[15] air-dried, + with 25 _per cent._ moisture. 1.00 + Peat, condensed by Weber's & Gysser's method, hot-dried, + with 10 _per cent._ moisture. 1.48 + Peat-charcoal, from condensed peat. 1.73 + The same peat, simply cut and air-dried. 0.80 + Beech-charcoal. 1.90 + Summer-oak wood. 1.18 + Birch wood. 0.95 + White pine wood. 0.72 + Alder. 0.65 + Linden. 0.65 + Red pine. 0.61 + Poplar. 0.50 + +Some experiments have been made in this country on the value of peat as +fuel. One was tried on the N. Y. Central Railroad, Jan. 3, 1866. A +locomotive with 25 empty freight cars attached, was propelled from +Syracuse westward--the day being cold and the wind ahead--at the rate of +16 miles the hour. The engineer reported that "the peat gave us as much +steam as wood, and burnt a beautiful fire." The peat, we infer, was cut +and prepared near Syracuse, N. Y. + +In one of the pumping houses of the Nassau Water Department of the City +of Brooklyn, an experiment has been made for the purpose of comparing +peat with anthracite, for the results of which I am indebted to the +courtesy of Moses Lane, Esq., Chief Engineer of the Department. + +Fire was started under a steam boiler with wood. When steam was up, the +peat was burned--its quantity being 1743 lbs., or 18 barrels--and after +it was consumed, the firing was continued with coal. The pressure of +steam was kept as nearly uniform as possible throughout the trial, and +it was found that with 1743 lbs. of peat the engine made 2735 +revolutions, while with 1100 lbs. of coal it made 3866 revolutions. In +other words, 100 lbs. of coal produced 351-45/100 revolutions, and 100 +lbs. of peat produced 156-91/100 revolutions. One pound of coal +therefore equalled 2-24/100 lbs. of peat in heating effect. The peat +burned well and generated steam freely. + +Mr. Lane could not designate the quality of the peat, not having been +able to witness the experiment. + +These trials have not, indeed, all the precision needful to fix with +accuracy the comparative heating effect of the fuels employed; for a +furnace, that is adapted for wood, is not necessarily suited to peat, +and a coal grate must have a construction unlike that which is proper +for a peat fire; nevertheless they exhibit the relative merits of wood, +peat, and anthracite, with sufficient closeness for most practical +purposes. + +Two considerations would prevent the use of ordinary cut peat in large +works, even could two and one-fourth tons of it be afforded at the same +price as one ton of coal. The Nassau Water Department consumes 20,000 +tons of coal yearly, the handling of which is a large expense, six +firemen being employed to feed the furnaces. To generate the same amount +of steam with peat of the quality experimented with, would require the +force of firemen to be considerably increased. Again, it would be +necessary to lay in, under cover, a large stock of fuel during the +summer, for use in winter, when peat cannot be raised. Since a barrel of +this peat weighed less than 100 lbs., the short ton would occupy the +volume of 20 barrels; as is well known, a ton of anthracite can be put +into 8 barrels. A given weight of peat therefore requires 2-1/2 times as +much storage room, as the same weight of coal. As 2-1/4 tons of peat, in +the case we are considering, are equivalent to but one ton of coal in +heating effect, the winter's supply of peat fuel would occupy 5-5/8 +times the bulk of the same supply in coal, admitting that the unoccupied +or air-space in a pile of peat is the same as in a heap of coal. In +fact, the calculation would really turn out still more to the +disadvantage of peat, because the air-space in a bin of peat is greater +than in one of coal, and coal can be excavated for at least two months +more of the year than peat. + +It is asserted by some, that, because peat can be condensed so as to +approach anthracite in specific gravity, it must, in the same ratio, +approach the latter in heating power. Its effective heating power is, +indeed, considerably augmented by condensation, but no mechanical +treatment can increase its percentage of carbon or otherwise alter its +chemical composition; hence it must forever remain inferior to +anthracite. + +The composition and density of the best condensed peat is compared with +that of hard wood and anthracite in the following statement:-- + + _In 100 _Carbon._ _Hydrogen._ _Oxygen and _Ash._ _Water._ _Specific + parts._ Nitrogen._ Gravity._ + Wood, 39.6 4.8 34.8 0.8 20.0 0.75 + Condensed + peat 47.2 4.9 22.9 5.0 20.0 1.20 + Anthracite 91.3 2.9 2.8 3.0 1.40 + +In combustion in ordinary fires, the _water_ of the fuel is a source of +waste, since it consumes heat in acquiring the state of vapor. This is +well seen in the comparison of the same kind of peat in different states +of dryness. Thus, in the table of Gysser, (page 97) Weber's condensed +peat, containing 10 _per cent._ of moisture, surpasses in heating effect +that containing 25 _per cent._ of moisture, by nearly one-half. + +The _oxygen_ is a source of waste, for heat as developed from fuel, is +chiefly a result of the chemical union of atmospheric or free oxygen, +with the carbon and hydrogen of the combustible. The oxygen of the fuel, +being already combined with carbon and hydrogen, not only cannot itself +contribute to the generation of heat, but neutralizes the heating effect +of those portions of the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with which it +remains in combination. The quantity of heating effect thus destroyed, +cannot, however, be calculated with certainty, because physical changes, +viz: the conversion of solids into gases, not to speak of secondary +chemical transformations, whose influence cannot be estimated, enter +into the computation. + +_Nitrogen_ and ash are practically indifferent in the burning process, +and simply impair the heating value of fuel in as far as they occupy +space in it and make a portion of its weight, to the exclusion of +combustible matter. + +Again, as regards density, peat is, in general, considerably inferior to +anthracite. The best uncondensed peat has a specific gravity of 0.90. +Condensed peat usually does not exceed 1.1. Sometimes it is made of sp. +gr. 1.3. Assertions to the effect of its acquiring a density of 1.8, can +hardly be credited of pure peat, though a considerable admixture of sand +or clay might give such a result. + +The comparative heating power of fuels is ascertained by burning them in +an apparatus, so constructed, that the heat generated shall expend +itself in evaporating or raising the temperature of a known quantity of +water. + +_The amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one gramme of +water, one degree of the centigrade thermometer, is agreed upon as the +unit of heat._[16] + +In the complete combustion of carbon in the form of charcoal or +gas-coal, there are developed 8060 units of heat. In the combustion of +one gramme of hydrogen gas, 34,210 units of heat are generated. The +heating effect of hydrogen is therefore 4.2 times greater than that of +carbon. It was long supposed that the heating effect of compound +combustibles could be calculated from their elementary composition. This +view is proved to be erroneous, and direct experiment is the only +satisfactory means of getting at the truth in this respect. + +The data of Karmarsch, Brix, and Gysser, already given, were obtained by +the experimental method. They were, however, made mostly on a small +scale, and, in some cases, without due regard to the peculiar +requirements of the different kinds of fuel, as regards fire space, +draught, etc. They can only be regarded as approximations to the truth, +and have simply a comparative value, which is, however, sufficient for +ordinary purposes. + +The general results of the investigations hitherto made on all the +common kinds of fuel, are given in the subjoined statement. The +comparison is made in units of heat, and refers to equal weights of the +materials experimented with. + + HEATING POWER OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL. + + Air-dry Wood 2800 + " Peat 2500 3000 + Perfectly dry Wood 3600 + " " Peat 3000 4000 + Air-dry Lignite or Brown Coal 3300 4200 + Perfectly dry Lignite or Brown Coal 4000 5000 + Bituminous Coal 3800 7000 + Anthracite 7500 + Wood Charcoal 6300 7500 + Coke 6500 7600 + +4.--_Modes of Burning Peat._ + +In the employment of peat fuel, regard must be had to its shape and +bulk. Commonly, peat is cut or moulded into blocks or sods like bricks, +which have a length of 8 to 18 inches; a breadth of 4 to 6 inches, and a +thickness of 1-1/2 to 3 inches. Machine peat is sometimes formed into +circular disks of 2 to 3 inches diameter, and 1 to 2 inches thickness +and thereabouts. It is made also in the shape of balls of 2 to 3 inches +diameter. Another form is that of thick-walled pipes, 2 to 3 inches in +diameter, a foot or more long, and with a bore of one-half inch. + +Flat blocks are apt to lie closely together in the fire, and obstruct +the draft. A fire-place, constructed properly for burning them, should +be shallow, not admitting of more than two or three layers being +superposed. According to the bulkiness of the peat, the fire-place +should be roomy, as regards length and breadth. + +Fibrous and easily crumbling peat is usually burned upon a hearth, _i. +e._ without a grate, either in stoves or open fire-places. Dense peat +burns best upon a grate, the bars of which should be thin and near +together, so that the air have access to every part of the fuel. The +denser and tougher the peat, and the more its shape corresponds with +that usual to coal, the better is it adapted for use in our ordinary +coal stoves and furnaces. + +5.--_Burning of broken peat._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 1--STAIR GRATE.] + +Broken peat--the fragments and waste of the cut or moulded blocks, and +peat as obtained by plowing and harrowing the surface of drained +peat-beds--may be used to advantage in the _stair grate_, fig. 1, which +was introduced some years ago in Austria, and is adapted exclusively for +burning finely divided fuel. It consists of a series of thin iron bars 3 +to 4 inches wide, _a_, _a_, _a_, ... which are arranged above each other +like steps, as shown in the figure. They are usually half as long as the +grate is wide, and are supported at each end by two side pieces or +walls, _l._ Below, the grate is closed by a heavy iron plate. The fuel +is placed in the hopper _A_, which is kept filled, and from which it +falls down the incline as rapidly as it is consumed. The air enters from +the space _G_, and is regulated by doors, not shown in the cut, which +open into it. The masonry is supported at _u_, by a hollow iron beam. +Below, a lateral opening serves for clearing out the ashes. The effect +of the fire depends upon the width of the throat of the hopper at _u_, +which regulates the supply of fuel to the grate, and upon the +inclination of the latter. The throat is usually from 6 to 8 inches +wide, according to the nature of the fuel. The inclination of the grate +is 40 to 45 deg. and, in general, should be that which is assumed by the +sides of a pile of the fuel to be burned, when it is thrown up into a +heap. This grate ensures complete combustion of fuel that would fall +through ordinary grates, and that would merely smoulder upon a hearth. +The fire admits of easy regulation, the ashes may be removed and the +fuel may be supplied without _checking the fire_. Not only broken peat, +but coal dust, saw dust, wood turnings and the like may be burned on +this grate. The figure represents it as adapted to a steam boiler. + +6.--_Hygroscopic water of peat fuel._ + +The quantity of water retained by air-dried peat appears to be the same +as exists in air-dried wood, viz., about 20 _per cent._ The proportion +will vary however according to the time of seasoning. In thoroughly +seasoned wood or peat, it may be but 15 _per cent._; while in the poorly +dried material it may amount to 25 or more _per cent._ When _hot-dried_, +the proportion of water may be reduced to 10 _per cent._, or less. + +When peat is still moist, it gathers water rapidly from damp air, and in +this condition has been known to burst the sheds in which it was stored, +but after becoming dry to the eye and feel, it is but little affected by +dampness, no more so, it appears, than seasoned wood. + +7.--_Shrinkage._ + +In estimating the value and cost of peat fuel, it must be remembered +that peat shrinks greatly in drying, so that three to five cords of +fresh peat yield but one cord of dry peat. When the fiber of the peat is +broken by the hand, or by machinery, the shrinkage is often much +greater, and may sometimes amount to seven-eighths of the original +volume.--_Dingler's Journal, Oct. 1864_, _S._ 68. + +The difference in weight between fresh and dry peat is even greater. +Fibrous peat, fresh from the bog, may contain ninety _per cent._ of +water, of which seventy _per cent._ must evaporate before it can be +called dry. The proportion of water in earthy or pitchy peat is indeed +less; but the quantity is always large, so that from five to nine +hundred weight of fresh peat must be lifted in order to make one hundred +weight of dry fuel. + +8.--_Time of excavation, and drying._ + +Peat which is intended to be used after simply drying, must be excavated +so early in the season that it shall become dry before frosty weather +arrives: because, if frozen when wet, its coherence is destroyed, and on +thawing it falls to a powder useless for fuel. + +Peat must be dried with certain precautions. If a block of fresh peat be +exposed to hot sunshine, it dries and shrinks on the surface much more +rapidly than within: as a consequence it cracks, loses its coherence, +and the block is easily broken, or of itself falls to pieces. In Europe, +it is indeed customary to dry peat without shelter, the loss by too +rapid drying not being greater than the expense of building and +maintaining drying sheds. There however the sun is not as intense, nor +the air nearly so dry, as it is here. Even there, the occurrence of an +unusually hot summer, causes great loss. In our climate, some shelter +would be commonly essential unless the peat be dug early in the spring, +so as to lose the larger share of its water before the hot weather; or, +as would be best of all, in the autumn late enough to escape the heat, +but early enough to ensure such dryness as would prevent damage by +frost. The peculiarities of climate must decide the time of excavating +and the question of shelter. + +The point in drying peat is to make it lose its water gradually and +regularly, so that the inside of each block shall dry nearly as fast as +the outside. + +Some of the methods of hot-drying peat, will be subsequently noticed. + +Summer or fall digging would be always advantageous on account of the +swamps being then most free from water. In Bavaria, peat is dug mostly +in July and the first half of August. + +9.