diff options
Diffstat (limited to '26142-h/26142-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 26142-h/26142-h.htm | 9498 |
1 files changed, 9498 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/26142-h/26142-h.htm b/26142-h/26142-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0e3552e --- /dev/null +++ b/26142-h/26142-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9498 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Peat and it uses by Samuel W. Johnson, A. M. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .5em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .5em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + h1 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + h5,h6 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + h2 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* centered and coloured */ + } + h3 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* centered and coloured */ + } + h4 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + a {text-decoration: none} /* no lines under links */ + div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */ + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */ + ul {list-style-type: none} /* no bullets on lists */ + ul.nest {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -1.5em;} /* spacing for nested list */ + li {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em;} /* spacing for list */ + + .cen {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} /* centering paragraphs */ + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 95%;} /* small caps, smaller font size */ + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} /* no indenting */ + .hang {text-indent: -2em;} /* hanging indents */ + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} /* footnote */ + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} /* block indent */ + .right {text-align: right; padding-right: 2em;} /* right aligning paragraphs */ + .totoc {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: 75%; text-align: right;} /* Table of contents anchor */ + .totoi {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: 75%; text-align: right;} /* to Table of Illustrations link */ + .img {text-align: center; padding: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} /* centering images */ + .imgl {float: left; padding: 1em; text-align: center;} /* floating image to the left of the paragraph */ + .imgr {float: right; padding: 1em; text-align: center;} /* floating image to the right of the paragraph */ + .sidenote {width: 20%; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; padding-left: 1em; font-size: smaller; float: right; clear: right;} + .tdr {text-align: right;} /* right align cell */ + .tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdc {text-align: center;} /* center align cell */ + .tdcb {text-align: center; border-bottom: .5pt black solid;} /* center aligned, bottom border */ + .tdcl {text-align: center; border-left: .5pt black solid;} /* center align, left border */ + .tdcbl {text-align: center; border-left: .5pt black solid; border-bottom: .5pt black solid;} /* center aligned, left and bottom border */ + .tdl {text-align: left;} /* left align cell */ + .tdlb {text-align: left; border-bottom: .5pt black solid;} /*left align, bottom border */ + .tdlbl {text-align: left; border-bottom: .5pt black solid; border-left: .5pt black solid;} /* left align, bottom and left border */ + .tdll {text-align: left; border-left: .5pt black solid;} /* left align, left border */ + .tdlsc {text-align: left; font-variant: small-caps;} /* aligning cell content and small caps */ + .tdlt {text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} /* left align, top */ + .tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdrl {text-align: right; border-left: .5pt black solid;} /*right align, left border */ + .tdrsc {text-align: right; font-variant: small-caps;} /* aligning cell content and small caps */ + .tdrt {text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} /* right align, top */ + .tdcsc {text-align: center; font-variant: small-caps;} /* aligning cell content and small caps */ + .tr {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; margin-top: 5%; margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; background-color: #f6f2f2; color: black; border: dotted black 1px;} /* transcriber's notes */ + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; right: 2%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal;} /* page numbers */ + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right; font-size: 90%;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: text-top; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem span.pn { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; right: 2%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal;} /* page numbers in poems */ + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel, by +Samuel William Johnson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel + +Author: Samuel William Johnson + +Release Date: July 28, 2008 [EBook #26142] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEAT AND ITS USES *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Barbara Kosker, Jeannie +Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h1>PEAT AND ITS USES,</h1> +<br /> +<h2>AS</h2> +<br /> +<h2>FERTILIZER AND FUEL.</h2> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h3>BY</h3> +<br /> +<h2>SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, A. M.,</h2> +<br /> +<h3>PROFESSOR OF ANALYTICAL AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, YALE COLLEGE.</h3> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h3>FULLY ILLUSTRATED.</h3> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h3>NEW-YORK:</h3> +<h3>ORANGE JUDD & COMPANY.</h3> +<h3>245 BROADWAY.</h3> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<h4>Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by</h4> +<h3>ORANGE JUDD & CO.,</h3> +<h4>At the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the<br /> +Southern District of New-York.</h4> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p class="noin"> +<span class="smcap"><b>Lovejoy & Son</b></span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap"><b>Electrotypers and Stereotypers</b></span><br /> +<b>15 Vandewater street N. Y.</b><br /> +</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h3>TO MY FATHER,</h3> +<h3>MY EARLIEST AND BEST</h3> +<h3>INSTRUCTOR IN RURAL AFFAIRS,</h3> +<h3>THIS VOLUME</h3> +<h3>IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.</h3> +<h4>S. W. J.</h4> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + + +<hr style="width: 35%;" /> +<br /> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="3%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="3%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="3%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="83%"> </td> + <td class="tdrb" width="3%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Introduction</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"><a href="#PART_I">PART I.</a>—<span class="smcap">Origin, Varieties, and Chemical Characters of Peat</span>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5"> </td> + <td class="tdrb">PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">What is Peat?</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 2.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Conditions of its Formation</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 3.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Different Kinds of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Swamp Muck</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Salt Mud</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Chemical Characters and Composition of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">a.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Organic or combustible part</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Ulmic and Humic Acids</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Ulmin and Humin—Crenic and Apocrenic Acids</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Ulmates and Humates</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Crenates and Apocrenates</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Gein and Geic Acid—Elementary Composition of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Ultimate Composition of the Constituents of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">b.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Mineral Part—Ashes</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 5.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Chemical Changes that occur in the Formation of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"><a href="#PART_II">PART II.</a>—<span class="smcap">On the Agricultural Uses of Peat and Swamp Muck</span>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Characters that adapt Peat for Agricultural Use</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">A.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Physical or Amending Characters</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Absorbent Power for Water, as Liquid and Vapor</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Absorbent Power for Ammonia</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Influence in Disintegrating the Soil</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Influence on the Temperature of Soils</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">B.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Fertilizing Characters</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrt">I.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fertilizing Effects of the Organic Matters, excluding + Nitrogen</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl">1.</td> + <td class="tdl">Organic Matters as Direct Food to Plants</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl">2.</td> + <td class="tdl">Organic Matters as Indirect Food to Plants</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl">3.</td> + <td class="tdl">Nitrogen, including Ammonia and Nitric Acid</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fertilizing Effects of the Ashes of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Peculiarities in the Decay of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 2.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that need + correction</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">I.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Possible Bad Effects on Heavy Soils</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">II.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Noxious Ingredients</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl">a.</td> + <td class="tdl">Vitriol Peats</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl">b.</td> + <td class="tdl">Acidity—c. Resinous Matters</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 3.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Preparation of Peat for Agricultural Use</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">a.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Excavation</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">b.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Exposure, or Seasoning</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">c.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Composting</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Stable Manure</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Night Soil</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Guano</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Fish and other Animal Matters</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Potash-lye & Soda-ash; Wood-ashes, Shell-marl, Lime</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Salt and Lime Mixture</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Compost with Carbonate of Lime, Mortar, etc.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">The Author's Experiments with Peat Composts</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 5.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Examination of Peat with reference to its Agricultural Value</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 6.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Composition of Connecticut Peats</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Method of Analysis</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Tables of Composition</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_88">88-89-90</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"><a href="#PART_III">PART III</a>.—<span class="smcap">On Peat as Fuel</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Kinds of Peat that Make the Best Fuel</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 2.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Density of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 3.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Heating Power of Peat as Compared with Wood and Anthracite</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Modes of Burning Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 5.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Burning of Broken Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 6.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Hygroscopic Water of Peat-fuel</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 7.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Shrinkage</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 8.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Time of Excavation and Drying</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 9.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Drainage</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">10.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Cutting of Peat for Fuel—a. Preparations for + Cutting</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">b.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Cutting by Hand; with Common Spade; German Peat Knife</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Cutting with Irish Slane—System employed in East + Friesland</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">c.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Machines for Cutting Peat; Brosowsky's Machine; Lepreux's + Machine</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">11.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Dredging of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">12.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Moulding of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">13.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Preparation of Peat-fuel by Machinery, etc</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">A.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Condensation by Pressure</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">a.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Of Fresh Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mannhardt's Method</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Neustadt Method</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">b.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Of Air-dried Peat—Lithuanian Process</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrt">c.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Of Hot-dried Peat—Gwynne's Method; Exter's Method</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Elsberg's Process</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">B.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Condensation without Pressure</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdr">a.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Of Earthy Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Challeton's Method, at Mennecy, France</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Challeton's Method, at Langenberg, Prussia</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Roberts' Method, at Pekin, N. Y.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Siemens' Method, at Bœblingen, Wirtemberg</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrt">b.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Condensation of Fibrous Peat—Weber's Method; 135 + Hot-drying Gysser's Method and Machine</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrt">c.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Condensation of Peat of all Kinds—Schlickeysen's + Machine</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Leavitt's Peat Mill, Lexington, Mass</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ashcroft & Betteley's Machine</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Versmann's Machine, Great Britain</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Buckland's Machine, Great Britain</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">14.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Artificial Drying of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Peat Coal</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">16.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Metallurgical Uses of Peat</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">17.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Peat as a Source of Illuminating Gas</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">18.</td> + <td class="tdlt" colspan="4">Examination of Peat with regard to its Value as Fuel</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr style="width: 35%;" /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +<br /> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> +<br /> + +<p>In the years 1857 and 1858, the writer, in the capacity of Chemist to +the State Agricultural Society of Connecticut, was commissioned to make +investigations into the agricultural uses of the deposits of peat or +swamp muck which are abundant in this State; and, in 1858, he submitted +a Report to Henry A. Dyer, Esq., Corresponding Secretary of the Society, +embodying his conclusions. In the present work the valuable portions of +that Report have been recast, and, with addition of much new matter, +form Parts I. and II. The remainder of the book, relating to the +preparation and employment of peat for fuel, &c., is now for the first +time published, and is intended to give a faithful account of the +results of the experience that has been acquired in Europe, during the +last twenty-five years, in regard to the important subject of which it +treats.</p> + +<p>The employment of peat as an amendment and absorbent for agricultural +purposes has proved to be of great advantage in New-England farming.</p> + +<p>It is not to be doubted, that, as fuel, it will be even more valuable +than as a fertilizer. Our peat-beds, while they do not occupy so much +territory as to be an impediment and a reproach to our country, as they +have been to Ireland, are yet so abundant and so widely +distributed—occurring from the Atlantic to the Missouri, along and +above the 40th parallel, and appearing on our Eastern Coast at least as +far South as North Carolina<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>—as to present, at numberless points, +material, which, sooner or later, will serve us most usefully when other +fuel has become scarce and costly.</p> + +<p>The high prices which coal and wood have commanded for several years +back have directed attention to peat fuel; and, such is the adventurous +character of American enterprise, it cannot be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>doubted that we shall +rapidly develop and improve the machinery for producing it. As has +always been the case, we shall waste a vast deal of time and money in +contriving machines that violate every principle of mechanism and of +economy; but the results of European invention furnish a safe basis from +which to set out, and we have among us the genius and the patience that +shall work out the perfect method.</p> + +<p>It may well be urged that a good degree of caution is advisable in +entering upon the peat enterprise. In this country we have exhaustless +mines of the best coal, which can be afforded at a very low rate, with +which other fuel must compete. In Germany, where the best methods of +working peat have originated, fuel is more costly than here; and a +universal and intense economy there prevails, of which we, as a people, +have no conception.</p> + +<p>If, as the Germans themselves admit, the peat question there is still a +nice one as regards the test of dollars and cents, it is obvious, that, +for a time, we must "hasten slowly." It is circumstances that make peat, +and gold as well, remunerative or otherwise; and these must be well +considered in each individual case. Peat is the name for a material that +varies extremely in its quality, and this quality should be investigated +carefully before going to work upon general deductions.</p> + +<p>In my account of the various processes for working peat by machinery, +such data as I have been able to find have been given as to cost of +production. These data are however very imperfect, and not altogether +trustworthy, in direct application to American conditions. The cheapness +of labor in Europe is an item to our disadvantage in interpreting +foreign estimates. I incline to the belief that this is more than offset +among us by the quality of our labor, by the energy of our +administration, by the efficiency of our overseeing, and, especially, by +our greater skill in the adaptation of mechanical appliances. While +counselling caution, I also recommend enterprise in developing our +resources in this important particular; knowing full well, however, that +what I can say in its favor will scarcely add to the impulse already +apparent among my countrymen.</p> + +<p class="right">"<span class="smcap">Samuel W. Johnson</span>.</p> +<p style="margin-left: 2em;" class="noin"><i>Sheffield Scientific School</i>,<br /> +<i>Yale College, June, 1866.</i></p> + + +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The great Dismal Swamp is a grand peat bog, and doubtless +other of the swamps of the coast, as far south as Florida and the Gulf, +are of the same character.</p></div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr style="width: 15%;" /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +<br /> +<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I">PART I.</a></h2> +<h2>THE ORIGIN, VARIETIES, AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF PEAT.</h2> +<br /> + +<p>1. <i>What is Peat?</i></p> + +<p>By the general term Peat, we understand the organic matter or vegetable +soil of bogs, swamps, beaver-meadows and salt-marshes.</p> + +<p>It consists of substances that have resulted from the decay of many +generations of aquatic or marsh plants, as mosses, sedges, coarse +grasses, and a great variety of shrubs, mixed with more or less mineral +substances, derived from these plants, or in many cases blown or washed +in from the surrounding lands.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The conditions under which Peat is formed.</i></p> + +<p>In this country the production of Peat from fallen and decaying plants, +depends upon the presence of so much water as to cover or saturate the +vegetable matters, and thereby hinder the full access of air. Saturation +with water also has the effect to maintain the decaying matters <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>at a +low temperature, and by these two causes in combination, the process of +decay is made to proceed with great slowness, and the solid products of +such slow decay, are compounds that themselves resist decay, and hence +they accumulate.</p> + +<p>In the United States there appears to be nothing like the extensive +<i>moors</i> or <i>heaths</i>, that abound in Ireland, Scotland, the north of +England, North Germany, Holland, and the elevated plains of Bavaria, +which are mostly level or gently sloping tracts of country, covered with +peat or turf to a depth often of 20, and sometimes of 40, or more, feet. +In this country it is only in low places, where streams become +obstructed and form swamps, or in bays and inlets on salt water, where +the flow of the tide furnishes the requisite moisture, that our +peat-beds occur. If we go north-east as far as Anticosti, Labrador, or +Newfoundland, we find true moors. In these regions have been found a few +localities of the <i>Heather</i> (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>), which is so +conspicuous a plant on the moors of Europe, but which is wanting in the +peat-beds of the United States.</p> + +<p>In the countries above named, the weather is more uniform than here, the +air is more moist, and the excessive heat of our summers is scarcely +known. Such is the greater humidity of the atmosphere that the +bog-mosses,—the so-called <i>Sphagnums</i>,—which have a wonderful avidity +for moisture, (hence used for packing plants which require to be kept +moist on journeys), are able to keep fresh and in growth during the +entire summer. These mosses decay below, and throw out new vegetation +above, and thus produce a bog, especially wherever the earth is springy. +It is in this way that in those countries, moors and peat-bogs actually +grow, increasing in depth and area, from year to year, and raise +themselves above the level of the surrounding country.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>Prof. Marsh informs the writer that he has seen in Ireland, near the +north-west coast, a granite hill, capped with a peat-bed, several feet +in thickness. In the Bavarian highlands similar cases have been +observed, in localities where the atmosphere and the ground are kept +moist enough for the growth of moss by the extraordinary prevalence of +fogs. Many of the European moors rise more or less above the level of +their borders towards the centre, often to a height of 10 or 20 and +sometimes of 30 feet. They are hence known in Germany as <i>high</i> moors +(<i>Hochmoore</i>) to distinguish from the level or dishing <i>meadow-moors</i>, +(<i>Wiesenmoore</i>). The peat-producing vegetation of the former is chiefly +moss and heather, of the latter coarse grasses and sedges.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain the reclamation of a moor is usually an expensive +operation, for which not only much draining, but actual cutting out and +burning of the compact peat is necessary.</p> + +<p>The warmth of our summers and the dryness of our atmosphere prevent the +accumulation of peat above the highest level of the standing water of +our marshes, and so soon as the marshes are well drained, the peat +ceases to form, and in most cases the swamp may be easily converted into +good meadow land.</p> + +<p>Springy hill-sides, which in cooler, moister climates would become +moors, here dry up in summer to such an extent that no peat can be +formed upon them.</p> + +<p>As already observed, our peat is found in low places. In many instances +its accumulation began by the obstruction of a stream. To that +remarkable creature, the beaver, we owe many of our peat-bogs. These +animals, from time immemorial, have built their dams across rivers so as +to flood the adjacent forest. In the rich leaf-mold at the water's +verge, and in the cool shade of the standing trees, has begun the growth +of the sphagnums, sedges, and va<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>rious purely aquatic plants. These in +their annual decay have shortly filled the shallow borders of the +stagnating water, and by slow encroachments, going on through many +years, they have occupied the deeper portions, aided by the trees, +which, perishing, give their fallen branches and trunks, towards +completing the work. The trees decay and fall, and become entirely +converted into peat; or, as not unfrequently happens, especially in case +of resinous woods, preserve their form, and to some extent their +soundness.</p> + +<p>In a similar manner, ponds and lakes are encroached upon; or, if +shallow, entirely filled up by peat deposits. In the Great Forest of +Northern New York, the voyager has abundant opportunity to observe the +formation of peat-swamps, both as a result of beaver dams, and of the +filling of shallow ponds, or the narrowing of level river courses. The +formation of peat in water of some depth greatly depends upon the growth +of aquatic plants, other than those already mentioned. In our Eastern +States the most conspicuous are the Arrow-head, (<i>Sagittaria</i>); the +Pickerel Weed, (<i>Pontederia</i>;) Duck Meat, (<i>Lemna</i>;) Pond Weed, +(<i>Potamogeton</i>;) various <i>Polygonums</i>, brothers of Buckwheat and +Smart-weed; and especially the Pond Lilies, <i>(Nymphœa</i> and <i>Nuphar</i>). +The latter grow in water four or five feet deep, their leaves and long +stems are thick and fleshy, and their roots, which fill the oozy mud, +are often several inches in diameter. Their decaying leaves and stems, +and their huge roots, living or dead, accumulate below and gradually +raise the bed of the pond. Their living foliage which often covers the +water almost completely for acres, becomes a shelter or support for +other more delicate aquatic plants and sphagnums, which, creeping out +from the shore, may so develop as to form a floating carpet, whereon the +leaves of the neighboring wood, and dust <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>scattered by the wind collect, +bearing down the mass, which again increases above, or is reproduced +until the water is filled to its bottom with vegetable matter.</p> + +<p>It is not rare to find in our bogs, patches of moss of considerable area +concealing deep water with a treacherous appearance of solidity, as the +hunter and botanist have often found to their cost. In countries of more +humid atmosphere, they are more common and attain greater dimensions. In +Zealand the surfaces of ponds are so frequently covered with floating +beds of moss, often stout enough to bear a man, that they have there +received a special name "<i>Hangesak</i>." In the Russian Ural, there occur +lakes whose floating covers of moss often extend five or six feet above +the water, and are so firm that roads are made across them, and forests +of large fir-trees find support. These immense accumulations are in fact +floating moors, consisting entirely of peat, save the living vegetation +at the surface.</p> + +<p>Sometimes these floating peat-beds, bearing trees, are separated by +winds from their connection with the shore, and become swimming peat +islands. In a small lake near Eisenach, in Central Germany, is a +swimming island of this sort. Its diameter is 40 rods, and it consists +of a felt-like mass of peat, three to five feet in depth, covered above +by sphagnums and a great variety of aquatic plants. A few birches and +dwarf firs grow in this peat, binding it together by their roots, and +when the wind blows, they act as sails, so that the island is constantly +moving about upon the lake.</p> + +<p>On the Neusiedler lake, in Hungary, is said to float a peat island +having an area of six square miles, and on lakes of the high Mexican +Plateau are similar islands which, long ago, were converted in fruitful +gardens.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>3. <i>The different kinds of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>Very great differences in the characters of the deposits in our +peat-beds are observable. These differences are partly of color, some +peats being gray, others red, others again black; the majority, when +dry, possess a dark brown-red or snuff color. They also vary remarkably +in weight and consistency. Some are compact, destitute of fibres or +other traces of the vegetation from which they have been derived, and on +drying, shrink greatly and yield tough dense masses which burn readily, +and make an excellent fuel. Others again are light and porous, and +remain so on drying; these contain intermixed vegetable matter that is +but little advanced in the peaty decomposition. Some peats are almost +entirely free from mineral matters, and on burning, leave but a few <i>per +cent.</i> of ash, others contain considerable quantities of lime or iron, +in chemical combination, or of sand and clay that have been washed in +from the hills adjoining the swamps. As has been observed, the peat of +some swamps is mostly derived from mosses, that of others originates +largely from grasses; some contain much decayed wood and leaves, others +again are free from these.</p> + +<p>In the same swamp we usually observe more or less of all these +differences. We find the surface peat is light and full of partly +decayed vegetation, while below, the deposits are more compact. We +commonly can trace distinct strata or layers of peat, which are often +very unlike each other in appearance and quality, and in some cases the +light and compact layers alternate so that the former are found below +the latter.</p> + +<p>The light and porous kinds of peat appear in general to be formed in +shallow swamps or on the surface of bogs, where there is considerable +access of air to the decaying matters, while the compacter, older, riper +peats are found <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>at a depth, and seem to have been formed beneath the +low water mark, in more complete exclusion of the atmosphere, and under +a considerable degree of pressure.</p> + +<p>The nature of the vegetation that flourishes in a bog, has much effect +on the character of the peat. The peats chiefly derived from mosses that +have grown in the full sunlight, have a yellowish-red color in their +upper layers, which usually becomes darker as we go down, running +through all shades of brown until at a considerable depth it is black. +Peats produced principally from grasses are grayish in appearance at the +surface, being full of silvery fibres—the skeletons of the blades of +grasses and sedges, while below they are commonly black.</p> + +<p><i>Moss peat</i> is more often fibrous in structure, and when dried forms +somewhat elastic masses. <i>Grass peat</i>, when taken a little below the +surface, is commonly destitute of fibres; when wet, is earthy in its +look, and dries to dense hard lumps.</p> + +<p>Where mosses and grasses have grown together simultaneously in the same +swamp, the peat is modified in its characters accordingly. Where, as may +happen, grass succeeds moss, or moss succeeds grass, the different +layers reveal their origin by their color and texture. At considerable +depths, however, where the peat is very old, these differences nearly or +entirely disappear.</p> + +<p>The geological character of a country is not without influence on the +kind of peat. It is only in regions where the rocks are granitic or +silicious, where, at least, the surface waters are free or nearly free +from lime, that <i>mosses</i> make the bulk of the peat.</p> + +<p>In limestone districts, peat is chiefly formed from <i>grasses</i> and +<i>sedges</i>.</p> + +<p>This is due to the fact that mosses (sphagnums) need little lime for +their growth, while the grasses require much; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>aquatic grasses cannot, +therefore, thrive in pure waters, and in waters containing the requisite +proportion of lime, grasses and sedges choke out the moss.</p> + +<p>The accidental admixtures of soil often greatly affect the appearance +and value of a peat, but on the whole it would appear that its quality +is most influenced by the degree of decomposition it has been subjected +to.</p> + +<p>In meadows and marshes, overflowed by the ocean tides, we have +<i>salt-peat</i>, formed from Sea-weeds (<i>Algæ</i>,) Salt-wort (<i>Salicornia</i>,) +and a great variety of marine or strand-plants. In its upper portions, +salt-peat is coarsely fibrous from the grass roots, and dark-brown in +color. At sufficient depth it is black and destitute of fibres.</p> + +<p>The fact that peat is fibrous in texture shows that it is of +comparatively recent formation, or that the decomposition has been +arrested before reaching its later stages. Fibrous peat is found near +the surface, and as we dig down into a very deep bed we find almost +invariably that the fibrous structure becomes less and less evident +until at a certain depth it entirely disappears.</p> + +<p>It is not depth simply, but age or advancement in decomposition, which +determines these differences of texture.</p> + +<p>The "ripest," most perfectly formed peat, that in which the peaty +decomposition has reached its last stage,—which, in Germany, is termed +<i>pitchy-peat</i> or <i>fat peat</i>, (<i>Pechtorf</i>, <i>Specktorf</i>)—is dark-brown or +black in color, and comparatively heavy and dense. When moist, it is +firm, sticky and coherent almost like clay, may be cut and moulded to +any shape. Dried, it becomes hard, and on a cut or burnished surface +takes a luster like wax or pitch.</p> + +<p>In Holland, West Friesland, Holstein, Denmark and Pomerania, a so-called +<i>mud-peat</i> (<i>Schlammtorf</i>, also <i>Baggertorf</i> and <i>Streichtorf</i>,) is +"fished up" from the bottoms <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>of ponds, as a black mud or paste, which, +on drying, becomes hard and dense like the pitchy-peat.</p> + +<p>The two varieties of peat last named are those which are most prized as +fuel in Europe.</p> + +<p><i>Vitriol peat</i> is peat of any kind impregnated with sulphate of iron +(<i>copperas</i>,) and sulphate of alumina, (the astringent ingredient of +alum.)</p> + +<p><i>Swamp Muck.</i>—In New England, the vegetable remains occurring in +swamps, etc., are commonly called <i>Muck</i>. In proper English usage, muck +is a general term for manure of any sort, and has no special application +to the contents of bogs. With us, however, this meaning appears to be +quite obsolete, though in our agricultural literature—formerly, more +than now, it must be admitted,—the word as applied to the subject of +our treatise, has been qualified as <i>Swamp Muck</i>.</p> + +<p>In Germany, peat of whatever character, is designated by the single word +<i>Torf</i>; in France it is <i>Tourbe</i>, and of the same origin is the word +<i>Turf</i>, applied to it in Great Britain. With us turf appears never to +have had this signification.</p> + +<p>Peat, no doubt, is a correct name for the substance which results from +the decomposition of vegetable matters under or saturated with water, +whatever its appearance or properties. There is, however, with us, an +inclination to apply this word particularly to those purer and more +compact sorts which are adapted for fuel, while to the lighter, less +decomposed or more weathered kinds, and to those which are considerably +intermixed with soil or silt, the term muck or swamp muck is given. +These distinctions are not, indeed, always observed, and, in fact, so +great is the range of variation in the quality of the substance, that it +would be impossible to draw a line where muck leaves off and peat +begins. Notwithstanding, a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>rough distinction is better than none, and +we shall therefore employ the two terms when any greater clearness of +meaning can be thereby conveyed.</p> + +<p>It happens, that in New England, the number of small shallow swales, +that contain unripe or impure peat, is much greater than that of large +and deep bogs. Their contents are therefore more of the "mucky" than of +the "peaty" order, and this may partly account for New England usage in +regard to these old English words.</p> + +<p>By the term muck, some farmers understand leaf-mold (decayed leaves), +especially that which collects in low and wet places. When the deposit +is deep and saturated with water, it may have all the essential +characters of peat. Ripe peat, from such a source is, however, so far as +the writer is informed, unknown to any extent in this country. We might +distinguish as <i>leaf-muck</i> the leaves which have decomposed under or +saturated with water, retaining the well established term leaf-mold to +designate the dry or drier covering of the soil in a dense forest of +deciduous trees.</p> + +<p><i>Salt-mud.</i>—In the marshes, bays, and estuaries along the sea-shore, +accumulate large quantities of fine silt, brought down by rivers or +deposited from the sea-water, which are more or less mixed with finely +divided peat or partly decomposed vegetable matters, derived largely +from Sea-weed, and in many cases also with animal remains (mussels and +other shell-fish, crabs, and myriads of minute organisms.) This black +mud has great value as a fertilizer.</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Chemical Characters and Composition of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>The process of burning, demonstrates that peat consists of two kinds of +substance; one of which, the larger <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>portion, is combustible, and is +<i>organic</i> or vegetable matter; the other, smaller portion, remaining +indestructible by fire is <i>inorganic matter</i> or <i>ash</i>. We shall consider +these separately.</p> + +<p>a. <i>The organic or combustible part of peat</i> varies considerably in its +proximate composition. It is in fact an indefinite mixture of several or +perhaps of many compound bodies, whose precise nature is little known. +These bodies have received the collective names <i>Humus</i> and <i>Geine</i>. We +shall employ the term <i>humus</i> to designate this mixture, whether +occurring in peat, swamp-muck, salt-mud, in composts, or in the arable +soil. Its chemical characters are much the same, whatever its appearance +or mode of occurrence; and this is to be expected since it is always +formed from the same materials and under essentially similar conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Resinous</i> and <i>Bituminous matters</i>.—If dry pulverized peat be agitated +and warmed for a short time with alcohol, there is usually extracted a +small amount of <i>resinous</i> and sometimes of <i>bituminous</i> matters, which +are of no account in the agricultural applications of peat, but have a +bearing on its value as fuel.</p> + +<p><i>Ulmic</i> and <i>Humic acids</i>.—On boiling what remains from the treatment +with alcohol, with a weak solution of carbonate of soda (sal-soda), we +obtain a yellowish-brown or black liquid. This liquid contains certain +acid ingredients of the peat which become soluble by entering into +chemical combination with soda.</p> + +<p>On adding to the solution strong vinegar, or any other strong acid, +there separates a bulky brown or black substance, which, after a time, +subsides to the bottom of the vessel as a precipitate, to use a chemical +term, leaving the liquid of a more or less yellow tinge. This deposit, +if obtained from light brown peat, is <i>ulmic acid</i>; if from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>black peat, +it is <i>humic acid</i>. These acids, when in the precipitated state, are +insoluble in vinegar; but when this is washed away, they are +considerably soluble in water. They are, in fact, modified by the action +of the soda, so as to acquire much greater solubility in water than they +otherwise possess. On drying the bulky bodies thus obtained, brown or +black lustrous masses result, which have much the appearance of coal.</p> + +<p><i>Ulmin</i> and <i>Humin</i>.—After extracting the peat with solution of +carbonate of soda, it still contains ulmin or humin. These bodies cannot +be obtained in the pure state from peat, since they are mixed with more +or less partially decomposed vegetable matters from which they cannot be +separated without suffering chemical change. They have been procured, +however, by the action of muriatic acid on sugar. They are indifferent +in their chemical characters, are insoluble in water and in solution of +carbonate of soda; but upon heating with solution of hydrate of soda +they give dark-colored liquids, being in fact converted by this +treatment into ulmic and humic acids, respectively, with which they are +identical in composition.</p> + +<p>The terms ulmic and humic acids do not refer each to a single compound, +but rather to a group of bodies of closely similar appearance and +properties, which, however, do differ slightly in their characteristics, +and differ also in composition by containing more or less of oxygen and +hydrogen in equal equivalents.</p> + +<p>After complete extraction with hydrate of soda, there remains more or +less undecomposed vegetable matter, together with sand and soil, were +these contained in the peat.</p> + +<p><i>Crenic</i> and <i>apocrenic acids</i>.—From the usually yellowish liquid out +of which the ulmic and humic acids have been separated, may further be +procured by appropriate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>chemical means, not needful to be detailed +here, two other bodies which bear the names respectively of <i>Crenic +Acid</i> and <i>Apocrenic Acid</i>. These acids were discovered by Berzelius, +the great Swedish chemist, in the water and sediment of the Porla +spring, in Sweden.</p> + +<p>By the action upon peat of carbonate of ammonia, which is generated to +some extent in the decay of vegetable matters and is also absorbed from +the air, ulmic and humic acids are made soluble, and combine with the +ammonia as well as with lime, oxide of iron, etc. In some cases the +ulmates and humates thus produced may be extracted from the peat by +water, and consequently occur dissolved in the water of the swamp from +which the peat is taken, giving it a yellow or brown color.</p> + +<p><i>Ulmates</i> and <i>Humates</i>.—Of considerable interest to us here, are the +properties of the compounds of these acids, that may be formed in peat +when it is used as an ingredient of composts. The ulmates and humates of +the alkalies, viz.: <i>potash</i>, <i>soda</i>, and <i>ammonia</i>, dissolve readily in +water. They are formed when the alkalies or their carbonates act on +ulmin and humin, or upon ulmates or humates of lime, iron, etc. Their +dilute solutions are yellow, or brown.</p> + +<p>The ulmates and humates of <i>lime</i>, <i>magnesia</i>, oxide of <i>iron</i>, oxide of +<i>manganese</i> and <i>alumina</i>, are insoluble, or nearly so in water.</p> + +<p>In ordinary soils, the earths and oxides just named, predominate over +the alkalies, and although they may contain considerable ulmic and humic +acids, water is able to extract but very minute quantities of the +latter, on account of the insolubility of the compounds they have +formed.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, peat, highly manured garden soil, leaf-mold, rotted +manure and composts, yield yellow or brown extracts with water, from the +fact that alkalies are here present to form soluble compounds.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>An important fact established by Mulder is, that when solutions of +alkali-carbonates are put in contact with the insoluble ulmates and +humates, the latter are decomposed; soluble alkali-ulmates and humates +being formed, and <i>in these, a portion of the otherwise insoluble +ulmates and humates dissolve</i>, so that thus, in a compost, lime, +magnesia, oxide of iron, and even alumina may exist in soluble +combinations, by the agency of these acids.</p> + +<p><i>Crenates</i> and <i>Apocrenates</i>.—The ulmic and humic acids when separated +from their compounds, are nearly insoluble, and, so far as we know, +comparatively inert bodies; by further change, (uniting with oxygen) +they pass into or yield the crenic and apocrenic acids which, according +to Mulder, have an acid taste, being freely soluble in water, and in all +respects, decided acids. The compounds of both these acids with the +alkalies are soluble. The crenates of lime, magnesia, and protoxide of +iron are soluble, crenates of peroxide of iron and of oxide of manganese +are but very slightly soluble; crenate of alumina is insoluble. The +apocrenates of iron and manganese are slightly soluble; those of lime, +magnesia, and alumina are insoluble. All the insoluble crenates and +apocrenates, are soluble in solutions of the corresponding salts of the +alkalies.</p> + +<p>Application of these facts will be given in subsequent paragraphs. It +may be here remarked, that the crenate of protoxide of iron is not +unfrequently formed in considerable quantity in peat-bogs, and +dissolving in the water of springs gives them a chalybeate character. +Copious springs of this kind occur at the edge of a peat-bed at +Woodstock, Conn., which are in no small repute for their medicinal +qualities, having a tonic effect from the iron they contain. Such +waters, on exposure to the air, shortly absorb oxygen, and the substance +is thereby <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>converted into crenate and afterwards into apocrenate of +peroxide of iron, which, being but slightly soluble, or insoluble, +separates as a yellow or brown ochreous deposit along the course of the +water. By further exposure to air the organic acid is oxidized to +carbonic acid, and hydrated oxide of iron remains. Bog-iron ore appears +often to have originated in this way.</p> + +<p><i>Gein and Geic acid.</i>—Mulder formerly believed another substance to +exist in peat which he called <i>Gein</i>, and from this by the action of +alkalies he supposed geic acid to be formed. In his later writings, +however, he expresses doubt as to the existence of such a substance, and +we may omit further notice of it, especially since, if it really do +occur, its properties are not distinct from those of humic acid.</p> + +<p>We should not neglect to remark, however, that the word gein has been +employed by some writers in the sense in which we use humus, viz.: to +denote the brown or black products of the decomposition of vegetable +matters.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely to be doubted that other organic compounds exist in peat. +As yet, however, we have no knowledge of any other ingredients, while it +appears certain that those we have described are its chief constituents, +and give it its peculiar properties. With regard to them it must +nevertheless be admitted, that our chemical knowledge is not entirely +satisfactory, and new investigations are urgently demanded to supply the +deficiencies of the researches so ably made by Mulder, more than twenty +years ago.</p> + +<p><i>Elementary Composition of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>After this brief notice of those organic <i>compounds</i> that have been +recognized in or produced from peat, we may give attention to the +elementary composition of peat itself.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>Like that of the vegetation from which it originates, the organic part +of peat consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. In the +subjoined table are given the proportions of these elements as found in +the combustible part of sphagnum, of several kinds of wood, and in that +of a number of peats in various stages of ripeness. They are arranged in +the order of their content of carbon.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png024"> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" width="50%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="10%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Analyst.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Carbon.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Hydrogen.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Oxygen.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Nitrogen.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1—Sphagnum, undecomposed</td> + <td class="tdll">Websky</td> + <td class="tdcl">49.88</td> + <td class="tdcl">6.54</td> + <td class="tdcl">42.42</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.16</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 2—Peach wood, undecomposed</td> + <td class="tdll">Chevandier</td> + <td class="tdcl">49.90</td> + <td class="tdcl">6.10</td> + <td class="tdcl">43.10</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.90</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 3—Poplar wood, undecomposed</td> + <td class="tdll">Chevandier</td> + <td class="tdcl">50.30</td> + <td class="tdcl">6.30</td> + <td class="tdcl">42.40</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4—Oak wood, undecomposed</td> + <td class="tdll">Chevandier</td> + <td class="tdcl">50.60</td> + <td class="tdcl">6.00</td> + <td class="tdcl">42.10</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.30</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 5—Peat, porous, light-brown, sphagnous</td> + <td class="tdll">Websky</td> + <td class="tdcl">50.86</td> + <td class="tdcl">5.80</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: 1px black dashed;">42.57</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: 1px black dashed;">0.77</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 6—Peat, porous, red-brown</td> + <td class="tdll">Jæckel</td> + <td class="tdcl">53.51</td> + <td class="tdcl">5.90</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">40.59</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 7—Peat, heavy, brown</td> + <td class="tdll">Jæckel</td> + <td class="tdcl">56.43</td> + <td class="tdcl">5.32</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">38.25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 8—Peat, dark red-brown, well decomposed</td> + <td class="tdll">Websky</td> + <td class="tdcl">59.47</td> + <td class="tdcl">6.52</td> + <td class="tdcl">31.51</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.51</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 9—Peat, black, very dense and hard</td> + <td class="tdll">Websky</td> + <td class="tdcl">59.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">5.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">33.04</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.56</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">10—Peat, black, heavy, best quality for fuel</td> + <td class="tdll">Websky</td> + <td class="tdcl">59.71</td> + <td class="tdcl">5.27</td> + <td class="tdcl">32.07</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.59</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb">11—Peat, brown, heavy, best quality for fuel</td> + <td class="tdlbl">Websky</td> + <td class="tdcbl">62.54</td> + <td class="tdcbl">6.81</td> + <td class="tdcbl">29.24</td> + <td class="tdcbl">1.41</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>From this table it is seen that sphagnum, and the wood of our forest +trees are very similar in composition, though not identical. Further, it +is seen from analyses 1 and 5, that in the first stages of the +conversion of sphagnum into peat—which are marked by a change of color, +but in which the form of the sphagnum is to a considerable extent +preserved—but little alteration occurs in ultimate composition; about +one <i>per cent.</i> of carbon being gained, and one of hydrogen lost. We +notice in running down the columns that as the peat becomes heavier and +darker in color, it also becomes richer in carbon and poorer in oxygen. +Hydrogen varies but slightly.</p> + +<p>As a general statement we may say that the ripest and heaviest peat +contains 10 or 12 <i>per cent.</i> more carbon and 10 or 12 <i>per cent.</i> less +oxygen than the vegetable matter from which it is produced; while +between the unaltered vegetation and the last stage of humification, the +peat runs through an indefinite number of intermediate stages.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>Nitrogen is variable, but, in general, the older peats contain the most. +To this topic we shall shortly recur, and now pass on to notice—</p> + +<p><i>The ultimate composition of the compounds of which peat consists.</i></p> + +<p>Below are tabulated analyses of the organic acids of peat:—</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png025"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="55%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%"><i>Carbon.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%"><i>Hydrogen.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%"><i>Oxygen.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Ulmic acid, artificial from sugar</td> + <td class="tdc">67.10</td> + <td class="tdc">4.20</td> + <td class="tdc">28.70</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Humic acid, from Frisian peat</td> + <td class="tdc">61.10</td> + <td class="tdc">4.30</td> + <td class="tdc">34.60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Crenic acid</td> + <td class="tdc">56.47</td> + <td class="tdc">2.74</td> + <td class="tdc">40.78</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Apocrenic acid</td> + <td class="tdc">45.70</td> + <td class="tdc">4.80</td> + <td class="tdc">49.50</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>It is seen that the amount of carbon diminishes from ulmic acid to +apocrenic, that of oxygen increases in the same direction and to the +same extent, viz.: about 21 <i>per cent.</i>, while the hydrogen remains +nearly the same in all.</p> + +<p>b. <i>The mineral part of peat, which remains as ashes</i> when the organic +matters are burned away, is variable in quantity and composition. +Usually a portion of sand or soil is found in it, and this not +unfrequently constitutes its larger portion. Some peats leave on burning +much carbonate of lime; others chiefly sulphate of lime; the ash of +others again is mostly oxyd of iron; silicic, and phosphoric acids, +magnesia, potash, soda, alumina and chlorine, also occur in small +quantities in the ash of all peats.</p> + +<p>With one exception (alumina) all these bodies are important ingredients +of agricultural plants.</p> + +<p>In some rare instances, peats are found, which are so impregnated with +soluble sulphates of iron and alumina, as to yield these salts to water +in large quantity; and sulphate of iron (green vitriol,) has actually +been manufactured from such peats, which in consequence have been +characterized as <i>vitriol peats</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>Those bases (lime, oxide of iron, etc.,) which are found as carbonates +or simple oxides in the ashes, exist in the peat itself in combination +with the humic and other organic acids. When these compounds are +destroyed by burning, the bases remain united to carbonic acid.</p> + +<p>5.—<i>Chemical Changes that occur in the formation of Peat.</i> When a plant +perishes, its conversion into humus usually begins at once. When exposed +to the atmosphere, the oxygen of the air attacks it, uniting with its +carbon producing carbonic acid gas, and with its hydrogen generating +water. This action goes on, though slowly, even at some depth under +water, because the latter dissolves oxygen from the air in small +quantity,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and constantly resupplies itself as rapidly as the gas is +consumed.</p> + +<p>Whether exposed to the air or not, the organic matter suffers internal +decomposition, and portions of its elements assume the gaseous or liquid +form. We have seen that ripe peat is 10 to 12 <i>per cent.</i> richer in +carbon and equally poorer in oxygen, than the vegetable matters from +which it originates. Organic matters, in passing into peat, lose carbon +and nitrogen; but they lose oxygen more rapidly than the other two +elements, and hence the latter become relatively more abundant. The loss +of hydrogen is such that its proportion to the other elements is but +little altered.</p> + +<p>The bodies that separate from the decomposing vegetable matter are +carbonic acid gas, carburetted hydrogen (marsh gas), nitrogen gas, and +water.</p> + +<p>Carbonic acid is the most abundant gaseous product of the peaty +decomposition. Since it contains nearly 73 <i>per cent.</i> of oxygen and but +27 <i>per cent.</i> of carbon, it is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>obvious that by its escape the +proportion of carbon in the residual mass is increased. In the formation +of water from the decaying matters, 1 part of hydrogen carries off 8 +parts of oxygen, and this change increases the proportion of carbon and +of hydrogen. Marsh gas consists of one part of hydrogen to three of +carbon, but it is evolved in comparatively small quantity, and hence has +no effect in diminishing the <i>per cent.</i> of carbon.</p> + +<p>The gas that bubbles up through the water of a peat-bog, especially if +the decomposing matters at the bottom be stirred, consists largely of +marsh gas and nitrogen, often with but a small proportion of carbonic +acid. Thus Websky found in gas from a peat-bed</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="50%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png027"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="95%">Carbonic acid</td> + <td class="tdr" width="5%">2.97</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Marsh gas</td> + <td class="tdr">43.36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;">53.67</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">100.00</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>Carbonic acid, however, dissolves to a considerable extent in water, and +is furthermore absorbed by the living vegetation, which is not true of +marsh gas and nitrogen; hence the latter escape while the former does +not. Nitrogen escapes in the uncombined state, as it always (or usually) +does in the decay of vegetable and animal matters that contain it. Its +loss is, in general, slower than that of the other elements, and it +sometimes accumulates in the peat in considerable quantity. A small +portion of nitrogen unites with hydrogen, forming ammonia, which remains +combined with the humic and other acids.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr style="width: 15%;" /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +<br /> +<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II">PART II.</a></h2> +<h2>ON THE AGRICULTURAL USES OF PEAT AND SWAMP MUCK.</h2> +<br /> + + +<p>After the foregoing account of the composition of peat, we may proceed +to notice:</p> + +<p>1.—<i>The characters that adapt it for agricultural uses.</i></p> + +<p>These characters are conveniently discussed under two heads, viz.:</p> + +<p>Those which render it useful in improving the texture and physical +characters of the soil, and indirectly contribute to the nourishment of +crops,—characters which constitute it an <i>amendment</i> to the soil (<i>A</i>); +and</p> + +<p>Those which make it a direct <i>fertilizer</i> (<i>B</i>).</p> + +<p>A.—Considered as an amendment, the value of peat depends upon</p> + +<p><i>Its remarkable power of absorbing and retaining water, both as a liquid +and as a vapor</i> (I):</p> + +<p><i>Its power of absorbing ammonia</i> (II):</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span><i>Its effect in promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral +ingredients, that is the stony matters of the soil</i> (III): <i>and</i></p> + +<p><i>Its influence on the temperature of the soil</i> (IV).</p> + +<p>The agricultural importance of these properties of peat is best +illustrated by considering the faults of a certain class of soils.</p> + +<p>Throughout the State of Connecticut, for instance, are found abundant +examples of light, leachy, hungry soils, which consist of coarse sand or +fine gravel; are surface-dry in a few hours after the heaviest rains, +and in the summer drouths, are as dry as an ash-heap to a depth of +several or many feet.</p> + +<p>These soils are easy to work, are ready for the plow early in the +spring, and if well manured give fair crops in wet seasons. In a dry +summer, however, they yield poorly, or fail of crops entirely; and, at +the best, they require constant and very heavy manuring to keep them in +heart.</p> + +<p>Crops fail on these soils from two causes, viz.; <i>want of moisture</i> and +<i>want of food</i>. Cultivated plants demand as an indispensable condition +of their growth and perfection, to be supplied with water in certain +quantities, which differ with different crops. Buckwheat will flourish +best on dry soils, while cranberries and rice grow in swamps.</p> + +<p>Our ordinary cereal, root, forage and garden crops require a medium +degree of moisture, and with us it is in all cases desirable that the +soil be equally protected from excess of water and from drouth. Soils +must be thus situated either naturally, or as the result of improvement, +before any steadily good results can be obtained in their cultivation. +The remedy for excess of water in too heavy soils, is thorough drainage. +It is expensive, but effectual. It makes the earth more porous, opens +and maintains <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>channels, through which the surplus water speedily runs +off, and permits the roots of crops to go down to a considerable depth.</p> + +<p>What, let us consider, is the means of obviating the defects of soils +that are naturally too porous, from which the water runs off too +readily, and whose crops "burn up" in dry seasons?</p> + +<p>In wet summers, these light soils, as we have remarked, are quite +productive if well manured. It is then plain that if we could add +anything to them which would retain the moisture of dews and rains in +spite of the summer-heats, our crops would be uniformly fair, provided +the supply of manure were kept up.</p> + +<p>But why is it that light soils, need more manure than loamy or heavy +lands? We answer—because, in the first place the rains which quickly +descend through the open soil, wash down out of the reach of vegetation +the soluble fertilizing matters, especially the nitrates, for which the +soil has no retentive power; and in the second place, from the porosity +of the soil, the air has too great access, so that the vegetable and +animal matters of manures decay too rapidly, their volatile portions, +ammonia and carbonic acid, escape into the atmosphere, and are in +measure lost to the crops. From these combined causes we find that a +heavy dressing of well-rotted stable manure, almost if not entirely, +disappears from such soils in one season, so that another year the field +requires a renewed application; while on loamy soils the same amount of +manure would have lasted several years, and produced each year a better +effect.</p> + +<p>We want then to <i>amend</i> light soils by incorporating with them something +that prevents the rains from leaching through them too rapidly, and also +that renders them less open to the air, or absorbs and retains for the +use of crops the volatile products of the decay of manures.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>For these purposes, vegetable matter of some sort is the best and almost +the only amendment that can be economically employed. In many cases a +good peat or muck is the best form of this material, that lies at the +farmer's command.</p> + +<p>I.—<i>Its absorbent power for liquid water</i> is well known to every farmer +who has thrown it up in a pile to season for use. It holds the water +like a sponge, and, according to its greater or less porosity, will +retain from 50 to 100 or more <i>per cent.</i> of its weight of liquid, +without dripping. Nor can this water escape from it rapidly. It dries +almost as slowly as clay, and a heap of it that has been exposed to sun +and wind for a whole summer, though it has of course lost much water, is +still distinctly wet to the eye and the feel a little below the surface.</p> + +<p><i>Its absorbent power for vapor of water</i> is so great that more than once +it has happened in Germany, that barns or close sheds filled with +partially dried peat, such as is used for fuel, have been burst by the +swelling of the peat in damp weather, occasioned by the absorption of +moisture from the air. This power is further shown by the fact that when +peat has been kept all summer long in a warm room, thinly spread out to +the air, and has become like dry snuff to the feel, it still contains +from 8 to 30 <i>per cent.</i> (average 15 <i>per cent.</i>) of water. To dry a +peat thoroughly, it requires to be exposed for some time to the +temperature of boiling water. It is thus plain, as experience has +repeatedly demonstrated, that no ordinary summer heats can dry up a soil +which has had a good dressing of this material, for on the one hand, it +soaks up and holds the rains that fall upon it, and on the other, it +absorbs the vapor of water out of the atmosphere whenever it is moist, +as at night and in cloudy weather.</p> + +<p>When peat has once become <i>air-dry</i>, it no longer manifests this avidity +for water. In drying it shrinks, loses <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>its porosity and requires long +soaking to saturate it again. In the soil, however, it rarely becomes +air-dry, unless indeed, this may happen during long drouth with a peaty +soil, such as results from the draining of a bog.</p> + +<p>II.—<i>Absorbent power for ammonia.</i></p> + +<p>All soils that deserve to be called fertile, have the property of +absorbing and retaining ammonia and the volatile matters which escape +from fermenting manures, but light and coarse soils may be deficient in +this power. Here again in respect to its absorptive power for ammonia, +peat comes to our aid.</p> + +<p>It is easy to show by direct experiment that peat absorbs and combines +with ammonia.</p> + +<p>In 1858 I took a weighed quantity of air-dry peat from the New Haven +Beaver Pond, (a specimen furnished me by Chauncey Goodyear, Esq.,) and +poured upon it a known quantity of dilute solution of ammonia, and +agitated the two together occasionally during 48 hours. I then distilled +off at a boiling heat the unabsorbed ammonia and determined its +quantity. This amount subtracted from that of the ammonia originally +employed, gave the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained by the peat +at the temperature of boiling water.</p> + +<p>The peat retained ammonia to the amount of 0.95 of <i>one per cent.</i></p> + +<p>I made another trial at the same time with carbonate of ammonia, adding +excess of solution of this salt to a quantity of peat, and exposing it +to the heat of boiling water, until no smell of ammonia was perceptible. +The entire nitrogen in the peat was then determined, and it was found +that the dry peat which originally contained nitrogen equivalent to 2.4 +<i>per cent.</i> of ammonia, now yielded an amount corresponding to 3.7 <i>per +cent.</i> The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained at a temperature +of 212°, was thus 1.3 <i>per cent.</i></p> + +<p>This last experiment most nearly represents the true power of +absorption; because, in fermenting manures, ammonia mostly occurs in the +form of carbonate, and this is more largely retained than free ammonia, +on account of its power of decomposing the humate of lime, forming with +it carbonate of lime and humate of ammonia.</p> + +<p>The absorbent power of peat is well shown by the analyses of three +specimens, sent me in 1858, by Edwin Hoyt, Esq., of New Canaan, Conn. +The first of these was the swamp muck he employed. It contained in the +air-dry state nitrogen equivalent to 0.58 <i>per cent.</i> of ammonia. The +second sample was the same muck that had lain under the flooring of the +horse stables, and had been, in this way, partially saturated with +urine. It contained nitrogen equivalent to 1.15 <i>per cent.</i> of ammonia. +The third sample was, finally, the same muck composted with white-fish. +It contained nitrogen corresponding to 1.31 <i>per cent.</i> of ammonia.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>The quantities of ammonia thus absorbed, both in the laboratory and +field experiments are small—from 0.7 to 1.3 <i>per cent.</i> The absorption +is without doubt chiefly due to the organic matter of the peats, and in +all the specimens on which these trials were made, the proportion of +inorganic matter is large. The results therefore become a better +expression of the power of <i>peat</i>, in general, to absorb ammonia, if we +reckon them on the organic matter alone. Calculated in this way, the +organic matter of the Beaver Pond peat (which constitutes but 68 <i>per +cent.</i> of the dry peat) absorbs 1.4 <i>per cent.</i> of free ammonia, and 1.9 +<i>per cent.</i> of ammonia out of the carbonate of ammonia.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>Similar experiments, by Anderson, on a Scotch peat, showed it to +possess, when wet, an absorptive power of 2 <i>per cent.</i>, and, after +drying in the air, it still retained 1.5 <i>per cent.</i>—[Trans. Highland +and Ag'l Soc'y.]</p> + +<p>When we consider how small an ingredient of most manures nitrogen is, +viz.: from one-half to three-quarters of one <i>per cent.</i> in case of +stable manure, and how little of it, in the shape of guano for instance, +is usually applied to crops—not more than 40 to 60 lbs. to the acre, +(the usual dressings with guano are from 250 to 400 lbs. per acre, and +nitrogen averages but 15 <i>per cent.</i> of the guano), we at once perceive +that an absorptive power of one or even one-half <i>per cent.</i> is greatly +more than adequate for every agricultural purpose.</p> + +<p>III.—<i>Peat promotes the disintegration of the soil.</i></p> + +<p>The soil is a storehouse of food for crops; the stores it contains are, +however, only partly available for immediate use. In fact, by far the +larger share is locked up, as it were, in insoluble combinations, and +only by a slow and gradual change can it become accessible to the plant. +This change is largely brought about by the united action of <i>water</i> and +<i>carbonic acid gas</i>. Nearly all the rocks and minerals out of which +fertile soils are formed,—which therefore contain those inorganic +matters that are essential to vegetable growth,—though very slowly +acted on by pure water, are decomposed and dissolved to a much greater +extent by water, charged with carbonic acid gas.</p> + +<p>It is by these solvents that the formation of soil from broken rocks is +to a great extent due. Clay is invariably a result of their direct +action upon rocks. The efficiency of the soil depends greatly upon their +chemical influence.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span><i>The only abundant source of carbonic acid in the soil, is decaying +vegetable matter.</i></p> + +<p>Hungry, leachy soils, from their deficiency of vegetable matter and of +moisture, do not adequately yield their own native resources to the +support of crops, because the conditions for converting their fixed into +floating capital are wanting. Such soils dressed with peat or green +manured, at once acquire the power of retaining water, and keep that +water ever charged with carbonic acid: thus not only the extraneous +manures which the farmer applies are fully economized; but the soil +becomes more productive from its own stores of fertility which now begin +to be unlocked and available.</p> + +<p>Dr. Peters, of Saxony, has made some instructive experiments that are +here in point. He filled several large glass jars, (2-½ feet high and +5-½ inches wide) with a rather poor loamy sand, containing +considerable humus, and planted in each one, June 14, 1857, an equal +number of seeds of oats and peas. Jar No. 2 had daily passed into it +through a tube, adapted to the bottom, about 3-¼ pints of common air. +No. 3 received daily the same bulk of a mixture of air and carbonic acid +gas, of which the latter amounted to one-fourth. No. 1 remained without +any treatment of this kind, <i>i. e.</i>: in just the condition of the soil +in an open field, having no air in its pores, save that penetrating it +from the atmosphere. On October 3, the plants were removed from the +soil, and after drying at the boiling point of water, were weighed. The +crops from the pots into which air and carbonic acid were daily forced, +were about <i>twice as heavy</i> as No. 1, which remained in the ordinary +condition.</p> + +<p>Examination of the soil further demonstrated, that in the last two +soils, a considerably greater quantity of mineral and organic matters +had become soluble in water, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>than in the soil that was not artificially +aërated. The actual results are given in the table below in grammes, and +refer to 6000 grammes of soil in each case:—</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID ON THE SOIL.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png036"> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" width="55%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="15%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" rowspan="5"><i>Substances soluble in water, etc.</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>No. 1,</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Without</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>No. 2,</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>No. 3,</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Artificial</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Common</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Air and</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Supply of</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Air</i></td> + <td class="tdcl"><i>Carbonic</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Air.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Added.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>acid added.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Mineral matters</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.04</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.71</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.99</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Potash</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.07</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.17</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soda</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.17</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.28</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Organic matters</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.76</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb">Weight of Crops</td> + <td class="tdcbl">5.89</td> + <td class="tdcbl">10.49</td> + <td class="tdcbl">12.35</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>It will be seen from the above that air alone exercised nearly as much +solvent effect as the mixture of air with one-fourth its weight of +carbonic acid; this is doubtless, in part due to the fact that the air, +upon entering the soil rich in humus, caused the abundant formation of +carbonic acid, as will be presently shown must have been the case. It +is, however, probable that organic acids (crenic and apocrenic,) and +nitric acid were also produced (by oxidation,) and shared with carbonic +the work of solution.</p> + +<p>It is almost certain, that the acids of peat exert a powerful +decomposing, and ultimately solvent effect on the minerals of the soil; +but on this point we have no precise information, and must therefore be +content merely to present the probability. This is sustained by the fact +that the crenic, apocrenic and humic acids, though often partly +uncombined, are never wholly so, but usually occur united in part to +various bases, viz.: lime, magnesia, ammonia, potash, alumina and oxide +of iron.</p> + +<p>The crenic and apocrenic acids (that are formed by the oxidation of +ulmic and humic acids,) have such decided acid characters,—crenic acid +especially, which has a strongly sour taste—that we cannot well doubt +their dissolving action.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>IV.—<i>The influence of peat on the temperature</i> of light soils dressed +with it may often be of considerable practical importance. A light dry +soil is subject to great variations of temperature, and rapidly follows +the changes of the atmosphere from cold to hot, and from hot to cold. In +the summer noon a sandy soil becomes so warm as to be hardly endurable +to the feel, and again it is on such soils that the earliest frosts take +effect. If a soil thus subject to extremes of temperature have a +dressing of peat, it will on the one hand not become so warm in the hot +day, and on the other hand it will not cool so rapidly, nor so much in +the night; its temperature will be rendered more uniform, and on the +whole, more conducive to the welfare of vegetation. This regulative +effect on temperature is partly due to the stores of water held by peat. +In a hot day this water is constantly evaporating, and this, as all +know, is a cooling process. At night the peat absorbs vapor of water +from the air, and condenses it within its pores, this condensation is +again accompanied with the evolution of heat.</p> + +<p>It appears to be a general, though not invariable fact, that dark +colored soils, other things being equal, are constantly the warmest, or +at any rate maintain the temperature most favorable to vegetation. It +has been repeatedly observed that on light-colored soils plants mature +more rapidly, if the earth be thinly covered with a coating of some +black substance. Thus Lampadius, Professor in the School of Mines at +Freiberg, a town situated in a mountainous part of Saxony, found that he +could ripen melons, even in the coolest summers, by strewing a coating +of coal-dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In some of the +vineyards of the Rhine, the powder of a black slate is employed to +hasten the ripening of the grape.</p> + +<p>Girardin, an eminent French agriculturist, in a series of experiments on +the cultivation of potatoes, found that the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>time of their ripening +varied eight to fourteen days, according to the character of the soil. +He found, on the 25th of August, in a very dark soil, made so by the +presence of much humus or decaying vegetable matter, twenty-six +varieties ripe; in sandy soil but twenty, in clay nineteen, and in a +white lime soil only sixteen.</p> + +<p>It cannot be doubted then, that the effect of dressing a light sandy or +gravelly soil with peat, or otherwise enriching it in vegetable matter, +is to render it warmer, in the sense in which that word is usually +applied to soils. The upward range of the thermometer is not, indeed, +increased, but the uniform warmth so salutary to our most valued crops +is thereby secured.</p> + +<p>In the light soils stable-manure wastes too rapidly because, for one +reason, at the extremes of high temperature, oxidation and decay proceed +with great rapidity, and the volatile portions of the fertilizer are +used up faster than the plant can appropriate them, so that not only are +they wasted during the early periods of growth, but they are wanting at +a later period when their absence may prove the failure of a crop.</p> + + +<p>B. The ingredients and qualities which make peat <i>a direct fertilizer</i> +next come under discussion. We shall notice:</p> + +<p><i>The organic matters including nitrogen (ammonia and nitric acid)</i> (I):</p> + +<p><i>The inorganic or mineral ingredients</i> (II):</p> + +<p><i>Peculiarities in the decay of Peat</i> (III), <i>and</i></p> + +<p><i>Institute a comparison between peat and stable manure</i> (IV).</p> + +<p>I.—Under this division we have to consider:</p> + +<p>1. <i>The organic matters as direct food to plants.</i></p> + +<p>Thirty years ago, when Chemistry and Vegetable <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>Physiology began to be +applied to Agriculture, the opinion was firmly held among scientific +men, that the organic parts of humus—by which we understand decayed +vegetable matter, such as is found to a greater or less extent in all +good soils, and <i>abounds</i> in many fertile ones, such as constitutes the +leaf-mold of forests, such as is produced in the fermenting of stable +manure, and that forms the principal part of swamp-muck and peat,—are +the true nourishment of vegetation, at any rate of the higher orders of +plants, those which supply food to man and to domestic animals.</p> + + +<p>In 1840, Liebig, in his celebrated treatise on the "Applications of +Chemistry to Agriculture and Physiology," gave as his opinion that these +organic bodies do not nourish vegetation except by the products of their +decay. He asserted that they cannot enter the plant directly, but that +the water, carbonic acid and ammonia resulting from their decay, are the +substances actually imbibed by plants, and from these alone is built up +the organic or combustible part of vegetation.</p> + +<p>To this day there is a division of opinion among scientific men on this +subject, some adopting the views of Liebig, others maintaining that +certain soluble organic matters, viz., crenic and apocrenic acids are +proper food of plants.</p> + +<p>On the one hand it has been abundantly demonstrated that these organic +matters are not at all essential to the growth of agricultural plants, +and can constitute but a small part of the actual food of vegetation +taken in the aggregate.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, we are acquainted with no satisfactory evidence that +the soluble organic matters of the soil <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>and of peat, especially the +crenates and apocrenates, are not actually appropriated by, and, so far +as they go, are not directly serviceable as food to plants.</p> + +<p>Be this as it may, practice has abundantly demonstrated the value of +humus as an ingredient of the soil, and if not directly, yet indirectly, +it furnishes the material out of which plants build up their parts.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The organic matters of peat as indirect food to plants.</i> Very nearly +one-half, by weight, of our common crops, when perfectly dry, consists +of <i>carbon</i>. The substance which supplies this element to plants is the +gas, carbonic acid. Plants derive this gas mostly from the atmosphere, +absorbing it by means of their leaves. But the free atmosphere, at only +a little space above the soil, contains on the average but 1/2500 of its +bulk of this gas, whereas plants flourish in air containing a larger +quantity, and, in fact, their other wants being supplied, they grow +better as the quantity is increased to 1/12 the bulk of the air. These +considerations make sufficiently obvious how important it is that the +soil have in itself a constant and abundant source of carbonic acid gas. +As before said, <i>organic matter, in a state of decay</i>, is the single +material which the farmer can incorporate with his soil in order to make +the latter a supply of this most indispensable form of plant-food.</p> + +<p>When organic matters decay in the soil, their carbon ultimately assumes +the form of Carbonic acid. This gas, constantly exhaling from the soil, +is taken up by the foliage of the crops, and to some extent is absorbed +likewise by their roots.</p> + +<p>Boussingault & Lewy have examined the air inclosed in the interstices of +various soils, and invariably found it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>much richer (10 to 400 times) +than that of the atmosphere above. Here follow some of their results:</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">CARBONIC ACID IN SOILS.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png041"> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" width="74%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="8%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="8%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Key:</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">A - <i>Volumes of Carbonic acid in 100 of air in pores of Soil.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">B - <i>Cubic feet of air in acre to depth of 14 inches.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">C - <i>Cubic feet of Carbonic acid in acre to depth of 14 inches.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">D - <i>Volumes of Carbonic acid to 100 of air above the soil.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">E - <i>Cubic feet of air over one acre to height of 14 inches.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb" colspan="4">F - <i>Cubic feet of Carbonic acid over one acre to a height of 14 inches.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb"><i>Designation and Condition of Soil.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl">A</td> + <td class="tdcbl">B</td> + <td class="tdcbl">C</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sandy subsoil of forest</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.24</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4,326</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Loamy subsoil of forest</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.82</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3,458</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 28</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Surface soil of forest</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.86</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5,768</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 56</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Clayey soil of artichoke field</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.66</td> + <td class="tdcl">10,094</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 71</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soil of asparagus bed, unmanured for one year</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.79</td> + <td class="tdcl">10,948</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 86</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soil of asparagus bed, newly manured</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.54</td> + <td class="tdcl">10,948</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 172</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sandy soil, six days after manuring, and three days of rain</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.21</td> + <td class="tdcl">11,536</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 257</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sandy soil, ten days after manuring, and three days of rain</td> + <td class="tdcl">9.74</td> + <td class="tdcl">11,536</td> + <td class="tdcl">1144</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Compost of vegetable mold</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.64</td> + <td class="tdcl">20,608</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 772</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"><i>Carbonic Acid in Atmosphere</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl">D</td> + <td class="tdcbl">E</td> + <td class="tdcbl">F</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl">0.025</td> + <td class="tdcbl">50,820</td> + <td class="tdcbl"> 14</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>From the above it is seen that in soils containing little decomposing +organic matters—as the forest sub-soils—the quantity of carbonic acid +is no greater than that contained in an equal bulk of the atmosphere. It +is greater in loamy and clayey soils; but is still small. In the +artichoke field (probably light soil not lately manured), and even in an +asparagus bed unmanured for one year, the amount of carbonic acid is not +greatly larger. In newly manured fields, and especially in a vegetable +compost, the quantity is vastly greater.</p> + +<p>The organic matters which come from manures, or from the roots and other +residues of crops, are the source of the carbonic acid of the soil. +These matters continually waste in yielding this gas, and must be +supplied anew. Boussingault found that the rich soil of his kitchen +garden (near Strasburg) which had been heavily manured <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>from the +barn-yard for many years, lost one-third of its carbon by exposure to +the air for three months (July, August and September,) being daily +watered. It originally contained 2.43 <i>per cent.</i> At the conclusion of +the experiment it contained but 1.60 <i>per cent.</i>, having lost 0.83 <i>per +cent.</i></p> + +<p>Peat and swamp-muck, when properly prepared, furnish carbonic acid in +large quantities during their slow oxidation in the soil.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Nitrogen of Peat, including Ammonia and Nitric Acid.</i></p> + +<p>The sources of the nitrogen of plants, and the real cause of the value +of nitrogenous fertilizers, are topics that have excited more discussion +than any other points in Agricultural Chemistry. This is the result of +two circumstances. One is the obscurity in which some parts of the +subject have rested; the other is the immense practical and commercial +importance of this element, as a characteristic and essential ingredient +of the most precious fertilizers. It is a rule that the most valuable +manures, <i>commercially considered</i>, are those containing the most +nitrogen. Peruvian guano, sulphate of ammonia, soda-saltpeter, fish and +flesh manures, bones and urine, cost the farmer more money per ton than +any other manures he buys or makes, superphosphate of lime excepted, and +this does not find sale, for general purposes, unless it contains +several <i>per cent.</i> of nitrogen. These are, in the highest sense, +nitrogenous fertilizers, and, if deprived of their nitrogen, they would +lose the greater share of their fertilizing power.</p> + +<p>The importance of the nitrogen of manures depends upon the fact that +those forms (compounds) of nitrogen which are capable of supplying it to +vegetation are comparatively scarce.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>It has long been known that peat contains a considerable quantity of +nitrogen. The average amount in thirty specimens, analyzed under the +author's direction, including peats and swamp mucks of all grades of +quality, is equivalent to 1-½ <i>per cent.</i> of the air-dried substance, +or more than thrice as much as exists in ordinary stable or yard manure. +In several peats the amount is as high as 2.4 <i>per cent.</i>, and in one +case 2.9 <i>per cent.</i> were found.</p> + +<p>Of these thirty samples, one-half were largely mixed with soil, and +contained from 15 to 60 <i>per cent.</i> of mineral matters.</p> + +<p>Reducing them to an average of 15 <i>per cent.</i> of water and 5 <i>per cent.</i> +of ash, they contain 2.1 <i>per cent.</i> of nitrogen, while the organic +part, considered free from water and mineral substances, contains on the +average 2.6 <i>per cent.</i> See table, page 90.</p> + +<p>The five peats, analyzed by Websky and Chevandier, as cited on page 24, +considered free from water and ash, contain an average of 1.8 <i>per +cent.</i> of nitrogen.</p> + +<p>We should not neglect to notice that peat is often comparatively poor in +nitrogen. Of the specimens, examined in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, +several contained but half a <i>per cent.</i> or less. So in the analyses of +Websky, one sample contained but 0.77 <i>per cent.</i> of the element in +question.</p> + +<p>As concerns the state of combination in which nitrogen exists in peat, +there is a difference of opinion. Mulder regards it as chiefly occurring +in the form of <i>ammonia</i> (a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen), united +to the organic acids from which it is very difficult to separate it. +Recent investigations indicate that in general, peat contains but a +small proportion of ready-formed ammonia.</p> + +<p>The great part of the nitrogen of peat exists in an insoluble and inert +form: but, by the action of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>atmosphere upon it, especially when +mixed with and divided by the soil, it gradually becomes available to +vegetation to as great an extent as the nitrogen of ordinary +fertilizers.</p> + +<p>It appears from late examinations that weathered peat may contain +<i>nitric acid</i> (compound of nitrogen with oxygen) in a proportion which, +though small, is yet of great importance, agriculturally speaking. What +analytical data we possess are subjoined.</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">PROPORTIONS OF NITROGEN, ETC., IN PEAT.