--_Drainage._ + +When it is intended to raise peat fuel _in the form of blocks_, the bog +should be drained no more rapidly than it is excavated. Peat, which is +to be worth cutting in the spring, must be covered with water during the +winter, else it is pulverized by the frost. So, too, it must be +protected against drying away and losing its coherency in summer, by +being kept sufficiently impregnated with water. + +In case an extensive bog is to be drained to facilitate the cutting out +of the peat for use as fuel, the canals that carry off the water from +the parts which are excavating, should be so constructed, that on the +approach of cold weather, the remaining peat may be flooded again to the +usual height. + +In most of the smaller swamps, systematic draining is unnecessary, the +water drying away in summer enough to admit of easy working. + +In some methods of preparing or condensing peat by machinery, it is best +or even needful to drain and air-dry the peat, preliminary to working. +By draining, the peat settles, especially on the borders of the ditches, +several inches, or even feet, according to its nature and depth. It thus +becomes capable of bearing teams and machinery, and its density is very +considerably augmented. + +10.--_The Cutting of Peat._--a. _Preparations._ + +In preparing to raise peat fuel from the bog, the surface material, +which from the action of frost and sun has been pulverized to "muck," or +which otherwise is full of roots and undecomposed matters, must be +removed usually to the depth of 12 to 18 inches. It is only those +portions of the peat which have never frozen nor become dry, and are +free from coarse fibers of recent vegetation, that can be cut for fuel. + +Peat fuel must be brought into the form of blocks or masses of such size +and shape as to adapt them to use in our common stoves and furnaces. +Commonly, the peat is of such consistence in its native bed, that it may +be cut out with a spade or appropriate tool into blocks having more or +less coherence. Sometimes it is needful to take away the surplus water +from the bog, and allow the peat to settle and drain a while before it +can be cut to advantage. + +When a bog is to be opened, a deep ditch is run from an outlet or lowest +point a short distance into the peat bed, and the working goes on from +the banks of this ditch. It is important that system be followed in +raising the peat, or there will be great waste of fuel and of labor. + +If, as often happens, the peat is so soft in the wet season as to break +on the vertical walls of a ditch and fill it, at the same time +dislocating the mass and spoiling it for cutting, it is best to carry +down the ditch in terraces, making it wide above and narrow at the +bottom. + +b. _Cutting by hand._ + +The simplest mode of procedure, consists in laying off a "field" or plot +of, say 20 feet square, and making vertical cuts with a sharp spade +three or four inches deep from end to end in parallel lines, as far +apart as it is proposed to make the breadth of the peats or sods, +usually four to five inches. Then, the field is cut in a similar manner +in lines at right angles to the first, and at a distance that shall be +the length of the peats, say 18 to 20 inches. Finally, the workman lifts +the peats by horizontal thrusts of his spade, made at a depth of three +inches. The sods as lifted, are placed on a light barrow or upon a board +or rack, and are carried off to a drying ground, near at hand, where +they are laid down flatwise to drain and dry. In Ireland, it is the +custom, after the peats have lain thus for a fortnight or so, to "foot" +them, i. e. to place them on end close together; after further drying +the "footing" is succeeded by "clamping," which is building the sods up +into stacks of about twelve to fifteen feet long, four feet wide at +bottom, narrowing to one foot at top, with a height of four to five +feet. The outer turfs are inclined so as to shed the rain. The peat +often remains in these clamps on the bog until wanted for use, though in +rainy seasons the loss by crumbling is considerable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--GERMAN PEAT-KNIFE.] + +Other modes of lifting peat, require tools of particular construction.... +In Germany it is common to excavate by _vertical_ thrusts of the tool, +the cutting part of which is represented above, fig. 2. This tool is +pressed down into the peat to a depth corresponding to the thickness of +the required block: its three edges cut as many sides of the block, and +the bottom is then broken or torn out by a prying motion. + +In other cases, this or a similar tool is forced down by help of the +foot as deeply into the peat as possible by a workman standing above, +while a second man in the ditch cuts out the blocks of proper thickness +by means of a sharp spade thrust horizontally. When the peats are taken +out to the depth of the first vertical cutting, the knife is used again +from above, and the process is thus continued as before, until the +bottom of the peat or the desired depth is reached. + +In Ireland, is employed the "slane," a common form of which is shown in +fig. 3, it being a long, narrow and sharp spade, 20 inches by six, with +a wing at right angles to the blade. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--IRISH SLANE.] + +The peats are cut by one thrust of this instrument which is worked by +the arms alone. After a vertical cut is made by a spade, in a line at +right angles to a bank of peat, the slane cuts the bottom and other side +of the block; while at the end the latter is simply lifted or broken +away. + +Peat is most easily cut in a vertical direction, but when, as often +happens, it is made up of layers, the sods are likely to break apart +where these join. Horizontal cutting is therefore best for stratified +peat. + +_System employed in East Friesland._--In raising peat, great waste both +of labor and of fuel may easily occur as the result of random and +unsystematic methods of working. For this reason, the mode of cutting +peat, followed in the extensive moors of East Friesland, is worthy of +particular description. There, the business is pursued systematically on +a plan, which, it is claimed, long experience[17] has developed to such +perfection that the utmost economy of time and labor is attained. The +cost of producing marketable peat in East Friesland in 1860, was one +silver groschen=about 2-1/2 cents, per hundred weight; while at that +time, in Bavaria, the hundred weight cost three times as much when fit +for market; and this, notwithstanding living and labor are much cheaper +in the latter country. + +The method to be described, presupposes that the workmen are not +hindered by water, which, in most cases, can be easily removed from the +high-moors of the region. The peat is worked in long stretches of 10 +feet in width, and 100 to 1000 paces in length: each stretch or plot is +excavated at once to a considerable depth and to its full width. Each +successive year the excavation is widened by 10 feet, its length +remaining the same. Sometimes, unusual demand leads to more rapid +working; but the width of 10 feet is adhered to for each cutting, and, +on account of the labor of carrying the peats, it is preferred to extend +the length rather than the width. + +Assuming that the peat bed has been opened by a previous cutting, to the +depth of 5-1/2 feet, and the surface muck and light peat, 1-1/2 feet +thick, have been thrown into the excavation of the year before--a new +plot is worked by five men as follows. + +One man, the "Bunker," removes from the surface, about two inches of +peat, disintegrated by the winter's frost, throwing it into last year's +ditch. + +Following him, come two "Diggers," of whom one stands on the surface of +the peat, and with a heavy, long handled tool, cuts out the sides and +end of the blocks, which are about seventeen by five inches; while the +other stands in the ditch, and by horizontal thrusts of a light, sharp +spade, removes the sods, each of five and a half inches thickness, and +places them on a small board near by. Each block of peat has the +dimensions of one fourth of a cubic foot, and weighs about 13 pounds. +Two good workmen will raise 25 such peats, or 6-1/4 cubic feet, per +minute. + +A fourth man, the "Loader," puts the sods upon a wheel-barrow, always +two rows of six each, one upon the other, and-- + +A fifth, the "Wheeler," removes the load to the drying ground, and with +some help from the Bunker, disposes them flatwise in rows of 16 sods +wide, which run at right angles to the ditch, and, beginning at a little +more than 10 feet from the latter, extend 50 feet. + +The space of 10 feet between the plot that is excavating, and the drying +ground, is, at the same time, cleared of the useless surface muck by the +Bunker, in preparation for the next year's work. + +With moderate activity, the five men will lift and lay out 12,000 sods +(3000 cubic feet,) daily, and it is not uncommon that five first-rate +hands get out 16,800 peats (4200 cubic feet,) in this time. + +A gang of five men, working as described, suffices for cutting out a bed +of four feet of solid peat. When the excavation is to be made deeper, a +sixth man, the "Hanker," is needful for economical work; and with his +help the cutting may be extended down to nine and a half feet; i. e. +through eight feet of solid peat. The cutting is carried down at first, +four feet as before, but the peats are carried 50 feet further, in order +to leave room for those to be subsequently lifted. The "Hanker" aids +here, with a second wheel-barrow. In taking out the lower peat, the +"Hanker" stands on the bottom of the first excavation, receives the +blocks from the Diggers, on a broad wooden shovel, and hands them up to +the Loader; while the Wheeler, having only the usual distance to carry +them, lays them out in the drying rows without difficulty. + +After a little drying in the rows, the peats are gradually built up into +narrow piles, like a brick wall of one and a half bricks thickness. +These piles are usually raised by women. They are made in the spaces +between the rows, and are laid up one course at a time, so that each +block may dry considerably, before it is covered by another. A woman can +lay up 12,000 peats daily--the number lifted by 5 men--and as it +requires about a month of good weather to give each course time (two +days) to dry, she is able to pile for 30 gangs of workmen. If the +weather be very favorable, the peats may be stacked or put into sheds, +in a few days after the piling is finished. Stacking is usually +practised. The stacks are carefully laid up in cylindrical form, and +contain 200 to 500 cubic feet. When the stacks are properly built, the +peat suffers but little from the weather. + +According to Schroeder, from whose account (Dingler's Polytechnisches +Journal, Bd. 156, S. 128) the above statements are derived, the peats +excavated under his direction, in drying thoroughly, shrank to about +one-fourth of their original bulk (became 12 inches x 3 inches x 3 +inches,) and to one-seventh or one-eighth of their original weight. + +c. _Machines for Cutting Peat._ + +In North Prussia, the Peat Cutting Machine of Brosowsky, see fig. 4, is +extensively employed. It consists of a cutter, made like the four sides +of a box, but with oblique edges, _a_, which by its own weight, and by +means of a crank and rack-work, operated by men, is forced down into the +peat to a depth that may reach 20 feet. It can cut only at the edge of a +ditch or excavation, and when it has penetrated sufficiently, a spade +like blade, _d_, is driven under the cutter by means of levers _c_, and +thus a mass is loosened, having a vertical length of 10 feet or more, +and whose other dimensions are about 24 x 28 inches. This is lifted by +reversing the crank motion, and is then cut up by the spade into blocks +of 14 inches x 6 inches x 5 inches. Each parallelopipedon of peat, cut +to a depth of 10 feet, makes 144 sods, and this number can be cut in +less than 10 minutes. Four hands will cut and lay out to dry, 12,000 to +14,000 peats daily, or 3100 cubic feet. One great advantage of this +machine consists in the circumstance that it can be used to raise peat +from below the surface of water, rendering drainage in many cases +unnecessary. Independently of this, it appears to be highly labor +saving, since 1300 machines were put to use in Mecklenburg and Pomerania +in about 5 years from its introduction. The Mecklenburg moors are now +traversed by canals, cut by this machine, which are used for the +transportation of the peat to market.[18] + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.--BROSOWSKY'S PEAT CUTTER.] + +Lepreux in Paris, has invented a similar but more complicated machine, +which is said to be very effective in its operation. According to Herve +Mangon, this machine, when worked by two men, raises and cuts 40,000 +peats daily, of which seven make one cubic foot, equal to 5600 +cubic feet. The saving in expense by using this machine[19] is said to +be 70 _per cent._, when the peat to be raised is under water. + +11.--_The Dredging of Peat._ + +When peat exists, not as a coherent more or less fibrous mass, but as a +paste or mud, saturated with water, it cannot be raised and formed by +the methods above described. + +In such cases the peat is dredged from the bottom of the bog by means of +an iron scoop, like a pail with sharp upper edges, which is fastened to +a long handle. The bottom is made of coarse sacking, so that the water +may run off. Sometimes, a stout ring of iron with a bag attached, is +employed in the same way. The fine peat is emptied from the dredge upon +the ground, where it remains, until the water has been absorbed or has +evaporated, so far as to leave the mass somewhat firm and plastic. In +the mean time, a drying bed is prepared by smoothing, and, if needful, +stamping a sufficient space of ground, and enclosing it in boards 14 +inches wide, set on edge. Into this bed the partially dried peat is +thrown, and, as it cracks on the surface by drying, it is compressed by +blows with a heavy mallet or flail, or by treading it with flat boards, +attached to the feet, somewhat like snow shoes. By this treatment the +mass is reduced to a continuous sheet of less than one-half its first +thickness, and becomes so firm, that a man's step gives little +impression in it. The boards are now removed, and it is cut into blocks +by means of a very thin, sharp spade. Every other block being lifted out +and placed crosswise upon those remaining, air is admitted to the whole +and the drying goes on rapidly. This kind of peat is usually of +excellent quality. In North Germany it is called "Baggertorf," i. e. +mud-peat. + +Peat is sometimes dredged by machinery, as will be noticed hereafter. + +12.