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png044"> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" width="19%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="16%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="16%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="17%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="16%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="16%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Analyst.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Total<br /> Nitrogen.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Ammonia,<br /> per cent.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>Nitric Acid.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1—Brown Peat</td> + <td class="tdcl">Air dry (?)</td> + <td class="tdcl">Boussingault</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.20</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.018</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">2—Black Peat</td> + <td class="tdcl">Air dry (?)</td> + <td class="tdcl">Boussingault</td> + <td class="tdcl">Undetermined</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.025</td> + <td class="tdcl">Undetermined</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">3—Peat</td> + <td class="tdcl">Dried at 212°</td> + <td class="tdcl">Reichardt<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td> + <td class="tdcl">Undetermined</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.152</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.483</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">4—Peat</td> + <td class="tdcl">Dried at 212°</td> + <td class="tdcl">Reichardt</td> + <td class="tdcl">Undetermined</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.165</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.525</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">5—Peat</td> + <td class="tdcl">Dried at 212°</td> + <td class="tdcl">Reichardt</td> + <td class="tdcl">Undetermined</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.305</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.241</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb">6—Peat</td> + <td class="tdcbl">Dried at 212°</td> + <td class="tdcbl">Reichardt</td> + <td class="tdcbl">Undetermined</td> + <td class="tdcbl">0.335</td> + <td class="tdcbl">0.421</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>Specimens 3, 4 and 5, are swamp (or heath) mucks, and have been +weathered for use in flower-culture. 3 and 4 are alike, save that 3 has +been weathered a year longer than 4. They contain respectively 41, 56 +and 67 <i>per cent.</i> of organic matter.</p> + +<p>Sample 6, containing 86 <i>per cent.</i> of organic matter, is employed as a +manure with great advantage, and probably was weathered before analysis. +It contained 85 <i>per cent.</i> of organic substance.</p> + +<p>More important to us than the circumstance that this peat contains but +little or no ammonia or nitric acid, and the other contains such or such +a fraction of one <i>per cent.</i> of these bodies, is the grand fact that +all peats may yield a good share of their nitrogen to the support of +crops, when properly treated and applied.</p> + +<p>Under the influence of Liebig's teachings, which were logically based +upon the best data at the disposal of this distinguished philosopher +when he wrote 25 years ago, it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>has been believed that the nitrogen of a +fertilizer, in order to be available, must be converted into ammonia and +presented in that shape to the plant. It has been recently made clear +that nitric acid, rather than ammonia, is the form of nitrogenous food +which is most serviceable to vegetation, and the one which is most +abundantly supplied by the air and soil. The value of ammonia is however +positive, and not to be overlooked.</p> + +<p>When peat, properly prepared by weathering or composting, is suitably +incorporated with a poor or light soil, it slowly suffers decomposition +and wastes away. If it be wet, and air have access in limited quantity, +especially if <i>lime</i> be mixed with it, a portion of its nitrogen is +gradually converted into ammonia. With full access of air <i>nitric acid</i> +is produced. In either case, it appears that a considerable share of the +nitrogen escapes in the free state as gas, thereby becoming useless to +vegetation until it shall have become converted again into ammonia or +nitric acid. It happens in a cultivated soil that the oxygen of the air +is in excess at the surface, and less abundant as we go down until we +get below organic matters: it happens that one day it is saturated with +water more or less, and another day it is dry, so that at one time we +have the conditions for the formation of ammonia, and at another, those +favorable to producing nitric acid. In this way, so far as our present +knowledge warrants us to affirm, organic matters, decaying in the soil, +continuously yield portions of their nitrogen in the forms of ammonia +and nitric acid for the nourishment of plants.</p> + +<p>The farmer who skillfully employs as a fertilizer a peat containing a +good proportion of nitrogen, may thus expect to get from it results +similar to what would come from the corresponding quantity of nitrogen +in guano or stable manure.</p> + +<p>But the capacity of peat for feeding crops with, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>nitrogen appears not +to stop here. Under certain conditions, <i>the free nitrogen of the air +which cannot be directly appropriated by vegetation, is oxidized in the +pores of the soil to nitric acid, and thus, free of expense to the +farmer, his crops are daily dressed with the most precious of all +fertilizers</i>.</p> + +<p>This gathering of useless nitrogen from the air, and making it over into +plant-food cannot go on in a soil destitute of organic matter, requires +in fact that vegetable remains or humified substances of some sort be +present there. The evidence of this statement, whose truth was +maintained years ago as a matter of opinion by many of the older +chemists, has recently become nearly a matter of demonstration by the +investigations of Boussingault and Knop, while the explanation of it is +furnished by the researches of Schœnbein and Zabelin. To attempt any +elucidation of it here would require more space than is at our disposal.</p> + +<p>It is plain from the contents of this paragraph that peat or swamp muck +is, in general, an abundant source of nitrogen, and is often therefore +an extremely cheap means of replacing the most rare and costly +fertilizers.</p> + +<p>II.—With regard to the <i>inorganic matters of peat</i> considered as food +to plants, it is obvious, that, leaving out of the account for the +present, some exceptional cases, they are useful as far as they go.</p> + +<p>In the ashes of peats, we almost always find small quantities of +sulphate of lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid. Potash and soda too, are +often present, though rarely to any considerable amount. Carbonate and +sulphate of lime are large ingredients of the ashes of about one-half, +of the thirty-three peats and swamp mucks I have examined. The ashes of +the other half are largely mixed with sand and soil, but in most cases +also contain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>considerable sulphate of lime, and often carbonates of +lime and magnesia.</p> + +<p>In one swamp-muck, from Milford, Conn., there was found but two <i>per +cent.</i> of ash, at least one-half of which was sand, and the remainder +sulphate of lime, (gypsum.) In other samples 20, 30, 50 and even 60 <i>per +cent.</i> remained after burning off the organic matter. In these cases the +ash is chiefly sand. The amount of ash found in those peats which were +most free from sand, ranges from five to nine <i>per cent.</i> Probably the +average proportion of true ash, viz.: that derived from the organic +matters themselves, not including sand and accidental ingredients, is +not far from five <i>per cent.</i></p> + +<p>In twenty-two specimens of European peat, examined by Websky, Jæckel, +Walz, Wiegmann, Einhof and Berthier, eleven contained from 0.6 to 3.5 +<i>per cent.</i> of ash. The other eleven yielded from 5.3 to 22 <i>per cent.</i> +The average of the former was 2.4, that of the latter 12.7 <i>per cent.</i> +Most of these contained a considerable proportion of sand or soil.</p> + +<p>Variation in the composition as well as in the quantity of ash is very +great.</p> + +<p>Three analyses of peat-ashes have been executed at the author's instance +with the subjoined results:</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">ANALYSIS OF PEAT-ASHES.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png047"> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" width="55%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" width="15%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">A.</td> + <td class="tdcl">B.</td> + <td class="tdcl">C.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Potash</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.69</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.80 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.46</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soda</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.58</td> + <td class="tdcl">-</td> + <td class="tdcl"> trace.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Lime</td> + <td class="tdcl">40.52</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 35.59 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Magnesia</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.06</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.92 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.05</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Oxide of iron and alumina</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.17</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.08 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 15.59</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.50</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.77 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sulphuric acid</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.52</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 10.41 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.04</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Chlorine</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.15</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.43 </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.70</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soluble silica</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.40 }</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Carbonic acid</td> + <td class="tdcl">19.60</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 22.28 }</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 67.01</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sand</td> + <td class="tdcbl">12.11</td> + <td class="tdcbl"> 15.04 }</td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl">99.13</td> + <td class="tdcbl">100.74</td> + <td class="tdcbl">100.00</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>A was furnished by Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., and comes +from a peat which he uses as fuel.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>B was sent by Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn.</p> + +<p>C was sent from Guilford, Conn., by Mr. Andrew Foote.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>A and B, after excluding sand, are seen to consist chiefly of carbonates +and sulphates of lime and magnesia. III. contains a very large +proportion of sand and soluble silica, much iron and alumina, less lime +and sulphuric acid. Potash and phosphoric acid are three times more +abundant in C than in the others.</p> + +<p>Instead of citing in full the results of Websky, Jæckel and others, it +will serve our object better to present the maximum, minimum and average +proportions of the important ingredients in twenty-six recent analyses, +(including these three,) that have come under the author's notice.</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">VARIAIONS AND AVERAGES IN COMPOSITION OF PEAT-ASHES</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png048"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="36%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="18%"><i>Minimum.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="13%"><i>Maximum.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="28%"><i> Average.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Potash</td> + <td class="tdc">0.05</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc"> 3.64</td> + <td class="tdr">0.89 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soda</td> + <td class="tdc">none</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc"> 5.73</td> + <td class="tdr">0.83 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Lime</td> + <td class="tdc">4.72</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">58.38</td> + <td class="tdr">24.00 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Magnesia</td> + <td class="tdc">none</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">24.39</td> + <td class="tdr">3.20 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Alumina</td> + <td class="tdc">0.90</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">20.50</td> + <td class="tdr">5.78 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Oxide of iron</td> + <td class="tdc">none</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">73.33</td> + <td class="tdr">18.70 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sulphuric acid</td> + <td class="tdc">none</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">37.40</td> + <td class="tdr">7.50 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Chlorine</td> + <td class="tdc">none</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc"> 6.50</td> + <td class="tdr">0.60 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="tdc">none</td> + <td class="tdc"> to</td> + <td class="tdc"> 6.29</td> + <td class="tdr">2.56 per cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sand</td> + <td class="tdc">0.99</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">56.97</td> + <td class="tdr">25.50 per cent.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>It is seen from the above figures that the ash of peat varies in +composition to an indefinite degree. Lime is the only ingredient that is +never quite wanting, and with the exception of sand, it is on the +average the largest. Of the other agriculturally valuable components, +sulphuric acid has the highest average; then follows magnesia; then +phosphoric acid, and lastly, potash and soda: all of these, however, may +be nearly or quite lacking.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>Websky, who has recently made a study of the composition of a number of +German peats, believes himself warranted to conclude that peat is so +modified in appearance by its mineral matters, that the quantity or +character of the latter may be judged of in many cases by the eye. He +remarks, (<i>Journal fuer Praktische Chemie, Bd. 92, S. 87</i>,) "that while +for example the peats containing much sand and clay have a red-brown +powdery appearance, and never assume a lustrous surface by pressure; +those which are very rich in lime, are black, sticky when moist, hard +and of a waxy luster on a pressed surface, when dry: a property which +they share indeed with very dense peats that contain little ash. Peats +impregnated with iron are easily recognized. Their peculiar odor, and +their changed appearance distinguish them from all others."</p> + +<p>From my own investigations on thirty specimens of Connecticut peats, I +am forced to disagree with Websky entirely, and to assert that except as +regards sand, which may often be detected by the eye, there is no +connection whatever between the quantity or character of the ash and the +color, consistency, density or any other external quality of the peat.</p> + +<p>The causes of this variation in the ash-content of peat, deserve a +moment's notice. The plants that produce peat contain considerable +proportions of lime, magnesia, alkalies, sulphuric acid, chlorine and +phosphoric acid, as seen from the following analysis by Websky.</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF SPHAGNUM.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="50%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png049"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="85%">Potash</td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%">17.2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Soda</td> + <td class="tdr">8.3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Lime</td> + <td class="tdr">11.8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Magnesia</td> + <td class="tdr">6.7</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sulphuric acid</td> + <td class="tdr">6.5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Chlorine</td> + <td class="tdr">6.2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="tdr">6.7</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Per cent.</i> of ash, 2.5.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>The mineral matters of the sphagnum do not all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>become ingredients of +the peat; but, as rapidly as the moss decays below, its soluble matters +are to a great degree absorbed by the vegetation, which is still living +and growing above. Again, when a stream flows through a peat-bed, +soluble matters are carried away by the water, which is often dark-brown +from the substances dissolved in it. Finally the soil of the adjacent +land is washed or blown upon the swamp, in greater or less quantities.</p> + +<p>III.—<i>The decomposition of peat in the soil offers some peculiarities</i> +that are worthy of notice in this place. Peat is more gradual and +regular in decay than the vegetable matters of stable dung, or than that +furnished by turning under sod or green crops. It is thus a more steady +and lasting benefit, especially in light soils, out of which ordinary +vegetable manures disappear too rapidly. The decay of peat appears to +proceed through a regular series of steps. In the soil, especially in +contact with soluble alkaline bodies, as ammonia and lime, there is a +progressive conversion of the <i>insoluble</i> or <i>less soluble</i> into +<i>soluble</i> compounds. Thus the inert matters that resist the immediate +solvent power of alkalies, absorb oxygen from the air, and form the +humic or ulmic acids soluble in alkalies; the humic acids undergo +conversion into crenic acid, and this body, by oxidation, passes into +apocrenic acid. The two latter are soluble in water, and, in the porous +soil, they are rapidly brought to the end-results of decay, viz.: water, +carbonic acid, ammonia and free nitrogen.</p> + +<p>Great differences must be observed, however, in the rapidity with which +these changes take place. Doubtless they go on most slowly in case of +the fibrous compact peats, and perhaps some of the lighter and more +porous samples of swamp muck, would decay nearly as fast as rotted +stable dung.</p> + +<p>It might appear from the above statement, that the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>effect of exposing +peat to the air, as is done when it is incorporated with the soil, would +be to increase relatively the amount of soluble organic matters; but the +truth is, that they are often actually diminished. In fact, the +oxidation and consequent removal of these soluble matters (crenic and +apocrenic acids,) is likely to proceed more rapidly than they can be +produced from the less soluble humic acid of the peat.</p> + +<p>IV.—<i>Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure.</i></p> + +<p>The fertilizing value of peat is best understood by comparing it with +some standard manure. Stable manure is obviously that fertilizer whose +effects are most universally observed and appreciated, and by setting +analyses of the two side by side, we may see at a glance, what are the +excellencies and what the deficiencies of peat. In order rightly to +estimate the worth of those ingredients which occur in but small +proportion in peat, we must remember that it, like stable manure, may +be, and usually should be, applied in large doses, so that in fact the +smallest ingredients come upon an acre in considerable quantity. In +making our comparison, we will take the analysis of Peat from the farm +of Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., and the average of +several analyses of rotted stable dung of <i>good quality</i>.</p> + +<p>No. <i>I</i>, is the analysis of Peat; No. <i>II</i>, that of well rotted stable +manure:—</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png051"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="70%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"><i>I.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"><i> II.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Water expelled at 212 degrees</td> + <td class="tdc">79.000 </td> + <td class="tdr">79.00</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2" style="margin-bottom: -1px;">Organic matter.</td> + <td class="tdl" style="margin-bottom: -1px;">{Soluble in dilute solution of carbonate of soda</td> + <td class="tdc" style="margin-bottom: -1px;"> 7.312 }</td> + <td class="tdr" rowspan="2" style="margin-bottom: -1px;">14.16</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">{Insoluble in solution of carbonate of soda</td> + <td class="tdc">12.210 }</td> + </tr> + + + + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Potash</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.010 </td> + <td class="tdr">0.65</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Soda</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.009 </td> + <td class="tdc"> -</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lime</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.608 </td> + <td class="tdr"> 0.57</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Magnesia</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.091 </td> + <td class="tdr"> 0.19</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.008 </td> + <td class="tdr"> 0.23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sulphuric acid</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.082 </td> + <td class="tdr"> 0.27</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nitrogen</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.600 </td> + <td class="tdr"> 0.55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Matters, soluble in water</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0.450 </td> + <td class="tdr"> 4.42</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>To make the comparison as just as possible, the peat is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>calculated with +the same content of water, that stable dung usually has.</p> + +<p>We observe then, that the peat contains in a given quantity, <i>about +one-third more organic matter, an equal amount of lime and nitrogen</i>; +but is <i>deficient in potash, magnesia, phosphoric and sulphuric acids</i>.</p> + +<p>The deficiencies of this peat in the matter of composition may be +corrected, as regards potash, by adding to 100 lbs. of it 1 lb. of +potash of commerce, or 5 lbs. of unleached wood-ashes; as regards +phosphoric and sulphuric acids, by adding 1 lb. of good superphosphate, +or 1 lb. each of bone dust and plaster of Paris.</p> + +<p>In fact, the additions just named, will convert <i>any fresh peat</i>, +containing not more than 80 <i>per cent.</i> of water and not less than 20 +<i>per cent.</i> of organic matter, into a mixture having as much fertilizing +matters as stable dung, with the possible exception of nitrogen.</p> + +<p>It is a fact, however, that two manures may reveal to the chemist the +same composition, and yet be very unlike in their fertilizing effects, +because their conditions are unlike, because they differ in their +degrees of solubility or availability.</p> + +<p>As before insisted upon, it is true in general, that peat is more slow +of decomposition than yard-manure, and this fact, which is an advantage +in an amendment, is a disadvantage in a fertilizer. Though there may be +some peats, or rather swamp mucks, which are energetic and rapid in +their action, it seems that they need to be applied in larger quantities +than stable manure in order to produce corresponding fertilizing +effects. In many cases peat requires some preparation by weathering, or +by chemical action—"fermentation"—induced by decomposing animal +matters or by alkalies. This topic will shortly be discussed.</p> + +<p>We adopt, as a general fact, the conclusion that peat is inferior in +fertilizing power to stable manure.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>Experience asserts, however, with regard to some individual kinds, that +they are equal to common yard manure without any preparation whatever.</p> + +<p>Mr. Daniel Buck, of Poquonock, Conn., says, of the 'muck,' over-lying +the peat, whose composition has just been compared with stable manure, +that it "has been applied fresh to meadow with good results; the grass +is not as tall but thicker and finer, and of a darker green in the +spring, than when barn-yard manure is spread on."</p> + +<p>A swamp muck, from Mr. A. M. Haling, Rockville, Conn., "has been used as +a top-dressing, on grass, with excellent results. It is a good +substitute for barn-yard manure."</p> + +<p>A peat, from Mr. Russell U. Peck, of Berlin, Conn., "has been used +fresh, on corn and meadow, with good effect."</p> + +<p>Of the peat, from the 'Beaver Pond,' near New Haven, Mr. Chauncey +Goodyear, says, "it has been largely used in a fresh state, and in this +condition is as good as cow dung."</p> + +<p>Mr. Henry Keeler, remarks, concerning a swamp muck occurring at South +Salem, N. Y., that "it has been used in the fresh state, applied to corn +and potatoes, and appears to be equal to good barn manure:" +further:—"it has rarely been weathered more than two months, and then +applied side by side with the best yard manure has given equally good +results."</p> + +<p>A few words as to the apparent contradiction between Chemistry, which +says that peat is not equal to stable dung as a fertilizer, and +Practice, which in these cases affirms that it is equal to our standard +manure.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the chemical conclusion is a general one, and does +not apply to individual peats, which, in a few instances, may be +superior to yard manure. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>practical judgment also is, that, in +general, yard manure is the best.</p> + +<p>To go to the individual cases; second: A peat in which nitrogen exists +in as large a proportion as is found in stable or yard manure, being +used in larger quantity, or being more durable in its action, may for a +few seasons produce better results than the latter, merely on account of +the presence of this one ingredient, it may in fact, for the soil and +crop to which it is applied, be a better fertilizer than yard manure, +because nitrogen is most needed in that soil, and yet for the generality +of soils, or in the long run, it may prove to be an inferior fertilizer.</p> + +<p>Again; third—the melioration of the physical qualities of a soil, the +amendment of its dryness and excessive porosity, by means of peat, may +be more effective for agricultural purposes, than the application of +tenfold as much fertilizing, <i>i. e.</i> plant-feeding materials; in the +same way that the mere draining of an over-moist soil often makes it +more productive than the heaviest manuring.</p> + +<p>2.—<i>On the characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that may +sometimes need correction before it is agriculturally useful.</i></p> + +<p>I.—<i>Bad effects on wet heavy soils.</i></p> + +<p>We have laid much stress on the amending qualities of peat, when applied +to dry and leachy soils, which by its use are rendered more retentive of +moisture and manure. These properties, which it would seem, are just +adapted to renovate very light land, under certain circumstances, may +become disadvantageous on heavier soils. On clays no application is +needed to retain moisture. They are already too wet as a general thing.</p> + +<p>Peat, when put into the soil, lasts much longer than stubble, or green +crops plowed in, or than long manure. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>If buried too deeply, or put into +a heavy soil, especially if in large quantity, it does not decay, but +remains wet, and tends to make a bog of the field itself.</p> + +<p>For soils that are rather heavy, it is therefore best to compost the +peat with some rapidly fermenting manure. We thus get a compound which +is quicker than muck, and slower than stable manure, etc., and is +therefore better adapted to the wants of the soil than either of these +would be alone.</p> + +<p>Here it will be seen that much depends on the character of the peat +itself. If light and spongy, and easily dried, it may be used alone with +advantage on loamy soils, whereas if dense, and coherent, it would most +likely be a poor amendment on a soil which has much tendency to become +compact, and therefore does not readily free itself from excess of +water.</p> + +<p>But even a clay soil, if <i>thorough-drained and deeply plowed</i>, may be +wonderfully improved by even a heavy dressing of muck, as then, the +water being let off, the muck can exert no detrimental action; but +operates as effectually to loosen a too heavy soil, as in case of sand, +it makes an over-porous soil compact or retentive. A clay may be made +friable, if well drained, by incorporating with it any substance as +lime, sand, long manure or muck, which interposing between the clayey +particles, prevents their adhering together.</p> + +<p>II.—<i>Noxious ingredients.</i></p> + +<p>a. <i>Vitriol peat.</i> Occasionally a peat is met with which is injurious if +applied in the fresh state to crops, from its containing some substance +which exerts a poisonous action on vegetation. The principal detrimental +ingredients that occur in peat, appear to be sulphate of protoxide of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>iron,—the same body that is popularly known under the names copperas +and green-vitriol,—and sulphate of alumina, the astringent component of +alum.</p> + +<p>I have found these substances ready formed in large quantity in but one +of the peats that I have examined, viz.: that sent me by Mr. Perrin +Scarborough; of Brooklyn, Conn. This peat dissolved in water to the +extent of 15 <i>per cent.</i>, and the soluble portion, although containing +some organic matter and sulphate of lime, consisted in great part of +green-vitriol.</p> + +<p>Portions of this muck, when thrown up to the air, become covered with "a +white crust, having the taste of alum or saltpeter."</p> + +<p>The bed containing this peat, though drained, yields but a little poor +bog hay, and the peat itself, even after weathering for a year, when +applied, mixed with one-fifth of stable manure to corn in the hill, gave +no encouraging results, though a fair crop was obtained. It is probable +that the sample analyzed was much richer in salts of iron and alumina, +than the average of the muck.</p> + +<p>Green-vitriol in minute doses is not hurtful, but rather beneficial to +vegetation; but in larger quantity it is fatally destructive.</p> + +<p>In a salt-marsh mud sent me by the Rev. Wm. Clift, of Stonington, Conn., +there was found sulphate of iron in considerable quantity.</p> + +<p>This noxious substance likewise occurred in small amount in swamp muck +from E. Hoyt, Esq., New Canaan, Conn., and in hardly appreciable +quantity in several others that I have examined. Besides green-vitriol, +it is possible that certain organic salts of iron, may be deleterious.</p> + +<p>The poisonous properties of vitriol-peats may be effectually corrected +by composting with lime, or wood-ashes. By the action of these +substances, sulphate of lime, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>(plaster of Paris) is formed, while the +iron separates as peroxide, which, being insoluble, is without +deleterious effect on vegetation. Where only soluble organic salts of +iron (crenate of iron) are present, simple exposure to the air suffices +to render them innocuous.</p> + +<p>b. <i>The acidity of Peats.</i>—Many writers have asserted that peat and +muck possess a hurtful "acidity" which must be corrected before they can +be usefully employed. It is indeed a fact, that peat consists largely of +acids, but, except perhaps in the vitriol-peats, (those containing +copperas,) they are so insoluble, or if soluble, are so quickly modified +by the absorption of oxygen, that they do not exhibit any "acidity" that +can be deleterious to vegetation. It is advised to neutralize this +supposed acidity by lime or an alkali before using peat as a fertilizer +or amendment, and there is great use in such mixtures of peat with +alkaline matters, as we shall presently notice under the head of +composts.</p> + +<p>By the word acidity is conveyed the idea of something hurtful to plants. +This something is, doubtless, in many cases, the salts of iron we have +just noticed. In others, it is simply the inertness, "coldness" of the +peat, which is not positively injurious, but is, for a time at least, of +no benefit to the soil.</p> + +<p>c. <i>Resinous matters</i> are mentioned by various writers as injurious +ingredients of peat, but I find no evidence that this notion is +well-founded. The peat or muck formed from the decay of resinous wood +and leaves does not appear to be injurious, and the amount of resin in +peat is exceedingly small.</p> + +<p>3.—<i>The Preparation of Peat for Agricultural use.</i></p> + +<p>a. <i>Excavation.</i>—As to the time and manner of getting out peat, the +circumstances of each case must <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>determine. I only venture here to offer +a few hints on this subject, which belongs so exclusively to the farm. +The month of August is generally the appropriate time for throwing up +peat, as then the swamps are usually most free from water, and most +accessible to men and teams; but peat is often dug to best advantage in +the winter, not only on account of the cheapness of labor, and from +there being less hurry with other matters on the farm at that season, +but also, because the freezing and thawing of the peat that is thrown +out, greatly aid to disintegrate it and prepare it for use.</p> + +<p>A correspondent of The <i>Homestead</i>, signing himself "Commentator," has +given directions for getting out peat that are well worth the attention +of farmers. He says:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The composting of muck and peat, with our stable and +barn-yard manures, is surely destined to become one of the +most important items in farm management throughout all the +older States at least. One of the difficulties which lie in +the way, is the first removal of the muck from its low and +generally watery bed; to facilitate this, in many locations, +it is less expensive to dry it before carting, by beginning an +excavation at the border of the marsh in autumn, sufficiently +wide for a cart path, throwing the muck out upon the surface +on each side, and on a floor of boards or planks, to prevent +it from absorbing moisture from the wet ground beneath; this +broad ditch to be carried a sufficient length and depth to +obtain the requisite quantity of muck. Thus thrown out, the +two piles are now in a convenient form to be covered with +boards, and, if properly done, the muck kept covered till the +succeeding autumn, will be found to be dry and light, and in +some cases may be carted away on the surface, or it may be +best to let it remain a few months longer until the bottom of +the ditch has become sufficiently frozen to bear a team; it +can then be more easily <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>loaded upon a sled or sleigh, and +drawn to the yards and barn. In other localities, and where +large quantities are wanted, and it lies deep, a sort of +wooden railroad and inclined plane can be constructed by means +of a plank track for the wheels of the cart to run upon, the +team walking between these planks, and if the vehicle is +inclined to 'run off the track,' it may usually be prevented +by scantlings, say four inches thick, nailed upon one of the +tracks on each side of the place where the wheel should run. +Two or more teams and carts may now be employed, returning +into the excavation outside of this track. As the work +progresses, the track can be extended at both ends, and by +continuing or increasing the inclination at the upper end, a +large and high pile may be made, and if kept dry, will answer +for years for composting, and can be easily drawn to the barn +at any time."</p></div> + +<p>b. <i>Exposure, weathering, or seasoning of peat.</i>—In some cases, the +chief or only use of exposing the thrown-up peat to the action of the +air and weather during several months or a whole year, is to rid it of +the great amount of water which adheres to it, and thus reduce its bulk +and weight previous to cartage.</p> + +<p>The general effect of exposure as indicated by my analyses, is to reduce +the amount of matter soluble in water, and cause peats to approach in +this respect a fertile soil, so that instead of containing 2, 4, or 6 +<i>per cent.</i> of substances soluble in water, as at first, they are +brought to contain but one-half these amounts, or even less. This +change, however, goes on so rapidly after peat is mingled with the soil, +that previous exposure on this account is rarely necessary, and most +peats might be used perfectly fresh but for the difficulty often +experienced, of reducing them to such a state of division as to admit of +proper mixture with the soil.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>The coherent peats which may be cut out in tough blocks, must be +weathered, in order that the fibres of moss or grass-roots, which give +them their consistency, may be decomposed or broken to an extent +admitting of easy pulverization by the instruments of tillage.</p> + +<p>The subjection of fresh and wet peat to frost, speedily destroys its +coherence and reduces it to the proper state of pulverization. For this +reason, fibrous peat should be exposed when wet to winter weather.</p> + +<p>Another advantage of exposure is, to bring the peat into a state of more +active chemical change. Peat, of the deeper denser sorts, is generally +too inert ("sour," cold) to be directly useful to the plant. By exposure +to the air it appears gradually to acquire the properties of the humus +of the soil, or of stable manure, which are vegetable matters, altered +by the same exposure. It appears to become more readily oxidable, more +active, chemically, and thus more capable of exciting or rather aiding +vegetable growth, which, so far as the soil is concerned, is the result +of chemical activities.</p> + +<p>Account has been already given of certain peats, which, used fresh, are +accounted equal or nearly equal to stable manure. Others have come under +the writer's notice, which have had little immediate effect when used +before seasoning.</p> + +<p>Mr. J. H. Stanwood says of a peat, from Colebrook, Conn., that it "has +been used to some extent as a top-dressing for grass and other crops +with satisfactory results, <i>although no particular benefit was +noticeable during the first year</i>. After that, the effects might be seen +for a number of years."</p> + +<p>Rev. Wm. Clift observes, concerning a salt peat, from Stonington, +Conn.:—"It has not been used fresh; is too acid; even potatoes do not +yield well <i>in it the first season</i>, without manure."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>The nature of the chemical changes induced by weathering, is to some +extent understood so far as the nitrogen, the most important fertilizing +element, is concerned. The nitrogen of peat, as we have seen, is mostly +inert, a small portion of it only, existing in a soluble or available +form. By weathering, portions of this nitrogen become converted into +nitric acid. This action goes on at the surface of the heap, where it is +most fully exposed to the air. Below, where the peat is more moist, +ammonia is formed, perhaps simply by the reduction of nitric acid—not +unlikely also, by the transformation of inert nitrogen. On referring to +the analyses given on page 44, it is seen, that the first two samples +contain but little ammonia and no nitric acid. Though it is not stated +what was the condition of these peats, it is probable they had not been +weathered. The other four samples were weathered, and the weathering had +been the more effectual from the large admixture of sand with them. They +yielded to the analyst very considerable quantities of ammonia and +nitrates.</p> + +<p>When a peat contains sulphate of protoxide of iron, or soluble organic +salts of iron, to an injurious extent, these may be converted into other +insoluble and innocuous bodies, by a sufficient exposure to the air. +Sulphate of protoxide of iron is thus changed into sulphate of peroxide +of iron, which is insoluble, and can therefore exert no hurtful effect +on vegetation, while the soluble organic bodies of peat are oxydized and +either converted into carbonic acid gas, carbonate of ammonia and water, +or else made insoluble.</p> + +<p>It is not probable, however, that merely throwing up a well +characterized vitriol-peat into heaps, and exposing it thus imperfectly +to the atmosphere, is sufficient to correct its bad qualities. Such +peats need the addition of some alkaline body, as ammonia, lime, or +potash, to render them salutary fertilizers.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>c. <i>This brings us to the subject of composting</i>, which appears to be +the best means of taking full advantage of all the good qualities of +peat, and of obviating or neutralizing the ill results that might follow +the use of some raw peats, either from a peculiarity in their +composition, (soluble organic compounds of iron, sulphate of protoxide +of iron,) or from too great indestructibility. The chemical changes +(oxidation of <i>iron</i> and <i>organic acids</i>), which prepare the inert or +even hurtful ingredients of peat to minister to the support of +vegetation, take place most rapidly in presence of certain other +substances.</p> + +<p>The substances which rapidly induce chemical change in peats, are of two +kinds, viz.: 1.—animal or vegetable matters that are highly susceptible +to alteration and decay, and 2.—alkalies, either <i>ammonia</i> coming from +the decomposition of animal matters, or <i>lime</i>, <i>potash</i> and <i>soda</i>.</p> + +<p>A great variety of matters may of course be employed for making or +mixing with peat composts; but there are comparatively few which allow +of extensive and economical use, and our notice will be confined to +these.</p> + +<p>First of all, the composting of peat with <i>animal manures</i> deserves +attention. Its advantages may be summed up in two statements.</p> + +<p>1.—It is an easy and perfect method of economizing all such manures, +even those kinds most liable to loss by fermentation, as night soil and +horse dung; and,</p> + +<p>2.—It develops most fully and speedily the inert fertilizing qualities +of the peat itself.</p> + +<p>Without attempting any explanation of the changes undergone by a peat +and manure compost, further than to say that the fermentation which +begins in the manure extends to and involves the peat, reducing the +whole nearly, if not exactly, to the condition of well-rotted dung, and +that in this process the peat effectually prevents the loss of nitrogen +as ammonia,—I may appropriately give <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>the practical experience of +farmers who have proved in the most conclusive manner how profitable it +is to devote a share of time and labor to the manufacture of this kind +of compost.</p> + +<p><i>Preparation of Composts with Stable Manure.</i>—The best plan of +composting is to have a water tight trench, four inches deep and twenty +inches wide, constructed in the stable floor, immediately behind the +cattle, and every morning put a bushel-basketful of muck behind each +animal. In this way the urine is perfectly absorbed by the muck, while +the warmth of the freshly voided excrements so facilitates the +fermentative process, that, according to Mr. F. Holbrook, Brattleboro, +Vt., who has described this method, <i>much more muck can thus be well +prepared for use</i> in the spring, than by any of the ordinary modes of +composting. When the dung and muck are removed from the stable, they +should be well intermixed, and as fast as the compost is prepared, it +should be put into a compact heap, and covered with a layer of muck +several inches thick. It will then hardly require any shelter if used in +the spring.</p> + +<p>If the peat be sufficiently dry and powdery, or free from tough lumps, +it may usefully serve as bedding, or litter for horses and cattle, as it +absorbs the urine, and is sufficiently mixed with the dung in the +operation of cleaning the stable. It is especially good in the pig-pen, +where the animals themselves work over the compost in the most thorough +manner, especially if a few kernels of corn be occasionally scattered +upon it.</p> + +<p>Mr. Edwin Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., writes:—"Our horse stables are +constructed with a movable floor and pit beneath, which holds 20 loads +of muck of 25 bushels per load. Spring and fall, this pit is filled with +fresh muck, which receives all the urine of the horses, and being +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>occasionally worked over and mixed, furnishes us annually with 40 loads +of the most valuable manure."</p> + +<p>"Our stables are sprinkled with muck every morning, at the rate of one +bushel per stall, and the smell of ammonia, etc., so offensive in most +stables, is never perceived in ours. Not only are the stables kept +sweet, but the ammonia is saved by this procedure."</p> + +<p>When it is preferred to make the compost out of doors, the plan +generally followed is to lay down a bed of weathered peat, say eight to +twelve inches thick; cover this with a layer of stable dung, of four to +eight inches; put on another stratum of peat, and so, until a heap of +three to four feet is built up. The heap may be six to eight feet wide, +and indefinitely long. It should be finished with a thick coating of +peat, and the manure should be covered as fast as brought out.</p> + +<p>The proportions of manure and peat should vary somewhat according to +their quality and characters. Strawy manure, or that from milch-cows, +will "ferment" less peat than clear dung, especially when the latter is +made by horses or highly fed animals. Some kinds of peat heat much +easier than others. There are peats which will ferment of themselves in +warm moist weather—even in the bog, giving off ammonia in perceptible +though small amount. Experience is the only certain guide as to the +relative quantities to be employed, various proportions from one to five +of peat for one of manure, by bulk, being used.</p> + +<p>When the land is light and needs amending, as regards its retentive +power, it is best to make the quantity of peat as large as can be +thoroughly fermented by the manure.</p> + +<p>The making of a high heap, and the keeping it trim and in shape, is a +matter requiring more labor than is generally necessary. Mr. J. H. +Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn., writes me:—</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>"My method of composting is as follows: I draw my muck to the barn-yard, +placing the loads as near together as I can tip them from the cart. Upon +this I spread whatever manure I have at hand, and mix with the feet of +the cattle, and heap up with a scraper."</p> + +<p>Peat may be advantageously used to save from waste the droppings of the +yard.