--_The Moulding of Peat._ + +When black, earthy or pitchy peat cannot be cut, and is not so saturated +with water as to make a mud; it is, after raking or picking out roots, +etc., often worked into a paste by the hands or feet, with addition of +water, until it can be formed into blocks which, by slow drying, acquire +great firmness. In Ireland this product is termed "hand-peat." In +Germany it is called "Formtorf," _i. e._ moulded peat, or "Backtorf," +_i. e._ baked peat. + +The shaping is sometimes accomplished by plastering the soft mass into +wooden moulds, as in making bricks. + +13.--_Preparation of Peat Fuel by Machinery, etc._ + +Within the last 15 years, numerous inventions have been made with a view +to improving the quality of peat fuel, as well as to expedite its +production. These inventions are directed to the following points, viz.: +1. _Condensation_ of the peat, so as bring more fuel into a given space, +thus making it capable of giving out an intenser heat; at the same time +increasing its hardness and toughness, and rendering it easier and more +economical of transportation. 2. _Drying_ by artificial heat or reducing +the amount of water from 20 or 25 _per cent._ to half that quantity or +less. This exalts the heating power in no inconsiderable degree. 3. +_Charring._ Peat-charcoal is as much better than peat, for use where +intense heat is required, as wood charcoal is better than wood. 4. +_Purifying from useless matters._ Separation of earthy admixtures which +are incombustible and hinder draught. + +A.--_Condensation by Pressure._ + +_Pressing Wet Peat._--The condensation of peat was first attempted by +subjecting the fresh, wet material, to severe pressure. As long ago as +the year 1821, Pernitzsch, in Saxony, prepared peat by this method, and +shortly afterwards Lord Willoughby d'Eresby, in Scotland, and others, +adopted the same principle. Simple pressure will, indeed, bring fresh +peat at once into much smaller bulk; but, if the peat be fibrous and +light, and for this reason require condensation, it is also elastic, +and, when the pressure is relieved, it acquires again much of its +original volume. + +Furthermore, although pressure will squeeze out much water from a +saturated well-ripened peat, the complete drying of the pressed blocks +usually requires as much or more time than that of the unpressed +material, on account of the closeness of texture of the surface produced +by the pressure. + +The advantages of subjecting fresh peat to pressure in the ordinary +presses, it is found, are more than offset by the expense of the +operation, and it is therefore unnecessary to give the subject further +attention. + +Fresh peat appears however to have been advantageously pressed by other +mechanical means. Two methods require notice. + +_Mannhardt's Method_, invented about the year 1858, has been practically +applied on the large scale at _Schleissheim_, Bavaria. Mannhardt's +machine consists of two colossal iron rolls, each of 15 feet diameter, +and 6-1/2 feet length, geared into each other so as to revolve +horizontally in opposite directions and with equal velocity. These rolls +are hollow, their circumference consists of stout iron plate perforated +with numerous small holes, and is supported by iron bars which connect +the ends of the roll, having intervals between them of about one inch. +Each roll is covered by an endless band of hair cloth, stretched over +and kept in place by rollers. The rolls are operated by a steam engine +of 12 horse power. The fresh peat is thrown into a hopper, and passing +between the rolls, loses a considerable share of its water, issuing as a +broad continuous sheet, which is divided into blocks by an arrangement +presently to be described. The cloth, covering the rolls, must have +great strength, sufficient porosity to allow water to pass it freely, +and such closeness of texture as to retain the fine particles of peat. +Many trials have led to the use of a fabric, specially made for the +purpose, of goat's hair. The cloth for each pair of rolls, costs $160. + +The peat at Schleissheim is about 5 feet in depth, and consists of a +dark-brown mud or paste, free from stones and sticks, and penetrated +only by fine fibers. The peat is thrown up on the edge of a ditch, and +after draining, is moved on a tram-way to the machine. It is there +thrown upon a chain of buckets, which deliver it at the hopper above the +rolls. The rolls revolve once in 7-1/3 minutes and at each revolution +turn out a sheet of peat, which cuts into 528 blocks. Each block has, +when moist, a length of about 12 inches, by 5 inches of width and 1-1/4 +inches of thickness, and weighs on the average 1-1/2 lbs. The water that +is pressed out of the peat, falls within the rolls and is conducted +away; it is but slightly turbid from suspended particles. The band of +pressed peat is divided in one direction as it is formed, by narrow +slats which are secured horizontally to the press-cloth, at about 5 +inches distance from each other. The further division of the peat is +accomplished by a series of six circular saws, under which the peat is +carried as it is released from the rolls, by a system of endless cords +strung over rollers. These cords run parallel until the peat passes the +saws; thenceforth they radiate, so that the peat-blocks are separated +somewhat from each other. They are carried on until they reach a roll, +over which they are delivered upon drying lattices. The latter move +regularly under the roll; the peats arrange themselves upon them +edgewise, one leaning against the other, so as to admit of free +circulation of air. The lattices are loaded upon cars, and moved on a +tram-way to the drying ground, where they are set up in frames. + +The peat-cake separates well from the press-cloths; but the pores of the +latter become somewhat choked by fine particles that penetrate them. +They are therefore washed at each revolution by passing before a pipe +from which issue, against them, a number of jets of water under high +pressure. The blocks, after leaving the machine, are soft, and require 5 +or 6 days to become air-dry. When dry they are dense and of good +quality, but not better than the same raw material yields by simple +moulding. The capacity of the rolls, which easily turn out 100,000 peats +in 24 hours, greatly exceeds at present that of the drying arrangements, +and for this reason the works are not, as yet, remunerative. The rolls +are, in reality, a simple forming machine. The pressure they exert on +the peat, is but inconsiderable, owing to its soft pasty character; and +since the pair of rolls costs $8000 and can only be worked 3 to 4 +months, this method must be regarded rather as an ingenious and +instructive essay in the art of making peat-fuel, than as a practical +success. The persevering efforts of the inventor may yet overcome all +difficulties and prove the complete efficacy of the method. It is +especially important, that blocks of greater thickness should be +produced, since those now made, pack together too closely in the fire. + +_Neustadt Method._--At Neustadt, in Hanover, a loose-textured fibrous +peat was prepared for metallurgical use in 1860, by passing through iron +rolls of ordinary construction. The peat was thereby reduced two-thirds +in bulk, burned more regularly, gave a coherent coal, and withstood +carriage better. The peat was, however, first cut into sods of regular +size, and these were fed into the rollers by boys. + +b. _Pressing Air-dried Peat._ + +Some kinds of peat, when in the air-dry and pulverized state, yield by +great pressure very firm, excellent, and economical fuel. + +_Lithuanian Process._--In Lithuania, according to Leo,[20] the following +method is extensively adopted. The bog is drained, the surface moss or +grass-turf and roots are removed, and then the peat is broken up by a +simple spade-plow, in furrows 2 inches wide and 8 or 10 inches deep. The +broken peat is repeatedly traversed with wooden harrows, and is thus +pulverized and dried. When suitably dry, it is carried to a magazine, +where it is rammed into moulds by a simple stamp of two hundred pounds +weight. The broken peat is reduced to two-fifths its first bulk, and the +blocks thus formed are so hard, as to admit of cutting with a saw or ax +without fracture. They require no further drying, are of a deep-brown +color, with lustrous surfaces, and their preparation may go on in winter +with the stock of broken peat, which is accumulated in the favorable +weather of summer. In this manufacture there is no waste of material. + +The peat is dry enough for pressing when, after forming in the hands to +a ball, it will not firmly retain this shape, but on being let fall to +the ground, breaks to powder. The entire cost of preparing 1000 peats +for use, or market, was 2 Thalers, or $1.40. Thirty peats, or "stones" +as they are called from their hardness, have the bulk of two cubic feet, +and weigh 160 lbs. The cost of preparing a hundred weight, was +therefore, (in 1859,) four Silver-groschen, or about 10 cents. + +The stamp is of simple construction, somewhat like a pile driver, the +mould and face of the ram being made of cast iron. The above process is +not applicable to _fibrous peat_. + +c. _Pressing Hot-dried Peat._ + +The two methods to be next described, are similar to the last mentioned, +save that the peat is _hot-pressed_. + +_Gwynne's Method._--In 1853, Gwynne of London, patented machinery and a +method for condensing peat for fuel. His process consisted, first, in +rapidly drying and pulverizing the fresh peat by a centrifugal machine, +or by passing between rollers, and subsequent exposure to heat in +revolving cylinders; and, second, in compressing the dry peat-powder in +a powerful press at a high temperature, about 180 deg. F. By this heat it is +claimed, that the peat is not only thoroughly dried, but is likewise +partially decomposed; _bituminous matters being developed, which cement +the particles to a hard dense mass_. Gwynne's machinery was expensive +and complicated, and although an excellent fuel was produced, the +process appears not to have been carried put on the large scale with +pecuniary success. + +A specimen of so-called "Peat coal" in the author's possession, made in +Massachusetts some years ago, under Gwynne's patent, appears to consist +of pulverized peat, prepared as above described; but contains an +admixture of rosin. It must have been an excellent fuel, but could not +at that time compete with coal in this country. + +_Exter's Method._[21] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.--EXTER'S DRYING OVEN.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--EXTER'S DRYING OVEN.] + +In 1856, Exter, of Bavaria, carried into operation on an extensive +scale, a plan of preparing peat-fuel in some respects not unlike the +last mentioned method. Exter's works, belonging to the Bavarian +Government, are on the Haspelmoor, situated between Augsburg and Munich. +According to Ruehlmann, who examined them at the command of the +Hanoverian Government in 1857, the method is as follows:--1. The bog is +laid dry by drains and the surface is cleared of bushes, roots, and +grass-turf, down to good peat. 2. The peat is broken up superficially to +the depth of about one inch, by a gang of three plows, propelled by a +portable steam engine. 3. The peat is further pulverized by a harrow, +drawn by a yoke of oxen. 4. In two or three days after harrowing, the +peat is turned by an implement like our cultivator, this process being +repeated at suitable intervals. 5. The fine and air-dry peat is gathered +together by scrapers, and loaded into wagons; then drawn by rope +connected with the engine, to the press or magazine. 6. If needful, the +peat, thus collected, is further pulverized by passing it through +toothed rollers. 7. The fine peat is now introduced into a complicated +drying oven, see figures 5 and 6. It falls through the opening _T_, and +is moved by means of the spirals along the horizontal floors _O_, _O_, +falling from one to another until it emerges at _Q_. The floors, _O_, +_O_, are made by wide and thin iron chambers, through which passes waste +steam from an engine. The oven is heated further by hot air, which +circulates through the canals _K_, _K_. The peat occupies about one hour +in its passage through the oven and falls from _Q_, into the press, +having a temperature of from 120 deg. to 140 deg.Fahrenheit. The press employed +at Staltach is essentially the same as that now used at the Kolbermoor, +and figured on p. 125. It is a powerful eccentric of simple +construction, and turns out continuously 40 finished peats per minute. +These occupy about one-fourth the space of the peat before pressing, the +cubic foot weighing about 72 lbs. The peats are 7 inches long, 3 inches +wide, and one half to three quarters of an inch thick, each weighing +three quarters of a pound. Three presses furnish annually 180,000 cwt. +of condensed peat, which is used exclusively for firing locomotives. Its +specific gravity is 1.14, and its quality as fuel is excellent. +Ruehlmann estimated its cost, at Haspelmoor in 1857, at 8-1/2 Kreuzers, +or a little more than 6 cents per cwt., and calculated that by adopting +certain obvious improvements, and substituting steam power for the labor +of men and cattle, the cost might be reduced to 6-1/2 Kreuzers, or a +little more than 4 cents per cwt. + +Exter's method has been adopted with some modifications at Kolbermoor, +near Munich, in Bavaria, at Miskolz, in Hungary, and also at the +Neustadt Smelting Works, in Hanover. At the latter place, however, it +appears to have been abandoned for the reasons that it could be applied +only to the better kinds of peat; and the expense was there so great, +that the finished article could not compete with other fuel in the +Hanoverian markets. + +Details of the mechanical arrangements at present employed on the +Kolbermoor, are as follows: After the bog is drained, and the surface +cleared of dwarf pines, etc., and suitably leveled, the peat is plowed +by steam. This is accomplished in a way which the annexed cut serves to +illustrate. The plot to be plowed, is traversed through the middle by +the railway _x_, _y_. A locomotive _a_, sets in motion an endless +wire-rope, which moves upon large horizontal pulleys _o_, _o_, stationed +at either border of the land. Four gang plows _b_, _b_, are attached to +the rope, and as the latter is set in motion, they break up the strip of +peat they pass over, completely. The locomotive and the pulleys are then +moved back, and the process is repeated until the whole field has been +plowed. The plows are square frames, carrying six to eight shares and as +many coulters. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +The press employed at Kolbermoor, is shown in figs. 8 and 9. The hot +peat falls into the hopper, _b_, _c_. The plunger _d_, worked in the +cavity _e_, by an eccentric, allows the latter to fill with peat as it +is withdrawn, and by its advance compresses it into a block. The blocks +_m_, once formed, by their friction in the channel _e_, oppose enough +resistance to the peat to effect its compression. In order to regulate +this resistance according to the varying quality of the peat, the piece +of metal _g_, which hangs on a pivot at _o_, is depressed or raised, by +the screw _i_, so as to contract or enlarge the channel. At each stroke +of the plunger a block is formed, and when the channel _e_ is once +filled, the peats fall continuously from its extremity. Their dimensions +are 7 inches long, 3-1/2 wide, and 1-1/2 thick. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.--EXTER'S PEAT PRESS.] + +Several presses are worked by the same engine at the Kolbermoor, each of +which turns out daily 200 to 300 cwt. of peats, which, in 1863, were +sold at 24 Kreuzers (16 cents), per cwt. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.--EXTER'S PEAT PRESS.] + +C. Hodgson has patented in Great Britain a compressing-ram similar to +Exter's, and works were put up at Derrylea, in Ireland, some years ago, +in which Exter's process of manufacturing peat fuel appears to have been +adopted. + +_Elsberg's Process._ + +Dr. Louis Elsberg, of New York City, has invented a modification of +Exter's method, which appears to be of great importance. His +experimental machine, which is in operation near Belleville, N. J., +consists of a cylindrical pug-mill, in which the peat, air-dried as in +Exter's method, is further broken, and at the same time is subjected to +a current of steam admitted through a pipe and jacket surrounding the +cylinder. The steamed peat is then condensed by a pair of presses +similar to that just described, which are fed directly from the mill. In +this way the complicated drying oven of Exter is dispensed with. Elsberg +& Co. are still engaged in perfecting their arrangements. Some samples +of their making are of very excellent quality, having a density of 1.2 +to 1.3. + +The pressing of air-dry peat only succeeds when it is made warm, and is, +at the same time, moist. In Exter's original process the peat is +considerably dried in the ovens, but on leaving them, is so moist as to +bedew the hand that is immersed in it. It is, in fact, steamed by the +vaporization of its own water. In Elsberg's process, the air-dry peat is +not further desiccated, but is made moist and warm by the admission of +hot steam. The latter method is the more ready and doubtless the more +economical of the two. Whether the former gives a dryer product or not, +the author cannot decide. Elsberg's peat occurs in cylindrical cakes 2 +inches broad, and one inch in thickness. The cakes are somewhat cracked +upon the edges, as if by contraction, in drying. When wet, the surface +of the cakes swells up, and exfoliates as far as the water has +penetrated. In the fire, a similar breaking away of the surface takes +place, and when coked, the coal is but moderately coherent. + +The reasons why steamed peat admits of solidification by pressure, are +simply that the air, ordinarily adhering to the fibres and particles, is +removed, and the fibres themselves become softened and more plastic, so +that pressure brings them into intimate contact. The idea that the heat +develops bituminous matters, or fuses the resins which exist in peat, +and that these cement the particles, does not harmonize with the fact +that the peat, thus condensed, flakes to pieces by a short immersion in +water. + +The great advantage of Exter's and Elsberg's method consists in avoiding +what most of the others require, viz.: the expensive transportation and +handling of fresh peat, which contains 80 to 90 _per cent._ of water, +and the rapid removal of this excess of water before the manufacture. In +the other methods the surplus water must be slowly removed during or +after condensation. + +Again, enough peat may be air-dried and stored during summer weather, to +supply a machine with work during the whole year. + +Its disadvantages are, that it requires a large outlay of capital and +great expenditure of mechanical force. Its product is, moreover, not +adapted for coking. + + +B.--_Condensation without Pressure._ + +The methods of condensing peat, that remain to be described, are based +upon radically different principles from those already noticed. In +these, little or no pressure is employed in the operations; but +advantage is taken of the important fact that when wet or moist peat is +ground, cut or in any way reduced to a pulpy or pasty consistence, with +destruction of the elastic fibres, it will, on drying, shrink together +to a coherent mass, that may acquire a density and toughness much +greater than it is possible to obtain by any amount of mere pressure. + +The various processes that remain to notice are essentially reducible to +two types, of which the French method, invented by Challeton, and the +German, invented it appears by Weber, are the original representatives. +The former method is only applicable to earthy, well-decomposed peat, +containing little fibre. The latter was originally applied to fibrous +moss-peat, but has since been adapted to all kinds. Other inventors, +English, German, and American, have modified these methods in their +details, or in the construction of the requisite machinery, rendering +them more perfect in their execution and perhaps more profitable in +their results; but, as regards the essential principles of production, +or the quality of product, no advance appears to have been made beyond +the original inventors. + +a. _Condensation of Earthy Peat._ + +_Challeton's Method_ consists essentially in destroying the fibres, and +reducing the peat by cutting and grinding with water to a pulp; then +slowly removing the liquid, until the peat dries away to a hard coherent +mass. It provides also for the purification of the peat from earthy +matters. It is, in many respects, an imitation of the old Dutch and +Irish mode of making "hand peat" (_Baggertorf_), and is very like the +paper manufacture in its operations. Challeton's Works, situated near +Paris, at Mennecy, near Montanges, were visited in 1856 by a Commission +of the Agricultural Society of Holstein, consisting of Drs. Meyn and +Luetkens, and also by Dr. Ruehlmann, in the interest of the Hanoverian +Government. From their account[22] the following statements are derived. + +The peat at Mennecy comes from the decay of grasses, is black, well +decomposed, and occasionally intermingled with shells and sand. The moor +is traversed by canals, which serve for the transport of the excavated +peat in boats. The peat, when brought to the manufactory, is emptied +into a cistern, which, by communicating with the adjacent canal, +maintains a constant level of water. From this cistern the peat is +carried up by a chain of buckets and emptied into a hopper, where it is +caught by toothed cylinders in rapid revolution, and cut or torn to +pieces. Thence it passes into a chamber where the fine parts are +separated from unbroken roots and fibres by revolving brushes, which +force the former through small holes in the walls of the chamber, while +the latter are swept out through a larger passage. The pulverized peat +finally falls into a cistern, in which it is agitated by revolving arms. +A stream of water constantly enters this vessel from beneath, while a +chain of buckets as rapidly carries off the peat pulp. All sand, shells, +and other heavy matters, remain at the bottom of this cistern. + +The peat pulp, thus purified, flows through wooden troughs into a series +of basins, in which the peat is formed and dried. These basins are made +upon the ground by putting up a square frame (of boards on edge,) about +one foot deep, and placing at the bottom old matting or a layer of flags +or reeds. Each basin is about a rod square, and 800 of them are +employed. They are filled with the peat pulp to the top. In a few days +the water either filters away into the ground, or evaporates, so that a +soft stratum of peat, about 3 inches in thickness, remains. Before it +begins to crack from drying, it is divided into blocks, by pressing into +it a light trellis-like framework, having thin partitions that serve to +indent the peat in lines corresponding to the intended divisions. On +further drying, the mass separates into blocks at the lines thus +impressed, and in a few days, they are ready to remove and arrange for +further desiccation. + +The finished peats from Challeton's works, as well as those made by the +same method near Neuchatel, Switzerland, by the Messrs. Roy, were of +excellent quality, and in the opinion of the Commission from Holstein, +the method is admirably adapted for the purification and concentration +of the heavy kinds of peat. + +In Holstein, a French company constructed, and in 1857 worked +successfully a portable machine for preparing peat on this plan, but +were shortly restrained by legal proceedings. Of their later operations +we have no information. + +No data are at hand regarding the cost of producing fuel by Challeton's +machinery. It is believed, however, that his own works were +unremunerative, and several manufactories on his pattern, erected in +Germany, have likewise proved unprofitable. The principle is, however, a +good one, though his machinery is only applicable to earthy or pitchy, +and not to very fibrous peat. It has been elsewhere applied with +satisfactory results. + +_Simplified machinery_ for applying Challeton's method is in operation +at Langenberg, near Stettin, in Prussia.[23] The moss-meadows along the +river Oder, near which Langenberg is situated, are but a foot or so +higher at the surface than the medium level of this river, and are +subject to frequent and sudden inundations, so that draining and partial +drying of the peat are out of the question. The character of the peat is +unadapted to cutting by hand, since portions of it are pitchy and +crumble too easily to form good sods; and others, usually the lower +layers, at a depth of seven feet or more, are made up to a considerable +extent of quite firm reeds and flags, having the consistence of half +decayed straw. The earthy peat is manufactured after Challeton's method. +It is raised with a steam dredger of 20 horse power, and emptied into +flat boats, seven in number, which are drawn to the works by an endless +rope operated by horse power. The works themselves are situated on a +small sand hill in the middle of the moor, and communicate by canal with +the dredger and with the drying ground. A chain of buckets, working in +a frame 45 feet long, attached by a horizontal hinge to the top of the +machine house, reaches over the dock where the boats haul up, into the +rear end of the latter; and, as the buckets begin to raise the peat, the +boat itself is moved under the frame towards the house, until, with a +man's assistance, its entire load is taken up. The contents of one boat +are six square yards, with a depth of one foot, and a boat is emptied in +20 minutes time. Forty to forty-four boatloads are thus passed into the +pulverizing machine daily, by two chains of buckets. + +The peat-mud falls from the buckets into a large wooden trough, which +branches into two channels, conducting to two large tubs standing side +by side. These tubs are 10 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep, and are +made of 2-inch plank. Within each tub is placed concentrically a +cylindrical sieve, or colander, 8 feet in diameter and 2 feet high, made +of 3/8 round iron, and it is within this that the peat is emptied. The +peat is stirred and forced through the meshes of the sieve by four arms +of a shaft that revolves 20 times per minute, the arms carrying at their +extremities stiff vertical brooms, which rub the inside of the sieve. + +In these four tubs the peat is pulverized under addition of water; the +fine parts pass the sieves, while the latter retain the coarse fibres, +roots, etc. The peat-mud flows from the tubs into mills, made like a +flour mill, but the "stones" constructed of hard wood. The "stones" have +a diameter of 8 feet 6 inches; the lower is 8 inches; the upper 21 +inches thick. The pressure of the upper "stone" is regulated by +adjusting the level of the discharging channel, so that the "stone" may +be more or less buoyed, or even fully floated by the water with which it +is surrounded. + +The peat-substance, which is thus finely ground, gathers from the four +mills into a common reservoir whence it is lifted by a centrifugal pump +into a trough, which distributes it over the drying ground. + +The drying ground consists of the surface formed by grading the sand +hill, on which the works are built, and includes about 30 English acres. +This is divided into small plots, each of which is enclosed on three +sides with a wall of earth, and on the fourth side by boards set on +edge. Each plot is surrounded by a ditch to carry off water, and by +means of portable troughs, the peat is let on from the main channel. The +peat-slime is run into these beds to the depth of 20 to 22 inches, an +acre being covered daily. After 4 to 8 days, according to the weather, +the peat has lost so much water, which, rapidly soaks off through the +sand, that its surface begins to crack. It is then thoroughly trodden by +men, shod with boards 5 inches by 10 inches, and after 6 to 8 days more, +it is cut with sharp spades into sods. The peats are dried in the usual +manner. + +The works at Langenberg yielded, in 1863, as the result of the +operations of 60 days of 12 hours each, 125,000 cwt. of marketable peat. +It is chiefly employed for metallurgical purposes, and sells at 3-1/3 +Silver-groschen, or nearly 8 cents per cwt. The specific gravity of the +peat ranges from 0.73 to 0.90. + + +_Roberts' Process._ + +In this country attempts have been made to apply Challeton's method. In +1865, Mr. S. Roberts, of Pekin, N. Y., erected machinery at that place, +which was described in the "Buffalo Express," of Nov. 17, 1865, as +follows:-- + +"In outward form, the machine was like a small frame house on wheels, +supposing the smoke-stack to be a chimney. The engine and boiler are of +locomotive style; the engine being of thirteen horse power. The +principal features of the machine are a revolving elevator and a +conveyer. The elevator is seventy-five feet long, and runs from