</p> + +<p>Mr. Edwin Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., says:—"We use muck largely in our +barn-yards, and after it becomes thoroughly saturated and intermixed +with the droppings of the stock, it is piled up to ferment, and the yard +is covered again with fresh muck."</p> + +<p>Mr. N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., writes:—"In the use of muck +we proceed as follows: Soon after haying we throw up enough for a year's +use, or several hundred loads. In the fall, the summer's accumulation in +hog-pens and barn cellars is spread upon the mowing grounds, and a +liberal supply of muck carted in and spread in the bottoms of the +cellars, ready for the season for stabling cattle. When this is well +saturated with the drippings of the stables, a new supply is added. The +accumulation of the winter is usually applied to the land for the corn +crop, except the finer portion, which is used to top-dress meadow land. +A new supply is then drawn in for the swine to work up. This is added to +from time to time, and as the swine are fed on whey, they will convert a +large quantity into valuable manure for top-dressing mowing land."</p> + +<p>A difference of opinion exists as to the treatment of the compost. Some +hold it indifferent whether the peat and manure are mixed, or put in +layers when the composting begins. Others assert, that the fermentation +proceeds better when the ingredients are stratified. Some direct, that +the compost should not be stirred. The general testimony is, that +mixture, at the outset, is as effectual <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>as putting up in layers; but, +if the manure be strawy, it is, of course, difficult or impracticable to +mix at first. Opinion also preponderates in favor of stirring, during or +after the fermentation.</p> + +<p>Mr. Hoyt remarks:—"We are convinced, that the oftener a compost pile of +yard manure and muck is worked over after fermenting, the better. We +work it over and add to it a little more muck and other material, and +the air being thus allowed to penetrate it, a new fermentation or +heating takes place, rendering it more decomposable and valuable."</p> + +<p>Rev. Wm. Clift, writes:—"Three or four loads of muck to one of stable +manure, put together in the fall or winter in alternate layers, forked +over twice before spreading and plowing in, may represent the method of +composting."</p> + +<p>Mr. Adams White, of Brooklyn, Conn., proceeds in a different manner. He +says:—"In composting, 20 loads are drawn on to upland in September, and +thrown up in a long pile. Early in the spring 20 loads of stable manure +are laid along side, and covered with the muck. As soon as it has heated +moderately, the whole is forked over and well mixed."</p> + +<p>Those who have practiced making peat composts with their yard, stable, +and pen manure, almost invariably find them highly satisfactory in use, +especially upon light soils.</p> + +<p>A number of years ago, I saw a large pile of compost in the farm-yard of +Mr. Pond, of Milford, Conn., and witnessed its effect as applied by that +gentleman to a field of sixteen acres of fine gravelly or coarse sandy +soil. The soil, from having a light color and excessive porosity, had +become dark, unctuous, and retentive of moisture, so that during the +drouth of 1856, the crops on this field were good and continued to +flourish, while on the contiguous land they were dried up and nearly +ruined. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>compost was made from a light muck, that contained but +three <i>per cent.</i> of ash (more than half of which was sand), and but 1.2 +<i>per cent.</i> of nitrogen, in the air-dry state—(twenty <i>per cent.</i> of +water). Three loads of this muck were used to one of stable manure.</p> + +<p>Here follow some estimates of the value of this compost by practical +men. They are given to show that older statements, to the same effect, +cannot be regarded as exaggerated.</p> + +<p>Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn., says:—"Experiments made by +myself, have confirmed me in the opinion that a compost of equal parts +of muck and stable manure is equal to the same quantity of stable +manure."</p> + +<p>Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., remarks:—"8 loads of muck +and 4 of manure in compost, when properly forked over, are equal to 12 +loads of barn-yard manure on sandy soil."</p> + +<p>Rev. Wm. Clift, of Stonington, Conn., writes:—"I consider a compost +made of one load of stable manure and three of muck, equal in value to +four loads of yard manure."</p> + +<p>Mr. N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., observes of a peat sent by +him for analysis:—"We formerly composted it in the yard with stable +manure, but have remodeled our stables, and now use it as an absorbent +and to increase the bulk of manure to double its original quantity. We +consider the mixture more valuable than the same quantity of stable +manure." Again, "so successful has been the use of it, that we could +hardly carry on our farming operations without it."</p> + +<p>Mr. Adams White, of Brooklyn, Conn., states:—"The compost of equal +bulks of muck and stable manure, has been used for corn (with plaster in +the hill,) on dry sandy soil to great advantage. I consider the compost +worth more per cord than the barn-yard manure."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span><i>Night Soil</i> is a substance which possesses, when fresh, the most +valuable fertilizing qualities, in a very concentrated form. It is also +one which is liable to rapid and almost complete deterioration, as I +have demonstrated by analyses. The only methods of getting the full +effect of this material are, either to use it fresh, as is done by the +Chinese and Japanese on a most extensive and offensive scale; or to +compost it before it can decompose. The former method, will, it is to be +hoped, never find acceptance among us. The latter plan has nearly all +the advantages of the former, without its unpleasant features.</p> + +<p>When the night soil falls into a vault, it may be composted, by simply +sprinkling fine peat over its surface, once or twice weekly, as the case +may require, <i>i. e.</i> as often as a bad odor prevails. The quantity thus +added, may be from twice to ten times the bulk of the night soil,—the +more within these limits, the better. When the vault is full, the mass +should be removed, worked well over and after a few days standing, will +be ready to use to manure corn, tobacco, etc., in the hill, or for any +purpose to which guano or poudrette is applied. If it cannot be shortly +used, it should be made into a compact heap, and covered with a thick +stratum of peat. When signs of heating appear, it should be watched +closely; and if the process attains too much violence, additional peat +should be worked into it. Drenching with water is one of the readiest +means of checking too much heating, but acts only temporarily. Dilution +with peat to a proper point, which experience alone can teach, is the +surest way of preventing loss. It should not be forgotten to put a thick +layer of peat at the bottom of the vault to begin with.</p> + +<p>Another excellent plan, when circumstances admit, is, to have the +earth-floor where the night soil drops, level with the surface of the +ground, or but slightly excavated, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>and a shed attached to the rear of +the privy to shelter a good supply of peat as well as the compost +itself. Operations are begun by putting down a layer of peat to receive +the droppings; enough should be used to absorb all the urine. When this +is nearly saturated, more should be sprinkled on, and the process is +repeated until the accumulations must be removed to make room for more. +Then, once a week or so, the whole is hauled out into the shed, well +mixed, and formed into a compact heap, or placed as a layer upon a +stratum of peat, some inches thick, and covered with the same. The +quantity of first-class compost that may be made yearly upon any farm, +if due care be taken, would astonish those who have not tried it. James +Smith, of Deanston, Scotland, who originated our present system of +Thorough Drainage, asserted, that the excrements of one man for a year, +are sufficient to manure half an acre of land. In Belgium the manure +from such a source has a commercial value of $9.00 gold.</p> + +<p>It is certain, that the skillful farmer may make considerably more than +that sum from it in New England, <i>per annum</i>. Mr. Hoyt, of New Canaan, +Conn., says:—</p> + +<p>"Our privies are deodorized by the use of muck, which is sprinkled over +the surface of the pit once a week, and from them alone we thus prepare +annually, enough "poudrette" to manure our corn in the hill."</p> + +<p><i>Peruvian Guano</i>, so serviceable in its first applications to light +soils, may be composted with muck to the greatest advantage. Guano is an +excellent material for bringing muck into good condition, and on the +other hand the muck most effectually prevents any waste of the costly +guano, and at the same time, by furnishing the soil with its own +ingredients, to a greater or less degree prevents the exhaustion that +often follows the use of guano alone. The quantity of muck should be +pretty large compared <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>to that of the guano,—a bushel of guano will +compost six, eight, or ten of muck. Both should be quite fine, and +should be well mixed, the mixture should be moist and kept covered with +a layer of muck of several inches of thickness. This sort of compost +would probably be sufficiently fermented in a week or two of warm +weather, and should be made and kept under cover.</p> + +<p>If no more than five or six parts of muck to one of guano are employed, +the compost, according to the experience of Simon Brown, Esq., of the +Boston <i>Cultivator</i>, (Patent Office Report for 1856), will prove +injurious, if placed in the hill in contact with seed, but may be +applied broadcast without danger.</p> + +<p>The <i>Menhaden</i> or "<i>White fish</i>", so abundantly caught along our Sound +coast during the summer months, or any variety of fish may be composted +with muck, so as to make a powerful manure, with avoidance of the +excessively disagreeable stench which is produced when these fish are +put directly on the land. Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons, of New Canaan, +Conn., make this compost on a large scale. I cannot do better than to +give entire Mr. Edwin Hoyt's account of their operations, communicated +to me several years ago.</p> + +<p>"During the present season, (1858,) we have composted about 200,000 +white fish with about 700 loads (17,500 bushels) of muck. We vary the +proportions somewhat according to the crop the compost is intended for. +For rye we apply 20 to 25 loads per acre of a compost made with 4,500 +fish, (one load) and with this manuring, no matter how poor the soil, +the rye will be as large as a man can cradle. Much of ours we have to +reap. For oats we use less fish, as this crop is apt to lodge. For corn, +one part fish to ten or twelve muck is about right, while for grass or +any top-dressing, the proportion of fish may be increased."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>"We find it is best to mix the fish in the summer and not use the +compost until the next spring and summer. Yet we are obliged to use in +September for our winter rye a great deal of the compost made in July. +We usually compost the first arrivals of fish in June for our winter +grain; after this pile has stood three or four weeks, it is worked over +thoroughly. In this space of time the fish become pretty well +decomposed, though they still preserve their form and smell +outrageously. As the pile is worked over, a sprinkling of muck or +plaster is given to retain any escaping ammonia. At the time of use in +September the fish have completely disappeared, bones and fins +excepted."</p> + +<p>"The effect on the muck is to blacken it and make it more loose and +crumbly. As to the results of the use of this compost, we find them in +the highest degree satisfactory. We have raised 30 to 35 bushels of rye +per acre on land that without it could have yielded 6 or 8 bushels at +the utmost. This year we have corn that will give 60 to 70 bushels per +acre, that otherwise would yield but 20 to 25 bushels. It makes large +potatoes, excellent turnips and carrots."</p> + +<p>Fish compost thus prepared, is a uniform mass of fishy but not +putrefactive odor, not disagreeable to handle. It retains perfectly all +the fertilizing power of the fish. Lands, manured with this compost, +will keep in heart and improve: while, as is well known to our coast +farmers, the use of fish alone is ruinous in the end, on light soils.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that <i>any other easily decomposing animal matters, as +slaughter-house offal, soap boiler's scraps, glue waste, horn shavings, +shoddy, castor pummace, cotton seed-meal, etc., etc.</i>, may be composted +in a similar manner, and that several or all these substances may be +made together into one compost.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>In case of the composts with yard manure, guano and other animal +matters, the alkali, <i>ammonia</i>, formed in the fermentation, greatly +promotes chemical change, and it would appear that this substance, on +some accounts, excels all others in its efficacy. The other alkaline +bodies, <i>potash</i>, <i>soda</i> and <i>lime</i>, are however scarcely less active in +this respect, and being at the same time, of themselves, useful +fertilizers, they also may be employed in preparing muck composts.</p> + +<p><i>Potash-lye</i> and <i>soda-ash</i> have been recommended for composting with +muck; but, although they are no doubt highly efficacious, they are too +costly for extended use.</p> + +<p>The other alkaline materials that may be cheaply employed, and are +recommended, are <i>wood-ashes</i>, leached and unleached, <i>ashes of peat</i>, +<i>shell marl</i>, (consisting of carbonate of lime,) <i>quick lime</i>, <i>gas +lime</i>, and what is called "<i>salt and lime mixture</i>."</p> + +<p>With regard to the proportions to be used, no very definite rules can be +laid down; but we may safely follow those who have had experience in the +matter. Thus, to a cord of muck, which is about 100 bushels, may be +added, of unleached wood ashes twelve bushels, or of leached wood ashes +twenty bushels, or of peat ashes twenty bushels, or of marl, or of gas +lime twenty bushels. Ten bushels of quick lime, slaked with water or +salt-brine previous to use, is enough for a cord of muck.</p> + +<p>Instead of using the above mentioned substances singly, any or all of +them may be employed together.</p> + +<p>The muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible, and must be +intimately mixed with the other ingredients by shoveling over. The mass +is then thrown up into a compact heap, which may be four feet high. When +the heap is formed, it is well to pour on as much water as the mass will +absorb, (this may be omitted if the muck <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>is already quite moist,) and +finally the whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck, so as +to retain moisture and heat. If the heap is put up in the Spring, it may +stand undisturbed for one or two months, when it is well to shovel it +over and mix it thoroughly. It should then be built up again, covered +with fresh muck, and allowed to stand as before until thoroughly +decomposed. The time required for this purpose varies with the kind of +muck, and the quality of the other material used. The weather and +thoroughness of intermixture of the ingredients also materially affect +the rapidity of decomposition. In all cases five or six months of summer +weather is a sufficient time to fit these composts for application to +the soil.</p> + +<p>Mr. Stanwood of Colebrook, Conn., says: "I have found a compost made of +two bushels of unleached ashes to twenty-five of muck, superior to +stable manure as a top-dressing for grass, on a warm, dry soil."</p> + +<p>N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., states: "I have mixed 25 bushels +of ashes with the same number of loads of muck, and applied it to ¾ of +an acre. The result was far beyond that obtained by applying 300 lbs. +best guano to the same piece."</p> + +<p>The use of "<i>salt and lime mixture</i>" is so strongly recommended, that a +few words may be devoted to its consideration.</p> + +<p>When quick-lime is slaked with a brine of common salt (chloride of +sodium), there are formed by double decomposition, small portions of +caustic soda and chloride of calcium, which dissolve in the liquid. If +the solution stand awhile, carbonic acid is absorbed from the air, +forming carbonate of soda: but carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium +instantly exchange their ingredients, forming insoluble carbonate of +lime and reproducing common salt.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>When the fresh mixture of quick-lime and salt is incorporated with <i>any +porous body</i>, as soil or peat, then, as Graham has shown, <i>unequal +diffusion</i> of the caustic soda and chloride of calcium occurs from the +point where they are formed, through the moist porous mass, and the +result is, that the small portion of caustic soda which diffuses most +rapidly, or the carbonate of soda formed by its speedy union with +carbonic acid, is removed from contact with the chloride of calcium.</p> + +<p>Soda and carbonate of soda are more soluble in water and more strongly +alkaline than lime. They, therefore, act on peat more energetically than +the latter. It is on account of the formation of soda and carbonate of +soda from the lime and salt mixture, that this mixture exerts a more +powerful decomposing action than lime alone. Where salt is cheap and +wood ashes scarce, the mixture may be employed accordingly to advantage. +Of its usefulness we have the testimony of practical men.</p> + +<p>Says Mr. F. Holbrook of Vermont, (Patent Office Report for 1856, page +193.) "I had a heap of seventy-five half cords of muck mixed with lime +in the proportion of a half cord of muck to a bushel of lime. The muck +was drawn to the field when wanted in August. A bushel of salt to six +bushels of lime was dissolved in water enough to slake the lime down to +a fine dry powder, the lime being slaked no faster than wanted, and +spread immediately while warm, over the layers of muck, which were about +six inches thick; then a coating of lime and so on, until the heap +reached the height of five feet, a convenient width, and length enough +to embrace the whole quantity of the muck. In about three weeks a +powerful decomposition was apparent, and the heap was nicely overhauled, +nothing more being done to it till it was loaded the next Spring for +spreading. The compost was spread on the plowed surface of a dry sandy +loam at the rate of about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>fifteen cords to the acre, and harrowed in. +The land was planted with corn and the crop was more than sixty bushels +to the acre."</p> + +<p>Other writers assert that they "have decomposed with this mixture, spent +tan, saw dust, corn stalks, swamp muck, leaves from the woods, indeed +every variety of inert substance, and in <i>much shorter time than it +could be done by any other means</i>." (Working Farmer, Vol. III. p. 280.)</p> + +<p>Some experiments that have a bearing on the efficacy of this compost +will be detailed presently.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that the soluble and more active (caustic) forms of +alkaline bodies exert a powerful decomposing and solvent action on peat. +It is asserted too that the <i>nearly insoluble and less active matters of +this kind</i>, also have an effect, though a less complete and rapid one. +Thus, <i>carbonate of lime</i> in the various forms of chalk, shell marl,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +old mortar, leached ashes and peat ashes, (for in all these it is the +chief and most "alkaline" <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>ingredient,) is recommended to compost with +peat. Let us inquire whether carbonate of lime can really exert any +noticeable influence in improving the fertilizing quality of peat.</p> + +<p>In the case of vitriol peats, carbonate of lime is the cheapest and most +appropriate means of destroying the noxious sulphate of protoxide of +iron, and correcting their deleterious quality. When carbonate of lime +is brought in contact with sulphate of protoxide of iron, the two bodies +mutually decompose, with formation of sulphate of lime (gypsum) and +carbonate of protoxide of iron. The latter substance absorbs oxygen from +the air with the utmost avidity, and passes into the peroxide of iron, +which is entirely inert.</p> + +<p>The admixture of any earthy matter with peat, will facilitate its +decomposition, and make it more active chemically, in so far as it +promotes the separation of the particles of the peat from each other, +and the consequent access of air. This benefit may well amount to +something when we add to peat one-fifth of its bulk of marl or leached +ashes, but the question comes up: Do these insoluble mild alkalies exert +any direct action? Would not as much soil of any kind be equally +efficacious, by promoting to an equal degree the contact of oxygen from +the atmosphere?</p> + +<p>There are two ways in which carbonate of lime may exert a chemical +action on the organic matters of peat. Carbonate of lime, itself, in the +forms we have mentioned, is commonly called insoluble in water. It is, +however, soluble to a very slight extent; it dissolves, namely, in about +30,000 times its weight of pure water. It is nearly thirty times more +soluble in water saturated with carbonic acid; and this solution has +distinct alkaline characters. Since the water contained in a heap of +peat must be considerably impregnated with carbonic acid, it follows +that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>when carbonate of lime is present, the latter must form a +solution, very dilute indeed, but still capable of some direct effect on +the organic matters of the peat, when it acts through a long space of +time. Again, it is possible that the solution of carbonate of lime in +carbonic acid, may act to liberate some ammonia from the soluble +portions of the peat, and this ammonia may react on the remainder of the +peat to produce the same effects as it does in the case of a compost +made with animal matters.</p> + +<p>Whether the effects thus theoretically possible, amount to anything +practically important, is a question of great interest. It often happens +that opinions entertained by practical men, not only by farmers, but by +mechanics and artisans as well, are founded on so untrustworthy a basis, +are supported by trials so destitute of precision, that their accuracy +may well be doubted, and from all the accounts I have met with, it does +not seem to have been well established, practically, that composts made +with carbonate of lime, are better than the peat and carbonate used +separately.</p> + +<p>Carbonate of lime (leached ashes, shell marl, etc.), is very well to use +<i>in conjunction with</i> peat, to furnish a substance or substances needful +to the growth of plants, and supply the deficiencies of peat as regards +composition. Although in the agricultural papers, numerous accounts of +the efficacy of such mixtures are given, we do not learn from them +whether these bodies exert any such good effect upon the peat itself, as +to warrant the trouble of making a <i>compost</i>.</p> + +<p>4.—<i>Experiments by the author on the effect of alkaline bodies in +developing the fertilizing power of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>During the summer of 1862, the author undertook a series of experiments +with a view of ascertaining the effect of various composting materials +upon peat.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>Two bushels of peat were obtained from a heap that had been weathering +for some time on the "Beaver Meadow," near New Haven. This was +thoroughly air-dried, then crushed by the hand, and finally rubbed +through a moderately fine sieve. In this way, the peat was brought to a +perfectly homogeneous condition.</p> + +<p>Twelve-quart flower-pots, new from the warehouse, were filled as +described below; the trials being made in duplicate:—</p> + +<p>Pots 1 and 2 contained each 270 grammes of peat.</p> + +<p>Pots 3 and 4 contained each 270 grammes of peat, mixed-with 10 grammes +of ashes of young grass.</p> + +<p>Pots 5 and 6 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 10 grammes of carbonate of lime.</p> + +<p>Pots 7 and 8 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 10 grammes of slaked (hydrate of) lime.</p> + +<p>Pots 9 and 10 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 5 grammes of lime, slaked with strong solution of common salt.</p> + +<p>Pots 11 and 12 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, +and 3 grammes of Peruvian guano.</p> + +<p>In each case the materials were thoroughly mixed together, and so much +water was cautiously added as served to wet them thoroughly. Five +kernels of dwarf (pop) corn were planted in each pot, the weight of each +planting being carefully ascertained.</p> + +<p>The pots were disposed in a glazed case within a cold grapery,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and +were watered when needful with pure water. The seeds sprouted duly, and +developed into healthy plants. The plants served thus as tests of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>chemical effect of carbonate of lime, of slaked lime, and of salt and +lime mixture, on the peat. The guano pots enabled making a comparison +with a well-known fertilizer. The plants were allowed to grow until +those best developed, enlarged above, not at the expense of the peat, +etc., but of their own lower leaves, as shown by the withering of the +latter. They were then cut, and, after drying in the air, were weighed +with the subjoined results.</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">VEGETATION EXPERIMENTS IN PEAT COMPOSTS.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png079"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="59%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5">KEY</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>A</i> -</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5"><i>Weight of crops in grammes.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>B</i> -</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5"><i>Comparative weight of crops, the sum of 1. and 2. taken as unity.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>C</i> -</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5"><i>Ratio of weight of crops to weight of seeds, the latter + assumed as unity.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb"> </td> + <td class="tdlb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb"><i>Nos.</i></td> + <td class="tdcb"><i>Medium of Growth.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl" colspan="2"><i>A</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>B</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl"><i>C</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1 }</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Peat alone.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.61 }</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"> 4.20</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2"> 1</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2"> 2-½</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 2 }</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.59 }</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 3 }</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Peat, and ashes of grass,</td> + <td class="tdcl">14.19 }</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">32.44</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2">20-½</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4 }</td> + <td class="tdcl">18.25 }</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 5 }</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Peat, ashes, and carbonate of lime,</td> + <td class="tdcl">18.19 }</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">38.44</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2"> 9</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2">25-½</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 6 }</td> + <td class="tdcl">20.25 }</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 7 }</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Peat, ashes, and carbonate of lime,</td> + <td class="tdcl">21.49 }</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">42.22</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2">10</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2">28-½</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 8 }</td> + <td class="tdcl">20.73 }</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 9 }</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Peat, ashes, slaked lime, and salt,</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.08 }</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">46.42</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2">11</td> + <td class="tdcl" rowspan="2">30-½</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">10 }</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.34 }</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">11 }</td> + <td class="tdlb" rowspan="2">Peat, ashes, and Peruvian Guano,</td> + <td class="tdcl">26.79 }</td> + <td class="tdcb" rowspan="2">53.78</td> + <td class="tdcbl" rowspan="2">13</td> + <td class="tdcbl" rowspan="2">35-½</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb">12 }</td> + <td class="tdcbl">26.99 }</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>Let us now examine the above results. The experiments 1 and 2, +demonstrate that the peat itself is deficient in something needful to +the plant. In both pots, but 4.2 grammes of crop were produced, a +quantity two and a half times greater than that of the seeds, which +weighed 1.59 grammes. The plants were pale in color, slender, and +reached a height of but about six inches.</p> + +<p>Nos. 3 and 4 make evident what are some of the deficiencies of the peat. +A supply of mineral matters, such as are contained in all plants, being +made by the addition of <i>ashes</i>, consisting chiefly of phosphates, +carbonates and sulphates of lime, magnesia and potash, a crop is +realized nearly eight times greater than in the previous cases; the +yield being 32.44 grammes, or 20-½ times the weight of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>the seed. The +quantity of ashes added, viz.:—10 grammes, was capable of supplying +every mineral element, greatly in excess of the wants of any crop that +could be grown in a quart of soil. The plants in pots 3 and 4 were much +stouter than those in 1 and 2, and had a healthy color.</p> + +<p>The experiments 5 and 6 appear to demonstrate that <i>carbonate of lime</i> +considerably aided in converting the peat itself into plant-food. The +ashes alone contained enough carbonate of lime to supply the wants of +the plant in respect to that substance. More carbonate of lime could +only operate by acting on the organic matters of the peat. The amount of +the crop is raised by the effect of carbonate of lime from 32.44 to +38.44 grammes, or from 20-½ to 25-½ times that of the seed.</p> + +<p>Experiments 7 and 8 show, that <i>slaked lime</i> has more effect than the +carbonate, as we should anticipate. Its influence does not, however, +exceed that of the carbonate very greatly, the yield rising from 38.44 +to 42.22 grammes, or from 25-½ to 28-½ times the weight of the seed. +In fact, quick-lime can only act as such for a very short space of time, +since it rapidly combines with the carbonic acid, which is supplied +abundantly by the peat. In experiments 7 and 8, a good share of the +influence exerted must therefore be actually ascribed to the carbonate, +rather than to the quick-lime itself.</p> + +<p>In experiments 9 and 10, we have proof that the "<i>lime and salt +mixture</i>" has a greater efficacy than lime alone, the crop being +increased thereby from 42.22, to 46.42 grammes, or from 28-½ to 30-½ +times that of the seed.</p> + +<p>Finally, we see from experiments 11 and 12 that in all the foregoing +cases it was a limited supply of <i>nitrogen</i> that limited the crop; for, +on adding Peruvian guano, which could only act by this element (its +other ingredients, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>phosphates of lime and potash, being abundantly +supplied in the ashes), the yield was carried up to 53.78 grammes, or +35-½ times the weight of the seed, and 13 times the weight of the crop +obtained from the unmixed peat.</p> + + +<p>5.—<i>The Examination of Peat (muck and marsh-mud) with reference to its +Agricultural Value.</i></p> + +<p>Since, as we are forced to conclude, the variations in the composition +of peat stand in no recognizable relations to differences of appearance, +it is only possible to ascertain the value of any given specimen by +actual trial or by chemical investigation.</p> + +<p>The method <i>by practical trial</i> is usually the cheaper and more +satisfactory of the two, though a half year or more is needful to gain +the desired information.</p> + +<p>It is sufficient to apply to small measured plots of ground, each say +two rods square, known quantities of the fresh, the weathered, and the +composted peat in order, by comparison of the growth and <i>weight</i> of the +crop, to decide the question of their value.</p> + +<p>Peat and its composts are usually applied at rates ranging from 20 to 40 +wagon or cart loads per acre. There being 160 square rods in the acre, +the quantity proper to a plot of two rods square (= four square rods,) +would be one half to one load.</p> + +<p>The composts with stable manure and lime, or salt and lime mixture, are +those which, in general, it would be best to experiment with. From the +effects of the stable manure compost, could be inferred with safety the +value of any compost, of which animal manure is an essential ingredient.</p> + +<p>One great advantage of the practical trial on the small scale is, that +the adaptation of the peat or of the compost to the <i>peculiarities of +the soil</i>, is decided beyond a question.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>It must be borne in mind, however, that the results of experiments can +only be relied upon, when the plots are accurately measured, when the +peat, etc., are applied in known quantities, and when the crops are +separately harvested and carefully weighed.</p> + +<p>If experiments are made upon grass or clover, the gravest errors may +arise by drawing conclusions from the appearance of the standing crop. +Experience has shown that two clover crops, gathered from contiguous +plots differently manured, may strikingly differ in appearance, but +yield the same amounts of hay.</p> + +<p>The <i>chemical examination</i> of a peat may serve to inform us, without +loss of time, upon a number of important points.</p> + +<p>To test a peat for <i>soluble iron salts</i> which might render it +deleterious, we soak and agitate a handful for some hours, with four or +five times its bulk of warm soft water. From a <i>good fresh-water peat</i> +we obtain, by this treatment, a yellow liquid, more or less deep in +tint, the taste of which is very slight and scarcely definable.</p> + +<p>From a <i>vitriol peat</i> we get a dark-brown or black solution, which has a +bitter, astringent, metallic or inky taste, like that of copperas.</p> + +<p><i>Salt peat</i> will yield a solution having the taste of salt-brine, unless +it contains iron, when the taste of the latter will prevail.</p> + +<p>On evaporating the water-solution to dryness and heating strongly in a +China cup, a <i>vitriol peat</i> gives off white choking fumes of sulphuric +acid, and there remains, after burning, brown-red oxide of iron in the +dish.</p> + +<p>The above testings are easily conducted by any one, with the ordinary +conveniences of the kitchen.</p> + +<p>Those that follow, require, for the most part, the chemical laboratory, +and the skill of the practised chemist, for satisfactory execution.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>Besides testing for soluble iron compounds, as already indicated, the +points to be regarded in the chemical examination, are:—</p> + +<p>1st. <i>Water or moisture.</i>—This must be estimated, because it is so +variable, and a knowledge of its quantity is needful, if we will compare +together different samples. A weighed amount of the peat is dried for +this purpose at 212° F., as long as it suffers loss.</p> + +<p>2d. The <i>proportions of organic matter and ash</i> are ascertained by +carefully burning a weighed sample of the peat. By this trial we +distinguish between peat with 2 to 10 <i>per cent.</i> of ash and peaty soil, +or mud, containing but a few <i>per cent.</i> of organic matter.</p> + +<p>This experiment may be made in a rough way, but with sufficient accuracy +for common purposes, by burning a few lbs. or ozs. of peat upon a piece +of sheet iron, or in a sauce pan, and noting the loss, which includes +both <i>water</i> and <i>organic matter</i>.</p> + +<p>3d. As further regards the organic matters, we ascertain <i>the extent to +which the peaty decomposition has taken place</i> by boiling with dilute +solution of carbonate of soda. This solvent separates the humic and +ulmic acids from the undecomposed vegetable fibers.</p> + +<p>For practical purposes this treatment with carbonate of soda may be +dispensed with, since the amount of undecomposed fiber is gathered with +sufficient accuracy from careful inspection of the peat.</p> + +<p>Special examination of the organic acids is of no consequence in the +present state of our knowledge.</p> + +<p>4th. The <i>proportion of nitrogen</i> is of the first importance to be +ascertained. In examinations of 30 samples of peat, I have found the +content of nitrogen to range from 0.4 to 2.9 <i>per cent.</i>, the richest +containing seven times as much as the poorest. It is practically a +matter of great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>moment whether, for example, a Peruvian guano contains +16 <i>per cent.</i> of nitrogen as it should, or but one-seventh that amount, +as it may when grossly adulterated. In the same sense, it is important +before making a heavy outlay in excavating and composting peat, to know +whether (as regards nitrogen) it belongs to the poorer or richer sorts. +This can only be done by the complicated methods known to the chemist.</p> + +<p>5th. The estimation of <i>ammonia</i> (actual or ready-formed,) is a matter +of scientific interest, but subordinate in a practical point of view.</p> + +<p>6th. <i>Nitric acid</i> and <i>nitrates</i> can scarcely exist in peat except +where it is well exposed to the air, in a merely moist but not wet +state. Their estimation in composts is of great interest, though +troublesome to execute.</p> + +<p>7th. As regards the ash, its red color indicates <i>iron</i>. Pouring +hydrochloric acid upon it, causes effervescence in the presence of +<i>carbonate of lime</i>. This compound, in most cases, has been formed in +the burning, from humate and other organic salts of lime. <i>Sand</i>, or +<i>clay</i>, being insoluble in the acid, remains, and may be readily +estimated.</p> + +<p><i>Phosphoric acid</i> and alkalies, especially <i>potash</i>, are, next to lime, +the important ingredients of the ash. <i>Magnesia</i> and <i>sulphuric acid</i>, +rank next in value. Their estimation requires a number of tedious +operations, and can scarcely be required for practical purposes, until +more ready methods of analyses shall have been discovered.</p> + +<p>8th. The quantity of <i>matters soluble in water</i> has considerable +interest, but is not ordinarily requisite to be ascertained.</p> + +<p>6.—<i>Composition of Connecticut Peats</i>.</p> + +<p>In the years 1857 and 1858, the author was charged by the Connecticut +State Agricultural Society<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> with the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>chemical investigation of 33 +samples of peat and swamp muck, sent to him in compliance with official +request.</p> + +<p>In the foregoing pages, the facts revealed by the laborious analyses +executed on these samples, have been for the most part communicated, +together with many valuable practical results derived from the +experience of the gentlemen who sent in the specimens. The analytical +data themselves appear to me to be worthy of printing again, for the +information of those who may hereafter make investigations in the same +direction.—See Tables I, II, and III, p.p. 89, 90, and 91.</p> + +<p>The specimens came in all stages of dryness. Some were freshly dug and +wet, others had suffered long exposure, so that they were air-dry; some +that were sent in the moist state, became dry before being subjected to +examination; others were prepared for analysis while still moist.</p> + +<p>A sufficient quantity of each specimen was carefully pulverized, +intermixed, and put into a stoppered bottle and thus preserved for +experiment.</p> + +<p>The analyses were begun in the winter of 1857 by my assistant, Edward H. +Twining, Esq. The samples 1 to 17 of the subjoined tables were then +analyzed. In the following year the work was continued on the remaining +specimens 18—33 by Dr. Robert A. Fisher. The method of analysis was the +same in both cases, except in two particulars.</p> + +<p>In the earlier analyses, 1 to 17 inclusive, the treatment with carbonate +of soda was not carried far enough to dissolve the whole of the soluble +organic acids. It was merely attempted to make <i>comparative</i> +determinations by treating all alike for the same time, and with the +same quantity of alkali. I have little doubt that in some cases not more +than one-half of the portion really soluble in carbonate of soda is +given as such. In the later analyses, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>18 to 33, however, the treatment +was continued until complete separation of the soluble organic acids was +effected.</p> + +<p>By acting on a peat for a long time with a hot solution of carbonate of +soda, there is taken up not merely a quantity of organic matter, but +inorganic matters likewise enter solution. Silica, oxyd of iron and +alumina are thus dissolved. In this process too, sulphate of lime is +converted into carbonate of lime.</p> + +<p>The total amount of these soluble inorganic matters has been determined +with approximate accuracy in analyses 18 to 33.</p> + +<p>In the analyses 1 to 17 the collective amount of matters soluble in +water was determined. In the later analyses the proportions of organic +and inorganic matters in the water-solution were separately estimated.</p> + +<p>The process of analysis as elaborated and employed by Dr. Fisher and the +author, is as follows:</p> + +<p>I. To prepare a sample for analysis, half a pound, more or less, of the +substance is pulverized and passed through a wire sieve of 24 meshes to +the inch. It is then thoroughly mixed and bottled.</p> + +<p>II. 2 grammes of the above are dried (in tared watch-glasses) at the +temperature of 212 degrees, until they no longer decrease in weight. The +loss sustained represents the <i>amount of water</i>, (according to +<span class="smcap">Marsilly</span>, Annales des Mines, 1857, XII., 404, peat loses carbon +if dried at a temperature higher than 212 degrees.)</p> + +<p>III. The capsule containing the residue from I. is slowly heated to +incipient redness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic +matter is entirely consumed. The loss gives the total amount of +<i>organic</i>, the residue the total amount of <i>inorganic</i> matter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In peats containing sulphate of the protoxide of iron, +the loss that occurs during ignition is partly due <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>to the escape of +sulphuric acid, which is set free by the decomposition of the above +mentioned salt of iron. But the quantity is usually so small in +comparison with the organic matter, that it may be disregarded. The same +may be said of the combined water in the clay that is mixed with some +mucks, which is only expelled at a high temperature.</p> + +<p>IV. 3 grammes of the sample are digested for half an hour, with 200 +cubic centimeters (66.6 times their weight,) of boiling water, then +removed from the sand bath, and at the end of twenty-four hours, the +clear liquid is decanted. This operation is twice repeated upon the +residue; the three solutions are mixed, filtered, concentrated, and +finally evaporated to dryness (in a tared platinum capsule,) over a +water bath. The residue, which must be dried at 212 degrees, until it +ceases to lose weight, gives the <i>total amount soluble in water</i>. The +dried residue is then heated to low redness, and maintained at that +temperature until the organic matter is burned off. The loss represents +the amount of <i>organic matter soluble in water</i>, the ash gives the +quantity of <i>soluble inorganic matter</i>.</p> + +<p>V. 1 gramme is digested for two hours, at a temperature just below the +boiling point, with 100 cubic centimeters of a solution containing 5 +<i>per cent.</i> of crystallized carbonate of soda. It is then removed from +the sand bath and allowed to settle. When the supernatant liquid has +become perfectly transparent, it is carefully decanted. This operation +is repeated until all the organic matter soluble in this menstruum is +removed; which is accomplished as soon as the carbonate of soda solution +comes off colorless. The residue, which is to be washed with boiling +water until the washings no longer affect test papers, is thrown upon a +tared filter, and dried at 212 degrees. It is the <i>total amount of +organic and inorganic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>matter insoluble in carbonate of soda</i>. The loss +that it suffers upon ignition, indicates the amount of <i>organic matter</i>, +the ash gives the <i>inorganic</i> matter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The time required to insure perfect settling after +digesting with carbonate of soda solution, varies, with different peats, +from 24 hours to several days. With proper care, the results obtained +are very satisfactory. Two analyses of No. 6, executed at different +times, gave <i>total insoluble in carbonate of soda</i>—1st analysis 23.20 +<i>per cent.</i>; 2d analysis 23.45 <i>per cent.</i> These residues yielded +respectively 14.30 and 14.15 <i>per cent.</i> of ash.</p> + +<p>VI. The quantity of <i>organic matter insoluble in water but soluble in +solution of carbonate of soda</i>, is ascertained by deducting the joint +weight of the amounts soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of +soda, from the total amount of organic matter present. The <i>inorganic +matter insoluble in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda</i>, is +determined by deducting the joint weight of the amounts of inorganic +matter soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the +total inorganic matter.</p> + +<p>VII. The amount of nitrogen is estimated by the combustion of 1 gramme +with soda-lime in an iron tube, collection of the ammonia in a standard +solution of sulphuric acid, and determination of the residual free acid +by an equivalent solution of caustic potash and a few drops of tincture +of cochineal as an indicator.</p> + +<p>The results of the analyses are given in the following Tables. Table I. +gives the direct results of analysis. In Table II. the analyses are +calculated on dry matter, and the nitrogen upon the organic matters. +Table III. gives a condensed statement of the external characters and +agricultural value<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> of the samples in their different localities, and +the names of the parties supplying them.</p> +<br /> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span><p class="cen">TABLE I.—COMPOSITION OF CONNECTICUT PEATS AND MUCKS.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png089"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="45%">KEY</td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">A - <i>Soluble in water.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">B - <i>Insol. in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">C - <i>Insol. in water and carbonate of soda.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">D - <i>Total.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">E - <i>Water.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">F - <i>Nitrogen.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb" colspan="12">G - <i>Total matters soluble in water.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" rowspan="2"><i>From Whom and Whence Received.</i></td> + <td class="tdcbl" colspan="4">ORGANIC MATTER.</td> + <td class="tdcbl" colspan="4">INORGANIC MATTER.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbl">A</td> + <td class="tdcbl">B</td> + <td class="tdcbl">C</td> + <td class="tdcbl">D</td> + <td class="tdcbl">A</td> + <td class="tdcbl">B</td> + <td class="tdcbl">C</td> + <td class="tdcbl">D</td> + <td class="tdcbl">E</td> + <td class="tdcbl">F</td> + <td class="tdcbl">G</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">17.63</td> + <td class="tdcl">34.79</td> + <td class="tdcl">52.42</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">35.21</td> + <td class="tdcl">12.37</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.28</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.54</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Goshen, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 2. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">60.02</td> + <td class="tdcl">11.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">71.67</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.00</td> + <td class="tdcl">20.33</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.85</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Goshen, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 3. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">50.60</td> + <td class="tdcl">29.75</td> + <td class="tdcl">80.35</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.52</td> + <td class="tdcl">15.13</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.51</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Goshen, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">65.15</td> + <td class="tdcl">11.95</td> + <td class="tdcl">77.10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.23</td> + <td class="tdcl">19.67</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.20</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Milford, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">67.75</td> + <td class="tdcl">16.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">84.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.00</td> + <td class="tdcl">13.60</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .95</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.42</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Milford, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: 1px black dashed"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: 1px black dashed"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 6. Samuel Camp</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">43.20</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.90</td> + <td class="tdcl">52.10</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">14.90</td> + <td class="tdcl">14.30</td> + <td class="tdcl">29.20</td> + <td class="tdcl">18.70</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Plainville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 7. Russell U. Peck</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">38.49</td> + <td class="tdcl">30.51</td> + <td class="tdcl">69.00</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">13.59</td> + <td class="tdcl">17.41</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.62</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.61</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Berlin, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">42.30</td> + <td class="tdcl">10.15</td> + <td class="tdcl">52.45</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">34.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">12.85</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.31</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.64</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Griswold, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 9. J. H. Stanwood</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">49.65</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.40</td> + <td class="tdcl">57.05</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.57</td> + <td class="tdcl">38.38</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.83</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Colebrook, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">10. N. Hart, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">55.11</td> + <td class="tdcl">10.29</td> + <td class="tdcl">65.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">14.89</td> + <td class="tdcl">19.71</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.20</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> West Cornwall, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">11. A. L. Loveland</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">38.27</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.89</td> + <td class="tdcl">41.16</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">47.24</td> + <td class="tdcl">11.60</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.00</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> North Granby, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">12. Daniel Buck, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">27.19</td> + <td class="tdcl">48.84</td> + <td class="tdcl">76.03</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.92</td> + <td class="tdcl">18.05</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.94</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Poquonock, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">13. Daniel Buck, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">33.66</td> + <td class="tdcl">40.51</td> + <td class="tdcl">74.17</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.63</td> + <td class="tdcl">17.20</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Poquonock, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">14. Philip Scarborough</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">51.45</td> + <td class="tdcl">25.00</td> + <td class="tdcl">76.45</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.67</td> + <td class="tdcl">15.88</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.20</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15. Adams White</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">54.38</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.14</td> + <td class="tdcl">77.52</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.03</td> + <td class="tdcl">13.45</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.89</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.90</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">16. Paris Dyer</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">18.86</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.02</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.88</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">67.77</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.35</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.03</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">17. Perrin Scarborough</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">43.27</td> + <td class="tdcl">16.83</td> + <td class="tdcl">60.10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">25.78</td> + <td class="tdcl">14.12</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.86</td> + <td class="tdcl">15.13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">18. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.21</td> + <td class="tdcl">20.57</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.25</td> + <td class="tdcl">31.03</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.41</td> + <td class="tdcl">48.05</td> + <td class="tdcl">57.78</td> + <td class="tdcl">11.19</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.64</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.53</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Collinsville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">19. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.12</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.19</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.10</td> + <td class="tdcl">15.41</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.28</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.08</td> + <td class="tdcl">48.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">50.01</td> + <td class="tdcl">34.58</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.34</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.40</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Collinsville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">20. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.72</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.31</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">13.68</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.25</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.76</td> + <td class="tdcl">28.20</td> + <td class="tdcl">29.21</td> + <td class="tdcl">57.11</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.28</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .97</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Collinsville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">21. S. Mead</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.30</td> + <td class="tdcl">40.52</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.20</td> + <td class="tdcl">52.02</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.60</td> + <td class="tdcl">10.02</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.90</td> + <td class="tdcl">36.52</td> + <td class="tdcl">11.46</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.51</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.90</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Haven, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">22. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.84</td> + <td class="tdcl">13.42</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.55</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.81</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.72</td> + <td class="tdcl">19.88</td> + <td class="tdcl">46.30</td> + <td class="tdcl">68.90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.29</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.45</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.56</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Canaan, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">23. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.34</td> + <td class="tdcl">13.49</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.05</td> + <td class="tdcl">23.88</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.54</td> + <td class="tdcl">12.42</td> + <td class="tdcl">56.20</td> + <td class="tdcl">70.16</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.96</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.88</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Canaan, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">24. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.15</td> + <td class="tdcl">17.29</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.00</td> + <td class="tdcl">26.44</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.67</td> + <td class="tdcl">14.13</td> + <td class="tdcl">51.10</td> + <td class="tdcl">66.90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.66</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.01</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.82</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Canaan, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">25. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.43</td> + <td class="tdcl">52.15</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">64.23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.35</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.16</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.41</td> + <td class="tdcl">30.36</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.62</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.78</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Rockville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">26. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.87</td> + <td class="tdcl">71.57</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.44</td> + <td class="tdcl">83.88</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.98</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.21</td> + <td class="tdcl">13.91</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.10</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Rockville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">27. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.87</td> + <td class="tdcl">44.04</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.25</td> + <td class="tdcl">52.16</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.51</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.07</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.05</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.63</td> + <td class="tdcl">38.21</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.88</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Rockville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">28. Albert Day</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.45</td> + <td class="tdcl">46.25</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.35</td> + <td class="tdcl">55.05</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.65</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.37</td> + <td class="tdcl">38.58</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.84</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.77</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">29. C. Goodyear</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.80</td> + <td class="tdcl">45.42</td> + <td class="tdcl">10.35</td> + <td class="tdcl">57.57</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.35</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.98</td> + <td class="tdcl">18.80</td> + <td class="tdcl">27.13</td> + <td class="tdcl">15.30</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.68</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Haven, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">30. Rev. Wm. Clift</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.33</td> + <td class="tdcl">51.68</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9.80</td> + <td class="tdcl">64.81</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.82</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.86</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.68</td> + <td class="tdcl">26.51</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.95</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Stonington, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">31. Henry Keeler</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.13</td> + <td class="tdcl">45.12</td> + <td class="tdcl">12.05</td> + <td class="tdcl">59.30</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 0.78</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.79</td> + <td class="tdcl">16.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">21.27</td> + <td class="tdcl">19.43</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.57</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.91</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> South Salem, N. Y.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">32. John Adams</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.71</td> + <td class="tdcl">42.87</td> + <td class="tdcl">10.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">55.23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.02</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.33</td> + <td class="tdcl">14.35</td> + <td class="tdcl">16.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">28.07</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.76</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.73</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Salisbury, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">33. Rev. Wm. Clift</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.40</td> + <td class="tdcl">16.72</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.25</td> + <td class="tdcl">29.37</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.40</td> + <td class="tdcl">48.05</td> + <td class="tdcl">61.85</td> + <td class="tdcl">8.78</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Stonington, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Average</td> + <td class="tdc"> 2.06</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> 1.44</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> 1.37</td> + <td class="tdc"> 3.72</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span><p class="cen">TABLE II.—COMPOSITION OF CONNECTICUT PEATS AND MUCKS.</p> +<p class="cen"><i>Calculated in the dry state: the percentage of nitrogen calculated also on organic +matters.</i></p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png090"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="45%">KEY</td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="5%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">A - <i>In this table the matters soluble in water and + the nitrogen are calculated to two places of decimals; the other ingredients are + expressed in round numbers.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">B - <i>Soluble in water.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">C - <i>Insol. in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">D - <i>Insol. in water and carbonate of soda.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">E - <i>Total.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">F - <i>Total matters soluble in water.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="12">G - <i>Nitrogen.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb" colspan="12">H - <i>Nitrogen in per cent. of the organic matter.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl" colspan="4">ORGANIC MATTER.</td> + <td class="tdcbl" colspan="4">INORGANIC MATTER.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">A</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black dashed;">B</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black dashed;">C</td> + <td class="tdcbl">D</td> + <td class="tdcbl">E</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black dashed;">B</td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black dashed;">C</td> + <td class="tdcbl">D</td> + <td class="tdcbl">E</td> + <td class="tdcbl">F</td> + <td class="tdcbl">G</td> + <td class="tdcbl">H</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 1. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">20</td> + <td class="tdcl">40</td> + <td class="tdcl">60</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.75</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.46</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Goshen, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 2. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">75</td> + <td class="tdcl">15</td> + <td class="tdcl">90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">2.32</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Goshen, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 3. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">60</td> + <td class="tdcl">35</td> + <td class="tdcl">95</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.95</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.23</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Goshen, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">81</td> + <td class="tdcl">15</td> + <td class="tdcl">96</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.03</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.49</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Milford, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">79</td> + <td class="tdcl">19</td> + <td class="tdcl">98</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.97</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.09</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Milford, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black dashed;"> </td> + <td class="tdcl" style="border-bottom: .5pt black dashed;"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 6. Samuel Camp</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">53</td> + <td class="tdcl">11</td> + <td class="tdcl">64</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">18</td> + <td class="tdcl">18</td> + <td class="tdcl">36</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.08</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.58</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.03</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Plainville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 7. Russell U. Peck</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">46</td> + <td class="tdcl">37</td> + <td class="tdcl">83</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">17</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.27</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.96</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.34</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Berlin, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">48</td> + <td class="tdcl">11</td> + <td class="tdcl">59</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">41</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.88</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.50</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.49</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Griswold, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> 9. J. H. Stanwood</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">75</td> + <td class="tdcl">11</td> + <td class="tdcl">86</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">14</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.77</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.99</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Colebrook, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">10. N. Hart, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">69</td> + <td class="tdcl">13</td> + <td class="tdcl">82</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">18</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.75</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.61</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.21</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> West Cornwall, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">11. A. L. Loveland</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">43</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4</td> + <td class="tdcl">47</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">53</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .85</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.13</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> North Granby, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">12. Daniel Buck, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">33</td> + <td class="tdcl">60</td> + <td class="tdcl">93</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.58</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.92</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Poquonock, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">13. Daniel Buck, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">41</td> + <td class="tdcl">49</td> + <td class="tdcl">90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.16</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.89</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Poquonock, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">14. Philip Scarborough</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">61</td> + <td class="tdcl">30</td> + <td class="tdcl">91</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.42</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.57</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15. Adams White</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">63</td> + <td class="tdcl">27</td> + <td class="tdcl">90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.78</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.33</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.72</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">16. Paris Dyer</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">21</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5</td> + <td class="tdcl">26</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">74</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.85</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.12</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">17. Perrin Scarborough</td> + <td class="tdcl" colspan="2">62</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">70</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl">30</td> + <td class="tdcl">17.59</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.00</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">18. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.48</td> + <td class="tdcl">23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9</td> + <td class="tdcl">35</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.35</td> + <td class="tdcl">11</td> + <td class="tdcl">54</td> + <td class="tdcl">65</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.83</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.72</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.06</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Collinsville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">19. Geo K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.72</td> + <td class="tdcl">14</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">23</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .43</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2</td> + <td class="tdcl">75</td> + <td class="tdcl">77</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.15</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.51</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.20</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Collinsville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">20. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.67</td> + <td class="tdcl">22</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .58</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2</td> + <td class="tdcl">66</td> + <td class="tdcl">68</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.25</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.65</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.04</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Collinsville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">21. Solomon Mead</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">48</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9</td> + <td class="tdcl">60</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.92</td> + <td class="tdcl">11</td> + <td class="tdcl">27</td> + <td class="tdcl">40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.62</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.70</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.90</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Haven, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">22. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.05</td> + <td class="tdcl">14</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">26</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.92</td> + <td class="tdcl">21</td> + <td class="tdcl">50</td> + <td class="tdcl">74</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 6.07</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.48</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.88</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Canaan, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">23. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.47</td> + <td class="tdcl">14</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">25</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.63</td> + <td class="tdcl">13</td> + <td class="tdcl">60</td> + <td class="tdcl">75</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.10</td> + <td class="tdcl">0.95</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.76</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Canaan, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">24. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.23</td> + <td class="tdcl">18</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9</td> + <td class="tdcl">28</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.79</td> + <td class="tdcl">15</td> + <td class="tdcl">55</td> + <td class="tdcl">72</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.02</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.08</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.82</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Canaan, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">25. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.90</td> + <td class="tdcl">75</td> + <td class="tdcl">12</td> + <td class="tdcl">92</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .50</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5.40</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.32</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.52</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Rockville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">26. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.50</td> + <td class="tdcl">83</td> + <td class="tdcl">10</td> + <td class="tdcl">97</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .27</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.77</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.53</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.57</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Rockville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">27. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdcl">6.24</td> + <td class="tdcl">71</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7</td> + <td class="tdcl">84</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .82</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">16</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7.06</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.04</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.64</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Rockville, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">28. Albert Day</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.01</td> + <td class="tdcl">76</td> + <td class="tdcl">10</td> + <td class="tdcl">90</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .52</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 1</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">10</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 4.53</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.36</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.52</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Brooklyn, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">29. C. Goodyear</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.11</td> + <td class="tdcl">54</td> + <td class="tdcl">12</td> + <td class="tdcl">68</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 9</td> + <td class="tdcl">22</td> + <td class="tdcl">32</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2.51</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.98</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.91</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> New Haven, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">30. Rev. Wm. Clift</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.56</td> + <td class="tdcl">71</td> + <td class="tdcl">13</td> + <td class="tdcl">88</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.86</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">12</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8.42</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.29</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.46</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Stonington, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">31. Henry Keeler</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.66</td> + <td class="tdcl">56</td> + <td class="tdcl">15</td> + <td class="tdcl">73</td> + <td class="tdcl"> .97</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 5</td> + <td class="tdcl">21</td> + <td class="tdcl">27</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.63</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.98</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.64</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> South Salem, N. Y.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">32. John Adams</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.37</td> + <td class="tdcl">59</td> + <td class="tdcl">15</td> + <td class="tdcl">76</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.40</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 2</td> + <td class="tdcl">20</td> + <td class="tdcl">24</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 3.77</td> + <td class="tdcl">2.44</td> + <td class="tdcl">3.18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> Salisbury, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + <td class="tdcl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">33. Rev. Wm. Clift</td> + <td class="tdcl">5.93</td> + <td class="tdcl">18</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 8</td> + <td class="tdcl">32</td> + <td class="tdcl">8.13</td> + <td class="tdcl"> 7</td> + <td class="tdcl">53</td> + <td class="tdcl">68</td> + <td class="tdcl">14.06</td> + <td class="tdcl">1.44</td> + <td class="tdcl">4.49</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlb"> Stonington, Conn.</td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + <td class="tdcbl"> </td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span><p class="cen">TABLE III.—DESCRIPTION, ETC., OF PEATS AND MUCKS.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png091"> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" width="30%"><i>No.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="20%"><i>Color.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="50%"><i>Condition at Time of Analysis, Reputed Value, etc.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 1. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, tough, compact, heavy; from bottom; 3 to 4 feet deep; very + good in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 2. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, tough, compact, heavier than 1, from near surface; very + good in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 3. Lewis M. Norton</td> + <td class="tdlt">light-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, coherent but light, from between 1 and 2, very good in + compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, coherent but light, surface peat, considered better than No. + 5; good in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles</td> + <td class="tdlt">brownish-red,</td> + <td class="tdlt">air-dry, very light and loose in texture, from depth of 3 feet, + good in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 6. Samuel Camp</td> + <td class="tdlt">black,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, hard lumps, half as good as yard manure, in compost equal + to yard manure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 7. Russell U. Peck</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, is good fresh, long exposed, half as good as barn-yard\ + manure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop</td> + <td class="tdlt">grayish-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, light, easily crushed masses containing sand, has not been + used alone, good in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> 9. J. H. Stanwood</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, hard lumps, used fresh good after first year; excellent in + compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">10. N. Hart, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdlt">brownish-black,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, hard lumps, excellent in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">11. A. L. Loveland</td> + <td class="tdlt">black,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, hard lumps, contains grains of coarse sand.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">12. Daniel Buck, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, coherent cakes, good as top dressing on grass when fresh; + excellent in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">13. Daniel Buck, Jr.</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, light surface layers of No. 12.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">14. Philip Scarborough</td> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, after exposure over winter, has one-third value of + yard-manure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">15. Adams White</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, hard lumps, good in compost, causes great growth of straw.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">16. Paris Dyer</td> + <td class="tdlt">grayish-black,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, easily crushed lumps, largely admixed with soil.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">17. Perrin Scarborough</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry,well-characterized "vitriol peat;" in compost, after 1 + year's exposure, gives indifferent results.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">18. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdlt">light brownish-gray</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry light, coherent, surface peat; sample long exposed; + astonishing results on sandy soil.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">19. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, crumbly, contains much sand, four feet from surface.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">20. Geo. K. Virgin</td> + <td class="tdlt">black,</td> + <td class="tdl">wet.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">21. Solomon Mead</td> + <td class="tdlt">grayish-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, light, porous, coherent from grass roots; long weathered, + good; fresh, better in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">22. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdlt">brownish-gray,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, loose, light, much mixed with soil, good in compost.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">23. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdlt">brownish-gray,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, No. 22 saturated with horse urine, darker than No. 22.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">24. Edwin Hoyt</td> + <td class="tdlt">brownish-gray,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, No. 22 composted with white fish, darker than No. 23; + fish-bones evident.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">25. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, fresh dug.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">26. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, No. 25 after two year's weathering.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">27. A. M. Haling</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, fresh dug, good substitute for yard manure as top-dressing on + grass.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">28. Albert Day</td> + <td class="tdlt">dark-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, coherent and hard; fresh dug, but from surface where + weathered; injurious to crops; vitriol peat. (?)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">29. C. Goodyear</td> + <td class="tdlt">black,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, very hard tough cakes; when fresh dug, "as good as cow + dung."</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">30. Rev. Wm. Clift</td> + <td class="tdlt">chocolate-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, from an originally fresh water bog, broken into 100 years ago + by tide, now salt marsh; good after weathering.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">31. Henry Keeler</td> + <td class="tdlt">light-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, leaf-muck, friable; when fresh, appears equal to good yard + manure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">32. John Adams</td> + <td class="tdlt">light-brown,</td> + <td class="tdl">moist, overlies shell marl, fresh or weathered does not compare with + ordinary manure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">33. Rev. Wm. Clift</td> + <td class="tdlt">dark ash-gray,</td> + <td class="tdl">air-dry, from bottom of salt ditch, where tide flows daily; contains + sulphate of iron.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The oxygen thus absorbed by water, serves for the +respiration of fish and aquatic animals.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This sample contained also fish-bones, hence the larger +content of nitrogen was not entirely due to absorbed ammonia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Reichardt's analyses are probably inaccurate, and give too +much ammonia and nitric acid.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> These analyses were executed—A by Professor G. F. Barker; +B by Mr. O. C. Sparrow; C by Mr. Peter Collier.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Shell marl</i>, consisting of fragments and powder of +fresh-water shells, is frequently met with, underlying peat beds. Such a +deposit occurs on the farm of Mr. John Adams, in Salisbury, Conn. It is +eight to ten feet thick. An air-dry sample, analyzed under the writer's +direction, gave results as follows: +</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png075a"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="65%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Water</td> + <td class="tdr">30.62</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Organic matter</td> + <td class="tdl">{soluble in water</td> + <td class="tdc">0.70 }</td> + <td class="tdr" rowspan="2"> 6.52</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">{insoluble in water</td> + <td class="tdc">5.82 }</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Carbonate of lime</td> + <td class="tdr">57.09</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Sand</td> + <td class="tdr">1.86</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Oxide of iron and alumina, with traces of potash, + magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="tdrb" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;">3.91</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdr">100.00</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p> +Another specimen from near Milwaukee, Wis., said to occur there in +immense quantities underlying peat, contained, by the author's +analysis— +</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png075b"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="90%">Water</td> + <td class="tdr" width="10%">1.14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Carbonate of lime</td> + <td class="tdr">92.41</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Carbonate of magnesia</td> + <td class="tdr">3.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peroxide of iron with a trace of phosphoric acid</td> + <td class="tdr">0.92</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Sand</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;">1.60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">99.50</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> To the kindness of Joseph Sheffield, Esq., of New Haven, +the author is indebted for facilities in carrying on these experiments.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> At the instigation of Henry A. Dyer, Esq., at that time the +Society's Corresponding Secretary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Derived from the communications published in the author's +Report. Trans. Conn. State Ag. Soc. 1858 p.p. 101-153.</p></div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr style="width: 15%;" /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +<br /> +<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III">PART III</a>.</h2> +<h2>ON PEAT AS FUEL.</h2> +<br /> + +<p>1.—<i>Kinds of peat that make the best fuel.</i></p> + +<p>The value of peat for fuel varies greatly, like its other qualities. +Only those kinds which can be cut out in the shape of coherent blocks, +or which admit of being artificially formed into firm masses, are of use +in ordinary stoves and furnaces. The powdery or friable surface peat, +which has been disintegrated by frost and exposure, is ordinarily +useless as fuel, unless it be rendered coherent by some mode of +preparation. Unripe peat which contains much undecomposed moss or grass +roots, which is therefore very light and porous, is in general too bulky +to make an effective heating material before subjection to mechanical +treatment.</p> + +<p>The best peat for burning, is that which is most free from visible fiber +or undecomposed vegetable matters, which has therefore a homogeneous +brown or black aspect, and which is likewise free from admixture of +earthy <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>substances in the form of sand or clay. Such peat is unctuous +when moist, shrinks greatly on drying, and forms hard and heavy masses +when dry. It is usually found at a considerable depth, where it has been +subjected to pressure, and then has such consistence as to admit of +cutting out in blocks; or it may exist as a black mud or paste at the +bottom of bogs and sluices.</p> + +<p>The value of peat as fuel stands in direct ratio to its content of +carbon. We have seen that this ranges from 51 to 63 <i>per cent. of the +organic matter</i>, and the increase of carbon is related to its ripeness +and density. The poorest, youngest peat, has the same proportion of +carbon as exists in wood. It does not, however, follow that its heating +power is the same. The various kinds of wood have essentially the same +proportion of carbon, but their heating power is very different. The +close textured woods—those which weigh the most per cord—make the best +fuel for most purposes. We know, that a cord of hickory will produce +twice as much heat as a cord of bass-wood. Peat, though having the same +or a greater proportion of carbon, is generally inferior to wood on +account of its occupying a greater bulk for a given weight, a necessary +result of its porosity. The best qualities of peat, or poor kinds +artificially condensed, may, on the other hand, equal or exceed wood in +heating power, bulk for bulk. One reason that peat is, in general, +inferior to wood in heating effect, lies in its greater content of +incombustible ash. Wood has but 0.5 to 1.5 <i>per cent.