the top +of the machine to the ground, where the peat is dug up, placed on the +elevator, carried to the top of the machine, and dropped into a +revolving wheel that cuts it up; separates from it all the coarse +particles, bits of sticks, stones, etc.; and throws them to one side. +The peat is next dropped into a box below, where water is passed in, +sufficient to bring it to the consistency of mortar. By means of a slide +under the control of the engineer, it is next sent to the rear of the +machine, where the conveyer, one hundred feet long, takes it, and +carries it within two rods of the end; at which point the peat begins to +drop through to the ground to the depth of about four or five inches. +When sufficient has passed through to cover the ground to the end of the +conveyer,--two rods,--the conveyer is swung around about two feet, and +the same process gone through, as fast as the ground under the elevator, +for the distance of two rods in length and two feet in width gets +covered, the elevator being moved. At each swing of the elevator, the +peat just spread is cut into blocks (soft ones, however) by knives +attached to the elevator. It generally takes from three to four weeks +before it is ready for use. It has to lie a week before it is touched, +after the knives pass through it; when it is turned over, and allowed to +lie another week. It has then to be taken up, and put in a shed, and +within a week or ten days can be used, although it is better to let it +remain a little longer time. The machine can spread the peat over +eighteen square rods of ground--taking out one square rod of +peat--without being moved. After the eighteen rods are covered, the +machine is moved two rods ahead, enabling it to again spread a +semicircular space of some thirty-two feet in width by eighteen rods in +length. The same power, which drives the engine, moves the machine. It +is estimated by Mr. Roberts, that, by the use of this machine, from +twenty to thirty tons of peat can be turned out in a day." + +Mr. Roberts informs us that he is making (April 1866,) some +modifications of his machinery. He employs a revolving digger to take up +the peat from the bed, and carry it to the machine. At the time of going +to press, we do not learn whether he regards his experiments as leading +to a satisfactory conclusion, or otherwise. + + +_Siemens' method._ + +Siemens, Professor of Technology, in the Agricultural Academy, at +Hohenheim, successfully applied the following mode of preparing peat for +the Beet Sugar Manufactory at Boeblingen, near Hohenheim, in the year +1857. Much of the peat there is simply cut and dried in the usual +manner. There is great waste, however, in this process, owing to the +frequent occurrence of shells and clay, which destroy the coherence of +the peat. Besides, a large quantity of material accumulates in the +colder months, from the ditches which are then dug, that cannot be +worked in the usual manner at that time of the year. It was to economize +this otherwise useless material that the following process was devised, +after a failure to employ Challeton's method with profit. + +In the first place, the peat was dumped into a boarded cistern, where it +was soaked and worked with water, until it could be raised by a chain of +buckets into the pulverizer. + +The pulverization of the peat was next effected by passing it through a +machine invented by Siemens, for pulping potatoes and beets. This +machine, (the same we suppose as that described and figured in Otto's +Landwirthschaftliche Gewerbe), perfectly breaks up and grates the peat +to a fine pulp, delivers it in the consistency of mortar into the +moulds, made of wooden frames, with divisions to form the peats. The +peat-paste is plastered by hand into these moulds, which are immediately +emptied to fill again, while the blocks are carried away to the drying +ground where they are cured in the ordinary style without cover. + +In this simple manner 8 men were able to make 10,000 peats daily, which, +on drying, were considerably denser and harder than the cut peat. + +The peat thus prepared, cost about one-third more than the cut peat. +Siemens reckoned, this greater cost would be covered by its better +heating effect, and its ability to withstand transportation without +waste by crumbling. + +b. _Condensation of fibrous peat._ + +_Weber's method._ + +At Staltach, in Southern Bavaria, Weber has established an extensive +peat works, of which Vogel has given a circumstantial account.[24] The +peat at Staltach is very light and fibrous, but remarkably free from +mineral matters, containing less than 2 _per cent._ of ash in the +perfectly dry substance. The moor is large, (475 acres), and the peat is +from 12 to 20 feet in depth. The preparation consists in converting the +fresh peat into pulp or paste, forming it into moulds and drying it; at +first by exposure to the air at ordinary temperature, and finally, by +artificial heat, in a drying house constructed for the purpose. + +The peat is cut out by a gang of men, in large masses, cleared of coarse +roots and sticks, and pushed on tram wagons to the works, which, are +situated lower than the surface of the bog. Arrived at the works, the +peat is carried upon an inclined endless apron, up to a platform 10 feet +high, where a workman pushes it into the pulverizing mill, the +construction of which is seen from the accompanying cut. The vertical +shaft _b_ is armed with sickle-shaped knives, _d_, which revolve between +and cut contrary to similar knives _c_, fixed to the interior of the +vessel. The latter is made of iron, is 3-1/2 feet high, 2 feet across at +top and 1-1/2 feet wide at the bottom. From the base of the machine at +_g_, the perfectly pulverized or minced peat issues as a stiff paste. If +the peat is dry, a little water is added. Vogel found the fresh peat to +contain 90 _per cent._, of water, the pulp 92 _per cent._ Weber's +machine, operated by an engine of 10 horse power, working usually to +half its capacity only, reduced 400 cubic feet of peat per hour, to the +proper consistency for moulding. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.--WEBER'S PEAT MILL.] + +Three modes of forming the paste into blocks have been practiced. One +was in imitation of that employed with mud-peat. The paste was carried +by railway to sheds, where it was filled by hand into moulds 17 inches +by 7-1/4 by 5-1/2 inches, and put upon frames to dry. These sheds +occupied together 52,000 square feet, and contained at once 200,000 +peats. The peats remained here 8 to 14 days or more, according to the +weather, when they were either removed to the drying house, or piled in +large stacks to dry slowly out-of-doors. The sheds could be filled and +emptied at least 12 times each season, and since they protected from +light frosts, the season began in April and lasted until November. + +The second mode of forming the peat was to run off the pulp into large +and deep pits, excavated in the ground, and provided with drains for +carrying off water. The water soaked away into the soil, and in a few +weeks of good weather, the peat was stiff enough to cut out into blocks +by the spade, having lost 20 to 25 _per cent._ of its water, and 15 _per +cent._ of its bulk. The blocks were removed to the drying sheds, and set +upon edge in the spaces left by the shrinking of the peats made by the +other method. The working of the peat for the pits could go on, except +in the coldest weather, as a slight covering usually sufficed to protect +them from frost. + +Both of these methods have been given up as too expensive, and are +replaced, at present, by the following: + +In the third method the peat-mass falls from the mill into a hopper, +which directs it between the rolls _A B_ of fig. 11, (see next page). +The roll _A_ has a series of boxes on its periphery _m m_, with movable +bottoms which serve as moulds. The peat is carried into these boxes by +the rolls _c c_. The iron projections _n n_ of the large roll _B_, which +work cog-like into the boxes, compress the peat gently and, at last, the +eccentric p acting upon the pin _z_, forces up the movable bottom of the +box and throws out the peat-block upon an endless band of cloth, which +carries it to the drying place. + +The peats which are dried at first under cover and therefore slowly, +shrink more evenly and to a greater extent than those which are allowed +to dry rapidly. The latter become cracked upon the surface and have +cavities internally, which the former do not. This fact is of great +importance for the density of the peat, for its usefulness in producing +intense heat, and its power to withstand carriage. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11--WEBER'S PEAT MOULDING MACHINE.] + +The _complete drying_ is, on the other hand, by this method, a much +slower process, since the dense, fissureless exterior of the peats +hinders the escape of water from within. It requires, in fact, several +months of ordinary drying for the removal of the greater share of the +water, and at the expiration of this time they are still often moist in +the interior. + +Artificial drying is therefore employed to produce the most compact, +driest, and best fuel. + +Weber's _Drying house_ is 120 feet long and 46 feet wide. Four large +flues traverse the whole length of it, and are heated with the pine +roots and stumps which abound in the moor. These flues are enclosed in +brick-work, leaving a narrow space for the passage of air from without, +which is heated by the flues, and is discharged at various openings in +the brick-work into the house itself, where the peat is arranged on +frames. The warm air being light, ascends through the peat, charges +itself with moisture, thereby becomes heavier and falls to the floor, +whence it is drawn off by flues of sheet zinc that pass up through the +roof. This house holds at once 300,000 peats, which are heated to 130 deg. +to 145 deg. F., and require 10 to 14 days for drying. + +The effect of the hot air upon the peat is, in the first place, to +soften and cause it to swell; it, however, shortly begins to shrink +again and dries away to masses of great solidity. It becomes almost +horny in its character, can be broken only by a heavy blow, and endures +the roughest handling without detriment. Its quality as fuel is +correspondingly excellent. + +The effects of the mechanical treatment and drying on the Staltach peat, +are seen from the subjoined figures: + + _Lbs. + _Specific per Cubic _Per cent of + Gravity._ Foot._ Water._ + + Peat, raised and dried in usual way, 0.24 15 18 to 20 + Machine-worked and hot-dried 0.65 35 12 + +Vogel estimates the cost of peat made by Weber's method at 5 Kreuzers +per (Bavarian) hundred weight, while that of ordinary peat is 13-1/2 +Kreuzers. Schroeder, in his comparison of machine-wrought and ordinary +peat, demonstrates that the latter can be produced much cheaper than was +customary in Bavaria, in 1859, by a better system of labor. + +Weber's method was adopted with some improvements in an extensive works +built in 1860, by the Government of Baden, at Willaringen, for the +purpose of raising as much fuel as possible, during the course of a +lease that expired with the year 1865. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--GEYSSER'S PEAT MACHINE.] + +_Gysser's method._[25]--Rudolph Gysser, of Freiburg, who was charged +with the erection of the works at Willaringen just alluded to, invented +a portable hand-machine on the general plan of Weber, but with +important improvements; and likewise omitted and varied some details of +the manufacture, bringing it within the reach of parties of small means. + +In the accompanying cuts, (figs. 12, 13, and 14), are given an elevation +of Gysser's machine, together with a bird's-eye view and vertical +section of the interior mechanism. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.] + +It consists of a cast iron funnel _c d i_ of the elevation, (fig. 12), +having above a sheet iron hopper _a b_ to receive the peat, and within a +series of six knives fastened in a spiral, and curving outwards and +downwards, (figs. 13 and 14); another series of three similar knives is +affixed to a vertical shaft, which is geared to a crank and turned by a +man standing on the platform _j k_; these revolving knives curve upwards +and cut between and in a direction contrary to the fixed knives; below +the knives, and affixed to the shaft a spiral plate of iron and a +scraper _m_, (fig. 13), serve to force the peat, which has been at once +minced and carried downwards by the knives, as a somewhat compressed +mass through the lateral opening at the bottom of the funnel, whence it +issues as a continuous hollow cylinder like drain-tile, having a +diameter of four inches. The iron cone _i_, held in the axis of the +opening by the thin and sharp-edged support _g h_, forms the bore of the +tube of peat as it issues. Two men operate the machine; one turning the +crank, which, by suitable gearing, works the shaft, and the other +digging and throwing in the peat. The mass, as it issues from the +machine, is received by two boys alternately, who hold below the opening +a semi-cylindrical tin-plate shovel, (fig. 15), of the width and length +of the required peats, and break or rather wipe them off, when they +reach the length of 14 inches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.] + +The formed peats are dried in light, cheap and portable houses, Fig. 17, +each of which consists of six rectangular frames supported one above +another, and covered by a light roof. The frames, Fig. 16, have square +posts at each corner like a bedstead, and are made by nailing light +strips to these posts. The tops of these posts are obtusely beveled to +an edge, and at the bottom they are notched to correspond. The direction +of the edges and of the notches in two diagonally opposite posts, is at +right angles to that of the other two. By this construction the frames, +being of the same size, when placed above each other, fit together by +the edges and notches of their posts into a structure that cannot be +readily overturned. The upper frame has a light shingled roof, which +completes the house. Each frame has transverse slats, cast in plaster of +Paris, 20 in number, which support the peats. The latter being tubular, +dry more readily, uniformly, and to a denser consistence than they could +otherwise. + +The machine being readily set up where the peat is excavated, the labor +of transporting the fresh and water-soaked material is greatly reduced. +The drying-frames are built up into houses as fast as they are filled +from the machine. They can be set up anywhere without difficulty, +require no leveling of the ground, and, once filled, no labor in turning +or stacking the peats is necessary; while the latter are insured against +damage from rain. These advantages, Gysser claims, more than cover their +cost. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.] + +The daily production of a machine operated by two men with the +assistance of one or two boys, is 2500 to 3000 peats, which, on drying, +have 9-1/2 to 10 inches of length, and 2-1/2 in diameter, and weigh, on +the average, one pound each. + +c.--_Condensation of peat of all kinds._--_Weber's method with modified +machinery._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.--SCHLICKEYSEN'S PEAT MILL.] + +_Schlickeysen's Machine._[26]--This machine has been in use in Germany +since 1860, in the preparation of peat. It appears to have been +originally constructed for the working and moulding of clay for making +bricks. The principle of its operation is identical with that of Weber's +process. The peat is finely pulverized, worked into a homogenous mass, +and moulded into suitable forms. Like Gysser's machine, it forces the +peat under some pressure through a nozzle, or, in the larger kinds +through several nozzles, whence it issues in a continuous block or pipe +that is cut off in proper lengths, either by hand or by mechanism It +consists of a vertical cylinder, through the axis of which revolves a +shaft, whereon are fastened the blades, whose edges cut and whose +winding figure forces down the peat. The blades are arranged nearly, but +not exactly, in a true spiral; the effect is therefore that they act +unequally upon the mass, and thus mix and divide it more perfectly. No +blades or projections are affixed to the interior of the cylinder. +Above, where the peat enters into a flaring hopper, is a scraper, that +prevents adhesion to the sides and gives downward propulsion to the +peat. The blades are, by this construction, very strong, and not liable +to injury from small stones or roots, and effectually reduce the +toughest and most compact peat. + +Furthermore, addition of water is not only unnecessary in any case, but +the peat may be advantageously air-dried to a considerable extent before +it enters the machine. Wet peat is, indeed, worked with less expenditure +of power; but the moulded peats are then so soft as to require much care +in the handling, and must be spread out in single courses, as they will +not bear to be placed one upon another. Peat, that is somewhat dry, +though requiring more power to work, leaves the machine in blocks that +can be piled up on edge and upon each other, six or eight high, without +difficulty, and require, of course, less time for curing. + +The cut, (fig. 18), represents one of Schlickeysen's portable +peat-mills, with elevator for feeding, from which an idea of the +pulverizing arrangements may be gathered. + +In Livonia, near Pernan, according to Leo, two of Schlickeysen's +machines, No. 6, were put in operation upon a purely fibrous peat. They +were driven by an engine of 12 horse-power. The peat was plowed, once +harrowed, then carted directly to the hopper of the machine. These two +machines, with 26 men and 4 horses, produced daily 60,000 peats = 7500 +cubic feet. 100 cubic feet of these peats were equal in heating effect +to 130 cubic feet of fir-wood, and cost but two-thirds as much. The +peats were extremely hard, and dried in a few days sufficiently for use. +In 1864, five large Schlickeysen machines were in operation at one +establishment at St. Miskolz, in Hungary. + +The smaller sizes of Schlickeysen's machine are easily-portable, and +adapted for horse or hand-power. + +_Leavitt's Peat-condensing and Moulding Mill._[27]--In this country, Mr. +T. H. Leavitt, of Boston, has patented machinery, which is in operation +at East Lexington, Mass., at the works of the Boston Peat Company. The +process is essentially identical with that of Weber, the hot-drying +omitted. The fresh peat is pulverized or cut fine, moulded into blocks, +and dried on light frames in the open air. The results claimed by Mr. +Leavitt, indicate, that his machine is very efficacious. + +It consists, principally, of a strong box or cistern, three feet in +diameter, and six feet high, the exterior of which, with its gearing, is +shown in figure 19. The mill is adapted to be driven by a four +horse-power engine. + +"The upper portion of the box is divided by a series of horizontal +partitions, the upper ones being open latticework, and the lower ones +perforated with numerous holes. The upright shaft, which rotates in the +centre of the box, carries a series of arms or blades, extending +alternately on opposite sides, and as these revolve, they cut the peat, +and force it through the openings in the diaphragms. The lower portion +of the box, in place of complete partitions, has a series of corrugated +shelves extending alternately from opposite sides, and the peat is +pressed and scraped from these by a series of arms adapted to the work. +By this series of severe operations the air-bubbles are expelled from +the peat, and it is reduced to a homogeneous paste. When it arrives at +the bottom of the box, it is still further compressed by the converging +sides of the hopper, and it is received in light moulds which are +carried on an endless belt." Mr. Leavitt has patented the use of +powdered peat for the purpose of preventing the prepared peat from +adhering to the moulds. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.--LEAVITT'S PEAT MILL.] + +This mill, it is asserted, will condense 40 tons of crude peat daily, +which, at Lexington, is estimated to yield 10 to 14 tons of dry +merchantable fuel. The cost of producing the latter is asserted to be +less than $2.00 per ton; while its present value, in Boston, is $10 per +ton. It requires seven men, three boys, and two horses to dig, cart, +mill, and spread the peat. The machine costs $600, the needful +buildings, engine, etc., from $2000 to $3000. The samples of peat, +manufactured by this machine, are of excellent quality. The drying in +the open air is said to proceed with great rapidity, eight or ten days +being ordinarily sufficient in the summer season. The dry peat, at +Lexington, occupies one-fourth the bulk, and has one-fourth to one-third +the weight of the raw material; the latter, as we gather, being by no +means saturated with water, but well drained, and considerably dry, +before milling. + + +_Ashcroft & Betteley's Machinery._ + +The American Peat Company, of Boston, are the owners of five patents, +taken out by Messrs. Ashcroft & Betteley, for peat machinery. They claim +to "make fuel equal to the best English Cannel coal," and really do make +a very good peat, though with a rather complicated apparatus. The +following statement is derived from the circular issued by the company. +The machinery consists of the following parts:-- + +_First._--TRITURATING MACHINE--36 inches diameter, 4 feet 6 inches high, +with arms both on the inside of this cylinder and on the upright +revolving shaft. In the bottom of the cylinder or tub a large slide gate +is fitted to work with a lever, so that the peat may be discharged, at +pleasure, into the Combing Machine, which is placed directly under this +Triturator. + +_Second._--COMBING MACHINE--Semi-circular vessel 6 feet long and 3 feet +6 inches in diameter. Inside, a shaft is placed, which is provided with +fingers, placed one inch apart; the fingers to be 20 inches long, so as +to reach within 2 inches of the bottom and sides of this vessel. Another +shaft, of the same size and dimensions, is placed at an angle of 45 deg., 26 +inches from the first shaft, with arms of the same dimensions placed +upon this shaft, with the same spaces, and so placed that this set of +arms pass between the first set, both shafts revolving in the same +direction; the second shaft mentioned being driven at double the speed +of the first. At the bottom of this Combing Machine is to be fixed a +gate, to be operated by a lever, to deliver, at pleasure, the cleansed +peat into the Manipulator or Kneading Machine. + +_Third._--MANIPULATOR.--A Tube of iron 7 feet long and 16 inches +diameter, fitted with a shaft, with flanges upon it, to gain 6 inches in +each revolution. + +_Fourth._--CONVEYOR.--This Conveyor, to be made with two endless chains +and buckets of iron, with a driving shaft. The hopper, to receive the +peat when first taken from the bog, to be placed below the surface of +the ground, so that the top edge of the hopper may be level with the +surface, that the peat may be dumped from the car by which it is taken +from the bog, and carried to the hopper without hand labor; and this +conveyor to be so arranged that the peat will be delivered into the +Triturator without hand labor. + +_Fifth._--CONVEYOR.--Another conveyor, precisely like the one above +described, is to be placed so as to convey the peat from the Manipulator +into the Tank without hand labor. + +_Sixth._--TANK.--A tank 35 feet high and 15 feet in diameter; the bottom +of this tank is made sloping towards the sides, at an angle of 65 deg., and +is covered with sole tile or drain tile, and the entire inside of this +tank is also ribbed with these tile; the ends of these pipes of tile +being left open, so that the water which percolates through the pores of +the tile, by the pressure of the column of peat, will pass out at the +bottom, through the false floor of the tank into the drain, and the +solid peat is retained in the tank. A worm is fixed in the bottom of +this tank, which is driven by machinery, which forces out the peat in +the form of brick, which are cut to any length, and stacked up in sheds, +for fuel, after it is fully dried by the air. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.--VERSMANN'S PEAT PULVERIZER.] + +_Versmann's Machine_[28]--This machine, see Fig. 20, was invented by a +German engineer, in London, and was patented there in Sept., 1861. It +consists of a funnel or hollow cone _b_, of boiler-plate, from one to +two feet in diameter at top, and perforated with 200 to 300 small holes +per square foot of surface, within which rapidly revolves an iron cone +_a_, carrying on its circumference two spiral knives. The peat thrown in +at the top of the funnel is carried down by the knives, and at once cut +or broken and forced in a state of fine division through the holes of +the funnel, as through a colander. The fine peat collects on the +inclined bottom of the chamber _d_, whence it is carried by means of +Archimedean screws to a moulding machine. The coarse stuff that escapes +pulverization falls through _e_ into the cavity _c_. It may be employed +as fuel for the engine, or again put through the machine. + +This machine effects a more perfect pulverization of the peat, than any +other hitherto described. This extreme division is, however, unnecessary +to the perfection of the product, and is secured at great expense of +power. Through the opening at the bottom of the funnel, much +unpulverized peat finds its way, which must be continually returned to +the machine. Again, stones, entering the funnel, are likely to break or +damage the spiral knives, which bear close to the walls of the funnel. + +The pulverized peat must be moulded by hand, or by a separate +instrument. + +_Buckland's Machine_[29] is identical in principle with Versmann's, and +in construction differs simply in the fact of the interior cone having +spiral grooves instead of spiral knives. This gives greater simplicity +and durability to the machine. It appears, however, to require too much +power to work it, and can hardly equal other machines in the quantity of +product it will deliver for a given expenditure. The ground peat yielded +by it, must be moulded by hand, or by other machinery. This machine, we +understand, has been tried near Boston, and abandoned as uneconomical. + +The machines we have described are by no means all that have been +proposed and patented. They include, however, so the author believes, +all that have been put into actual operation, at the date of this +writing, or that present important peculiarities of construction. + +The account that has been given of them will serve to illustrate what +mechanism has accomplished hitherto in the manufacture of peat-fuel, and +may save the talent of the American inventor from wasting itself on what +is already in use, or having been tried, has been found wanting. At +present, very considerable attention is devoted to the subject. +Scarcely a week passes without placing one or more Peat-mill patents on +record. In this treatise our business is with what has been before the +public in a more or less practical way, and it would, therefore, be +useless to copy the specifications of new, and for the most part untried +patents, which can be found in the files of our mechanical Journals. + +14. _Artificial Drying of Peat._ + +As we have seen, air-dry peat contains 20 to 30 and may easily contain +50 _per cent._ of water, and the best hot-made machine peat contains 15 +_per cent._ When peat is used as fuel in ordinary furnaces, this water +must be evaporated, and in this process a large amount of heat is +consumed, as is well understood. It is calculated, that the temperature +which can be produced in perfectly burning full-dried peat, compares +with that developed in the combustion of peat containing water, as +follows:-- + + Pyrometric effect of perfectly dry peat 4000 deg. F. + " " peat with 30 _per cent._ of water 3240 deg. " + " " " 50 " " 2848 deg. " + +But, furthermore, moist or air-dried peat does not burn in ordinary +furnaces, except with considerable waste, as is evident from the +smokiness of its flame. When air-dried peat is distilled in a retort, a +heavy yellow vapor escapes for some time after the distillation begins, +which, obviously, contains much inflammable matter, but which is so +mixed and diluted with steam that it will not burn at all, or but +imperfectly. It is obvious then, that when a high temperature is to be +attained, anhydrous or full-dried peat is vastly superior to that which +has simply been cured in the open air. + +Notice has already been made of Weber's drying-house, the use of which +is an essential part of his system of producing peat-fuel. Various other +arrangements have been proposed from time to time, for accomplishing +the same object. It appears, however, that in most cases the +anticipations regarding their economy have not been fully realized. It +is hardly probable, that artificially dried peat can be employed to +advantage except where waste heat is utilized in the operation. + +A point of the utmost importance in reference to the question of drying +peat by artificial warmth is this, viz.: Although the drying may be +carried so far as to remove the whole of the water, and produce an +absolutely dry fuel, the peat absorbs moisture from the air again on +exposure; so that drying to less than 15 _per cent._ of water is of no +advantage, unless the peat is to be used immediately, or within a few +days. The employment of highly dried peat is consequently practicable +only for smelting-works, locomotives, and manufacturing establishments, +where it may be consumed as fast as it is produced. + +A fact likewise to be regarded is, that artificial drying is usually +inapplicable to fresh peat. The precautions needful in curing peat have +already been detailed. Above all, slow drying is necessary, in order +that the blocks shrink uniformly, without cracking and warping in such a +way as to seriously injure their solidity and usefulness. In general, +peat must be air-dried to a considerable extent before it can be +kiln-dried to advantage. If exposed to dry artificial heat, when +comparatively moist, a hard crust is formed externally, which greatly +hinders subsequent desiccation. At the same time this crust, contracting +around the moist interior, becomes so rifted and broken, that the +ultimate shrinkage and condensation of the mass is considerably less +than it would have been had the drying proceeded more slowly. + +Besides Weber's drying oven, the fuel for firing which is derived +without cost from the stumps and roots of trees that are abundant on the +moor, at Staltach, and which are thus conveniently disposed of, we have +briefly to notice several other drying kilns with regard to all of +which, however, it must be remarked, that they can only be employed with +profit, by the use of waste heat, or, as at Staltach, of fuel that is +comparatively worthless for other purposes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.