</i> of mineral +matters, while peat contains usually 5 to 10 <i>per cent.</i>, and often +more. The oldest, ripest peats are those which contain the most carbon, +and have at the same time the greatest compactness. From these two +circumstances they make the best fuel.</p> + +<p>It thus appears that peat which is light, loose in structure, and much +mixed with clay or sand, is a poor or very <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>poor article for producing +heat: while a dense pure peat is very good.</p> + +<p>A great drawback to the usefulness of most kinds of peat-fuel, lies in +their great friability. This property renders them unable to endure +transportation. The blocks of peat which are commonly used in most parts +of Germany as fuel, break and crumble in handling, so that they cannot +be carried far without great waste. Besides, when put into a stove, +there can only go on a slow smouldering combustion as would happen in +cut tobacco or saw-dust. A free-burning fuel must exist in compact lumps +or blocks, which so retain their form and solidity, as to admit of a +rapid draught of air through the burning mass.</p> + +<p>The bulkiness of ordinary peat fuel, as compared with hard wood, and +especially with coal, likewise renders transportation costly, especially +by water, where freights are charged by bulk and not by weight, and +renders storage an item of great expense.</p> + +<p>The chief value of that peat fuel, which is simply cut from the bog, and +dried without artificial condensation, must be for the domestic use of +the farmer or villager who owns a supply of it not far from his +dwelling, and can employ his own time in getting it out. Though worth +perhaps much less cord for cord when dry than hard wood, it may be +cheaper for home consumption than fuel brought from a distance.</p> + +<p>Various processes have been devised for preparing peat, with a view to +bringing it into a condition of density and toughness, sufficient to +obviate its usual faults, and make it compare with wood or even with +coal in heating power.</p> + +<p>The efforts in this direction have met with abundant success as regards +producing a good fuel. In many cases, however, the cost of preparation +has been too great to warrant the general adoption of these processes. +We <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>shall recur to this subject on a subsequent page, and give an +account of the methods that have been proposed or employed for the +manufacture of condensed peat fuel.</p> + +<p>2.—<i>Density of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>The apparent<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> specific gravity of peat in the air-dry state, ranges +from 0.11 to 1.03. In other words, a full cubic foot weighs from +one-tenth as much as, to slightly more than a cubic foot of water, = +62-1/3 lbs. Peat, which has a specific gravity of but 0.25, may be and +is employed as fuel. A full cubic foot of it will weigh about 16 lbs. In +Germany, the cubic foot of "good ordinary peat" in blocks,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> ranges +from 15 to 25 lbs. in weight, and is employed for domestic purposes. The +heavier peat, weighing 30 or more lbs. per cubic foot in blocks, is used +for manufacturing and metallurgical purposes, and for firing +locomotives.</p> + +<p>Karmarsch has carefully investigated more than 100 peats belonging to +the kingdom of Hanover, with reference to their heating effect. He +classifies them as follows:—</p> + +<p>A. <i>Turfy peat</i>, (<i>Rasentorf</i>,) consisting of slightly decomposed mosses +and other peat-producing plants, having a yellow or yellowish-brown +color, very soft, spongy and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>elastic, sp. gr. 0.11 to 0.26, the full +English cubic foot weighing from 7 to 16 lbs.</p> + +<p>B. <i>Fibrous peat</i>, unripe peat, which is brown or black in color, less +elastic than turfy peat, the fibres either of moss, grass, roots, +leaves, or wood, distinguishable by the eye, but brittle, and easily +broken; sp. gr. 0.24 to 0.67, the weight of a full cubic foot being from +15 to 42 lbs.</p> + +<p>C. <i>Earthy peat.</i>—Nearly or altogether destitute of fibrous structure, +drying to earth-like masses which break with more or less difficulty, +giving lustreless surfaces of fracture; sp. gr. 0.41 to 0.90, the full +cubic foot weighing, accordingly, from 25 to 56 lbs.</p> + +<p>D. <i>Pitchy peat</i>, (<i>Pechtorf</i>,) dense; when dry, hard; often resisting +the blows of a hammer, breaking with a smooth, sometimes lustrous +fracture, into sharp-angled pieces. Sp. gr. 0.62 to 1.03, the full cubic +foot weighing from 38 to 55 lbs.</p> + +<p>In Kane and Sullivan's examination of 27 kinds of Irish peat, the +specific gravities ranged from 0.274 to 1.058.</p> + +<p>3.—<i>Heating power of peat as compared with wood and anthracite.</i></p> + +<p>Karmarsch found that in absolute heating effect</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="72%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png096a"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="100%">100 lbs. of turfy, air-dry peat, on the average = + 95 lbs. of pine wood.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 lbs. of fibrous, air-dry peat, on the average = 108 lbs. of + pine wood.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 lbs. of earthy, air-dry peat, on the average = 104 lbs. of + pine wood.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 lbs. of pitchy, air-dry peat, on the average = 111 lbs. of + pine wood.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<p>The comparison of heating power by bulk, instead of weight, is as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="82%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png096b"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="100%">100 cubic ft. of turfy peat, on the average<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> = 33 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 cubic ft. of fibrous peat, on the average = 90 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 cubic ft. of earthy peat, on the average = 145 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 cubic ft. of pitchy peat, on the average = 184 cubic ft. of pine + wood, in sticks.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>According to Brix, the weight per English cord and relative heating +effect of several air-dry peats—the heating power of an equal bulk of +oak wood being taken at 100 as a standard—are as follows, <i>bulk for +bulk</i>:<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="85%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png097a"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="77%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="13%"><i>Weight per cord.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="10%"><i>Heating effect.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak wood</td> + <td class="tdc">4150 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc">100</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat from Linum, 1st quality, dense and pitchy</td> + <td class="tdc">3400 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc"> 70</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat from Linum, 2d quality, fibrous</td> + <td class="tdc">2900 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc"> 55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat from Linum, 3d quality, turfy</td> + <td class="tdc">2270 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc"> 53</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat from Buechsenfeld, 1st quality, pitchy, very hard and heavy</td> + <td class="tdc">3400 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc"> 74</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat from Buechsenfeld, 2d quality</td> + <td class="tdc">2730 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc"> 64</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>These statements agree in showing, that, while weight for weight, the +ordinary qualities of peat do not differ much from wood in heating +power; the heating effect of <i>equal bulks</i> of this fuel, as found in +commerce, may vary extremely, ranging from one-half to three quarters +that of oak wood.</p> + +<p>Condensed peat may be prepared by machinery, which will weigh more than +hard wood, bulk for bulk, and whose heating power will therefore exceed +that of wood.</p> + +<p>Gysser gives the following comparisons of a good peat with various +German woods and charcoals, equal weights being employed, and split +beech wood, air-dry, assumed as the standard.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png097b"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="83%">Beech wood, split, air dry</td> + <td class="tdr" width="7%">1.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat, condensed by Weber's & Gysser's method,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> air-dried, + with 25 <i>per cent.</i> moisture.</td> + <td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">1.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat, condensed by Weber's & Gysser's method, hot-dried, + with 10 <i>per cent.</i> moisture.</td> + <td class="tdr" style="vertical-align: top;">1.48</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat-charcoal, from condensed peat.</td> + <td class="tdr">1.73</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">The same peat, simply cut and air-dried.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech-charcoal.</td> + <td class="tdr">1.90</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Summer-oak wood.</td> + <td class="tdr">1.18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Birch wood.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">White pine wood.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.72</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Alder.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.65</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Linden.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.65</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Red pine.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.61</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Poplar.</td> + <td class="tdr">0.50</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>Some experiments have been made in this country on the value of peat as +fuel. One was tried on the N. Y. Central Railroad, Jan. 3, 1866. A +locomotive with 25 empty freight cars attached, was propelled from +Syracuse westward—the day being cold and the wind ahead—at the rate of +16 miles the hour. The engineer reported that "the peat gave us as much +steam as wood, and burnt a beautiful fire." The peat, we infer, was cut +and prepared near Syracuse, N. Y.</p> + +<p>In one of the pumping houses of the Nassau Water Department of the City +of Brooklyn, an experiment has been made for the purpose of comparing +peat with anthracite, for the results of which I am indebted to the +courtesy of Moses Lane, Esq., Chief Engineer of the Department.</p> + +<p>Fire was started under a steam boiler with wood. When steam was up, the +peat was burned—its quantity being 1743 lbs., or 18 barrels—and after +it was consumed, the firing was continued with coal. The pressure of +steam was kept as nearly uniform as possible throughout the trial, and +it was found that with 1743 lbs. of peat the engine made 2735 +revolutions, while with 1100 lbs. of coal it made 3866 revolutions. In +other words, 100 lbs. of coal produced 351-45/100 revolutions, and 100 +lbs. of peat produced 156-91/100 revolutions. One pound of coal +therefore equalled 2-24/100 lbs. of peat in heating effect. The peat +burned well and generated steam freely.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lane could not designate the quality of the peat, not having been +able to witness the experiment.</p> + +<p>These trials have not, indeed, all the precision needful to fix with +accuracy the comparative heating effect of the fuels employed; for a +furnace, that is adapted for wood, is not necessarily suited to peat, +and a coal grate must have a construction unlike that which is proper +for a peat fire; nevertheless they exhibit the relative merits of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>wood, +peat, and anthracite, with sufficient closeness for most practical +purposes.</p> + +<p>Two considerations would prevent the use of ordinary cut peat in large +works, even could two and one-fourth tons of it be afforded at the same +price as one ton of coal. The Nassau Water Department consumes 20,000 +tons of coal yearly, the handling of which is a large expense, six +firemen being employed to feed the furnaces. To generate the same amount +of steam with peat of the quality experimented with, would require the +force of firemen to be considerably increased. Again, it would be +necessary to lay in, under cover, a large stock of fuel during the +summer, for use in winter, when peat cannot be raised. Since a barrel of +this peat weighed less than 100 lbs., the short ton would occupy the +volume of 20 barrels; as is well known, a ton of anthracite can be put +into 8 barrels. A given weight of peat therefore requires 2-½ times as +much storage room, as the same weight of coal. As 2-¼ tons of peat, in +the case we are considering, are equivalent to but one ton of coal in +heating effect, the winter's supply of peat fuel would occupy 5-5/8 +times the bulk of the same supply in coal, admitting that the unoccupied +or air-space in a pile of peat is the same as in a heap of coal. In +fact, the calculation would really turn out still more to the +disadvantage of peat, because the air-space in a bin of peat is greater +than in one of coal, and coal can be excavated for at least two months +more of the year than peat.</p> + +<p>It is asserted by some, that, because peat can be condensed so as to +approach anthracite in specific gravity, it must, in the same ratio, +approach the latter in heating power. Its effective heating power is, +indeed, considerably augmented by condensation, but no mechanical +treatment can increase its percentage of carbon or otherwise <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>alter its +chemical composition; hence it must forever remain inferior to +anthracite.</p> + +<p>The composition and density of the best condensed peat is compared with +that of hard wood and anthracite in the following statement:—</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png100"> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" width="20%"><i>In 100 parts.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="14%"><i>Carbon.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="16%"><i>Hydrogen.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="16%"><i>Oxygen and Nitrogen.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="8%"><i>Ash.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="12%"><i>Water.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="14%"><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Wood</td> + <td class="tdc">39.6</td> + <td class="tdc">4.8</td> + <td class="tdc">34.8</td> + <td class="tdc">0.8</td> + <td class="tdc">20.0</td> + <td class="tdc">0.75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Condensed peat</td> + <td class="tdc">47.2</td> + <td class="tdc">4.9</td> + <td class="tdc">22.9</td> + <td class="tdc">5.0</td> + <td class="tdc">20.0</td> + <td class="tdc">1.20</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Anthracite</td> + <td class="tdc">91.3</td> + <td class="tdc">2.9</td> + <td class="tdc"> 2.8</td> + <td class="tdc">3.0</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">1.40</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>In combustion in ordinary fires, the <i>water</i> of the fuel is a source of +waste, since it consumes heat in acquiring the state of vapor. This is +well seen in the comparison of the same kind of peat in different states +of dryness. Thus, in the table of Gysser, (page 97) Weber's condensed +peat, containing 10 <i>per cent.</i> of moisture, surpasses in heating effect +that containing 25 <i>per cent.</i> of moisture, by nearly one-half.</p> + +<p>The <i>oxygen</i> is a source of waste, for heat as developed from fuel, is +chiefly a result of the chemical union of atmospheric or free oxygen, +with the carbon and hydrogen of the combustible. The oxygen of the fuel, +being already combined with carbon and hydrogen, not only cannot itself +contribute to the generation of heat, but neutralizes the heating effect +of those portions of the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with which it +remains in combination. The quantity of heating effect thus destroyed, +cannot, however, be calculated with certainty, because physical changes, +viz: the conversion of solids into gases, not to speak of secondary +chemical transformations, whose influence cannot be estimated, enter +into the computation.</p> + +<p><i>Nitrogen</i> and ash are practically indifferent in the burning process, +and simply impair the heating value of fuel in as far as they occupy +space in it and make a portion of its weight, to the exclusion of +combustible matter.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>Again, as regards density, peat is, in general, considerably inferior to +anthracite. The best uncondensed peat has a specific gravity of 0.90. +Condensed peat usually does not exceed 1.1. Sometimes it is made of sp. +gr. 1.3. Assertions to the effect of its acquiring a density of 1.8, can +hardly be credited of pure peat, though a considerable admixture of sand +or clay might give such a result.</p> + +<p>The comparative heating power of fuels is ascertained by burning them in +an apparatus, so constructed, that the heat generated shall expend +itself in evaporating or raising the temperature of a known quantity of +water.</p> + +<p><i>The amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one gramme of +water, one degree of the centigrade thermometer, is agreed upon as the +unit of heat.</i><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>In the complete combustion of carbon in the form of charcoal or +gas-coal, there are developed 8060 units of heat. In the combustion of +one gramme of hydrogen gas, 34,210 units of heat are generated. The +heating effect of hydrogen is therefore 4.2 times greater than that of +carbon. It was long supposed that the heating effect of compound +combustibles could be calculated from their elementary composition. This +view is proved to be erroneous, and direct experiment is the only +satisfactory means of getting at the truth in this respect.</p> + +<p>The data of Karmarsch, Brix, and Gysser, already given, were obtained by +the experimental method. They were, however, made mostly on a small +scale, and, in some cases, without due regard to the peculiar +requirements of the different kinds of fuel, as regards fire space, +draught, etc. They can only be regarded as approximations to the truth, +and have simply a comparative value, which is, however, sufficient for +ordinary purposes.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>The general results of the investigations hitherto made on all the +common kinds of fuel, are given in the subjoined statement. The +comparison is made in units of heat, and refers to equal weights of the +materials experimented with.</p> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">HEATING POWER OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png102"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="80%">Air-dry Wood</td> + <td class="tdc" width="20%"> 2800</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="80%">Air-dry Peat</td> + <td class="tdl" width="10%">2500</td> + <td class="tdr" width="10%">3000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Perfectly dry Wood</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">3600</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Perfectly dry Peat</td> + <td class="tdl">3000</td> + <td class="tdr">4000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Air-dry Lignite or Brown Coal</td> + <td class="tdl">3300</td> + <td class="tdr">4200</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Perfectly dry Lignite or Brown Coal</td> + <td class="tdl">4000</td> + <td class="tdr">5000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Bituminous Coal</td> + <td class="tdl">3800</td> + <td class="tdr">7000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Anthracite</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">7500</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Wood Charcoal</td> + <td class="tdl">6300</td> + <td class="tdr">7500</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Coke</td> + <td class="tdl">6500</td> + <td class="tdr">7600</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>4.—<i>Modes of Burning Peat.</i></p> + +<p>In the employment of peat fuel, regard must be had to its shape and +bulk. Commonly, peat is cut or moulded into blocks or sods like bricks, +which have a length of 8 to 18 inches; a breadth of 4 to 6 inches, and a +thickness of 1-½ to 3 inches. Machine peat is sometimes formed into +circular disks of 2 to 3 inches diameter, and 1 to 2 inches thickness +and thereabouts. It is made also in the shape of balls of 2 to 3 inches +diameter. Another form is that of thick-walled pipes, 2 to 3 inches in +diameter, a foot or more long, and with a bore of one-half inch.</p> + +<p>Flat blocks are apt to lie closely together in the fire, and obstruct +the draft. A fire-place, constructed properly for burning them, should +be shallow, not admitting of more than two or three layers being +superposed. According to the bulkiness of the peat, the fire-place +should be roomy, as regards length and breadth.</p> + +<p>Fibrous and easily crumbling peat is usually burned upon a hearth, <i>i. +e.</i> without a grate, either in stoves or open fire-places. Dense peat +burns best upon a grate, the bars of which should be thin and near +together, so that the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>air have access to every part of the fuel. The +denser and tougher the peat, and the more its shape corresponds with +that usual to coal, the better is it adapted for use in our ordinary +coal stoves and furnaces.</p> + +<p>5.—<i>Burning of broken peat.</i></p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep103.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep103.jpg" width="55%" alt="Stair Grate." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 1.—<span class="smcap">STAIR GRATE.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Broken peat—the fragments and waste of the cut or moulded blocks, and +peat as obtained by plowing and harrowing the surface of drained +peat-beds—may be used to advantage in the <i>stair grate</i>, fig. 1, which +was introduced some years ago in Austria, and is adapted exclusively for +burning finely divided fuel. It consists of a series of thin iron bars 3 +to 4 inches wide, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, ... which are arranged above each other +like steps, as shown in the figure. They are usually half as long as the +grate is wide, and are supported at each end by two side pieces or +walls, <i>l.</i> Below, the grate is closed by a heavy iron plate. The fuel +is placed in the hopper <i>A</i>, which is kept filled, and from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>which it +falls down the incline as rapidly as it is consumed. The air enters from +the space <i>G</i>, and is regulated by doors, not shown in the cut, which +open into it. The masonry is supported at <i>u</i>, by a hollow iron beam. +Below, a lateral opening serves for clearing out the ashes. The effect +of the fire depends upon the width of the throat of the hopper at <i>u</i>, +which regulates the supply of fuel to the grate, and upon the +inclination of the latter. The throat is usually from 6 to 8 inches +wide, according to the nature of the fuel. The inclination of the grate +is 40 to 45° and, in general, should be that which is assumed by the +sides of a pile of the fuel to be burned, when it is thrown up into a +heap. This grate ensures complete combustion of fuel that would fall +through ordinary grates, and that would merely smoulder upon a hearth. +The fire admits of easy regulation, the ashes may be removed and the +fuel may be supplied without <i>checking the fire</i>. Not only broken peat, +but coal dust, saw dust, wood turnings and the like may be burned on +this grate. The figure represents it as adapted to a steam boiler.</p> + +<p>6.—<i>Hygroscopic water of peat fuel.</i></p> + +<p>The quantity of water retained by air-dried peat appears to be the same +as exists in air-dried wood, viz., about 20 <i>per cent.</i> The proportion +will vary however according to the time of seasoning. In thoroughly +seasoned wood or peat, it may be but 15 <i>per cent.</i>; while in the poorly +dried material it may amount to 25 or more <i>per cent.</i> When <i>hot-dried</i>, +the proportion of water may be reduced to 10 <i>per cent.</i>, or less.</p> + +<p>When peat is still moist, it gathers water rapidly from damp air, and in +this condition has been known to burst the sheds in which it was stored, +but after becoming dry to the eye and feel, it is but little affected by +dampness, no more so, it appears, than seasoned wood.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>7.—<i>Shrinkage.</i></p> + +<p>In estimating the value and cost of peat fuel, it must be remembered +that peat shrinks greatly in drying, so that three to five cords of +fresh peat yield but one cord of dry peat. When the fiber of the peat is +broken by the hand, or by machinery, the shrinkage is often much +greater, and may sometimes amount to seven-eighths of the original +volume.—<i>Dingler's Journal, Oct. 1864</i>, <i>S.</i> 68.</p> + +<p>The difference in weight between fresh and dry peat is even greater. +Fibrous peat, fresh from the bog, may contain ninety <i>per cent.</i> of +water, of which seventy <i>per cent.</i> must evaporate before it can be +called dry. The proportion of water in earthy or pitchy peat is indeed +less; but the quantity is always large, so that from five to nine +hundred weight of fresh peat must be lifted in order to make one hundred +weight of dry fuel.</p> + +<p>8.—<i>Time of excavation, and drying.</i></p> + +<p>Peat which is intended to be used after simply drying, must be excavated +so early in the season that it shall become dry before frosty weather +arrives: because, if frozen when wet, its coherence is destroyed, and on +thawing it falls to a powder useless for fuel.</p> + +<p>Peat must be dried with certain precautions. If a block of fresh peat be +exposed to hot sunshine, it dries and shrinks on the surface much more +rapidly than within: as a consequence it cracks, loses its coherence, +and the block is easily broken, or of itself falls to pieces. In Europe, +it is indeed customary to dry peat without shelter, the loss by too +rapid drying not being greater than the expense of building and +maintaining drying sheds. There however the sun is not as intense, nor +the air nearly so dry, as it is here. Even there, the occurrence of an +unusually hot summer, causes great loss. In our climate, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>some shelter +would be commonly essential unless the peat be dug early in the spring, +so as to lose the larger share of its water before the hot weather; or, +as would be best of all, in the autumn late enough to escape the heat, +but early enough to ensure such dryness as would prevent damage by +frost. The peculiarities of climate must decide the time of excavating +and the question of shelter.</p> + +<p>The point in drying peat is to make it lose its water gradually and +regularly, so that the inside of each block shall dry nearly as fast as +the outside.</p> + +<p>Some of the methods of hot-drying peat, will be subsequently noticed.</p> + +<p>Summer or fall digging would be always advantageous on account of the +swamps being then most free from water. In Bavaria, peat is dug mostly +in July and the first half of August.</p> + +<p>9.—<i>Drainage.</i></p> + +<p>When it is intended to raise peat fuel <i>in the form of blocks</i>, the bog +should be drained no more rapidly than it is excavated. Peat, which is +to be worth cutting in the spring, must be covered with water during the +winter, else it is pulverized by the frost. So, too, it must be +protected against drying away and losing its coherency in summer, by +being kept sufficiently impregnated with water.</p> + +<p>In case an extensive bog is to be drained to facilitate the cutting out +of the peat for use as fuel, the canals that carry off the water from +the parts which are excavating, should be so constructed, that on the +approach of cold weather, the remaining peat may be flooded again to the +usual height.</p> + +<p>In most of the smaller swamps, systematic draining is unnecessary, the +water drying away in summer enough to admit of easy working.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>In some methods of preparing or condensing peat by machinery, it is best +or even needful to drain and air-dry the peat, preliminary to working. +By draining, the peat settles, especially on the borders of the ditches, +several inches, or even feet, according to its nature and depth. It thus +becomes capable of bearing teams and machinery, and its density is very +considerably augmented.</p> + +<p>10.—<i>The Cutting of Peat.</i>—a. <i>Preparations.</i></p> + +<p>In preparing to raise peat fuel from the bog, the surface material, +which from the action of frost and sun has been pulverized to "muck," or +which otherwise is full of roots and undecomposed matters, must be +removed usually to the depth of 12 to 18 inches. It is only those +portions of the peat which have never frozen nor become dry, and are +free from coarse fibers of recent vegetation, that can be cut for fuel.</p> + +<p>Peat fuel must be brought into the form of blocks or masses of such size +and shape as to adapt them to use in our common stoves and furnaces. +Commonly, the peat is of such consistence in its native bed, that it may +be cut out with a spade or appropriate tool into blocks having more or +less coherence. Sometimes it is needful to take away the surplus water +from the bog, and allow the peat to settle and drain a while before it +can be cut to advantage.</p> + +<p>When a bog is to be opened, a deep ditch is run from an outlet or lowest +point a short distance into the peat bed, and the working goes on from +the banks of this ditch. It is important that system be followed in +raising the peat, or there will be great waste of fuel and of labor.</p> + +<p>If, as often happens, the peat is so soft in the wet season as to break +on the vertical walls of a ditch and fill it, at the same time +dislocating the mass and spoiling it for cutting, it is best to carry +down the ditch in terraces, making it wide above and narrow at the +bottom.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>b. <i>Cutting by hand.</i></p> + +<div class="imgl" style="width: 20%;"> +<a href="images/imagep108.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep108.jpg" width="85%" alt="Fig. 2." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 2.—<span class="smcap">GERMAN PEAT-KNIFE.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The simplest mode of procedure, consists in laying off a "field" or plot +of, say 20 feet square, and making vertical cuts with a sharp spade +three or four inches deep from end to end in parallel lines, as far +apart as it is proposed to make the breadth of the peats or sods, +usually four to five inches. Then, the field is cut in a similar manner +in lines at right angles to the first, and at a distance that shall be +the length of the peats, say 18 to 20 inches. Finally, the workman lifts +the peats by horizontal thrusts of his spade, made at a depth of three +inches. The sods as lifted, are placed on a light barrow or upon a board +or rack, and are carried off to a drying ground, near at hand, where +they are laid down flatwise to drain and dry. In Ireland, it is the +custom, after the peats have lain thus for a fortnight or so, to "foot" +them, i. e. to place them on end close together; after further drying +the "footing" is succeeded by "clamping," which is building the sods up +into stacks of about twelve to fifteen feet long, four feet wide at +bottom, narrowing to one foot at top, with a height of four to five +feet. The outer turfs are inclined so as to shed the rain. The peat +often remains in these clamps on the bog until wanted for use, though in +rainy seasons the loss by crumbling is considerable.</p> + +<p>Other modes of lifting peat, require tools of particular +construction.... In Germany it is common to excavate by <i>vertical</i> +thrusts of the tool, the cutting part of which is represented above, +fig. 2. This tool is pressed down into the peat to a depth corresponding +to the thickness of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>the required block: its three edges cut as many +sides of the block, and the bottom is then broken or torn out by a +prying motion.</p> + +<p>In other cases, this or a similar tool is forced down by help of the +foot as deeply into the peat as possible by a workman standing above, +while a second man in the ditch cuts out the blocks of proper thickness +by means of a sharp spade thrust horizontally. When the peats are taken +out to the depth of the first vertical cutting, the knife is used again +from above, and the process is thus continued as before, until the +bottom of the peat or the desired depth is reached.</p> + +<p>In Ireland, is employed the "slane," a common form of which is shown in +fig. 3, it being a long, narrow and sharp spade, 20 inches by six, with +a wing at right angles to the blade.</p> + +<p>The peats are cut by one thrust of this instrument which is worked by +the arms alone. After a vertical cut is made by a spade, in a line at +right angles to a bank of peat, the slane cuts the bottom and other side +of the block; while at the end the latter is simply lifted or broken +away.</p> + +<p>Peat is most easily cut in a vertical direction, but when, as often +happens, it is made up of layers, the sods are likely to break apart +where these join. Horizontal cutting is therefore best for stratified +peat.</p> + +<div class="img" style="clear: both;"> +<a href="images/imagep109.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep109.jpg" width="75%" alt="Fig. 3." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 3.—<span class="smcap">IRISH SLANE.</span></p> +</div> + +<p><i>System employed in East Friesland.</i>—In raising peat, great waste both +of labor and of fuel may easily occur as the result of random and +unsystematic methods of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>working. For this reason, the mode of cutting +peat, followed in the extensive moors of East Friesland, is worthy of +particular description. There, the business is pursued systematically on +a plan, which, it is claimed, long experience<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has developed to such +perfection that the utmost economy of time and labor is attained. The +cost of producing marketable peat in East Friesland in 1860, was one +silver groschen=about 2-½ cents, per hundred weight; while at that +time, in Bavaria, the hundred weight cost three times as much when fit +for market; and this, notwithstanding living and labor are much cheaper +in the latter country.</p> + +<p>The method to be described, presupposes that the workmen are not +hindered by water, which, in most cases, can be easily removed from the +high-moors of the region. The peat is worked in long stretches of 10 +feet in width, and 100 to 1000 paces in length: each stretch or plot is +excavated at once to a considerable depth and to its full width. Each +successive year the excavation is widened by 10 feet, its length +remaining the same. Sometimes, unusual demand leads to more rapid +working; but the width of 10 feet is adhered to for each cutting, and, +on account of the labor of carrying the peats, it is preferred to extend +the length rather than the width.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the peat bed has been opened by a previous cutting, to the +depth of 5-½ feet, and the surface muck and light peat, 1-½ feet +thick, have been thrown into the excavation of the year before—a new +plot is worked by five men as follows.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>One man, the "Bunker," removes from the surface, about two inches of +peat, disintegrated by the winter's frost, throwing it into last year's +ditch.</p> + +<p>Following him, come two "Diggers," of whom one stands on the surface of +the peat, and with a heavy, long handled tool, cuts out the sides and +end of the blocks, which are about seventeen by five inches; while the +other stands in the ditch, and by horizontal thrusts of a light, sharp +spade, removes the sods, each of five and a half inches thickness, and +places them on a small board near by. Each block of peat has the +dimensions of one fourth of a cubic foot, and weighs about 13 pounds. +Two good workmen will raise 25 such peats, or 6-¼ cubic feet, per +minute.</p> + +<p>A fourth man, the "Loader," puts the sods upon a wheel-barrow, always +two rows of six each, one upon the other, and—</p> + +<p>A fifth, the "Wheeler," removes the load to the drying ground, and with +some help from the Bunker, disposes them flatwise in rows of 16 sods +wide, which run at right angles to the ditch, and, beginning at a little +more than 10 feet from the latter, extend 50 feet.</p> + +<p>The space of 10 feet between the plot that is excavating, and the drying +ground, is, at the same time, cleared of the useless surface muck by the +Bunker, in preparation for the next year's work.</p> + +<p>With moderate activity, the five men will lift and lay out 12,000 sods +(3000 cubic feet,) daily, and it is not uncommon that five first-rate +hands get out 16,800 peats (4200 cubic feet,) in this time.</p> + +<p>A gang of five men, working as described, suffices for cutting out a bed +of four feet of solid peat. When the excavation is to be made deeper, a +sixth man, the "Hanker," is needful for economical work; and with his +help the cutting may be extended down to nine and a half feet; i. e. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>through eight feet of solid peat. The cutting is carried down at first, +four feet as before, but the peats are carried 50 feet further, in order +to leave room for those to be subsequently lifted. The "Hanker" aids +here, with a second wheel-barrow. In taking out the lower peat, the +"Hanker" stands on the bottom of the first excavation, receives the +blocks from the Diggers, on a broad wooden shovel, and hands them up to +the Loader; while the Wheeler, having only the usual distance to carry +them, lays them out in the drying rows without difficulty.</p> + +<p>After a little drying in the rows, the peats are gradually built up into +narrow piles, like a brick wall of one and a half bricks thickness. +These piles are usually raised by women. They are made in the spaces +between the rows, and are laid up one course at a time, so that each +block may dry considerably, before it is covered by another. A woman can +lay up 12,000 peats daily—the number lifted by 5 men—and as it +requires about a month of good weather to give each course time (two +days) to dry, she is able to pile for 30 gangs of workmen. If the +weather be very favorable, the peats may be stacked or put into sheds, +in a few days after the piling is finished. Stacking is usually +practised. The stacks are carefully laid up in cylindrical form, and +contain 200 to 500 cubic feet. When the stacks are properly built, the +peat suffers but little from the weather.</p> + +<p>According to Schrœder, from whose account (Dingler's Polytechnisches +Journal, Bd. 156, S. 128) the above statements are derived, the peats +excavated under his direction, in drying thoroughly, shrank to about +one-fourth of their original bulk (became 12 inches x 3 inches x 3 +inches,) and to one-seventh or one-eighth of their original weight.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>c. <i>Machines for Cutting Peat.</i></p> + +<p>In North Prussia, the Peat Cutting Machine of Brosowsky, see fig. 4, is +extensively employed. It consists of a cutter, made like the four sides +of a box, but with oblique edges, <i>a</i>, which by its own weight, and by +means of a crank and rack-work, operated by men, is forced down into the +peat to a depth that may reach 20 feet. It can cut only at the edge of a +ditch or excavation, and when it has penetrated sufficiently, a spade +like blade, <i>d</i>, is driven under the cutter by means of levers <i>c</i>, and +thus a mass is loosened, having a vertical length of 10 feet or more, +and whose other dimensions are about 24 × 28 inches. This is lifted by +reversing the crank motion, and is then cut up by the spade into blocks +of 14 inches × 6 inches × 5 inches. Each parallelopipedon of peat, cut +to a depth of 10 feet, makes 144 sods, and this number can be cut in +less than 10 minutes. Four hands will cut and lay out to dry, 12,000 to +14,000 peats daily, or 3100 cubic feet. One great advantage of this +machine consists in the circumstance that it can be used to raise peat +from below the surface of water, rendering drainage in many cases +unnecessary. Independently of this, it appears to be highly labor +saving, since 1300 machines were put to use in Mecklenburg and Pomerania +in about 5 years from its introduction. The Mecklenburg moors are now +traversed by canals, cut by this machine, which are used for the +transportation of the peat to market.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<div class="img"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +<a href="images/imagep114.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep114.jpg" width="37%" alt="Fig. 4." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 4.—<span class="smcap">BROSOWSKY'S PEAT CUTTER.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Lepreux in Paris, has invented a similar but more complicated machine, +which is said to be very effective in its operation. According to Hervé +Mangon, this machine, when worked by two men, raises and cuts 40,000 +peats daily, of which seven make one cubic foot, equal to 5600 +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>eet. The saving in expense by using this machine<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> is said to +be 70 <i>per cent.</i>, when the peat to be raised is under water.</p> + + + +<p>11.—<i>The Dredging of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>When peat exists, not as a coherent more or less fibrous mass, but as a +paste or mud, saturated with water, it cannot be raised and formed by +the methods above described.</p> + +<p>In such cases the peat is dredged from the bottom of the bog by means of +an iron scoop, like a pail with sharp upper edges, which is fastened to +a long handle. The bottom is made of coarse sacking, so that the water +may run off. Sometimes, a stout ring of iron with a bag attached, is +employed in the same way. The fine peat is emptied from the dredge upon +the ground, where it remains, until the water has been absorbed or has +evaporated, so far as to leave the mass somewhat firm and plastic. In +the mean time, a drying bed is prepared by smoothing, and, if needful, +stamping a sufficient space of ground, and enclosing it in boards 14 +inches wide, set on edge. Into this bed the partially dried peat is +thrown, and, as it cracks on the surface by drying, it is compressed by +blows with a heavy mallet or flail, or by treading it with flat boards, +attached to the feet, somewhat like snow shoes. By this treatment the +mass is reduced to a continuous sheet of less than one-half its first +thickness, and becomes so firm, that a man's step gives little +impression in it. The boards are now removed, and it is cut into blocks +by means of a very thin, sharp spade. Every other block being lifted out +and placed crosswise upon those remaining, air is admitted to the whole +and the drying goes on rapidly. This kind of peat is usually of +excellent quality. In North Germany it is called "Baggertorf," i. e. +mud-peat.</p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> + +<p>Peat is sometimes dredged by machinery, as will be noticed hereafter.</p> + +<p>12.—<i>The Moulding of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>When black, earthy or pitchy peat cannot be cut, and is not so saturated +with water as to make a mud; it is, after raking or picking out roots, +etc., often worked into a paste by the hands or feet, with addition of +water, until it can be formed into blocks which, by slow drying, acquire +great firmness. In Ireland this product is termed "hand-peat." In +Germany it is called "Formtorf," <i>i. e.</i> moulded peat, or "Backtorf," +<i>i. e.</i> baked peat.</p> + +<p>The shaping is sometimes accomplished by plastering the soft mass into +wooden moulds, as in making bricks.</p> + +<p>13.—<i>Preparation of Peat Fuel by Machinery, etc.</i></p> + +<p>Within the last 15 years, numerous inventions have been made with a view +to improving the quality of peat fuel, as well as to expedite its +production. These inventions are directed to the following points, viz.: +1. <i>Condensation</i> of the peat, so as bring more fuel into a given space, +thus making it capable of giving out an intenser heat; at the same time +increasing its hardness and toughness, and rendering it easier and more +economical of transportation. 2. <i>Drying</i> by artificial heat or reducing +the amount of water from 20 or 25 <i>per cent.</i> to half that quantity or +less. This exalts the heating power in no inconsiderable degree. 3. +<i>Charring.</i> Peat-charcoal is as much better than peat, for use where +intense heat is required, as wood charcoal is better than wood. 4. +<i>Purifying from useless matters.</i> Separation of earthy admixtures which +are incombustible and hinder draught.</p> + +<p>A.—<i>Condensation by Pressure.</i></p> + +<p><i>Pressing Wet Peat.</i>—The condensation of peat was first attempted by +subjecting the fresh, wet material, to severe pressure. As long ago as +the year 1821, Pernitzsch, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>in Saxony, prepared peat by this method, and +shortly afterwards Lord Willoughby d'Eresby, in Scotland, and others, +adopted the same principle. Simple pressure will, indeed, bring fresh +peat at once into much smaller bulk; but, if the peat be fibrous and +light, and for this reason require condensation, it is also elastic, +and, when the pressure is relieved, it acquires again much of its +original volume.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, although pressure will squeeze out much water from a +saturated well-ripened peat, the complete drying of the pressed blocks +usually requires as much or more time than that of the unpressed +material, on account of the closeness of texture of the surface produced +by the pressure.</p> + +<p>The advantages of subjecting fresh peat to pressure in the ordinary +presses, it is found, are more than offset by the expense of the +operation, and it is therefore unnecessary to give the subject further +attention.</p> + +<p>Fresh peat appears however to have been advantageously pressed by other +mechanical means. Two methods require notice.</p> + +<p><i>Mannhardt's Method</i>, invented about the year 1858, has been practically +applied on the large scale at <i>Schleissheim</i>, Bavaria. Mannhardt's +machine consists of two colossal iron rolls, each of 15 feet diameter, +and 6-½ feet length, geared into each other so as to revolve +horizontally in opposite directions and with equal velocity. These rolls +are hollow, their circumference consists of stout iron plate perforated +with numerous small holes, and is supported by iron bars which connect +the ends of the roll, having intervals between them of about one inch. +Each roll is covered by an endless band of hair cloth, stretched over +and kept in place by rollers. The rolls are operated by a steam engine +of 12 horse power. The fresh peat is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>thrown into a hopper, and passing +between the rolls, loses a considerable share of its water, issuing as a +broad continuous sheet, which is divided into blocks by an arrangement +presently to be described. The cloth, covering the rolls, must have +great strength, sufficient porosity to allow water to pass it freely, +and such closeness of texture as to retain the fine particles of peat. +Many trials have led to the use of a fabric, specially made for the +purpose, of goat's hair. The cloth for each pair of rolls, costs $160.</p> + +<p>The peat at Schleissheim is about 5 feet in depth, and consists of a +dark-brown mud or paste, free from stones and sticks, and penetrated +only by fine fibers. The peat is thrown up on the edge of a ditch, and +after draining, is moved on a tram-way to the machine. It is there +thrown upon a chain of buckets, which deliver it at the hopper above the +rolls. The rolls revolve once in 7-1/3 minutes and at each revolution +turn out a sheet of peat, which cuts into 528 blocks. Each block has, +when moist, a length of about 12 inches, by 5 inches of width and 1-¼ +inches of thickness, and weighs on the average 1-½ lbs. The water that +is pressed out of the peat, falls within the rolls and is conducted +away; it is but slightly turbid from suspended particles. The band of +pressed peat is divided in one direction as it is formed, by narrow +slats which are secured horizontally to the press-cloth, at about 5 +inches distance from each other. The further division of the peat is +accomplished by a series of six circular saws, under which the peat is +carried as it is released from the rolls, by a system of endless cords +strung over rollers. These cords run parallel until the peat passes the +saws; thenceforth they radiate, so that the peat-blocks are separated +somewhat from each other. They are carried on until they reach a roll, +over which they are delivered upon drying lattices. The latter move +regularly under the roll; the peats arrange themselves upon them +edgewise, one leaning against <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>the other, so as to admit of free +circulation of air. The lattices are loaded upon cars, and moved on a +tram-way to the drying ground, where they are set up in frames.</p> + +<p>The peat-cake separates well from the press-cloths; but the pores of the +latter become somewhat choked by fine particles that penetrate them. +They are therefore washed at each revolution by passing before a pipe +from which issue, against them, a number of jets of water under high +pressure. The blocks, after leaving the machine, are soft, and require 5 +or 6 days to become air-dry. When dry they are dense and of good +quality, but not better than the same raw material yields by simple +moulding. The capacity of the rolls, which easily turn out 100,000 peats +in 24 hours, greatly exceeds at present that of the drying arrangements, +and for this reason the works are not, as yet, remunerative. The rolls +are, in reality, a simple forming machine. The pressure they exert on +the peat, is but inconsiderable, owing to its soft pasty character; and +since the pair of rolls costs $8000 and can only be worked 3 to 4 +months, this method must be regarded rather as an ingenious and +instructive essay in the art of making peat-fuel, than as a practical +success. The persevering efforts of the inventor may yet overcome all +difficulties and prove the complete efficacy of the method. It is +especially important, that blocks of greater thickness should be +produced, since those now made, pack together too closely in the fire.</p> + +<p><i>Neustadt Method.</i>—At Neustadt, in Hanover, a loose-textured fibrous +peat was prepared for metallurgical use in 1860, by passing through iron +rolls of ordinary construction. The peat was thereby reduced two-thirds +in bulk, burned more regularly, gave a coherent coal, and withstood +carriage better. The peat was, however, first cut into sods of regular +size, and these were fed into the rollers by boys.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>b. <i>Pressing Air-dried Peat.</i></p> + +<p>Some kinds of peat, when in the air-dry and pulverized state, yield by +great pressure very firm, excellent, and economical fuel.</p> + +<p><i>Lithuanian Process.</i>—In Lithuania, according to Leo,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> the following +method is extensively adopted. The bog is drained, the surface moss or +grass-turf and roots are removed, and then the peat is broken up by a +simple spade-plow, in furrows 2 inches wide and 8 or 10 inches deep. The +broken peat is repeatedly traversed with wooden harrows, and is thus +pulverized and dried. When suitably dry, it is carried to a magazine, +where it is rammed into moulds by a simple stamp of two hundred pounds +weight. The broken peat is reduced to two-fifths its first bulk, and the +blocks thus formed are so hard, as to admit of cutting with a saw or ax +without fracture. They require no further drying, are of a deep-brown +color, with lustrous surfaces, and their preparation may go on in winter +with the stock of broken peat, which is accumulated in the favorable +weather of summer. In this manufacture there is no waste of material.</p> + +<p>The peat is dry enough for pressing when, after forming in the hands to +a ball, it will not firmly retain this shape, but on being let fall to +the ground, breaks to powder. The entire cost of preparing 1000 peats +for use, or market, was 2 Thalers, or $1.40. Thirty peats, or "stones" +as they are called from their hardness, have the bulk of two cubic feet, +and weigh 160 lbs. The cost of preparing a hundred weight, was +therefore, (in 1859,) four Silver-groschen, or about 10 cents.</p> + +<p>The stamp is of simple construction, somewhat like a pile driver, the +mould and face of the ram being made of cast iron. The above process is +not applicable to <i>fibrous peat</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>c. <i>Pressing Hot-dried Peat.</i></p> + +<p>The two methods to be next described, are similar to the last mentioned, +save that the peat is <i>hot-pressed</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Gwynne's Method.</i>—In 1853, Gwynne of London, patented machinery and a +method for condensing peat for fuel. His process consisted, first, in +rapidly drying and pulverizing the fresh peat by a centrifugal machine, +or by passing between rollers, and subsequent exposure to heat in +revolving cylinders; and, second, in compressing the dry peat-powder in +a powerful press at a high temperature, about 180° F. By this heat it is +claimed, that the peat is not only thoroughly dried, but is likewise +partially decomposed; <i>bituminous matters being developed, which cement +the particles to a hard dense mass</i>. Gwynne's machinery was expensive +and complicated, and although an excellent fuel was produced, the +process appears not to have been carried put on the large scale with +pecuniary success.</p> + +<p>A specimen of so-called "Peat coal" in the author's possession, made in +Massachusetts some years ago, under Gwynne's patent, appears to consist +of pulverized peat, prepared as above described; but contains an +admixture of rosin. It must have been an excellent fuel, but could not +at that time compete with coal in this country.</p> + +<p><i>Exter's Method.</i><a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<div class="imgl" style="width: 40%;"> +<a href="images/imagep122a.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep122a.jpg" width="75%" alt="Fig. 5." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 5.—<span class="smcap">EXTER'S DRYING OVEN.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>In 1856, Exter, of Bavaria, carried into operation on an extensive +scale, a plan of preparing peat-fuel in some respects not unlike the +last mentioned method. Exter's works, belonging to the Bavarian +Government, are on the Haspelmoor, situated between Augsburg and Munich. +According to Ruehlmann, who examined them at the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>command of the +Hanoverian Government in 1857, the method is as follows:—1. The bog is +laid dry by drains and the surface is cleared of bushes, roots, and +grass-turf, down to good peat. 2. The peat is broken up superficially to +the depth of about one inch, by a gang of three plows, propelled by a +portable steam engine. 3. The peat is further pulverized by a harrow, +drawn by a yoke of oxen. 4. In two or three days after harrowing, the +peat is turned by an implement like our cultivator, this process being +repeated at suitable intervals. 5. The fine and air-dry peat is gathered +together by scrapers, and loaded into wagons; then drawn by rope +connected with the engine, to the press or magazine. 6. If needful, the +peat, thus collected, is further pulverized by passing it through +toothed rollers. 7. The fine peat is now introduced into a complicated +drying oven, see figures 5 and 6. It falls through the opening <i>T</i>, and +is moved by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>means of the spirals along the horizontal floors <i>O</i>, <i>O</i>, +falling from one to another until it emerges at <i>Q</i>. The floors, <i>O</i>, +<i>O</i>, are made by wide and thin iron chambers, through which passes waste +steam from an engine. The oven is heated further by hot air, which +circulates through the canals <i>K</i>, <i>K</i>. The peat occupies about one hour +in its passage through the oven and falls from <i>Q</i>, into the press, +having a temperature of from 120° to 140°Fahrenheit. The press employed +at Staltach is essentially the same as that now used at the Kolbermoor, +and figured on p. 125. It is a powerful eccentric of simple +construction, and turns out continuously 40 finished peats per minute. +These occupy about one-fourth the space of the peat before pressing, the +cubic foot weighing about 72 lbs. The peats are 7 inches long, 3 inches +wide, and one half to three quarters of an inch thick, each weighing +three quarters of a pound. Three presses furnish annually 180,000 cwt. +of condensed peat, which is used exclusively for firing locomotives. Its +specific gravity is 1.14, and its quality as fuel is excellent. +Ruehlmann estimated its cost, at Haspelmoor in 1857, at 8-½ Kreuzers, +or a little more than 6 cents per cwt., and calculated that by adopting +certain obvious improvements, and substituting steam power for the labor +of men and cattle, the cost might be reduced to 6-½ Kreuzers, or a +little more than 4 cents per cwt.</p> + +<div class="imgr" style="width: 40%;"> +<a href="images/imagep122b.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep122b.jpg" width="75%" alt="Fig. 6." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 6.—<span class="smcap">EXTER'S DRYING OVEN.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Exter's method has been adopted with some modifications at Kolbermoor, +near Munich, in Bavaria, at Miskolz, in Hungary, and also at the +Neustadt Smelting Works, in Hanover. At the latter place, however, it +appears to have been abandoned for the reasons that it could be applied +only to the better kinds of peat; and the expense was there so great, +that the finished article could not compete with other fuel in the +Hanoverian markets.</p> + +<p>Details of the mechanical arrangements at present employed on the +Kolbermoor, are as follows: After the bog <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>is drained, and the surface +cleared of dwarf pines, etc., and suitably leveled, the peat is plowed +by steam. This is accomplished in a way which the annexed cut serves to +illustrate. The plot to be plowed, is traversed through the middle by +the railway <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>. A locomotive <i>a</i>, sets in motion an endless +wire-rope, which moves upon large horizontal pulleys <i>o</i>, <i>o</i>, stationed +at either border of the land. Four gang plows <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, are attached to +the rope, and as the latter is set in motion, they break up the strip of +peat they pass over, completely. The locomotive and the pulleys are then +moved back, and the process is repeated until the whole field has been +plowed. The plows are square frames, carrying six to eight shares and as +many coulters.</p> + +<div class="img" style="clear: both;"> +<a href="images/imagep124.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep124.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 7" /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 7</p> +</div> + +<p>The press employed at Kolbermoor, is shown in figs. 8 and 9. The hot +peat falls into the hopper, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>. The plunger <i>d</i>, worked in the +cavity <i>e</i>, by an eccentric, allows the latter to fill with peat as it +is withdrawn, and by its advance compresses it into a block. The blocks +<i>m</i>, once formed, by their friction in the channel <i>e</i>, oppose enough +resistance to the peat to effect its compression. In order to regulate +this resistance according to the varying quality of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>peat, the piece +of metal <i>g</i>, which hangs on a pivot at <i>o</i>, is depressed or raised, by +the screw <i>i</i>, so as to contract or enlarge the channel. At each stroke +of the plunger a block is formed, and when the channel <i>e</i> is once +filled, the peats fall continuously from its extremity. Their dimensions +are 7 inches long, 3-½ wide, and 1-½ thick.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep125a.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep125a.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 8." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 8.—<span class="smcap">EXTER'S PEAT PRESS.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Several presses are worked by the same engine at the Kolbermoor, each of +which turns out daily 200 to 300 cwt. of peats, which, in 1863, were +sold at 24 Kreuzers (16 cents), per cwt.</p> + +<div class="imgr" style="width: 30%;"> +<a href="images/imagep125b.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep125b.jpg" width="95%" alt="Fig. 9." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 9.—<span class="smcap">EXTER'S PEAT PRESS.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>C. Hodgson has patented in Great Britain a compressing-ram similar to +Exter's, and works were put up at Derrylea, in Ireland, some years ago, +in which Exter's process of manufacturing peat fuel appears to have been +adopted.</p> + +<p><i>Elsberg's Process.</i></p> + +<p>Dr. Louis Elsberg, of New York City, has invented a modification of +Exter's method, which appears to be of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>great importance. His +experimental machine, which is in operation near Belleville, N. J., +consists of a cylindrical pug-mill, in which the peat, air-dried as in +Exter's method, is further broken, and at the same time is subjected to +a current of steam admitted through a pipe and jacket surrounding the +cylinder. The steamed peat is then condensed by a pair of presses +similar to that just described, which are fed directly from the mill. In +this way the complicated drying oven of Exter is dispensed with. Elsberg +& Co. are still engaged in perfecting their arrangements. Some samples +of their making are of very excellent quality, having a density of 1.2 +to 1.3.</p> + +<p>The pressing of air-dry peat only succeeds when it is made warm, and is, +at the same time, moist. In Exter's original process the peat is +considerably dried in the ovens, but on leaving them, is so moist as to +bedew the hand that is immersed in it. It is, in fact, steamed by the +vaporization of its own water. In Elsberg's process, the air-dry peat is +not further desiccated, but is made moist and warm by the admission of +hot steam. The latter method is the more ready and doubtless the more +economical of the two. Whether the former gives a dryer product or not, +the author cannot decide. Elsberg's peat occurs in cylindrical cakes 2 +inches broad, and one inch in thickness. The cakes are somewhat cracked +upon the edges, as if by contraction, in drying. When wet, the surface +of the cakes swells up, and exfoliates as far as the water has +penetrated. In the fire, a similar breaking away of the surface takes +place, and when coked, the coal is but moderately coherent.</p> + +<p>The reasons why steamed peat admits of solidification by pressure, are +simply that the air, ordinarily adhering to the fibres and particles, is +removed, and the fibres themselves become softened and more plastic, so +that pressure brings them into intimate contact. The idea that the heat +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>develops bituminous matters, or fuses the resins which exist in peat, +and that these cement the particles, does not harmonize with the fact +that the peat, thus condensed, flakes to pieces by a short immersion in +water.</p> + +<p>The great advantage of Exter's and Elsberg's method consists in avoiding +what most of the others require, viz.: the expensive transportation and +handling of fresh peat, which contains 80 to 90 <i>per cent.</i> of water, +and the rapid removal of this excess of water before the manufacture. In +the other methods the surplus water must be slowly removed during or +after condensation.</p> + +<p>Again, enough peat may be air-dried and stored during summer weather, to +supply a machine with work during the whole year.</p> + +<p>Its disadvantages are, that it requires a large outlay of capital and +great expenditure of mechanical force. Its product is, moreover, not +adapted for coking.</p> + + +<p>B.—<i>Condensation without Pressure.</i></p> + +<p>The methods of condensing peat, that remain to be described, are based +upon radically different principles from those already noticed. In +these, little or no pressure is employed in the operations; but +advantage is taken of the important fact that when wet or moist peat is +ground, cut or in any way reduced to a pulpy or pasty consistence, with +destruction of the elastic fibres, it will, on drying, shrink together +to a coherent mass, that may acquire a density and toughness much +greater than it is possible to obtain by any amount of mere pressure.</p> + +<p>The various processes that remain to notice are essentially reducible to +two types, of which the French method, invented by Challeton, and the +German, invented it appears by Weber, are the original representatives. +The former method is only applicable to earthy, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>well-decomposed peat, +containing little fibre. The latter was originally applied to fibrous +moss-peat, but has since been adapted to all kinds. Other inventors, +English, German, and American, have modified these methods in their +details, or in the construction of the requisite machinery, rendering +them more perfect in their execution and perhaps more profitable in +their results; but, as regards the essential principles of production, +or the quality of product, no advance appears to have been made beyond +the original inventors.</p> + +<p>a. <i>Condensation of Earthy Peat.</i></p> + +<p><i>Challeton's Method</i> consists essentially in destroying the fibres, and +reducing the peat by cutting and grinding with water to a pulp; then +slowly removing the liquid, until the peat dries away to a hard coherent +mass. It provides also for the purification of the peat from earthy +matters. It is, in many respects, an imitation of the old Dutch and +Irish mode of making "hand peat" (<i>Baggertorf</i>), and is very like the +paper manufacture in its operations. Challeton's Works, situated near +Paris, at Mennecy, near Montanges, were visited in 1856 by a Commission +of the Agricultural Society of Holstein, consisting of Drs. Meyn and +Luetkens, and also by Dr. Ruehlmann, in the interest of the Hanoverian +Government. From their account<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> the following statements are derived.</p> + +<p>The peat at Mennecy comes from the decay of grasses, is black, well +decomposed, and occasionally intermingled with shells and sand. The moor +is traversed by canals, which serve for the transport of the excavated +peat in boats. The peat, when brought to the manufactory, is emptied +into a cistern, which, by communicating with the adjacent canal, +maintains a constant level of water. From <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>this cistern the peat is +carried up by a chain of buckets and emptied into a hopper, where it is +caught by toothed cylinders in rapid revolution, and cut or torn to +pieces. Thence it passes into a chamber where the fine parts are +separated from unbroken roots and fibres by revolving brushes, which +force the former through small holes in the walls of the chamber, while +the latter are swept out through a larger passage. The pulverized peat +finally falls into a cistern, in which it is agitated by revolving arms. +A stream of water constantly enters this vessel from beneath, while a +chain of buckets as rapidly carries off the peat pulp. All sand, shells, +and other heavy matters, remain at the bottom of this cistern.</p> + +<p>The peat pulp, thus purified, flows through wooden troughs into a series +of basins, in which the peat is formed and dried. These basins are made +upon the ground by putting up a square frame (of boards on edge,) about +one foot deep, and placing at the bottom old matting or a layer of flags +or reeds. Each basin is about a rod square, and 800 of them are +employed. They are filled with the peat pulp to the top. In a few days +the water either filters away into the ground, or evaporates, so that a +soft stratum of peat, about 3 inches in thickness, remains. Before it +begins to crack from drying, it is divided into blocks, by pressing into +it a light trellis-like framework, having thin partitions that serve to +indent the peat in lines corresponding to the intended divisions. On +further drying, the mass separates into blocks at the lines thus +impressed, and in a few days, they are ready to remove and arrange for +further desiccation.</p> + +<p>The finished peats from Challeton's works, as well as those made by the +same method near Neuchatel, Switzerland, by the Messrs. Roy, were of +excellent quality, and in the opinion of the Commission from Holstein, +the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>method is admirably adapted for the purification and concentration +of the heavy kinds of peat.</p> + +<p>In Holstein, a French company constructed, and in 1857 worked +successfully a portable machine for preparing peat on this plan, but +were shortly restrained by legal proceedings. Of their later operations +we have no information.</p> + +<p>No data are at hand regarding the cost of producing fuel by Challeton's +machinery. It is believed, however, that his own works were +unremunerative, and several manufactories on his pattern, erected in +Germany, have likewise proved unprofitable. The principle is, however, a +good one, though his machinery is only applicable to earthy or pitchy, +and not to very fibrous peat. It has been elsewhere applied with +satisfactory results.</p> + +<p><i>Simplified machinery</i> for applying Challeton's method is in operation +at Langenberg, near Stettin, in Prussia.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The moss-meadows along the +river Oder, near which Langenberg is situated, are but a foot or so +higher at the surface than the medium level of this river, and are +subject to frequent and sudden inundations, so that draining and partial +drying of the peat are out of the question. The character of the peat is +unadapted to cutting by hand, since portions of it are pitchy and +crumble too easily to form good sods; and others, usually the lower +layers, at a depth of seven feet or more, are made up to a considerable +extent of quite firm reeds and flags, having the consistence of half +decayed straw. The earthy peat is manufactured after Challeton's method. +It is raised with a steam dredger of 20 horse power, and emptied into +flat boats, seven in number, which are drawn to the works by an endless +rope operated by horse power. The works themselves are situated on a +small sand hill in the middle of the moor, and communicate by canal with +the dredger and with the drying <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>ground. A chain of buckets, working in +a frame 45 feet long, attached by a horizontal hinge to the top of the +machine house, reaches over the dock where the boats haul up, into the +rear end of the latter; and, as the buckets begin to raise the peat, the +boat itself is moved under the frame towards the house, until, with a +man's assistance, its entire load is taken up. The contents of one boat +are six square yards, with a depth of one foot, and a boat is emptied in +20 minutes time. Forty to forty-four boatloads are thus passed into the +pulverizing machine daily, by two chains of buckets.</p> + +<p>The peat-mud falls from the buckets into a large wooden trough, which +branches into two channels, conducting to two large tubs standing side +by side. These tubs are 10 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep, and are +made of 2-inch plank. Within each tub is placed concentrically a +cylindrical sieve, or colander, 8 feet in diameter and 2 feet high, made +of 3/8 round iron, and it is within this that the peat is emptied. The +peat is stirred and forced through the meshes of the sieve by four arms +of a shaft that revolves 20 times per minute, the arms carrying at their +extremities stiff vertical brooms, which rub the inside of the sieve.</p> + +<p>In these four tubs the peat is pulverized under addition of water; the +fine parts pass the sieves, while the latter retain the coarse fibres, +roots, etc. The peat-mud flows from the tubs into mills, made like a +flour mill, but the "stones" constructed of hard wood. The "stones" have +a diameter of 8 feet 6 inches; the lower is 8 inches; the upper 21 +inches thick. The pressure of the upper "stone" is regulated by +adjusting the level of the discharging channel, so that the "stone" may +be more or less buoyed, or even fully floated by the water with which it +is surrounded.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>The peat-substance, which is thus finely ground, gathers from the four +mills into a common reservoir whence it is lifted by a centrifugal pump +into a trough, which distributes it over the drying ground.</p> + +<p>The drying ground consists of the surface formed by grading the sand +hill, on which the works are built, and includes about 30 English acres. +This is divided into small plots, each of which is enclosed on three +sides with a wall of earth, and on the fourth side by boards set on +edge. Each plot is surrounded by a ditch to carry off water, and by +means of portable troughs, the peat is let on from the main channel. The +peat-slime is run into these beds to the depth of 20 to 22 inches, an +acre being covered daily. After 4 to 8 days, according to the weather, +the peat has lost so much water, which, rapidly soaks off through the +sand, that its surface begins to crack. It is then thoroughly trodden by +men, shod with boards 5 inches by 10 inches, and after 6 to 8 days more, +it is cut with sharp spades into sods. The peats are dried in the usual +manner.</p> + +<p>The works at Langenberg yielded, in 1863, as the result of the +operations of 60 days of 12 hours each, 125,000 cwt. of marketable peat. +It is chiefly employed for metallurgical purposes, and sells at 3-1/3 +Silver-groschen, or nearly 8 cents per cwt. The specific gravity of the +peat ranges from 0.73 to 0.90.</p> + + +<p><i>Roberts' Process.</i></p> + +<p>In this country attempts have been made to apply Challeton's method. In +1865, Mr. S. Roberts, of Pekin, N. Y., erected machinery at that place, +which was described in the "Buffalo Express," of Nov. 17, 1865, as +follows:—</p> + +<p>"In outward form, the machine was like a small frame house on wheels, +supposing the smoke-stack to be a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>chimney. The engine and boiler are of +locomotive style; the engine being of thirteen horse power. The +principal features of the machine are a revolving elevator and a +conveyer. The elevator is seventy-five feet long, and runs from the top +of the machine to the ground, where the peat is dug up, placed on the +elevator, carried to the top of the machine, and dropped into a +revolving wheel that cuts it up; separates from it all the coarse +particles, bits of sticks, stones, etc.; and throws them to one side. +The peat is next dropped into a box below, where water is passed in, +sufficient to bring it to the consistency of mortar. By means of a slide +under the control of the engineer, it is next sent to the rear of the +machine, where the conveyer, one hundred feet long, takes it, and +carries it within two rods of the end; at which point the peat begins to +drop through to the ground to the depth of about four or five inches. +When sufficient has passed through to cover the ground to the end of the +conveyer,—two rods,—the conveyer is swung around about two feet, and +the same process gone through, as fast as the ground under the elevator, +for the distance of two rods in length and two feet in width gets +covered, the elevator being moved. At each swing of the elevator, the +peat just spread is cut into blocks (soft ones, however) by knives +attached to the elevator. It generally takes from three to four weeks +before it is ready for use. It has to lie a week before it is touched, +after the knives pass through it; when it is turned over, and allowed to +lie another week. It has then to be taken up, and put in a shed, and +within a week or ten days can be used, although it is better to let it +remain a little longer time. The machine can spread the peat over +eighteen square rods of ground—taking out one square rod of +peat—without being moved. After the eighteen rods are covered, the +machine is moved two rods ahead, enabling it to again spread a +semicircular <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>space of some thirty-two feet in width by eighteen rods in +length. The same power, which drives the engine, moves the machine. It +is estimated by Mr. Roberts, that, by the use of this machine, from +twenty to thirty tons of peat can be turned out in a day."</p> + +<p>Mr. Roberts informs us that he is making (April 1866,) some +modifications of his machinery. He employs a revolving digger to take up +the peat from the bed, and carry it to the machine. At the time of going +to press, we do not learn whether he regards his experiments as leading +to a satisfactory conclusion, or otherwise.</p> + + +<p><i>Siemens' method.</i></p> + +<p>Siemens, Professor of Technology, in the Agricultural Academy, at +Hohenheim, successfully applied the following mode of preparing peat for +the Beet Sugar Manufactory at Bœblingen, near Hohenheim, in the year +1857. Much of the peat there is simply cut and dried in the usual +manner. There is great waste, however, in this process, owing to the +frequent occurrence of shells and clay, which destroy the coherence of +the peat. Besides, a large quantity of material accumulates in the +colder months, from the ditches which are then dug, that cannot be +worked in the usual manner at that time of the year. It was to economize +this otherwise useless material that the following process was devised, +after a failure to employ Challeton's method with profit.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the peat was dumped into a boarded cistern, where it +was soaked and worked with water, until it could be raised by a chain of +buckets into the pulverizer.</p> + +<p>The pulverization of the peat was next effected by passing it through a +machine invented by Siemens, for pulping potatoes and beets. This +machine, (the same we suppose <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>as that described and figured in Otto's +Landwirthschaftliche Gewerbe), perfectly breaks up and grates the peat +to a fine pulp, delivers it in the consistency of mortar into the +moulds, made of wooden frames, with divisions to form the peats. The +peat-paste is plastered by hand into these moulds, which are immediately +emptied to fill again, while the blocks are carried away to the drying +ground where they are cured in the ordinary style without cover.</p> + +<p>In this simple manner 8 men were able to make 10,000 peats daily, which, +on drying, were considerably denser and harder than the cut peat.</p> + +<p>The peat thus prepared, cost about one-third more than the cut peat. +Siemens reckoned, this greater cost would be covered by its better +heating effect, and its ability to withstand transportation without +waste by crumbling.</p> + +<p>b. <i>Condensation of fibrous peat.</i></p> + +<p><i>Weber's method.</i></p> + +<p>At Staltach, in Southern Bavaria, Weber has established an extensive +peat works, of which Vogel has given a circumstantial account.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The +peat at Staltach is very light and fibrous, but remarkably free from +mineral matters, containing less than 2 <i>per cent.</i> of ash in the +perfectly dry substance. The moor is large, (475 acres), and the peat is +from 12 to 20 feet in depth. The preparation consists in converting the +fresh peat into pulp or paste, forming it into moulds and drying it; at +first by exposure to the air at ordinary temperature, and finally, by +artificial heat, in a drying house constructed for the purpose.</p> + +<p>The peat is cut out by a gang of men, in large masses, cleared of coarse +roots and sticks, and pushed on tram <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>wagons to the works, which, are +situated lower than the surface of the bog. Arrived at the works, the +peat is carried upon an inclined endless apron, up to a platform 10 feet +high, where a workman pushes it into the pulverizing mill, the +construction of which is seen from the accompanying cut. The vertical +shaft <i>b</i> is armed with sickle-shaped knives, <i>d</i>, which revolve between +and cut contrary to similar knives <i>c</i>, fixed to the interior of the +vessel. The latter is made of iron, is 3-½ feet high, 2 feet across at +top and 1-½ feet wide at the bottom. From the base of the machine at +<i>g</i>, the perfectly pulverized or minced peat issues as a stiff paste. If +the peat is dry, a little water is added. Vogel found the fresh peat to +contain 90 <i>per cent.</i>, of water, the pulp 92 <i>per cent.</i> Weber's +machine, operated by an engine of 10 horse power, working usually to +half its capacity only, reduced 400 cubic feet of peat per hour, to the +proper consistency for moulding.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep136.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep136.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 10." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 10.—<span class="smcap">WEBER'S PEAT MILL.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Three modes of forming the paste into blocks have been practiced. One +was in imitation of that employed with mud-peat. The paste was carried +by railway to sheds, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>where it was filled by hand into moulds 17 inches +by 7-¼ by 5-¼ inches, and put upon frames to dry. These sheds +occupied together 52,000 square feet, and contained at once 200,000 +peats. The peats remained here 8 to 14 days or more, according to the +weather, when they were either removed to the drying house, or piled in +large stacks to dry slowly out-of-doors. The sheds could be filled and +emptied at least 12 times each season, and since they protected from +light frosts, the season began in April and lasted until November.</p> + +<p>The second mode of forming the peat was to run off the pulp into large +and deep pits, excavated in the ground, and provided with drains for +carrying off water. The water soaked away into the soil, and in a few +weeks of good weather, the peat was stiff enough to cut out into blocks +by the spade, having lost 20 to 25 <i>per cent.</i> of its water, and 15 <i>per +cent.</i> of its bulk. The blocks were removed to the drying sheds, and set +upon edge in the spaces left by the shrinking of the peats made by the +other method. The working of the peat for the pits could go on, except +in the coldest weather, as a slight covering usually sufficed to protect +them from frost.</p> + +<p>Both of these methods have been given up as too expensive, and are +replaced, at present, by the following:</p> + +<p>In the third method the peat-mass falls from the mill into a hopper, +which directs it between the rolls <i>A B</i> of fig. 11, (see next page). +The roll <i>A</i> has a series of boxes on its periphery <i>m m</i>, with movable +bottoms which serve as moulds. The peat is carried into these boxes by +the rolls <i>c c</i>. The iron projections <i>n n</i> of the large roll <i>B</i>, which +work cog-like into the boxes, compress the peat gently and, at last, the +eccentric p acting upon the pin <i>z</i>, forces up the movable bottom of the +box and throws out the peat-block upon an endless band of cloth, which +carries it to the drying place.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>The peats which are dried at first under cover and therefore slowly, +shrink more evenly and to a greater extent than those which are allowed +to dry rapidly. The latter become cracked upon the surface and have +cavities internally, which the former do not. This fact is of great +importance for the density of the peat, for its usefulness in producing +intense heat, and its power to withstand carriage.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep138.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep138.jpg" width="40%" alt="Fig. 11" /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 11—<span class="smcap">WEBER'S PEAT MOULDING MACHINE.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>complete drying</i> is, on the other hand, by this method, a much +slower process, since the dense, fissureless exterior of the peats +hinders the escape of water from within. It requires, in fact, several +months of ordinary drying for the removal of the greater share of the +water, and at the expiration of this time they are still often moist in +the interior.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>Artificial drying is therefore employed to produce the most compact, +driest, and best fuel.</p> + +<p>Weber's <i>Drying house</i> is 120 feet long and 46 feet wide. Four large +flues traverse the whole length of it, and are heated with the pine +roots and stumps which abound in the moor. These flues are enclosed in +brick-work, leaving a narrow space for the passage of air from without, +which is heated by the flues, and is discharged at various openings in +the brick-work into the house itself, where the peat is arranged on +frames. The warm air being light, ascends through the peat, charges +itself with moisture, thereby becomes heavier and falls to the floor, +whence it is drawn off by flues of sheet zinc that pass up through the +roof. This house holds at once 300,000 peats, which are heated to 130° +to 145° F., and require 10 to 14 days for drying.</p> + +<p>The effect of the hot air upon the peat is, in the first place, to +soften and cause it to swell; it, however, shortly begins to shrink +again and dries away to masses of great solidity. It becomes almost +horny in its character, can be broken only by a heavy blow, and endures +the roughest handling without detriment. Its quality as fuel is +correspondingly excellent.</p> + +<p>The effects of the mechanical treatment and drying on the Staltach peat, +are seen from the subjoined figures:</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png139"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="53%"> </td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%"><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%"><i>Lbs. per Cubic Foot.</i></td> + <td class="tdc" width="17%"><i>Per cent. of Water.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Peat, raised and dried in usual way,</td> + <td class="tdc">0.24</td> + <td class="tdc">15</td> + <td class="tdc">18 to 20</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Machine-worked and hot-dried</td> + <td class="tdc">0.65</td> + <td class="tdc">35</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<p>Vogel estimates the cost of peat made by Weber's method at 5 Kreuzers +per (Bavarian) hundred weight, while that of ordinary peat is 13-½ +Kreuzers. Schrœder, in his comparison of machine-wrought and ordinary +peat, demonstrates that the latter can be produced much cheaper than was +customary in Bavaria, in 1859, by a better system of labor.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>Weber's method was adopted with some improvements in an extensive works +built in 1860, by the Government of Baden, at Willaringen, for the +purpose of raising as much fuel as possible, during the course of a +lease that expired with the year 1865.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep140.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep140.jpg" width="50%" alt="Fig. 12." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 12.—<span class="smcap">GEYSSER'S PEAT MACHINE.</span></p> +</div> + +<p><i>Gysser's method.</i><a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>—Rudolph Gysser, of Freiburg, who was charged +with the erection of the works at Willaringen just alluded to, invented +a portable hand-machine on <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>the general plan of Weber, but with +important improvements; and likewise omitted and varied some details of +the manufacture, bringing it within the reach of parties of small means.</p> + +<p>In the accompanying cuts, (figs. 12, 13, and 14), are given an elevation +of Gysser's machine, together with a bird's-eye view and vertical +section of the interior mechanism.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep141.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep141.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 13." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 13. Fig. 14.</p> +</div> + +<div class="imgl" style="width: 25%;"> +<a href="images/imagep142a.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep142a.jpg" width="95%" alt="Fig. 15." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 15.</p> +</div> + +<p>It consists of a cast iron funnel <i>c d i</i> of the elevation, (fig. 12), +having above a sheet iron hopper <i>a b</i> to receive the peat, and within a +series of six knives fastened in a spiral, and curving outwards and +downwards, (figs. 13 and 14); another series of three similar knives is +affixed to a vertical shaft, which is geared to a crank and turned by a +man standing on the platform <i>j k</i>; these revolving knives curve upwards +and cut between and in a direction contrary to the fixed knives; below +the knives, and affixed to the shaft a spiral plate of iron and a +scraper <i>m</i>, (fig. 13), serve to force the peat, which has been at once +minced and carried downwards by the knives, as a somewhat compressed +mass through the lateral opening at the bottom of the funnel, whence it +issues as a continuous hollow <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>cylinder like drain-tile, having a +diameter of four inches. The iron cone <i>i</i>, held in the axis of the +opening by the thin and sharp-edged support <i>g h</i>, forms the bore of the +tube of peat as it issues. Two men operate the machine; one turning the +crank, which, by suitable gearing, works the shaft, and the other +digging and throwing in the peat. The mass, as it issues from the +machine, is received by two boys alternately, who hold below the opening +a semi-cylindrical tin-plate shovel, (fig. 15), of the width and length +of the required peats, and break or rather wipe them off, when they +reach the length of 14 inches.</p> + +<div class="imgr" style="width: 35%;"> +<a href="images/imagep142b.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep142b.jpg" width="95%" alt="Fig. 16." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 16.</p> +</div> + +<p>The formed peats are dried in light, cheap and portable houses, Fig. 17, +each of which consists of six rectangular frames supported one above +another, and covered by a light roof. The frames, Fig. 16, have square +posts at each corner like a bedstead, and are made by nailing light +strips to these posts. The tops of these posts are obtusely beveled to +an edge, and at the bottom they are notched to correspond. The direction +of the edges and of the notches in two diagonally opposite posts, is at +right angles to that of the other two. By this construction the frames, +being of the same size, when placed above each other, fit together by +the edges and notches of their posts into a structure that cannot be +readily overturned. The upper frame has a light shingled roof, which +completes the house. Each frame has transverse slats, cast in plaster of +Paris, 20 in number, which support the peats. The latter being tubular, +dry more readily, uniformly, and to a denser consistence than they could +otherwise.</p> + +<p>The machine being readily set up where the peat is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>excavated, the labor +of transporting the fresh and water-soaked material is greatly reduced. +The drying-frames are built up into houses as fast as they are filled +from the machine. They can be set up anywhere without difficulty, +require no leveling of the ground, and, once filled, no labor in turning +or stacking the peats is necessary; while the latter are insured against +damage from rain. These advantages, Gysser claims, more than cover their +cost.</p> + +<div class="img" style="clear: both;"> +<a href="images/imagep143.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep143.jpg" width="45%" alt="Fig. 17." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 17.</p> +</div> + +<p>The daily production of a machine operated by two men with the +assistance of one or two boys, is 2500 to 3000 peats, which, on drying, +have 9-½ to 10 inches of length, and 2-½ in diameter, and weigh, on +the average, one pound each.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>c.—<i>Condensation of peat of all kinds.</i>—<i>Weber's method with modified +machinery.</i></p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep144.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep144.jpg" width="75%" alt="Fig. 18." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 18.—<span class="smcap">SCHLICKEYSEN'S PEAT MILL.</span></p> +</div> + +<p><i>Schlickeysen's Machine.</i><a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>—This machine has been in use in Germany +since 1860, in the preparation of peat. It appears to have been +originally constructed for the working and moulding of clay for making +bricks. The principle of its operation is identical with that of Weber's +process. The peat is finely pulverized, worked into a homogenous mass, +and moulded into suitable forms. Like Gysser's machine, it forces the +peat under some pressure through a nozzle, or, in the larger kinds +through several nozzles, whence it issues in a continuous block or pipe +that is cut off in proper lengths, either by hand or by mechanism It +consists of a vertical cylinder, through the axis of which revolves a +shaft, whereon are fastened the blades, whose edges cut and whose +winding figure forces down the peat. The blades are arranged nearly, but +not exactly, in a true spiral; the effect is therefore that they act +unequally <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>upon the mass, and thus mix and divide it more perfectly. No +blades or projections are affixed to the interior of the cylinder. +Above, where the peat enters into a flaring hopper, is a scraper, that +prevents adhesion to the sides and gives downward propulsion to the +peat. The blades are, by this construction, very strong, and not liable +to injury from small stones or roots, and effectually reduce the +toughest and most compact peat.