--CARINTHIAN PEAT DRYING-KILN.] + +The _Peat Kilns_ employed at Lippitzbach, in Carinthia, and at Neustadt, +in Hanover, are of the kind shown in fig. 21. The peat with which the +main chamber is filled, is heated directly by the hot gases that arise +from a fire made in the fire-place at the left. These gases first enter +a vault, where they intermingle and cool down somewhat; thence they +ascend through the openings of the brick grating, and through the mass +of peat to the top of the chamber. On their way they become charged +with vapor, and falling, pass off through the chimney, as is indicated +by the arrows. The draught is regulated by the damper on the top of the +chimney. To manage the fire, so that on the one hand the chimney is +sufficiently heated to create a draught, and on the other waste of fuel, +or even ignition of the peat itself is prevented, requires some care. + +In _Welkner's Peat Kiln_[30] (fig. 22) the peat, previously air-dried, +is exposed to a stream of hot air, until it is completely desiccated, +and the arrangement is such, that air-dried peat may be thrown in at the +top, and the hot-dried fuel be removed at the bottom, continuously. + +In the cut, _A_ represents the section of a wooden cylinder about 10 +feet wide and 6-1/2 feet deep, which surmounts a funnel of iron plate +_A'_. The mouth of the funnel is closed by a door _n_; about 20 inches +above the door the pipe _B_, which conducts hot air, terminates in the +ring _a a_, through the holes in which, _e e_, it is distributed into +the funnel filled with peat. The air is driven in by a blower, and is +heated by circulating through a system of pipes, which are disposed in +the chimney of a steam boiler. From time to time a quantity of dried +peat is drawn off into the wagon _D_, which runs on rails, and a similar +amount of undried peat is thrown in above. + +According to Welkner, a kiln of the dimensions stated, which cost, about +$1800 gold, is capable of desiccating daily ten tons of peat with 20 +_per cent._ of water, using thereby 2000 cubic feet of air of a +temperature of 212 deg. F. When the air is heated by a fire kept up +exclusively for that purpose, 10 _per cent._ of the dried peat, or its +equivalent, is consumed in the operation. At the Alexis Smelting Works, +near Lingen, in Hanover, this peat kiln furnishes about half the fuel +for a high furnace, in which bog iron ore is smelted. The drying costs +but little, since half the requisite heat is obtained from the waste +heat of the furnace itself. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.--WELKNER'S PEAT DRYING KILN.] + +The advantages of this drying kiln are, that it is cheap in construction +and working; dries gradually and uniformly; occupies little ground, and +runs without intermission. + +Other drying ovens are described in Knapp's _Lehrbuch_ der _Chemischen +Technologie_, 3. Aufl. Bd. 1, Theil 1, pp. 178-9; _Jahrbuch der +Bergakademien Schemnitz_ und _Leoben_, 1860, p. 108, 1861, p. 55; +Wagner's _Jahresbericht der Chemischen Technologie_, 1863, p. 748; +Zerrenner's _Metallurgische Gasfeuerung in Oesterreich_; Tunner's +_Stabeisen- und Stahlbereitung_, 2. Auflage, Bd. I, pp. 23-25. + +15. _Peat Coal, or Coke._ + +When peat is charred, it yields a coal or coke which, being richer in +carbon, is capable of giving an intenser heat than peat itself, in the +same way that charcoal emits an intenser heat in its combustion than the +wood from which it is made. + +Peat coal has been and is employed to some extent in metallurgical +processes, as a substitute for charcoal, and when properly prepared from +good peat, is in no way inferior to the latter; is, in fact, better. + +It is only, however, from peat which naturally dries to a hard and dense +consistency, or which has been solidified on the principles of +Challeton's and Weber's methods, that a coal can be made possessing the +firmness necessary for furnace use. Fibrous peat, or that condensed by +pressure, as in Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian process, yields +by coking or charring, a friable coal comparatively unsuited for heating +purposes. + +A peat which is dense as the result of proper mechanical treatment and +slow drying, yields a very homogeneous and compact coal, superior to any +wood charcoal, the best qualities weighing nearly twice as much per +bushel. + +Peat is either charred in pits and heaps, or in kilns. From the +regularity of the rectangular blocks into which peat is usually formed, +it may be charred more easily in pits than wood, since the blocks admit +of closer packing in the heap, and because the peat coal is less +inflammable than wood coal. The heaps may likewise be made much smaller +than is needful in case of wood, viz.: six to eight feet in diameter, +and four feet high. The pit is arranged as follows: The ground is +selected and prepared as for charcoal burning, and should be elevated, +dry and compact. Three stout poles are firmly driven into the ground, so +as to stand vertically and equi-distant from each other, leaving within +them a space of six or eight inches. Around these poles the peats are +placed endwise, in concentric rows to the required width and height, +leaving at the bottom a number of air-channels of the width of one peat, +radiating from the centre outwards. The upper layers of peat are +narrowed in so as to round off the heap, which is first covered with dry +leaves, sods, or moss, over which a layer of soil is thrown. Dry, light +wood being placed at the bottom of the central shaft, it is kindled from +one of the canals at the bottom, and the charring is conducted as is +usual in making wood coal. The yield of coal ranges from 25 to 35 _per +cent._ of the peat by weight, and from 30 to 50 _per cent._ by volume. + +Gysser recommends to mould the peat for charring in the form of +cylinders of 3 to 4 feet long, which, when dry, may be built up into a +heap like wood. + +A great variety of ovens or kilns have been constructed for coking peat. + +At the Gun Factory of Oberndorf, in Wirtemberg, peat is charred in the +kiln represented in the accompanying figure. The chamber is 9 feet high, +and 5-1/2 feet in diameter. The oven proper, _b b_, is surrounded by a +mantle of brick _a a_, and the space between, _c c_, is filled with +sand. Each wall, as well as the space, is 15 inches in thickness, and +the walls are connected by stones _d d_, at intervals of three feet. +Above the sole of the kiln, are three series of air holes, made by +imbedding old gun barrels in the walls. The door, which serves to empty +the kiln, is a plate of cast iron, the sides of its frame are wider than +the thickness of the wall, and by means of a board _e_, a box _m_ can be +made in front of the door, which is filled with sand to prevent access +of air. The peat is filled in through _i_, a channel being arranged +across the bottom of the kiln, from the door _f_, for kindling. When the +firing begins, the lowest air-holes and _i_ are open. When, through the +lower gun barrels, the peat is seen to be ignited, these are corked, and +those above are opened. When the smoke ceases to escape above, all the +openings are closed, _m_, is filled with sand, _i_ is covered over with +it, and the whole is left to cool. It requires about 8 to 9 days to +finish the charring of a charge. Several kilns are kept in operation, so +that the work proceeds uninterruptedly. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.--OBERNDORFER PEAT CHARRING KILN.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 24.--WEBER'S CHARRING FURNACE.--TRANSVERSE SECTION.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.--WEBER'S CHARRING FURNACE.--LONGITUDINAL +SECTION.] + +At Staltach, Weber prepares peat coal in a cylinder of sheet iron, which +is surrounded by masonry. Below, it rests on a grating of stout wire. +Above, it has a cover, that may be raised by a pulley and on one side is +attached a small furnace, figure 24, the draught of which is kept up by +means of a blower, or an exhauster, and the flame and hot gases from +it, _which contain no excess of oxygen_, play upon the peat and +decompose it, expelling its volatile portions without burning or wasting +it in the slightest degree. The construction of the furnace, see fig. +24, is such, that the sticks of wood, which are employed for fuel, are +supported at their ends on shoulders in the brick-work, and the draught +enters the fire above instead of below. The wood is hereby completely +consumed, and by regulating the supply of air at _a_ (fig. 25) by a +sliding cover, and at _b_ by a register, the flame and current of air +which enters the cylinder containing the peat, is intensely hot and +accomplishes a rapid carbonization of the peat, but as before stated, +does not burn it. In this furnace the wood, which is cut of uniform +length, is itself the grate, since iron would melt or rapidly burn out; +and the coals that fall are consumed by the air admitted through c. The +hot gases which enter the cylinder filled with peat near its top, are +distributed by pipes, and, passing off through the grating at the +bottom, enter the surrounding brick mantle. Before reaching the +exhaustor, however, they pass through a cooler in which a quantity of +tar and pyroligneous acid is collected. + +Weber's oven is 15 feet in diameter, and 3-1/2 feet high; 528 cubic feet +of peat may be coked in it in the space of 15 hours. The wood furnace is +2 feet in section, and consumes for the above amount of peat 3-1/2 cwt. +of wood. So perfectly are the contents of the iron cylinder protected +from contact of oxygen, that a rabbit placed within it, has been +converted into coal without the singeing of a hair; and a bouquet of +flowers has been carbonized, perfectly retaining its shape. The yield of +coal in Weber's oven is nearly 50 _per cent._ of the peat by weight. + +Whenever possible, charring of peat should be carried on, or aided by +waste heat, or the heat necessary to coking should be itself economized. +In manufacturing and metallurgical establishments, a considerable +economy in both the drying and coking may often be effected in this +manner. + +On the bog of Allen, in Ireland, we have an example of this kind. Peat +is placed in iron ovens in the form of truncated pyramids, the bottoms +of which consist of movable and perforated iron plates. The ovens are +mounted on wheels, and run on a rail track. + +Five ovens filled with peat are run into a pit in a drying house, in +which blocks of fresh peat are arranged for drying. Each oven is +connected with a flue, and fire is applied. The peat burns below, and +the heat generated in the coking, warms the air of the drying house. +When the escaping smoke becomes transparent, the pit in which the ovens +stand is filled with water slightly above their lower edges, whereby +access of air to the burning peat is at once cut off. When cool, the +ovens are run out and replaced by others filled with peat. Each oven +holds about 600 lbs. of peat, and the yield of coal is 25 _per cent._ by +weight. The small yield compared with that obtained by Weber's method, +is due to the burning of the peat and the coal itself, in the draught of +air that passes through the ovens. + +The author has carbonized, in an iron retort, specimens of peat prepared +by Elsberg's, Leavitt's, and Aschcroft and Betteley's processes. +Elsberg's gave 35, the others 37 _per cent._ of coal. The coal from +Elsberg's peat was greatly fissured, and could be crushed in the fingers +to small fragments. That from the other peats was more firm, and +required considerable exertion to break it. All had a decided metallic +brilliancy of surface. + +16.--_Metallurgical Uses of Peat._ + +In Austria, more than any other country, peat has been employed in the +manufacture of iron. In Bavaria, Prussia, Wirtemberg, Hanover, and +Sweden, and latterly in Great Britain, peat has been put to the same +use. The general results of experience, are as follows:-- + +Peat can only be employed to advantage, when wood and mineral coal are +expensive, or of poor quality. + +Peat can be used in furnaces adapted for charcoal, but not in those +built for mineral coal. + +Good air-dry peat, containing 20 to 30 _per cent._ of water, in some +cases may replace a share of charcoal in the high furnace. + +At Pillersee, in Austria, spathic iron ore has been reduced by a mixture +of fir-wood charcoal, and air-dry peat in the proportions of three +parts by bulk of the former to one of the latter. The use of peat was +found to effect a considerable saving in the outlay for fuel, and +enabled the production to be somewhat increased, while the excellence of +the iron was in no way impaired. The peat was of the best quality, and +was worked and moulded by hand. + +When the ore is refractory and contains impurities that must be fluxed +and worked off in slag, a large proportion of air-dry peat cannot be +used to advantage, because the evaporation of the water in it consumes +so much heat, that the requisite temperature is not easily attained. + +At Achthal, in Bavaria, air-dry peat was employed in 1860, to replace a +portion of the fir wood charcoal, which had been used for smelting an +impure clay-iron-stone: the latter fuel having become so dear, that peat +was resorted to as a make shift. Instead of one "sack," or 33 cubic feet +of charcoal, 24 cubic feet of charcoal and 15 cubic feet of peat were +employed in each charge, and the quantity of ore had to be diminished +thereby, so that the yield of pig was reduced, on the average, by about +17 _per cent._ In this case the quality of the iron, when worked into +bar, was injured by the use of peat, obviously from an increase of its +content of phosphorus. The exclusive use of air-dry peat as fuel in the +high furnace, appears to be out of the question. + +At Ransko, in Bohemia, _kiln-dried peat_, nearly altogether free from +water, has been employed in a high furnace, mixed with but one-third its +bulk of charcoal, and in cupola furnaces for re-melting pig, full-dried +peat has been used alone, answering the purpose perfectly. + +The most important metallurgical application of peat is in the refining +of iron. + +Dried peat is extensively used in puddling furnaces, especially in the +so-called gas puddling furnaces, in Carinthia, Steyermark, Silesia, +Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Sweden, and other parts of Europe. In Steyermark, +peat has been thus employed for 25 years. + +Air-dry peat is, indeed, also employed, but is not so well adapted for +puddling, as its water burns away a notable quantity of iron. It is one +of the best known facts in chemistry, that ignited iron is rapidly +oxidized in a stream of water-vapor, free hydrogen being at the same +time evolved. + +In the high furnace, _peat-coal_, when compact and firm (not crumbly) +may replace charcoal perfectly, but its cost is usually too great. + +When peat or peat-coal is employed in smelting, it must be as free as +possible from ash, because the ash usually consists largely of silica, +and this must be worked off by flux. If the ash be carbonate of lime, it +will, in most cases, serve itself usefully as flux. In hearth puddling, +it is important not only that the peat or peat-coal contain little ash, +but especially that the ash be as free as possible from sulphates and +phosphates, which act so deleteriously on the metal. The notion that, in +general, peat and peat charcoal are peculiarly adapted for the iron +manufacture, because they are free from sulphur and phosphorus, is +extremely erroneous. Not infrequently they contain these bodies in such +quantity, as to forbid their use in smelting. + +In the gas-puddling furnace, or in the ordinary reverberatory, impure +peat may, however, be employed, since the ashes do not come in contact +with the metal. The only disadvantage in the use of peat in these +furnaces is, that the grates require cleaning more frequently, which +interrupts the fire, and, according to Tunner, increases the consumption +of fuel 8 to 10 _per cent._, and diminishes the amount of metal that can +be turned out in a given time by the same quantity. + +Notwithstanding the interruption of work, it has been found, at +Rothburga, in Austria, that by substitution of machine-made and +kiln-dried peat for wood in the gas-puddling furnace, a saving of 50 +_per cent._ in the cost of bar iron was effected, in 1860. What is to +the point, in estimating the economy of peat, is the fact that while 6.2 +cubic feet of dry fir-wood were required to produce 100 lbs. of crude +bar, this quantity of iron could be puddled with 4.3 cubic feet of peat. + +In the gas furnace, a second blast of air is thrown into the flame, +effecting its complete combustion; Dellvik asserts, that at Lesjoeforss, +in Sweden, 100 lbs. of kiln-dried peat are equal to 197 lbs. of +kiln-dried wood in heavy forging. In an ordinary fire, the peat would be +less effective from the escape of unburned carbon in the smoke. + +In other metallurgical and manufacturing operations where flame is +required, as well as in those which are not inconvenienced by the +ingredients of its ash, it is obvious that peat can be employed when +circumstances conspire to render its use economical. + +17.--_Peat as a source of illuminating gas._ + +Prof Pettenkofer, of Munich, was the first to succeed in making +illuminating gas from wood; and peat, when operated according to his +method, furnishes also a gas of good quality, though somewhat inferior +to wood-gas in illuminating power. + +It is essential, that well-dried peat be employed, and the waste heat +from the retorts may serve in part, at least, for the drying. + +The retorts must be of a good conducting material; therefore cast iron +is better than clay. They are made of the [symbol: D] form, and must be +relatively larger than those used for coal. A retort of two feet width, +one foot depth, and 8 to 9 feet length, must receive but 100 lbs. of +peat at a charge. + +The quantity of gas yielded in a given time, is much greater than from +bituminous coal. From retorts of the size just named, 8000 to 9000 cubic +feet of gas are delivered in 24 hours. The exit pipes must, therefore, +be large, not less than 5 to 6 inches, and the coolers must be much more +effective than is needful for coal gas, in order to separate from it the +tarry matters. + +The number of retorts requisite to furnish a given volume of gas, is +much less than in the manufacture from coal. On the other hand, the +dimensions of the furnace are considerably greater, because the +consumption of fuel must be more rapid, in order to supply the heat, +which is carried off by the copious formation of gas. + +Gas may be made from peat at a comparatively low temperature, but its +illuminating power is then trifling. At a red heat alone can we procure +a gas of good quality. + +The chief impurity of peat-gas is carbonic acid: this amounts to 25 to +30 _per cent._ of the gas before purification, and if the peat be +insufficiently dried, it is considerably more. The quantity of slaked +lime that is consumed in purifying, is therefore much greater than is +needed for coal-gas, and is an expensive item in the making of peat-gas. + +While wood-gas is practically free from sulphur compounds and ammonia, +peat-gas may contain them both, especially the latter, in quantity that +depends upon the composition of the peat, which, as regards sulphur and +nitrogen, is very variable. + +Peat-gas is denser than coal-gas, and therefore cannot be burned to +advantage except from considerably wider orifices than answer for the +latter, and under slight pressure. + +The above statements show the absurdity of judging of the value of peat +as a source of gas, by the results of trials made in gas works arranged +for bituminous coal. + +As to the yield of gas we have the following data, weights and measures +being English:-- + + 100 lbs. of peat of medium quality from Munich, gave REISSIG 303 cub. ft. + " air-dry peat from Biermoos, Salzburg, gave RIEDINGER 305 " + " very light fibrous peat, gave REISSIG 379 to 430 " + " Exter's machine-peat, from Haspelmoor, gave 367 " + +Thenius states, that, to produce 1000 English cubic feet of purified +peat-gas, in the works at Kempten, Bavaria, there are required in the +retorts 292 lbs of peat. To distil this, 138-1/2 lbs. of peat are +consumed in the fire; and to purify the gas from carbonic acid, 91-1/2 +lbs. of lime are used. In the retorts remain 117 lbs. of peat coal, and +nearly 6 lbs. of tar are collected in the operation, besides smaller +quantities of acetic acid and ammonia. + +According to Stammer, 4 cwt. of dry peat are required for 1000 cubic +feet of purified gas. + +The quality of the gas is somewhat better than that made from bituminous +coal. + +18.--_The examination of Peat as to its value for Fuel_, begins with and +refers to the air-dry substance, in which: + +1.--Water is estimated, by drying the pulverized peat, at 212 deg., as long +as any diminution of weight occurs. Well-dried peat-fuel should not +contain more than 20 _per cent._ of water. On the other hand it cannot +contain less than 15 _per cent._, except it has been artificially dried +at a high temperature, or kept for a long time in a heated apartment. + +2.--_Ash_ is estimated by carefully burning the dry residue in 1. In +first-rate fuel, it should amount to less than 3 _per cent._ If more +than 8 _per cent._, the peat is thereby rendered of inferior quality, +though peat is employed which contains considerably more. + +3.--_Sulphur_ and _phosphorus_ are estimated by processes, which it +would be useless to describe here. Only in case of vitriol peats is so +much sulphur present, that it is recognizable by the suffocating fumes +of sulphuric acid or of sulphurous acid, which escape in the burning. +When peat is to be employed for iron manufacture, or under steam +boilers, its phosphorus, and especially its sulphur, should be +estimated, as they injure the quality of iron when their quantity +exceeds a certain small amount, and have a destructive effect on +grate-bars and boilers. For common uses it is unnecessary to regard +these substances. + +4.--The quantity of _coal_ or _coke_ yielded by peat, is determined by +heating a weighed quantity of the peat to redness in an iron retort, or +in a large platinum crucible, until gases cease to escape. The neck of +the retort is corked, and when the vessel is cool, the coal is removed +and weighed. In case a platinum crucible is employed, it should have a +tight-fitting cover, and when gases cease to escape, the crucible is +quickly cooled by placing it in cold water. + +Coal, or coke, includes of course the ash of the peat. This, being +variable, should be deducted, and the _ash-free coal_ be considered in +comparing fuels. + +5.--The _density_ of peat-fuel may be ascertained by cutting out a block +that will admit of accurate measurement, calculating its cubic contents, +and comparing its weight with that of an equal bulk of water. To avoid +calculation, the block may be made accurately one or several cubic +inches in dimensions and weighed. The cubic inch of water at 60 deg. F., +weighs 252-1/2 grains. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[10] The apparent specific gravity here means the weight of the +mass,--the air-filled cavities and pores included--as compared with an +equal bulk of water. The real specific gravity of the _peat itself_ is +always greater than that of water, and all kinds of peat will sink in +water when they soak long enough, or are otherwise treated so that all +air is removed. + +[11] The "full" cubic foot implies a cubic foot having no cavities or +waste space, such as exist in a pile, made up of numerous blocks. If a +number of peat blocks be put into a box and shaken together, the empty +space between the more or less irregular blocks, may amount to 46 _per +cent._ of the whole; and when closely packed, the cavities amount to 30 +_per cent._, according to the observations of _Wasserzieher_. +(_Dingler's Journal_, Oct., 1864, p. 118.) Some confusion exists in the +statements of writers in regard to this matter, and want of attention to +it, has led to grave errors in estimating the weight of fuel. + +[12] The _waste space_ in peat and wood as commonly piled, is probably +included here in the statement, and is usually about the same in both; +viz.: not far from 40 _per cent._ + +[13] See note on the preceding page. + +[14] _Der Torf, etc._, S. 43. + +[15] See page 00. + +[16] On account of the great convenience of the decimal weights and +measures, and their nearly universal recognition by scientific men, we +have adopted them here. The gramme = 15 grains; 5 degrees centigrade = 9 +degrees Fahrenheit. + +[17] Pliny, Hist. Nat. (Lib. XVI, 1) expresses his pity for the +"miserable people" living in East Friesland and vicinity in his day, who +"dug out with the hands a moor earth, which, dried more by wind than +sun, they used for preparing their food and warming their bodies:" +_captum manibus lutum ventis magis quam sole siccantis, terra cibos et +rigentia septembrione viscera sua urunt_. + +As regards the "_misera gens_," it should be said that rich grain fields +and numerous flourishing villages have occupied for several centuries +large portions of the Duevel moor near Bremen. + +[18] For further account and plans of this machine see Dingler's +Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 176, S. 336. + +[19] Described and figured in Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement, +August 1857, p. 513; also Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 146, S. +252. + +[20] Berg- und Huettenmaennische Zeitung, 1859, Nr. 26. + +[21] Henneberg's Journal fuer Landwirthschaft, 1858, S. 42. + +[22] Henneberg's Journal fuer Landwirthschaft, 1858, p.p. 42 and 83. + +[23] Dingler's Journal, Oct., 1864. + +[24] Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 152, S. 272. See also, +Knapp, Lehrbuch der Chemischen Technologie, 3te Auflage, 1., 167. + +[25] Der Torf; seine Bildung und Bereitungsweise, von Rudolph Gysser, +Weimar, 1864. + +[26] Dingler's Journal, Bd. 165, S. 184.; und Bd. 172, S, 333. + +[27] Scientific American, Feb. 10, 1866; also, Facts about Peat as Fuel, +by T. H. Leavitt, 2d Ed., Boston, p. 23. + +[28] Dingler's Journal, Bd. 168, S. 306, und Bd. 172, S. 332. + +[29] Described in Journal of the Society of Arts, 1860, p. 437. + +[30] Bernemann & Kerl's Berg und Huettenmaennische Zeitung, 1862, 221. + + + + + +-------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Typographical errors corrected in text: | + | | + | Page 6 Robert's changed to Roberts' | + | Page 24 Jaeckel changed to Jaeckel | + | Page 47 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 49 connexion changed to connection | + | Page 51 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 53 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 53 Russel changed to Russell | + | Page 62 subtances changed to substances | + | Page 67 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 89 5 changed to 4 | + | Page 89 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 90 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 91 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | + | Page 116 artifical changed to artificial | + | Page 127 developes changed to develops | + | Page 149 Kneeding changed to Kneading | + | Page 165 The symbol looks like a D | + | lying on its back. | + | | + +-------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and +Fuel, by Samuel William Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEAT AND ITS USES *** + +***** This file should be named 26142.txt or 26142.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/4/26142/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Barbara Kosker, Jeannie +Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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