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, addition of water is not only unnecessary in any case, but +the peat may be advantageously air-dried to a considerable extent before +it enters the machine. Wet peat is, indeed, worked with less expenditure +of power; but the moulded peats are then so soft as to require much care +in the handling, and must be spread out in single courses, as they will +not bear to be placed one upon another. Peat, that is somewhat dry, +though requiring more power to work, leaves the machine in blocks that +can be piled up on edge and upon each other, six or eight high, without +difficulty, and require, of course, less time for curing.</p> + +<p>The cut, (fig. 18), represents one of Schlickeysen's portable +peat-mills, with elevator for feeding, from which an idea of the +pulverizing arrangements may be gathered.</p> + +<p>In Livonia, near Pernan, according to Leo, two of Schlickeysen's +machines, No. 6, were put in operation upon a purely fibrous peat. They +were driven by an engine of 12 horse-power. The peat was plowed, once +harrowed, then carted directly to the hopper of the machine. These two +machines, with 26 men and 4 horses, produced daily 60,000 peats = 7500 +cubic feet. 100 cubic feet of these peats were equal in heating effect +to 130 cubic feet of fir-wood, and cost but two-thirds as much. The +peats were extremely hard, and dried in a few days sufficiently for use. +In 1864, five large Schlickeysen machines were in operation at one +establishment at St. Miskolz, in Hungary.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>The smaller sizes of Schlickeysen's machine are easily-portable, and +adapted for horse or hand-power.</p> + +<p><i>Leavitt's Peat-condensing and Moulding Mill.</i><a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>—In this country, Mr. +T. H. Leavitt, of Boston, has patented machinery, which is in operation +at East Lexington, Mass., at the works of the Boston Peat Company. The +process is essentially identical with that of Weber, the hot-drying +omitted. The fresh peat is pulverized or cut fine, moulded into blocks, +and dried on light frames in the open air. The results claimed by Mr. +Leavitt, indicate, that his machine is very efficacious.</p> + +<p>It consists, principally, of a strong box or cistern, three feet in +diameter, and six feet high, the exterior of which, with its gearing, is +shown in figure 19. The mill is adapted to be driven by a four +horse-power engine.</p> + +<p>"The upper portion of the box is divided by a series of horizontal +partitions, the upper ones being open latticework, and the lower ones +perforated with numerous holes. The upright shaft, which rotates in the +centre of the box, carries a series of arms or blades, extending +alternately on opposite sides, and as these revolve, they cut the peat, +and force it through the openings in the diaphragms. The lower portion +of the box, in place of complete partitions, has a series of corrugated +shelves extending alternately from opposite sides, and the peat is +pressed and scraped from these by a series of arms adapted to the work. +By this series of severe operations the air-bubbles are expelled from +the peat, and it is reduced to a homogeneous paste. When it arrives at +the bottom of the box, it is still further compressed by the converging +sides of the hopper, and it is received in light moulds which are +carried on an endless belt." Mr. Leavitt has patented the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>use of +powdered peat for the purpose of preventing the prepared peat from +adhering to the moulds.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep147.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep147.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 19." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 19.—<span class="smcap">LEAVITT'S PEAT MILL.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>This mill, it is asserted, will condense 40 tons of crude peat daily, +which, at Lexington, is estimated to yield 10 to 14 tons of dry +merchantable fuel. The cost of producing the latter is asserted to be +less than $2.00 per ton; while its present value, in Boston, is $10 per +ton. It requires seven men, three boys, and two horses to dig, cart, +mill, and spread the peat. The machine costs $600, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>the needful +buildings, engine, etc., from $2000 to $3000. The samples of peat, +manufactured by this machine, are of excellent quality. The drying in +the open air is said to proceed with great rapidity, eight or ten days +being ordinarily sufficient in the summer season. The dry peat, at +Lexington, occupies one-fourth the bulk, and has one-fourth to one-third +the weight of the raw material; the latter, as we gather, being by no +means saturated with water, but well drained, and considerably dry, +before milling.</p> + + +<p><i>Ashcroft & Betteley's Machinery.</i></p> + +<p>The American Peat Company, of Boston, are the owners of five patents, +taken out by Messrs. Ashcroft & Betteley, for peat machinery. They claim +to "make fuel equal to the best English Cannel coal," and really do make +a very good peat, though with a rather complicated apparatus. The +following statement is derived from the circular issued by the company. +The machinery consists of the following parts:—</p> + +<p><i>First.</i>—<span class="smcap">Triturating Machine</span>—36 inches diameter, 4 feet 6 +inches high, with arms both on the inside of this cylinder and on the +upright revolving shaft. In the bottom of the cylinder or tub a large +slide gate is fitted to work with a lever, so that the peat may be +discharged, at pleasure, into the Combing Machine, which is placed +directly under this Triturator.</p> + +<p><i>Second.</i>—<span class="smcap">Combing Machine</span>—Semi-circular vessel 6 feet long +and 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. Inside, a shaft is placed, which is +provided with fingers, placed one inch apart; the fingers to be 20 +inches long, so as to reach within 2 inches of the bottom and sides of +this vessel. Another shaft, of the same size and dimensions, is placed +at an angle of 45°, 26 inches from the first shaft, with arms of the +same dimensions placed upon this shaft, with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>the same spaces, and so +placed that this set of arms pass between the first set, both shafts +revolving in the same direction; the second shaft mentioned being driven +at double the speed of the first. At the bottom of this Combing Machine +is to be fixed a gate, to be operated by a lever, to deliver, at +pleasure, the cleansed peat into the Manipulator or Kneading Machine.</p> + +<p><i>Third.</i>—<span class="smcap">Manipulator</span>.—A Tube of iron 7 feet long and 16 +inches diameter, fitted with a shaft, with flanges upon it, to gain 6 +inches in each revolution.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth.</i>—<span class="smcap">Conveyor</span>.—This Conveyor, to be made with two +endless chains and buckets of iron, with a driving shaft. The hopper, to +receive the peat when first taken from the bog, to be placed below the +surface of the ground, so that the top edge of the hopper may be level +with the surface, that the peat may be dumped from the car by which it +is taken from the bog, and carried to the hopper without hand labor; and +this conveyor to be so arranged that the peat will be delivered into the +Triturator without hand labor.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth.</i>—<span class="smcap">Conveyor</span>.—Another conveyor, precisely like the one +above described, is to be placed so as to convey the peat from the +Manipulator into the Tank without hand labor.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth.</i>—<span class="smcap">Tank</span>.—A tank 35 feet high and 15 feet in diameter; +the bottom of this tank is made sloping towards the sides, at an angle +of 65°, and is covered with sole tile or drain tile, and the entire +inside of this tank is also ribbed with these tile; the ends of these +pipes of tile being left open, so that the water which percolates +through the pores of the tile, by the pressure of the column of peat, +will pass out at the bottom, through the false floor of the tank into +the drain, and the solid peat is retained in the tank. A worm is fixed +in the bottom of this tank, which is driven by machinery, which forces +out the peat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>in the form of brick, which are cut to any length, and +stacked up in sheds, for fuel, after it is fully dried by the air.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep150.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep150.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 20." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 20.—<span class="smcap">VERSMANN'S PEAT PULVERIZER.</span></p> +</div> + +<p><i>Versmann's Machine</i><a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>—This machine, see Fig. 20, was invented by a +German engineer, in London, and was patented there in Sept., 1861. It +consists of a funnel or hollow cone <i>b</i>, of boiler-plate, from one to +two feet in diameter at top, and perforated with 200 to 300 small holes +per square foot of surface, within which rapidly revolves an iron cone +<i>a</i>, carrying on its circumference two spiral knives. The peat thrown in +at the top of the funnel is carried down by the knives, and at once cut +or broken and forced in a state of fine division through the holes of +the funnel, as through a colander. The fine peat collects on the +inclined bottom of the chamber <i>d</i>, whence it is carried by means of +Archimedean screws to a moulding machine. The coarse stuff that escapes +pulverization falls through <i>e</i> into the cavity <i>c</i>. It may be employed +as fuel for the engine, or again put through the machine.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>This machine effects a more perfect pulverization of the peat, than any +other hitherto described. This extreme division is, however, unnecessary +to the perfection of the product, and is secured at great expense of +power. Through the opening at the bottom of the funnel, much +unpulverized peat finds its way, which must be continually returned to +the machine. Again, stones, entering the funnel, are likely to break or +damage the spiral knives, which bear close to the walls of the funnel.</p> + +<p>The pulverized peat must be moulded by hand, or by a separate +instrument.</p> + +<p><i>Buckland's Machine</i><a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> is identical in principle with Versmann's, and +in construction differs simply in the fact of the interior cone having +spiral grooves instead of spiral knives. This gives greater simplicity +and durability to the machine. It appears, however, to require too much +power to work it, and can hardly equal other machines in the quantity of +product it will deliver for a given expenditure. The ground peat yielded +by it, must be moulded by hand, or by other machinery. This machine, we +understand, has been tried near Boston, and abandoned as uneconomical.</p> + +<p>The machines we have described are by no means all that have been +proposed and patented. They include, however, so the author believes, +all that have been put into actual operation, at the date of this +writing, or that present important peculiarities of construction.</p> + +<p>The account that has been given of them will serve to illustrate what +mechanism has accomplished hitherto in the manufacture of peat-fuel, and +may save the talent of the American inventor from wasting itself on what +is already in use, or having been tried, has been found wanting. At +present, very considerable attention is devoted to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>the subject. +Scarcely a week passes without placing one or more Peat-mill patents on +record. In this treatise our business is with what has been before the +public in a more or less practical way, and it would, therefore, be +useless to copy the specifications of new, and for the most part untried +patents, which can be found in the files of our mechanical Journals.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Artificial Drying of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>As we have seen, air-dry peat contains 20 to 30 and may easily contain +50 <i>per cent.</i> of water, and the best hot-made machine peat contains 15 +<i>per cent.</i> When peat is used as fuel in ordinary furnaces, this water +must be evaporated, and in this process a large amount of heat is +consumed, as is well understood. It is calculated, that the temperature +which can be produced in perfectly burning full-dried peat, compares +with that developed in the combustion of peat containing water, as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png152"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="85%">Pyrometric effect of perfectly dry peat</td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%">4000° F.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Pyrometric effect of peat with 30 <i>per cent.</i> of water</td> + <td class="tdr">3240° F.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Pyrometric effect of peat with 50 <i>per cent.</i> of water</td> + <td class="tdr">2848° F.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<p>But, furthermore, moist or air-dried peat does not burn in ordinary +furnaces, except with considerable waste, as is evident from the +smokiness of its flame. When air-dried peat is distilled in a retort, a +heavy yellow vapor escapes for some time after the distillation begins, +which, obviously, contains much inflammable matter, but which is so +mixed and diluted with steam that it will not burn at all, or but +imperfectly. It is obvious then, that when a high temperature is to be +attained, anhydrous or full-dried peat is vastly superior to that which +has simply been cured in the open air.</p> + +<p>Notice has already been made of Weber's drying-house, the use of which +is an essential part of his system of producing peat-fuel. Various other +arrangements have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>been proposed from time to time, for accomplishing +the same object. It appears, however, that in most cases the +anticipations regarding their economy have not been fully realized. It +is hardly probable, that artificially dried peat can be employed to +advantage except where waste heat is utilized in the operation.</p> + +<p>A point of the utmost importance in reference to the question of drying +peat by artificial warmth is this, viz.: Although the drying may be +carried so far as to remove the whole of the water, and produce an +absolutely dry fuel, the peat absorbs moisture from the air again on +exposure; so that drying to less than 15 <i>per cent.</i> of water is of no +advantage, unless the peat is to be used immediately, or within a few +days. The employment of highly dried peat is consequently practicable +only for smelting-works, locomotives, and manufacturing establishments, +where it may be consumed as fast as it is produced.</p> + +<p>A fact likewise to be regarded is, that artificial drying is usually +inapplicable to fresh peat. The precautions needful in curing peat have +already been detailed. Above all, slow drying is necessary, in order +that the blocks shrink uniformly, without cracking and warping in such a +way as to seriously injure their solidity and usefulness. In general, +peat must be air-dried to a considerable extent before it can be +kiln-dried to advantage. If exposed to dry artificial heat, when +comparatively moist, a hard crust is formed externally, which greatly +hinders subsequent desiccation. At the same time this crust, contracting +around the moist interior, becomes so rifted and broken, that the +ultimate shrinkage and condensation of the mass is considerably less +than it would have been had the drying proceeded more slowly.</p> + +<p>Besides Weber's drying oven, the fuel for firing which is derived +without cost from the stumps and roots of trees that are abundant on the +moor, at Staltach, and which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>are thus conveniently disposed of, we have +briefly to notice several other drying kilns with regard to all of +which, however, it must be remarked, that they can only be employed with +profit, by the use of waste heat, or, as at Staltach, of fuel that is +comparatively worthless for other purposes.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep154.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep154.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 21." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 21.—<span class="smcap">CARINTHIAN PEAT DRYING-KILN.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Peat Kilns</i> employed at Lippitzbach, in Carinthia, and at Neustadt, +in Hanover, are of the kind shown in fig. 21. The peat with which the +main chamber is filled, is heated directly by the hot gases that arise +from a fire made in the fire-place at the left. These gases first enter +a vault, where they intermingle and cool down somewhat; thence they +ascend through the openings of the brick grating, and through the mass +of peat to the top <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>of the chamber. On their way they become charged +with vapor, and falling, pass off through the chimney, as is indicated +by the arrows. The draught is regulated by the damper on the top of the +chimney. To manage the fire, so that on the one hand the chimney is +sufficiently heated to create a draught, and on the other waste of fuel, +or even ignition of the peat itself is prevented, requires some care.</p> + +<p>In <i>Welkner's Peat Kiln</i><a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> (fig. 22) the peat, previously air-dried, +is exposed to a stream of hot air, until it is completely desiccated, +and the arrangement is such, that air-dried peat may be thrown in at the +top, and the hot-dried fuel be removed at the bottom, continuously.</p> + +<p>In the cut, <i>A</i> represents the section of a wooden cylinder about 10 +feet wide and 6-½ feet deep, which surmounts a funnel of iron plate +<i>A'</i>. The mouth of the funnel is closed by a door <i>n</i>; about 20 inches +above the door the pipe <i>B</i>, which conducts hot air, terminates in the +ring <i>a a</i>, through the holes in which, <i>e e</i>, it is distributed into +the funnel filled with peat. The air is driven in by a blower, and is +heated by circulating through a system of pipes, which are disposed in +the chimney of a steam boiler. From time to time a quantity of dried +peat is drawn off into the wagon <i>D</i>, which runs on rails, and a similar +amount of undried peat is thrown in above.</p> + +<p>According to Welkner, a kiln of the dimensions stated, which cost, about +$1800 gold, is capable of desiccating daily ten tons of peat with 20 +<i>per cent.</i> of water, using thereby 2000 cubic feet of air of a +temperature of 212° F. When the air is heated by a fire kept up +exclusively for that purpose, 10 <i>per cent.</i> of the dried peat, or its +equivalent, is consumed in the operation. At the Alexis Smelting Works, +near Lingen, in Hanover, this peat kiln <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>furnishes about half the fuel +for a high furnace, in which bog iron ore is smelted. The drying costs +but little, since half the requisite heat is obtained from the waste +heat of the furnace itself.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep156.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep156.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 22." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 22.—<span class="smcap">WELKNER'S PEAT DRYING KILN.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The advantages of this drying kiln are, that it is cheap in construction +and working; dries gradually and uniformly; occupies little ground, and +runs without intermission.</p> + +<p>Other drying ovens are described in Knapp's <i>Lehrbuch</i> der <i>Chemischen +Technologie</i>, 3. Aufl. Bd. 1, Theil 1, pp. 178-9; <i>Jahrbuch der +Bergakademien Schemnitz</i> und <i>Leoben</i>, 1860, p. 108, 1861, p. 55; +Wagner's <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span><i>Jahresbericht der Chemischen Technologie</i>, 1863, p. 748; +Zerrenner's <i>Metallurgische Gasfeuerung in Oesterreich</i>; Tunner's +<i>Stabeisen- und Stahlbereitung</i>, 2. Auflage, Bd. I, pp. 23-25.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Peat Coal, or Coke.</i></p> + +<p>When peat is charred, it yields a coal or coke which, being richer in +carbon, is capable of giving an intenser heat than peat itself, in the +same way that charcoal emits an intenser heat in its combustion than the +wood from which it is made.</p> + +<p>Peat coal has been and is employed to some extent in metallurgical +processes, as a substitute for charcoal, and when properly prepared from +good peat, is in no way inferior to the latter; is, in fact, better.</p> + +<p>It is only, however, from peat which naturally dries to a hard and dense +consistency, or which has been solidified on the principles of +Challeton's and Weber's methods, that a coal can be made possessing the +firmness necessary for furnace use. Fibrous peat, or that condensed by +pressure, as in Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian process, yields +by coking or charring, a friable coal comparatively unsuited for heating +purposes.</p> + +<p>A peat which is dense as the result of proper mechanical treatment and +slow drying, yields a very homogeneous and compact coal, superior to any +wood charcoal, the best qualities weighing nearly twice as much per +bushel.</p> + +<p>Peat is either charred in pits and heaps, or in kilns. From the +regularity of the rectangular blocks into which peat is usually formed, +it may be charred more easily in pits than wood, since the blocks admit +of closer packing in the heap, and because the peat coal is less +inflammable than wood coal. The heaps may likewise be made much smaller +than is needful in case of wood, viz.: six to eight feet in diameter, +and four feet high. The pit is arranged <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>as follows: The ground is +selected and prepared as for charcoal burning, and should be elevated, +dry and compact. Three stout poles are firmly driven into the ground, so +as to stand vertically and equi-distant from each other, leaving within +them a space of six or eight inches. Around these poles the peats are +placed endwise, in concentric rows to the required width and height, +leaving at the bottom a number of air-channels of the width of one peat, +radiating from the centre outwards. The upper layers of peat are +narrowed in so as to round off the heap, which is first covered with dry +leaves, sods, or moss, over which a layer of soil is thrown. Dry, light +wood being placed at the bottom of the central shaft, it is kindled from +one of the canals at the bottom, and the charring is conducted as is +usual in making wood coal. The yield of coal ranges from 25 to 35 <i>per +cent.</i> of the peat by weight, and from 30 to 50 <i>per cent.</i> by volume.</p> + +<p>Gysser recommends to mould the peat for charring in the form of +cylinders of 3 to 4 feet long, which, when dry, may be built up into a +heap like wood.</p> + +<p>A great variety of ovens or kilns have been constructed for coking peat.</p> + +<p>At the Gun Factory of Oberndorf, in Wirtemberg, peat is charred in the +kiln represented in the accompanying figure. The chamber is 9 feet high, +and 5-½ feet in diameter. The oven proper, <i>b b</i>, is surrounded by a +mantle of brick <i>a a</i>, and the space between, <i>c c</i>, is filled with +sand. Each wall, as well as the space, is 15 inches in thickness, and +the walls are connected by stones <i>d d</i>, at intervals of three feet. +Above the sole of the kiln, are three series of air holes, made by +imbedding old gun barrels in the walls. The door, which serves to empty +the kiln, is a plate of cast iron, the sides of its frame are wider than +the thickness of the wall, and by means of a board <i>e</i>, a box <i>m</i> can be +made in front of the door, which is filled <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>with sand to prevent access +of air. The peat is filled in through <i>i</i>, a channel being arranged +across the bottom of the kiln, from the door <i>f</i>, for kindling. When the +firing begins, the lowest air-holes and <i>i</i> are open. When, through the +lower gun barrels, the peat is seen to be ignited, these are corked, and +those above are opened. When the smoke ceases to escape above, all the +openings are closed, <i>m</i>, is filled with sand, <i>i</i> is covered over with +it, and the whole is left to cool. It requires about 8 to 9 days to +finish the charring of a charge. Several kilns are kept in operation, so +that the work proceeds uninterruptedly.</p> + +<div class="img"> +<a href="images/imagep159.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep159.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 23." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 23.—<span class="smcap">OBERNDORFER PEAT CHARRING KILN.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="imgl" style="width: 30%;"> +<a href="images/imagep160a.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep160a.jpg" width="95%" alt="Fig. 24." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 24.—<span class="smcap">WEBER'S CHARRING FURNACE.—TRANSVERSE SECTION.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>At Staltach, Weber prepares peat coal in a cylinder of sheet iron, which +is surrounded by masonry. Below, it rests on a grating of stout wire. +Above, it has a cover, that may be raised by a pulley and on one side is +attached a small furnace, figure 24, the draught of which is kept up by +means of a blower, or an exhauster, and the flame and hot <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>gases from +it, <i>which contain no excess of oxygen</i>, play upon the peat and +decompose it, expelling its volatile portions without burning or wasting +it in the slightest degree. The construction of the furnace, see fig. +24, is such, that the sticks of wood, which are employed for fuel, are +supported at their ends on shoulders in the brick-work, and the draught +enters the fire above instead of below. The wood is hereby completely +consumed, and by regulating the supply of air at <i>a</i> (fig. 25) by a +sliding cover, and at <i>b</i> by a register, the flame and current of air +which enters the cylinder containing the peat, is intensely hot and +accomplishes a rapid carbonization of the peat, but as before <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>stated, +does not burn it. In this furnace the wood, which is cut of uniform +length, is itself the grate, since iron would melt or rapidly burn out; +and the coals that fall are consumed by the air admitted through c. The +hot gases which enter the cylinder filled with peat near its top, are +distributed by pipes, and, passing off through the grating at the +bottom, enter the surrounding brick mantle. Before reaching the +exhaustor, however, they pass through a cooler in which a quantity of +tar and pyroligneous acid is collected.</p> + +<div class="img" style="clear: both;"> +<a href="images/imagep160b.jpg"> +<img border="0" src="images/imagep160b.jpg" width="55%" alt="Fig. 25." /></a><br /> +<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 25.—<span class="smcap">WEBER'S CHARRING FURNACE.—LONGITUDINAL SECTION.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Weber's oven is 15 feet in diameter, and 3-½ feet high; 528 cubic feet +of peat may be coked in it in the space of 15 hours. The wood furnace is +2 feet in section, and consumes for the above amount of peat 3-½ cwt. +of wood. So perfectly are the contents of the iron cylinder protected +from contact of oxygen, that a rabbit placed within it, has been +converted into coal without the singeing of a hair; and a bouquet of +flowers has been carbonized, perfectly retaining its shape. The yield of +coal in Weber's oven is nearly 50 <i>per cent.</i> of the peat by weight.</p> + +<p>Whenever possible, charring of peat should be carried on, or aided by +waste heat, or the heat necessary to coking should be itself economized. +In manufacturing and metallurgical establishments, a considerable +economy in both the drying and coking may often be effected in this +manner.</p> + +<p>On the bog of Allen, in Ireland, we have an example of this kind. Peat +is placed in iron ovens in the form of truncated pyramids, the bottoms +of which consist of movable and perforated iron plates. The ovens are +mounted on wheels, and run on a rail track.</p> + +<p>Five ovens filled with peat are run into a pit in a drying house, in +which blocks of fresh peat are arranged for drying. Each oven is +connected with a flue, and fire is applied. The peat burns below, and +the heat generated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>in the coking, warms the air of the drying house. +When the escaping smoke becomes transparent, the pit in which the ovens +stand is filled with water slightly above their lower edges, whereby +access of air to the burning peat is at once cut off. When cool, the +ovens are run out and replaced by others filled with peat. Each oven +holds about 600 lbs. of peat, and the yield of coal is 25 <i>per cent.</i> by +weight. The small yield compared with that obtained by Weber's method, +is due to the burning of the peat and the coal itself, in the draught of +air that passes through the ovens.</p> + +<p>The author has carbonized, in an iron retort, specimens of peat prepared +by Elsberg's, Leavitt's, and Aschcroft and Betteley's processes. +Elsberg's gave 35, the others 37 <i>per cent.</i> of coal. The coal from +Elsberg's peat was greatly fissured, and could be crushed in the fingers +to small fragments. That from the other peats was more firm, and +required considerable exertion to break it. All had a decided metallic +brilliancy of surface.</p> + +<p>16.—<i>Metallurgical Uses of Peat.</i></p> + +<p>In Austria, more than any other country, peat has been employed in the +manufacture of iron. In Bavaria, Prussia, Wirtemberg, Hanover, and +Sweden, and latterly in Great Britain, peat has been put to the same +use. The general results of experience, are as follows:—</p> + +<p>Peat can only be employed to advantage, when wood and mineral coal are +expensive, or of poor quality.</p> + +<p>Peat can be used in furnaces adapted for charcoal, but not in those +built for mineral coal.</p> + +<p>Good air-dry peat, containing 20 to 30 <i>per cent.</i> of water, in some +cases may replace a share of charcoal in the high furnace.</p> + +<p>At Pillersee, in Austria, spathic iron ore has been reduced by a mixture +of fir-wood charcoal, and air-dry peat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>in the proportions of three +parts by bulk of the former to one of the latter. The use of peat was +found to effect a considerable saving in the outlay for fuel, and +enabled the production to be somewhat increased, while the excellence of +the iron was in no way impaired. The peat was of the best quality, and +was worked and moulded by hand.</p> + +<p>When the ore is refractory and contains impurities that must be fluxed +and worked off in slag, a large proportion of air-dry peat cannot be +used to advantage, because the evaporation of the water in it consumes +so much heat, that the requisite temperature is not easily attained.</p> + +<p>At Achthal, in Bavaria, air-dry peat was employed in 1860, to replace a +portion of the fir wood charcoal, which had been used for smelting an +impure clay-iron-stone: the latter fuel having become so dear, that peat +was resorted to as a make shift. Instead of one "sack," or 33 cubic feet +of charcoal, 24 cubic feet of charcoal and 15 cubic feet of peat were +employed in each charge, and the quantity of ore had to be diminished +thereby, so that the yield of pig was reduced, on the average, by about +17 <i>per cent.</i> In this case the quality of the iron, when worked into +bar, was injured by the use of peat, obviously from an increase of its +content of phosphorus. The exclusive use of air-dry peat as fuel in the +high furnace, appears to be out of the question.</p> + +<p>At Ransko, in Bohemia, <i>kiln-dried peat</i>, nearly altogether free from +water, has been employed in a high furnace, mixed with but one-third its +bulk of charcoal, and in cupola furnaces for re-melting pig, full-dried +peat has been used alone, answering the purpose perfectly.</p> + +<p>The most important metallurgical application of peat is in the refining +of iron.</p> + +<p>Dried peat is extensively used in puddling furnaces, especially in the +so-called gas puddling furnaces, in Carinthia, Steyermark, Silesia, +Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Sweden, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>and other parts of Europe. In Steyermark, +peat has been thus employed for 25 years.</p> + +<p>Air-dry peat is, indeed, also employed, but is not so well adapted for +puddling, as its water burns away a notable quantity of iron. It is one +of the best known facts in chemistry, that ignited iron is rapidly +oxidized in a stream of water-vapor, free hydrogen being at the same +time evolved.</p> + +<p>In the high furnace, <i>peat-coal</i>, when compact and firm (not crumbly) +may replace charcoal perfectly, but its cost is usually too great.</p> + +<p>When peat or peat-coal is employed in smelting, it must be as free as +possible from ash, because the ash usually consists largely of silica, +and this must be worked off by flux. If the ash be carbonate of lime, it +will, in most cases, serve itself usefully as flux. In hearth puddling, +it is important not only that the peat or peat-coal contain little ash, +but especially that the ash be as free as possible from sulphates and +phosphates, which act so deleteriously on the metal. The notion that, in +general, peat and peat charcoal are peculiarly adapted for the iron +manufacture, because they are free from sulphur and phosphorus, is +extremely erroneous. Not infrequently they contain these bodies in such +quantity, as to forbid their use in smelting.</p> + +<p>In the gas-puddling furnace, or in the ordinary reverberatory, impure +peat may, however, be employed, since the ashes do not come in contact +with the metal. The only disadvantage in the use of peat in these +furnaces is, that the grates require cleaning more frequently, which +interrupts the fire, and, according to Tunner, increases the consumption +of fuel 8 to 10 <i>per cent.</i>, and diminishes the amount of metal that can +be turned out in a given time by the same quantity.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>Notwithstanding the interruption of work, it has been found, at +Rothburga, in Austria, that by substitution of machine-made and +kiln-dried peat for wood in the gas-puddling furnace, a saving of 50 +<i>per cent.</i> in the cost of bar iron was effected, in 1860. What is to +the point, in estimating the economy of peat, is the fact that while 6.2 +cubic feet of dry fir-wood were required to produce 100 lbs. of crude +bar, this quantity of iron could be puddled with 4.3 cubic feet of peat.</p> + +<p>In the gas furnace, a second blast of air is thrown into the flame, +effecting its complete combustion; Dellvik asserts, that at +Lesjœforss, in Sweden, 100 lbs. of kiln-dried peat are equal to 197 +lbs. of kiln-dried wood in heavy forging. In an ordinary fire, the peat +would be less effective from the escape of unburned carbon in the smoke.</p> + +<p>In other metallurgical and manufacturing operations where flame is +required, as well as in those which are not inconvenienced by the +ingredients of its ash, it is obvious that peat can be employed when +circumstances conspire to render its use economical.</p> + +<p>17.—<i>Peat as a source of illuminating gas.</i></p> + +<p>Prof Pettenkofer, of Munich, was the first to succeed in making +illuminating gas from wood; and peat, when operated according to his +method, furnishes also a gas of good quality, though somewhat inferior +to wood-gas in illuminating power.</p> + +<p>It is essential, that well-dried peat be employed, and the waste heat +from the retorts may serve in part, at least, for the drying.</p> + +<p>The retorts must be of a good conducting material; therefore cast iron +is better than clay. They are made of the [**symbol] form, and must be +relatively larger than those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>used for coal. A retort of two feet width, +one foot depth, and 8 to 9 feet length, must receive but 100 lbs. of +peat at a charge.</p> + +<p>The quantity of gas yielded in a given time, is much greater than from +bituminous coal. From retorts of the size just named, 8000 to 9000 cubic +feet of gas are delivered in 24 hours. The exit pipes must, therefore, +be large, not less than 5 to 6 inches, and the coolers must be much more +effective than is needful for coal gas, in order to separate from it the +tarry matters.</p> + +<p>The number of retorts requisite to furnish a given volume of gas, is +much less than in the manufacture from coal. On the other hand, the +dimensions of the furnace are considerably greater, because the +consumption of fuel must be more rapid, in order to supply the heat, +which is carried off by the copious formation of gas.</p> + +<p>Gas may be made from peat at a comparatively low temperature, but its +illuminating power is then trifling. At a red heat alone can we procure +a gas of good quality.</p> + +<p>The chief impurity of peat-gas is carbonic acid: this amounts to 25 to +30 <i>per cent.</i> of the gas before purification, and if the peat be +insufficiently dried, it is considerably more. The quantity of slaked +lime that is consumed in purifying, is therefore much greater than is +needed for coal-gas, and is an expensive item in the making of peat-gas.</p> + +<p>While wood-gas is practically free from sulphur compounds and ammonia, +peat-gas may contain them both, especially the latter, in quantity that +depends upon the composition of the peat, which, as regards sulphur and +nitrogen, is very variable.</p> + +<p>Peat-gas is denser than coal-gas, and therefore cannot be burned to +advantage except from considerably wider orifices than answer for the +latter, and under slight pressure.</p> + +<p>The above statements show the absurdity of judging <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>of the value of peat +as a source of gas, by the results of trials made in gas works arranged +for bituminous coal.</p> + +<p>As to the yield of gas we have the following data, weights and measures +being English:—</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="85%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="png167"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="77%">100 lbs. of peat of medium quality from Munich, gave <span class="smcap">Reissig</span></td> + <td class="tdr" width="23%">303 cub. ft.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 lbs. of air-dry peat from Biermoos, Salzburg, gave <span class="smcap">Riedinger</span></td> + <td class="tdr">305 cub. ft.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 lbs. of very light fibrous peat, gave <span class="smcap">Reissig</span></td> + <td class="tdr">379 to 430 cub. ft.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">100 lbs. of Exter's machine-peat, from Haspelmoor, gave</td> + <td class="tdr">367 cub. ft.</td> + </tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<p>Thenius states, that, to produce 1000 English cubic feet of purified +peat-gas, in the works at Kempten, Bavaria, there are required in the +retorts 292 lbs of peat. To distil this, 138-½ lbs. of peat are +consumed in the fire; and to purify the gas from carbonic acid, 91-½ +lbs. of lime are used. In the retorts remain 117 lbs. of peat coal, and +nearly 6 lbs. of tar are collected in the operation, besides smaller +quantities of acetic acid and ammonia.</p> + +<p>According to Stammer, 4 cwt. of dry peat are required for 1000 cubic +feet of purified gas.</p> + +<p>The quality of the gas is somewhat better than that made from bituminous +coal.</p> + +<p>18.—<i>The examination of Peat as to its value for Fuel</i>, begins with and +refers to the air-dry substance, in which:</p> + +<p>1.—Water is estimated, by drying the pulverized peat, at 212°, as long +as any diminution of weight occurs. Well-dried peat-fuel should not +contain more than 20 <i>per cent.</i> of water. On the other hand it cannot +contain less than 15 <i>per cent.</i>, except it has been artificially dried +at a high temperature, or kept for a long time in a heated apartment.</p> + +<p>2.—<i>Ash</i> is estimated by carefully burning the dry residue in 1. In +first-rate fuel, it should amount to less than 3 <i>per cent.</i> If more +than 8 <i>per cent.</i>, the peat is thereby rendered of inferior quality, +though peat is employed which contains considerably more.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>3.—<i>Sulphur</i> and <i>phosphorus</i> are estimated by processes, which it +would be useless to describe here. Only in case of vitriol peats is so +much sulphur present, that it is recognizable by the suffocating fumes +of sulphuric acid or of sulphurous acid, which escape in the burning. +When peat is to be employed for iron manufacture, or under steam +boilers, its phosphorus, and especially its sulphur, should be +estimated, as they injure the quality of iron when their quantity +exceeds a certain small amount, and have a destructive effect on +grate-bars and boilers. For common uses it is unnecessary to regard +these substances.</p> + +<p>4.—The quantity of <i>coal</i> or <i>coke</i> yielded by peat, is determined by +heating a weighed quantity of the peat to redness in an iron retort, or +in a large platinum crucible, until gases cease to escape. The neck of +the retort is corked, and when the vessel is cool, the coal is removed +and weighed. In case a platinum crucible is employed, it should have a +tight-fitting cover, and when gases cease to escape, the crucible is +quickly cooled by placing it in cold water.</p> + +<p>Coal, or coke, includes of course the ash of the peat. This, being +variable, should be deducted, and the <i>ash-free coal</i> be considered in +comparing fuels.</p> + +<p>5.—The <i>density</i> of peat-fuel may be ascertained by cutting out a block +that will admit of accurate measurement, calculating its cubic contents, +and comparing its weight with that of an equal bulk of water. To avoid +calculation, the block may be made accurately one or several cubic +inches in dimensions and weighed. The cubic inch of water at 60° F., +weighs 252-½ grains.</p> + +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The apparent specific gravity here means the weight of the +mass,—the air-filled cavities and pores included—as compared with an +equal bulk of water. The real specific gravity of the <i>peat itself</i> is +always greater than that of water, and all kinds of peat will sink in +water when they soak long enough, or are otherwise treated so that all +air is removed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The "full" cubic foot implies a cubic foot having no +cavities or waste space, such as exist in a pile, made up of numerous +blocks. If a number of peat blocks be put into a box and shaken +together, the empty space between the more or less irregular blocks, may +amount to 46 <i>per cent.</i> of the whole; and when closely packed, the +cavities amount to 30 <i>per cent.</i>, according to the observations of +<i>Wasserzieher</i>. (<i>Dingler's Journal</i>, Oct., 1864, p. 118.) Some +confusion exists in the statements of writers in regard to this matter, +and want of attention to it, has led to grave errors in estimating the +weight of fuel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The <i>waste space</i> in peat and wood as commonly piled, is +probably included here in the statement, and is usually about the same +in both; viz.: not far from 40 <i>per cent.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See note on the preceding page.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Der Torf, etc.</i>, S. 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See page 00.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> On account of the great convenience of the decimal weights +and measures, and their nearly universal recognition by scientific men, +we have adopted them here. The gramme = 15 grains; 5 degrees centigrade += 9 degrees Fahrenheit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Pliny, Hist. Nat. (Lib. XVI, 1) expresses his pity for the +"miserable people" living in East Friesland and vicinity in his day, who +"dug out with the hands a moor earth, which, dried more by wind than +sun, they used for preparing their food and warming their bodies:" +<i>captum manibus lutum ventis magis quam sole siccantis, terra cibos et +rigentia septembrione viscera sua urunt</i>. +</p><p> +As regards the "<i>misera gens</i>," it should be said that rich grain fields +and numerous flourishing villages have occupied for several centuries +large portions of the Duevel moor near Bremen.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> For further account and plans of this machine see +Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 176, S. 336.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Described and figured in Bulletin de la Societe +d'Encouragement, August 1857, p. 513; also Dingler's Polytechnisches +Journal, Bd. 146, S. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Berg- und Huettenmænnische Zeitung, 1859, Nr. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Henneberg's Journal fuer Landwirthschaft, 1858, S. 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Henneberg's Journal fuer Landwirthschaft, 1858, p.p. 42 +and 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Dingler's Journal, Oct., 1864.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 152, S. 272. See +also, Knapp, Lehrbuch der Chemischen Technologie, 3te Auflage, 1., 167.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Der Torf; seine Bildung und Bereitungsweise, von Rudolph +Gysser, Weimar, 1864.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Dingler's Journal, Bd. 165, S. 184.; und Bd. 172, S, 333.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Scientific American, Feb. 10, 1866; also, Facts about Peat +as Fuel, by T. H. Leavitt, 2d Ed., Boston, p. 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Dingler's Journal, Bd. 168, S. 306, und Bd. 172, S. 332.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Described in Journal of the Society of Arts, 1860, p. +437.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Bernemann & Kerl's Berg und Huettenmænnische Zeitung, +1862, 221.</p></div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<div class="tr"> +<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Note</p> +<br /> + +Typographical errors corrected in the text:<br /> +<br /> +Page 6 Robert's changed to Roberts'<br /> +Page 24 Jaeckel changed to Jæckel<br /> +Page 47 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock<br /> +Page 49 connexion changed to connection<br /> +Page 51 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock<br /> +Page 53 Russel changed to Russell<br /> +Page 53 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock<br /> +Page 62 subtances changed to substances<br /> +Page 67 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock<br /> +Page 89 5 changed to 4<br /> +Page 89 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock<br /> +Page 116 artifical changed to artificial<br /> +Page 127 developes changed to develops<br /> +Page 149 Kneeding changed to Kneading<br /> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and +Fuel, by Samuel William Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEAT AND ITS USES *** + +***** This file should be named 26142-h.htm or 26142-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/4/26142/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Barbara Kosker, Jeannie +Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |