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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Introduction to the History of
+      Western Europe by James Harvey Robinson.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Introduction to the History of Western
+Europe, by James Harvey Robinson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: An Introduction to the History of Western Europe
+
+Author: James Harvey Robinson
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2008 [EBook #26042]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and The Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<p class="center"><big>Transcriber's Note:</big></p>
+<p class="center"><small>Inconsistent punctuation and spelling in the original have been preserved.<br />
+<br />
+Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.<br />
+<br />
+Click on colored maps to see a larger version.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="500" height="678" alt="PAGE FROM AN ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="PAGE_FROM_AN_ILLUMINATED_MANUSCRIPT" id="PAGE_FROM_AN_ILLUMINATED_MANUSCRIPT"></a>PAGE FROM AN ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT</span>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<h1><small>AN INTRODUCTION TO THE</small><br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">History Of Western Europe</span></h1>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><small>BY</small><br /><br />
+
+JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON<br />
+
+<span class="smcap"><small>Professor of History in Columbia University</small></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br /><small><i>History is no easy science;<br />
+its subject, human society,<br />
+is infinitely complex.</i><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Fustel de Coulanges</span></small><br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>GINN &amp; COMPANY</big><br />
+
+BOSTON &middot; NEW YORK &middot; CHICAGO &middot; LONDON
+</p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><small><br /><br /><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers' Hall</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1902, 1903<br /></small>
+BY JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON<br />
+<br />
+<small>ALL RIGHTS RESERVED<br />
+612.1<br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+<br /></small></p>
+<p class="oldeng">The Athen&aelig;um Press</p>
+<p class="center"><small>
+GINN &amp; COMPANY &middot; PROPRIETORS &middot;<br />
+BOSTON &middot; U.S.A.<br />
+</small></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> introducing the student to the history of the development of European
+culture, the problem of proportion has seemed to me, throughout, the
+fundamental one. Consequently I have endeavored not only to state
+matters truly and clearly but also to bring the narrative into harmony
+with the most recent conceptions of the relative importance of past
+events and institutions. It has seemed best, in an elementary treatise
+upon so vast a theme, to omit the names of many personages and conflicts
+of secondary importance which have ordinarily found their way into our
+historical text-books. I have ventured also to neglect a considerable
+number of episodes and anecdotes which, while hallowed by assiduous
+repetition, appear to owe their place in our manuals rather to accident
+or mere tradition than to any profound meaning for the student of the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>The space saved by these omissions has been used for three main
+purposes. Institutions under which Europe has lived for centuries, above
+all the Church, have been discussed with a good deal more fullness than
+is usual in similar manuals. The life and work of a few men of
+indubitably first-rate importance in the various fields of human
+endeavor&mdash;Gregory the Great, Charlemagne, Abelard, St. Francis,
+Petrarch, Luther, Erasmus, Voltaire, Napoleon, Bismarck&mdash;have been
+treated with care proportionate to their significance for the world.
+Lastly, the scope of the work has been broadened so that not only the
+political but also the economic, intellectual, and artistic achievements
+of the past form an integral part of the narrative.</p>
+
+<p>I have relied upon a great variety of sources belonging to the various
+orders in the hierarchy of historical literature; it is happily
+unnecessary to catalogue these. In some instances I have found other
+manuals, dealing with portions of my field, of value. In the earlier
+chapters, Emerton's admirable <i>Introduction to the Middle Ages</i>
+furnished many suggestions. For later periods, the same may be said of
+Henderson's careful <i>Germany in the Middle Ages</i> and Schwill's clear and
+well-proportioned <i>History of Modern Europe</i>. For the most recent
+period, I have made constant use of Andrews' scholarly <i>Development of
+Modern Europe</i>. For England, the manuals of Green and Gardiner have been
+used. The greater part of the work is, however, the outcome of study of
+a wide range of standard special treatises dealing with some short
+period or with a particular phase of European progress. As examples of
+these, I will mention only Lea's monumental contributions to our
+knowledge of the jurisprudence of the Church, Rashdall's <i>History of the
+Universities in the Middle Ages</i>, Richter's incomparable <i>Annalen der
+Deutschen Geschichte im Mittelalter</i>, the <i>Histoire G&eacute;n&eacute;rale</i>, and the
+well-known works of Luchaire, Voigt, Hefele, Bezold, Janssen, Levasseur,
+Creighton, Pastor. In some cases, as in the opening of the Renaissance,
+the Lutheran Revolt, and the French Revolution, I have been able to form
+my opinions to some extent from first-hand material.</p>
+
+<p>My friends and colleagues have exhibited a generous interest in my
+enterprise, of which I have taken constant advantage. Professor E.H.
+Castle of Teachers College, Miss Ellen S. Davison, Dr. William R.
+Shepherd, and Dr. James T. Shotwell of the historical department of
+Columbia University, have very kindly read part of my manuscript. The
+proof has been revised by my colleague, Professor William A. Dunning,
+Professor Edward P. Cheyney of the University of Pennsylvania, Dr.
+Ernest F. Henderson, and by Professor Dana C. Munro of the University of
+Wisconsin. To all of these I am much indebted. Both in the arduous
+preparation of the manuscript and in the reading of the proof my wife
+has been my constant companion, and to her the volume owes innumerable
+rectifications in arrangement and diction. I would also add a word of
+gratitude to my publishers for their hearty co&ouml;peration in their
+important part of the undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Readings in European History</i>, a manual now in preparation, and
+designed to accompany this volume, will contain comprehensive
+bibliographies for each chapter and a selection of illustrative
+material, which it is hoped will enable the teacher and pupil to broaden
+and vivify their knowledge. In the present volume I have given only a
+few titles at the end of some of the chapters, and in the footnotes I
+mention, for collateral reading, under the heading "Reference," chapters
+in the best available books, to which the student may be sent for
+additional detail. Almost all the books referred to might properly find
+a place in every high-school library.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+J.H.R.</p>
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Columbia University</span>,<br />
+January 12, 1903.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr  />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="td2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">I</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Historical Point of View</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">II</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Western Europe before the Barbarian Invasions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">III</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The German Invasions and the Break-up of the Roman Empire</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">IV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Rise of the Papacy</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">V</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Monks and the Conversion of the Germans</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">VI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Charles Martel and Pippin</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">VII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Charlemagne</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">VIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">IX</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Feudalism</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">X</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Development of France</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">England in the Middle Ages</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Germany and Italy in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Conflict Between Gregory VII and Henry IV</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XIV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Hohenstaufen Emperors and the Popes</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Crusades</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XVI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Medi&aelig;val Church at its Height</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XVII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Heresy and the Friars</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XVIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The People in Country and Town</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XIX</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Culture of the Middle Ages</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XX</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Hundred Years' War</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Popes and the Councils</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Italian Cities and the Renaissance</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Europe at the Opening of the Sixteenth Century</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXIV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Germany before the Protestant Revolt</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Martin Luther and his Revolt against the Church</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXVI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Course of the Protestant Revolt in Germany</span>, 1521&ndash;1555</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXVII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXVIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Catholic Reformation&mdash;Philip II</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXIX</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Thirty Years' War</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_465">465</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXX</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Struggle in England for Constitutional Government</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Ascendency of France Under Louis XIV</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_495">495</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Rise of Russia and Prussia</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_509">509</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Expansion of England</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_523">523</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXIV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Eve of the French Revolution</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_537">537</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXV</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The French Revolution</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_558">558</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXVI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The First French Republic</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_574">574</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXVII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Napoleon Bonaparte</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_592">592</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXVIII</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Europe and Napoleon</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_606">606</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XXXIX</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Europe After the Congress of Vienna</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_625">625</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XL</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Unification of Italy and Germany</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_642">642</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">XLI</td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Europe of To-day</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_671">671</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">List of Books</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_689">689</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_691">691</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>LIST OF MAPS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Maps">
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">1</td><td class="td1">The Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8&ndash;9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">2</td><td class="td1">The Barbarian Inroads</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26&ndash;27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">3</td><td class="td1">Europe in the Time of Theodoric</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">4</td><td class="td1">The Dominions of the Franks under the Merovingians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">5</td><td class="td1">Christian Missions</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">6</td><td class="td1">Arabic Conquests</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">7</td><td class="td1">The Empire of Charlemagne</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82&ndash;83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">8</td><td class="td1">Treaty of Verdun</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">9</td><td class="td1">Treaty of Mersen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">10</td><td class="td1">Fiefs and Suzerains of the Counts of Champagne</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">11</td><td class="td1">France at the Close of the Reign of Philip Augustus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">12</td><td class="td1">The Plantagenet Possessions in England and France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">13</td><td class="td1">Europe about <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> 1000</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">152&ndash;153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">14</td><td class="td1">Italian Towns in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">15</td><td class="td1">Routes of the Crusaders</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_190">190&ndash;191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">16</td><td class="td1">The Crusaders' States in Syria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">17</td><td class="td1">Ecclesiastical Map of France in the Middle Ages</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">18</td><td class="td1">Lines of Trade and Medi&aelig;val Towns</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_242">242&ndash;243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">19</td><td class="td1">The British Isles</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_278">278&ndash;279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">20</td><td class="td1">Treaty of Bretigny, 1360</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">21</td><td class="td1">French Possessions of the English King in 1424</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">22</td><td class="td1">France under Louis XI</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_298">298&ndash;299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">23</td><td class="td1">Voyages of Discovery</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">24</td><td class="td1">Europe in the Sixteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_358">358&ndash;359</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">25</td><td class="td1">Germany in the Sixteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_372">372&ndash;373</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">26</td><td class="td1">The Swiss Confederation</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_422">422</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">27</td><td class="td1">Treaty of Utrecht</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_506">506&ndash;507</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">28</td><td class="td1">Northeastern Europe in the Eighteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_513">513</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">29</td><td class="td1">Provinces of France in the Eighteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_539">539</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">30</td><td class="td1">Salt Tax in France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_541">541</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">31</td><td class="td1">France in Departments</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_568">568&ndash;569</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">32</td><td class="td1">Partitions of Poland</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_584">584</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">33</td><td class="td1">Europe at the Height of Napoleon's Power</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_614">614&ndash;615</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">34</td><td class="td1">Europe in 1815</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_626">626&ndash;627</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">35</td><td class="td1">Races of Austro-Hungary</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_649">649</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">36</td><td class="td1">Europe of To-day</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_666">666&ndash;667</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Ilustrations">
+
+<tr>
+ <td class="td2">I</td>
+ <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Page from an Illuminated Manuscript</span></td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td align='right'><a href="#PAGE_FROM_AN_ILLUMINATED_MANUSCRIPT"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="td2">II</td>
+ <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Fa&ccedil;ade of Rheims Cathedral</span></td>
+ <td align='right'><i>Facing page</i></td>
+ <td align='right'><a href="#FACcedilADE_OF_RHEIMS_CATHEDRAL">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="td2">III</td>
+ <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Interior of Exeter Cathedral</span></td>
+ <td align='right'><i>Facing page</i></td>
+ <td align='right'><a href="#INTERIOR_OF_EXETER_CATHEDRAL">266</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="td2">IV</td>
+ <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Bronze Statues of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold at Innsbruck</span></td>
+ <td align='right'><i>Facing page</i></td>
+ <td align='right'><a href="#BRONZE_STATUES">300</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="td2">V<br />VI</td>
+ <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Bronze Doors of the Cathedral at Pisa<br />Ghiberti's Doors at Florence</span></td>
+ <td align="right" valign="top"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td>
+ <td align="right"><a href="#BRONZE_DOORS">342</a><a href="#GHIBERTI39S_DOORS_AT_FLORENCE">&ndash;343</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="td2">VII<br />VIII</td>
+ <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Giotto's Madonna<br /> Holy Family by Andrea del Sarto</span></td>
+ <td align="right" valign="top"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td>
+ <td align="right"><a href="#GIOTTO39S_MADONNA">346</a><a href="#HOLY_FAMILY_BY_ANDREA_DEL_SARTO">&ndash;347</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HISTORICAL POINT OF VIEW</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The scope of history.</div>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> History, in the broadest sense of the word, is all that we know about
+everything that man has ever done, or thought, or hoped, or felt. It is
+the limitless science of past human affairs, a subject immeasurably vast
+and important but exceedingly vague. The historian may busy himself
+deciphering hieroglyphics on an Egyptian obelisk, describing a medi&aelig;val
+monastery, enumerating the Mongol emperors of Hindustan or the battles
+of Napoleon. He may explain how the Roman Empire was conquered by the
+German barbarians, or why the United States and Spain came to blows in
+1898, or what Calvin thought of Luther, or what a French peasant had to
+eat in the eighteenth century. We can know something of each of these
+matters if we choose to examine the evidence which still exists; they
+all help to make up history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Object of this volume.</div>
+
+<p>The present volume deals with a small but very important portion of the
+history of the world. Its object is to give as adequate an account as is
+possible in one volume of the chief changes in western Europe since the
+German barbarians overcame the armies of the Roman Empire and set up
+states of their own, out of which the present countries of France,
+Germany, Italy, Austria, Spain, the Netherlands, and England<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> have
+slowly grown. There are, however, whole libraries upon the history of
+each of these countries during the last fifteen hundred years, and it
+requires a volume or two to give a tolerably complete account of any
+single important person, like St. Francis, Cromwell, Frederick the
+Great, or Napoleon. Besides biographies and general histories, there are
+many special treatises upon the Church and other great institutions;
+upon the literature, art, philosophy, and law of the various countries.
+It is obvious, therefore, that only a very few of the historical facts
+known to scholars can possibly find a place in a single volume such as
+this. One who undertakes to condense what we know of Europe's past,
+since the times of Theodosius and Alaric, into the space of six hundred
+pages assumes a very grave responsibility. The reader has a right to ask
+not only that what he finds in the book shall be at once true and
+clearly stated, but that it shall consist, on the whole, of the most
+important and useful of all the things which might have been selected
+from the well-nigh infinite mass of true things that are known.</p>
+
+<p>We gain practically nothing from the mere enumeration of events and
+dates. The student of history wishes to know how people lived; what were
+their institutions (which are really only the habits of nations), their
+occupations, interests, and achievements; how business was transacted in
+the Middle Ages almost without the aid of money; how, later, commerce
+increased and industry grew up; what a great part the Christian church
+played in society; how the monks lived and what they did for mankind. In
+short, the object of an introduction to medi&aelig;val and modern European
+history is the description of the most significant achievements of
+western civilization during the past fifteen hundred years,&mdash;the
+explanation of how the Roman Empire of the West and the wild and unknown
+districts inhabited by the German races have become the Europe of
+Gladstone and Bismarck, of Darwin and Pasteur.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p><p>In order to present even an outline of the great changes during this
+long period, all that was exceptional and abnormal must be left out. We
+must fix our attention upon man's habitual conduct, upon those things
+that he kept on doing in essentially the same way for a century or so.
+Particular events are important in so far as they illustrate these
+permanent conditions and explain how the western world passed from one
+state to another.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">We should study the past sympathetically.</div>
+
+<p>We must learn, above all, to study sympathetically institutions and
+beliefs that we are tempted at first to declare absurd and unreasonable.
+The aim of the historian is not to prove that a particular way of doing
+a thing is right or wrong, as, for instance, intrusting the whole
+government to a king or forbidding clergymen to marry. His object is to
+show as well as he can how a certain system came to be introduced, what
+was thought of it, how it worked, and how another plan gradually
+supplanted it. It seems to us horrible that a man should be burned alive
+because he holds views of Christianity different from those of his
+neighbors. Instead, however, of merely condemning the practice, we must,
+as historical students, endeavor to see why practically every one in the
+thirteenth century, even the wisest and most tender-hearted, agreed that
+such a fearful punishment was the appropriate one for a heretic. An
+effort has, therefore, been made throughout this volume to treat the
+convictions and habits of men and nations in the past with
+consideration; that is, to make them seem natural and to show their
+beneficent rather than their evil aspects. It is not the weakness of an
+institution, but the good that is in it, that leads men to adopt and
+retain it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Impossibility of dividing the past into clearly defined
+periods.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">All general changes take place gradually.</div>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> It is impossible to divide the past into distinct, clearly defined
+periods and prove that one age ended and another began in a particular
+year, such as 476, or 1453, or 1789. Men do not and cannot change their
+habits and ways of doing things all at once, no matter what happens. It
+is true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> that a single event, such as an important battle which results
+in the loss of a nation's independence, may produce an abrupt change in
+the government. This in turn may encourage or discourage commerce and
+industry and modify the language and the spirit of a people. Yet these
+deeper changes take place only very gradually. After a battle or a
+revolution the farmer will sow and reap in his old way, the artisan will
+take up his familiar tasks, and the merchant his buying and selling. The
+scholar will study and write and the household go on under the new
+government just as they did under the old. So a change in government
+affects the habits of a people but slowly in any case, and it may leave
+them quite unaltered.</p>
+
+<p>The French Revolution, at the end of the eighteenth century, was
+probably the most abrupt and thoroughgoing change in the habits of a
+nation of which we have any record. But we shall find, when we come to
+study it, that it was by no means so sudden in reality as is ordinarily
+supposed. Moreover, the innovators did not even succeed in permanently
+altering the form of government; for when the French, after living under
+a monarchy for many centuries, set up a republic in 1792, the new
+government lasted only a few years. The nation was monarchical by habit
+and soon gladly accepted the rule of Napoleon, which was more despotic
+than that of any of its former kings. In reorganizing the state he
+borrowed much from the discarded monarchy, and the present French
+republic still retains many of these arrangements.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The unity or continuity of history.</div>
+
+<p>This tendency of mankind to do, in general, this year what it did last,
+in spite of changes in some one department of life,&mdash;such as
+substituting a president for a king, traveling by rail instead of on
+horseback, or getting the news from a newspaper instead of from a
+neighbor,&mdash;results in what is called the <i>unity</i> or <i>continuity of
+history</i>. The truth that no abrupt change has ever taken place in all
+the customs of a people, and that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> cannot, in the nature of things,
+take place, is perhaps the most fundamental lesson that history teaches.</p>
+
+<p>Historians sometimes seem to forget this principle, when they claim to
+begin and end their books at precise dates. We find histories of Europe
+from 476 to 918, from 1270 to 1492, as if the accession of a capable
+German king in 918, or the death of a famous French king in 1270, or the
+discovery of America, marked a general change in European affairs. In
+reality, however, no general change took place at these dates or in any
+other single year. It would doubtless have proved a great convenience to
+the readers and writers of history if the world had agreed to carry out
+a definite programme and alter its habits at precise dates, preferably
+at the opening of each century. But no such agreement has ever been
+adopted, and the historical student must take things as he finds them.
+He must recognize that nations retain their old customs while they adopt
+new ones, and that a portion of a nation may advance while a great part
+of it stays behind.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Meaning of the term 'Middle Ages.'</div>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> We cannot, therefore, hope to fix any year or event which may
+properly be taken as the beginning of that long period which followed
+the downfall of the Roman state in western Europe and which is commonly
+called the Middle Ages. Beyond the northern and western boundaries of
+the Roman Empire, which embraced the whole civilized world from the
+Euphrates to Britain, mysterious peoples moved about whose history
+before they came into occasional contact with the Romans is practically
+unknown. These Germans, or barbarians, as the Romans called them, were
+destined to put an end to the Roman Empire in the West. They had first
+begun to make trouble about a hundred years before Christ, when a great
+army of them was defeated by the Roman general, Marius. Julius C&aelig;sar
+narrates, in polished Latin, familiar to all who have begun the study of
+that language, how fifty years later he drove back other bands. Five
+hundred years elapsed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> however, between these first encounters and the
+founding of German kingdoms within the boundaries of the Empire. With
+their establishment the Roman government in western Europe may be said
+to have come to an end and the Middle Ages to have begun.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it would be a great mistake to suppose that this means that the
+Roman civilization suddenly disappeared at this time. As we shall see,
+it had gradually changed during the centuries following the golden age
+of Augustus, who died <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> 14. Long before the German conquest, art and
+literature had begun to decline toward the level that they reached in
+the Middle Ages. Many of the ideas and conditions which prevailed after
+the coming of the barbarians were common enough before,&mdash;even the
+ignorance and want of taste which we associate particularly with the
+Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>Middle Ages</i> is, then, a vague one. It will be used in this
+volume to mean, roughly speaking, the period of nearly a thousand years
+that elapsed between the opening of the fifth century, when the disorder
+of the barbarian invasions was becoming general, and the fourteenth
+century, when Europe was well on its way to retrieve all that had been
+lost since the break-up of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'dark ages.'</div>
+
+<p>It used to be assumed, when there was much less interest in the period
+than there now is, that with the disruption of the Empire and the
+disorder that followed, practically all culture perished for centuries,
+that Europe entered upon the "dark ages." These were represented as
+dreary centuries of ignorance and violence in marked contrast to the
+civilization of the Greeks and Romans on the one hand, and to the
+enlightenment of modern times on the other. The more careful studies of
+the last half century have made it clear that the Middle Ages were not
+"dark" in the sense of being stagnant and unproductive. On the contrary,
+they were full of movement and growth, and we owe to them a great many
+things<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> in our civilization which we should never have derived from
+Greece and Rome. It is the purpose of the first nineteen chapters of
+this manual to describe the effects of the barbarian conquests, the
+gradual recovery of Europe from the disorder of the successive
+invasions, and the peculiar institutions which grew up to meet the needs
+of the times. The remaining chapters will attempt to show how medi&aelig;val
+institutions, habits, and ideas were supplanted, step by step, by those
+which exist in Europe to-day.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map8.jpg">
+<img src="images/map8th.jpg" width="600" height="435" alt="THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT</span>
+</div>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extent of the Roman Empire.</div>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> No one can hope to understand the Middle Ages who does not first
+learn something of the Roman Empire, within whose bounds the Germans set
+up their kingdoms and began the long task of creating modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of the fifth century there were no separate, independent
+states in western Europe such as we find on the map to-day. The whole
+territory now occupied by England, France, Spain, and Italy formed at
+that time only a part of the vast realms ruled over by the Roman emperor
+and his host of officials. As for Germany, it was still a region of
+forests, familiar only to the barbarous and half-savage tribes who
+inhabited them. The Romans tried in vain to conquer this part of Europe,
+and finally had to content themselves with keeping the German hordes out
+of the Empire by means of fortifications and guards along the Rhine and
+Danube rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Great diversity of races included within the Empire.</div>
+
+<p>The Roman Empire, which embraced southern and western Europe, western
+Asia, and even the northern portion of Africa, included the most diverse
+peoples and races. Egyptians, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Germans, Gauls,
+Britons, Iberians,&mdash;all alike were under the sovereign rule of Rome. One
+great state embraced the nomad shepherds who spread their tents on the
+borders of Sahara, the mountaineers in the fastnesses of Wales, and the
+citizens of Athens, Alexandria, and Rome, heirs to all the luxury and
+learning of the ages. Whether one lived in York<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> or Jerusalem, Memphis
+or Vienna, he paid his taxes into the same treasury, he was tried by the
+same law, and looked to the same armies for protection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image1.jpg" width="500" height="298" alt="Remains of a Roman Aqueduct" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Remains of a Roman Aqueduct, now used as a Bridge, near
+N&icirc;mes, Southern France</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bonds which held the Empire together.</div>
+
+<p>At first it seems incredible that this huge Empire, which included
+African and Asiatic peoples as well as the most various races of Europe
+in all stages of civilization, could have held together for five
+centuries instead of falling to pieces, as might have been expected,
+long before the barbarians came in sufficient strength to establish
+their own kingdoms in its midst. When, however, we consider the bonds of
+union which held the state together it is easy to understand the
+permanence of the Empire. These were: (1) the wonderfully organized
+government which penetrated to every part of the realm and allowed
+little to escape it; (2) the worship of the emperor as the incarnation
+of the government; (3) the Roman law in force everywhere; (4) the
+admirable roads and the uniform system of coinage which encouraged
+intercommunication; and, lastly, (5) the Roman colonies and the teachers
+maintained by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> government, for through them the same ideas and
+culture were carried to even the most distant parts of the Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Roman government attempted to regulate everything.</div>
+
+<p>Let us first glance at the government and the emperor. His decrees were
+dispatched throughout the length and breadth of the Roman dominions;
+whatsoever pleased him became law, according to the well-known principle
+of the Roman constitution. While the cities were permitted some freedom
+in the regulation of their purely local affairs, the emperor and his
+innumerable and marvelously organized officials kept an eye upon even
+the humblest citizen. The Roman government, besides maintaining order,
+administering justice, and defending the boundaries, assumed many other
+responsibilities. It watched the grain dealers, butchers, and bakers;
+saw that they properly supplied the public and never deserted their
+occupation. In some cases it forced the son to follow the profession of
+his father. If it could have had its way, it would have had every one
+belong to a definite class of society, and his children after him. It
+kept the unruly poorer classes quiet in the towns by furnishing them
+with bread, and sometimes with wine, meat, and clothes. It provided
+amusement for them by expensive entertainments, such as races and
+gladiatorial combats. In a word, the Roman government was not only
+wonderfully organized, so that it penetrated to the utmost confines of
+its territory, but it attempted to guard and regulate almost every
+interest in life.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The worship of the emperor.</div>
+
+<p>Every one was required to join in the worship of the emperor because he
+stood for the majesty of the Roman dominion. The inhabitants of each
+province might revere their particular gods, undisturbed by the
+government, but all were obliged as good citizens to join in the
+official sacrifices to the deified head of the state. The early
+Christians were persecuted, not only because their religion was
+different from that of their fellows, but because they refused to offer
+homage to the image of the emperor and openly prophesied the downfall of
+the Roman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> state. Their religion was incompatible with what was then
+deemed good citizenship, inasmuch as it forbade them to express the
+required veneration for the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Roman law.</div>
+
+<p>As there was one government, so there was one law for all the civilized
+world. Local differences were not considered; the same principles of
+reason, justice, and humanity were believed to hold whether the Roman
+citizen lived upon the Euphrates or the Thames. The law of the Roman
+Empire is its chief legacy to posterity. Its provisions are still in
+force in many of the states of Europe to-day, and it is one of the
+subjects of study in our American universities. It exhibited a humanity
+unknown to the earlier legal codes. The wife, mother, and infant were
+protected from the arbitrary power of the head of the house, who, in
+earlier centuries, had been privileged to treat the members of his
+family as slaves. It held that it was better that a guilty person should
+escape than that an innocent person should be condemned. It conceived
+humanity, not as a group of nations and tribes, each with its peculiar
+institutions and legal customs, but as one people included in one great
+empire and subject to a single system of law based upon reason and
+equity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image2.jpg" width="500" height="629" alt="A Fortified Roman Gateway at Treves" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Fortified Roman Gateway at Treves</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roads and public works.</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p><p>Magnificent roads were constructed, which enabled the messengers of the
+government and its armies to reach every part of the Empire with
+incredible speed. These highways made commerce easy and encouraged
+merchants and travelers to visit the most distant portions of the realm.
+Everywhere they found the same coins and the same system of weights and
+measures. Colonies were sent out to the confines of the Empire, and the
+remains of great public buildings, of theaters and bridges, of sumptuous
+villas and baths at places like Treves, Cologne, Bath, and Salzburg
+indicate how thoroughly the influence and civilization of Rome
+penetrated to the utmost parts of the territory subject to her rule.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The same culture throughout the Roman Empire.</div>
+
+<p>The government encouraged education by supporting at least three
+teachers in every town of any considerable importance. They taught
+rhetoric and oratory and explained the works of the great writers. The
+Romans, who had no marked literary or artistic ability, had adopted the
+culture of the Greeks. This was spread abroad by the government teachers
+so that an educated man was pretty sure to find, even in the outlying
+parts of the great Empire, other educated men with much the same
+interests and ideas as his own. Everywhere men felt themselves to be not
+mere natives of this or that land but citizens of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Loyalty to the Empire and conviction that it was eternal.</div>
+
+<p>During the four centuries from the first emperor, Augustus, to the
+barbarian invasions we hear of no attempt on the part of its subjects to
+overthrow the Empire or to secede from it. The Roman state, it was
+universally believed, was to endure forever. Had a rebellious nation
+succeeded in throwing off the rule of the emperor and establishing its
+independence, it would only have found itself outside the civilized
+world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reasons why the Empire lost its power to defend itself
+against the Germans.</div>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Just why the Roman government, once so powerful and so universally
+respected, finally became unable longer to defend its borders and gave
+way before the scattered attacks of the German peoples, who never
+combined in any general alliance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> against it, is a very difficult
+question to answer satisfactorily. The inhabitants of the Empire appear
+gradually to have lost their energy and self-reliance and to have become
+less and less prosperous. This may be explained partially at least by
+the following considerations: (1) the terrible system of taxation, which
+discouraged and not infrequently ruined the members of the wealthier
+classes; (2) the existence of slavery, which served to discredit honest
+labor and demoralized the free workingmen; (3) the steady decrease of
+population; (4) the infiltration of barbarians, who prepared the way for
+the conquest of the western portion of the Empire by their
+fellow-barbarians.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Oppressive taxation.</div>
+
+<p>It required a great deal of money to support the luxurious court of the
+emperors and their innumerable officials and servants, and to supply
+"bread and circuses" for the populace of the towns. All sorts of taxes
+and exactions were consequently devised by ingenious officials to make
+up the necessary revenue. The crushing burden of the great land tax, the
+emperor's chief source of income, was greatly increased by the
+pernicious way in which it was collected. The government made a group of
+the richer citizens in each of the towns permanently responsible for the
+whole amount due from all the landowners within their district. It was
+their business to collect the taxes and make up any deficiency, it
+mattered not from what cause. This responsibility and the weight of the
+taxes themselves ruined so many landowners that the government was
+forced to decree that no one should desert his estates in order to
+escape the exactions. Only the very rich could stand the drain on their
+resources. The middle class sank into poverty and despair, and in this
+way the Empire lost just that prosperous class of citizens who should
+have been the leaders in business enterprises.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Slavery.</div>
+
+<p>The sad plight of the poorer laboring classes was largely due to the
+terrible institution of slavery which prevailed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> everywhere in ancient
+times. So soon as the Romans had begun to conquer distant provinces the
+number of slaves greatly increased. For six or seven centuries before
+the barbarian invasions every kind of labor fell largely into their
+hands in both country and town. There were millions of them. A single
+rich landholder might own hundreds and even thousands, and it was a poor
+man that did not have several at least.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The villa.</div>
+
+<p>Land was the only highly esteemed form of wealth in the Roman Empire, in
+spite of the heavy taxes imposed upon it. Without large holdings of land
+no one could hope to enjoy a high social position or an honorable office
+under the government. Consequently the land came gradually into the
+hands of the rich and ambitious, and the small landed proprietor
+disappeared. Great estates called <i>villas</i> covered Italy, Gaul, and
+Britain. These were cultivated and managed by armies of slaves, who not
+only tilled the land, but supplied their master, his household, and
+themselves with all that was needed on the plantation. The artisans
+among them made the tools, garments, and other manufactured articles
+necessary for the whole community, or "family," as it was called. Slaves
+cooked the food, waited on the proprietor, wrote his letters, and read
+to him. To a head slave the whole management of the villa was intrusted.
+A villa might be as extensive as a large village, but all its members
+were under the absolute control of the proprietor of the estate. A
+well-organized villa could supply itself with everything that it needed,
+and found little or no reason for buying from any outsider.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Slavery brings labor into disrepute.</div>
+
+<p>Quite naturally, freemen came to scorn all manual labor and even trade,
+for these occupations were associated in their minds with the despised
+slave. Seneca, the philosopher, angrily rejects the suggestion that the
+practical arts were invented by a philosopher; they were, he declares,
+"thought out by the meanest bondman."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Competition of slaves fatal to the freeman.</div>
+
+<p>Slavery did more than bring manual labor into disrepute; it largely
+monopolized the market. Each great household where articles of luxury
+were in demand relied upon its own host of dexterous and efficient
+slaves to produce them. Moreover, the owners of slaves frequently hired
+them out to those who needed workmen, or permitted them to work for
+wages, and in this way brought them into a competition with the free
+workman which was fatal to him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Improved condition of the slaves and their emancipation.</div>
+
+<p>It cannot be denied that a notable improvement in the condition of the
+slaves took place during the centuries immediately preceding the
+barbarian invasions. Their owners abandoned the horrible subterranean
+prisons in which the farm hands were once miserably huddled at night.
+The law, moreover, protected the slave from some of the worst forms of
+abuse; first and foremost, it deprived his master of the right to kill
+him. Slaves began to decrease in numbers before the German invasions. In
+the first place, the supply had been cut off after the Roman armies
+ceased to conquer new territory. In the second place, masters had for
+various reasons begun to emancipate their slaves on a large scale.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The freedman.</div>
+
+<p>The freed slave was called a <i>freedman</i>, and was by no means in the
+position of one who was born free. It is true that he was no longer a
+chattel, a mere thing, but he had still to serve his former master,&mdash;who
+had now become his patron,&mdash;for a certain number of days in the year. He
+was obliged to pay him a part of his earnings and could not marry
+without his patron's consent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The coloni.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resemblance between the coloni and the later serfs.</div>
+
+<p>Yet, as the condition of the slaves improved, and many of them became
+freedmen, the state of the poor freeman only became worse. In the towns,
+if he tried to earn his living, he was forced to mingle with those
+slaves who were permitted to work for wages and with the freedmen, and
+he naturally tended to sink to their level. In the country the free
+agricultural laborers became <i>coloni</i>, a curious intermediate class,
+neither slave nor really free. They were bound to the particular bit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> of
+land which some great proprietor permitted them to cultivate and were
+sold with it if it changed hands. Like the medi&aelig;val <i>serf</i>, they could
+not be deprived of their fields so long as they paid the owner a certain
+part of their crop and worked for him during a period fixed by the
+customs of the domain upon which they lived. This system made it
+impossible for the farmer to become independent, or for his son to be
+better off than he. The coloni and the more fortunate slaves tended to
+fuse into a single class; for the law provided that, like the coloni,
+certain classes of country slaves were not to be taken from the field
+which they had been accustomed to cultivate but were to go with it if it
+was sold.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it often happened that the Roman proprietor had a number of
+dependents among the less fortunate landowners in his neighborhood.
+These, in order to escape the taxes and gain his protection as the times
+became more disorderly, surrendered their land to their powerful
+neighbor with the understanding that he should defend them and permit
+them to continue during their lifetime to cultivate the fields, the
+title to which had passed to him. On their death their children became
+coloni. This arrangement, as we shall find, serves in a measure to
+explain the feudalism of later times.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Depopulation.</div>
+
+<p>When a country is prosperous the population tends to increase. In the
+Roman Empire, even as early as Augustus, a falling off in numbers was
+apparent, which was bound to sap the vitality of the state. War, plague,
+the evil results of slavery, and the outrageous taxation all combined to
+hasten the depopulation; for when it is hard to make a living, men are
+deterred from marrying and find it difficult to bring up large families.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Infiltration of Germans into the Empire.</div>
+
+<p>In order to replenish the population great numbers of the Germans were
+encouraged to settle within the Empire, where they became coloni.
+Constantine is said to have called in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> three hundred thousand of a
+single people. Barbarians were enlisted in the Roman legions to keep out
+their fellow-Germans. Julius C&aelig;sar was the first to give them a place
+among his soldiers. The expedient became more and more common, until,
+finally, whole armies were German, entire tribes being enlisted under
+their own chiefs. Some of the Germans rose to be distinguished generals;
+others attained important positions among the officials of the
+government. In this way it came about that a great many of the
+inhabitants of the Roman Empire were Germans before the great invasions.
+The line dividing the Roman and the barbarian was growing indistinct. It
+is not unreasonable to suppose that the influx of barbarians smoothed
+the way for the break-up of the western part of the Empire. Although
+they had a great respect for the Roman state, they must have kept some
+of their German love of individual liberty and could have had little
+sympathy for the despotism under which they lived.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decline of literature and art.</div>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> As the Empire declined in strength and prosperity and was gradually
+permeated by the barbarians, its art and literature fell far below the
+standard of the great writers and artists of the golden age of Augustus.
+The sculpture of Constantine's time was far inferior to that of
+Trajan's. Cicero's exquisitely finished style lost its charm for the
+readers of the fourth and fifth centuries, and a florid, inferior
+species of oratory took its place. Tacitus, who died about <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> 120, is
+perhaps the latest of the Latin authors whose works may be ranked among
+the classics. No more great men of letters arose. Few of those who
+understand and enjoy Latin literature to-day would think of reading any
+of the poetry or prose written after the beginning of the second
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reliance upon mere compendiums.</div>
+
+<p>During the three hundred years before the invasions those who read at
+all did not ordinarily take the trouble to study the classics, but
+relied upon mere collections of quotations; and for what they called
+science, upon compendiums and manuals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> These the Middle Ages inherited,
+and it was not until the time of Petrarch, in the fourteenth century,
+that Europe once more reached a degree of cultivation which enabled the
+more discriminating scholars to appreciate the best productions of the
+great authors of antiquity, both Greek and Latin.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Preparation for Christianity.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of the general decline of which we have been speaking, the
+Roman world appeared to be making progress in one important respect.
+During the first and second centuries a sort of moral revival took place
+and a growing religious enthusiasm showed itself, which prepared the way
+for the astonishingly rapid introduction of the new Christian religion.
+Some of the pagan philosophers had quite given up the old idea which we
+find in Homer and Virgil, that there were many gods, and had reached an
+elevated conception of the one God and of our duty toward Him. "Our
+duty," writes the philosopher Epictetus at the end of the first century,
+"is to follow God, ... to be of one mind with Him, to devote ourselves
+to the performance of His commands." The emperor Marcus Aurelius (d.
+180) expresses similar sentiments in his <i>Meditations</i>,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the notes
+which he wrote for his own guidance. There was a growing abhorrence for
+the notorious vices of the great cities, and an ever-increasing demand
+for pure and upright conduct. The pagan religions taught that the souls
+of the dead continued to exist in Hades; but the life to come was
+believed to be a dreary existence at best.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Promises of Christianity.</div>
+
+<p>Christianity brought with it a new hope for all those who would escape
+from the bondage of sin, of which the serious-minded were becoming more
+and more conscious. It promised, moreover, eternal happiness after death
+to all who would consistently strive to do right. It appealed to the
+desires and needs of all kinds of men and women. For every one who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+accepted the Gospel might look forward in the next world to such joy as
+he could never hope to experience in this.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Christianity and paganism tend to merge into one another.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Boethius.</div>
+
+<p>The new religion, as it spread from Palestine among the Gentiles, was
+much modified by the religious ideas of those who accepted it. A group
+of Christian philosophers, who are known as the early fathers, strove to
+show that the Gospel was in accord with the aspirations of the best of
+the pagans. In certain ceremonies the former modes of worship were
+accepted by the new religion. From simple beginnings the church
+developed a distinct priesthood and an elaborate service. In this way
+Christianity and the higher forms of paganism tended to come nearer and
+nearer to each other as time went on. In one sense, it is true, they met
+like two armies in mortal conflict; but at the same time they tended to
+merge into one another like two streams which had been following
+converging courses. At the confluence of the streams stands Boethius (d.
+about 524), the most gifted of the later Roman writers. His beautiful
+book, <i>The Consolation of Philosophy</i>, was one of the most popular works
+during the Middle Ages, when every one believed that its author was a
+Christian.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Yet there is nothing in the book to indicate that he was
+more than a religious pagan, and some scholars doubt if he ever fully
+accepted the new religion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The primitive, or apostolic, church.</div>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> We learn from the letters of St. Paul that the earliest Christian
+communities found it necessary to have some organization. They chose
+certain officers, the bishops&mdash;that is to say, overseers&mdash;and the
+presbyters or elders, but St. Paul does not tell us exactly what were
+the duties of these officers. There were also the deacons, who appear to
+have had the care of the poor of the community. The first Christians
+looked for the speedy coming of Christ before their own generation
+should pass away. Since all were filled with enthusiasm for the Gospel
+and eagerly awaited the last day, they did not feel the need of an
+elaborate constitution. But as time went on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> the Christian communities
+greatly increased in size, and many joined them who had little or none
+of the original fervor and spirituality. It became necessary to develop
+a regular system of church government in order to control the erring and
+expel those who brought disgrace upon their religion by notoriously bad
+conduct.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'catholic', or universal, church.</div>
+
+<p>A famous little book, <i>The Unity of the Church</i>, by Bishop Cyprian (d.
+258) gives us a pretty good idea of the Church a few decades before the
+Christian religion was legalized by Constantine. This and other sources
+indicate that the followers of Christ had already come to believe in a
+"Catholic"&mdash;i.e., a universal&mdash;Church which embraced all the communities
+of true believers wherever they might be. To this one universal Church
+all must belong who hoped to be saved.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Organization of the church before Constantine.</div>
+
+<p>A sharp distinction was already made between the officers of the Church,
+who were called the <i>clergy</i>, and the people, or <i>laity</i>. To the clergy
+was committed the government of the Church as well as the instruction of
+its members. In each of the Roman cities was a bishop, and at the head
+of the country communities, a priest (Latin, <i>presbyter</i>), who had
+succeeded to the original elders (presbyters) mentioned in the New
+Testament. Below the bishop and the priest were the lower orders of the
+clergy,&mdash;the deacon and sub-deacon,&mdash;and below these the so called minor
+orders&mdash;the acolyte, exorcist, reader, and doorkeeper. The bishop
+exercised a certain control over the priests within his territory. It
+was not unnatural that the bishops in the chief towns of the Roman
+provinces should be especially influential in church affairs. They came
+to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> called <i>archbishops</i>, and might summon the bishops of the
+province to a council to decide important matters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The first general council, 325. Position of the Bishop of
+Rome during this period.</div>
+
+<p>In 311 the emperor Galerius issued a decree placing the Christian
+religion upon the same legal footing as paganism. Constantine, the first
+Christian emperor, carefully enforced this edict. In 325 the first
+general council of Christendom was called together under his auspices at
+Nic&aelig;a. It is clear from the decrees of this famous assembly that the
+Catholic Church had already assumed the form that it was to retain down
+to the present moment, except that there is no explicit recognition of
+the Bishop of Rome as the head of the whole church. Nevertheless, there
+were a number of reasons&mdash;to be discussed later&mdash;why the Bishop of Rome
+should sometime become the acknowledged ruler of western Christendom.
+The first of the Roman bishops to play a really important part in
+authentic history was Leo the Great, who did not take office until
+440.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church in the Theodosian Code.</div>
+
+<p>Constantine's successors soon forbade pagan practices and began to issue
+laws which gave the Christian clergy important privileges. In the last
+book of the Theodosian Code, a great collection of the laws of the
+Empire, which was completed in 438, all the imperial decrees are to be
+found which relate to the Christian Church and the clergy. We find that
+the clergy, in view of their holy duties, were exempted from certain
+onerous offices and from some of the taxes which the laity had to pay.
+They were also permitted to receive bequests. The emperors themselves
+richly endowed the Church. Their example was followed by rulers and
+private individuals all through the Middle Ages, so that the Church
+became incredibly wealthy and enjoyed a far greater income than any
+state of Europe. The clergy were permitted to try certain cases at law,
+and they themselves had the privilege of being tried in their own church
+courts for minor criminal offenses. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> last book of the Code begins
+with a definition of the Trinity; and much space is given to a
+description of the different kinds of unbelievers and the penalties
+attached to a refusal to accept the religion of the government.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church survives the Empire.</div>
+
+<p>In these provisions of the Theodosian Code the later medi&aelig;val Church is
+clearly foreshadowed. The imperial government in the West was soon
+overthrown by the barbarian conquerors, but the Catholic Church
+conquered and absorbed the conquerors. When the officers of the Empire
+deserted their posts the bishops stayed to meet the on-coming invader.
+They continued to represent the old civilization and ideas of order. It
+was the Church that kept the Latin language alive among those who knew
+only a rude German dialect. It was the Church that maintained some
+little education in even the darkest period of confusion, for without
+the ability to read Latin its services could not have been performed and
+its officers could not have carried on their correspondence with one
+another.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Eastern Empire.</div>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Although the Roman Empire remained one in law, government, and
+culture until the Germans came in sufficient force to conquer the
+western portions of it, a tendency may nevertheless be noticed some time
+before the conquest for the eastern and western portions to drift apart.
+Constantine, who established his supremacy only after a long struggle
+with his rivals, hoped to strengthen the vast state by establishing a
+second capital, which should lie far to the east and dominate a region
+very remote from Rome. Constantinople was accordingly founded in 330 on
+the confines of Europe and Asia.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> This was by no means supposed to
+destroy the unity of the Empire. Even when Theodosius the Great arranged
+(395) that both his sons should succeed him, and that one should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> rule
+in the West and one in the East, he did not intend to divide the Empire.
+It is true that there continued to be thereafter two emperors, each in
+his own capital, but they were supposed to govern one empire conjointly
+and in "unanimity." New laws were to be accepted by both. The writers of
+the time do not speak of two states but continue to refer to "the
+Empire," as if the administration were still in the hands of one ruler.
+Indeed the idea of one government for all civilized mankind did not pass
+away but continued to influence men during the whole of the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Although it was in the eastern part of the Empire that the barbarians
+first got a permanent foothold, the emperors at Constantinople were able
+to keep a portion of the old possessions of the Empire under their rule
+for centuries after the Germans had completely conquered the West. When
+at last the eastern capital of the Empire fell, it was not into the
+hands of the Germans, but into those of the Turks, who have held it
+since 1453.</p>
+
+<p>There will be no room in this volume to follow the history of the
+Eastern Empire, although it cannot be entirely ignored in studying
+western Europe. Its language and civilization had always been Greek, and
+owing to this and the influence of the Orient, its culture offers a
+marked contrast to that of the Latin West, which was adopted by the
+Germans. Learning never died out in the East as it did in the West, nor
+did art reach so low an ebb.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constantinople the most wealthy and populous city of Europe
+during the early Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>For some centuries after the disruption of the Roman Empire in the West,
+the capital of the Eastern Empire enjoyed the distinction of being the
+largest and most wealthy city of Europe. Within its walls could be found
+the indications of a refinement and civilization which had almost
+disappeared in the Occident. Its beautiful buildings, its parks and
+paved streets, filled the traveler from the West with astonishment.
+When, during the Crusades, the western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> peoples were brought into
+contact with the learning and culture of Constantinople they were
+greatly and permanently impressed by them.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;For an outline of the history of the Roman Empire
+during the centuries immediately preceding the barbarian invasions,
+see <span class="smcap">Botsford</span>, <i>History of Rome</i>, <span class="smcap">West</span>, <i>Ancient History to the
+Death of Charlemagne</i>, <span class="smcap">Myers</span>, <i>Rome: Its Rise and Fall</i>, or <span class="smcap">Morey</span>,
+<i>Outlines of Roman History</i>,&mdash;all with plenty of references to
+larger works on the subject. The best work in English on the
+conditions in the Empire upon the eve of the invasions is <span class="smcap">Dill</span>,
+<i>Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire</i>
+(Macmillan, $2.00). <span class="smcap">Hatch</span>, <i>The Influence of Greek Thought upon the
+Christian Church</i> (Williams &amp; Norgate, $1.00), and <span class="smcap">Renan</span>, <i>The
+Influence of Rome on the Development of the Catholic Church</i>
+(Williams &amp; Norgate, $1.00), are very important for the advanced
+student. The best of the numerous editions of Gibbon's great work,
+<i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, which covers the whole
+history of the Middle Ages, is that edited by Bury (The Macmillan
+Company, 7 vols., $14.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GERMAN INVASIONS AND THE BREAK-UP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Huns force the Goths into the Empire. Battle of
+Adrianople, 378.</div>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Previous to the year 375 the attempts of the Germans to penetrate
+into the Empire appear to have been due to their love of adventure,
+their hope of enjoying some of the advantages of their civilized
+neighbors, or the need of new lands for their increasing numbers. And
+the Romans, by means of their armies, their walls, and their guards, had
+up to this time succeeded in preventing the barbarians from violently
+occupying their territory. But suddenly a new force appeared which
+thrust the Germans out upon the weakened Empire. The Huns, a Mongolian
+folk from central Asia, swept down upon the Goths, who were a German
+tribe settled upon the Danube, and forced a part of them to seek shelter
+across the river, within the boundaries of the Empire. Here they soon
+fell out with the imperial officials, and a great battle was fought at
+Adrianople in 378 in which the Goths defeated and slew the emperor,
+Valens. The Germans had now not only broken through the boundaries of
+the Empire, but they had also learned that they could defeat the Roman
+legions. The battle of Adrianople may, therefore, be said to mark the
+beginning of the conquest of the western part of the Empire by the
+Germans. For some years, however, after the battle of Adrianople the
+various bands of West Goths&mdash;or Visigoths, as they are often
+called&mdash;were induced to accept the terms offered by the emperor's
+officials and some of the Goths agreed to serve as soldiers in the Roman
+armies.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map26.jpg">
+<img src="images/map26th.jpg" width="600" height="431" alt="The Barbarian Inroads" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE BARBARIAN INROADS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alaric takes Rome, 410.</div>
+
+<p>Before long one of the German chieftains, Alaric, became dissatisfied
+with the treatment that he received. He collected an army, of which the
+nucleus consisted of West Goths, and set out for Italy. Rome fell into
+his hands in 410 and was plundered by his followers. Alaric appears to
+have been deeply impressed by the sight of the civilization about him.
+He did not destroy the city, hardly even did serious damage to it, and
+he gave especial orders to his soldiers not to injure the churches or
+take their property.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">West Goths settle in southern Gaul and Spain.</div>
+
+<p>Alaric died before he could find a satisfactory spot for his people to
+settle upon permanently. After his death the West Goths wandered into
+Gaul, and then into Spain, which had already been occupied by other
+barbarian tribes,&mdash;the Vandals and Suevi. These had crossed the Rhine
+into Gaul four years before Alaric took Rome; for three years they
+devastated the country and then proceeded across the Pyrenees. When the
+West Goths reached Spain they quickly concluded peace with the Roman
+government. They then set to work to fight the Vandals, with such
+success that the emperor granted them a considerable district (419) in
+southern Gaul, where they established a West Gothic kingdom. Ten years
+after, the Vandals moved on into Africa, where they founded a kingdom
+and extended their control over the western Mediterranean. Their place
+in Spain was taken by the West Goths who, under their king, Euric
+(466&ndash;484), conquered a great part of the peninsula,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> so that their
+kingdom extended from the Loire to the Straits of Gibraltar.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General dismemberment of the Empire in fifth century.</div>
+
+<p>It is quite unnecessary to follow the confused history of the movements
+of the innumerable bands of restless barbarians who wandered about
+Europe during the fifth century. Scarcely any part of western Europe was
+left unmolested; even Britain was conquered by German tribes, the Angles
+and Saxons.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Attila and the Huns.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Ch&acirc;lons, 451.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Founding of Venice.</div>
+
+<p>To add to the universal confusion caused by the influx of the German
+tribes, the Huns, the Mongolian people who had first pushed the West
+Goths into the Empire, now began to fill western Europe with terror.
+Under their chief, Attila,&mdash;"the scourge of God," as the trembling
+Romans called him,&mdash;the savage Huns invaded Gaul. But the Roman
+inhabitants and the Germans joined against the invaders and defeated
+them in the battle of Ch&acirc;lons, in 451. After this rebuff Attila turned
+to Italy. But the impending danger was averted. Attila was induced by an
+embassy, headed by Pope Leo the Great, to give up his plan of marching
+upon Rome. Within a year he died and with him perished the power of the
+Huns, who never troubled Europe again. Their threatened invasion of
+Italy produced one permanent result however; for it was then that
+fugitives from the cities of northeastern Italy fled to the sandy islets
+just off the Adriatic shore and founded the town which was to grow into
+the beautiful and powerful city of Venice.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'fall' of the Empire in the West, 476.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Odoacer.</div>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> The year 476 has commonly been taken as the date of the "fall" of
+the Western Empire and of the beginning of the Middle Ages. What
+happened in that year was this. Since Theodosius the Great, in 395, had
+provided that his two sons should divide the administration of the
+Empire between them, most of the emperors of the West had proved weak
+and indolent rulers. The barbarians wandered hither and thither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> pretty
+much at their pleasure, and the German troops in the service of the
+Empire amused themselves setting up and throwing down puppet emperors.
+In 476 the German mercenaries in the Roman army demanded that a third
+part of Italy be given to them. On the refusal of this demand, Odoacer,
+their leader, banished the last of the western emperors (whose name was,
+by the irony of fate, Romulus Augustus the Little) to a villa near
+Naples. Then Odoacer sent the insignia of empire to the eastern emperor
+with the request that he be permitted to rule Italy as the emperor's
+delegate, thus putting an end to the line of the western emperors.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Theodoric conquers Odoacer and establishes the kingdom of the
+East Goths in Italy.</div>
+
+<p>It was not, however, given to Odoacer to establish an enduring German
+kingdom on Italian soil, for he was conquered by the great Theodoric,
+the king of the East Goths (or Ostrogoths). Theodoric had spent ten
+years of his early youth in Constantinople and had thus become familiar
+with Roman life. Since his return to his people he had been alternately
+a dangerous enemy and an embarrassing friend to the eastern emperor. The
+East Goths, under his leadership, had harassed and devastated various
+parts of the Eastern Empire, and had once threatened the capital itself.
+The emperor had repeatedly conciliated him by conferring upon him
+various honors and titles and by making large grants of money and land
+to his people. It must have been a great relief to the government when
+Theodoric determined to lead his people to Italy against Odoacer. "If I
+fail," Theodoric said to the emperor, "you will be relieved of an
+expensive and troublesome friend; if, with the divine permission, I
+succeed, I shall govern in your name and to your glory, the Roman Senate
+and that part of the Empire delivered from slavery by my victorious
+arms."</p>
+
+<p>The struggle between Theodoric and Odoacer lasted for several years, but
+Odoacer was finally shut up in Ravenna and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> surrendered, only to be
+treacherously slain a few days later by Theodoric's own hand (493).<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The East Goths in Italy.</div>
+
+<p>The attitude of the East Goths toward the people already in possession
+of the land and toward the Roman culture is significant. Theodoric put
+the name of the eastern emperor on the coins that he issued and did
+everything in his power to insure the emperor's approval of the new
+German kingdom. Nevertheless, although he desired that the emperor
+should sanction his usurpation, Theodoric had no idea of being really
+subordinate to Constantinople.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image3.jpg" width="500" height="361" alt="Interior of a Church at Ravenna, built in Theodoric&#39;s Time" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Interior of a Church at Ravenna, built in Theodoric&#39;s Time</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The invaders appropriated one third of the land for themselves, but this
+was done with discretion and no disorder appears to have resulted.
+Theodoric maintained the Roman laws and institutions, which he greatly
+admired. The old offices and titles were retained, and Goth and Roman
+lived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> under the same Roman law. Order was restored and learning
+encouraged. In Ravenna, which Theodoric chose for his capital, beautiful
+buildings that date from his reign still exist.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The East Goths were Arian heretics.</div>
+
+<p>On his death in 526, Theodoric left behind him an admirably organized
+state, but it had one conspicuous weakness. The Goths, although
+Christians, were unorthodox according to the standard of the Italian
+Christians. They had been converted by eastern missionaries, who taught
+them the Arian heresy earlier prevalent at Constantinople. This
+doctrine, which derived its name from Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria
+(d. 336), had been condemned by the Council of Nic&aelig;a. The followers of
+Arius did not have the same conception of Christ's nature and of the
+relations of the three members of the Trinity as that sanctioned at
+Rome. The East Goths were, therefore, not only barbarians,&mdash;which might
+have been forgiven them,&mdash;but were guilty, in the eyes of the orthodox
+Italians, of the unpardonable offense of heresy. Theodoric himself was
+exceptionally tolerant for his times. His conviction that "we cannot
+command in matters of religion because no one can be compelled to
+believe against his will," showed a spirit alien to the traditions of
+the Roman Empire and the Roman Church, which represented the orthodox
+belief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The German kingdoms of Theodoric's time.</div>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> While Theodoric had been establishing his kingdom in Italy with such
+enlightenment and moderation, what is now France was coming under the
+control of the most powerful of the barbarian peoples, the Franks, who
+were to play a more important r&ocirc;le in the formation of modern Europe
+than any of the other German races. Besides the kingdoms of the East
+Goths and the Franks, the West Goths had their kingdom in Spain, the
+Burgundians had established themselves on the Rhone, and the Vandals in
+Africa. Royal alliances were concluded between the reigning houses of
+these nations, and for the first time in the history of Europe we see
+something like a family of nations, living each within its own
+boundaries and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> dealing with one another as independent powers. It
+seemed for a few years as if the process of assimilation between Germans
+and Romans was going to make rapid progress without involving any
+considerable period of disorder and retrogression.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image4.jpg" width="500" height="486" alt="Map of Europe in the Time of Theodoric" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of Europe in the Time of Theodoric</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extinction of Latin literature.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Boethius.</div>
+
+<p>But no such good fortune was in store for Europe, which was now only at
+the beginning of the turmoil from which it was to emerge almost
+completely barbarized. Science, art, and literature could find no
+foothold in the shifting political sands of the following centuries.
+Boethius,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> whom Theodoric put to death (in 524 or 525) for alleged
+treasonable correspondence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> with the emperor, was the last Latin writer
+who can be compared in any way with the classical authors in his style
+and mastery of the language. He was a scholar as well as a poet, and his
+treatises on logic, music, etc., were highly esteemed by following
+generations.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cassiodorus and his manuals.</div>
+
+<p>Theodoric's distinguished Roman counselor, Cassiodorus (d. 575), to
+whose letters we owe a great part of our knowledge of the period, busied
+himself in his old age in preparing text-books of the liberal arts and
+sciences,&mdash;grammar, arithmetic, logic, geometry, rhetoric, music, and
+astronomy. His manuals were intended to give the uninstructed priests a
+sufficient preparation for the study of the Bible and of the doctrines
+of the Church. His absurdly inadequate and, to us, silly treatment of
+these seven important subjects, to which he devotes a few pages each,
+enables us to estimate the low plane to which learning had fallen in
+Italy in the sixth century. Yet his books were regarded as standard
+treatises in these great fields of knowledge all through the Middle
+Ages. So medi&aelig;val Europe owed these, and other text-books upon which she
+was dependent for her knowledge, to the period when Latin culture was
+coming to an end.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scarcely any writers in western Europe during the sixth,
+seventh, and eighth centuries.</div>
+
+<p>A long period of gloom now begins. Between the time of Theodoric and
+that of Charlemagne three hundred years elapsed, during which scarcely a
+writer was to be found who could compose, even in the worst of Latin, a
+chronicle of the events of his day.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> Everything conspired to
+discourage education. The great centers of learning&mdash;Carthage, Rome,
+Alexandria, Milan&mdash;were partially destroyed by the barbarians or the
+Arabs. The libraries which had been kept in the temples of the gods were
+often annihilated, along with the pagan shrines, by Christian
+enthusiasts, who were not sorry to see the heathen literature disappear
+with the heathen religion. Shortly after Theodoric's death the eastern
+emperor withdrew the support<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> which the government had hitherto granted
+to public teachers and closed the great school at Athens. The only
+important historian of the sixth century was the half-illiterate
+Gregory, Bishop of Tours (d. 594), whose whole work is unimpeachable
+evidence of the sad state of intellectual affairs. He at least heartily
+appreciated his own ignorance and exclaims, in incorrect Latin, "Woe to
+our time, for the study of letters has perished from among us."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Justinian destroys the kingdoms of the Vandals and the East
+Goths.</div>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> The year after Theodoric's death one of the greatest of the emperors
+of the East, Justinian (527&ndash;565), came to the throne at
+Constantinople.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> He undertook to regain for the Empire the provinces
+in Africa and Italy that had been occupied by the Vandals and East
+Goths. His general, Belisarius, overthrew the Vandal kingdom in northern
+Africa in 534, but it was a more difficult task to destroy the Gothic
+rule in Italy. However, in spite of a brave defense, the Goths were so
+completely defeated in 553 that they agreed to leave Italy with all
+their movable possessions. What became of the remnants of the race we do
+not know. They had been too few to maintain their control over the mass
+of the Italians, who were ready, with a religious zeal which cost them
+dear, to open their gates to the hostile armies of Justinian.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Lombards occupy Italy.</div>
+
+<p>The destruction of the Gothic kingdom was a disaster for Italy.
+Immediately after the death of Justinian the country was overrun anew,
+by the Lombards, the last of the great German peoples to establish
+themselves within the bounds of the former Empire. They were a savage
+race, a considerable part of which was still pagan, and the Arian
+Christians among them appear to have been as hostile to the Roman Church
+as their unconverted fellows. The newcomers first occupied the region
+north of the Po, which has ever since been called Lombardy after them,
+and then extended their conquests southward.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> Instead of settling
+themselves with the moderation and wise statesmanship of the East Goths,
+the Lombards chose to move about the peninsula pillaging and massacring.
+Such of the inhabitants as could, fled to the islands off the coast. The
+Lombards were unable, however, to conquer all of Italy. Rome, Ravenna,
+and southern Italy continued to be held by the Greek empire. As time
+went on, the Lombards lost their wildness, accepted the orthodox form of
+Christianity, and gradually assimilated the civilization of the people
+among whom they lived. Their kingdom lasted over two hundred years,
+until it was overthrown by Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Franks; their importance and their method of conquest.</div>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> None of the German peoples of whom we have so far spoken, except the
+Franks, ever succeeded in establishing a permanent kingdom. Their states
+were overthrown in turn by some other German nation, by the Eastern
+Empire, or, in the case of the West-Gothic kingdom in Spain, by the
+Mohammedans. The Franks, to whom we must now turn, were destined not
+only to conquer most of the other German tribes but even to extend their
+boundaries into districts inhabited by the Slavs.</p>
+
+<p>When the Franks are first heard of in history they were settled along
+the lower Rhine, from Cologne to the North Sea. Their method of getting
+a foothold in the Empire was essentially different from that which the
+Goths, Lombards, and Vandals had adopted. Instead of severing their
+connection with Germany and becoming an island in the sea of the Empire,
+they conquered by degrees the territory about them. However far they
+might extend their control, they remained in constant touch with the
+barbarian reserves behind them. In this way they retained the warlike
+vigor that was lost by the races who were completely surrounded by the
+enervating influences of Roman civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the fifth century they had occupied the district
+which constitutes to-day the kingdom of Belgium, as well as the regions
+east of it. In 486, seven years before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> Theodoric founded his Italian
+kingdom, they went forth under their great king, Clovis (a name that
+later grew into Louis), and defeated the Roman general who opposed them.
+They extended their control over Gaul as far south as the Loire, which
+at that time formed the northern boundary of the kingdom of the West
+Goths. Clovis then enlarged his empire on the east by the conquest of
+the Alemanni, a German people living in the region of the Black
+Forest.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image5.jpg" width="300" height="674" alt="A Frankish Warrior" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Frankish Warrior</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conversion of Clovis, 496, and its consequences.</div>
+
+<p>The battle in which the Alemanni were defeated (496) is in one respect
+important above all the other battles of Clovis. Although still a pagan
+himself, his wife was an orthodox Christian convert. In the midst of the
+conflict, as he saw his line giving way, he called upon Jesus Christ and
+pledged himself to be baptized in His name if He would help the Franks
+to victory over their enemies. He kept his word and was baptized
+together with three thousand of his warriors. His conversion had the
+most momentous consequences for Europe. All the other German peoples
+within the Empire were Christians, but they were all Arian heretics; and
+to the orthodox Christians about them they seemed worse than heathen.
+This religious difference had prevented the Germans and Romans from
+inter-marrying and had retarded their fusion in other ways. But with the
+conversion of Clovis, there was at least one barbarian leader with whom
+the Bishop of Rome could negotiate as with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> a faithful son of the
+Church. It is from the orthodox Gregory of Tours that most of our
+knowledge of Clovis and his successors is derived. In Gregory's famous
+<i>History of the Franks</i>, the cruel and unscrupulous king appears as
+God's chosen instrument for the extension of the Catholic faith.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+Certainly Clovis quickly learned to combine his own interests with those
+of the Church, and the alliance between the pope and the Frankish kings
+was destined to have a great influence upon the history of western
+Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquests of Clovis.</div>
+
+<p>To the south of Clovis' new acquisitions in Gaul lay the kingdom of the
+Arian West Goths, to the southeast that of another heretical German
+people, the Burgundians. Gregory of Tours reports him as saying: "I
+cannot bear that these Arians should be in possession of a part of Gaul.
+Let us advance upon them with the aid of God; after we have conquered
+them let us bring their realms into our power." So zealous was the newly
+converted king that he speedily extended his power to the Pyrenees, and
+forced the West Goths to confine themselves to the Spanish portion of
+their realm. The Burgundians became a tributary nation and soon fell
+completely under the rule of the Franks. Then Clovis, by a series of
+murders, brought portions of the Frankish nation itself, which had
+previously been independent of him, under his scepter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of Frankish history.</div>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> When Clovis died in 511 at Paris, which he had made his residence,
+his four sons divided his possessions among them. Wars between rival
+brothers, interspersed with the most horrible murders, fill the annals
+of the Frankish kingdom for over a hundred years after the death of
+Clovis. Yet the nation continued to develop in spite of the unscrupulous
+deeds of its rulers. It had no enemies strong enough to assail it, and a
+certain unity was preserved in spite of the ever-shifting distribution
+of territory among the members of the royal house.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Extent of the Frankish kingdoms in the sixth century.</div>
+
+<p>The Frankish kings succeeded in extending their power over pretty nearly
+all the territory that is included to-day in France, Belgium, and the
+Netherlands, as well as over a goodly portion of western Germany. By
+555, when Bavaria had become tributary to the Frankish rulers, their
+dominions extended from the Bay of Biscay to a point east of Salzburg.
+Considerable districts that the Romans had never succeeded in conquering
+had been brought into the developing civilization of western Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image6.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="The Dominions of the Franks under the Merovingians" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Dominions of the Franks under the Merovingians</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Division of the Frankish territory into Neustria, Austrasia,
+and Burgundy.</div>
+
+<p>As a result of the divisions of the Frankish lands, fifty years after
+the death of Clovis three Frankish kingdoms appear on the map. Neustria,
+the western kingdom, with its center at Paris or Soissons, was inhabited
+mainly by the older Romanized people among whom the Franks had settled.
+To the east was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> Austrasia, with Metz and Aix-la-Chapelle as its chief
+cities. This region was completely German in its population. In these
+two there was the prophecy of the future France and Germany. Lastly,
+there was the old Burgundian realm. Of the Merovingian kings, as the
+line descended from Clovis was called, the last to rule as well as reign
+was Dagobert (d. 638), who united the whole Frankish territory once more
+under his scepter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Frankish nobility.</div>
+
+<p>A new danger, however, threatened the unity of the Frankish kingdom,
+namely, the aspirations of the powerful nobles. In the earliest accounts
+which we have of the Germans there appear to have been certain families
+who enjoyed a recognized pre&euml;minence over their companions. In the
+course of the various conquests there was a chance for the skillful
+leader to raise himself in the favor of the king. It was only natural
+that those upon whom the king relied to control distant parts of the
+realm should become dangerously ambitious and independent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Mayors of the Palace.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Foundation of the power of Charlemagne's family, the
+so-called Carolingians.</div>
+
+<p>Among the positions held by the nobility none was reputed more honorable
+than those near the king's person. Of these offices the most influential
+was that of the Major Domus, or Mayor of the Palace, who was a species
+of prime minister. After Dagobert's death these mayors practically ruled
+in the place of the Merovingian monarchs, who became mere "do-nothing
+kings,"&mdash;<i>rois fain&eacute;ants</i>, as the French call them. The Austrasian Mayor
+of the Palace, Pippin of Heristal, the great-grandfather of Charlemagne,
+succeeded in getting, in addition to Austrasia, both Neustria and
+Burgundy under his control. In this way he laid the foundation of his
+family's renown. Upon his death, in 714, his task of consolidating and
+defending the vast territories of the Franks devolved upon his more
+distinguished son, Charles Martel, i.e., the Hammer.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Fusion of the barbarians and the Roman population.</div>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> As one looks back over the German invasions it is natural to ask
+upon what terms the newcomers lived among the old inhabitants of the
+Empire, how far they adopted the customs of those among whom they
+settled, and how far they clung to their old habits? These questions
+cannot be answered very satisfactorily; so little is known of the
+confused period of which we have been speaking that it is impossible to
+follow closely the amalgamation of the two races.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The number of the barbarians.</div>
+
+<p>Yet a few things are tolerably clear. In the first place, we must be on
+our guard against exaggerating the numbers in the various bodies of
+invaders. The writers of the time indicate that the West Goths, when
+they were first admitted to the Empire before the battle of Adrianople,
+amounted to four or five hundred thousand persons, including men, women,
+and children. This is the largest band reported, and it must have been
+greatly reduced before the West Goths, after long wanderings and many
+battles, finally settled in Spain and southern Gaul. The Burgundians,
+when they appear for the first time on the banks of the Rhine, are
+reported to have had eighty thousand warriors among them. When Clovis
+and his army were baptized the chronicler speaks of "over three
+thousand" soldiers who became Christians upon that occasion. This would
+seem to indicate that the Frankish king had no larger force at this
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly these figures are very meager and unreliable. But the
+readiness with which the Germans appear to have adopted the language and
+customs of the Romans would tend to prove that the invaders formed but a
+small minority of the population. Since hundreds of thousands of
+barbarians had been assimilated during the previous five centuries, the
+great invasions of the fifth century can hardly have made an abrupt
+change in the character of the population.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between spoken and written Latin.</div>
+
+<p>The barbarians within the old empire were soon speaking the same
+conversational Latin which was everywhere used by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> the Romans about
+them.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> This was much simpler than the elaborate and complicated
+language used in books, which we find so much difficulty in learning
+nowadays. The speech of the common people was gradually diverging more
+and more, in the various countries of southern Europe, from the written
+Latin, and finally grew into French, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese.
+But the barbarians did not produce this change, for it had begun before
+they came and would have gone on without them. They did no more than
+contribute a few convenient words to the new languages.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans appear to have had no dislike for the Romans nor the Romans
+for them, except as long as the Germans remained Arian Christians. Where
+there was no religious barrier the two races intermarried freely from
+the first. The Frankish kings did not hesitate to appoint Romans to
+important positions in the government and in the army, just as the
+Romans had long been in the habit of employing the barbarians. In only
+one respect were the two races distinguished for a time,&mdash;each had its
+particular law.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Roman and the German law.</div>
+
+<p>The West Goths in the time of Euric were probably the first to write
+down their ancient laws, using the Latin language. Their example was
+followed by the Franks, the Burgundians, and later by the Lombards and
+other peoples. These codes make up the "Laws of the Barbarians," which
+form our most important source of knowledge of the habits and ideas of
+the Germans at the time of the invasions.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> For several centuries
+following the conquest, the members of the various German tribes appear
+to have been judged by the laws of the particular people to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> which they
+belonged. The older inhabitants of the Empire, on the contrary,
+continued to have their lawsuits decided according to the Roman law.
+This survived all through the Middle Ages in southern Europe, where the
+Germans were few. Elsewhere the Germans' more primitive ideas of law
+prevailed until the thirteenth or fourteenth century. A good example of
+these is the picturesque medi&aelig;val ordeal by which the guilt or innocence
+of a suspected person was determined.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Medi&aelig;val trials.</div>
+
+<p>The German laws did not provide for the trial, either in the Roman or
+the modern sense of the word, of a suspected person. There was no
+attempt to gather and weigh evidence and base the decision upon it. Such
+a mode of procedure was far too elaborate for the simple-minded Germans.
+Instead of a regular trial, one of the parties to the case was
+designated to prove that his assertions were true by one of the
+following methods: (1) He might solemnly swear that he was telling the
+truth and get as many other persons of his own class as the court
+required, to swear that they believed that he was telling the truth.
+This was called <i>compurgation</i>. It was believed that the divine
+vengeance would be visited upon those who swore falsely. (2) On the
+other hand, the parties to the case, or persons representing them, might
+meet in combat, on the supposition that Heaven would grant victory to
+the right. This was the so-called <i>wager of battle</i>. (3) Lastly, one or
+other of the parties might be required to submit to the <i>ordeal</i> in one
+of its various forms: He might plunge his arm into hot water, or carry a
+bit of hot iron for some distance, and if at the end of three days he
+showed no ill effects, the case was decided in his favor. He might be
+ordered to walk over hot plowshares, and if he was not burned, it was
+assumed that God had intervened by a miracle to establish the
+right.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> This method of trial is but one example of the rude
+civilization which displaced the refined and elaborate organization of
+the Romans.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The task of the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> The account which has been given of the conditions in the Roman
+Empire, and of the manner in which the barbarians occupied its western
+part, makes clear the great problem of the Middle Ages. The Germans, no
+doubt, varied a good deal in their habits and spirit. The Goths differed
+from the Lombards, and the Franks from the Vandals; but they all agreed
+in knowing nothing of the art, literature, and science which had been
+developed by the Greeks and adopted by the Romans. The invaders were
+ignorant, simple, vigorous people, with no taste for anything except
+fighting and bodily comfort. Such was the disorder that their coming
+produced, that the declining civilization of the Empire was pretty
+nearly submerged. The libraries, buildings, and works of art were
+destroyed and there was no one to see that they were restored. So the
+western world fell back into a condition similar to that in which it had
+been before the Romans conquered and civilized it.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>The loss was, however, temporary. The barbarians did not utterly destroy
+what they found, but utilized the ruins of the Roman Empire in their
+gradual construction of a new society. They received suggestions from
+the Roman methods of agriculture. When they reached a point where they
+needed them, they used the models offered by Roman roads and buildings.
+In short, the great heritage of skill and invention which had been
+slowly accumulated in Egypt, Ph&#339;nicia, and Greece, and which formed a
+part of the culture which the Romans diffused, did not wholly perish.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Loss caused by the coming of the barbarians regained during
+Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>It required about a thousand years to educate the new race; but at last
+Europe, including districts never embraced in the Roman Empire, caught
+up once more with antiquity. When, in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, first Italy, and then the rest of Europe, awoke again to the
+beauty and truth of the classical literature and began to emulate the
+ancient art, the process of educating the barbarians may be said to have
+been completed. Yet the Middle Ages had been by no means a sterile
+period. They had added their part to the heritage of the West. From the
+union of two great elements, the ancient civilization, which was
+completely revived at the opening of the sixteenth century, and the
+vigor and the political and social ideals of the Germans, a new thing
+was formed, namely, our modern civilization.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;By far the most exhaustive work in English upon
+the German invasions is <span class="smcap">Hodgkin</span>, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>,&mdash;very
+bulky and costly (8 vols., $36.50). The author has, however, given
+some of the results of his work in his excellent <i>Dynasty of
+Theodosius</i> (Clarendon Press, $1.50), and his <i>Theodoric the Goth</i>
+(G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.50). <span class="smcap">Sergeant</span>, <i>The Franks</i> (G.P. Putnam's
+Sons, $1.50), gives more than is to be found on the subject in
+either Emerton or Oman.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RISE OF THE PAPACY</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The greatness of the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> While the Franks were slowly developing the strength which
+Charlemagne employed to found the most extensive realm that has existed
+in Europe since the Roman Empire, another government, whose power was
+far greater, whose organization was far more perfect, and whose vitality
+was infinitely superior to that of the Frankish empire, namely, the
+Christian Church, was steadily extending its sway and establishing the
+foundations of its later supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>We have already seen how marvelously the Christian communities founded
+by the apostles and their fellow-missionaries multiplied until, by the
+middle of the third century, writers like Cyprian came to conceive of a
+"Catholic," or all-embracing, Church. We have seen how Constantine first
+made Christianity legal, and how his successors worked in the interest
+of the new religion; how carefully the Theodosian Code safeguarded the
+Church and the Christian clergy, and how harshly those were treated who
+ventured to hold another view of Christianity from that sanctioned by
+the government.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>We must now follow this most powerful and permanent of all the
+institutions of the later Roman Empire into the Middle Ages. We must
+stop a moment to consider the sources of its power, and then see how the
+Western, or Latin, portion of Christendom fell apart from the Eastern,
+or Greek, region and came to form a separate institution under the
+longest and mightiest line of rulers that the world has ever seen, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+Roman bishops. We shall see how a peculiar class of Christians, the
+monks, developed; how they joined hands with the clergy; how the monks
+and the clergy met the barbarians, subdued and civilized them, and then
+ruled them for centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of the Church's power.</div>
+
+<p>The tremendous power of the Church in the Middle Ages was due, we may be
+sure, to the way in which it adapted itself to the ideas and needs of
+the time; for no institution can flourish unless it meets the wants of
+those who live under it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between pagan and Christian ideas.</div>
+
+<p>One great source of the Church's strength lay in the general fear of
+death and judgment to come, which Christianity had brought with it. The
+Greeks and Romans of the classical period thought of the next life, when
+they thought of it at all, as a very uninteresting existence compared
+with that on this earth. One who committed some signal crime might
+suffer for it after death with pains similar to those of the hell in
+which the Christians believed. But the great part of humanity were
+supposed to lead in the next world a shadowy existence, neither sad nor
+glad. Religion, even to the devout pagan, was mainly an affair of this
+life; the gods were to be propitiated with a view to present happiness
+and success.</p>
+
+<p>Since no satisfaction could be expected in the next life, it was
+naturally deemed wise to make the most of this one. The possibility of
+pleasure ends&mdash;so the poet Horace urges&mdash;when we join the shades below,
+as we all must do soon. Let us, therefore, take advantage of every
+harmless pleasure and improve our brief opportunity to enjoy the good
+things of earth. We should, however, be reasonable and temperate,
+avoiding all excess, for that endangers happiness. Above all, we should
+not worry uselessly about the future, which is in the hands of the gods
+and beyond our control. Such were the convictions of the majority of
+thoughtful pagans.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Other-worldliness of medi&aelig;val Christianity.</div>
+
+<p>Christianity opposed this view of life with an entirely different one.
+It laid persistent emphasis upon man's existence after death, which it
+declared infinitely more important than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> his brief sojourn in the body.
+Under the influence of the Church this conception of life had gradually
+supplanted the pagan one in the Roman world, and it was taught to the
+barbarians. The other-worldliness became so intense that thousands gave
+up their ordinary occupations and pleasures altogether, and devoted
+their entire attention to preparation for the next life. They shut
+themselves in lonely cells; and, not satisfied with giving up most of
+their natural pleasures, they inflicted bodily suffering upon themselves
+by hunger, cold, and stripes. They trusted that in this way they might
+avoid some of the sins into which they were prone to fall, and that, by
+self-inflicted punishment in this world, they might perchance escape
+some of that reserved for them in the next. As most of the writers and
+teachers of the Middle Ages belonged to this class of what may be called
+professional Christians, i.e., the monks, it was natural that their kind
+of life should have been regarded, even by those who continued to live
+in the world, as the ideal one for the earnest Christian.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church the one agent of salvation.</div>
+
+<p>The barbarians were taught that their fate in the next world depended
+largely upon the Church. Its ministers never wearied of presenting the
+momentous alternative which faced every man so soon as this fleeting
+earthly existence should be over,&mdash;the alternative between eternal bliss
+and perpetual, unspeakable physical torment. Only those who had been
+duly baptized could hope to reach heaven; but baptism washed away only
+past sins and did not prevent constant relapse into new ones. These,
+unless their guilt was removed through the instrumentality of the
+Church, would surely drag the soul down to perdition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Miracles a source of the Church's power.</div>
+
+<p>The divine power of the Church was, furthermore, established in the eyes
+of the people by the miraculous works which her saints were constantly
+performing. They healed the sick and succored those in distress. They
+struck down with speedy and signal disaster those who opposed the Church
+or treated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> her holy rites with contempt. To the reader of to-day the
+frequency of the miracles recorded in medi&aelig;val writings seems
+astonishing. The chronicles and biographies are filled with accounts of
+them, and no one appears to have doubted their common occurrence.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church and the Roman government.</div>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The chief importance of the Church for the student of medi&aelig;val
+history does not lie, however, in its religious functions, vital as they
+were, but rather in its remarkable relations to the civil government. At
+first the Church and the imperial government were on a friendly footing
+of mutual respect and support. So long as the Roman Empire remained
+strong and active there was no chance for the clergy to free themselves
+from the control of the emperor, even if they had been disposed to do
+so. He made such laws for the Church as he saw fit and the clergy did
+not complain. The government was, indeed, indispensable to them. It
+undertook to root out paganism by destroying the heathen shrines and
+preventing heathen sacrifices, and it harshly punished those who refused
+to accept the teachings sanctioned by the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church begins to seek independence.</div>
+
+<p>But as the barbarians came in and the great Empire began to fall apart,
+there was a growing tendency among the churchmen in the West to resent
+the interference of rulers whom they no longer respected. They managed
+gradually to free themselves in large part from the control of the civil
+government. They then proceeded themselves to assume many of the duties
+of government, which the weak and disorderly states into which the Roman
+Empire fell were unable to perform properly. In 502, a church council at
+Rome declared a decree of Odoacer's null and void, on the ground that no
+layman had a right to interfere in the affairs of the Church. One of the
+bishops of Rome (Pope Gelasius I, d. 496) briefly stated the principle
+upon which the Church rested its claims, as follows: "Two powers govern
+the world, the priestly and the kingly. The first is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> indisputably the
+superior, for the priest is responsible to God for the conduct of even
+the emperors themselves." Since no one denied that the eternal interests
+of mankind, which devolved upon the Church, were infinitely more
+important than those matters of mere worldly expediency which the state
+regulated, it was natural for the clergy to hold that, in case of
+conflict, the Church and its officers, rather than the king, should have
+the last word.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church begins to perform the functions of government.</div>
+
+<p>It was one thing, however, for the Church to claim the right to regulate
+its own affairs; it was quite another for it to assume the functions
+which the Roman government had previously performed and which our
+governments perform to-day, such as the maintenance of order, the
+management of public education, the trial of lawsuits, etc. It did not,
+however, exactly usurp the prerogatives of the civil power, but rather
+offered itself as a substitute for it when no efficient civil government
+any longer existed. For there were no states, in the modern sense of the
+word, in western Europe for many centuries after the final destruction
+of the Roman Empire. The authority of the various kings was seldom
+sufficient to keep their realms in order. There were always many
+powerful landholders scattered throughout the kingdom who did pretty
+much what they pleased and settled their grudges against their fellows
+by neighborhood wars. Fighting was the main business as well as the
+chief amusement of the noble class. The king was unable to maintain
+peace and protect the oppressed, however anxious he may have been to do
+so.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances, it naturally fell to the admirably organized
+Church to keep order, when it could, by threats or persuasion; to see
+that sworn contracts were kept, that the wills of the dead were
+administered, and marriage obligations observed. It took the defenseless
+widow and orphan under its protection and dispensed charity; it promoted
+education at a time when few laymen, however rich and noble, pretended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+even to read. These conditions serve to explain why the Church was
+finally able greatly to extend the powers which it had enjoyed under the
+Roman Empire, and why it undertook functions which seem to us to belong
+to the state rather than to a religious organization.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of papal power.</div>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> We must now turn to a consideration of the origin and growth of the
+supremacy of the popes, who, by raising themselves to the head of the
+Western Church, became in many respects more powerful than any of the
+kings and princes with whom they frequently found themselves in bitter
+conflict.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prestige of the Roman Christian community.</div>
+
+<p>While we cannot discover, either in the Acts of the Council of Nic&aelig;a or
+in the Theodosian Code, compiled more than a century later, any
+recognition of the supreme headship of the Bishop of Rome, there is
+little doubt that he and his flock had almost from the very first
+enjoyed a leading place among the Christian communities. The Roman
+Church was the only one in the West which could claim the distinction of
+having been founded by the immediate followers of Christ,&mdash;the "two most
+glorious apostles."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Belief that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome.</div>
+
+<p>The New Testament speaks repeatedly of Paul's presence in Rome, and
+Peter's is implied. There had always been, moreover, a persistent
+tradition, accepted throughout the Christian Church, that Peter was the
+first Bishop of Rome. While there is no complete documentary proof for
+this belief, it appears to have been generally accepted at least as
+early as the middle of the second century. There is, certainly, no
+conflicting tradition, no rival claimant. The <i>belief itself</i>, whether
+or not it corresponds with actual events, is indubitably a fact, and a
+fact of the greatest historical importance. Peter enjoyed a certain
+pre&euml;minence among the other apostles and was singled out by Christ upon
+several occasions. In a passage of the New Testament which has affected
+political history more profoundly than the edicts of the most powerful
+monarch, Christ says: "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter,
+and upon this rock I will build<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> my church; and the gates of hell shall
+not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the
+kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be
+bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be
+loosed in heaven."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Roman Church the mother church.</div>
+
+<p>It was thus natural that the Roman Church should early have been looked
+upon as the mother church in the West. Its doctrines were considered the
+purest, since they had been handed down from its exalted founders. When
+there was a difference of opinion in regard to the truth of a particular
+teaching, it was natural that all should turn to the Bishop of Rome for
+his view. Moreover, the majesty of the capital of the world helped to
+exalt its bishop above his fellows. It was long, however, before all the
+other bishops, especially those in the large cities, were ready to
+accept unconditionally the authority of the Bishop of Rome, although
+they acknowledged his leading position and that of the Roman community.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Obscurity of early bishops of Rome.</div>
+
+<p>We know comparatively little of the bishops of Rome during the first
+three centuries of the Church's existence. Even as the undisputed heads
+of their persecuted sect, they could not have begun to exercise the
+political influence which they later enjoyed, until Christianity had
+gained the ascendancy and the power of the Empire had become greatly
+weakened.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Period of the Church fathers.</div>
+
+<p>We are, however, much better instructed in regard to the Church of the
+fourth and early fifth centuries, because the century following the
+Council of Nic&aelig;a was, in the history of church literature, what the
+Elizabethan era was in that of England. It was the era of the great
+"fathers" of Christian theology, to whom all theologians since have
+looked back as to the foremost interpreters of their religion. Among the
+chief of these were Athanasius (d. 373), to whom is attributed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+formulation of the creed of the Orthodox Church as opposed to the
+Arians, against whom he waged unremitting war; Basil (d. 379), the
+promoter of the monastic life; Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (d. 397); Jerome
+(d. 420), who prepared a new Latin version of the Scriptures, which
+became the standard (Vulgate) edition; and, above all, Augustine
+(354&ndash;430), whose voluminous writings have exercised an unrivaled
+influence upon the minds of Christian thinkers since his day.</p>
+
+<p>Since the church fathers were chiefly interested in matters of doctrine,
+they say little of the organization of the Church, and it is not clear
+from their writings that the Bishop of Rome was accorded as yet the
+supreme and dominating position which the popes later enjoyed.
+Nevertheless, Augustine calls a contemporaneous Bishop of Rome the "head
+of the Western Church," and almost immediately after his death one
+ascended the episcopal chair at Rome whose ambition, energy, and
+personal bravery were a promise of those qualities which were to render
+his successors the kings of kings.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Leo the Great, 440&ndash;461.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decree of Valentinian III.</div>
+
+<p>With the accession of Leo the Great (440&ndash;461) the history of the papacy
+may, in one sense, be said to have begun. At his instance, Valentinian
+III, the emperor of the West, issued a decree in 445 declaring the power
+of the Bishop of Rome supreme, by reason of Peter's merits and apostolic
+headship, and by reason of the majesty of the city of Rome. He commanded
+that the bishops throughout the West should receive as law all that the
+Bishop of Rome sanctioned, and that any bishop refusing to answer a
+summons to Rome should be forced to obey by the imperial governor. But a
+council at Chalcedon, six years later, raised new Rome on the Bosphorus
+(Constantinople) to an ecclesiastical equality with old Rome on the
+Tiber. The bishops of both cities were to have a co-superiority over all
+the other prelates. This decree was, however, never accepted in the
+Western or Latin Church, which was gradually separating from the Eastern
+or Greek<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> Church whose natural head was Constantinople.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Although the
+powers to which Leo laid claim were not as yet even clearly stated and
+there were times of adversity to come when for years they appeared an
+empty boast, still his emphatic assertion of the supremacy of the Roman
+bishop was a great step toward bringing the Western Church under a
+single head.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Duties that devolved upon the early popes.</div>
+
+<p>Not long after the death of Leo the Great, Odoacer put an end to the
+western line of emperors. Then Theodoric and his East Goths settled in
+Italy, only to be followed by still less desirable intruders, the
+Lombards. During this tumultuous period the people of Rome, and even of
+all Italy, came to regard the pope as their natural leader. The emperor
+was far away, and his officers, who managed to hold a portion of central
+Italy around Rome and Ravenna, were glad to accept the aid and counsel
+of the pope. In Rome the pope watched over the elections of the city
+officials and directed in what manner the public money should be spent.
+He had to manage and defend the great tracts of land in different parts
+of Italy which from time to time had been given to the bishopric of
+Rome. He negotiated with the Germans and even directed the generals sent
+against them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gregory the Great, 590&ndash;604.</div>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> The pontificate of Gregory the Great, one of the half dozen most
+distinguished heads that the Church has ever had, shows how great a part
+the papacy could play. Gregory, who was the son of a rich Roman senator,
+was appointed by the emperor to the honorable office of prefect. He
+began to fear, however, that his proud position and fine clothes were
+making<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> him vain and worldly. His pious mother and his study of the
+writings of Augustine, Jerome, and Ambrose led him, upon the death of
+his father, to spend all his handsome fortune in founding seven
+monasteries. One of these he established in his own house and subjected
+himself to such severe discipline and deprivations that his health never
+entirely recovered from them. He might, in his enthusiasm for
+monasticism, have brought himself to an early grave if the pope had not
+commanded him to undertake a difficult mission to Constantinople; there
+he had his first opportunity to show his great ability in conducting
+delicate negotiations.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ancient Rome becomes medi&aelig;val Rome.</div>
+
+<p>When Gregory was chosen pope (in 590) and most reluctantly left his
+monastery, ancient Rome, the capital of the Empire, was already
+transforming itself into medi&aelig;val Rome, the capital of Christendom. The
+temples of the gods had furnished materials for the many Christian
+churches. The tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul were soon to become
+the center of religious attraction and the goal of pilgrimages from
+every part of western Europe. Just as Gregory assumed office a great
+plague was raging in the city. In true medi&aelig;val fashion, he arranged a
+solemn procession in order to obtain from heaven a cessation of the
+pest. Then the archangel Michael was seen over the tomb of Hadrian<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+sheathing his fiery sword as a sign that the wrath of the Lord had been
+turned away. With Gregory we leave behind us the history of the Rome of
+C&aelig;sar and Trajan and enter upon that of Innocent III and Leo X.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gregory's writings.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory enjoyed an unrivaled reputation during the Middle Ages as a
+writer. He is reckoned with Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome as one of the
+four great Latin "fathers" of the Church. His works show, however, how
+much less cultivated his period was than that of his predecessors. His
+most popular book was his <i>Dialogues</i>, a collection of accounts of
+miracles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> and popular legends. It is hard to believe that it could have
+been composed by the greatest man of the time and that it was designed
+for adults. In his commentary on Job, Gregory warns the reader that he
+need not be surprised to find mistakes in grammar, since in dealing with
+so high a theme a writer should not stop to make sure whether his cases
+and tenses are right.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image7.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="The Castle San Angelo, formerly the Tomb of the Emperor Hadrian" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Castle San Angelo, formerly the Tomb of the Emperor Hadrian</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gregory as a statesman.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory's letters show clearly what the papacy was coming to mean for
+Europe when in the hands of a really great man. While he assumed the
+humble title of "Servant of the servants of God," which the popes still
+use, Gregory was a statesman whose influence extended far and wide. It
+devolved upon him to govern the city of Rome,&mdash;as it did upon his
+successors down to the year 1870,&mdash;for the eastern emperor's control had
+become merely nominal. He had also to keep the Lombards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> out of central
+Italy, which they failed to conquer largely on account of the valiant
+defense of the popes. These duties were functions of the civil power,
+and in assuming them Gregory may be said to have founded the temporal
+power of the popes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gregory's missionary undertakings.</div>
+
+<p>Beyond the borders of Italy, Gregory was in constant communication with
+the emperor, with the rulers of Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy.
+Everywhere he used his influence to have good clergymen chosen as
+bishops, and everywhere he watched over the interests of the
+monasteries. But his chief importance in the history of the papacy is
+attributable to the missionary enterprises which he undertook, through
+which the great countries which were one day to be called England,
+France, and Germany were brought under the sway of the Roman Church and
+its head, the pope.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory was, as we have seen, an enthusiastic monk, and he naturally
+relied chiefly upon the monks in his great work of converting the
+heathen. Consequently, before considering his missionary achievements,
+we must glance at the origin and character of the monks, who are so
+conspicuous throughout the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General References.</b>&mdash;There is no satisfactory history of the
+medi&aelig;val Church in one volume. Perhaps the best short account in
+English is <span class="smcap">Fisher</span>, <i>History of the Christian Church</i> (Charles
+Scribner's Sons, $3.50). <span class="smcap">Moeller</span>, <i>History of the Christian
+Church</i>, Vols. I-II (Swan Sonnenschein, $4.00 a vol.), is a dry but
+very reliable manual with full references to the literature of the
+subject. <span class="smcap">Alzog</span>, <i>Manual of Universal Church History</i> (Clarke,
+Cincinnati, 3 vols., $10.00), is a careful presentation by a
+Catholic scholar. <span class="smcap">Milman</span>, <i>History of Latin Christianity</i>, although
+rather old, is both scholarly and readable, and is to be found in
+most libraries. <span class="smcap">Gieseler</span>, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> (5 vols., now
+out of print, but not difficult to obtain), is really a great
+collection of the most interesting extracts from the sources, with
+very little indeed from the author's hand. This and Moeller are
+invaluable to the advanced student. <span class="smcap">Hatch</span>, <i>Growth of Church
+Institutions</i> (Whittaker, $1.50), gives an admirably simple account
+of the most important phases of the organization of the Church.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MONKS AND THE CONVERSION OF THE GERMANS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of the monks as a class.</div>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> It would be difficult to overestimate the variety and extent of the
+influence that the monks exercised for centuries in Europe. The proud
+annals of the Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits contain
+many a distinguished name. The most eminent philosophers, scientists,
+historians, artists, poets, and statesmen may be found among their
+ranks. Among those whose achievements we shall study later are The
+Venerable Bede, Boniface, Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Fra
+Angelico, Savonarola, Luther, Erasmus,&mdash;all these, and many others who
+have been leaders in various branches of human activity, were monks.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Monasticism appealed to many different classes.</div>
+
+<p>The strength of monasticism lay in its appeal to many different classes
+of persons. The world became a less attractive place as the successive
+invasions of the barbarians brought ever-increasing disorder. The
+monastery was the natural refuge not only of the spiritually minded, but
+of those of a studious or contemplative disposition who disliked the
+life of a soldier and were disinclined to face the dangers and
+uncertainties of the times. The monastic life was safe and peaceful, as
+well as holy. Even the rude and unscrupulous warriors hesitated to
+destroy the property or disturb the life of those who were believed to
+enjoy Heaven's special favor. The monastery furnished, too, a refuge for
+the disconsolate, an asylum for the disgraced, and food and shelter for
+the indolent who would otherwise have had to earn their living. There
+were, therefore, many motives which helped to fill the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> monasteries.
+Kings and nobles, for the good of their souls, readily gave land upon
+which to found colonies of monks, and there were plenty of remote spots
+in the mountains and forests to tempt the recluse.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Necessity for the regulation of monastic life.</div>
+
+<p>Monastic communities first developed on a large scale in Egypt in the
+fourth century. Just as the Germans were winning their first great
+victory at Adrianople, St. Jerome was engaged in showing the advantages
+of the ascetic Christian life, which was a new thing in the West. In the
+sixth century monasteries multiplied so rapidly in western Europe that
+it became necessary to establish definite rules for the numerous
+communities which proposed to desert the ordinary ways of the world and
+lead a peculiar life apart. The monastic regulations which had been
+drawn up in the East did not answer the purpose, for the climate of the
+West and the temperament of the Latin peoples differed too much from
+those of the Orient. Accordingly St. Benedict drew up, about the year
+526, a sort of constitution for the monastery of Monte Cassino, in
+southern Italy, of which he was the head. This was so sagacious, and so
+well met the needs of the monastic life, that it was rapidly accepted by
+the other monasteries and gradually became the "rule" according to which
+all the western monks lived.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Rule of St. Benedict.</div>
+
+<p>The Rule of St. Benedict is as important as any constitution that was
+ever drawn up for a state. It is for the most part natural and
+wholesome. It provides that, since every one is not fitted for the
+ascetic life, the candidate for admission to the monastery shall pass
+through a period of probation, called the <i>novitiate</i>, before he is
+permitted to take the solemn and irrevocable vow. The brethren shall
+elect their head, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> <i>abbot</i>, whom they must obey unconditionally in
+all that is not sinful. Along with prayer and meditation, the monks are
+to work at manual occupations and cultivate the soil. They shall also
+read and teach. Those who were incapacitated for outdoor work were
+assigned lighter tasks, such as copying books. The monk was not
+permitted to own anything in his own right; he pledged himself to
+perpetual and absolute poverty, and everything he used was the property
+of the convent. Along with the vows of obedience and poverty, he also
+took that of chastity, which bound him never to marry. For not only was
+the single life considered more holy than the married, but the monastic
+organization would, of course, have been impossible unless the monks
+remained single. Aside from these restrictions, the monks were commanded
+to live rational and natural lives and not to abuse their bodies or
+sacrifice their physical vigor by undue fasting in the supposed interest
+of their souls. These sensible provisions were directed against the
+excesses of asceticism, of which there had been many instances in the
+East.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The monks copy, and so preserve, the Latin authors.</div>
+
+<p>The influence of the Benedictine monks upon Europe is incalculable. From
+their numbers no less than twenty-four popes and forty-six hundred
+bishops and archbishops have been chosen. They boast almost sixteen
+thousand writers, some of great distinction. Their monasteries furnished
+retreats where the scholar might study and write in spite of the
+prevailing disorder of the times. The copying of books, as has been
+said, was a natural occupation of the monks. Doubtless their work was
+often done carelessly, with little heart and less understanding. But,
+with the great loss of manuscripts due to the destruction of libraries
+and the indifference of individual book-owners, it was most essential
+that new copies should be made. Even poor and incorrect ones were better
+than none. It was the monks who prevented the loss of a great part of
+Latin literature, which, without them, would probably have reached us
+only in scanty remains.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The monks aid in the material development of Europe.</div>
+
+<p>The monks also helped to rescue honest manual labor, which they believed
+to be a great aid to salvation, from the disrepute into which slavery
+had brought it in earlier times. They set the example of careful
+cultivation on the lands about their monasteries and in this way
+introduced better methods into the regions where they settled. They
+entertained travelers at a time when there were few or no inns and so
+increased the intercourse between the various parts of Europe.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The regular and secular clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The Benedictine monks, as well as later monastic orders, were ardent and
+faithful supporters of the papacy. The Roman Church, which owes much to
+them, appreciated the aid which they might furnish and extended to them
+many of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy. Indeed the monks were
+reckoned as clergymen and were called the "regular" clergy because they
+lived according to a <i>regula</i>, or rule, to distinguish them from the
+"secular" clergy, who continued to live in the world (<i>saeculum</i>) and
+took no monastic vows.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Monks and secular clergy supplement each other.</div>
+
+<p>The Church, ever anxious to maintain as far-reaching a control over its
+subjects as that of the Roman Empire, whose power it inherited, could
+hardly expect its busy officers, with their multiform duties and
+constant relations with men, to represent the ideal of contemplative
+Christianity which was then held in higher esteem than the active life.
+The secular clergy performed the ceremonies of the Church, administered
+its business, and guarded its property, while the regular clergy
+illustrated the necessity of personal piety and self-denial. Monasticism
+at its best was a monitor standing beside the Church and constantly
+warning it against permitting the Christian life to sink into mere
+mechanical and passive acceptance of its ceremonies as all-sufficient
+for salvation. It supplied the element of personal responsibility and
+spiritual ambition upon which Protestantism has laid so much stress.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The monks as missionaries.</div>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> The first great service of the monks was their missionary labors. To
+these the later strength of the Roman Church is in no small degree due,
+for the monks made of the unconverted Germans not merely Christians, but
+also dutiful subjects of the pope. The first people to engage their
+attention were the heathen Germans who had conquered the once Christian
+Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early Britain.</div>
+
+<p>The islands which are now known as the kingdom of Great Britain and
+Ireland were, at the opening of the Christian era, occupied by several
+Celtic peoples of whose customs and religion we know almost nothing.
+Julius C&aelig;sar commenced the conquest of the islands (55 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>); but the
+Romans never succeeded in establishing their power beyond the wall which
+they built, from the Clyde to the Firth of Forth, to keep out the wild
+Celtic tribes of the North. Even south of the wall the country was not
+completely Romanized, and the Celtic tongue has actually survived down
+to the present day in Wales.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Saxons and Angles conquer Britain.</div>
+
+<p>At the opening of the fifth century the barbarian invasions forced Rome
+to withdraw its legions from Britain in order to protect its frontiers
+on the continent. The island was thus left to be gradually conquered by
+the Germans, mainly Saxons and Angles, who came across the North Sea
+from the region south of Denmark. Almost all record of what went on
+during the two centuries following the departure of the Romans has
+disappeared. No one knows the fate of the original Celtic inhabitants of
+England. It is unlikely that they were, as was formerly supposed, all
+killed or driven to the mountain districts of Wales. More probably they
+were gradually lost among the dominating Germans with whom they merged
+into one people. The Saxon and Angle chieftains established petty
+kingdoms, of which there were seven or eight at the time when Gregory
+the Great became pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conversion of Britain.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory, while still a simple monk, had been struck with the beauty of
+some Angles whom he saw one day in the slave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> market of Rome. When he
+learned who they were he was grieved that such handsome beings should
+still belong to the kingdom of the Prince of Darkness, and, had he been
+permitted, he himself would have gone as a missionary to their people.
+Upon becoming pope he sent forty monks to England from one of the
+monasteries that he had founded, placing a prior, Augustine, at their
+head and designating him in advance as Bishop of England. The heathen
+king of Kent, in whose territory the monks landed with fear and
+trembling (597), had a Christian wife, the daughter of a Frankish king.
+Through her influence the monks were kindly received and were assigned
+an ancient church at Canterbury, dating from the Roman occupation before
+the German invasions. Here they established a monastery, and from this
+center the conversion, first of Kent and then of the whole island, was
+gradually effected. Canterbury has always maintained its early
+pre&euml;minence and may still be considered the religious capital of
+England.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image8.jpg" width="500" height="326" alt="Ancient Church of St. Martin&#39;s, Canterbury" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Ancient Church of St. Martin&#39;s, Canterbury</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Irish monks.</div>
+
+<p>Augustine and his monks were not, however, the only Christians in the
+British Isles. Britain had been converted to Christianity when it was a
+Roman province, and some of the missionaries, led by St. Patrick (d.
+about 469), had made their way into Ireland and established a center of
+Christianity there. When the Germans overran Britain and reheathenized
+it, the Irish monks and clergy were too far off to be troubled by the
+barbarians. They knew little of the traditions of the Roman Church and
+diverged from its customs in some respects. They celebrated Easter upon
+a different date from that observed by the Roman Church and employed a
+different style of tonsure. Missionaries from this Irish church were
+busy converting the northern regions of Britain, when the Roman monks
+under Augustine began their work in the southern part of the island.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conflict between the Roman Church and the Irish monks.</div>
+
+<p>There was sure to be trouble between the two parties. The Irish clergy,
+while they professed great respect for the pope and did not wish to be
+cut off from the rest of the Christian Church, were unwilling to abandon
+their peculiar usages and accept those sanctioned by Rome. Nor would
+they recognize as their superior the Archbishop of Canterbury, whom the
+pope had made the head of the British church. The pope, on his part,
+felt that it was all-important that these isolated Christians should
+become a part of the great organization of which he claimed to be the
+head. Neither party would make any concessions, and for two generations
+each went its own way, cherishing a bitter hostility toward the other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Victory of Roman Church.</div>
+
+<p>At last the Roman Church won the victory, as it so often did in later
+struggles. In 664, through the influence of the king of Northumbria who
+did not wish to risk being on bad terms with the pope, the Roman
+Catholic form of faith was solemnly recognized in an assembly at Whitby,
+and the leader of the Irish missionaries sadly withdrew to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image9.jpg" width="500" height="716" alt="Map of Christian Missions" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of Christian Missions</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p><p>The king of Northumbria, upon opening the Council of Whitby, said "that
+it was proper that those who served one God should observe one rule of
+conduct and not depart from one another in the ways of celebrating the
+holy mysteries, since they all hoped for the same kingdom of heaven."
+That a remote island of Europe should set up its traditions against the
+customs sanctioned by the rest of Christendom appeared to him highly
+unreasonable. This faith in the necessary unity of the Church is one of
+the secrets of its strength. England became a part of the ever-growing
+territory embraced in the Catholic Church and remained as faithful to
+the pope as any other Catholic country, down to the defection of Henry
+VIII in the early part of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early culture in England.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Venerable Bede.</div>
+
+<p>The consolidation of the rival churches in Great Britain was followed by
+a period of general enthusiasm for Rome and its literature and culture.
+Lindisfarne, Wearmouth, and other English monasteries became centers of
+learning unrivaled perhaps in the rest of Europe. A constant intercourse
+was maintained with Rome. Masons and glassmakers were brought across the
+Channel to replace the wooden churches of Britain by stone edifices in
+the style of the Romans. The young clergy were taught Latin and
+sometimes Greek. Copies of the ancient classics were brought from the
+continent and reproduced. The most distinguished man of letters of the
+seventh and early eighth centuries was the English monk B&aelig;da (often
+called The Venerable Bede, 673&ndash;735), from whose admirable history of the
+Church in England most of our information about the period is
+derived.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Irish missionaries on the continent.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">St. Columban and St. Gall.</div>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> From England missionaries carried the enthusiasm for the Church back
+across the Channel. In spite of the conversion of Clovis and the
+wholesale baptism of his soldiers, the Franks, especially those farthest
+north, had been very imperfectly Christianized. A few years before
+Augustine landed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> Kent, St. Columban, one of the Irish missionaries
+of whom we have spoken, landed in Gaul. He went from place to place
+founding monasteries and gaining the respect of the people by his rigid
+self-denial and by the miracles that he performed. He even penetrated
+among the still wholly pagan Alemanni about the Lake of Constance. When
+driven away by their pagan king, he turned his attention to the Lombards
+in northern Italy, where he died in 615.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> St. Gall, one of his
+followers, remained near the Lake of Constance and attracted about him
+so many disciples and companions that a great monastery grew up which
+was named after him and became one of the most celebrated in central
+Europe. Other Irish missionaries penetrated into the forests of
+Thuringia and Bavaria. The German church looks back, however, to an
+English missionary as its real founder.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">St. Boniface, the apostle to the Germans.</div>
+
+<p>In 718, about a hundred years after the death of St. Columban, St.
+Boniface, an English monk, was sent by the pope as an apostle to the
+Germans. After four years spent in reconnoitering the field of his
+future labors, he returned to Rome and was made a missionary bishop,
+taking the same oath of obedience to the pope that the bishops in the
+immediate vicinity of Rome were accustomed to take. Indeed absolute
+subordination to the pope was a part of Boniface's religion, and he
+became a powerful agent in promoting the supremacy of the Roman see.</p>
+
+<p>Under the protection of the powerful Frankish mayor of the palace,
+Charles Martel, Boniface carried on his missionary work with such zeal
+that he succeeded in bringing all the older Christian communities which
+had been established by the Irish missionaries under the papal control,
+as well as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> converting many of the more remote German tribes who
+still clung to their old pagan beliefs. His energetic methods are
+illustrated by the story of how he cut down the sacred oak of Odin at
+Fritzlar, in Hesse, and used the wood to build a chapel, around which a
+monastery soon grew up. In 732 Boniface was raised to the dignity of
+Archbishop of Mayence and proceeded to establish, in the newly converted
+region, the German bishoprics of Salzburg, Regensburg, W&uuml;rzburg, Erfurt,
+and several others; this gives us some idea of the geographical extent
+of his labors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Boniface reforms the church in Gaul and brings it into
+subjection to the pope.</div>
+
+<p>After organizing the German church he turned his attention, with the
+hearty approval of the pope and the support of the Frankish rulers, to a
+general reformation of the church in Gaul. Here the clergy were sadly
+demoralized, and the churches and monasteries had been despoiled of much
+of their property in the constant turmoil of the time. Boniface
+succeeded, with the help of Charles Martel, in bettering affairs, and
+through his efforts the venerable church of Gaul, almost as old as that
+of Rome itself, was brought under the supremacy of the pope. In 748 the
+assembled bishops of Gaul bound themselves to maintain the Catholic
+unity of faith and follow strictly the precepts of the vicar of St.
+Peter, the pope, so that they might be reckoned among Peter's sheep.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The best history of the monks to be had in
+English is <span class="smcap">Montalembert</span>, <i>The Monks of the West from St. Benedict
+to St. Bernard</i> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 6 vols., $15.00). The
+writer's enthusiasm and his excellent style make his work very
+attractive. The advanced student will gain much from <span class="smcap">Taylor</span>,
+<i>Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$1.75), Chapter VII, on the origin and spirit of monasticism. See
+also <span class="smcap">Harnack</span>, <i>Monasticism</i> (Scribners, 50 cents). The works on
+church history referred to at the end of the preceding chapter all
+contain some account of the monks.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>CHARLES MARTEL AND PIPPIN</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles Martel, Frankish mayor of the palace, 714&ndash;741.</div>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> Just as the pope was becoming the acknowledged head of the Western
+Church, the Frankish realms came successively under the rule of two
+great statesmen, Charles Martel and his son Pippin the Short, who laid
+the foundation of Charlemagne's vast empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Difficulty of holding together a kingdom in the early Middle
+Ages.</div>
+
+<p>The difficulties which Charles Martel had to face were much the same as
+those which for centuries to follow confronted the sovereigns of western
+Europe. The great problem of the medi&aelig;val ruler was to make his power
+felt throughout his whole territory in spite of the many rich and
+ambitious officials, bishops, and abbots who eagerly took advantage of
+all the king's weaknesses and embarrassments to make themselves
+practically supreme in their respective districts.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of counts and dukes.</div>
+
+<p>The two classes of officers of which we hear most were the counts
+(Latin, <i>comites</i>) and the dukes (Latin, <i>duces</i>). A count ordinarily
+represented the king within the district comprised in an old
+municipality of the Empire. Over a number of counts the king might place
+a duke. Both of these titles were borrowed by the Germans from the names
+of Roman officials. While the king appointed, and might dismiss, these
+officers when he pleased, there was a growing tendency for them to hold
+their positions for life.</p>
+
+<p>We find Charles fighting the dukes of Aquitaine, Bavaria, and Alemannia,
+each of whom was endeavoring to make the territory which he was deputed
+to rule in the king's interest a separate and independent country under
+his own supremacy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> By successive campaigns against these rebellious
+magnates, Charles succeeded in reuniting all those outlying districts
+that tended to forget or ignore their connection with the Frankish
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles and his bishops.</div>
+
+<p>The bishops proved almost, if not quite, as troublesome to the mayor of
+the palace as the dukes, and later the counts. It is true that Charles
+kept the choice of the bishops in his own hands and refused to give to
+the clergy and people of the diocese the privilege of electing their
+head, as the rules of the Church prescribed. But when a bishop had once
+got possession of the lands attached to the bishopric and exercised the
+wide powers and influence which fell to him, he was often tempted,
+especially if he were a nobleman, to use his privileged position to
+establish a practically independent principality. The same was true of
+the heads of powerful monasteries. These dangerous bishops and abbots
+Charles deposed in wholesale fashion. He substituted his own friends for
+them with little regard to the rules of the Church&mdash;for instance, he
+bestowed on his nephew the three bishoprics of Paris, Rouen, and Bayeux,
+besides two monasteries. The new incumbents were, however, no better
+than the old; they were, indeed, in spite of their clerical robes, only
+laymen, who continued to fight and hunt in their customary manner.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous of Charles' deeds was his decisive defeat of the
+advancing Mohammedans who were pressing into Gaul from Spain. Before
+speaking of this a word must be said of the invaders and their religion,
+for the Saracens, as the followers of Mohammed were commonly called,
+will come into our story of western Europe now and then, especially
+during the Crusades.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mohammed, 571&ndash;632.</div>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> Just as Gregory the Great was dying in Rome, leaving to his
+successors a great heritage of spiritual and temporal influence, a young
+Arab in far-off Mecca was meditating upon the mysteries of life and
+laying the foundation of a religious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> power rivaling even that of the
+popes. Before the time of Mohammed the Arabs had played no important
+part in the world's history. The scattered tribes were at war with one
+another, and each worshiped its own gods, when it worshiped at all. But
+when the peoples of the desert accepted Mohammed as their prophet and
+his religion as theirs, they became an irresistible force for the
+dissemination of the new teaching and for the subjugation of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Hejira, 622.</div>
+
+<p>Mohammed came of a good family, but was reduced by poverty to enter the
+employ of a rich widow, named Kadijah, who fell in love with him and
+became his wife. She was his first convert and kept up his courage when
+few among his fellow-townsmen in Mecca would believe in his visions or
+accept the teachings which he claimed to receive direct from the angel
+Gabriel. Finally he discovered that his many enemies were planning to
+kill him, so he fled to the neighboring town of Medina, where he had
+friends. His flight (the Hejira), which took place in the year 622, was
+taken by his followers as the beginning of a new era,&mdash;the year one, as
+Mohammedans reckon time. A war ensued between the people of Mecca and
+those in and about Medina who supported Mohammed. It was eight years
+before he re&euml;ntered Mecca, the religious center of Arabia, with a
+victorious army. Before his death in 632 he had received the adhesion of
+all the Arab chiefs, and his faith, Islam (which means <i>submission to
+God</i>), was accepted throughout the Arabian peninsula.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Koran and the religion of Mohammed.</div>
+
+<p>Mohammed was accustomed to fall into a trance from time to time, after
+which he would recite to his eager listeners the messages which he
+received from Heaven. These were collected into a volume shortly after
+his death, and make up the Koran, the Bible of the Mohammedan.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> This
+contains all the fundamental beliefs of the new religion, as well as the
+laws under which the faithful were to live. It proclaims one God, "the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+Lord of the worlds, the merciful, the compassionate," and Mohammed as
+his prophet. It announces a day of judgment in which each shall receive
+his reward for the deeds done in the flesh, and either be admitted to
+paradise or banished to an eternally burning hell. Those who die
+fighting for the sacred cause shall find themselves in a high garden,
+where, "content with their past endeavors," they shall hear no foolish
+word and shall recline in rich brocades upon soft cushions and rugs and
+be served by surpassingly beautiful maidens. Islam has much in common
+with Judaism and Christianity. Jesus even has a place in it, but only as
+one of the prophets, like Abraham, Moses, and others, who have brought
+religious truth to mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of Mohammed was simpler than that of the medi&aelig;val Christian
+Church. It provided for no priesthood, nor for any elaborate rites and
+ceremonies. Five times a day the faithful Mohammedan must pray, always
+with his face turned toward Mecca. One month in the year he must fast
+during the daytime. If he is educated, he will know the Koran by heart.
+The mosque is a house of prayer and the place for the reading of the
+Koran; no altars or images are permitted in it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mohammedan conquests.</div>
+
+<p>Mohammed's successor assumed the title of caliph. Under him the Arabs
+went forth to conquer the great territories to the north of them,
+belonging to the Persians and the Roman emperor at Constantinople. They
+met with marvelous success. Within ten years after Mohammed's death the
+Arabs had established a great empire with its capital at Damascus, from
+whence the caliph ruled over Arabia, Persia, Syria, and Egypt. In the
+following decades new conquests were made all along the coast of Africa,
+and in 708 Tangier was taken and the Arabs could look across the Straits
+of Gibraltar to Spain.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image10.jpg" width="500" height="340" alt="Map of Arabic Conquests" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of Arabic Conquests</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Arabs in Spain.</div>
+
+<p>The kingdom of the West Goths was in no condition to defend itself when
+a few Arabs and a much larger number of Berbers, inhabitants of northern
+Africa, ventured to cross over. Some of the Spanish towns held out for a
+time, but the invaders found allies in the numerous Jews who had been
+shamefully treated by their Christian countrymen. As for the innumerable
+serfs who worked on the great estates of the aristocracy, a change of
+landlords made very little difference to them. In 711 the Arabs and
+Berbers gained a great battle, and the peninsula was gradually overrun
+by new immigrants from Africa. In seven years the Mohammedans were
+masters of almost the whole region south of the Pyrenees. They then
+began to cross into Gaul and took possession of the district about
+Narbonne. For some years the duke of Aquitaine kept them in check, but
+in 732 they collected a large army, defeated the duke near Bordeaux,
+advanced to Poitiers, where they burned the church, and then set out for
+Tours.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Battle of Tours, 732.</div>
+
+<p>Charles Martel at once sent out a summons to all who could bear arms
+and, in the same year, met and repulsed the Mohammedans near Tours. We
+know very little indeed of the details of the conflict, but it is
+certain that the followers of Mohammed retreated and that they never
+made another attempt to conquer western Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pippin and Carloman.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abdication of Carloman.</div>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> Charles was able, before his death in 741, to secure the succession
+to his office of mayor of the palace for his two sons, Pippin and
+Carloman. The brothers left the nominal king on the throne; but he had
+nothing to do, as the chronicler tells us, "but to be content with his
+name of king, his flowing hair and long beard; to sit on his throne and
+play the ruler, listening to the ambassadors who came from all
+directions, and giving them the answers that had been taught him, as if
+of his own sovereign will. In reality, however, he had nothing but the
+royal name and a beggarly income at the will of the mayor of the
+palace." The new mayors had succeeded in putting down all opposition
+when, to the astonishment of every one, Carloman abdicated and assumed
+the gown of a monk. Pippin took control of the whole Frankish dominion,
+and we find the unusual statement in the Frankish annals that "the whole
+land enjoyed peace for two years" (749&ndash;750).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pippin assumes the crown with the approbation of the pope,
+752.</div>
+
+<p>Pippin now felt himself strong enough to get rid of the "do-nothing"
+king altogether and assume for himself the nominal as well as the real
+kingship of the Franks. It was, however, a delicate matter to depose
+even a quite useless monarch, so he determined to consult the head of
+the Church. To Pippin's query whether it was fitting that the
+Merovingian king of the Franks, having no power, should continue to
+reign, the pope replied: "It seems better that he who has the power in
+the state should be king and be called king, rather than he who is
+falsely called king."</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the pope in no sense created Pippin king, as
+later writers claimed. He sanctioned a usurpation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> which was practically
+inevitable and which was carried out with the approbation of the
+Frankish nation. Raised on the shields of the counts and dukes, anointed
+by St. Boniface, and blessed by the pope, Pippin became in 752 the first
+king of the Carolingian family, which had already for several
+generations ruled the Franks in all but name.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A new theory of kingship.</div>
+
+<p>This participation of the pope brought about a very fundamental change
+in the theory of kingship. The kings of the Germans up to this time had
+been military leaders selected, or holding their office, by the will of
+the people, or at least of the aristocracy. Their rule had had no divine
+sanction, but only that of general acquiescence backed up by sufficient
+skill and popularity to frustrate the efforts of rivals. By the
+anointing of Pippin in accordance with the ancient Jewish custom, first
+by St. Boniface and then by the pope himself, "a German chieftain was,"
+as Gibbon expresses, it "transformed into the Lord's anointed." The pope
+uttered a dire anathema of divine vengeance against any one who should
+attempt to supplant the holy and meritorious race of Pippin. It became a
+<i>religious</i> duty to obey the king. He came to be regarded by the Church,
+when he had duly received its sanction, as God's representative on
+earth. Here we have the basis of the later idea of monarchs "by the
+grace of God," against whom, however bad they might be, it was not
+merely a political offense, but a sin, to revolt.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> The sanction of Pippin's usurpation by the pope was but an
+indication of the good feeling between the two greatest powers in the
+West,&mdash;the head of the ever-strengthening Frankish state and the head of
+the Church. This good feeling quickly ripened into an alliance,
+momentous for the history of Europe. In order to understand this we must
+glance at the motives which led the popes to throw off their allegiance
+to their ancient sovereigns, the emperors at Constantinople, and turn
+for help to Pippin and his successors.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Controversy over the veneration of images and pictures,&mdash;the
+so-called iconoclastic controversy.</div>
+
+<p>For more than a century after the death of Gregory the Great his
+successors continued to remain respectful subjects of the emperor. They
+looked to him for occasional help against the Lombards in northern
+Italy, who showed a disposition to add Rome to their possessions. In
+725, however, the emperor Leo III aroused the bitter opposition of the
+pope by issuing a decree forbidding the usual veneration of the images
+of Christ and the saints. The emperor was a thoughtful Christian and
+felt keenly the taunts of the Mohammedans, who held all images in
+abhorrence and regarded the Christians as idolaters. He therefore
+ordered all sacred images throughout his empire to be removed from the
+churches, and all figures on the church walls to be whitewashed over.
+This aroused serious opposition even in Constantinople, and the farther
+west one went, the more obstinate became the resistance. The pope
+refused to obey the edict, for he held that the emperor had no right to
+interfere with practices hallowed by the Church. He called a council
+which declared all persons excommunicated who should "throw down,
+destroy, profane or blaspheme the holy images." The opposition of the
+West was successful, and the images kept their places.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The popes and the Lombards.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The pope turns to the Franks for aid.</div>
+
+
+<p>In spite of their abhorrence of the iconoclastic Leo and his successors,
+the popes did not give up all hope that the emperors might aid them in
+keeping the Lombards out of Rome. At last a Lombard ruler arose,
+Aistulf, a "son of iniquity," who refused to consider the prayers or
+threats of the head of the Church. In 751 Aistulf took Ravenna and
+threatened Rome. He proposed to substitute his supremacy for that of the
+eastern emperor and make of Italy a single state, with Rome as its
+capital. This was a critical moment for the peninsula. Was Italy, like
+Gaul, to be united under a single German people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> and to develop, as
+France has done, a characteristic civilization? The Lombards had
+progressed so far that they were not unfitted to organize a state that
+should grow into a nation. But the head of the Church could not consent
+to endanger his independence by becoming the subject of an Italian king.
+It was therefore the pope who prevented the establishment of an Italian
+kingdom at this time and who continued for the same reason to stand in
+the way of the unification of Italy for more than a thousand years,
+until he was dispossessed of his realms not many decades ago by Victor
+Emmanuel. After vainly turning in his distress to his natural protector,
+the emperor, the pope had no resource but to appeal to Pippin, upon
+whose fidelity he had every reason to rely. He crossed the Alps and was
+received with the greatest cordiality and respect by the Frankish
+monarch, who returned to Italy with him and relieved Rome (754).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pippin subdues the Lombards.</div>
+
+<p>No sooner had Pippin recrossed the Alps than the Lombard king, ever
+anxious to add Rome to his possessions, again invested the Eternal City.
+Pope Stephen's letters to the king of the Franks at this juncture are
+characteristic of the time. The pope warmly argues that Pippin owes all
+his victories to St. Peter and should now hasten to the relief of his
+successor. If the king permits the city of the prince of the apostles to
+be lacerated and tormented by the Lombards, his own soul will be
+lacerated and tormented in hell by the devil and his pestilential
+angels. These arguments proved effective; Pippin immediately undertook a
+second expedition to Italy, from which he did not return until the
+kingdom of the Lombards had become tributary to his own, as Bavaria and
+Aquitaine already were.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Donation of Pippin.</div>
+
+<p>Pippin, instead of restoring to the eastern emperor the lands which the
+Lombards had recently occupied, handed them over to the pope,&mdash;on
+exactly what terms we do not know, since the deed of cession has
+disappeared. In consequence of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> important additions to the former
+territories of St. Peter, the popes were thereafter the nominal rulers
+of a large district in central Italy, extending across the peninsula
+from Ravenna to a point well south of Rome. If, as many writers have
+maintained, Pippin recognized the pope as the sovereign of this
+district, we find here the first state that was destined to endure into
+the nineteenth century delimited on the map of Europe. A map of Italy as
+late as the year 1860 shows the same region still marked "States of the
+Church."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Significance of Pippin's reign.</div>
+
+<p>The reign of Pippin is remarkable in several ways. It witnessed the
+strengthening of the kingly power in the Frankish state, which was soon
+to embrace most of western Europe and form the starting point for the
+development of the modern countries of France, Germany, and Austria. It
+furnishes the first instance of the interference of a northern prince in
+the affairs of Italy, which was destined to become the stumbling-block
+of many a later French and German king. Lastly, the pope had now a state
+of his own, which, in spite of its small size, proved one of the most
+important and permanent in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Pippin and his son Charlemagne saw only the strength and not the
+disadvantage that accrued to their title from the papal sanction. It is
+none the less true, as Gibbon says, that "under the sacerdotal monarchy
+of St. Peter, the nations began to resume the practice of seeking, on
+the banks of the Tiber, their kings, their laws, and the oracles of
+their fate." We shall have ample evidence of this as we proceed.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;For Mohammed and the Saracens, <span class="smcap">Gilman</span>, <i>The
+Saracens</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.50). Gibbon has a famous chapter
+on Mohammed and another upon the conquests of the Arabs. These are
+the fiftieth and fifty-first of his great work. See also <span class="smcap">Muir</span>,
+<i>Life of Mohammed</i> (Smith, Elder &amp; Co., $4.50).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>CHARLEMAGNE</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>28.</b> Charlemagne is the first historical personage among the German
+peoples of whom we have any satisfactory knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Compared with
+him, Theodoric, Charles Martel, Pippin, and the rest are but shadowy
+figures. The chronicles tell us something of their deeds, but we can
+make only the vaguest inferences in regard to their character and
+temperament.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charlemagne's personal appearance.</div>
+
+<p>The appearance of Charlemagne, as described by his secretary, so exactly
+corresponds with the character of the king as exhibited in his great
+reign, that it is worthy of attention. He was tall and stoutly built;
+his face was round, his eyes were large and keen, his nose somewhat
+above the common size, his expression bright and cheerful. Whether he
+stood or sat, his form was full of dignity; for the good proportion and
+grace of his body prevented the observer from noticing that his neck was
+rather short and his person somewhat too stout. His step was firm and
+his aspect manly; his voice was clear, but rather weak for so large a
+body. He was active in all bodily exercises, delighted in riding and
+hunting, and was an expert swimmer. His excellent health and his
+physical alertness and endurance can alone explain the astonishing
+swiftness with which he moved about his vast realm and conducted
+innumerable campaigns in widely distant regions in startlingly rapid
+succession.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">His education, his attitude toward learning, and his public
+spirit.</div>
+
+<p>Charles was an educated man and one who knew how to appreciate and
+encourage scholarship. When at dinner he had some one read to him; he
+delighted especially in history and in St. Augustine's <i>City of God</i>. He
+could speak Latin well and understood Greek readily. He tried to learn
+to write, but began too late in life and got no farther than signing his
+name. He called scholarly men to his court, took advantage of their
+learning, and did much toward re&euml;stablishing a regular system of public
+instruction. He was also constantly occupied with buildings and other
+public works calculated to adorn and benefit his kingdom. He himself
+planned the remarkable cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle and showed the
+greatest interest in its furnishings. He commenced two palaces of
+beautiful workmanship, one near Mayence and the other at Nimwegen, in
+Holland, and had a long bridge constructed across the Rhine at Mayence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Charlemagne of romance.</div>
+
+<p>The impression which his reign made upon men's minds grew even after his
+death. He became the hero of a whole cycle of romantic but wholly
+unhistoric adventures and achievements which were as devoutly believed
+for centuries as his most authentic deeds. In the fancy of an old monk
+in the monastery of St. Gall,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> writing of Charlemagne not long after
+his death, the king of the Franks swept over Europe surrounded by
+countless legions of soldiers who formed a very sea of bristling steel.
+Knights of superhuman valor formed his court and became the models for
+the chivalrous spirit of the following centuries. Distorted but
+imposing, the Charlemagne of poetry meets us all through the Middle
+Ages.</p>
+
+<p>A study of Charlemagne's reign will substantiate our first impression
+that he was a truly remarkable person, one of the greatest figures in
+the world's records and deservedly the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> hero of the Middle Ages. To few
+men has it been given to influence so profoundly the course of European
+progress. We shall consider him first as a conqueror, then as an
+organizer and creator of governmental institutions, and lastly as a
+promoter of culture and enlightenment.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charlemagne's idea of a great Christian empire.</div>
+
+<p><b>29.</b> It was Charlemagne's ideal to bring all the German peoples together
+into one great Christian empire, and he was wonderfully successful in
+attaining his end. Only a small portion of what is now called Germany
+was included in the kingdom ruled over by Pippin. Frisia and Bavaria had
+been Christianized, and their native rulers had been induced by the
+efforts of Charlemagne's predecessors and of the missionaries,
+especially Boniface, to recognize formally the overlordship of the
+Franks. Between these two half-independent countries lay the unconquered
+Saxons. They were as yet pagans and appear to have still clung to much
+the same institutions as those under which they lived when the Roman
+historian Tacitus described them seven centuries earlier.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The conquest of the Saxons.</div>
+
+<p>The Saxons occupied the region beginning somewhat east of Cologne and
+extending to the Elbe, and north to where the great cities of Bremen and
+Hamburg are now situated. The present kingdom of Saxony would hardly
+have come within their boundaries. The Saxons had no towns or roads and
+were consequently very difficult to conquer, as they could retreat, with
+their few possessions, into the forests or swamps as soon as they found
+themselves unable to meet an invader in the open field. Yet so long as
+they remained unconquered they constantly threatened the Frankish
+kingdom, and the incorporation of their country was essential to the
+rounding out of its boundaries. Charlemagne never undertook, during his
+long military career, any other task half so serious as the subjugation
+of the Saxons, and it occupied his attention for many years. Nine
+successive rebellions had to be put down, and it was finally owing
+rather to the Church than to Charlemagne's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> military prowess that the
+great task was brought to a successful issue.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conversion of the Saxons.</div>
+
+<p>Nowhere do we find a more striking example of the influence of the
+Church than in the reliance that Charlemagne placed upon it in his
+dealings with the Saxons. He deemed it quite as essential that after a
+rebellion they should promise to honor the Church and be baptized as
+that they should pledge themselves to remain true and faithful vassals
+of the king. He was in quite as much haste to found bishoprics and
+abbeys as to build fortresses. The law for the newly conquered Saxon
+lands, issued sometime between 775 and 790, provides the same death
+penalty for him who "shall have shown himself unfaithful to the lord
+king," and him who "shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized and
+shall have scorned to come to baptism and shall have wished to remain a
+pagan." Charlemagne believed the Christianizing of the Saxons so
+important a part of his duty that he decreed that all should suffer
+death who entered a church by violence and carried off anything by
+force, or even failed to abstain from meat during Lent.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> No one,
+under penalty of heavy fines, was to make vows, in the pagan fashion, at
+trees or springs, or partake of any heathen feasts in honor of the
+demons (as the Christians termed the heathen deities), or fail to
+present infants for baptism before they were a year old.</p>
+
+<p>For the support of the local churches, those who lived in the parish
+were to give toward three hundred acres of land and a house for the
+priest. "Likewise, in accordance with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> mandate of God, we command
+that all shall give a tithe of their property and labor to the churches
+and the priests; let the nobles as well as the freemen, likewise the
+serfs, according to that which God shall have given to each Christian,
+return a part to God."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Co&ouml;peration of the civil government and the Church.</div>
+
+<p>These provisions are characteristic of the theory of the Middle Ages
+according to which the civil government and the Church went hand in hand
+in ordering and governing the life of the people. Defection from the
+Church was regarded by the state as quite as serious a crime as treason
+against itself. While the claims of the two institutions sometimes
+conflicted, there was no question in the minds either of the king's
+officials or of the clergy that both the civil and ecclesiastical
+government were absolutely necessary; neither class ever dreamed that
+they could get along without the other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Foundation of towns in northern Germany.</div>
+
+<p>Before the Frankish conquest the Saxons had no towns. Now, around the
+seat of the bishop, or about a monastery, men began to collect and towns
+and cities to grow up. Of these the chief was Bremen, which is still one
+of the most important ports of Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charlemagne becomes king of the Lombards.</div>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> Pippin, it will be remembered, had covenanted with the papacy to
+protect it from its adversaries. The king of the Lombards had taken
+advantage of Charlemagne's seeming preoccupation with his German affairs
+to attack the city of Rome again. The pope immediately demanded the aid
+of Charlemagne, who prepared to carry out his father's pledges. He
+ordered the Lombard ruler to return the cities that he had taken from
+the pope. Upon his refusal to do this, Charlemagne invaded Lombardy in
+773 with a great army and took Pavia, the capital, after a long siege.
+The Lombard king was forced to become a monk, and his treasure was
+divided among the Frankish soldiers. Charlemagne then took the extremely
+important step, in 774, of having himself recognized by all the Lombard
+dukes and counts as king of the Lombards.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map82.jpg">
+<img src="images/map82th.jpg" width="600" height="431" alt="The Empire of Charlemagne" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Aquitaine and Bavaria incorporated in Charlemagne's empire.</div>
+
+<p>The considerable provinces of Aquitaine and Bavaria had never formed an
+integral part of the Frankish realms, but had remained semi-independent
+under their native dukes up to the time of Charlemagne. Aquitaine, whose
+dukes had given Pippin much trouble, was incorporated into the Frankish
+state in 769. As for the Bavarians, Charlemagne felt that so long as
+they remained under their duke he could not rely upon them to defend the
+Frankish empire against the Slavs, who were constantly threatening the
+frontiers. So he compelled the duke of Bavaria to surrender his
+possessions, shut him up in a monastery, and proceeded to portion out
+the duchy among his counts. He thus added to his realms the district
+that lay between his new Saxon conquest and the Lombard kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Foreign policy of Charlemagne.</div>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> So far we have spoken only of the relations of Charlemagne with the
+Germans, for even the Lombard kingdom was established by the Germans. He
+had, however, other peoples to deal with, especially the Slavs on the
+east (who were one day to build up the kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, and
+the vast Russian empire) and, on the opposite boundary of his dominion,
+the Arabs in Spain. Against these it was necessary to protect his
+realms, and the second part of Charlemagne's reign was devoted to what
+may be called his foreign policy. A single campaign in 789 seems to have
+sufficed to subdue the Slavs, who lay to the north and east of the
+Saxons, and to force the Bohemians to acknowledge the supremacy of the
+Frankish king and pay tribute to him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The marches and margraves.</div>
+
+<p>The necessity of insuring the Frankish realms against any new uprising
+of these non-German nations led to the establishment, on the confines of
+the kingdom, of <i>marches</i>, i.e., districts under the military control of
+counts of the march, or <i>margraves</i>.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> Their business was to prevent
+any hostile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> incursions into the interior of the kingdom. Much depended
+upon the efficiency of these men; in many cases they founded powerful
+families and later helped to disintegrate the Empire by establishing
+themselves as practically independent rulers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charlemagne in Spain.</div>
+
+<p>At an assembly that Charlemagne held in 777, ambassadors appeared before
+him from certain disaffected Mohammedans. They had fallen out with the
+emir of Cordova<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and now offered to become the faithful subjects of
+Charlemagne if he would come to their aid. In consequence, he undertook
+his first expedition to Spain in the following year. The district north
+of the Ebro was conquered by the Franks after some years of war, and
+Charlemagne established the Spanish March.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> In this way he began that
+gradual expulsion of the Mohammedans from the peninsula which was to be
+carried on by slowly extending conquests until 1492, when Granada, the
+last Mohammedan stronghold, fell.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charlemagne crowned emperor by the pope.</div>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> But the most famous of all the achievements of Charlemagne was his
+re&euml;stablishment of the Western Empire in the year 800. It came about in
+this wise. Charlemagne went to Rome in that year to settle a controversy
+between Pope Leo III and his enemies. To celebrate the satisfactory
+adjustment of the dispute, the pope held a solemn service on Christmas
+day in St. Peter's. As Charlemagne was kneeling before the altar during
+this service, the pope approached him and set a crown upon his head,
+saluting him, amid the acclamation of those present, as "Emperor of the
+Romans."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Charlemagne merited the title of emperor.</div>
+
+<p>The reasons for this extraordinary act, which Charlemagne afterward
+persistently asserted took him completely by surprise, are given in one
+of the Frankish histories, the <i>Chronicles of Lorsch</i>, as follows: "The
+name of Emperor had ceased among the Greeks, for they were enduring the
+reign of a woman [Irene], wherefore it seemed good both to Leo, the
+apostolic pope, and to the holy fathers [the bishops] who were in
+council with him, and to all Christian men, that they should name
+Charles, king of the Franks, as Emperor. For he held Rome itself, where
+the ancient C&aelig;sars had always dwelt, in addition to all his other
+possessions in Italy, Gaul and Germany. Wherefore, as God had granted
+him all these dominions, it seemed just to all that he should take the
+title of Emperor, too, when it was offered to him at the wish of all
+Christendom."</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne appears to have accepted gracefully the honor thus thrust
+upon him. Even if he had no right to the imperial title, there was an
+obvious propriety and expediency in granting it to him under the
+circumstances. Before his coronation by the pope he was only king of the
+Franks and the Lombards; but his conquests seemed to entitle him to a
+more comprehensive designation which should include his outlying
+dependencies. Then the imperial power at Constantinople had been in the
+hands of heretics, from the standpoint of the Western Church, ever since
+Emperor Leo issued his edict against the veneration of images. What was
+still worse, the throne had been usurped, shortly before the coronation
+of Charlemagne, by the wicked Irene, who had deposed and blinded her
+son, Constantine VI. The coronation of Charlemagne was, therefore, only
+a recognition of the real political conditions in the West.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Continuity of the Roman Empire.</div>
+
+<p>The empire now re&euml;stablished in the West was considered to be a
+continuation of the Roman Empire founded by Augustus. Charlemagne was
+reckoned the immediate successor of Constantine VI, whom Irene had
+deposed. Yet, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> spite of this fancied continuity, it is hardly
+necessary to say that the position of the new emperor had little in
+common with that of Marcus Aurelius or Constantine. In the first place,
+the eastern emperors continued to reign in Constantinople for centuries,
+quite regardless of Charlemagne and his successors. In the second place,
+the German kings who wore the imperial crown after Charlemagne were
+generally too weak really to rule over Germany and northern Italy, to
+say nothing of the rest of western Europe. Nevertheless, the Western
+Empire, which in the twelfth century came to be called the Holy Roman
+Empire, endured for over a thousand years. It came to an end only in
+1806, when the last of the emperors, wearied of his empty if venerable
+title, laid down the crown.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The title of emperor a source of trouble to the German
+rulers.</div>
+
+<p>The assumption of the title of emperor was destined to make the German
+rulers a great deal of trouble. It constantly led them into futile
+efforts to maintain a supremacy over Italy, which lay without their
+natural boundaries. Then the circumstances under which Charlemagne was
+crowned made it possible for the popes to claim, later, that it was they
+who had transferred the imperial power from the old eastern line of
+emperors to the Carolingian house, and that this was a proof of their
+right to dispose of the crown as they pleased. The difficulties which
+arose necessitated many a weary journey to Rome for the emperors, and
+many unworthy conflicts between the temporal and spiritual heads of
+Christendom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charlemagne's system of government.</div>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> The task of governing his vast and heterogeneous dominions taxed
+even the highly gifted and untiring Charlemagne; it quite exceeded the
+capacity of his successors. The same difficulties continued to exist
+that had confronted Charles Martel and Pippin,&mdash;above all a scanty royal
+revenue and over-powerful officials who were prone to neglect the
+interests and commands of their sovereign. Charlemagne's distinguished
+statesmanship is nowhere so clearly seen as in his measures for
+extending his control to the very confines of his realms.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Charlemagne's farms.</div>
+
+<p>His income, like that of all medi&aelig;val rulers, came chiefly from his
+royal estates, as there was no system of general taxation such as had
+existed under the Roman Empire. He consequently took the greatest care
+that his numerous plantations should be well cultivated and that not
+even a turnip or an egg which was due him should be withheld. An
+elaborate set of regulations for his farms is preserved, which sheds
+much light upon the times.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of titles of nobility.</div>
+
+<p>The officials upon whom the Frankish kings were forced to rely chiefly
+were the counts, the "hand and voice of the king" wherever he could not
+be in person. They were to maintain order, see that justice was done in
+their district, and raise troops when the king needed them. On the
+frontier were the counts of the march, or margraves (marquises), already
+mentioned. These titles, together with that of duke, still exist as
+titles of nobility in Europe, although they are no longer associated
+with governmental duties except where their holders have the right to
+sit in the upper house of parliament.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>missi dominici</i>.</div>
+
+<p>To keep the counts in order, Charlemagne appointed royal commissioners
+(the <i>missi dominici</i>), whom he dispatched to all parts of his realm to
+investigate and report to him how things were going in the districts
+assigned to them. They were sent in pairs, a bishop and a layman, so
+that they might act as a check on one another. Their circuits were
+changed each year so that they should have no chance to enter into
+conspiracy with the counts whom it was their special business to
+watch.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>The revival of the Roman Empire in the West made no difference in
+Charlemagne's system of government, except that he required all his
+subjects above twelve years of age to take a new oath of fidelity to him
+as emperor. He held important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> assemblies of the nobles and prelates
+each spring or summer, where the interests of the Empire were
+considered. With the sanction of his advisers, he issued an
+extraordinary series of laws, called <i>capitularies</i>, a number of which
+have been preserved. With the bishops and abbots he discussed the needs
+of the Church, and above all the necessity of better schools for both
+the clergy and laity. The reforms which he sought to introduce give us
+an opportunity of learning the condition in which Europe found itself
+after four hundred years of disorder.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The dark century before Charlemagne.</div>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> Charlemagne was the first important king since Theodoric to pay any
+attention to book learning, which had fared badly enough since the death
+of Boethius, three centuries before. About 650 the supply of papyrus had
+been cut off, owing to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, and as paper
+had not yet been invented there was only the very expensive parchment to
+write upon. While this had the advantage of being more durable than
+papyrus, its cost discouraged the multiplication of copies of books. The
+eighth century, that immediately preceding Charlemagne's coronation, is
+declared by the learned Benedictine monks, in their great history of
+French literature, to have been the most ignorant, the darkest, and the
+most barbarous period ever seen, at least in France. The documents of
+the Merovingian period often indicate great ignorance and carelessness
+on the part of those who wrote them out.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The elements of learning preserved by the Church.</div>
+
+<p>Yet, in spite of this dark picture, there was promise for the future. It
+was evident, even before Charlemagne's time, that the world was not to
+continue indefinitely in the path of ignorance. Latin could not be
+forgotten, for that was the language of the Church and all its official
+communications were in that tongue. The teachings of the Christian
+religion had to be gathered from the Bible and other books, and the
+church services formed a small literature by themselves. Consequently it
+was absolutely necessary that the Church should maintain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> some sort of
+education in order to perform its complicated services and conduct the
+extensive duties which devolved upon it. All the really efficient church
+officers, whatever their nationality, must have been able to read the
+Latin classics, if they were so inclined. Then there were the
+compilations of ancient knowledge already mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> which,
+incredibly crude and scanty as they were, kept up the memory of the
+past. They at least perpetuated the names of the various branches of
+knowledge and contained, for example, enough about arithmetic and
+astronomy to help the isolated churchman to calculate each year the date
+of Easter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Two letters of Charlemagne's respecting the neglect of
+education among the clergy.</div>
+
+<p>Charlemagne was the first temporal ruler to realize the serious neglect
+of education, even among the clergy, and we have two interesting letters
+from him, written before he was made emperor, relating to this subject.
+In one to an important bishop, he says: "Letters have been written to us
+frequently in recent years from various monasteries, stating that the
+brethren who dwelt therein were offering up holy and pious supplications
+in our behalf. We observed that the sentiments in these letters were
+exemplary but that the form of expression was uncouth, because what true
+devotion faithfully dictated to the mind, the tongue, untrained by
+reason of neglect of study, was not able to express in a letter without
+mistakes. So it came about that we began to fear lest, perchance, as the
+skill in writing was less than it should be, the wisdom necessary to the
+understanding of the Holy Scriptures was also much less than was
+needful. We all know well that, although errors of speech are dangerous,
+errors of understanding are far more dangerous. Therefore, we exhort you
+not merely not to <i>neglect</i> the study of letters, but with a most humble
+mind, pleasing to God, earnestly to devote yourself to study, in order
+that you may be able the more easily and correctly to penetrate the
+mysteries of the Holy Scriptures."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p><p>In the other letter he says: "We have striven with watchful zeal to
+advance the cause of learning which has been almost forgotten through
+the negligence of our ancestors; and by our own example, we invite all
+those who can, to master the studies of the liberal arts. In this
+spirit, God aiding us, we have already carefully corrected all the books
+of the Old and New Testaments, corrupted by the ignorance of the
+copyists."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image11.jpg" width="500" height="398" alt="An Example of the Style of Writing used in the Books of
+Charlemagne&#39;s Time" title="" />
+<span class="caption">An Example of the Style of Writing used in the Books of
+Charlemagne&#39;s Time<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p><p>It seemed to Charlemagne that it was the duty of the Church not only to
+look after the education of its own officers but to provide the
+opportunity of at least an elementary education for the people at large.
+In accordance with this conviction, he issued (789) an admonition to the
+clergy to gather together the children both of freemen and serfs in
+their neighborhood and establish schools "in which the boys may learn to
+read."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Establishment of monastery schools and the 'school of the
+palace.'</div>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to say how many of the innumerable abbots and
+bishops established schools in accordance with Charlemagne's
+recommendations. It is certain that famous centers of learning existed
+at Tours, Fulda, Corbie, Orleans, and other places during his reign.
+Charlemagne further promoted the cause of education by the establishment
+of the famous "school of the palace" for the instruction of the sons of
+his nobles and of his own children. He placed the Englishman, Alcuin, at
+the head of the school, and called distinguished men from Italy and
+elsewhere as teachers. The best known of these was the historian, Paulus
+Diaconus, who wrote a history of the Lombards, to which we owe most of
+what we know about them.</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne appears to have been particularly impressed with the
+constant danger of mistakes in copying books, a task frequently turned
+over to ignorant and careless persons. After recommending the founding
+of schools, he continues: "Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs used
+in music, the [Latin] grammar, and the religious books used in every
+monastery or bishopric; since those who desire to pray to God properly
+often pray badly because of the incorrect books. And do not let your
+boys misread or miswrite them. If there is any need to copy the Gospel,
+Psalter or Missal, let men of maturity do the writing with great
+diligence." These precautions were amply justified, for a careful
+transmission of the literature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> of the past was as important as the
+attention to education. It will be noted that Charlemagne made no
+attempt to revive the learning of Greece and Rome. He deemed it quite
+sufficient if the churchmen would learn their Latin well enough to read
+the missal and the Bible intelligently.</p>
+
+<p>The hopeful beginning that was made under Charlemagne in the revival of
+education and intellectual interest was destined to prove disappointing
+in its immediate results. It is true that the ninth century produced a
+few noteworthy men who have left works which indicate acuteness and
+mental training. But the break-up of Charlemagne's empire, the struggles
+between his descendants, the coming of new barbarians, and the disorder
+caused by the unruly feudal lords, who were not inclined to recognize
+any master, all conspired to keep the world back for at least two
+centuries more. Indeed, the tenth and the first half of the eleventh
+centuries seem, at first sight, little better than the seventh and
+eighth. Yet ignorance and disorder never were quite so prevalent after,
+as they were before, Charlemagne.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The best life of Charlemagne in English is
+<span class="smcap">Mombert</span>, <i>A History of Charles the Great</i> (D.C. Appleton &amp; Co.,
+$5.00). See also <span class="smcap">Hodgkin</span>, <i>Charles the Great</i> (The Macmillan
+Company, 75 cents), and <span class="smcap">West</span>, <i>Alcuin</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons,
+$1.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DISRUPTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis the Pious succeeds Charlemagne.</div>
+
+<p><b>35.</b> It was a matter of great importance to the world whether
+Charlemagne's extensive empire was, after his death, to remain one or to
+fall apart. He himself appears to have had no expectation that it would
+hold together, for in 806 he divided it up in a very arbitrary manner
+among his three sons. We do not know whether he was led thus to undo his
+life's work simply because the older tradition of a division among the
+king's sons was as yet too strong to permit him to hand down all his
+possessions to his eldest son, or because he believed it would be
+impossible to keep together so vast and heterogeneous a realm. However
+this may have been, the death of his two eldest sons left only Louis,
+who succeeded his father both as king and emperor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Partition of Charlemagne's empire among the sons of Louis the
+Pious.</div>
+
+<p>Louis the Pious had been on the throne but a few years before he took up
+the all-important problem of determining what share each of his sons
+should have in the empire after his death. As they were far too
+ambitious to submit to the will of their father, we find no less than
+six different partitions between the years 817 and 840. We cannot stop
+to trace these complicated and transient arrangements, or the rebellions
+of the undutiful sons, who set the worst possible example to the
+ambitious and disorderly nobles. On the death of Louis the Pious, in
+840, his second son, Louis the German, was in possession of Bavaria and
+had at various times been recognized as ruler of most of those parts of
+the empire now included in Germany. The youngest son, Charles the Bald,
+had all the western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> portion of the Frankish possessions, while
+Lothaire, the eldest, had been designated as emperor and ruled over
+Italy and the district lying between the possessions of the younger
+brothers. Charles and Louis promptly combined to resist the attempts of
+Lothaire to assert his superiority as emperor, and defeated him at
+Fontenay (841). The treaty of Verdun, which followed, is one of the most
+memorable in the history of western Europe.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image12.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="Map of Treaty of Verdun" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of Treaty of Verdun</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treaty of Verdun, 843.</div>
+
+<p>In the negotiations which led up to the treaty of Verdun there appears
+to have been entire agreement among the three parties that Italy should
+go to Lothaire, Aquitaine to Charles the Bald, and Bavaria to Louis the
+German. The real difficulty lay in the disposal of the rest of the
+empire. It seemed appropriate that the older brother, as emperor, should
+have, in addition to Italy, the center of the Frankish dominions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+including the capital, Aix-la-Chapelle. A state of the most artificial
+kind, extending from Rome to northern Holland, was thus created, which
+had no natural unity of language or custom. Louis the German was
+assigned, in addition to Bavaria, the country north of Lombardy and
+westward to the Rhine. As for Charles the Bald, his realm included a
+great part of what is France to-day, as well as the Spanish March and
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p><b>36.</b> The great interest of the treaty of Verdun lies in the tolerably
+definite appearance of a western and an eastern Frankish kingdom, one of
+which was to become France and the other Germany. In the kingdom of
+Charles the Bald the dialects spoken by the majority of the people were
+derived directly from the spoken Latin, and in time developed into
+Proven&ccedil;al and French. In the kingdom of Louis the German, on the other
+hand, both people and language were German. The narrow strip of country
+between these regions, which fell to Lothaire, came to be called
+<i>Lotharii regnum</i>, or kingdom of Lothaire.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> This name was perverted
+in time into Lotharingia and, later, into Lorraine. It is interesting to
+note that this territory has formed a part of the debatable middle
+ground over which the French and Germans have struggled so obstinately
+down to our own day.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Strasburg oaths.</div>
+
+<p>We have a curious and important evidence of the difference of language
+just referred to, in the so-called Strasburg oaths (842). Just before
+the settlement at Verdun, the younger brothers had found it advisable to
+pledge themselves, in an especially solemn and public manner, to support
+one another against the pretensions of Lothaire. First, each of the two
+brothers addressed his soldiers in their own language, absolving them
+from their allegiance to him should he desert his brother. Louis then
+took the oath in what the chronicle calls the <i>lingua romana</i>, so that
+his brother's soldiers might understand him, and Charles repeated his
+oath in the <i>lingua teudisca</i> for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> the benefit of Louis' soldiers.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
+Fortunately the texts of both of these oaths have been preserved. They
+are exceedingly interesting and important as furnishing our earliest
+examples, except some lists of words, of the language spoken by the
+common people, which was only just beginning to be written. Probably
+German was very rarely written before this time, as all who could write
+at all wrote in Latin. The same is true of the old Romance tongue (from
+which modern French developed), which had already drifted far from the
+Latin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image13.jpg" width="500" height="390" alt="Map of Treaty of Mersen" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of Treaty of Mersen</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">New divisions of the empire corresponding to France, Germany,
+and Italy.</div>
+
+<p><b>37.</b> When Lothaire died (855) he left Italy and the middle kingdom to his
+three sons. By 870 two of these had died, and their uncles, Charles the
+Bald and Louis the German, did not hesitate to appropriate the middle
+kingdom and divide it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> between them by the treaty of Mersen. Italy was
+left to Lothaire's only surviving son, together with the imperial crown,
+which was to mean nothing, however, for a hundred years to come. The
+result was that, as early as 870, western Europe was divided into three
+great districts which corresponded with startling exactness to three
+important states of modern Europe, i.e., France, Germany, and Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The empire temporarily reunited under Charles the Fat.</div>
+
+<p>Louis the German was succeeded in the East-Frankish kingdom by his son,
+Charles the Fat. In 884, owing to the death of the sons and the
+grandsons of Charles the Bald, there was no one to represent his line
+except a child of five years. So the aristocracy of the West-Frankish
+kingdom invited Charles the Fat to become their king. In this way it
+came about that the whole empire of Charlemagne was reunited for two or
+three years under a single ruler.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles the Fat and the Northmen.</div>
+
+<p>Charles the Fat was ill and proved an incompetent emperor, entirely
+unequal to the serious task of governing and protecting his vast
+territories. His weakness was especially shown in his pusillanimous
+treaties with the Northmen. When Paris was making an heroic defense
+against them under its count, Odo,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> Charles, instead of marching at the
+head of an army to relieve it, agreed to pay the invaders seven hundred
+pounds of silver if they would raise the siege. They were then permitted
+to take up their winter quarters far inland, in Burgundy, where they
+proceeded to burn and pillage at will.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles the Fat deposed and succeeded by Arnulf.</div>
+
+<p>This degrading agreement so disgusted the West-Frankish nobility that
+they were glad to join a conspiracy set on foot by Charles' nephew, the
+brave Arnulf of Carinthia, who had resolved to supplant his inefficient
+uncle. Charles was deposed and deserted by all his former supporters in
+887. No one, except Napoleon, has ever again succeeded in bringing the
+eastern, western, and southern parts of Charlemagne's empire under his
+control, even for a brief period. Arnulf, although enjoying the title of
+emperor, could scarcely hope to be recognized as king in all parts of
+the Frankish empire. Even nominal unity was no longer possible. As one
+of the chronicles of the time puts it, "While Arnulf was frittering away
+his time, many little kingdoms grew up."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles.</div>
+
+<p>In the West-Frankish territory the nobility of the northern part chose
+Odo, the hero of the siege of Paris, as their king; but in the south
+another enterprising nobleman, Count Boso of Vienne, succeeded in
+inducing the pope to crown him king of a certain district on the Rhone
+which included Provence. Immediately after Boso's death a large
+territory about the Lake of Geneva, which he had hoped to win for
+himself, became a separate kingdom under its own ruler. This region and
+that which Boso ruled to the south were later united into the kingdom of
+Burgundy, or, as it is often called, Arles.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the deposition of Charles the Fat, many of the counts and
+other important landowners began to take advantage of the weakness of
+their king to establish themselves as the rulers of the districts about
+them, although they did not assume the title of king. In the
+East-Frankish kingdom the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> various German peoples whom Charlemagne had
+managed to control, especially the Bavarians and Saxons, began to revive
+their old national independence. In Italy the disruption was even more
+marked than in the north.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Causes of disruption.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Poor roads.</div>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> It is clear, from what has been said, that none of the rulers into
+whose hands the fragments of Charlemagne's empire fell, showed himself
+powerful and skillful enough to govern properly a great territory like
+that embraced in France or Germany to-day. The difficulties in the way
+of establishing a well-regulated state, in the modern sense of the word,
+were almost insurmountable. In the first place, it was well-nigh
+impossible to keep in touch with all parts of a wide realm. The
+wonderful roads which the Romans had built had generally fallen into
+decay, for there was no longer a corps of engineers maintained by the
+government to keep them up and repair the bridges. In those parts of
+Charlemagne's possessions that lay beyond the confines of the old Roman
+Empire, the impediments to travel must have been still worse than in
+Gaul and on the Rhine; there not even the vestiges of Roman roads
+existed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scarcity of money for paying government officers and
+maintaining armies.</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the difficulty of getting about, the king had to contend
+with the scarcity of money in the Middle Ages. This prevented him from
+securing the services of a great corps of paid officials, such as every
+government finds necessary to-day. Moreover, it made it impossible for
+him to support the standing army which would have been necessary to
+suppress the constant insubordination of his officials and of the
+powerful and restless nobility, whose chief interest in life was
+fighting.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">New invasions,&mdash;the Northmen, Slavs, Hungarians, and
+Saracens.</div>
+
+<p>The disintegration of the Frankish empire was hastened by the continued
+invasions from all sides. From the north&mdash;Denmark, Norway, and
+Sweden&mdash;came the Scandinavian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> pirates, the Northmen.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> They were
+skillful and daring seamen, who not only harassed the coast of the North
+Sea, but made their way up the rivers, plundering and burning towns
+inland as far as Paris. On the eastern boundary of the empire the
+Germans were forced to engage in constant warfare with the Slavs. Before
+long the Hungarians, a savage race, began their terrible incursions into
+central Germany and northern Italy. From the south came the Saracens,
+who had got possession of Sicily (in 827), and terrorized southern Italy
+and France, even attacking Rome itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growing power and independence of the great landed
+proprietor.</div>
+
+<p><b>39.</b> In the absence of a powerful king with a well-organized army at his
+back, each district was left to look out for itself. Doubtless many
+counts, margraves, bishops, and other great landed proprietors who were
+gradually becoming independent princes, earned the loyalty of the people
+about them by taking the lead in defending the country against its
+invaders and by establishing fortresses as places of refuge when the
+community was hard pressed. These conditions serve to explain why such
+government as continued to exist during the centuries following the
+deposition of Charles the Fat was necessarily carried on mainly, not by
+the king and his officers, but by the great landholders. The grim
+fortresses of the medi&aelig;val lords, which appeared upon almost every point
+of vantage throughout western Europe during the Middle Ages, would not
+have been tolerated by the king, had he been powerful enough to destroy
+them. They plainly indicate that their owners were practically
+independent rulers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p><p>When the traveler in France or Germany comes upon the picturesque ruins
+of a medi&aelig;val castle, perched upon some rocky cliff, accessible from one
+side only, and commanding the surrounding country, he cannot but see
+that those massive walls, with their towers and battlements, their moat
+and drawbridge, were never intended as a dwelling place for the peaceful
+household of a private citizen, but rather as the fortified palace of a
+ruler. We can picture the great hall crowded with armed retainers, who
+were ready to fight for the proprietor when he was disposed to attack a
+neighboring lord, and who knew that below were the dungeons to which the
+lord might send them if they ventured to rebel against his authority.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image14.jpg" width="500" height="618" alt="Medi&aelig;val Fortress, showing Moat and Drawbridges" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Medi&aelig;val Fortress, showing Moat and Drawbridges</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The landed proprietor and the manor.</div>
+
+<p>In order to understand the position of the medi&aelig;val noble and the origin
+of feudalism we must consider the situation of the great landowners. A
+large part of western Europe in the time of Charlemagne appears to have
+been divided up into great estates, resembling the Roman villas. Just
+how these originated we do not know. These estates, or <i>manors</i>, as they
+were called, were cultivated mainly by serfs, who were bound to the land
+and were under the control of its proprietor. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> tilled such part of
+the estate as the owner reserved for his own particular use, and
+provided for his needs and their own without the necessity of buying
+much from the outside. When we speak of a medi&aelig;val landowner we mean one
+who held one or more of these manors, which served to support him and
+left him free to busy himself fighting with other proprietors in the
+same position as himself.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Immunities.</div>
+
+<p>It had been common even before Charlemagne's time to grant to
+monasteries and churches, and even to individuals, an extraordinary
+privilege which exempted their lands from the presence or visits of
+government officials. No public officer with the power to hear cases,
+exact fines, obtain lodging or entertainment for the king and his
+followers when traveling about, or make requisitions of any kind, was to
+enter the lands or villages belonging to the monastery or person
+enjoying the <i>immunity</i>. These exemptions were evidently sought with a
+view to getting rid of the exactions of the king's officials and
+appropriating the various fines and fees, rather than with the purpose
+of usurping governmental prerogatives. But the result was that the
+monasteries or individuals who were thus freed from the requisitions of
+the government were left to perform its functions,&mdash;not, however, as yet
+in their own right, but as representatives of the king.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> It is not
+hard to see how those who enjoyed this privilege might, as the central
+power weakened, become altogether independent. It is certain that a
+great many landowners who had been granted no exemption from the
+jurisdiction of the king's officers, and a great many of the officers
+themselves, especially the counts and margraves, gradually broke away
+altogether from the control of those above them and became the rulers of
+the regions in which they lived.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Tendency to hereditary offices.</div>
+
+<p>The counts were in a particularly favorable position to usurp for their
+own benefit the powers which they were supposed to exercise for the
+king. Charlemagne had chosen his counts and margraves in most cases from
+the wealthy and distinguished families of his realms. As he had little
+money, he generally rewarded their services by grants of estates, which
+only served to increase their independence. They gradually came to look
+upon their office and their land as private property, and they were
+naturally disposed to hand it on to their sons after them. Charlemagne
+had been able to keep control of his agents by means of the <i>missi</i>.
+After his death his system fell into disuse and it became increasingly
+difficult to get rid of inefficient or rebellious officers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Forces opposed to disruption, viz., partial survival of royal
+authority and feudalism.</div>
+
+<p>Yet we must not infer that the state ceased to exist altogether during
+the centuries of confusion that followed the break-up of Charlemagne's
+empire, or that it fell entirely apart into little local governments
+independent of each other. In the first place, a king always retained
+some of his ancient majesty. He might be weak and without the means to
+enforce his rights and to compel his more powerful subjects to meet
+their obligations toward him. Yet he was, after all, the <i>king</i>,
+solemnly anointed by the Church as God's representative on earth. He was
+always something more than a feudal lord. The kings were destined to get
+the upper hand before many centuries in England, France, and Spain, and
+finally in Italy and Germany, and to destroy the castles behind whose
+walls their haughty nobles had long defied the royal power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feudalism.</div>
+
+<p>In the second place, the innumerable independent landowners were held
+together by <i>feudalism</i>. One who had land to spare granted a portion of
+it to another person on condition that the one receiving the land should
+swear to be true to him and perform certain services,&mdash;such as fighting
+for him, giving him counsel, and lending aid when he was in particular
+difficulties. In this way the relation of lord and vassal originated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+All lords were vassals either of the king or of other lords, and
+consequently all were bound together by solemn engagements to be loyal
+to one another and care for one another's interests. Feudalism served
+thus as a sort of substitute for the state. Private arrangements between
+one landowner and another took the place of the weakened bond between
+the subject and his king.</p>
+
+<p>The feudal form of government and the feudal system of holding land are
+so different from anything with which we are now familiar that it is
+difficult for us to understand them. Yet unless we do understand them, a
+great part of the history of Europe during the past thousand years will
+be well-nigh meaningless.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>FEUDALISM</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feudalism the outgrowth of prevailing conditions and earlier
+customs.</div>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> Feudalism was the natural outcome of the peculiar conditions which
+prevailed in western Europe during the ninth and tenth centuries. Its
+chief elements were not, however, newly invented or discovered at that
+period but were only combined in order to meet the demands of the times.
+It will be well, therefore, to consider briefly those customs in the
+later Roman Empire and among the invading Germans which suggest (1) the
+habit of the medi&aelig;val landowner of granting his land to others in such a
+way that, while he retained the title, they became, to most intents and
+purposes, the real owners; and (2) the relation of lord and vassal.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conditions of landholding in the later Roman Empire.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>beneficium</i>.</div>
+
+<p>We have seen how, before the barbarian inroads, the small landowners in
+the Roman Empire had often found it to their advantage to give up the
+title to their land to more powerful neighboring proprietors.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The
+scarcity of labor was such that the new owner, while extending the
+protection of his name over the land, was glad to permit the former
+owner to continue to till it, rent free, much as if it still belonged to
+him. With the invasions of the barbarians the lot of the defenseless
+small landholder became worse. He had a new resource, however, in the
+monasteries. The monks were delighted to accept any real estate which
+the owner&mdash;for the good of his soul and to gain the protection of the
+saint to whom the monastery church was dedicated&mdash;felt moved to turn
+over to them on the understanding that the abbot should permit the
+former owner to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> continue to cultivate his fields. Though he no longer
+owned the land, he still enjoyed its products and had only to pay a
+trifling sum each year in recognition of the monastery's ownership.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+The use, or <i>usufruct</i>, of the land which was thus granted by the
+monastery to its former owner was called a <i>beneficium</i>. The same term
+was applied to the numerous grants which churches made from their vast
+possessions for limited periods and upon various conditions. We also
+find the Frankish kings and other great landowners disposing of their
+lands in a similar fashion. The <i>beneficium</i> forms the first stage in
+the development of medi&aelig;val landowning.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The origin of the relationship of lord and vassal.</div>
+
+<p>Side by side with the <i>beneficium</i> grew up another institution which
+helps to explain the relation of lord and vassal in later times. Under
+the later Roman Empire the freeman who owned no land and found himself
+unable to gain a living might become the dependent of some rich and
+powerful neighbor, who agreed to feed, clothe, and protect him on
+condition that he should engage to be faithful to his patron, "love all
+that he loved and shun all that he shunned."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>comitatus</i>.</div>
+
+<p>The invading Germans had a custom that so closely resembled this Roman
+one that scholars have found it impossible to decide whether we should
+attribute more influence to the Roman or to the German institution in
+the development of feudalism. We learn from Tacitus that the young
+German warriors were in the habit of pledging their fidelity to a
+popular chieftain, who agreed to support his faithful followers if they
+would fight at his side. The <i>comitatus</i>, as Tacitus named this
+arrangement, was not regarded by the Germans as a mere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> business
+transaction, but was looked upon as honorable alike to lord and man.
+Like the later relation of vassal and lord, it was entered upon with a
+solemn ceremony and the bond of fidelity was sanctioned by an oath. The
+obligations of mutual aid and support established between the leader and
+his followers were considered most sacred.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Combination of the <i>comitatus</i> and the <i>beneficium</i> produces
+feudal land tenure.</div>
+
+<p>While there was a great difference between the homeless and destitute
+fellow who became the humble client of a rich Roman landowner, and the
+noble young German warrior who sat at the board of a distinguished
+military leader, both of these help to account for the later feudal
+arrangement by which one person became the "man," or faithful and
+honorable dependent, of another. When, after the death of Charlemagne,
+men began to combine the idea of the <i>comitatus</i> with the idea of the
+<i>beneficium</i>, and to grant the usufruct of parcels of their land on
+condition that the grantee should be true, loyal, and helpful to them,
+that is, become their <i>vassal</i>, we may consider that the feudal system
+of landowning was coming into existence.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gradual development of feudalism.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The fief.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Infeudation and subinfeudation.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Vassal and subvassal.</div>
+
+<p><b>41.</b> Feudalism was not established by any decree of a king or in virtue
+of any general agreement between all the landowners. It grew up
+gradually and irregularly without any conscious plan on any one's part,
+simply because it seemed convenient and natural under the circumstances.
+The owner of vast estates found it to his advantage to parcel them out
+among vassals who agreed to accompany him to war, attend his court,
+guard his castle upon occasion, and assist him when he was put to any
+unusually great expense. Land granted upon the terms mentioned was said
+to be "infeudated" and was called a <i>fief</i>. One who held a fief might
+himself become a lord by granting a portion of his fief to a vassal upon
+terms similar to those upon which he held of his lord or suzerain.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
+This was called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> <i>subinfeudation</i>, and the vassal of a vassal was called
+a <i>subvassal</i> or <i>subtenant</i>. There was still another way in which the
+number of vassals was increased. The owners of small estates were
+usually in a defenseless condition, unable to protect themselves against
+the insolence of the great nobles. They consequently found it to their
+advantage to put their land into the hands of a neighboring lord and
+receive it back from him as a fief. They thus became his vassals and
+could call upon him for protection.</p>
+
+<p>It is apparent, from what has been said, that, all through the Middle
+Ages, feudalism continued to grow, as it were, "from the top and bottom
+and in the middle all at once." (1) Great landowners carved out new
+fiefs from their domains and granted them to new vassals. (2) Those who
+held small tracts brought them into the feudal relation by turning them
+over to a lord or monastery, whose vassals they became. (3) Finally any
+lord might subinfeudate portions of his estate by granting them as fiefs
+to those whose fidelity or services he wished to secure. By the
+thirteenth century it had become the rule in France that there should be
+"no land without its lord." This corresponded pretty closely to the
+conditions which existed at that period throughout the whole of western
+Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The hereditary character of fiefs and its consequences.</div>
+
+<p>It is essential to observe that the fief, unlike the <i>beneficium</i>, was
+not granted for a certain number of years, or for the life of the
+grantee, to revert at his death to the owner. On the contrary, it became
+hereditary in the family of the vassal and passed down to the eldest son
+from one generation to another. So long as the vassal remained faithful
+to his lord and performed the stipulated services, and his successors
+did homage and continued to meet the conditions upon which the fief had
+originally been granted, neither the lord nor his heirs could rightfully
+regain possession of the land. No precise date can be fixed at which it
+became customary to make fiefs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> hereditary; it is safe, however, to say
+that it was the rule in the tenth century.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p>The kings and great nobles perceived clearly enough the disadvantage of
+losing control of their lands by permitting them to become hereditary
+property in the families of their vassals. But the feeling that what the
+father had enjoyed should pass to his children, who, otherwise, would
+ordinarily have been reduced to poverty, was so strong that all
+opposition on the part of the lord proved vain. The result was that
+little was left to the original and still nominal owner of the fief
+except the services and dues to which the practical owner, the vassal,
+had agreed in receiving it. In short, the fief came really to belong to
+the vassal, and only a shadow of his former proprietorship remained in
+the hands of the lord. Nowadays the owner of land either makes some use
+of it himself or leases it for a definite period at a fixed money rent.
+But in the Middle Ages most of the land was held by those who neither
+really owned it nor paid a regular rent for it and yet who could not be
+deprived of it by the original owner or his successors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Subvassals of the king not under his control.</div>
+
+<p>Obviously the great vassals who held directly of the king became almost
+independent of him as soon as their fiefs were granted to them in
+perpetuity. Their vassals, since they stood in no feudal relation to the
+king, escaped the royal control altogether. From the ninth to the
+thirteenth century the king of France or the king of Germany did not
+rule over a great realm occupied by subjects who owed him obedience as
+their lawful sovereign, paid him taxes, and were bound to fight under
+his banner as the head of the state. As a feudal landlord<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> himself, he
+had a right to demand fidelity and certain services from those who were
+his vassals. But the great mass of the people over whom he nominally
+ruled, whether they belonged to the nobility or not, owed little to the
+king directly, because they lived upon the lands of other feudal lords
+more or less independent of him.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said of the gradual and irregular growth of feudalism to
+make it clear that complete uniformity in feudal customs could hardly
+exist within the bounds of even a small kingdom, much less throughout
+the countries of western Europe. Yet there was a remarkable resemblance
+between the institutions of France, England, and Germany, so that a
+description of the chief features of feudalism in France, where it was
+highly developed, will serve as a key to the general situation in all
+the countries we are studying.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The fief the central institution of feudalism.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Homage.</div>
+
+<p><b>42.</b> The fief (Latin, <i>feudum</i>) was the central institution of feudalism
+and the one from which it derives its name. In the commonest acceptance
+of the word, the fief was land, the perpetual use of which was granted
+by its owner, or holder, to another person, on condition that the one
+receiving it should become his vassal. The one proposing to become a
+vassal knelt before the lord and rendered him <i>homage</i><a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> by placing
+his hands between those of the lord and declaring himself the lord's
+"man" for such and such a fief. Thereupon the lord gave his vassal the
+kiss of peace and raised him from his kneeling posture. Then the vassal
+took the oath of fidelity upon the Bible, or some holy relic, solemnly
+binding himself to fulfill all his duties toward his lord. This act of
+rendering homage by placing the hands in those of the lord and taking
+the oath of fidelity was the first and most essential obligation of the
+vassal and constituted the <i>feudal bond</i>. For a vassal to refuse to do
+homage for his fief when it changed hands, was equivalent to a
+declaration of revolt and independence.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Obligations of the vassal. Military service.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Money fiefs.</div>
+
+<p>The obligations of the vassal varied greatly.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Sometimes homage meant
+no more than that the vassal bound himself not to attack or injure his
+lord in honor or estate, or oppose his interests in any other manner.
+The vassal was expected to join his lord when there was a military
+expedition on foot, although it was generally the case that the vassal
+need not serve at his own expense for more than forty days. The rules,
+too, in regard to the length of time during which a vassal might be
+called upon to guard the castle of his lord varied almost infinitely.
+The shorter periods of military service proved very inconvenient to the
+lord. Consequently it became common in the thirteenth century for the
+king and the more important nobles to secure a body of soldiers upon
+whom they could rely at any time, and for any length of time, by
+creating money fiefs. A certain income was granted to a knight upon
+condition that the grantee should not only become a vassal of the lord
+but should also agree to fight for him whenever it was necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Other feudal obligations.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Money payments.</div>
+
+
+<p>Besides the military service due from the vassal to his lord, he was
+expected to attend the lord's court when summoned. There he sat with
+other vassals to hear and pronounce upon those cases in which his
+peers&mdash;i.e., his fellow-vassals&mdash;were involved.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Moreover, he had to
+give the lord the benefit of his counsel when required, and attend him
+upon solemn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> occasions. Under certain circumstances vassals had to make
+money payments to their lord, as well as serve him in person; as, for
+instance, when the fief changed hands through the death of the lord or
+of the vassal, when the fief was alienated, when the lord was put to
+extra expense by the necessity of knighting his eldest son or providing
+a dowry for his daughter, or when he was in captivity and was held for a
+ransom. Lastly, the vassal might have to entertain his lord should the
+lord come his way. There are amusingly detailed accounts, in some of the
+feudal contracts, of exactly how often the lord might come, how many
+followers he might bring, and what he should have to eat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image15.jpg" width="500" height="368" alt="A Medi&aelig;val Castle near Klagenfurt, Austria" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Medi&aelig;val Castle near Klagenfurt, Austria</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Different classes of fiefs.</div>
+
+<p>There were fiefs of all kinds and of all grades of importance, from that
+of a duke or count, who held directly of the king and exercised the
+powers of a practically independent prince, down to the holding of the
+simple knight, whose bit of land,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> cultivated by peasants or serfs, was
+barely sufficient to enable him to support himself and provide the horse
+upon which he rode to perform his military service for his lord.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The nobility.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their privileges.</div>
+
+<p>In order to rank as a noble in medi&aelig;val society it was, in general,
+necessary to be the holder of land for which only such services were due
+as were considered honorable, and none of those which it was customary
+for the peasant or serf to perform. The noble must, moreover, be a free
+man and have at least sufficient income to maintain himself and his
+horse without any sort of labor. The nobles enjoyed certain privileges
+which set them off from the non-noble classes. Many of these privileges
+were perpetuated in France, and elsewhere on the continent, down to the
+time of the French Revolution, and in Italy and Germany, into the
+nineteenth century. The most conspicuous privilege was a partial
+exemption from taxation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Difficulty of classifying the nobles.</div>
+
+<p>It is natural to wish to classify the nobility and to ask just what was
+the difference, for example, between a duke, a count, and a marquis.
+Unfortunately there was no fixed classification, at least before the
+thirteenth century. A count, for instance, might be a very inconspicuous
+person, having a fief no larger than the county of Charlemagne's time,
+or he might possess a great many of the older counties and rank in power
+with a duke. In general, however, it may be said that the dukes, counts,
+bishops, and abbots who held directly from the king were of the highest
+rank. Next to them came an intermediate class of nobles of the second
+order, generally subvassals of the king, and below these the simple
+knights.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feudal registers.</div>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> The great complexity of the feudal system of land tenure made it
+necessary for the feudal lords to keep careful registers of their
+possessions. Very few of these registers have been preserved, but we are
+so fortunate as to have one of the count of Champagne, dating from the
+early thirteenth century. This gives us an idea of what feudalism really
+was in practice,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> and shows how impossible it is to make a satisfactory
+map of any country during the feudal period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image16.jpg" width="500" height="439" alt="Fiefs and Suzerains of the Counts of Champagne" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fiefs and Suzerains of the Counts of Champagne</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growth of the possessions of the counts of Champagne typical
+of the period.</div>
+
+<p>At the opening of the tenth century we find in the chronicles of the
+time an account of a certain ambitious count of Troyes, Robert by name,
+who died in 923 while trying to wrest the crown of France from Charles
+the Simple. His county passed to his son-in-law, who already held, among
+other possessions, the counties of Ch&acirc;teau-Thierry and Meaux. His son,
+in turn, inherited all three counties and increased his dominions by
+judicious usurpations. This process of gradual aggrandizement went on
+for generation after generation, until there came to be a compact
+district under the control of the counts of Champagne, as they began to
+call<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> themselves at the opening of the twelfth century. It was in this
+way that the feudal states in France and Germany grew up. Certain lines
+of feudal lords showed themselves able, partly by craft and violence,
+and partly, doubtless, by good fortune, to piece together a considerable
+district, in much the same way as we shall find that the king of France
+later pieced together France itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The register of the counts of Champagne illustrates the
+complexity of feudal relations.</div>
+
+<p>The register referred to above shows that the feudal possessions of the
+counts of Champagne were divided into twenty-six districts, each of
+which centered about a strong castle. We may infer that these divisions
+bore some close relation to the original counties which the counts of
+Champagne had succeeded in bringing together. All these districts were
+held as fiefs of other lords. For the greater number of his fiefs the
+count rendered homage to the king of France, but he was the vassal of no
+less than nine other lords beside the king. A portion of his lands,
+including probably his chief town of Troyes, he held of the duke of
+Burgundy. Ch&acirc;tillon, &Eacute;pernay, and some other towns, he held as the "man"
+of the Archbishop of Rheims. He was also the vassal of the Archbishop of
+Sens, of four other neighboring bishops, and of the abbot of the great
+monastery of St. Denis. To all of these persons he had pledged himself
+to be faithful and true, and when his various lords fell out with one
+another it must have been difficult to see where his duty lay. Yet his
+situation was similar to that of all important feudal lords.</p>
+
+<p>The chief object, however, of the register was to show not what the
+count owed to others but what his own numerous vassals owed to him. It
+appears that he subinfeudated his lands and his various sources of
+income to no less than two thousand vassal knights. The purpose of the
+register is to record the terms upon which each of these knights held
+his fief. Some simply rendered the count homage, some agreed to serve
+him in war for a certain length of time each year, others to guard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> his
+castle for specified periods. A considerable number of the vassals of
+the count held lands of other lords, there being nothing to prevent a
+subvassal from accepting a fief directly from the king, or from any
+other neighboring noble landholder. So it happened that several of the
+vassals of the counts of Champagne held of the same persons of whom the
+count himself held.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The infeudation of other things than land.</div>
+
+<p>It is evident that the counts of Champagne were not contented with the
+number of vassals that they secured by subinfeudating their land. The
+same homage might be rendered for a fixed income, or for a certain
+number of bushels of oats to be delivered each year by the lord, as for
+the use of land. So money, houses, wheat, oats, wine, chickens, were
+infeudated, and even half the bees which might be found in a particular
+forest. It would seem to us the simpler way to have hired soldiers
+outright, but in the thirteenth century the traditions of feudalism were
+so strong that it seemed natural to make vassals of those whose aid was
+desired. The mere promise of a money payment would not have been
+considered sufficiently binding. The feudal bond of homage served to
+make the contract firmer than it would otherwise have been.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image17.jpg" width="500" height="237" alt="The arrow indicates a lord of whom the vassal held one or more fiefs." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The arrow indicates a lord of whom the vassal held one or more fiefs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p><p>It is clear, then, that no such regular hierarchy existed as some
+historians have imagined, beginning with the king and ending with the
+humblest knight included in the feudal aristocracy. The fact that
+vassals often held of a number of different lords made the feudal
+relations infinitely complex. The diagram on page 115, while it may not
+exactly correspond to the situation at any given moment, will serve to
+illustrate this complexity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The feudal system maintained only by force.</div>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> Should one confine one's studies of feudalism to the rules laid down
+by the feudal lawyers and the careful descriptions of the exact duties
+of the vassal which are to be found in the contracts of the period, one
+might conclude that everything had been so minutely and rigorously fixed
+as to render the feudal bond sufficient to maintain order and liberty.
+But one has only to read a chronicle of the time to discover that, in
+reality, brute force governed almost everything outside of the Church.
+The feudal obligations were not fulfilled except when the lord was
+sufficiently powerful to enforce them. The bond of vassalage and
+fidelity, which was the sole principle of order, was constantly broken
+and faith was violated by both vassal and lord.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The breaking of the feudal bond.</div>
+
+<p>It often happened that a vassal was discontented with his lord and
+transferred his allegiance to another. This he had a right to do under
+certain circumstances, as, for instance, when his lord refused to see
+that justice was done him in his court. But such changes were generally
+made merely for the sake of the advantages which the faithless vassal
+hoped to gain. The records of the time are full of accounts of refusal
+to do homage, which was the commonest way in which the feudal bond was
+broken. So soon as a vassal felt himself strong enough to face his
+lord's displeasure, or realized that the lord was a helpless minor, he
+was apt to declare his independence by refusing to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> recognize the feudal
+superiority of the one from whom he had received his land.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War the law of the feudal world.</div>
+
+<p>We may say that war, in all its forms, was the law of the feudal world.
+War formed the chief occupation of the restless aristocracy who held the
+land and exercised the governmental control. The inveterate habits of a
+military race, the discord provoked by ill-defined rights or by
+self-interest and covetousness, all led to constant bloody struggles in
+which each lord had for his enemies all those about him. An enterprising
+vassal was likely to make war at least once, first, upon each of his
+several lords; secondly, upon the bishops and abbots with whom he was
+brought into contact, and whose control he particularly disliked;
+thirdly, upon his fellow-vassals; and lastly, upon his own vassals. The
+feudal bonds, instead of offering a guarantee of peace and concord,
+appear to have been a constant cause of violent conflict. Every one was
+bent upon profiting by the permanent or temporary weakness of his
+neighbor. This chronic dissension extended even to members of the same
+family; the son, anxious to enjoy a part of his heritage immediately,
+warred against his father, younger brothers against older, and nephews
+against uncles who might seek to deprive them of their rights.</p>
+
+<p>In theory, the lord could force his vassals to settle their disputes in
+an orderly and righteous manner before his court. But often he was
+neither able nor inclined to bring about a peaceful adjustment, and he
+would frequently have found it embarrassing to enforce the decisions of
+his own court. So the vassals were left to fight out their quarrels
+among themselves and found their chief interest in life in so doing. War
+was practically sanctioned by law. The great French code of laws of the
+thirteenth century and the Golden Bull, a most important body of law
+drawn up for Germany in 1356, did not prohibit neighborhood war, but
+merely provided that it should be conducted in a decent and gentlemanly
+way.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Tourneys and jousts.</div>
+
+<p>The jousts, or tourneys, were military exercises&mdash;play wars&mdash;to fill out
+the tiresome periods which occasionally intervened between real
+wars.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> They were, in fact, diminutive battles in which whole troops
+of hostile nobles sometimes took part. These rough plays called down the
+condemnation of the popes and councils, and even of the kings. The
+latter, however, were too fond of the sport themselves not to forget
+promptly their own prohibitions.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disastrous effects of feudal warfare generally recognized.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Truce of God.'</div>
+
+<p><b>45.</b> The disastrous nature of the perpetual feudal warfare and the
+necessity of some degree of peace and order, had already become apparent
+even as early as the eleventh century. In spite of all the turmoil,
+mankind was making progress. Commerce and enlightenment were increasing
+in the older towns and preparing the way for the development of new
+ones. Those engaged in peaceful pursuits could not but find the
+prevailing disorder intolerable. The Church was untiring, as it was
+fitting that it should be, in its efforts to secure peace; and nothing
+redounds more to the honor of the bishops than the "Truce of God." This
+prohibited all hostilities from Thursday night until Monday morning, as
+well as upon all of the numerous fast days.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> The church councils and
+the bishops required the feudal lords to take an oath to observe the
+weekly truce, and, by means of the dreaded penalty of excommunication,
+met with some success. With the opening of the Crusades in 1096, the
+popes undertook to effect a general pacification by diverting the
+prevailing warlike spirit against the Turks.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the king, in France and England at least, was becoming
+a power that made for order in the modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> sense of the word. He
+endeavored to prevent the customary resort to arms to settle every sort
+of difficulty between rival vassals. By increasing the military force
+that he had at his command he compelled the submission of cases of
+dispute to his tribunals. But even St. Louis (d. 1270), who made the
+greatest efforts to secure peace, did not succeed in accomplishing his
+end. The gradual bettering of conditions was due chiefly to general
+progress and to the development of commerce and industry, which made the
+bellicose aristocracy more and more intolerable.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The older accounts of feudalism, such as that
+given by Guizot or Hallam, should be avoided as the reader is
+likely to be misled by them. The earlier writers appear, from the
+standpoint of recent investigations, to have been seriously
+mistaken upon many important points. In French, <span class="smcap">Luchaire</span>, <i>Manuel
+des Institutions Fran&ccedil;aises</i> (Hachette &amp; Co., Paris, $3.00), and
+<span class="smcap">Esmein</span>, <i>Cours &Eacute;l&eacute;mentaire d'Histoire du Droit Fran&ccedil;ais</i> ($2.00),
+are excellent.</p>
+
+<p>In English there is <span class="smcap">Emerton's</span> Chapter XIV on "Feudal Institutions"
+in his <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, and <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, <i>Civilization</i>, Chapter IX,
+devoted especially to the origin of feudalism. <span class="smcap">Cheyney</span> gives a
+selection of documents relating to the subject in <i>Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. IV, No. 3.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of studying the beginnings of the modern European
+states.</div>
+
+<p><b>46.</b> There is no more interesting or important phase of medi&aelig;val history
+than the gradual emergence of the modern national state from the feudal
+anarchy into which the great empire of Charlemagne fell during the
+century after his death. No one should flatter himself that he has
+grasped the elements of the history of western Europe unless he can
+trace in a clear, if general, way the various stages by which the states
+which appear now upon the map of Europe&mdash;the French republic, the German
+Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the kingdoms of Italy, Great Britain, and
+Spain&mdash;have grown out of the disorganized Europe of the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p>It might be inferred from what has been said in the preceding chapters
+that the political history of western Europe during the two or three
+centuries following the deposition of Charles the Fat was really only
+the history of innumerable feudal lords. Yet even if the kings of
+medi&aelig;val Europe were sometimes less powerful than some of their mighty
+subjects, still their history is more important than that of their
+vassals. It was the kings, and not their rivals, the dukes and counts,
+who were to win in the long run and to establish national governments in
+the modern sense of the term. It was about them that the great European
+states, especially France, Spain, and England, grew up.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Struggle between the Carolingians and the house of Odo.</div>
+
+<p>As we have seen, the aristocracy of the northern part of the
+West-Frankish kingdom chose (in 888) as their king, in place of the
+incompetent Charles the Fat, the valiant Odo, Count of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> Paris, Blois,
+and Orleans. He was a powerful lord and held extensive domains besides
+the regions he ruled as count. But, in spite of his advantageous
+position, he found it impossible to exert any real power in the southern
+part of his kingdom. Even in the north he met with constant opposition,
+for the nobles who elected him had no idea of permitting him to
+interfere much with their independence. Charles the Simple, the only
+surviving grandson of Charles the Bald,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> was eventually elected king
+by a faction opposed to Odo.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of Hugh Capet, the first of the Capetians, 987&ndash;996.</div>
+
+<p>For a hundred years the crown passed back and forth between the family
+of Odo and that of Charlemagne. The counts of Paris were rich and
+capable, while the later Carolingians were poor and unfortunate. The
+latter finally succumbed to their powerful rivals, who definitely took
+possession of the throne in 987, when Hugh Capet was elected king of the
+Gauls, Bretons, Normans, Aquitanians, Goths, Spaniards, and Gascons,&mdash;in
+short, of all those peoples who were to be welded, under Hugh's
+successors, into the great French nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The West-Frankish kingdom comes to be called France.</div>
+
+<p>Hugh inherited from his ancestors the title of Duke of France, which
+they had enjoyed as the military representatives of the later
+Carolingian kings in "France," which was originally a district north of
+the Seine. Gradually the name France came to be applied to all the
+dominions which the dukes of France ruled as kings. We shall hereafter
+speak of the West-Frankish kingdom as France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Difficulty of establishing the royal power.</div>
+
+<p>It must not be forgotten, however, that it required more than two
+centuries after Hugh's accession for the French kings to create a real
+kingdom which should include even half the territory embraced in the
+France of to-day. For almost two hundred years the Capetians made little
+or no progress toward real kingly power. In fact, matters went from bad
+to worse. Even the region which they were supposed to control as
+counts&mdash;their so-called <i>domain</i>&mdash;melted away in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> hands.
+Everywhere hereditary lines of usurping rulers sprang up whom it was
+impossible to exterminate after they had once taken root. The Capetian
+territory bristled with hostile castles, permanent obstacles to commerce
+between the larger towns and intolerable plagues to the country people.
+In short, the king of France, in spite of the dignity of his title, no
+longer dared to move about his own narrow domain. He to whom the most
+powerful lords owed homage could not venture out of Paris without
+encountering fortresses constructed by noble brigands, who were the
+terror alike of priest, merchant, and laborer. Without money or
+soldiers, royalty vegetated within its diminished patrimony. It retained
+a certain prestige in distant fiefs situated on the confines of the
+realm and in foreign lands, but at home it was neither obeyed nor
+respected. The enemy's lands began just outside the capital.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Formation of small independent states in France.</div>
+
+<p><b>47.</b> The tenth century was the period when the great fiefs of Normandy,
+Brittany, Flanders, and Burgundy took form. These, and the fiefs into
+which the older duchy of Aquitaine fell, developed into little nations,
+each under its line of able rulers. Each had its own particular customs
+and culture, some traces of which may still be noted by the traveler in
+France. These little feudal states were created by certain families of
+nobles who possessed exceptional energy or statesmanship. By conquest,
+purchase, or marriage, they increased the number of their fiefs. By
+promptly destroying the castles of those who refused to meet their
+obligations, they secured their control over their vassals. By granting
+fiefs of land or money to subvassals, they gained new dependents.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Normandy.</div>
+
+<p>Of these subnations none was more important or interesting than
+Normandy. The Northmen had been the scourge of those who lived near the
+North Sea for many years before one of their leaders, Rollo (or Hrolf),
+agreed to accept from Charles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> the Simple (in 911) a district on the
+coast, north of Brittany, where he and his followers might peacefully
+settle. Rollo assumed the title of Duke of the Normans and introduced
+the Christian religion among his people. For a considerable time the
+newcomers kept up their Scandinavian traditions and language. Gradually,
+however, they appropriated such culture as their neighbors possessed,
+and by the twelfth century their capital, Rouen, was one of the most
+enlightened cities of Europe. Normandy became a source of infinite
+perplexity to the French kings when, in 1066, Duke William the Conqueror
+added England to his possessions; for he thereby became so powerful that
+his suzerain could hardly hope to control the Norman dukes any longer.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Brittany.</div>
+
+<p>The isolated peninsula of Brittany, inhabited by a Celtic people of the
+same race as the early inhabitants of Britain, had been particularly
+subject to the attacks of the Scandinavian pirates. It seemed at one
+time as if the district would become an appendage of Normandy. But in
+938 a certain valiant Alain of the Twisted Beard arose to deliver it
+from the oppression of the strangers. The Normans were driven out, and
+feudalism replaced the older tribal organization in what was hereafter
+to be called the duchy of Brittany. It was not until the opening of the
+sixteenth century that this became a part of the French monarchy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the Flemish towns.</div>
+
+<p>The pressure of the Northmen had an important result in the low
+countries between the Somme and the Scheldt. The inhabitants were driven
+to repair and seek shelter in the old Roman fortifications. They thus
+became accustomed to living in close community, and it was in this way
+that the Flemish towns&mdash;Ghent, Bruges, etc.&mdash;originated, which became in
+time famous centers of industry and trade. The founders of the great
+families of the district first gained their influence in defending the
+country against the Scandinavian pirates. The counts of Flanders aspired
+to rule the region, but the lesser counts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> within their territory were
+pretty independent of them; so private wars were frequent and bloody.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Burgundy.</div>
+
+<p>Burgundy is a puzzling name because it is applied to several different
+parts of the territory once included in the kingdom founded by the
+Burgundians, which Clovis made tributary to his expanding Frankish
+kingdom. Toward the end of the ninth century we first hear of a <i>duke</i>
+of Burgundy as being appointed military representative of the king (as
+all dukes originally were) in a large district west of the Sa&ocirc;ne. The
+dukes of Burgundy never succeeded in establishing sufficient control
+over their vassals to render themselves independent, and consequently
+they always freely recognized the sovereignty of the French kings. We
+shall meet the name Burgundy later.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Possessions of the duke of Aquitaine and of the counts of
+Toulouse and Champagne.</div>
+
+<p>The ancient duchy of Aquitaine (later Guienne), including a large part
+of what is now central and southern France, was abolished in 877, but
+the title of Duke of Aquitaine was conferred by the king upon a certain
+family of feudal lords, who gradually extended their power over Gascony
+and northward. To the southeast, the counts of Toulouse had begun to
+consolidate a little state which was to be the seat of the extraordinary
+literature of the troubadours. The county of Champagne has already been
+considered in the discussion of feudalism.</p>
+
+<p>This completes the survey of the countries over which Hugh Capet and his
+immediate successors strove to rule. All those districts to the east of
+the Sa&ocirc;ne and the Rhone which now form a part of France were amalgamated
+(in 933) into the kingdom of Arles, or Burgundy,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> which in 1032 fell
+into the hands of the German king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Complicated position of the Capetian kings.</div>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> The position of the Capetian rulers was a complicated one. As counts
+of Paris, Orleans, etc., they enjoyed the ordinary rights of a feudal
+lord; as dukes of France, they might exercise a vague control over the
+district north of the Seine;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> as suzerains of the great feudal
+princes,&mdash;the duke of Normandy, the counts of Flanders, Champagne, and
+the rest,&mdash;they might require homage and certain feudal services from
+these great personages. But besides all these rights as feudal lords
+they had other rights as kings. They were crowned and consecrated by the
+Church, as Pippin and Charlemagne had been. They thus became, by God's
+appointment, the protectors of the Church and the true fountain of
+justice for all who were oppressed or in distress throughout their
+realms. Therefore they were on a higher plane in the eyes of the people
+than any of the great vassals. Besides the homage of their vassals, they
+exacted an oath of fidelity from all whom they could reach.</p>
+
+<p>The great vassals, on the other hand, acted on the theory that the king
+was simply their feudal lord. As for the king himself, he accepted both
+views of his position and made use both of the older theory of kingship
+and of his feudal suzerainty to secure more and more control over his
+realms. For over three hundred years the direct male line of the
+Capetians never once failed. It rarely happened, moreover, that the
+crown was left in the weak hands of a child. By the opening of the
+fourteenth century there was no doubt that the king, and not the feudal
+lords, was destined to prevail.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis the Fat, 1108&ndash;1137.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip Augustus, 1180&ndash;1223.</div>
+
+<p>The first of the kings of France to undertake with success the serious
+task of conquering his own duchy was Louis the Fat (1108&ndash;1137). He was
+an active soldier and strove to keep free the means of communication
+between the different centers of his somewhat scattered feudal domains
+and to destroy the power of the usurping castellans in his fortresses.
+But he made only a beginning; it was reserved for his famous grandson,
+Philip Augustus (1180&ndash;1223), to make the duchy of France into a real
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Plantagenets in France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry II.</div>
+
+<p><b>49.</b> Philip had a far more difficult problem to face than any of the
+preceding kings of his house. Before his accession a series of those
+royal marriages which until recently exercised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> so great an influence
+upon political history, had brought most of the great fiefs of central,
+western, and southern France into the hands of the king of England,
+Henry II, who now ruled over the most extensive realm in western Europe.
+Henry II was the son of William the Conqueror's granddaughter
+Matilda,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> who had married one of the great vassals of the French
+kings, the count of Anjou and Maine.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Henry, therefore, inherited
+through his mother all the possessions of the Norman kings of
+England,&mdash;namely, England, the duchy of Normandy, and the suzerainty
+over Brittany,&mdash;and through his father the counties of Maine and Anjou.
+Lastly, through his own marriage with Eleanor, the heiress of the dukes
+of Guienne (as Aquitaine was now called), he possessed himself of pretty
+much all of southern France, including Poitou and Gascony. Henry II, in
+spite of his great importance in English history, was as much French as
+English, both by birth and sympathies, and gave more than half his time
+and attention to his French possessions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip and the Plantagenets.</div>
+
+<p>It thus came about that the king of France suddenly found a new and
+hostile state, under an able and energetic ruler, erected upon his
+western borders. It included more than half the territory in which he
+was recognized as king. The chief business of Philip's life was an
+incessant war upon the Plantagenets, in which he was constantly aided by
+the strife among his enemies themselves. Henry II divided his French
+possessions among his three sons, Geoffrey, Richard, and John,
+delegating to them such government as existed. Philip took advantage of
+the constant quarrels of the brothers among themselves and with their
+father. He espoused, in turn, the cause of Richard the Lion-Hearted
+against his father, of John Lackland, the youngest brother, against
+Richard, and so on. Without these family discords the powerful monarchy
+of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> Plantagenets might have annihilated the royal house of France,
+whose narrow dominions it closed in and threatened on all sides.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Richard the Lion-Hearted.</div>
+
+<p>So long as Henry II lived there was little chance of expelling the
+Plantagenets or of greatly curtailing their power, but with the
+accession of his reckless son, Richard I, called the Lion-Hearted,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>
+the prospects of the French king brightened wonderfully. Richard left
+his kingdom to take care of itself, while he went upon a crusade to the
+Holy Land. He persuaded Philip to join him, but Richard was too
+overbearing and masterful, and Philip too ambitious, to make it possible
+for them to agree for long. The king of France, who was physically
+delicate, was taken ill and was glad of the excuse to return home and
+brew trouble for his powerful vassal. When Richard himself returned,
+after several years of romantic but fruitless adventure, he found
+himself involved in a war with Philip, in the midst of which he died.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John loses the French possessions of his house.</div>
+
+<p>Richard's younger brother, John, who enjoys the reputation of being the
+most despicable of English kings, speedily gave Philip a good excuse for
+seizing a great part of the Plantagenet lands. John was suspected of
+conniving at the brutal murder of his nephew Arthur (the son of
+Geoffrey), to whom the nobles of Maine, Anjou, and Touraine had done
+homage. He was also guilty of the less serious offense of carrying off
+and marrying a lady betrothed to one of his own vassals. Philip, as
+John's suzerain, summoned him to appear at the French court to answer
+the latter charge. Upon John's refusal to appear or to do homage for his
+continental possessions, Philip caused his court to issue a decree
+confiscating almost all of the Plantagenet lands, leaving to the English
+king only the southwest corner of France.</p>
+
+<p>Philip found little difficulty in possessing himself, not only of the
+valley of the Loire, but of Normandy itself, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> showed no
+disinclination to accept him in place of the Plantagenets, whom the
+Normans associated with continual exactions. Six years after Richard's
+death the English kings had lost all their continental fiefs except
+Guienne. The Capetian domain was, for the first time, the chief among
+the great feudal states of France, both in wealth and extent. It should
+be observed that Philip, unlike his ancestors, was no longer merely
+<i>suzerain</i> of the new conquests, but was himself duke of Normandy, and
+count of Anjou, of Maine, etc. The boundaries of his domain, that is,
+the lands which he himself controlled directly as feudal lord, now
+extended to the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip strengthens the royal power as well as increases the
+royal domain.</div>
+
+<p><b>50.</b> Philip not only greatly increased the extent of the royal domain,
+but strengthened his control over all classes of his subjects as well.
+He appears, also, to have fully realized the importance of the towns
+which had begun to develop a century earlier. There were several
+important ones in the districts he annexed, and these he took especial
+pains to treat with consideration. He extended his protection, and at
+the same time his authority, over them and in this way lessened the
+influence and resources of the feudal lords within whose territories the
+towns lay.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Appanages.</div>
+
+<p>The chief innovation of Philip's son, Louis VIII, was the creation of
+<i>appanages</i>. These were fiefs assigned to his younger sons, one of whom
+was made count of Artois; another, count of Anjou and Maine; a third,
+count of Auvergne. This has generally been regarded by historians as a
+most unfortunate re&euml;nforcement of the feudal idea. It not only retarded
+the consolidation of the kingdom but opened the way to new strife
+between the members of the royal family itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis IX, 1226&ndash;1270.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Settlement of question of the English king's possessions in
+France, 1258.</div>
+
+<p>The long reign of Philip's grandson, Louis IX, or St. Louis (1226&ndash;1270),
+is extremely interesting from many standpoints. St. Louis himself is
+perhaps the most heroic and popular figure in the whole procession of
+French monarchs, and his virtues and exploits have been far more amply
+recorded than those of any of his predecessors. But it is only his part
+in the consolidation of the French monarchy that immediately concerns
+us. After a revolt of the barons of central France in alliance with the
+king of England, which Louis easily put down, he proceeded, in a most
+fair-minded and Christian spirit, to arrange a definite settlement with
+the Plantagenets. The king of England was to do him homage for the duchy
+of Guienne, Gascony, and Poitou and surrender every claim upon the rest
+of the former possessions of the Plantagenets on the continent.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image18.jpg" width="500" height="693" alt="Map of France at the Close of the Reign of Philip Augustus" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of France at the Close of the Reign of Philip Augustus</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The <i>baillis</i> serve to increase the king's power.</div>
+
+<p>Besides these important territorial adjustments, Louis IX did much to
+better the system of government and strengthen the king's power. Philip
+Augustus had established a new kind of officer, the <i>baillis</i>, who
+resembled the <i>missi</i> of Charlemagne. They were supported by a salary
+and frequently shifted from place to place so that there should be no
+danger of their taking root and establishing powerful feudal families,
+as had happened in the case of the counts, who were originally royal
+officers. Louis adopted and extended the institution of the <i>baillis</i>.
+In this way he kept his domains under his control and saw that justice
+was done and his revenue properly collected.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Government of Louis IX.</div>
+
+<p>Before the thirteenth century there was little government in France in
+the modern sense of the word. The king relied for advice and aid, in the
+performance of his simple duties as ruler, upon a council of the great
+vassals, prelates, and others about his person. This council was
+scarcely organized into a regular assembly, and it transacted all the
+various kinds of governmental business without clearly distinguishing
+one kind from another. In the reign of Louis IX this assembly began to
+be divided into three bodies with different functions. There was: first,
+the king's council to aid him in conducting the general affairs of the
+kingdom; secondly, a chamber of accounts, a financial body which
+attended to the revenue; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> lastly, the <i>parlement</i>, a supreme court
+made up of those trained in the law, which was becoming ever more
+complicated as time went on. Instead, as hitherto, of wandering about
+with the king, the parlement took up its quarters upon the little island
+in the Seine at Paris, where the great court-house (<i>Palais de Justice</i>)
+still stands. A regular system of appeals from the feudal courts to the
+royal courts was established. This served greatly to increase the king's
+power in distant parts of his realms. It was decreed further that the
+royal coins should alone be used in the domains of the king, and that
+his money should be accepted everywhere else within the kingdom
+concurrently with that of those of his vassals who had the privilege of
+coinage.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip the Fair (1285&ndash;1314) the first absolute ruler of
+France.</div>
+
+<p>The grandson of St. Louis, Philip the Fair, is the first example of a
+French king who had both the will and the means to play the r&ocirc;le of an
+absolute monarch. He had inherited a remarkably well organized
+government compared with anything that had existed since the time of
+Charlemagne. He was surrounded by a body of lawyers who had derived
+their ideas of the powers and rights of a prince from the Roman law.
+They naturally looked with suspicion upon everything that interfered
+with the supreme power of the monarch, and encouraged the king to bring
+the whole government into his own hands regardless of the privileges of
+his vassals and of the clergy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The commons, or third estate, summoned to the Estates
+General, 1302.</div>
+
+<p>Philip's attempt to force the clergy to contribute from their wealth to
+the support of the government led to a remarkable struggle with the
+pope, of which an account will be given in a later chapter. With the
+hope of gaining the support of the whole nation in his conflict with the
+head of the Church, the king summoned a great council of his realm in
+1302. He included for the first time the representatives of the towns in
+addition to the nobles and prelates, whom the king had long been
+accustomed to consult. At the same period that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> French Estates
+General,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> or national assembly, was taking form through the addition
+of representatives of the commons, England was creating its Parliament.
+The two bodies were, however, to have a very different history, as will
+become clear later.</p>
+
+<p>By the sagacious measures that have been mentioned, the French monarchs
+rescued their realms from feudal disruption and laid the foundation for
+the most powerful monarchy of western Europe. However, the question of
+how far the neighboring king across the Channel should extend his power
+on the continent remained unanswered. The boundary between France and
+England was not yet definitely determined and became, during the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the cause of long and disastrous
+wars, from which France finally emerged victorious. We must now turn
+back to trace the development of her English rival.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of England in the history of western Europe.</div>
+
+<p><b>51.</b> The country of western Europe whose history is of greatest interest
+to English-speaking peoples is, of course, England. From England the
+United States and the vast English colonies have inherited their
+language and habits of thought, much of their literature, and many
+peculiarities of their laws and institutions. In this volume it will
+not, however, be possible to study England except in so far as it has
+played a part in the general development of Europe. This it has greatly
+influenced by its commerce, industry, and colonies, as well as by the
+example it has set of permitting the people to participate with the king
+in the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Overlordship of Wessex.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Invasions of the Danes. Their defeat by Alfred the Great,
+871&ndash;901.</div>
+
+<p>The conquest of the island of Britain by the German Angles and Saxons
+has already been spoken of, as well as the conversion of these pagans to
+Christianity by the representatives of the Roman Church. The several
+kingdoms founded by the invaders were brought under the overlordship of
+the southern kingdom of Wessex<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> by Egbert, a contemporary of
+Charlemagne. But no sooner had the long-continued invasions of the
+Germans come to an end and the country been partially unified, than the
+Northmen (or Danes, as the English called them), who were ravaging
+France, began to make incursions into England. Before long they had made
+permanent settlements and conquered a large district north of the
+Thames. They were defeated, however, in a great battle by Alfred the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+Great, the first English king of whom we have any satisfactory
+knowledge. He forced the Danes to accept Christianity and established,
+as the boundary between them and his own kingdom of Wessex, a line
+running from London across the island to Chester.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alfred fosters the development of the English language.</div>
+
+<p>Alfred was as much interested in education as Charlemagne had been. He
+called in learned monks from the continent and from Wales as teachers of
+the young men. He desired that all those born free, who had the means,
+should be forced to learn English thoroughly, and that those who
+proposed to enter the priesthood should learn Latin as well. He himself
+translated Boethius' <i>Consolation of Philosophy</i> and other works from
+the Latin into English, and doubtless encouraged the composition of the
+famous <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, the first history written in a modern
+language.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England from the death of Alfred the Great to the Norman
+Conquest, 901&ndash;1066.</div>
+
+<p>The formation of the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway at the end
+of the ninth century caused many discontented Scandinavian chieftains to
+go in search of adventure, so that the Danish invasions continued for
+more than a century after Alfred's death (901), and we hear much of the
+Danegeld, a tax levied to buy off the invaders when necessary. Finally a
+Danish king (Cnut) succeeded in making himself king of England in 1017.
+The Danish dynasty maintained itself only for a few years. Then a last
+weak Saxon king, Edward the Confessor, held nominal sway for a score of
+years. Upon his death in 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the
+crown and became king of England. The Norman Conquest closes what is
+called the Saxon period of English history, during which the English
+nation may be said to have taken form. Before considering the
+achievements of William the Conqueror we must glance at the condition of
+England as he found it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Great Britain at the accession of William the Conqueror.</div>
+
+<p>The map of Great Britain at the accession of William the Conqueror has
+the same three great divisions which exist to-day. The little kingdoms
+had disappeared and England extended north to the Tweed, which separated
+it, as it now does, from the kingdom of Scotland. On the west was Wales,
+inhabited then, as it is still, by descendants of the native Britons, of
+whom only a small remnant had survived the German invasions. The Danes
+had been absorbed into the mass of the population and all England
+recognized a single king. The king's power had increased as time went
+on, although he was bound to act in important matters only with the
+consent of a council (Witenagemot) made up of high royal officials,
+bishops, and nobles. The kingdom was divided into shires,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> as it
+still is, and each of these had a local assembly, a sort of parliament
+for the dispatch of local matters.</p>
+
+<p>After the victory of the papal party at the Council of Whitby,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> the
+Church had been thoroughly organized and the intercourse of the clergy
+with the continent served, as we have seen, to keep England from
+becoming completely isolated. Although the island was much behind some
+other portions of Europe in civilization, the English had succeeded in
+laying the foundations for the development of a great nation and an
+admirable form of government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feudalism in England.</div>
+
+<p>England was not, however, to escape feudalism. The Normans naturally
+brought with them their own feudal institutions, but even before their
+coming many suggestions of feudalism might have been discovered. Groups
+of shires had been placed under the government of earls who became
+dangerous rivals of the kings; and the habit of giving churchmen the
+right to govern, to a large extent, those who lived upon their vast
+estates recalls the conditions in the Frankish empire during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> the same
+period. The great landed proprietor in England exercised much the same
+powers over those about him that the feudal lords enjoyed upon the other
+side of the Channel.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The struggle for the English crown between Earl Harold and
+Duke William of Normandy.</div>
+
+<p><b>52.</b> As has been said, William of Normandy claimed that he was entitled
+to the English crown; he even assumed that all who refused to
+acknowledge him in England were traitors. We are, however, somewhat in
+the dark as to the basis of his claim. There is a story that he had
+visited the court of Edward the Confessor and had become his vassal on
+condition that, should Edward die childless, he was to designate William
+as his successor. But Harold, Earl of Wessex, who had consolidated his
+power before the death of Edward by securing the appointment of his
+brothers to three of the other great earldoms, assumed the crown and
+paid no attention to William's demand that he should surrender it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The pope favors William's claim.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Senlac, 1066. William I crowned at London.</div>
+
+<p>William thereupon appealed to the pope, promising that if he came into
+possession of England, he would see that the English clergy submitted to
+the authority of the Roman bishop. Consequently the pope, Alexander II,
+condemned Harold and blessed in advance any expedition that William
+might undertake to assert his rights. The conquest of England therefore
+took on the character of a sort of holy war, and as the expedition had
+been well advertised, many adventurers flocked to William's standard.
+The Norman cavalry and archers proved superior to the English forces,
+who were on foot and were so armed that they could not fight to
+advantage except at close range. Harold was killed in the memorable
+battle of Senlac<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> and his army defeated. In a few weeks a number of
+influential nobles and several bishops agreed to accept William as their
+king, and London opened its gates to him. He was crowned on Christmas
+day, 1066, at Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot trace the history of the opposition and the revolts of the
+great nobles which William had to meet within the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> next few years. His
+position was rendered doubly difficult by troubles which he encountered
+on the continent as duke of Normandy. Suffice it to say that he
+succeeded in maintaining himself against all his enemies.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William's wise policy in England.</div>
+
+<p>William's policy in regard to England exhibited profound statesmanship.
+He introduced the Norman feudalism to which he was accustomed, but took
+good care that it should not weaken his power. The English who had
+refused to join him before the battle of Senlac were declared traitors,
+but were permitted to keep their lands upon condition of receiving them
+from the king as his vassals. The lands of those who actually bore arms
+against him at Senlac, or in later rebellions, including the great
+estates of Harold's family, were confiscated and distributed among his
+faithful followers, both Norman and English, though naturally the
+Normans among them far outnumbered the English.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">He insures the supremacy of the crown without interfering
+with English customs.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William requires oath of fidelity from his subvassals.</div>
+
+<p>William declared that he did not propose to change the English customs
+but to govern as Edward the Confessor, the last Saxon king whom he
+acknowledged, had done. He tried to learn English, maintained the
+Witenagemot, and observed English practices. But he was a man of too
+much force to submit to the control of his people. While he appointed
+counts or earls in some of the shires (now come to be called
+<i>counties</i>), he controlled them by means of other royal officers called
+<i>sheriffs</i>. He avoided giving to any one person a great many estates in
+a single region, so that no one should become inconveniently powerful.
+Finally, in order to secure the support of the smaller landholders and
+to prevent combinations against him among the greater ones, he required
+every landholder in England to take an oath of fidelity directly to him.
+We read in the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (1086): "After that he went about
+so that he came, on the first day of August, to Salisbury, and there
+came to him his wise men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> [i.e., counselors], and all the landowning men
+of property there were over all England, whosesoever men they were; and
+all bowed down to him and became his men, and swore oaths of fealty to
+him that they would be faithful to him against all other men."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Domesday Book.</div>
+
+<p>William's anxiety to have a complete knowledge of his whole kingdom is
+indicated by a remarkable historical document, the so-called <i>Domesday
+Book</i>. This is a register of the lands throughout England, indicating
+the value of each parcel, the serfs and stock upon it, the name of its
+holder and of the person who held it before the Conquest. This
+government report contained a vast amount of information which was
+likely to prove useful to William's taxgatherers. It is still valuable
+to the historian, although unfortunately he is not able in every case to
+interpret its terms satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William the Conqueror and the Church.</div>
+
+<p>William's policy in regard to the Church indicates a desire to advance
+its interests in conjunction with his own. He called Lanfranc, an
+Italian who had been at the head of the famous monastery of Bec in
+Normandy, to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The king permitted the
+clergy to manage their own affairs and established bishops' courts to
+try a variety of cases. But homage was exacted from a bishop as from a
+lay vassal, and William refused to permit the pope to interfere in
+English affairs without his permission in each particular case. No papal
+legate was to enter the land without the king's sanction. No papal
+decree should be received in the English Church without his consent, nor
+his servants be excommunicated against his will. When Gregory VII
+demanded that he should become his vassal for the land that he had
+conquered under the papal auspices, William promptly refused.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General results of the Norman Conquest.</div>
+
+<p>It is clear that the Norman Conquest was not a simple change of dynasty.
+A new element was added to the English people. We cannot tell how many
+Normans actually emigrated across the Channel, but they evidently came
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> considerable numbers, and their influence upon the English court and
+government was very great. A century after William's arrival the whole
+body of the nobility, the bishops, abbots, and government officials, had
+become practically all Norman. "Besides these, the architects and
+artisans who built the castles and fortresses, and the cathedrals,
+abbeys, and parish churches, whose erection throughout the land was such
+a marked characteristic of the period, were immigrants from Normandy.
+Merchants from the Norman cities of Rouen and Caen came to settle in
+London and other English cities, and weavers from Flanders were settled
+in various towns and even rural districts. For a short time these
+newcomers remained a separate people, but before the twelfth century was
+over they had become for the most part indistinguishable from the great
+mass of English people amongst whom they had come. They had nevertheless
+made that people stronger, more vigorous, more active-minded, and more
+varied in their occupations and interests" (Cheyney).<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image19.jpg" width="500" height="564" alt="Norman Gateway at Bristol, England" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Norman Gateway at Bristol, England</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William Rufus, 1087&ndash;1100, and Henry I, 1100&ndash;1135.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Civil war ending in the accession of Henry II, 1154&ndash;1189.</div>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> The Conqueror was followed by his sons, William Rufus and Henry I.
+Upon the death of the latter the country went through a terrible period
+of civil war, for some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> of the nobility supported the Conqueror's
+grandson Stephen, and some his granddaughter Matilda. After the death of
+Stephen, when Henry II, Matilda's son,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> was finally recognized in
+1154 by all as king, he found the kingdom in a melancholy state. The
+nobles had taken advantage of the prevalent disorder to erect castles
+without royal permission and establish themselves as independent rulers.
+Mercenaries had been called in from the continent by the rivals for the
+throne, and had become a national plague.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry's difficulties and his success in meeting them.</div>
+
+<p>Henry at once adopted vigorous measures. He destroyed the illegally
+erected fortresses, sent off the mercenaries, and deprived many earls
+who had been created by Stephen and Matilda of their titles. Henry II's
+task was a difficult one. He had need of all his indefatigable energy
+and quickness of mind to restore order in England and at the same time
+rule the wide realms on the continent which he had either inherited or
+gained through his marriage with the heiress of the dukes of
+Guienne.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> Although he spent the greater part of his reign across the
+Channel, he still found time to be one of the greatest of all England's
+rulers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His reforms in the judicial system.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The grand jury.</div>
+
+<p>In order that he might maintain his prerogatives as judge of disputes
+among his subjects and avoid all excuse for the private warfare, which
+was such a persistent evil on the continent, he undertook to improve and
+reform the system of royal courts. He arranged that his judges should
+make regular circuits throughout the country, so that they might try
+cases on the spot at least once a year. He established the famous Court
+of King's Bench to try all other cases which came under the king's
+jurisdiction. This was composed of five judges from his council, two
+clergymen, and three laymen. We find, too, the beginning of our grand
+jury in a body of men in each neighborhood who were to be duly sworn in,
+from time to time, and should then bring accusations against such
+malefactors as had come to their knowledge.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image20.jpg" width="500" height="784" alt="The Plantagenet Possessions in England and France" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Plantagenet Possessions in England and France</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Trial by jury.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The common law.</div>
+
+<p>As for the petty or smaller jury, which actually tried the accused, its
+origin and history are obscure. It did not originate with Henry II, but
+he systematized trial by jury and made it a settled law of the land
+instead of an exceptional favor. The plan of delegating the duty of
+determining the guilt or innocence of a suspected person to a dozen
+members of the community who were sworn to form their opinion without
+partiality was very different from the earlier systems. It resembled
+neither the Roman trial, where the judges made the decision, nor the
+medi&aelig;val compurgation and ordeals, where God was supposed to pronounce
+the verdict. In all legal matters the decisions of Henry's judges were
+so sagacious and consistent that they became the basis of the common law
+which is still used in all English-speaking countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry II and Thomas &agrave; Becket.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Becket as chancellor.</div>
+
+<p>Henry's reign was embittered by the famous struggle with Thomas &agrave;
+Becket, which illustrates admirably the peculiar dependence of the
+monarchs of his day upon the churchmen. Becket was born in London. He
+early entered one of the lower orders of the Church, but grew up in the
+service of the crown, and was able to aid Henry in gaining the throne.
+Thereupon the new king made him his chancellor. Becket proved an
+excellent minister and defended the king's interest even against the
+Church, of which he was also an officer. He was fond of hunting and of
+warlike enterprises<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> and maintained a brilliant court from the revenues
+of the numerous church benefices which he held. It appeared to Henry
+that there could be no better head for the English clergy than his
+sagacious and worldly chancellor. He therefore determined to make him
+Archbishop of Canterbury. The kings of that time often chose their most
+efficient officers from among the prelates. Lanfranc, for example, had
+been the Conqueror's chief minister. There were several good reasons for
+this practice. The clergy were not only far better educated than laymen
+but they were also not ordinarily dangerous as military leaders, nor
+could their offices become hereditary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Made Archbishop of Canterbury, Becket defends the cause of
+the Church against the king.</div>
+
+<p>In appointing Becket Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry intended to insure
+his own complete control of the Church. He proposed to bring clerical
+criminals before the royal courts and punish them like other offenders,
+to make the bishops meet all the feudal obligations, and to prevent
+appeals to the pope. Becket, however, immediately resigned his
+chancellorship, gave up his gay life, and opposed every effort of the
+king to reduce the independence of the Church. After a haughty assertion
+of the supremacy of the spiritual power over the secular government,
+Thomas fled from the wrathful and disappointed monarch to France and the
+protection of the pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Murder of Becket and Henry's remorse.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of a patched-up reconciliation with the king, Becket proceeded
+to excommunicate or suspend some of the great English prelates and, as
+Henry believed, was conspiring to rob his son of the crown. In a fit of
+anger, Henry exclaimed among his followers, "Is there no one to avenge
+me of this miserable clerk?" Unfortunately certain knights took the rash
+expression literally, and Becket was murdered in Canterbury cathedral,
+whither he had returned. The king had really had no wish to resort to
+violence, and his sorrow and remorse when he heard of the dreadful deed,
+and his terror at the consequences, were most genuine. The pope proposed
+to excommunicate the king. Henry, however, made peace with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> the papal
+legates by the solemn assertion that he had never wished the death of
+Thomas and by promising to return to Canterbury all the property which
+he had confiscated, to send money to aid in the capture of the Holy
+Sepulcher at Jerusalem, and to undertake a crusade himself.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Richard the Lion-Hearted, 1189&ndash;1199.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John, 1199&ndash;1216.</div>
+
+<p><b>54.</b> Henry's later years were troubled by the machinations of Philip
+Augustus of France and by the quarrels and treason of his own sons, of
+which some account has already been given.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> He was followed by his
+son, the picturesque Richard the Lion-Hearted, one of the most romantic
+figures of the Middle Ages. He was, however, a poor ruler, who spent but
+a few months of his ten years' reign in England. He died in 1199 and was
+succeeded by his brother John, from all accounts one of the most
+detestable persons who has ever worn a crown. His reign was,
+nevertheless, a notable one in the annals of England. In the first
+place, he lost a great part of the possessions of his house upon the
+continent (Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, etc.); secondly, he was forced by
+a revolt of his people, who refused to endure his despotism any longer,
+to grant the Great Charter. The loss of his lands across the Channel has
+already been described; it remains only to speak of the winning of the
+Great Charter of English liberties.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The granting of the Great Charter, 1215.</div>
+
+<p>When, in 1213, John proposed to lead his English vassals across the
+water in order to attempt to reconquer his lost possessions, they
+refused to accompany him on the ground that their feudal obligations did
+not bind them to fight outside of their country. Moreover, they showed a
+lively discontent with John's despotism and his neglect of those limits
+of the kingly power which several of the earlier Norman kings had
+solemnly recognized. In 1214 a number of the barons met and took a
+solemn oath to compel the king, by arms if necessary, to confirm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> a
+charter containing the things which, according to English traditions, a
+king might not do. It proved necessary to march against John, whom the
+insurgent nobles met at Runnymede, not far from London. Here on the 15th
+of June, 1215, they forced him to swear to observe the rights of the
+nation, as they conceived them, which they had carefully written out.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The provisions of the Charter and its importance.</div>
+
+<p>The Great Charter is perhaps the most famous document in the history of
+government;<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> its provisions furnish a brief and comprehensive
+statement of the burning governmental questions of the age. It was
+really the whole nation, not merely the nobles, who concluded this great
+treaty with a tyrannous ruler. The rights of the commoner are guarded as
+well as those of the noble. As the king promises to observe the
+liberties and customs of his vassals and not to abuse his feudal
+prerogatives, so the vassals agree to observe the rights of their men.
+The merchant is not to be deprived of his goods for small offenses, nor
+the farmer of his wagon and implements. The king is to impose no tax,
+beside the three stated feudal aids,<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> except by the consent of the
+great council of the nation. This is to include the prelates and greater
+barons and all who hold directly of the king.</p>
+
+<p>There is no more notable clause in the Charter than that which provides
+that no one is to be arrested or imprisoned or deprived of his property
+unless he be immediately sent before a court of his peers for trial. To
+realize the importance of this, we must recollect that in France, down
+to 1789, the king exercised such unlimited powers that he could order
+the arrest of any one he pleased, and could imprison him for any length
+of time without bringing him to trial, or even informing him of the
+nature of his offense. The Great Charter provided further that the king
+should permit merchants to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> move about freely and should observe the
+privileges of the various towns; nor were his officers longer to
+exercise despotic powers over those under them.</p>
+
+<p>"The Great Charter is the first great public act of the nation after it
+has realized its own identity, the consummation of the work for which
+unconsciously kings, prelates, and lawyers have been laboring for a
+century. There is not a word in it that recalls the distinctions of race
+and blood, or that maintains the differences of English and Norman law.
+It is in one view the summing up of a period of national life, in
+another the starting-point of a new period, not less eventful than that
+which it closes" (Stubbs).</p>
+
+<p>In spite of his solemn confirmation of the Charter, John, with his
+accustomed treachery, made a futile attempt to abrogate his engagements;
+but neither he nor his successors ever succeeded in getting rid of the
+document. Later there were times when the English kings evaded its
+provisions and tried to rule as absolute monarchs. But the people always
+sooner or later bethought them of the Charter, which thus continued to
+form an effective barrier against permanent despotism in England.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry III, 1216&ndash;1272.</div>
+
+<p><b>55.</b> During the long reign of John's son, Henry III, England began to
+construct her Parliament, an institution which has not only played a
+most important r&ocirc;le in English history, but has also served as the model
+for similar bodies in almost every civilized state in the world. Henry's
+fondness for appointing foreigners to office, his anxiety to enjoy
+powers which he had not the intelligence or energy to justify by the use
+he made of them, and his willingness to permit the pope to levy taxes in
+England, led the nobles to continue their hostility to the crown. The
+nobles and the people of the towns, who were anxious to check the
+arbitrary powers of the king, joined forces in what is known as the War
+of the Barons. They found a leader in the patriotic Simon de Montfort,
+who proved himself a valiant and unselfish defender of the rights of the
+nation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The English Parliament.</div>
+
+<p>The older Witenagemot of Saxon times, as well as the Great Council of
+the Norman kings, was a meeting of nobles, bishops, and abbots, which
+the king summoned from time to time to give him advice and aid, and to
+sanction important governmental undertakings. During Henry's reign its
+meetings became more frequent and its discussions more vigorous than
+before, and the name <i>Parliament</i> began to be applied to it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Simon de Montfort summons the commons to Parliament.</div>
+
+<p>In 1265 a famous Parliament was held, where, through the influence of
+Simon de Montfort, a most important new class of members&mdash;the
+<i>commons</i>&mdash;was present, which was destined to give it its future
+greatness. In addition to the nobles and prelates, the sheriffs were
+ordered to summon two simple knights from each county and two citizens
+from each of the more flourishing towns to attend and take part in the
+discussions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Model Parliament of Edward I, 1295.</div>
+
+<p>Edward I, the next king, definitely adopted this innovation. He
+doubtless called in the representatives of the towns because the
+townspeople were becoming rich and he wished to have an opportunity to
+ask them to make grants to meet the expenses of the government. He also
+wished to obtain the approval of all classes when he determined upon
+important measures affecting the whole realm. Since the Model Parliament
+of 1295, the commons, or representatives of the people, have always been
+included along with the clergy and nobility when the national assembly
+of England has been summoned. We shall see later how the present houses
+of Lords and Commons came into existence under Edward's son.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England in the fourteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>From the reign of Edward I we are, as a distinguished English historian
+has well said, "face to face with modern England. Kings, Lords, Commons,
+the courts of justice, ... the relations of Church and State, in a great
+measure the framework of society itself, have all taken the shape which
+they still essentially retain" (Green). The English language was,
+moreover, about to become the speech we use to-day.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between the development of Germany and France.</div>
+
+<p><b>56.</b> The history of the kingship in the eastern, or German, part of
+Charlemagne's empire is very different from that in France, which was
+reviewed in a previous chapter. After a struggle of four hundred years,
+it had become clear by the thirteenth century that the successors of
+Louis the German (Charlemagne's grandson) could not make of Germany a
+kingdom such as St. Louis left to his descendants. From the thirteenth
+century down to Napoleon's time there was no Germany in a political
+sense, but only a great number of practically independent states, great
+and small. It was but a generation ago that, under the leadership of
+Prussia,&mdash;a kingdom unknown until many centuries after Charlemagne's
+time,&mdash;the previously independent kingdoms, principalities, and free
+towns were formed into the federation now known as the German empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Stem duchies.</div>
+
+<p>The map of the eastern part of Charlemagne's empire a century after his
+death indicates that the whole region had fallen into certain large
+divisions ruled over by dukes, who, in Saxony and Bavaria at least, were
+kings in all but name.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Just how these duchies originated is
+something of a mystery, but two things at least are clear which help to
+explain their appearance. In the first place, under the weak successors
+of Louis the German, the old independent spirit of the various peoples,
+or <i>stems</i>, that Charlemagne had been able to hold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> together, once more
+asserted itself and they gladly returned to the leadership of their own
+chiefs. In the second place, they were driven to do this by the constant
+attacks from without, first of the Northmen and the Moravians, a Slavic
+people, then of the terrible Hungarian horsemen who penetrated more than
+once as far west as France. As there was no competent central power to
+defend the people, it was natural that they should look to their local
+leaders for help and guidance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry I, 919&ndash;936.</div>
+
+<p>These <i>stem duchies</i>, as the Germans call them, prevented the German
+kings from getting a firm hold on their realms. The best that they could
+do was to bring about a sort of confederation. Consequently, when the
+German aristocracy chose the strong Henry I, of the ducal house of
+Saxony,<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> as their king in 919, he wisely made no attempt to deprive
+the several dukes of their power. He needed their assistance in the task
+of dealing with the invaders who were pressing in on all sides. He
+prepared the way for the later subjugation of the Slavs and the final
+repulse of the Hungarians, but he left to his famous son, Otto I, the
+task of finally disposing of the invaders and attempting to found a real
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Otto the Great, 936&ndash;973.</div>
+
+<p>The reign of Otto I (936&ndash;973), called the Great, is one of the most
+extraordinary in the history of Germany. He made no attempt to abolish
+the duchies, but he succeeded in getting all of them into the hands of
+his sons, brothers, or near relatives, as well as in reducing the power
+of the dukes. For example, he made his brother Henry duke of Bavaria,
+after forgiving him for two revolts. His scholarly brother, Archbishop
+Bruno of Cologne,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> he made duke of Lorraine in the place of his
+faithless son-in-law, Conrad, who had rebelled against him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> Many of the
+old ducal families either died out or lost their heritage by
+unsuccessful revolt. None of them offered a long succession of able
+rulers. The duchies consequently fell repeatedly into the hands of the
+king, who then claimed the right to assign them to whom he wished.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the tenth century the northern and eastern boundaries
+of Germany were as yet very ill defined. The Slavic peoples across the
+Elbe, many of whom were still pagans, were engaged in continual attacks
+upon the borders of Saxony. Otto I did more than fight these tribes; he
+established dioceses, such as Brandenburg, Havelberg, etc., in a
+district which is now the political center of the German empire, and
+greatly forwarded the Christianizing and colonization of the tract
+between the Elbe and the Oder.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Final defeat of the Hungarians.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginnings of Hungary and Austria.</div>
+
+<p>Moreover, he put an end forever to the invasions of the Hungarians. He
+defeated them in a great battle near Augsburg (955) and pursued them to
+the confines of Germany. The Hungarians, or Magyars as they are commonly
+called, then settled down in their own territory and began to lay the
+foundations of that national development which makes them one of the
+most important factors in the eastern portion of Europe to-day. A region
+which had belonged to the Bavarian duchy was organized as a separate
+district, the Austrian <i>Mark</i> (i.e., March), and became the nucleus of
+the Austrian empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Otto interferes in Italian affairs.</div>
+
+<p><b>57.</b> The most noteworthy, however, of Otto's acts was his interference in
+Italian affairs, which led to his assuming the imperial crown which
+Charlemagne had worn. There is no more gloomy chapter in European
+history than the experiences of Italy and the papacy after the
+deposition of Charles the Fat in 887. We know little of what went on,
+but we hear of the duke of Spoleto, the marquis of Friuli, and
+Burgundian princes from across the Alps, assuming the Italian crown at
+different times. The Mohammedan invasions added to the confusion, so
+that Germany and France, in spite of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> incessant wars, appear
+almost tranquil compared with the anarchy in Italy.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Three Italian
+kings were crowned emperor by the popes during the generation following
+the deposition of Charles the Fat. Then for a generation the title of
+emperor disappeared altogether in the West, until it was again assumed
+by the German Otto.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Otto is crowned emperor, 962.</div>
+
+<p>Italy was a tempting field of operations for an ambitious ruler. Otto
+first crossed the Alps in 951, married the widow of one of the ephemeral
+Italian kings, and, without being formally crowned, was generally
+acknowledged as king of Italy. The revolt of his son compelled him to
+return to Germany, but a decade later the pope called him to his
+assistance. Otto answered the summons promptly, freed the pope from his
+enemies, and was crowned emperor at Rome in 962.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Important results for Germany of the coronation of Otto the
+Great.</div>
+
+<p>The coronation of Otto the Great, like that of Charlemagne, was a
+momentous event in medi&aelig;val history. By assuming the imperial crown he
+imposed so great a burden on his successors, the German kings, that they
+finally succumbed beneath it. For three centuries they strove to keep
+Germany together and at the same time control Italy and the papacy.
+After interminable wars and incalculable sacrifices, they lost all.
+Italy escaped them, the papacy established its complete independence,
+and Germany, their rightful patrimony, instead of growing into a strong
+monarchy, fell apart into weak little states.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Example of emperor's trouble in controlling popes and Italian
+affairs.</div>
+
+<p>Otto's own experiences furnish an example of the melancholy results of
+his relations with the pope, to whom he owed his crown. Hardly had he
+turned his back before the pope began to violate his engagements. It
+became necessary for the new emperor to hasten back to Rome and summon a
+council for the deposition of the pontiff, whose conduct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> certainly
+furnished ample justification. But the Romans refused to accept a pope
+chosen under Otto's auspices, and he had to return again to Rome and
+besiege the city before his pope was acknowledged. A few years later,
+still a third expedition was necessary in order to restore another of
+the emperor's popes who had been driven out of Rome by the local
+factions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map152.jpg">
+<img src="images/map152th.jpg" width="600" height="422" alt="Europe about A.D. 1000" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">EUROPE ABOUT <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> 1000</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The succeeding emperors had usually to make a similar series of costly
+and troublesome journeys to Rome,&mdash;a first one to be crowned, and then
+others either to depose a hostile pope or to protect a loyal one from
+the oppression of neighboring lords. These excursions were very
+distracting, especially to a ruler who left behind him in Germany a
+rebellious nobility that always took advantage of his absence to revolt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Holy Roman Empire.</div>
+
+<p>Otto's successors dropped their old title of King of the East Franks as
+soon as they had been duly crowned by the pope at Rome, and assumed the
+magnificent and all-embracing designation, "Emperor Ever August of the
+Romans."<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> Their "Holy Roman Empire," as it came to be called later,
+which was to endure, in name at least, for more than eight centuries,
+was obviously even less like that of the ancient Romans than was
+Charlemagne's. As <i>kings</i> of Germany and Italy they had practically all
+the powers that they enjoyed as <i>emperors</i>, except the fatal right that
+they claimed of taking part in the election of the pope. We shall find
+that, instead of making themselves feared at home and building up a
+great state, the German emperors wasted their strength in a long
+struggle with the popes, who proved themselves in the end incomparably
+the stronger, and eventually reduced the Empire to a mere shadow.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p><p><b>58.</b> We have no space to speak of the immediate successors of Otto the
+Great.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Like him they had to meet opposition at home as well as the
+attacks of their restless neighbors, especially the Slavs. The Empire is
+usually considered to have reached its height under Conrad II
+(1024&ndash;1039) and Henry III (1039&ndash;1056), the first two representatives of
+the new Franconian line which succeeded the Saxon house upon its
+extinction in 1024.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conrad II, 1024&ndash;1039.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Poland.</div>
+
+<p>By an amicable arrangement the kingdom of Burgundy came into the hands
+of Conrad II in 1032. This large and important territory long remained a
+part of the Empire, serving to render intercourse between Germany and
+Italy easier, and forming a barrier between Germany and France. On the
+eastern borders of the Empire the Slavs had organized the kingdom of
+Poland in the latter half of the tenth century, and its kings, although
+often at war with the emperor, generally acknowledged his suzerainty.
+Conrad, following the policy of Otto the Great, endeavored to bring as
+many of the stem duchies as possible into the hands of his son and
+successor, Henry III, who was made duke of Franconia, Swabia, and
+Bavaria. This was the firmest of all foundations for the kingly power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry III, 1039&ndash;1056.</div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the energy and ability of Conrad II and Henry III, the
+fact that the Empire stands forth as the great power of western Europe
+during the first half of the eleventh century is largely due to the
+absence of any strong rivals. The French kings had not yet overcome the
+feudal disruption, and although Italy objected to the control of the
+emperor, it never could agree to combine against him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry III and the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>59.</b> The most important question that Henry III had to face was that of a
+great reform of the Church. This was already under way and it was bound,
+if carried out, to destroy the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> control of the emperors not only over
+the papacy but also over the German bishops and abbots, whom they had
+strengthened by grants of land and authority with the special purpose of
+making them the chief support of the monarchy. The reform was not
+directed particularly against the emperor, but he was, as will become
+apparent, more seriously affected by the changes proposed by the
+reforming party than any other of the European rulers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wealth of the Church.</div>
+
+<p>In order to understand the reform and the long struggle between the
+emperors and the popes which grew out of it, we must stop a moment to
+consider the condition of the Church in the time of Henry III. It seemed
+to be losing all its strength and dignity and to be falling apart, just
+as Charlemagne's empire had dissolved into feudal bits. This was chiefly
+due to the vast landed possessions of the clergy. Kings, princes, and
+rich landowners had long considered it meritorious to make donations to
+bishoprics and monasteries, so that a very considerable portion of the
+land in western Europe had come into the hands of churchmen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The church lands drawn into the feudal system.</div>
+
+<p>When landowners began to give and receive land as fiefs the property of
+the Church was naturally drawn into the feudal relations. A king, or
+other proprietor, might grant fiefs to churchmen as well as to laymen.
+The bishops became the vassals of the king or of other feudal lords by
+doing homage for a fief and swearing fidelity, just as any other vassal
+would do. An abbot sometimes placed his monastery under the protection
+of a neighboring lord by giving up his land and receiving it back again
+as a fief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fiefs held by churchmen not hereditary.</div>
+
+<p>One great difference, however, existed between the church lands and the
+ordinary fiefs. According to the law of the Church, the bishops and
+abbots could not marry and so could have no children to whom they might
+transmit their property. Consequently, when a landholding churchman
+died, some one had to be chosen in his place who should enjoy his
+property<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> and perform his duties. The rule of the Church had been, from
+time immemorial, that the clergy of the diocese should choose the
+bishop, their choice being ratified by the people. As the church law
+expresses it, "A bishop is therefore rightly appointed in the church of
+God when the people acclaim him who has been elected by the common vote
+of the clergy." As for the abbots, they were, according to the rule of
+St. Benedict, to be chosen by the members of the monastery.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bishops and abbots practically chosen by the feudal lords.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of these rules the bishops and abbots had come, in the tenth
+and eleventh centuries, to be selected, to all intents and purposes, by
+the various kings and feudal lords. It is true that the outward forms of
+a regular ("canonical") election were usually permitted; but the feudal
+lord made it clear whom he wished chosen, and if the wrong person was
+elected, he simply refused to hand over to him the lands attached to the
+bishopric or abbey. The lord could in this way control the choice of the
+prelates, for in order to become a real bishop or abbot one had not only
+to be elected, he had also to be solemnly "invested" with the
+appropriate powers of a bishop or abbot and with his lands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Investiture.</div>
+
+<p>Since, to the worldly minded, the spiritual powers attached to church
+offices possessed little attraction if no property went along with them,
+the feudal lord was really master of the situation. When his appointee
+was duly chosen he proceeded to the <i>investiture</i>. The new bishop or
+abbot first became the "man" of the feudal lord by doing him homage, and
+then the lord transferred to him the lands and rights attached to the
+office. No careful distinction appears to have been made between the
+property and the spiritual prerogatives. The lord often conferred both
+by bestowing upon a bishop the ring and the crosier, the emblems of
+religious authority. It seemed shocking enough that the lord, who was
+often a rough soldier, should dictate the selection of the bishops, but
+it was still more shocking that he should audaciously assume to confer
+spiritual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> powers with spiritual emblems. Yet even worse things might
+happen, since sometimes the lord, for his greater convenience, had
+himself made bishop.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Attitude of the Church towards its property.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Attitude of the king.</div>
+
+<p>The Church itself naturally looked at the property attached to a
+benefice as a mere incident and considered the spiritual prerogatives
+the main thing. And since the clergy alone could rightly confer these,
+it was natural that they should claim the right to bestow ecclesiastical
+offices, including the lands ("temporalities") attached to them, upon
+whomsoever they pleased without consulting any layman whatever. Against
+this claim the king might urge that a simple minister of the Gospel, or
+a holy monk, was by no means necessarily fitted to manage the interests
+of a feudal state, such as the great archbishoprics and bishoprics, and
+even the abbeys, had become in Germany and elsewhere in the eleventh
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Complicated position of the bishops in Germany and
+elsewhere.</div>
+
+<p>In short, the situation in which the bishops found themselves was a very
+complicated one. (1) As an officer of the Church, the bishop had certain
+ecclesiastical and religious duties within the limits of his diocese. He
+saw that parish priests were properly selected and ordained, he tried
+certain cases in his court, and performed the church ceremonies. (2) He
+managed the lands which belonged to the bishopric, which might, or might
+not, be fiefs. (3) As a vassal of those who had granted lands to the
+bishopric upon feudal terms, he owed the usual feudal dues, not
+excluding the duty of furnishing troops to his lord. (4) Lastly, in
+Germany, the king had found it convenient, from about the beginning of
+the eleventh century, to confer upon the bishops in many cases the
+authority of a count in the districts about them. In this way they might
+have the right to collect tolls, coin money, and perform other important
+governmental duties.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> When a prelate was inducted into office he
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> invested with all these various functions at once, both spiritual
+and governmental.</p>
+
+<p>To forbid the king to take part in the investiture was, consequently, to
+rob him not only of his feudal rights but also of his authority over
+many of his government officials, since bishops, and sometimes even
+abbots, were often counts in all but name. Moreover, the monarch relied
+upon the clergy, both in Germany and France, to counterbalance the
+influence of his lay vassals, who were always trying to exalt their
+power at his expense. He therefore found it necessary to take care who
+got possession of the important church offices.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The marriage of the clergy threatens the wealth of the
+Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>60.</b> Still another danger threatened the wealth and resources of the
+Church. During the tenth and eleventh centuries the rule of the Church
+prohibiting the clergy from marrying<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> appears to have been widely
+and publicly neglected in Italy, Germany, France, and England. To the
+stricter critics of the time this appeared a terrible degradation of the
+clergy, who, they felt, should be unencumbered by family cares and
+wholly devoted to the service of God. The question, too, had another
+side. It was obvious that the property of the Church would soon be
+dispersed if the clergy were allowed to marry, since they would wish to
+provide for their children. Just as the feudal tenures had become
+hereditary, so the church lands would become hereditary unless the
+clergy were forced to remain unmarried.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Buying and selling of church offices.</div>
+
+<p>Besides the feudalizing of its property and the marriage of the clergy,
+there was a third great and constant source of weakness and corruption
+in the Church, namely, the temptation to buy and sell church offices.
+Had the duties and responsibilities of the bishops, abbots, and priests
+always been arduous and exacting, and their recompense barely enough to
+maintain them, there would have been little tendency to bribe those who
+could bestow the appointments. But the incomes of bishoprics and abbeys
+were usually considerable, sometimes very great, while the duties
+attached to the office of bishop or abbot, however serious in the eyes
+of the right-minded, might easily be neglected by the unscrupulous. The
+revenue from a great landed estate, the distinction of high
+ecclesiastical rank, and the governmental prerogatives that went with
+the office, were enough to induce the members of the noblest families to
+vie with each other in securing church positions. The king or prince who
+possessed the right of investiture was sure of finding some one willing
+to pay something for important benefices.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the term simony.</div>
+
+<p>The sin of buying or selling church offices was recognized as a most
+heinous one. It was called <i>simony</i>,<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> a name derived from Simon the
+Magician, who, according to the account in the Acts of the Apostles,
+offered Peter money if he would give him the power of conferring the
+Holy Spirit upon those upon whom he should lay his hands. As the apostle
+denounced this first simonist, so the Church has continued ever since to
+denounce those who propose to purchase its sacred powers,&mdash;"Thy silver
+perish with thee, because thou hast thought to obtain the gift of God
+with money" (Acts viii. 20).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Simony not really the sale of church offices.</div>
+
+<p>Doubtless very few bought positions in the Church with the view of
+obtaining the "gift of God," that is to say, the religious office. It
+was the revenue and the honor that were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> chiefly coveted. Moreover, when
+a king or lord accepted a gift from one for whom he procured a benefice,
+he did not regard himself as selling the office; he merely shared its
+advantages. No transaction took place in the Middle Ages without
+accompanying gifts and fees of various kinds. The church lands were well
+managed and remunerative. The clergyman who was appointed to a rich
+bishopric or abbey seemed to have far more revenue than he needed and so
+was expected to contribute to the king's treasury, which was generally
+empty.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Simony corrupts the lower clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The evil of simony was, therefore, explicable enough, and perhaps
+ineradicable under the circumstances. It was, nevertheless, very
+demoralizing, for it spread downward and infected the whole body of the
+clergy. A bishop who had made a large outlay in obtaining his office
+naturally expected something from the priests, whom it was his duty to
+appoint. The priest in turn was tempted to reimburse himself by improper
+exactions for the performance of his regular religious duties, for
+baptizing and marrying his parishioners, and for burying the dead.</p>
+
+<p>So it seemed, at the opening of the eleventh century, as if the Church
+was to be dragged down by its property into the anarchy of feudalism
+described in a preceding chapter. There were many indications that its
+great officers were to become merely the vassals of kings and princes
+and no longer to represent a great international institution under the
+headship of the popes. The Bishop of Rome had not only ceased, in the
+tenth century, to exercise any considerable influence over the churches
+beyond the Alps, but was himself controlled by the restless nobles of
+central Italy. He appears much less important, in the chronicles of the
+time, than the Archbishop of Rheims or Mayence. There is no more
+extraordinary revolution recorded in history than that which raised the
+weak and demoralized papacy of the tenth century to a supreme place in
+European affairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Three rival popes.</div>
+
+<p><b>61.</b> One of the noble families of Rome had got the selection of the popes
+into its own hands, and was using the papal authority to secure its
+control over the city. In the same year (1024) in which Conrad II became
+emperor, a layman was actually exalted to the headship of the Church,
+and after him a mere boy of ten or twelve years, Benedict IX, who, in
+addition to his youth, proved to be thoroughly evil-minded. His powerful
+family maintained him, however, on the papal throne for a decade, until
+he proposed to marry. This so scandalized even the not over-sensitive
+Romans that they drove him out of the city. A rich neighboring bishop
+then secured his own election. Presently a third claimant appeared in
+the person of a pious and learned priest who bought out the claims of
+Benedict IX for a large sum of money and assumed the title of Gregory
+VI.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The interference of Henry III in papal affairs and its
+momentous consequences.</div>
+
+<p>This state of affairs seemed to the emperor, Henry III, to call for his
+interference. He accordingly went to Italy and summoned a council at
+Sutri, north of Rome, in 1046, where two of the claimants were deposed.
+Gregory VI, more conscientious than his rivals, not only resigned his
+office but tore his pontifical robes in pieces and admitted his
+monstrous crime in buying the papal dignity, though his motives had been
+of the purest. The emperor then secured the election of a worthy German
+bishop as pope, whose first act was to crown Henry and Agnes his
+wife.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>The appearance of Henry III in Italy at this juncture, and the
+settlement of the question of the three rival popes, are among the most
+important events of all medi&aelig;val history in their results. In lifting
+the papacy out of the realm of petty Italian politics, Henry unwittingly
+helped to raise up a rival to the imperial authority which was destined,
+before the end of the next century, to overshadow it and to become
+without question the greatest power in western Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Difficulties to be overcome in establishing the supremacy of
+the popes in western Europe.</div>
+
+<p>For nearly two hundred years the popes had assumed very little
+responsibility for the welfare of Europe at large. It was a gigantic
+task to make of the Church a great international monarchy, with its head
+at the old world-center, Rome; the difficulties in the way seemed,
+indeed, well-nigh insurmountable. The great archbishops, who were as
+jealous of the power of the pope as the great vassals were of the kingly
+power, must be brought into subjection. National tendencies which made
+against the unity of the Church must be overcome. The control enjoyed by
+kings, princes, and other feudal lords in the selection of church
+officials must be done away with. Simony with its degrading influence
+must be abolished. The marriage of the clergy must be checked, so that
+the property of the Church should not be dissipated. The whole body of
+churchmen, from the priest to the archbishop, must be redeemed from the
+immorality and worldliness which degraded them in the eyes of the
+people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope Leo IX, 1049&ndash;1054.</div>
+
+<p>It is true that during the remainder of his life Henry III himself
+controlled the election of the popes; but he was sincerely and deeply
+interested in the betterment of the Church and took care to select able
+and independent German prelates to fill the papal office. Of these the
+most important was Leo IX (1049&ndash;1054). He was the first to show clearly
+how the pope might not only become in time the real head and monarch of
+the Church but might also aspire to rule kings and emperors as well as
+bishops and abbots. Leo refused to regard himself as pope simply because
+the emperor had appointed him. He held that the emperor should aid and
+protect, but might not create, popes. So he entered Rome as an humble
+barefoot pilgrim and was duly elected by the Roman people according to
+the rule of the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Papal legates.</div>
+
+<p>Leo IX undertook to visit France and Germany and even Hungary in person,
+with the purpose of calling councils to check simony and the marriage of
+the clergy. But this personal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> oversight on the part of the popes was
+not feasible in the long run, if for no other reason, because they were
+generally old men who would have found traveling arduous and often
+dangerous. Leo's successors relied upon legates, to whom they delegated
+extensive powers and whom they dispatched to all parts of western Europe
+in something the same way that Charlemagne employed his <i>missi</i>. It is
+supposed that Leo IX was greatly influenced in his energetic policy by a
+certain sub-deacon, Hildebrand by name. Hildebrand was himself destined
+to become one of the greatest popes, under the title of Gregory VII, and
+to play a part in the formation of the medi&aelig;val Church which justifies
+us in ranking him, as a statesman, with C&aelig;sar, Charlemagne, Richelieu,
+and Bismarck.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope Nicholas II places the election of the popes in the
+hands of the cardinals, 1059.</div>
+
+<p><b>62.</b> The first great step toward the emancipation of the Church from the
+control of the laity was taken by Nicholas II. In 1059 he issued a
+remarkable decree which took the election of the head of the Church once
+for all out of the hands of both the emperor and the people of Rome, and
+placed it definitely and forever in the hands of the <i>cardinals</i>, who
+represented the Roman clergy.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> Obviously the object of this decree
+was to preclude all lay interference, whether of the distant emperor, of
+the local nobility, or of the Roman mob. The college of cardinals still
+exists and still elects the pope.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opposition to further reforms.</div>
+
+<p>The reform party which directed the policy of the popes had, it hoped,
+freed the head of the Church from the control of worldly men by putting
+his election in the hands of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> Roman clergy. It now proposed to
+emancipate the Church as a whole from the base entanglements of earth:
+first, by strictly forbidding the married clergy to perform religious
+functions and by exhorting their flocks to refuse to attend their
+ministrations; and secondly, by depriving the kings and feudal lords of
+their influence over the choice of the bishops and abbots, since this
+influence was deemed the chief cause of worldliness among the prelates.
+Naturally these last measures met with far more general opposition than
+the new way of electing the pope. An attempt to expel the married clergy
+from Milan led to a popular revolt, in which the pope's legate actually
+found his life in danger. The decrees forbidding clergymen to receive
+their lands and offices from laymen received little attention from
+either the clergy or the feudal lords. The magnitude of the task which
+the popes had undertaken first became fully apparent when Hildebrand
+himself ascended the papal throne, in 1073, as Gregory VII.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CONFLICT BETWEEN GREGORY VII AND HENRY IV</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>Dictatus</i> of Gregory VII.</div>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> Among the writings of Gregory VII there is a very brief statement,
+called the <i>Dictatus</i>, of the powers which he believed the popes to
+possess. Its chief claims are the following: The pope enjoys a unique
+title; he is the only universal bishop and may depose and reinstate
+other bishops or transfer them from place to place. No council of the
+Church may be regarded as speaking for Christendom without his consent.
+The Roman Church has never erred, nor will it err to all eternity. No
+one may be considered a Catholic Christian who does not agree with the
+Roman Church. No book is authoritative unless it has received the papal
+sanction.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory does not stop with asserting the pope's complete supremacy over
+the Church; he goes still further and claims for him the right to
+restrain the civil government when it seems necessary in the cause of
+righteousness. He says that "the Pope is the only person whose feet are
+kissed by all princes"; that he may depose emperors and "absolve
+subjects from allegiance to an unjust ruler." No one shall dare to
+condemn one who appeals to the pope. No one may annul a decree of the
+pope, though the pope may declare null and void the decrees of all other
+earthly powers; and no one may pass judgment upon his acts.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Inadequacy of civil government in the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church claims the right to interfere only when
+necessary.</div>
+
+<p>These are not the insolent claims of a reckless tyrant, but the
+expression of a theory of government which has had advocates among some
+of the most conscientious and learned men of all succeeding ages. Before
+venturing to criticise Gregory's view of his position we should
+recollect two important facts. In the first place, what most writers
+call the <i>state</i>, when dealing with the Middle Ages, was no orderly
+government in our sense of the word; it was represented only by restless
+feudal lords, to whom disorder was the very breath of life. When, on one
+occasion, Gregory declared the civil power to be the invention of evil
+men instigated by the devil, he was making a natural inference from what
+he observed of the conduct of the princes of his time. In the second
+place, it should be remembered that Gregory does not claim that the
+Church should manage the civil government, but that the papacy, which is
+answerable for the eternal welfare of every Christian, should have the
+right to restrain a sinful and perverse prince and to refuse to
+recognize unrighteous laws. Should all else fail, he claimed the right
+to free a nation which was being led to disaster in this world and to
+perdition in the next from its allegiance to a wicked monarch.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gregory VII puts his theories of the papal power into
+practice.</div>
+
+<p>Immediately upon his election as pope, Gregory began to put into
+practice his high conception of the r&ocirc;le that the spiritual head of the
+world should play. He dispatched legates throughout Europe, and from
+this time on these legates became a powerful instrument of government.
+He warned the kings of France and England and the youthful German ruler,
+Henry IV, to forsake their evil ways, to be upright and just, and obey
+his admonitions. He explains, kindly but firmly, to William the
+Conqueror that the papal and kingly powers are both established by God
+as the greatest among the authorities of the world, just as the sun and
+moon are the greatest of the heavenly bodies.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> But the papal power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+is obviously superior to the kingly, for it is responsible for it; at
+the Last Day Gregory must render an account of the king as one of the
+flock intrusted to his care. The king of France was warned to give up
+his practice of simony, lest he be excommunicated and his subjects freed
+from their oath of allegiance. All these acts of Gregory appear to have
+been dictated not by worldly ambition but by a fervent conviction of
+their righteousness and of his duty toward all men.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Henry III, 1056.</div>
+
+<p><b>64.</b> Obviously Gregory's plan of reform included all the states of
+western Europe, but conditions were such that the most striking conflict
+took place between him and the emperor. The trouble came about in this
+way. Henry III had died in 1056, leaving only his good wife Agnes and
+their little son of six years to maintain the hard-fought prerogatives
+of the German king in the midst of ambitious vassals such as even Otto
+the Great had found it difficulty to control.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Henry IV, 1065.</div>
+
+<p>In 1065 the fifteen-year-old lad was declared of age, and his lifelong
+difficulties began with a great rebellion of the Saxons. They accused
+the young king of having built castles in their land and of filling them
+with rough soldiers who preyed upon the people. Gregory felt it his duty
+to interfere. To him the Saxons appeared a people oppressed by a
+heedless youth under the inspiration of evil counselors.</p>
+
+<p>As one reads of Henry's difficulties and misfortunes it seems miraculous
+that he was able to maintain himself as king at all. Sick at heart,
+unable to trust any one, and forced to flee from his own subjects, he
+writes contritely to the pope: "We have sinned against heaven and before
+thee and are no longer worthy to be called thy son." But when cheered
+for a moment by a victory over the rebellious Saxons, he easily forgot
+his promise of obedience to the pope. He continued to associate with
+counselors whom the pope had excommunicated and went on filling
+important bishoprics in Germany and Italy regardless of the pope's
+prohibitions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">New prohibition of lay investiture.</div>
+
+<p>The popes who immediately preceded Gregory had more than once forbidden
+the churchmen to receive investiture from laymen. Gregory reissued this
+prohibition in 1075,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> just as the trouble with Henry had begun.
+Investiture was, as we have seen, the legal transfer by the king, or
+other lord, to a newly chosen church official, of the lands and rights
+attached to the office. In forbidding lay investiture Gregory attempted
+nothing less than a revolution. The bishops and abbots were often
+officers of government, exercising in Germany and Italy powers similar
+in all respects to those of the counts. The king not only relied upon
+them for advice and assistance in carrying on his government, but they
+were among his chief allies in his constant struggles with his vassals.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry IV angered by the language of the papal legates.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory dispatched three envoys to Henry (end of 1075) with a fatherly
+letter<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> in which he reproached the king for his wicked conduct. But
+he evidently had little expectation that mere expostulation would have
+any effect upon Henry, for he gave his legates instructions to use
+threats, if necessary, which were bound to produce either complete
+subjection or out-and-out revolt. The legates were to tell the king that
+his crimes were so numerous, so horrible, and so notorious, that he
+merited not only excommunication but the permanent loss of all his royal
+honors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gregory VII deposed by a council of German bishops at Worms,
+1076</div>
+
+<p>The violence of the legates' language not only kindled the wrath of the
+king but also gained for him friends among the bishops. A council which
+Henry summoned at Worms (in 1076) was attended by more than two thirds
+of the German bishops. Here Gregory was declared deposed owing to the
+alleged irregularity of his election and the many terrible charges of
+immorality and ambition brought against him. The bishops renounced their
+obedience to him and publicly declared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> that he had ceased to be their
+pope. It appears very surprising, at first sight, that the king should
+have received the prompt support of the German churchmen against the
+head of the Church. But it must be remembered that the prelates owed
+their offices to the king and not to the pope.</p>
+
+<p>In a remarkable letter<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> to Gregory, Henry asserts that he has shown
+himself long-suffering and eager to guard the honor of the papacy, but
+that the pope has mistaken his humility for fear. "Thou hast not
+hesitated," the letter concludes, "to rise up against the royal power
+conferred upon us by God, daring to threaten to deprive us of it, as if
+we had received our kingdom from thee. As if the kingdom and the Empire
+were in thine and not in God's hands.... I, Henry, King by the grace of
+God, together with all our bishops, say unto thee, come down, come down
+from thy throne and be accursed of all generations."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry IV deposed and excommunicated by the pope.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory's reply to Henry and the German bishops who had deposed him was
+speedy and decisive. "Incline thine ear to us, O Peter, chief of the
+Apostles. As thy representative and by thy favor has the power been
+granted especially to me by God of binding and loosing in heaven and
+earth. On the strength of this, for the honor and glory of thy Church,
+in the name of Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I withdraw,
+through thy power and authority, from Henry the King, son of Henry the
+Emperor, who has risen against thy Church with unheard-of insolence, the
+rule over the whole kingdom of the Germans and over Italy. I absolve all
+Christians from the bonds of the oath which they have sworn, or may
+swear, to him; and I forbid anyone to serve him as king." For his
+intercourse with the excommunicated and his manifold iniquities, the
+king is furthermore declared accursed and excommunicate.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Attitude of the German princes.</div>
+
+<p>For a time after the pope had deposed him everything went against Henry.
+Even the churchmen now held off. Instead of resenting the pope's
+interference, the discontented Saxons, and many other of Henry's
+vassals, believed that there was now an excellent opportunity to get rid
+of Henry and choose a more agreeable ruler. But after a long conference
+the great German vassals decided to give Henry another chance. He was to
+refrain from exercising the functions of government until he had made
+peace with the pope. If at the end of a year he had failed to do this,
+he was to be regarded as having forfeited the throne. The pope was,
+moreover, invited to come to Augsburg to consult with the princes as to
+whether Henry should be reinstated or another chosen in his stead. It
+looked as if the pope was, in truth, to control the civil government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry submits to the pope at Canossa, 1077.</div>
+
+<p>Henry decided to anticipate the arrival of the pope. He hastened across
+the Alps in midwinter and appeared as an humble suppliant before the
+castle of Canossa, whither the pope had come on his way to Augsburg. For
+three days the German king appeared before the closed door, barefoot and
+in the coarse garments of a pilgrim and a penitent, and even then
+Gregory was induced only by the expostulations of his influential
+companions to admit the humiliated ruler. The spectacle of this mighty
+prince of distinguished appearance, humiliated and in tears before the
+nervous little man who humbly styled himself the "servant of the
+servants of God," has always been regarded as most completely typifying
+the power of the Church and the potency of her curses, against which
+even the most exalted of the earth found no weapon of defense except
+abject penitence.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A new king chosen.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry again excommunicated.</div>
+
+<p><b>65.</b> The pardon which Henry received at Canossa did not satisfy the
+German princes; for their main object in demanding that he should
+reconcile himself with the Church had been to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> cause him additional
+embarrassment. They therefore proceeded to elect another ruler, and the
+next three or four years was a period of bloody struggles between the
+adherents of the rival kings. Gregory remained neutral until 1080, when
+he again "bound with the chain of anathema" Henry, "the so-called king,"
+and all his followers. He declared him deprived of his royal power and
+dignity and forbade all Christians to obey him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry triumphs over Gregory.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Gregory.</div>
+
+<p>The new excommunication had precisely the opposite effect from the first
+one. Henry's friends increased rather than decreased. The German clergy
+were again aroused, and they again deposed "this same most brazen
+Hildebrand." Henry's rival fell in battle, and Henry, accompanied by an
+anti-pope, betook himself to Italy with the double purpose of putting
+his pope on the throne and winning the imperial crown. Gregory held out
+for no less than two years, but at last Rome fell into Henry's hands and
+Gregory withdrew and soon died. His last words were, "I have loved
+justice and hated iniquity, therefore I die an exile," and the
+fair-minded historical student will not question their truth.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry IV's further troubles.</div>
+
+<p>The death of Gregory did not put an end to Henry's difficulties. He
+spent the remaining twenty years of his life in trying to maintain his
+rights as king of Germany and Italy against his rebellious subjects on
+both sides of the Alps. In Germany his chief enemies were the Saxons and
+his discontented vassals. In Italy the pope was now actively engaged as
+a temporal ruler, in building up a little state of his own. He was,
+moreover, always ready to encourage the Lombard cities&mdash;which were
+growing more and more powerful and less and less willing to submit to
+the rule of a German&mdash;in their opposition to the emperor.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Rebellion at home and in Italy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treason of Henry's sons.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Henry IV, 1106.</div>
+
+<p>A combination of his Italian enemies called Henry again to Italy in
+1090, although he was forced to leave Germany but half subdued. He was
+seriously defeated by the Italians; and the Lombard cities embraced the
+opportunity to form their first union against their foreign king. In
+1093 Milan, Cremona, Lodi, and Piacenza joined in an offensive and
+defensive alliance for their own protection. After seven years of
+hopeless lingering in Italy, Henry returned sadly across the Alps,
+leaving the peninsula in the hands of his enemies. But he found no peace
+at home. His discontented German vassals induced his son, whom he had
+had crowned as his successor, to revolt against his father. Thereupon
+followed more civil war, more treason, and a miserable abdication. In
+1106 death put an end to perhaps the saddest reign that history records.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry V, 1106&ndash;1125.</div>
+
+<p>The achievement of the reign of Henry IV's son, Henry V, which chiefly
+interests us was the adjustment of the question of investitures. Pope
+Paschal II, while willing to recognize those bishops already chosen by
+the king, provided they were good men, proposed that thereafter
+Gregory's decrees against lay investiture should be carried out. The
+clergy should no longer do homage and lay their hands, consecrated to
+the service of the altar, in the blood-stained hands of the nobles.
+Henry V, on the other hand, declared that unless the clergy took the
+oath of fealty the bishops would not be given the lands, towns, castles,
+tolls, and privileges attached to the bishoprics.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Settlement of the question of lay investiture in the
+Concordat of Worms, 1122.</div>
+
+<p>After a succession of troubles a compromise was at last reached in the
+Concordat of Worms (1122), which put an end to the controversy over
+investitures in Germany.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> The emperor promised to permit the Church
+freely to elect the bishops and abbots and renounced his old claim to
+invest with the spiritual emblems of the ring and the crosier. But the
+elections were to be held in the presence of the king, and he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> was
+permitted, in a separate ceremony, to invest the new bishop or abbot
+with his fiefs and secular prerogatives by a touch of the scepter. In
+this way the spiritual rights of the bishops were obviously conferred by
+the churchmen who elected him; and although the king might still
+practically invalidate an election by refusing to invest with the
+coveted temporal privileges, still the direct appointment of the bishops
+and abbots was taken out of his hands. As for the emperor's control over
+the papacy, too many popes, since the advent of Henry IV, had been
+generally recognized as properly elected without the sanction of the
+emperor, for any one to believe any longer that his sanction was
+necessary.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND THE POPES</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick I, Barbarossa, 1152&ndash;1190.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The historian, Otto of Freising.</div>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> Frederick I, nicknamed Barbarossa, i.e., "Redbeard," who became king
+of Germany in 1152,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> is the most interesting of all the German
+emperors; and the records we have of his reign enable us to gain a
+pretty good view of Europe in the middle of the twelfth century. With
+his advent, we feel that we are emerging from that long period which
+used to be known as the dark ages. Most of our knowledge of European
+history from the sixth to the twelfth century is derived from meager and
+unreliable monkish chronicles, whose authors were often ignorant and
+careless, and usually far away from the scenes of the events they
+recorded. In the latter half of the twelfth century, however,
+information grows much more abundant and varied. We begin to have
+records of the town life and are no longer entirely dependent upon the
+monks' records. The first historian with a certain philosophic grasp of
+his theme was Otto of Freising. His <i>Life of Frederick Barbarossa</i> and
+his history of the world form invaluable sources of knowledge of the
+period we now enter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick's ideal of the Empire.</div>
+
+<p>Frederick's ambition was to raise the Roman Empire to its old glory and
+influence. He regarded himself as the successor of the C&aelig;sars, of
+Justinian, of Charlemagne, and of Otto the Great. He believed his office
+to be quite as divinely established as the papacy. In announcing his
+election to the pope, he stated that the Empire had been "bestowed upon
+him by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> God," and he did not ask for the pope's sanction, as his
+predecessors had done. But in his lifelong attempt to maintain what he
+assumed to be the rights of the emperor he encountered all the old
+difficulties. He had to watch his rebellious vassals in Germany and meet
+the opposition of a series of unflinching popes, ready to defend the
+most exalted claims of the papacy. He found, moreover, in the Lombard
+cities unconquerable foes, who finally brought upon him a signal defeat.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The towns begin to play a part in history.</div>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> One of the most striking differences between the ages before
+Frederick and the whole period since, lies in the development of town
+life, with all that that implies. Up to this time we have heard only of
+emperors, popes, bishops, and feudal lords; from now on the cities must
+be reckoned with, as Frederick was to discover to his sorrow.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The government of the Lombard cities becomes partially
+democratic.</div>
+
+<p>The government of the towns of Lombardy fell, after Charlemagne's time,
+into the hands of their respective bishops, who exercised the
+prerogatives of counts. Under the bishops the towns flourished within
+their walls and also extended their control over the neighboring
+districts. As industry and commerce increased, the prosperous citizens,
+and the poorer classes as well, aspired to some control over the
+government. Cremona very early expelled its bishop, destroyed his
+castle, and refused to pay him any dues. Later Henry IV stirred up Lucca
+against its bishop and promised that its liberties should never be
+interfered with henceforth by bishop, duke, or count. Other towns threw
+off the episcopal rule, and in practically all of them the government
+came at last into the hands of municipal officials elected by those
+citizens who were permitted to have a hand in the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The turmoil in the Italian towns; their remarkable
+civilization.</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image21.jpg" width="500" height="495" alt="Italian Towns in the Twelfth Century" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Italian Towns in the Twelfth Century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The more humble artisans were excluded altogether from a voice in city
+affairs. Their occasional revolts, as well as the feuds between the
+factions of the nobles,&mdash;who took up their residence in the towns
+instead of remaining on their estates,&mdash;produced a turmoil which we
+should think intolerable in our modern peaceable cities. This was
+greatly increased by bitter wars with neighboring towns. Yet, in spite
+of incredible disorder within and without, the Italian towns became
+centers of industry, learning, and art, unequaled in history except by
+the famous cities of Greece. They were able, moreover, to maintain their
+independence for several centuries. Frederick's difficulties in playing
+the emperor in Italy were naturally greatly increased by the sturdy
+opposition of the Lombard towns which could always count on a faithful
+ally in the pope. He and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> they had a common interest in seeing that the
+power of the king of Germany remained purely nominal on their side of
+the mountains.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick's first expedition to Italy, 1154.</div>
+
+<p><b>68.</b> Milan was the most powerful of the Lombard towns and was heartily
+detested by her neighbors, over whom she was constantly endeavoring to
+extend her control. Two refugees from Lodi brought word to the newly
+elected emperor of Milan's tyranny. When Frederick's representatives
+reached the offending city they were insulted and the imperial seal was
+trampled in the dust. Like the other towns, Milan would acknowledge the
+supremacy of the emperor only so long as he made it no trouble. The wish
+to gain the imperial crown and to see what this bold conduct of Milan
+meant, brought Frederick to Italy, in 1154, on the first of six
+expeditions, which together were to occupy many years of his reign.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick pitched his camp in the plain of Roncaglia and there received
+representatives from the Lombard towns, who had many and grievous
+complaints to make of the conduct of their neighbors, especially of the
+arrogant Milan. We get a hint of the distant commerce of the maritime
+cities when we read that Genoa sent gifts of ostriches, lions, and
+parrots. Frederick made a momentary impression by proceeding, upon the
+complaint of Pavia, to besiege and destroy the town of Tortona. As soon
+as he moved on to Rome, Milan plucked up courage to punish two or three
+neighbors who had too enthusiastically supported the emperor; it also
+lent a hand to Tortona's hapless citizens in rebuilding their city.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick and Pope Hadrian.</div>
+
+<p>When the pope, Hadrian IV, and the emperor first met there was some
+bitter feeling because Frederick hesitated to hold the pope's stirrup.
+He made no further objection, however, when he learned that it was the
+custom. Hadrian was relying upon his assistance, for Rome was in the
+midst of a remarkable revolution. Under the leadership of the famous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+Arnold of Brescia,<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> the city was attempting to re&euml;stablish a
+government similar to that of the times when the Roman senate ruled the
+civilized world. It is needless to say that the attempt failed, though
+Frederick gave the pope but little help against Arnold and the
+rebellious Romans. After receiving his crown, the emperor hastened back
+to Germany and left the disappointed Hadrian to deal with his refractory
+people as best he might. This desertion and later misunderstandings
+produced much ill feeling between the pope and Frederick.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The assembly at Roncaglia, 1158.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Its decision as to the rights (<i>regalia</i>) of the emperor over
+the Lombard towns.</div>
+
+<p>In 1158 Frederick was back in Italy and held another great assembly at
+Roncaglia. He summoned hither certain teachers of the Roman law from
+Bologna (where the revived study of the law was actively pursued), as
+well as representatives of the towns, to decide exactly what his rights
+as emperor were. There was little danger but that those versed in a law
+which declared that "whatsoever the prince has willed has the force of
+law," should give the emperor his due. His <i>regalia</i>, or governmental
+prerogatives, were declared to consist in feudal suzerainty over the
+various duchies and counties, and in the right to appoint magistrates,
+collect tolls, impose an extraordinary war tax, coin money, and enjoy
+the revenue from fisheries and from salt and silver mines. Such persons
+or towns as could produce proof that any of these privileges had been
+formally conceded to them might continue to enjoy them; otherwise the
+emperor assumed them. As most of the towns had simply succeeded to the
+rights of the bishops and had no legal proofs of any concessions from
+the emperor, this decision meant the loss of their independence. The
+emperor greatly increased his revenue for the moment; but these extreme
+measures and the hated governors whom he appointed to represent him were
+bound to produce ultimate revolt. It became a matter of life and death
+to the towns to get rid of the imperial officials and taxgatherers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The destruction of Crema and Milan.</div>
+
+<p>The town of Crema refused to level its walls at the command of the
+emperor. It had to undergo a most terrible siege and finally succumbed.
+Its citizens were allowed to depart with nothing but their lives, and
+the place was given over to plunder and destruction. Then Milan drove
+the emperor's deputies from the gates. A long siege brought even this
+proud city to terms; and the emperor did not hesitate to order its
+destruction, in spite of its commercial and political importance (1162).
+It is a melancholy commentary upon the relations between the various
+towns that Milan's neighbors begged to be permitted to carry out her
+annihilation. Her inhabitants were allowed to settle in the neighborhood
+of the spot where their prosperous city had stood, and from the rapidity
+with which they were able to rebuild it later, we may conclude that the
+demolition was not so thoroughgoing as some of the accounts imply.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Lombard towns secretly unite to form the Lombard League.</div>
+
+<p><b>69.</b> The only hope for the Lombard towns was in <i>union</i>, which the
+emperor had explicitly forbidden. Soon after Milan's destruction
+measures were secretly taken to form the nucleus of what became later
+the great Lombard League. Cremona, Brescia, Mantua, and Bergamo joined
+together against the emperor. Encouraged by the pope and aided by the
+League, Milan was speedily rebuilt. Frederick, who had been engaged in
+conquering Rome with a view of placing an anti-pope on the throne of St.
+Peter, was glad, in 1167, to escape the combined dangers of Roman fever
+and the wrath of the towns and get back to Germany. The League was
+extended to include Verona, Piacenza, Parma, and eventually many other
+towns. It was even deemed best to construct an entirely new town, with a
+view of harboring forces to oppose the emperor on his return, and
+Alessandria remains a lasting testimonial to the energy and co&ouml;perative
+spirit of the League. The new town got its name from the League's ally,
+Pope Alexander III, one of the most conspicuous among the papal
+opponents of the German kings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Frederick completely defeated by the League at Legnano,
+1176.</div>
+
+<p>After several years spent in regulating affairs in Germany, Frederick
+again appeared in Lombardy. He found the new "straw" town, as the
+imperialists contemptuously called it, too strong for him. The League
+got its forces together, and a great battle took place at Legnano in
+1176,&mdash;a really decisive conflict, which was rare enough in the Middle
+Ages. Frederick had been unable to get the re&euml;nforcements he wished from
+across the Alps, and, under the energetic leadership of Milan, the
+League so completely and hopelessly defeated him that the question of
+the mastery in Lombardy was settled for some time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peace of Constance (1183) establishes independence of Lombard
+towns.</div>
+
+<p>A great congress was thereupon assembled at Venice, and here, under the
+auspices of Pope Alexander III, a truce was concluded, which was made a
+perpetual peace at Constance in 1183. The towns received back
+practically all their regalia and, upon formally acknowledging the
+emperor's overlordship, were left by him to go their own way. Frederick
+was forced, moreover, humbly to recognize a pope that he had solemnly
+sworn should never be obeyed by him. The pope and the towns had made
+common cause and enjoyed a common victory.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the power of the Guelfs.</div>
+
+<p>From this time on we find the name <i>Guelf</i> assumed by the party in Italy
+which was opposed to the emperors.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> This is but another form of the
+name of the Welf family, who made most of the trouble for the
+Hohenstaufens in Germany. A certain Welf had been made duke of Bavaria
+by Henry IV (in 1070). His son added to the family estates by marrying a
+rich north-German heiress. His grandson, Henry the Proud, looked still
+higher and became the son-in-law of the duke of Saxony and the heir to
+his great duchy. This, added to his other vast possessions, made him the
+most powerful and dangerous of the vassals of the Hohenstaufen emperors.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Division of Saxony and the other great German duchies.</div>
+
+<p>On returning from his disastrous campaign against the Lombard towns,
+Frederick Barbarossa found himself at war with the Guelf leader, Henry
+the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), who had refused to come to the
+emperor's aid before the battle of Legnano. Henry was banished, and
+Frederick divided up the Saxon duchy. His policy was to split up the old
+duchies, for he clearly saw the danger of permitting his vassals to
+control districts as large as he himself held.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Hohenstaufens extend their power into southern Italy.</div>
+
+<p><b>70.</b> Before his departure upon the crusading expedition during which he
+lost his life, Frederick saw his son, Henry VI, crowned king of Italy.
+Moreover, in order to extend the power of the Hohenstaufens over
+southern Italy, he arranged a marriage between the young Henry and
+Constance, the heiress to the Norman kingdom of Naples and Sicily.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>
+Thus the hopeless attempt to keep both Germany and Italy under the same
+head was continued. It brought about new conflicts with the popes, who
+were the feudal suzerains of Naples and Sicily, and ended in the ruin of
+the house of Hohenstaufen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry VI, 1190&ndash;1197.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His troubles in Italy and Germany.</div>
+
+<p>Henry VI's short reign was beset with difficulties which he sturdily met
+and overcame. Henry the Lion, the Guelf leader, having broken the oath
+he had sworn to Frederick to keep away from Germany, returned and
+organized a rebellion. So soon as this was quelled and the Guelf party
+was under control for a time, Henry VI had to hasten south to rescue his
+Sicilian kingdom. There a certain Norman count, Tancred, was leading a
+national revolt against the German<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> claimant. The pope, who regarded
+Sicily as his fief, had freed the emperor's Norman subjects from their
+oath of fidelity to him. Moreover, Richard the Lion-Hearted of England
+had landed on his way to the Holy Land and allied himself with Tancred.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VI's expedition to Italy proved a complete disaster. His empress
+was captured by Tancred's people, his army largely perished by sickness,
+and Henry the Lion's son, whom he held as a hostage, escaped. To add to
+his troubles, no sooner had he reached Germany once more than he was
+confronted by a new and more formidable revolt (1192). Luckily for him,
+Richard, stealing home through Germany from his crusade, fell into his
+hands. He held the English king, as an ally of the Guelfs, until he
+obtained an enormous ransom, which supplied him with the means of
+fighting his enemies in both Germany and Italy. The death of Tancred
+enabled him to regain his realms in southern Italy. But he endeavored in
+vain to induce the German princes to recognize the permanent union of
+the southern Italian kingdom with Germany, or to make the imperial crown
+hereditary in his house.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope Innocent III.</div>
+
+<p>At the age of thirty-two, and in the midst of plans for a world empire,
+Henry succumbed to Italian fever, leaving the fate of the Hohenstaufen
+family in the hands of his infant son, who was to become the famous
+Frederick II. Just as Henry VI died, the greatest, perhaps, of all the
+popes was about to ascend the throne of St. Peter, and for nearly a
+score of years to dominate the political affairs of western Europe. For
+a time the political power of the popes almost overshadows that of a
+Charlemagne or a Napoleon. In a later chapter a description will be
+given of the great institution over which Innocent III presided like a
+monarch upon his throne. But first we must follow the history of the
+struggle between the papacy and the house of Hohenstaufen during the
+remarkable career of Frederick II.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Philip of Hohenstaufen and Otto of Brunswick rival claimants
+for the German throne.</div>
+
+<p><b>71.</b> No sooner was Henry VI out of the way than Germany became, in the
+words of Henry's brother Philip, "like a sea lashed by every wind." So
+wild was the confusion, so torn and so shaken was poor Germany in all
+its parts, that far-sighted men doubted if they would ever see it return
+to peace and order. Philip first proposed to play the r&ocirc;le of regent to
+his little nephew, but before long he assumed the imperial prerogatives,
+after being duly elected king of the Romans. The Archbishop of Cologne,
+however, summoned an assembly and brought about the election of a rival
+king, Otto of Brunswick, the youthful son of Henry the Lion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Innocent III decides in favor of Otto.</div>
+
+<p>So the old struggle between Guelf and Hohenstaufen was renewed. Both of
+the kings bid for the support of Innocent III, who openly proclaimed
+that the decision of the matter lay with him. Otto was willing to make
+the most reckless concessions to him; and as the pope naturally feared a
+revival of the power of the Hohenstaufen house should Philip be
+recognized, he decided in favor of the Guelf claimant in 1201. The
+grateful Otto wrote to him, "My kingship would have dissolved in dust
+and ashes had not your hand, or rather the authority of the Apostolic
+Chair, weighed the scale in my favor." Innocent appears here, as upon
+other occasions, as the arbiter of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In the dreary civil wars which followed in Germany, Otto gradually lost
+all his friends. His rival's promising career was, however, speedily cut
+short, for he was murdered by a private enemy in 1208. Thereupon the
+pope threatened to excommunicate any German bishop or prince who failed
+to support Otto. The following year Otto went to Rome to be crowned, but
+he promptly made an enemy of the pope by playing the emperor in Italy;
+he even invaded the Sicilian kingdom of the pope's ward, Frederick, the
+son of Henry VI.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Innocent III the arbiter of western Europe.</div>
+
+<p>Innocent then repudiated Otto, in whom he claimed to have "been deceived
+as God himself was once deceived in Saul." He determined that the young
+Frederick should be made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> emperor, but he took great precautions to
+prevent him from becoming a dangerous enemy of the pope, as his father
+and grandfather had been. When Frederick was elected king in 1212 he
+made all the promises that Innocent asked.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John of England becomes a vassal of the pope.</div>
+
+<p>While the pope had been guiding the affairs of the empire he had by no
+means neglected to exhibit his power in other quarters, above all in
+England. The monks of Canterbury had (1205) ventured to choose an
+archbishop&mdash;who was at the same time their abbot&mdash;without consulting
+their king, John. Their appointee hastened off to Rome to gain the
+pope's confirmation, while the irritated John forced the monks to hold
+another election and make his treasurer archbishop. Innocent thereupon
+rejected both of those who had been elected, sent for a new deputation
+of monks from Canterbury, and bade them choose Stephen Langton, a man of
+great ability. John then angrily drove the monks of Canterbury out of
+the kingdom. Innocent replied by placing England under the <i>interdict</i>,
+that is to say, he ordered the clergy to close all the churches and
+suspend all public services,&mdash;a very terrible thing to the people of the
+time. John was excommunicated, and the pope threatened that unless the
+king submitted to his wishes he would depose him and give his crown to
+Philip Augustus of France. As Philip made haste to collect an army for
+the conquest of England, John humbly submitted to the pope in 1213. He
+went so far as to hand England over to Innocent III and receive it back
+as a fief, thus becoming the vassal of the pope. He agreed also to send
+a yearly tribute to Rome.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The fourth Lateran Council, 1215.</div>
+
+<p>Innocent, in spite of several setbacks, now appeared to have attained
+all his ambitious ends. The emperor, Frederick II, was his prot&eacute;g&eacute; and,
+as king of Sicily, his acknowledged vassal, as was also the king of
+England. He not only asserted but also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> maintained his right to
+interfere in all the important political affairs of the various European
+countries. In 1215 a stately international congress&mdash;the fourth Lateran
+Council&mdash;met in his palace. It was attended by hundreds of bishops,
+abbots, and representatives of kings, princes, and towns. Its decrees
+were directed against the abuses in the Church and the progress of
+heresy, both of which were seriously threatening the power of the
+clergy. It confirmed the election of Frederick II and excommunicated
+once more the now completely discredited Otto.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Innocent III, 1216.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Emperor Frederick II, 1212&ndash;1250.</div>
+
+<p><b>72.</b> Innocent III died during the following year and left a heritage of
+trouble to his successors in the person of the former papal ward,
+Frederick II, who was little inclined to obey the pope. He had been
+brought up in Sicily and was much influenced by the Arabic culture which
+prevailed there. He appears to have rejected many of the received
+opinions of the time. His enemies asserted that he was not even a
+Christian, and that he declared that Moses, Christ, and Mohammed were
+all alike impostors. He was nearsighted, bald, and wholly insignificant
+in person; but he exhibited the most extraordinary energy and ability in
+the organization of his kingdom of Sicily, in which he was far more
+interested than in Germany. He drew up an elaborate code of laws for his
+southern realms and may be said to have founded the first modern
+well-regulated state, in which the king was indisputably supreme.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His bitter struggle with the papacy.</div>
+
+<p>We cannot stop to relate the romantic and absorbing story of his long
+struggle with the popes. They speedily discovered that he was bent upon
+establishing a powerful state to the south of them, and upon extending
+his control over the Lombard cities in such a manner that the papal
+possessions would be held as in a vise. This, they felt, should never be
+permitted. Almost every measure that Frederick adopted aroused their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+suspicion and opposition, and they made every effort to destroy him and
+his house.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick recognized as king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>His chance of success in the conflict with the head of the Church was
+gravely affected by the promise which he had made before Innocent III's
+death to undertake a crusade. He was so busily engaged with his endless
+enterprises that he kept deferring the expedition, in spite of the papal
+admonitions, until at last the pope lost patience and excommunicated
+him. While excommunicate, he at last started for the East. He met with
+signal success and actually brought Jerusalem, the Holy City, once more
+into Christian hands and was himself recognized as king of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extinction of the Hohenstaufens' power.</div>
+
+<p>Frederick's conduct continued, however, to give offense to the popes.
+The emperor was denounced in solemn councils, and at last the popes
+began to raise up rival kings in Germany to replace Frederick, whom they
+deposed. After Frederick died (1250) his sons maintained themselves for
+a few years in the Sicilian kingdom; but they finally gave way before a
+French army, led by the brother of St. Louis, Charles of Anjou, upon
+whom the pope bestowed the southern realms of the Hohenstaufens.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick's death marks the close of the medi&aelig;val empire.</div>
+
+<p>With Frederick's death the medi&aelig;val empire may be said to have come to
+an end. It is true that after a period of "fist law," as the Germans
+call it, a new king, Rudolf of Hapsburg, was elected in Germany in 1273.
+The German kings continued to call themselves emperors. Few of them,
+however, took the trouble to go to Rome to be crowned by the pope. No
+serious effort was ever made to reconquer the Italian territory for
+which Otto the Great, Frederick Barbarossa, and his son and grandson had
+made such serious sacrifices. Germany was hopelessly divided and its
+king was no real king. He had no capital, no well-organized government.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Division of Germany and Italy into small independent
+states.</div>
+
+<p>By the middle of the thirteenth century it became apparent that neither
+Germany nor Italy was to be converted into a strong single kingdom like
+England and France. The map of Germany shows a confused group of
+duchies, counties, archbishoprics, bishoprics, abbacies, and free towns,
+each one of which asserted its practical independence of the weak king
+and emperor.</p>
+
+<p>In northern Italy each town, including a certain district about its
+walls, had become an independent state, dealing with its neighbors as
+with independent powers. The Italian towns were destined to become the
+birthplace of our modern culture during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries. Venice and Florence, in spite of their small size, came to be
+reckoned among the most important states of Europe. In the central part
+of the peninsula the pope maintained more or less control over his
+possessions, but he often failed to subdue the towns within his realms.
+To the south Naples remained for some time under the French dynasty,
+which the pope had called in, but the island of Sicily drifted into
+Spanish hands.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CRUSADES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>73.</b> Of all the events of the Middle Ages, the most romantic and
+fascinating are the Crusades, the adventurous expeditions to Syria,
+undertaken by kings and doughty knights with the hope of permanently
+reclaiming the Holy Land from the infidel Turks. All through the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries each generation beheld at least one great army
+of crusaders gathering from all parts of the West and starting toward
+the Orient. Each year witnessed the departure of small bands of pilgrims
+or of solitary soldiers of the cross. For two hundred years there was a
+continuous stream of Europeans of every rank and station making their
+way into western Asia. If they escaped the countless hazards of the
+journey, they either settled in this distant land and devoted themselves
+to war or commerce, or returned home, bringing with them tales of great
+cities and new peoples, of skill and luxury unknown in the West.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Natural temptation to overrate the importance of the
+Crusades.</div>
+
+<p>Our sources of information in regard to the Crusades are so abundant and
+so rich in picturesque incidents that writers have often yielded to the
+temptation to give more space to these expeditions than their
+consequences really justify. They were, after all, only one of the great
+foreign enterprises which have been undertaken from time to time by the
+European peoples. While their influence upon the West was doubtless very
+important,&mdash;like that of the later conquest of India by the English and
+the colonization of America,&mdash;the details of the campaigns in the East
+scarcely belong to the history of western Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Holy Land conquered first by the Arabs and then by the
+Turks.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Eastern emperor appeals to the pope for aid against the
+infidel Turks.</div>
+
+<p>Syria had been overrun by the Arabs in the seventh century, shortly
+after the death of Mohammed, and the Holy City of Jerusalem had fallen
+into the hands of the infidels. The Arab, however, shared the veneration
+of the Christian for the places associated with the life of Christ and,
+in general, permitted the Christian pilgrims who found their way thither
+to worship unmolested. But with the coming of a new and ruder people,
+the Seljuk Turks, in the eleventh century, the pilgrims began to bring
+home news of great hardships. Moreover, the eastern emperor was defeated
+by the Turks in 1071 and lost Asia Minor. The presence of the Turks in
+possession of the fortress of Nic&aelig;a, just across from Constantinople,
+was of course a standing menace to the Eastern Empire. When the
+energetic Emperor Alexius (1081&ndash;1118) ascended the throne he endeavored
+to expel the infidel. Finding himself unequal to the task, he appealed
+for assistance to the head of Christendom, Urban II. The first great
+impetus to the Crusades was the call issued by Urban at the celebrated
+council which met in 1095 at Clermont in France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Urban II issues the call to the First Crusade at the Council
+of Clermont, 1095.</div>
+
+<p>In an address, which produced more remarkable immediate results than any
+other which history records, the pope exhorted knights and foot soldiers
+of all ranks to give up their usual wicked business of destroying their
+Christian brethren in private warfare and turn instead to the succor of
+their fellow-Christians in the East. Otherwise the insolent Turks would,
+if unchecked, extend their sway still more widely over the faithful
+servants of the Lord. "Let the Holy Sepulcher of the Lord our Saviour,
+which is possessed by unclean nations, especially urge you on, and the
+holy places which they are now treating with ignominy and irreverently
+polluting." Urban urged besides that France was too poor to support all
+its people, while the Holy Land flowed with milk and honey. "Enter upon
+the road to the Holy Sepulcher; wrest the land from the wicked race and
+subject it to yourselves." When the pope had finished,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> all who were
+present exclaimed, with one accord, "It is the will of God." This, the
+pope declared, should be the rallying cry of the crusaders, who were to
+wear a cross upon their bosoms as they went forth, and upon their backs
+as they returned, as a holy sign of their sacred mission.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The motives of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The Crusades are ordinarily represented as the most striking examples of
+the simple faith and religious enthusiasm of the Middle Ages. They
+appealed, however, to many different kinds of men. The devout, the
+romantic, and the adventurous were by no means the only classes that
+were attracted. Syria held out inducements to the discontented noble who
+might hope to gain a principality in the East, to the merchant who was
+looking for new enterprises, to the merely restless who wished to avoid
+his responsibilities at home, and even to the criminal who enlisted with
+a view of escaping the results of his past offenses. It is noteworthy
+that Urban appeals especially to those who had been "contending against
+their brethren and relatives," and urges those "who have hitherto been
+robbers now to become soldiers of Christ." The conduct of many of the
+crusaders indicates that the pope found a ready hearing among this
+class. Yet higher motives than a love of adventure and the hope of
+conquest impelled many who took their way eastward. Great numbers,
+doubtless, went to Jerusalem "through devotion alone, and not for the
+sake of honor or gain," with the sole object of freeing the Holy
+Sepulcher from the hands of the infidel.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Privileges of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>To such as these the pope promised that the journey itself should take
+the place of all penance for sin. The faithful crusader, like the
+faithful Mohammedan, was assured of immediate entrance into heaven if he
+died repentant in the holy cause. Later the Church exhibited its
+extraordinary authority by what would seem to us an unjust interference
+with business contracts. It freed those who, with a pure heart, entered
+upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> the journey from the payment of interest upon their debts, and
+permitted them to mortgage property against the wishes of their feudal
+lords. The crusaders' wives and children and property were taken under
+the immediate protection of the Church, and he who troubled them
+incurred excommunication.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> These various considerations help to
+explain the great popularity of undertakings that, at first sight, would
+seem to have promised only hardships and disappointment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map190.jpg">
+<img src="images/map190th.jpg" width="600" height="431" alt="ROUTES OF THE CRUSADERS" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">ROUTES OF THE CRUSADERS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peter the Hermit and his army.</div>
+
+<p><b>74.</b> The Council of Clermont met in November. Before spring (1096) those
+who set forth to preach the Crusade, above all the famous Peter the
+Hermit, who was formerly given credit for having begun the whole
+crusading movement, had collected, in France and along the Rhine, an
+extraordinary army of the common folk. Peasants, artisans, vagabonds,
+and even women and children, answered the summons, all fanatically
+intent upon rescuing the Holy Sepulcher, two thousand miles away. They
+were confident that the Lord would sustain them during the weary leagues
+of the journey, and grant them a prompt victory over the infidel. The
+host was got under way in several divisions under the leadership of
+Peter the Hermit,<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> and of Walter the Penniless and other humble
+knights. Many of the crusaders were slaughtered by the Hungarians, who
+rose to protect themselves from the depredations of this motley horde.
+Part of them got as far as Nic&aelig;a, only to be slaughtered by the Turks.
+This is but an example, on a large scale, of what was going on
+continually for a century or so after this first great catastrophe.
+Individual pilgrims and adventurers, and sometimes considerable bodies
+of crusaders, were constantly falling a prey to every form of
+disaster&mdash;starvation, slavery, disease, and death&mdash;in their endeavors to
+reach the Holy Land.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The First Crusade, 1096.</div>
+
+<p>The conspicuous figures of the long period of the Crusades are not,
+however, to be found among the lowly followers of Peter the Hermit, but
+are the knights, in their long coats of mail. A year after the summons
+issued at Clermont great armies of fighting men had been collected in
+the West under noble leaders;&mdash;the pope speaks of three hundred thousand
+soldiers. Of the various divisions which were to meet in Constantinople,
+the following were the most important: the volunteers from Provence
+under the papal legate and Count Raymond of Toulouse; inhabitants of
+Germany, particularly of Lorraine, under Godfrey of Bouillon and his
+brother Baldwin, both destined to be rulers of Jerusalem; and lastly, an
+army of French and of the Normans of southern Italy under Bohemond and
+Tancred.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image22.jpg" width="300" height="640" alt="Knight of the First Crusade." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Knight of the First Crusade.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The distinguished knights who have been mentioned were not actually in
+command of real armies. Each crusader undertook the expedition on his
+own account and was only obedient to any one's orders so long as he
+pleased. The knights and men naturally grouped themselves around the
+more noted leaders, but considered themselves free to change chiefs when
+they pleased. The leaders themselves reserved the right to look out for
+their own special interests rather than sacrifice themselves to the good
+of the expedition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hostilities between the Greeks and the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>Upon the arrival of the crusaders at Constantinople it quickly became
+clear that they had little more in common with the Greeks than with the
+Turks. Emperor Alexius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> ordered his soldiers to attack Godfrey's army,
+encamped in the suburbs of his capital, because their chief at first
+refused to take the oath of feudal homage to him. The emperor's
+daughter, in her remarkable history of the times, gives a sad picture of
+the outrageous conduct of the crusaders. They, on the other hand,
+denounced the "schismatic Greeks" as traitors, cowards, and liars.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern emperor had hoped to use his western allies to reconquer
+Asia Minor and force back the Turks. The leading knights, on the
+contrary, dreamed of carving out principalities for themselves in the
+former dominions of the emperor and proposed to control them by right of
+conquest. Later we find both Greeks and western Christians shamelessly
+allying themselves with the Mohammedans against each other. The
+relations of the eastern and western enemies of the Turks were well
+illustrated when the crusaders besieged their first town, Nic&aelig;a. When it
+was just ready to surrender, the Greeks arranged with the enemy to have
+their troops admitted first. They then closed the gates against their
+western confederates and invited them to move on.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dissension among the leaders of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The first real allies that the crusaders met with were the Christian
+Armenians, who brought them aid after their terrible march through Asia
+Minor. With their help Baldwin got possession of Edessa, of which he
+made himself prince. The chiefs induced the great body of the crusaders
+to postpone the march on Jerusalem, and a year was spent in taking the
+rich and important city of Antioch. A bitter strife then broke out,
+especially between the Norman Bohemond and the count of Toulouse, as to
+who should have the conquered town. After the most unworthy conduct on
+both sides, Bohemond won, and Raymond set to work to conquer a
+principality for himself on the coast about Tripoli.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image23.jpg" width="400" height="603" alt="Map of the Crusaders&#39; States in Syria" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map of the Crusaders&#39; States in Syria</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Capture of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+
+
+<p>In the spring of 1099 about twenty thousand warriors finally moved upon
+Jerusalem. They found the city well walled and in the midst of a
+desolate region where neither food nor water, nor the materials to
+construct the apparatus necessary for the capture of the town, were to
+be found, The opportune arrival at Jaffa of galleys from Genoa furnished
+the besiegers with supplies, and, in spite of all the difficulties, the
+place was taken in a couple of months. The crusaders, with their
+customary barbarity, massacred the inhabitants. Godfrey of Bouillon was
+chosen ruler of Jerusalem and took the modest title of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> "Defender of the
+Holy Sepulcher." He soon died and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin,
+who left Edessa in 1100 to take up the task of extending the bounds of
+the Kingdom of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Founding of Latin kingdoms in Syria.</div>
+
+<p>It will be observed that the "Franks," as the Mohammedans called all the
+western folk, had established the centers of four principalities. These
+were Edessa, Antioch, the region about Tripoli conquered by Raymond, and
+the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The last was speedily increased by Baldwin;
+with the help of the mariners from Venice and Genoa, he succeeded in
+getting possession of Acre, Sidon, and a number of coast towns.</p>
+
+<p>The news of these Christian victories quickly reached the West, and in
+1101 tens of thousands of new crusaders started eastward. Most of them
+were lost or dispersed in passing through Asia Minor, and few reached
+their destination. The original conquerors were consequently left to
+hold the land against the Saracens and to organize their conquests as
+best they could.</p>
+
+<p>The permanent hold of the Franks upon the eastern borders of the
+Mediterranean depended upon the strength of the colonies which their
+various princes were able to establish. It is impossible to learn how
+many pilgrims from the West made their permanent homes in the new Latin
+principalities. Certainly the greater part of those who visited
+Palestine returned home after fulfilling their vow to kneel at the Holy
+Sepulcher. Still the princes could rely upon a certain number of
+soldiers who would be willing to stay and fight the Mohammedans. The
+Turks, moreover, were so busy fighting one another that they showed less
+energy than might have been expected in attempting to drive the Franks
+from the narrow strip of territory&mdash;some five hundred miles long and
+fifty wide&mdash;which they had conquered.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Hospitalers.</div>
+
+<p><b>75.</b> A noteworthy outcome of the crusading movement was the foundation of
+several curious orders&mdash;the Hospitalers, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> Templars, and the Teutonic
+Knights&mdash;which combined the dominant interests of the time, those of the
+monk and the soldier. They permitted a man to be both at once; the
+knight might wear a monkish cowl over his coat of mail. The Hospitalers
+grew out of a monastic association that was formed before the First
+Crusade for the succor of the poor and sick among the pilgrims. Later
+the society admitted noble knights to its membership and became a
+military order, while continuing its care for the sick. This charitable
+association, like the earlier monasteries, received generous gifts of
+land in western Europe and built and controlled many fortified
+monasteries in the Holy Land itself. After the evacuation of Syria in
+the thirteenth century, the Hospitalers moved their headquarters to the
+island of Rhodes, and later to Malta. The order still exists and it is
+considered a distinction to this day to have the privilege of wearing
+its emblem, the cross of Malta.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image24.jpg" width="300" height="496" alt="Costume of the Hospitalers, showing the Form of the Cross of Malta." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Costume of the Hospitalers, showing the Form of the Cross of Malta.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Templars.</div>
+
+<p>Before the Hospitalers were transformed into a military order, a little
+group of French knights banded together in 1119 to defend pilgrims on
+their way to Jerusalem from the attacks of the infidel. They were
+assigned quarters in the king's palace at Jerusalem on the site of the
+former Temple of Solomon; hence the name, Templars, which they were
+destined to render famous. The "poor soldiers of the Temple" were
+enthusiastically approved by the Church. They wore a white cloak adorned
+with a red cross, and were under a very strict monastic rule which bound
+them by the vows of obedience, poverty, and celibacy. The fame of the
+order spread throughout Europe, and the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> exalted, even dukes and
+princes, were ready to renounce the world and serve Christ under its
+black and white banner, with the legend, <i>Non nobis, Domine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The order was aristocratic from the first, and it soon became incredibly
+rich and independent. It had its collectors in all parts of Europe, who
+dispatched the "alms" they received to the Grand Master at Jerusalem.
+Towns, churches, and estates were given to the order, as well as vast
+sums of money. The king of Aragon proposed to bestow upon it a third of
+his kingdom. The pope showered privileges upon the Templars. They were
+exempted from tithes and taxes, and were brought under his immediate
+jurisdiction; they were released from feudal obligations, and bishops
+were forbidden to excommunicate them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abolition of the order of Templars.</div>
+
+<p>No wonder they grew insolent and aroused the jealousy and hate of
+princes and prelates alike. Even Innocent III violently upbraided them
+for admitting to their order wicked men, who then enjoyed all the
+privileges of churchmen. Early in the fourteenth century, through the
+combined efforts of the pope and Philip the Fair of France, the order
+was brought to a terrible end. Its members were accused of the most
+abominable practices,&mdash;such as heresy, the worship of idols, and the
+systematic insulting of Christ and his religion. Many distinguished
+Templars were burned for heresy, others perished miserably in dungeons.
+The order was abolished and its property confiscated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Teutonic Knights conquer the Prussians.</div>
+
+<p>As for the third great order, that of the Teutonic Knights, their
+greatest importance lies in their conquest, after the Crusades were
+over, of the heathen Prussians. Through their efforts a new Christian
+state was formed on the shores of the Baltic, in which the important
+cities of K&ouml;nigsberg and Dantzig grew up.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Second Crusade.</div>
+
+<p><b>76.</b> Fifty years after the preaching of the First Crusade, the fall of
+Edessa (1144), an important outpost of the Christians in the East, led
+to a second great expedition. This was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> forwarded by no less a person
+than St. Bernard, who went about using his unrivaled eloquence to induce
+volunteers to take the cross. In a fierce hymn of battle he cried to the
+Knights Templars: "The Christian who slays the unbeliever in the Holy
+War is sure of his reward, the more sure if he himself be slain. The
+Christian glories in the death of the pagan, because Christ is
+glorified." The king of France readily consented to take the cross, but
+the emperor, Conrad III, appears to have yielded only after St. Bernard
+had preached before him and given a vivid picture of the terrors of the
+Judgment Day.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the less distinguished recruits, the historian, Otto of
+Freising, tells us that so many thieves and robbers hastened to take the
+cross that every one recognized in their enthusiasm the hand of God. St.
+Bernard himself, the chief promoter of the expedition, gives a most
+unflattering description of the "soldiers of Christ." "In that countless
+multitude you will find few except the utterly wicked and impious, the
+sacrilegious, homicides, and perjurers, whose departure is a double
+gain. Europe rejoices to lose them and Palestine to gain them; they are
+useful in both ways, in their absence from here and their presence
+there." It is quite unnecessary to describe the movements and fate of
+the crusaders; suffice it to say that, from a military standpoint, the
+so-called Second Crusade was a miserable failure.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Third Crusade.</div>
+
+<p>Forty years later, in 1187, Jerusalem was taken by Saladin, the most
+heroic and distinguished of all the Saracen rulers. The loss of the Holy
+City led to the most famous of all the military expeditions to the Holy
+Land, in which Frederick Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted of
+England, and his political rival, Philip Augustus of France, all took
+part. The accounts of the enterprise show that while the several
+Christian leaders hated one another heartily enough, the Christians and
+Saracens were coming to respect one another.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> We find examples of the
+most courtly relations between the representatives of the opposing
+religions. In 1192 Richard concluded a truce with Saladin, by the terms
+of which the Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the holy places
+with safety and comfort.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Fourth and subsequent Crusades.</div>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century the crusaders began to direct their
+expeditions toward Egypt as the center of the Saracen power. The first
+of these was diverted in an extraordinary manner by the Venetians, who
+induced the crusaders to conquer Constantinople for their benefit. The
+further expeditions of Frederick II and St. Louis need not be described.
+Jerusalem was irrevocably lost in 1244, and although the possibility of
+recovering the city was long considered, the Crusades may be said to
+have come to a close before the end of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image25.jpg" width="500" height="214" alt="Ruins of a Fortress of the Hospitalers in the Holy Land" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Ruins of a Fortress of the Hospitalers in the Holy Land</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Settlements of the Italian merchants.</div>
+
+<p><b>77.</b> For one class at least, the Holy Land had great and permanent
+charms, namely, the Italian merchants, especially those from Genoa,
+Venice, and Pisa. It was through their early interest and supplies from
+their ships, that the conquest of the Holy Land had been rendered
+possible. The merchants were always careful to see that they were well
+paid for their services. When they aided in the successful siege of a
+town<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> they arranged that a definite quarter should be assigned to them
+in the captured place, where they might have their market, docks,
+church, and all that was necessary for a permanent center for their
+commerce. This district belonged to the town to which the merchants
+belonged. Venice even sent governors to live in the quarters assigned to
+its citizens in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Marseilles also had
+independent quarters in Jerusalem, and Genoa had its share in the county
+of Tripoli.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Oriental luxury introduced into Europe.</div>
+
+<p>This new commerce had a most important influence in bringing the West
+into permanent relations with the Orient. Eastern products from India
+and elsewhere&mdash;silks, spices, camphor, musk, pearls, and ivory&mdash;were
+brought by the Mohammedans from the East to the commercial towns of
+Palestine and Syria; then, through the Italian merchants, they found
+their way into France and Germany, suggesting ideas of luxury hitherto
+scarcely dreamed of by the still half-barbarous Franks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image26.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Tomb of a Crusader" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Tomb of a Crusader</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results of the Crusades.</div>
+
+<p>Some of the results of the Crusades upon western Europe must already be
+obvious, even from this very brief account. Thousands and thousands of
+Frenchmen, Germans, and Englishmen had traveled to the Orient by land
+and by sea. Most of them came from hamlets or castles where they could
+never have learned much of the great world beyond the confines of their
+native village or province. They suddenly found themselves in great
+cities and in the midst of unfamiliar peoples and customs. This could
+not fail to make them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> think and give them new ideas to carry home. The
+Crusade took the place of a liberal education. The crusaders came into
+contact with those who knew more than they did, above all the Arabs, and
+brought back with them new notions of comfort and luxury.</p>
+
+<p>Yet in attempting to estimate the debt of the West to the Crusades it
+should be remembered that many of the new things may well have come from
+Constantinople, or through the Saracens of Sicily and Spain, quite
+independently of the armed incursions into Syria.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> Moreover, during
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries towns were rapidly growing up in
+Europe, trade and manufactures were extending, and the universities were
+being founded. It would be absurd to suppose that without the Crusades
+this progress would not have taken place. So we may conclude that the
+distant expeditions and the contact with strange and more highly
+civilized peoples did no more than hasten the improvement which was
+already perceptible before Urban made his ever-memorable address at
+Clermont.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;A somewhat fuller account of the Crusades will be
+found in <span class="smcap">Emerton</span>, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, Chapter XI. Their results are
+discussed in <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, <i>Civilization</i>, Chapter XI. Professor Munro has
+published a number of very interesting documents in <i>Translations
+and Reprints</i>, Vol. I, Nos. 2, 4 (Letters of the Crusaders), and
+Vol. III, No. 1 (The Fourth Crusade). See also his <i>Medi&aelig;val
+History</i>, Chapter XI, on the Crusades. <span class="smcap">Archer</span> and <span class="smcap">Kingsford</span>, <i>The
+Crusades</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.50), is probably the best modern
+work in English.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MEDI&AElig;VAL CHURCH AT ITS HEIGHT</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>78.</b> In the preceding pages it has been necessary to refer constantly to
+the Church and the clergy. Indeed, without them medi&aelig;val history would
+become almost a blank, for the Church was incomparably the most
+important institution of the time and its officers were the soul of
+nearly every great enterprise. In the earlier chapters, the rise of the
+Church and of its head, the pope, has been reviewed, as well as the work
+of the monks as they spread over Europe. We must now consider the
+medi&aelig;val Church as a completed institution at the height of its power in
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ways in which the medi&aelig;val church differed from modern
+churches.</div>
+
+<p>We have already had abundant proofs that the medi&aelig;val Church was very
+different from modern churches, whether Catholic or Protestant.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Membership in the medi&aelig;val church compulsory.</div>
+
+<p>1. In the first place, every one was required to belong to it, just as
+we all must belong to the state to-day. One was not born into the
+Church, it is true, but he was ordinarily baptized into it before he had
+any opinion in the matter. All western Europe formed a single religious
+association, from which it was a crime to revolt. To refuse allegiance
+to the Church, or to question its authority or teachings, was reputed
+treason against God and was punishable with death.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The wealth of the Church.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The tithe.</div>
+
+<p>2. The medi&aelig;val Church did not rely for its support, as churches usually
+must to-day, upon the voluntary contributions of its members. It
+enjoyed, in addition to the revenue from its vast tracts of lands and a
+great variety of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> fees, the income from a regular tax, the <i>tithe</i>.
+Those upon whom this fell were forced to pay it, just as we all must now
+pay taxes imposed by the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resemblance of the Church to a state.</div>
+
+<p>3. It is obvious, moreover, that the medi&aelig;val Church was not merely a
+religious body, as churches are to-day. Of course it maintained places
+of worship, conducted devotional exercises, and cultivated the spiritual
+life; but it did far more. It was, in a way, a state, for it had an
+elaborate system of law, and its own courts, in which it tried many
+cases which are now settled in our ordinary tribunals.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> It had also
+its prisons, to which it might sentence offenders to lifelong detention.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Unity of organization in the Church.</div>
+
+<p>4. The Church not only performed the functions of a state; it had the
+organization of a state. Unlike the Protestant ministers of to-day, all
+churchmen and religious associations of medi&aelig;val Europe were under one
+supreme head, who made laws for all and controlled every church officer,
+wherever he might be, whether in Italy or Germany, Spain or Ireland. The
+whole Church had one official language, Latin, in which all
+communications were dispatched and in which its services were everywhere
+conducted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The medi&aelig;val Church a monarchy in its form of government.</div>
+
+<p><b>79.</b> The medi&aelig;val Church may, therefore, properly be called a monarchy in
+its government. The pope was its all-powerful and absolute head and
+concentrated in his person its entire spiritual and disciplinary
+authority. He was the supreme lawgiver. No council of the Church, no
+matter how large and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> important, could make laws against his will, for
+its decrees, to be valid, required his sanction.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dispensations.</div>
+
+<p>The pope might, moreover, set aside or abrogate any law of the Church,
+no matter how ancient, so long as it was not ordained by the Scriptures
+or by Nature. He might, for good reasons, make exceptions to all merely
+human laws; as, for instance, permit cousins to marry, or free a monk
+from his vows. Such exceptions were known as <i>dispensations</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The pope the supreme judge of Christendom.</div>
+
+<p>The pope was not merely the supreme lawgiver; he was the supreme judge.
+As a distinguished legal writer has said, the whole of western Europe
+was subject to the jurisdiction of one tribunal of last resort, the
+pope's court at Rome. Any one, whether clergyman or layman, in any part
+of Europe, could appeal to him at any stage in the trial of a large
+class of cases. Obviously this system had serious drawbacks. Grave
+injustice might be done by carrying to Rome a case which ought to have
+been settled in Edinburgh or Cologne, where the facts were best known.
+The rich, moreover, always had the advantage, as they alone could afford
+to bring suits before so distant a court.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The control of the pope over the clergy at large.</div>
+
+<p>The control of the pope over the clergy scattered throughout Christendom
+was secured in several ways. A newly elected archbishop might not
+venture to perform any of the duties of his office until he had taken an
+oath of fidelity and obedience to the pope and received from him the
+<i>pallium</i>, the archbishop's badge of office. This was a narrow woolen
+scarf made by the nuns of the convent of St. Agnes at Rome. Bishops and
+abbots were also required to have their election duly confirmed by the
+pope. He claimed, too, the right to settle the very frequent disputed
+elections of church officials. He might even set aside both of the rival
+candidates and fill the office himself, as did Innocent III when he
+forced the monks of Canterbury, after a double election, to choose
+Stephen Langton.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p><p>Since the time of Gregory VII the pope had claimed the right to depose
+and transfer bishops at will. The control of Rome over all parts of the
+Christian Church was further increased by the legates. These papal
+emissaries were intrusted with great powers. Their haughty mien often
+enough offended the prelates and rulers to whom they brought home the
+authority of the pope,&mdash;as, for instance, when the legate Pandulf
+grandly absolved all the subjects of King John of England, before his
+very face, from their oath of fealty to him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Roman Curia.</div>
+
+<p>The task assumed by the pope of governing the whole western world
+naturally made it necessary to create a large body of officials at Rome
+in order to transact all the multiform business and prepare and transmit
+the innumerable legal documents.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The cardinals and the pope's
+officials constituted what was called the papal Curia, or court.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of the pope's income.</div>
+
+<p>To carry on his government and meet the expenses of palace and retinue,
+the pope had need of a vast income. This he secured from various
+sources. Heavy fees were exacted from those who brought suits to his
+court for decision. The archbishops were expected to make generous
+contributions on receiving their palliums, and the bishops and abbots
+upon their confirmation. In the thirteenth century the pope began to
+fill many benefices throughout Europe himself, and customarily received
+half the first year's revenues from those whom he appointed. For several
+centuries before the Protestants finally threw off their allegiance to
+the popes, there was widespread complaint on the part of both clergy and
+laymen that the fees and taxes levied by the Curia were excessive.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image27.jpg" width="500" height="558" alt="Ecclesiastical Map of France in the Middle Ages" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Ecclesiastical Map of France in the Middle Ages</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The archbishops.</div>
+
+<p><b>80.</b> Next in order below the head of the Church were the archbishops. An
+archbishop was a bishop whose power extended beyond the boundaries of
+his own diocese and who exercised a certain control over all the bishops
+within his <i>province</i>.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> One of the chief prerogatives of the
+archbishop was the right to summon the bishops of his province to meet
+in a provincial council. His court received appeals from the bishops'
+courts. Except, however, for the distinction of his title and the fact
+that he generally lived in an important city<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> and often had vast
+political influence, the archbishop was not very much more powerful, as
+an officer of the Church, than the other bishops.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image28.jpg" width="500" height="469" alt="The Costume of a Bishop, showing Miter and Crosier. From
+a manuscript of the twelfth century." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Costume of a Bishop, showing Miter and Crosier. From
+a manuscript of the twelfth century.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The importance of the bishops.</div>
+
+<p>There is perhaps no class of persons in medi&aelig;val times whose position it
+is so necessary to understand as that of the bishops. They were regarded
+as the successors of the apostles, whose powers were held to be divinely
+transmitted to them. They represented the Church Universal in their
+respective dioceses, under the supreme headship of their "elder
+brother," the Bishop of Rome, the successor of the chief of the
+apostles. Their insignia of office, the miter and crosier, are familiar
+to every one. Each bishop had his especial church, which was called a
+cathedral, and usually surpassed the other churches of the diocese in
+size and beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Duties of a Bishop.</div>
+
+<p>Only a bishop could ordain new members of the clergy or degrade the old.
+He alone could consecrate churches or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> anoint kings. He alone could
+perform the sacrament of confirmation, though as priest he might
+administer any of the other sacraments.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> Aside from his purely
+religious duties, he was the overseer of all the churchmen in his
+diocese, including the monks.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> He held a court where a great variety
+of suits were tried. If he were a conscientious prelate, he traveled
+about his diocese visiting the parish churches and the monasteries to
+see if the priests did their duty and the monks behaved themselves
+properly.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The bishop's temporal duties.</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the oversight of his diocese, it was the bishop's
+business to see to the lands and other possessions which belonged to the
+bishopric. He had, moreover, to perform those governmental duties which
+the king, especially in Germany, had thrown upon him, and he was
+conspicuous among the monarch's counselors. Lastly, the bishop was
+usually a feudal lord, with the obligations that that implied. He might
+have vassals and subvassals, and often was himself a vassal, not only of
+the king but also of some neighboring lord. As one reads through the
+archives of a bishopric, it is hard to tell whether the bishop should be
+called, first and foremost, a churchman or a feudal lord. In short, the
+duties of the bishop were as manifold as those of the medi&aelig;val Church
+itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of the bishops.</div>
+
+<p>The reforms of Gregory VII had resulted in placing the choice of the
+bishop in the hands of the cathedral <i>chapter</i>,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> that is, the body
+of clergy connected with the cathedral church. But this did not prevent
+the king from suggesting the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> candidate, since the chapter did not
+venture to proceed to an election without procuring a license from the
+king. Otherwise he might have refused to invest the person they chose
+with the lands and political prerogatives attached to the office.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image29.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="Canterbury Cathedral" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Canterbury Cathedral</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The parish priest and his duties.</div>
+
+<p>The lowest division of the Church was the parish. This had definite
+limits, although the parishioners might vary in number from a few
+families to a considerable village or an important district of a town.
+At the head of the parish was the parish priest, who conducted services
+in the parish church and absolved, baptized, married, and buried his
+parishioners. The priests were supposed to be supported by the lands
+belonging to the parish church and by the tithes. But both of these
+sources of income were often in the hands of laymen or of a neighboring
+monastery, while the priest received the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> merest pittance, scarcely
+sufficient to keep soul and body together.</p>
+
+<p>The parish church was the center of village life and the priest was the
+natural guardian of the community. It was his business, for example, to
+see that no undesirable persons lurked in the village,&mdash;heretics,
+sorcerers, or lepers. It will be observed that the priest, besides
+attending to the morals of his flock, was expected to see to their
+bodily welfare by preventing the presence of those afflicted with the
+only infectious disease against which precautions were taken in the
+Middle Ages.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Other sources of the Church's power.</div>
+
+<p><b>81.</b> The unexampled authority of the medi&aelig;val Church is, however, only
+partially explained by its wonderful organization. To understand the
+hold which it had upon mankind, we must consider the exalted position of
+the clergy and the teachings of the Church in regard to salvation, of
+which it claimed to be the exclusive agent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The exalted position of the clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The clergy were set apart from the laity in several ways. The higher
+orders&mdash;bishop, priest, deacon, and sub-deacon&mdash;were required to remain
+unmarried, and in this way were freed from the cares and interests of
+family life. The Church held, moreover, that the higher clergy, when
+they had been properly ordained, received through their ordination a
+mysterious imprint, the "indelible character," so that they could never
+become simple laymen again, even if they ceased to perform their duties
+altogether or were cast out of the Church for crime. Above all, the
+clergy alone could administer the <i>sacraments</i> upon which the salvation
+of every individual soul depended.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Peter Lombard's <i>Sentences</i>.</div>
+
+<p>Although the Church believed that all the sacraments were established by
+Christ, it was not until the middle of the twelfth century that they
+were clearly described. Peter Lombard (d. 1164), a teacher of theology
+at Paris, prepared a manual of the doctrines of the Church as he found
+them in the Scriptures and in the writings of the church fathers,
+especially Augustine. These <i>Sentences</i> (Latin, <i>sententi&aelig;</i>, opinions)
+of Peter Lombard were very influential, for they appeared at a time when
+there was a new interest in theology, particularly at Paris, where a
+great university was growing up.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The seven sacraments.</div>
+
+<p>It was Peter Lombard who first distinctly formulated the doctrine of the
+seven sacraments. His teachings did not claim, of course, to be more
+than an orderly statement and reconciliation of the various opinions
+which he found in the Scriptures and the church fathers; but his
+interpretations and definitions constituted a new basis for medi&aelig;val
+theology. Before his time the word <i>sacramentum</i> (that is, something
+sacred, a mystery) was applied to a variety of sacred things, for
+example, baptism, the cross, Lent, holy water, etc. But Peter Lombard
+states that there are seven sacraments, to wit: baptism, confirmation,
+extreme unction, marriage, penance, ordination, and the Lord's Supper.
+Through these sacraments all righteousness either has its beginning, or
+when begun is increased, or if lost is regained. They are essential to
+salvation, and no one can be saved except through them.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Baptism.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Confirmation.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extreme unction.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Marriage.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Penance.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ordination.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Lord's Supper, or Holy Eucharist.</div>
+
+<p>By means of the sacraments the Church accompanied the faithful through
+life. By baptism all the sin due to Adam's fall was washed away; through
+that door alone could a soul enter the spiritual life. With the holy oil
+and the balsam,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> typifying the fragrance of righteousness, which were
+rubbed upon the forehead of the boy or girl at confirmation by the
+bishop, the young were strengthened so that they might boldly confess
+the name of the Lord. If the believer fell perilously ill, the priest
+anointed him with oil in the name of the Lord and by this sacrament of
+extreme unction expelled all vestiges of former sin and refreshed the
+spirit of the dying. Through the priest alone might marriage be
+sanctified; and when the bonds were once legally contracted they might
+never be sundered. If evil desire, which baptism lessened but did not
+remove, led the Christian into deadly sin, as it constantly did, the
+Church, through the sacrament of penance, reconciled him once more with
+God and saved him from the jaws of hell. For the priest, through the
+sacrament of ordination, received the most exalted prerogative of
+forgiving sins. He enjoyed, too, the awful power and privilege of
+performing the miracle of the Mass,&mdash;of offering up Christ anew for the
+remission of the sinner's guilt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The sacrament of penance.</div>
+
+<p><b>82.</b> The sacrament of penance is, with the Mass, of especial historical
+importance. When a bishop ordained a priest, he said to him: "Receive ye
+the Holy Ghost: whose soever sins ye forgive, they are forgiven them:
+whose soever sins ye retain, they are retained." In this way the priest
+was intrusted with the keys of the kingdom of heaven. There was no hope
+of salvation for one who had fallen into mortal sin unless he
+received&mdash;or at least desired and sought&mdash;the absolution of the priest.
+To one who scorned the priest's ministrations the most sincere and
+prayerful repentance could not by itself bring forgiveness in the eyes
+of the Church. Before the priest could utter the solemn "I absolve thee
+from thy sins," the sinner must have duly confessed his sins and have
+expressed his vehement detestation of them and his firm resolve never
+more to offend. It is clear that the priest could not pronounce judgment
+unless he had been told the nature of the case. Nor would he be
+justified in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> absolving an offender who was not truly sorry for what he
+had done. Confession and penitence were, therefore, necessary
+preliminaries to absolution.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Penance and purgatory.</div>
+
+<p>Absolution did not free the contrite sinner from all the results of his
+sin. It cleared the soul of the deadly guilt which would otherwise have
+been punished by everlasting suffering, but did not exempt the penitent
+from temporal penalties. These might be imposed by the priest in this
+world or suffered after death in the fires of purgatory, which cleansed
+the soul and prepared it for heaven.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nature of penance.</div>
+
+<p>The punishment prescribed by the priest was called <i>penance</i>. This took
+a great variety of forms. It might consist in fasting, repeating
+prayers, visiting holy places, or abstaining from one's ordinary
+amusements. A journey to the Holy Land was regarded as taking the place
+of all penance. Instead, however, of requiring the penitent actually to
+perform the fasts, pilgrimages, or other sacrifices imposed as penance
+by the priest, the Church early permitted him to change his penance into
+a contribution, to be applied to some pious enterprise, like building a
+church or bridge, or caring for the poor and sick.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Mass.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Transubstantiation.</div>
+
+<p>The priest not only forgave sin; he was also empowered to perform the
+stupendous miracle of the Mass. The early Christians had celebrated the
+Lord's Supper or Holy Eucharist in various ways and entertained various
+conceptions of its nature and significance. Gradually the idea came to
+be universally accepted that by the consecration of the bread and the
+wine the whole substance of the bread was converted into the substance
+of the body of Christ, and the whole substance of the wine into his
+blood. This change was termed <i>transubstantiation</i>. The Church believed,
+further, that in this sacrament Christ was offered up anew, as he had
+been on the cross,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> as a sacrifice to God. This sacrifice might be
+performed for the sins of the absent as well as of the present, and for
+the dead as well as for the living. Moreover, Christ was to be worshiped
+under the form of the bread, or <i>host</i> (Latin, <i>hostia</i>, sacrifice),
+with the highest form of adoration. The host was to be borne about in
+solemn procession when God was to be especially propitiated, as in the
+case of a famine or plague.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Consequences of conceiving the Mass as a sacrifice.</div>
+
+<p>This conception of the Mass as a sacrifice had some important practical
+consequences. It became the most exalted of the functions of the priest
+and the very center of the Church's services. Besides the public masses
+for the people, private ones were constantly celebrated for the benefit
+of individuals, especially of the dead. Foundations were created, the
+income of which went to support priests for the single purpose of saying
+daily masses for the repose of the soul of the donor or those of the
+members of his family. It was also a common practice to bestow gifts
+upon churches and monasteries on condition that annual or more frequent
+masses should be said for the giver.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The dominant position of the clergy and the sources of their
+power.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Excommunication and interdict.</div>
+
+<p><b>83.</b> The sublime prerogatives of the Church, together with its unrivaled
+organization and vast wealth, combined to make its officers, the clergy,
+the most powerful social class of the Middle Ages. They held the keys of
+heaven and without their aid no one could hope to enter in. By
+excommunication they could not only cast an offender out of the Church,
+but also forbid his fellow-men to associate with him, since he was
+accursed and consigned to Satan. By means of the <i>interdict</i> they could
+suspend the consolations of religion in a whole city or country by
+closing the church doors and prohibiting all public services.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their monopoly of the advantages of education.</div>
+
+<p>The influence of the clergy was greatly enhanced by the fact that they
+alone were educated. For six or seven centuries after the overthrow of
+the Roman government in the West,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> very few outside of the clergy ever
+dreamed of studying or even of learning to read and write. Even in the
+thirteenth century an offender who wished to prove that he belonged to
+the clergy, in order that he might be tried by a church court, had only
+to show that he could read a single line; for it was assumed by the
+judges that no one unconnected with the Church could read at all.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was therefore inevitable that almost all the books should be written
+by priests and monks and that the clergy should become the ruling power
+in all intellectual, artistic, and literary matters,&mdash;the chief
+guardians and promoters of civilization. Moreover, the civil government
+was forced to rely upon churchmen to write out the public documents and
+proclamations. The priests and monks held the pen for the king.
+Representatives of the clergy sat in the king's councils and acted as
+his ministers; in fact, the conduct of the government largely devolved
+upon them.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Offices in the Church open to all classes.</div>
+
+<p>The offices in the Church were open to all ranks of men, and many of the
+popes themselves sprang from the humblest classes. The Church thus
+constantly recruited its ranks with fresh blood. No one held an office
+simply because his father had held it before him, as was the case in the
+civil government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lea's description of the medi&aelig;val Church.</div>
+
+<p>The man who entered the service of the Church "was released from the
+distraction of family cares and the seduction of family ties. The Church
+was his country and his home and its interests were his own. The moral,
+intellectual, and physical forces, which throughout the laity were
+divided between the claims of patriotism, the selfish struggle for
+advancement, the provision for wife and children, were in the Church
+consecrated to a common end, in the success of which all might hope to
+share,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> while all were assured of the necessities of existence, and were
+relieved of anxiety as to the future." The Church was thus "an army
+encamped on the soil of Christendom, with its outposts everywhere,
+subject to the most efficient discipline, animated with a common
+purpose, every soldier panoplied with inviolability and armed with the
+tremendous weapons which slew the soul" (Lea).</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cutts</span>, <i>Parish Priests and their People</i> (E. &amp;
+J.B. Young, $3.00). <span class="smcap">Pr&eacute;vost</span>, <i>L'&Eacute;glise et les Campagnes au Moyen
+&Acirc;ge</i> (Paris, $1.50).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>HERESY AND THE FRIARS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The question of the character of the medi&aelig;val clergy.</div>
+
+<p><b>84.</b> It is natural to ask whether the commanders of the great army which
+made up the Church proved valiant leaders in the eternal warfare against
+evil. Did they, on the whole, resist the temptations which their almost
+limitless power and wealth constantly placed in their way? Did they use
+their vast resources to advance the cause of the Great Leader whose
+humble followers and servants they claimed to be? Or were they, on the
+contrary, selfish and corrupt, turning the teachings of the Church to
+their own advantage, and discrediting its doctrines in the eyes of the
+people by flagrant maladministration and personal wickedness?</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The debt of western Europe to the church.</div>
+
+<p>No simple answer to this question is possible. One who realizes how
+completely the Church dominated every human interest and influenced
+every department of life in the Middle Ages must hesitate to attempt to
+balance the good and evil to be placed to its account. That the Church
+conferred incalculable benefits upon western Europe, few will question.
+To say nothing of its chief mission,&mdash;the moral uplifting of mankind
+through the Christian religion,&mdash;we have seen how, under its auspices,
+the barbarians were civilized and brought into the family of nations,
+how violence was checked by the "Truce of God," and how an educated
+class was maintained during the centuries when few laymen could either
+read or write. These are only the more obvious of its achievements; the
+solace and protection which it afforded to the weak, the wretched, and
+the heart-sore, no one can assume to estimate.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The corruption of the clergy.</div>
+
+<p>On the other hand, no one can read the sources of our knowledge of the
+history of the Church without perceiving that there were always bad
+clergymen who abused their high prerogatives. Many bishops and priests
+were no more worthy to be intrusted with their extensive powers than the
+unscrupulous office-seekers to whom high stations in our modern
+governments sometimes fall.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tendency to exaggerate the evil in the Church.</div>
+
+<p>Yet as we read the fiery denunciations of the clergy's evil practices,
+which may be found in the records of nearly every age, we must not
+forget that the critic is always prone to take the good for granted and
+to dwell upon the evil. This is particularly true in dealing with a
+great religious institution, where corruption is especially shocking.
+One wicked bishop, or one form of oppression or immorality among the
+clergy, made a far deeper impression than the humble virtues of a
+hundred dutiful and God-fearing priests. If, however, we make all due
+allowance for the good which escaped the writers of the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries, it must be admitted by all who read their
+testimony that they give us a gloomy picture of the life of many
+prelates, priests, and monks, and of the startling variety of abuses
+which developed in the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Temptations to corruption among the clergy.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory VII imagined that the reason for the existence of bad clergymen
+was that the kings and feudal lords forced their favorites into the
+offices of the Church. The root of the difficulty lay, however, in the
+wealth and power of the Church itself. It would have needed saints
+always to exercise righteously the tremendous powers which the clergy
+had acquired, and to resist the temptations to which they were
+subjected. When we consider the position of a rich prelate, it is not
+surprising that corruption abounded. The offices of the Church offered
+the same possibilities of money-making that civil offices, especially
+those in the great American cities, offer to the mere schemer to-day.
+The descriptions of some of the churchmen of the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries remind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> us far more of the professional politician than of a
+modern clergyman, whether Catholic or Protestant.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The chief forms of corruption in the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>85.</b> At least a brief description of the more notorious forms of
+corruption among the clergy will be necessary to an understanding of the
+various heresies or revolts against the Church. These began seriously to
+threaten its power in the twelfth century and culminated in the
+successful Protestant revolt of the sixteenth. The vices of the clergy
+serve to account also for the appearance of the begging monks, the
+Franciscans and Dominicans, and to explain the need of the great reform
+which they undertook in the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Simony.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The worldly and immoral lives of many bishops and abbots.</div>
+
+<p>In the first place, there was simony, a disease so deep-seated and
+persistent that Innocent III declared it incurable. This has already
+been described in an earlier chapter. Even boys were made bishops and
+abbots through the influence of their friends and relatives. Wealthy
+bishoprics and monasteries were considered by feudal lords an admirable
+means of support for their younger sons, since the eldest born usually
+inherited the fief. The life led by bishops and abbots was often merely
+that of a feudal prince. If a prelate had a taste for fighting, he
+organized military expeditions for conquest or to satisfy a grudge
+against a neighbor, exactly as if he belonged to the bellicose laity of
+the period.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Corruption in the ecclesiastical courts.</div>
+
+<p>Besides simony and the scandalous lives of many of the clergy, there
+were other evils which brought the Church into disrepute. While the
+popes themselves, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were usually
+excellent men and sometimes distinguished statesmen, who honestly
+endeavored to exalt the vast institution over which they presided, their
+officials, who tried the innumerable cases which were brought to the
+papal court, had a reputation for grave corruption.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> It was
+generally believed that the decision was always in favor of him who
+could pay most and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> that the poor received scant attention. The bishops'
+courts were notorious for their oppression, since a considerable portion
+of the bishop's income, like that of the feudal lord, came from the
+fines imposed upon those condemned by his officials. The same person was
+sometimes summoned to different courts at the same time and then fined
+for neglecting to appear at one or the other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The parish priests often no better than their superiors.</div>
+
+<p>As for the parish priests, they appear often to have followed the
+demoralizing example set by their superiors. The acts of church councils
+indicate that the priest sometimes turned his parsonage into a shop and
+sold wine or other commodities. He further increased his income, as we
+have seen, by demanding fees for merely doing his duty in baptizing,
+confessing, absolving, marrying, and burying his parishioners.</p>
+
+<p>The monks of the twelfth century, with some remarkable exceptions, did
+little to supply the deficiencies of the secular clergy.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Instead of
+instructing the people and setting before them an example of a pure and
+holy life, they enjoyed no better reputation than the bishops and
+priests. Efforts were made, however, by newly founded orders in the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries&mdash;like that of the Cistercians to which
+St. Bernard belonged&mdash;to reform the monks.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Corruption and abuses recognized and condemned by the better
+element in the clergy itself.</div>
+
+<p>The universal impression of selfishness and depravity which the corrupt
+churchmen made upon all observers is reflected in innumerable writings
+of the time,&mdash;in the letters of the popes, in the exhortations of holy
+men like St. Bernard, in the acts of the councils, in the satirical
+poems of the popular troubadours and the sprightly versifiers of the
+courts.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> All agree in denouncing the iniquity of the clergy, their
+greed, and their reckless disregard of their sacred duties. St. Bernard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+sadly asks, "Whom can you show me among the prelates who does not seek
+rather to empty the pockets of his flock than to subdue their vices?"</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The lay critics of the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>86.</b> The evils which the churchmen themselves so frankly admitted could
+not escape the notice and comment of laymen. But while the better
+element among the clergy vigorously urged a reform of the existing
+abuses, no churchman dreamed of denying the truth of the Church's
+doctrines or the efficacy of its ceremonies. Among the laity, however,
+certain popular leaders arose who declared that the Church was the
+synagogue of Satan; that no one ought any longer to rely upon it for his
+salvation; that all its elaborate ceremonies were worse than useless;
+that its masses, holy water, and relics were mere money-getting devices
+of a depraved priesthood and helped no one to heaven. These bold rebels
+against the Church naturally found a hearing among those who felt that
+the ministrations of a wicked priest could not possibly help a sinner,
+as well as among those who were exasperated by the tithes and other
+ecclesiastical dues.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Heresy.</div>
+
+<p>Those who questioned the teachings of the Church and proposed to cast
+off its authority were, according to the accepted view of the time,
+guilty of the supreme crime of heresy. To the orthodox believer nothing
+could exceed the guilt of one who committed treason against God by
+rejecting the religion which had been handed down in the Roman Church
+from the immediate followers of his Son. Moreover, doubt and unbelief
+were not merely sin, they were revolt against the most powerful social
+institution of the time, which, in spite of the depravity of some of its
+officials, continued to be venerated by people at large throughout
+western Europe. The extent and character of the heresies of the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries and the efforts of the Church to suppress them
+by persuasion, by fire and sword, and by the stern court of the
+Inquisition, form a strange and terrible chapter in medi&aelig;val history.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Two classes of heretics.</div>
+
+<p>The heretics were of two sorts. One class merely abjured the practices
+and some of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church while they
+remained Christians and endeavored to imitate as nearly as possible the
+simple life of Christ and the apostles. On the other hand, there were
+popular leaders who taught that the Christian religion was false. They
+held that there were two principles in the universe, the good and the
+evil, which were forever fighting for the victory. They asserted that
+the Jehovah of the Old Testament was really the evil power, and that it
+was, therefore, the evil power whom the Catholic Church worshiped.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Albigenses.</div>
+
+<p>This latter heresy was a very old one, by which even St. Augustine had
+been fascinated in his early years. It was revived in Italy in the
+eleventh century and became very popular, especially in southern France,
+in the twelfth. Its adherents called themselves <i>Cathari</i> (the pure),
+but we shall call them <i>Albigenses</i>, a name derived from the town of
+Albi in southern France, where they were very numerous.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Waldensians.</div>
+
+<p>Among those who continued to accept the Christian faith but refused to
+obey the clergy on account of their wickedness, the most important sect
+was that of the Waldensians. These were followers of Peter Waldo of
+Lyons, who gave up all their property and lived a life of apostolic
+poverty. They went about preaching the Gospel and expounding the
+Scriptures, which they translated into the language of the people. They
+made many converts, and before the end of the twelfth century there were
+great numbers of them scattered throughout western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The Church did not wish to condemn the efforts of good and simple men to
+imitate as exactly as possible the life of Christ and the apostles.
+Nevertheless these laymen, who claimed the right to preach and hear
+confession, and who asserted that prayer was quite as efficacious when
+uttered in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> bed or in a stable as in a church, seemed clearly to call in
+question the general belief in the Church as the exclusive agent of
+salvation, and seriously to threaten its influence among the people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginning of the fight against heresy.</div>
+
+<p>Before the end of the twelfth century the secular rulers began to take
+notice of heresy. Henry II of England, in 1166, ordered that no one
+should harbor heretics in England, and that any house in which they were
+received should be burned. The king of Aragon decreed (1194) that any
+one who listened to the preaching of the Waldensians, or even gave them
+food, should suffer the penalties for treason and should have his
+property confiscated by the state. These are the beginnings of a series
+of pitiless decrees which even the most enlightened kings of the
+thirteenth century issued against all who should be convicted of
+belonging either to the Albigenses or the Waldensians. The Church and
+the civil government agreed that heretics were dangerous to the welfare
+of both, and that they were criminals deserving the terrible death of
+burning alive.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Heresy regarded as treason.</div>
+
+<p>It is very difficult for us who live in a tolerant age to understand the
+universal and deep-rooted horror of heresy which prevailed not only in
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but also down at least to the
+eighteenth. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the fact that heresy was
+considered treason against an institution which practically all, both
+the learned and the unlearned, agreed was not only essential to
+salvation but was necessary also to order and civilization. Frank
+criticism of the evil lives of the clergy, not excluding the pope
+himself, was common enough. But this did not constitute heresy. One
+might believe that the pope and half the bishops were bad men, and yet
+in no way question the necessity for the Church's existence or the truth
+of every one of its dogmas; just as nowadays we might call particular
+rulers and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> government officials fools or knaves, without being
+suspected of repudiating government altogether. The heretic was the
+anarchist of the Middle Ages. He did not simply denounce the immorality
+of the officers of the Church; he claimed that the Church was worse than
+useless. He sought to lead people to throw off their allegiance to it
+and to disregard its laws and commands. The Church and the civil
+government consequently proceeded against him as against an enemy of
+society and order. Heresy was, moreover, a contagious disease, and
+spread rapidly and unobserved, so that to the rulers of the times even
+the harshest measures appeared justifiable in order to prevent its
+dissemination.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Different methods of opposing heresy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Internal reform.</div>
+
+<p><b>87.</b> There were several ways of opposing heresy. First, a reform of the
+character of the clergy and a suppression of the abuses in the Church
+would have removed a great cause of that discontent to which the writers
+of the time attributed the rapid growth of heresy. The attempt of
+Innocent III to improve the conditions in the Church by summoning a
+great council at Rome in 1215 failed, however, and, according to his
+successor, matters grew worse rather than better.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extermination by the sword.</div>
+
+<p>A second plan was to organize an expedition against the rebels and
+annihilate them by the sword. This policy was only possible if a large
+number of heretics could be found in a single district. In southern
+France there were many adherents of both the Albigenses and the
+Waldensians, especially in the county of Toulouse. At the beginning of
+the thirteenth century there was in this region an open contempt for the
+Church and a bold defense of heretical teachings even among the higher
+classes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Albigensian crusade.</div>
+
+<p>Against the people of this flourishing land Innocent III preached a
+crusade in 1208. An army under Simon de Montfort<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> marched from
+northern France into the doomed region<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> and, after one of the most
+atrocious and bloody wars upon record, suppressed the heresy by
+wholesale slaughter. At the same time the war checked the civilization
+and destroyed the prosperity of the most enlightened portion of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Inquisition.</div>
+
+<p>The third and most permanent defense against heresy was the
+establishment, under the headship of the pope, of a system of tribunals
+designed to ferret out secret cases of unbelief and bring the offenders
+to punishment. These courts of experts, who devoted their whole
+attention to the discovery and conviction of heresy, constituted the
+Holy Inquisition, which gradually took form after the Albigensian
+crusade. We cannot stop to describe these courts, which became
+especially notorious in Spain some two centuries after their
+establishment. The unfairness of the trials and the cruel treatment to
+which those suspected of heresy were subjected, through long
+imprisonment or torture&mdash;inflicted with the hope of forcing them to
+confess their crime or implicate others&mdash;have rendered the name of the
+Inquisition infamous.</p>
+
+<p>Without by any means attempting to defend the methods employed, it may
+be remarked that the inquisitors were often earnest and upright men
+whose feelings were not unlike those of a New England judge presiding at
+a witch trial in the seventeenth century. The methods of procedure of
+the Inquisition were not more cruel than those used in the secular
+courts of the period.</p>
+
+<p>The assertion of the suspected person that he was not a heretic did not
+receive any attention, for it was assumed that he would naturally deny
+his guilt, as would any other criminal. A person's belief had,
+therefore, to be judged by outward acts. Consequently one might fall
+into the hands of the Inquisition by mere inadvertent conversation with
+a heretic, by some unintentional neglect to show due respect toward the
+Church rites, or by the malicious testimony of one's neighbors. This is
+really the most dreadful aspect of the Inquisition and its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> procedure.
+It put a premium on talebearing and resorted to most cruel means to
+convict those who earnestly denied that their beliefs were different
+from those of the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fate of the convicted heretic.</div>
+
+<p>If the suspected person confessed his guilt and abjured his heresy, he
+was forgiven and received back into the Church; but a penance of life
+imprisonment was imposed upon him as a fitting means of wiping away the
+unspeakable sin of which he had been guilty. If he remained impenitent,
+he was "relaxed to the secular arm"<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>; that is to say, the Church,
+whose law forbade it to shed blood, handed over the convicted person to
+the civil power, which burned him alive without further trial.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Founding of the mendicant orders.</div>
+
+<p><b>88.</b> We may now turn to that far more cheerful and effective method of
+meeting the opponents of the Church, which may be said to have been
+discovered by St. Francis of Assisi. His teachings and the example of
+his beautiful life probably did far more to secure continued allegiance
+to the Church than all the hideous devices of the Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how the Waldensians tried to better the world by living
+simple lives and preaching the Gospel. Owing to the disfavor of the
+church authorities, who declared their teachings erroneous and
+dangerous, they were prevented from publicly carrying on their
+missionary work. Yet all conscientious men agreed with the Waldensians
+that the world was in a sad plight owing to the negligence and the
+misdeeds of the clergy. St. Francis and St. Dominic strove to meet the
+needs of their time by inventing a new kind of clergyman, the begging
+brother, or mendicant friar (Latin, <i>frater</i>, brother). He was to do
+just what the bishops and parish priests ordinarily failed to
+do,&mdash;namely, lead a holy life of self-sacrifice, defend the orthodox
+beliefs against the reproaches and attacks of the heretics, and awaken
+the people at large to a new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> spiritual life. The founding of the
+mendicant orders is one of the most important and interesting events of
+the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">St. Francis of Assisi, 1182&ndash;1226.</div>
+
+<p>There is no more lovely and fascinating figure in all history than St.
+Francis. He was born (probably in 1182) at Assisi, a little town in
+central Italy. He was the son of a well-to-do merchant, and during his
+early youth he lived a very gay life, spending his father's money
+freely. He read the French romances of the time and dreamed of imitating
+the brave knights whose adventures they described. Although his
+companions were wild and reckless, there was a delicacy and chivalry in
+Francis' own make-up which made him hate all things coarse and
+heartless. When later he voluntarily became a beggar, his ragged coat
+still covered a true poet and knight.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis forsakes his life of luxury and his inheritance and
+becomes a hermit.</div>
+
+<p>The contrast between his own life of luxury and the sad state of the
+poor early afflicted him. When he was about twenty, after a long and
+serious illness which made a break in his gay life and gave him time to
+think, he suddenly lost his love for the old pleasures and began to
+consort with the destitute, above all with the lepers. Now Francis,
+being delicately organized and nurtured, especially loathed these
+miserable creatures, but he forced himself to kiss their hands, as if
+they were his friends, and to wash their sores. So he gained a great
+victory over himself, and that which seemed bitter to him became, as he
+says, "sweet and easy."</p>
+
+<p>His father does not appear to have had any fondness whatever for
+beggars, and the relations between him and his son grew more and more
+strained. When finally he threatened to disinherit the young man,
+Francis cheerfully agreed to surrender all right to his inheritance.
+Stripping off his clothes and giving them back to his father, he
+accepted the worn-out garment of a gardener and became a homeless
+hermit, busying himself in repairing the dilapidated chapels near
+Assisi.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">He believes he receives a direct message from Heaven.</div>
+
+<p>One day in February, 1209, as he was listening to Mass, the priest,
+turning toward him by chance, read: "And as ye go, preach, saying, The
+kingdom of heaven is at hand.... Get you no gold, nor silver, nor brass
+in your purses, no wallet for your journey, neither two coats, nor
+shoes, nor staff; for the laborer is worthy of his food" (Matt. x.
+7&ndash;10). This seemed to the expectant Francis the answer of Christ himself
+to his longings for guidance. Here was a complete programme laid out for
+him. He threw aside his stick, wallet, and shoes and resolved thereafter
+to lead, literally and absolutely, the life the apostles had led.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis begins to preach and to attract followers.</div>
+
+<p>He began to preach in a simple way, and before long a rich
+fellow-townsman resolved to sell all and give to the poor, and follow
+Francis' example. Others soon joined them, and these joyous penitents,
+free of worldly burdens, calling themselves "God's troubadours," went
+barefoot and moneyless about central Italy preaching the Gospel. Some of
+those they met "listened willingly, others scoffed, the greater number
+overwhelmed them with questions, 'Whence come you? Of what order are
+you?' and they, though sometimes it was wearisome to answer, said
+simply, 'We are penitents, natives of the city of Assisi.'"</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seeks and obtains the approval of the pope.</div>
+
+<p>When, with a dozen followers, Francis appealed to the pope in 1210 to
+approve his plan, Innocent III hesitated. He did not believe that any
+one could lead a life of absolute poverty. Then might not these ragged,
+ill-kempt vagabonds appear to condemn the Church by adopting a life so
+different from that of the rich and comfortable clergy? Yet if he
+disapproved the friars, he would seem to disapprove at the same time
+Christ's directions to his apostles. He finally decided to give his oral
+sanction and to authorize the brethren to continue their missions. They
+were to receive the tonsure, and to come under the spiritual authority
+of the Roman Church.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Missionary work undertaken.</div>
+
+<p><b>89.</b> Seven years later, when Francis' followers had greatly increased,
+missionary work was begun on a large scale, and brethren were dispatched
+to Germany, Hungary, France, Spain, and even to Syria. It was not long
+before an English chronicler was telling with wonder of the arrival in
+his country of these barefoot men, in their patched gowns and with ropes
+about their waists, who, with Christian faith, took no thought for the
+morrow, believing that their Heavenly Father knew what things they had
+need of.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis did not desire to found a powerful order.</div>
+
+<p>The ill treatment which the friars received in their distant journeys
+led them to appeal to the pope for a letter which should request the
+faithful everywhere to treat them kindly, since they were good
+Catholics. This was the beginning of numberless privileges from the
+pope. It grieved Francis, however, to see his little band of companions
+converted into a great and powerful order. He foresaw that they would
+soon cease to lead their simple, holy life, and would become ambitious
+and perhaps rich. "I, little Brother Francis," he writes, "desire to
+follow the life and the poverty of Jesus Christ, persevering therein
+until the end; and I beg you all and exhort you to persevere always in
+this most holy life of poverty, and take good care never to depart from
+it upon the advice and teachings of anyone whomsoever."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis reluctantly draws up a new rule for the guidance of
+the friars.</div>
+
+<p>Francis sorrowfully undertook to draw up a new and more elaborate
+constitution to take the place of the few Gospel passages which he had
+originally brought together as a guide. After many modifications, to
+suit the ideas of the pope and the cardinals, the Franciscan Rule was
+solemnly ratified (1228) by Honorius III. It provides that "The brothers
+shall appropriate nothing to themselves, neither a house, nor a place,
+nor anything; but as pilgrims and strangers in this world, in poverty
+and humility serving God, they shall confidently seek alms. Nor need
+they be ashamed, for the Lord made Himself poor for us in this world."
+Yet the friars are to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> work if they are able and if their charitable and
+religious duties leave them time to do so. They may be paid for this
+labor in necessities for themselves or their brethren, but never may
+they receive coin or money. Those may wear shoes who cannot get along
+without them. They may repair their garments with sackcloth and other
+remnants. They must live in absolute obedience to their superior and may
+not, of course, marry nor may they leave the order.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p>
+
+<p>After the death of St. Francis (1226), many of the order, which now
+numbered several thousand members, wished to maintain the simple rule of
+absolute poverty. Others, including the new head of the order, believed
+that much good might be done with the wealth which people were anxious
+to give them. They argued that the individual friars might still remain
+absolutely possessionless, even if the order had beautiful churches and
+comfortable monasteries. A stately church was immediately constructed at
+Assisi to receive the remains of their humble founder, who in his
+lifetime had chosen a deserted hovel for his home; and a great chest was
+set up in the church to receive offerings.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">St. Dominic.</div>
+
+<p><b>90.</b> St. Dominic (b. 1170), the founder of the other great mendicant
+order, was not a simple layman like Francis. He was a churchman and took
+a regular course of instruction in theology for ten years in a Spanish
+university. He then (1208) accompanied his bishop to southern France on
+the eve of the Albigensian crusade and was deeply shocked to see the
+prevalence of heresy. His host at Toulouse happened to be an
+Albigensian, and Dominic spent the night in converting him. He then and
+there determined to devote his life to the extirpation of heresy. The
+little we know of him indicates that he was a man of resolute purpose
+and deep convictions, full of burning zeal for the Christian faith, yet
+kindly and cheerful, and winning in manner.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Founding of the Dominican order.</div>
+
+<p>By 1214 a few sympathetic spirits from various parts of Europe had
+joined Dominic, and they asked Innocent III to sanction their new order.
+The pope again hesitated, but is said to have dreamed a dream in which
+he saw the great Roman Church of the Lateran tottering and ready to fall
+had not Dominic supported it on his shoulders. So he inferred that the
+new organization might sometime become a great aid to the papacy and
+gave it his approval. As soon as possible Dominic sent forth his
+followers, of whom there were but sixteen, to evangelize the world, just
+as the Franciscans were undertaking their first missionary journeys. By
+1221 the Dominican order was thoroughly organized and had sixty
+monasteries scattered over western Europe. "Wandering on foot over the
+face of Europe, under burning suns or chilling blasts, rejecting alms in
+money but receiving thankfully whatever coarse food might be set before
+the wayfarer, enduring hunger in silent resignation, taking no thought
+for the morrow, but busied eternally in the work of snatching souls from
+Satan and lifting men up from the sordid cares of daily life, of
+ministering to their infirmities and of bringing to their darkened souls
+a glimpse of heavenly light" (Lea),&mdash;in this way did the early
+Franciscans and Dominicans win the love and veneration of the people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between the mendicants and the older orders.</div>
+
+<p><b>91.</b> Unlike the Benedictine monks, each of the friars was under the
+command not only of the head of his particular monastery, but also of
+the "general" of the whole order. Like a soldier, he was liable to be
+sent by his commander upon any mission that the work of the order
+demanded. The friars indeed regarded themselves as soldiers of Christ.
+Instead of devoting themselves to a life of contemplation apart from the
+world, like the earlier monks, they were accustomed and required to mix
+with all classes of men. They must be ready to dare and suffer all in
+the interest of their work of saving not only themselves but their
+fellow-men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between the Dominicans and the Franciscans.</div>
+
+<p>The Dominicans were called the "Preaching Friars" and were carefully
+trained in theology in order the better to refute the arguments of the
+heretics. The pope delegated to them especially the task of conducting
+the Inquisition. They early began to extend their influence over the
+universities, and the two most distinguished theologians and teachers of
+the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, were
+Dominicans. Among the Franciscans, on the other hand, there was always a
+considerable party who were suspicious of learning and who showed far
+more anxiety to remain absolutely poor than did the Dominicans. Yet as a
+whole the Franciscans, like the Dominicans, accepted the wealth that
+came to them, and they, too, contributed distinguished scholars to the
+universities.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance and influence of the new orders.</div>
+
+<p>The pope quickly recognized the importance of these new orders. He
+granted them successive privileges which freed them from all control of
+the bishops, and finally declared that they were to be bound only by
+their own rules. What was still more important, he gave them the right,
+if they were priests, to celebrate Mass everywhere, to preach and to
+perform the ordinary functions of the parish priests, such as hearing
+confession, granting absolution, and conducting burials. The friars
+invaded every parish, and appear to have largely replaced the parish
+priests. The laity believed them to be holier than the secular clergy
+and therefore regarded their prayers and ministrations as more
+efficient. Few towns were without a gray friars' (Franciscan) or a black
+friars' (Dominican) cloister; few princes but had a Dominican or a
+Franciscan confessor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opposition of the secular clergy.</div>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to say that the secular clergy took these
+encroachments very ill. They repeatedly appealed to the pope to abolish
+the orders, or at least to prevent them from enriching themselves at the
+expense of the parish priests. But they got little satisfaction. Once
+the pope quite frankly told a great deputation of cardinals, bishops,
+and minor clergy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> that it was their own vain and worldly lives which
+made them hate the mendicant brothers, who spent the bequests they
+received from the dying for the honor of God, instead of wasting it in
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>The mendicant orders have counted among their numbers men of the
+greatest ability and distinction,&mdash;scholars like Thomas Aquinas,
+reformers like Savonarola, artists like Fra Angelico and Fra
+Bartolommeo, and scientists like Roger Bacon. In the busy world of the
+thirteenth century there was no agency more active for good than the
+friars. Yet their vagrant lives, free from the ordinary control of the
+Church, and the great wealth which was showered upon them, afforded many
+obvious temptations which they did not long withstand. Bonaventura, who
+was made head of the Franciscan order in 1257, admits the general
+dislike aroused by the greed, idleness, and vice of its degenerate
+members, as well as by their importunate begging, which rendered the
+friar more troublesome to the wayfarer than the robber. Nevertheless the
+friars were preferred to the ordinary priests by high and low alike; it
+was they, rather than the secular clergy, who maintained and cultivated
+the religious life in both city and country.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The opening chapter of Lea's monumental work, <i>A
+History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages</i> (Harper Bros. &amp; Co.,
+3 vols., $10.00), gives a remarkable account of the medi&aelig;val Church
+and the abuses which prevailed. The first volume also contains
+unexcelled chapters upon the origin of both the Franciscan and
+Dominican orders. For St. Francis, by far the best work is
+Sabatier's beautiful biography, <i>St. Francis of Assisi</i> (Charles
+Scribner's Sons, $2.50). The earliest and best source for Francis
+is <i>The Mirror of Perfection</i> (Page, Boston, 75 cents), by Brother
+Leo, which shows the love and admiration in which "Little Brother
+Francis" was held by one of his companions. See also <span class="smcap">Jessopp</span>, <i>The
+Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essays</i> (G.P. Putnam's
+Sons, $1.25), Chapter I.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PEOPLE IN COUNTRY AND TOWN</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Little known of the life of the people in the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p><b>92.</b> Since the development of the rather new science of political
+economy, historical writers have become much interested in the condition
+and habits of the farmer, tradesman, and artisan in the Middle Ages.
+Unfortunately no amount of research is likely to make our knowledge very
+clear or certain regarding the condition of the people at large during
+the five or six centuries following the barbarian invasions. It rarely
+occurred to a medi&aelig;val chronicler to describe the familiar things about
+him, such as the way in which the peasant lived and tilled his land.
+Only the conspicuous personages and the startling events caught his
+attention. Nevertheless enough is known of the medi&aelig;val manor and town
+to make them very important subjects for the student of general history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Unimportance of town life in the early Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>There was little town life in western Europe before the twelfth century.
+The Roman towns were decreasing in population before the German inroads.
+The confusion which followed the invasions hastened their decline, and a
+great number of them disappeared altogether. Those which survived and
+such new towns as sprang up were, to judge from the chronicles, of very
+little importance during the early Middle Ages. We may assume,
+therefore, that during the long period from Theodoric to Frederick
+Barbarossa by far the greater part of the population of England,
+Germany, and northern and central France were living in the country, on
+the great estates belonging to the feudal lords, abbots, and
+bishops.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The manor, or vill.</div>
+
+<p>These medi&aelig;val estates were called <i>vills</i>, or <i>manors</i>, and closely
+resembled the Roman villas described in an earlier chapter. A portion of
+the estate was reserved by the lord for his own use; the rest of it was
+divided up among the peasants,<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> usually in long strips, of which
+each peasant had several scattered about the manor. The peasants were
+generally serfs who did not own their fields, but could not, on the
+other hand, be deprived of them so long as they worked for the lord and
+paid him certain dues. They were attached to the land and went with it
+when it changed hands. The serfs were required to till those fields
+which the lord reserved for himself and to gather in his crops. They
+might not marry without their lord's permission. Their wives and
+children rendered such assistance as was necessary in the manor house.
+In the women's buildings the daughters of the serfs engaged in spinning,
+weaving, sewing, baking, and brewing, thus producing clothes, food, and
+drink to be used by the whole community.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image30.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="An English Manor House, Thirteenth Century" title="" />
+<span class="caption">An English Manor House, Thirteenth Century</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The obligations of the serfs.</div>
+
+<p>We get our clearest ideas of the position of the serfs from the ancient
+descriptions of manors, which give an exact account of what each member
+of a particular community owed to the lord. For example, we find that
+the abbot of Peterborough held a manor upon which Hugh Miller and
+seventeen other serfs, mentioned by name, were required to work for him
+three days in each week during the whole year, except one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> week at
+Christmas, one at Easter, and one at Whitsuntide. Each serf was to give
+the lord abbot one bushel of wheat and eighteen sheaves of oats, three
+hens and one cock yearly, and five eggs at Easter. If he sold his horse
+for more than ten shillings, he was to give the said abbot four pence.
+Five other serfs, mentioned by name, held but half as much land as Hugh
+and his companions, by paying and doing in all things half as much
+service.</p>
+
+<p>There were sometimes a few people on the manor who did not belong to the
+great body of cultivators. The limits of the manor and those of the
+parish often coincided; in that case there would be a priest who had
+some scattered acres and whose standing was naturally somewhat superior
+to that of the people about him. Then the miller, who ground the flour
+and paid a substantial rent to the lord, was generally somewhat better
+off than his neighbors, and the same may be said of the blacksmith.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The manor independent of the outside world.</div>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable characteristics of the manor was its
+independence of the rest of the world. It produced nearly everything
+that its members needed and might almost have continued to exist
+indefinitely without communication with those who lived beyond its
+bounds. Little or no money was necessary, for the peasants paid what was
+due to the lord in the form of labor and farm products. They also
+rendered the needful help to one another and found little occasion for
+buying and selling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The monotony and misery of the peasants' lives.</div>
+
+<p>There was almost no opportunity to better one's condition, and life, in
+the greater part of the hamlets, must have gone on for generation after
+generation in a weary routine. The life was not merely monotonous, it
+was miserable. The food was coarse and there was little variety, as the
+peasants did not even take pains to raise fresh vegetables. The houses
+usually had but one room. This was ill-lighted by a single little window
+and had no chimney.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The manor court.</div>
+
+<p>Yet the very dependence upon one another can hardly have failed to
+produce a certain spirit of brotherhood and mutual assistance in the
+community. It was not only separated from the outside world, but its
+members were brought together constantly by their intermingled fields,
+their attendance at one church, and their responsibility to one
+proprietor. The men were all expected to be present at the "court" which
+was held in each manor, where the business of the manor was transacted
+under the supervision of a representative of the lord. Here, for
+instance, disputes were settled, fines imposed for the violation of the
+customs of the manor, and redistributions of the strips of land took
+place.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The serf an inferior farmer who could only exist when there
+was plenty of land.</div>
+
+<p>The serf was ordinarily a bad farmer and workman. He cultivated the soil
+in a very crude manner, and his crops were accordingly scanty and
+inferior. Obviously serfdom could exist only as long as land was
+plentiful. But in the twelfth and thirteenth century western Europe
+appears to have been gaining steadily in population. Serfdom would,
+therefore, naturally tend to disappear when the population so increased
+that the carelessly cultivated fields no longer supplied the food
+necessary for the growing numbers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Barter replaced by money transactions.</div>
+
+<p>The increased use of money in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+which came with the awakening trade and industry, also tended to break
+up the manor. The old habit of bartering one thing for another without
+the intervention of money began to disappear. As time went on, neither
+the lord nor the serf was satisfied with the ancient primitive
+arrangements, which had answered well enough in the time of Charlemagne.
+The serfs, on the one hand, began to obtain money by the sale of their
+products in the markets of neighboring towns. They soon found it more
+profitable to pay the lord a certain sum instead of working for him, for
+they could then turn their whole attention to their own farms. The
+proprietors, on the other hand, found it to their advantage to accept
+money in place of the services<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> of their tenants. With this money the
+landlord could hire laborers to cultivate his fields and could buy the
+luxuries which were brought to his notice as commerce increased. So it
+came about that the lords gradually renounced their control over the
+peasants, and the serf was no longer easily distinguishable from the
+freeman who paid a regular rent for his land.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> A serf might also
+gain his liberty by fleeing to a town. If he remained undiscovered, or
+was unclaimed by his lord, for a year and a day, he became a freeman.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disappearance of serfdom.</div>
+
+<p>The slow extinction of serfdom in western Europe appears to have begun
+as early as the twelfth century. A very general emancipation had taken
+place in France by the end of the thirteenth century (and in England
+somewhat later), though there were still some serfs in France when the
+revolution came in 1789. Germany was far more backward in this respect.
+We find the peasants revolting against their hard lot in Luther's time,
+and it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that the
+serfs were freed in Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of town life.</div>
+
+<p><b>93.</b> It is hardly necessary to point out that the gradual reappearance of
+town life in western Europe is of the greatest interest to the student
+of history. The cities had been the centers of Greek and Roman
+civilization, and in our own time they dominate the life, culture, and
+business enterprise of the world. Were they to disappear, our whole
+life, even in the country, would necessarily undergo a profound change
+and tend to become primitive again like that of the age of Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the medi&aelig;val towns.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Compactness of a medi&aelig;val town.</div>
+
+<p>A great part of the medi&aelig;val towns, of which we begin to have some
+scanty records about the year 1000, appear to have originated on the
+manors of feudal lords or about a monastery or castle. The French name
+for town, <i>ville</i>, is derived from vill, the name of the manor. The need
+of protection was probably the usual reason for establishing a town with
+a wall about it, so that the neighboring country people might find
+safety in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> it when attacked. The way in which a medi&aelig;val town was built
+seems to justify this conclusion. It was generally crowded and compact
+compared with its more luxurious Roman predecessors. Aside from the
+market place there were few or no open spaces. There were no
+amphitheaters or public baths as in the Roman cities. The streets were
+often mere alleys over which the jutting stories of the high houses
+almost met. The high, thick wall that surrounded it prevented its
+extending easily and rapidly as our cities do nowadays.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Townsmen originally serfs.</div>
+
+<p>All towns outside of Italy were evidently small in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries, and, like the manors on which they had grown up, they
+had little commerce as yet with the outside world. They produced almost
+all that their inhabitants needed except the farm products which came
+from the neighboring country. There was likely to be little expansion so
+long as the town remained under the absolute control of the lord or
+monastery upon whose land it was situated. The townspeople were scarcely
+more than serfs, in spite of the fact that they lived within a wall and
+engaged in industry instead of farming. They had to pay irritating dues
+to their lord, just as if they had still formed a farming community. The
+emancipation of the townsmen from their lords and the establishment of a
+suitable form of government for their town were necessary preliminaries
+to the free development of town life.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Increase of trade promotes the growth of the towns.</div>
+
+<p>With the increase of trade came the longing for this freedom. For when
+new and attractive commodities began to be brought from the East and the
+South, the people of the towns were encouraged to produce goods with the
+idea of exchanging them at some neighboring fair for the products of
+distant lands. But no sooner did the townsmen begin to engage in
+manufacturing and to enter into relations with the outside world, than
+they became conscious that they were greatly hampered by their
+half-servile condition and were subject to exactions and restrictions
+which would render progress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> impossible. Consequently during the twelfth
+century there were many insurrections of the towns against their lords
+and a general demand that the lords should grant the townsmen <i>charters</i>
+in which the rights of both parties should be definitely stated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image31.jpg" width="500" height="462" alt="A Castle on the Rhine with a Village below it" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Castle on the Rhine with a Village below it</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The communes.</div>
+
+<p>In France the citizens organized themselves into what were called
+<i>communes</i>, or unions for the purpose of gaining their independence.
+This word <i>commune</i> appeared a new and detestable one to the lords, for,
+to their minds, it was merely another name for a company of serfs
+leagued against their masters. The nobles sometimes put down the
+insurrections of their townsmen with great cruelty. On the other hand,
+the lords often realized that they would increase the prosperity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+their towns by granting them freedom from arbitrary taxation and the
+right to govern themselves. In England the towns gained their privileges
+more gradually by purchasing them from the lords.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Town charters.</div>
+
+<p>The town charters were written contracts between the lord and the
+commune or the guild of merchants of a town. The charter served at once
+as the certificate of birth of the town and as its constitution. It
+contained a promise on the part of the lord or king to recognize the
+existence of the guild of merchants. It limited the rights of the lord
+in calling the townsmen before his court and fining them, and enumerated
+the taxes which he might exact from the townspeople. The old dues and
+services were either abolished or changed into money payments.</p>
+
+<p>King Henry II of England promised the inhabitants of Wallingford that
+"wheresoever they shall go on their journeys as merchants through my
+whole land of England and Normandy, Aquitaine and Anjou, 'by water and
+by strand, by wood and by land,' they shall be free from toll and
+passage fees and from all customs and exactions; nor are they to be
+troubled in this respect by anyone under penalty of ten pounds." In the
+case of the town of Southampton he concedes "that my men of Hampton
+shall have and hold their guild and all their liberties and customs, by
+land and by sea, in as good, peaceable, just, free, quiet, and honorable
+a manner as they had the same most freely and quietly in the time of
+King Henry, my grandfather; and let no one upon this do them any injury
+or insult."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Customs revealed in the charters.</div>
+
+<p>The customs of the times, as revealed in the charters, seem to us very
+primitive. We find in the charter of the French town of St. Omer, in
+1168, provisions like the following: He who shall commit a murder in the
+town shall not find an asylum anywhere within the walls. If he shall
+seek to escape punishment by flight, his buildings shall be torn down
+and his goods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> confiscated; nor may he come back into the town unless he
+be first reconciled with the relations of his victim and pay ten pounds,
+of which a half shall go to the lord's representatives and the other
+half to the commune, to be spent on its fortifications. He who strikes
+another one in the town shall pay one hundred sous; he who pulls out the
+hair of another shall pay forty sous, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image32.jpg" width="500" height="220" alt="A Medi&aelig;val Town, Siegen" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Medi&aelig;val Town, Siegen</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the towns had, as a visible sign of their freedom, a belfry, a
+high building with a watchtower, where a guard was kept day and night in
+order that the bell might be rung in case of approaching danger. It
+contained an assembly hall, where the commune held its meetings, and a
+prison. In the fourteenth century the wonderful townhalls began to be
+erected, which, with the exception of the cathedrals and other churches,
+are usually the most remarkable buildings which the traveler sees to-day
+in the old commercial cities of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Craft guilds.</div>
+
+<p>The tradesmen in the medi&aelig;val towns were at once artisans and merchants;
+they not only made, but offered for sale, the articles which they
+produced in their shops. In addition to the original guild of merchants
+which helped the towns to gain and preserve their privileges, many new
+corporations of tradesmen grew up, the so-called <i>craft guilds</i>. The
+oldest statutes of a guild in Paris are those of the candle makers,
+which go back to 1061. The number of trades differed greatly in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+different towns, but the guilds all had the same object,&mdash;to prevent
+every one from practicing a trade who had not been duly admitted to the
+corporation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map242.jpg">
+<img src="images/map242th.jpg" width="600" height="435" alt="LINES OF TRADE AND MEDIAEVAL TOWNS" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">LINES OF TRADE AND MEDI&AElig;VAL TOWNS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The guild system.</div>
+
+<p>A young man had to spend several years in learning his trade. He lived
+in the house of a master workman, but received no remuneration. He then
+became a "journeyman" and could earn wages, although he could still work
+only for master workmen and not directly for the public. A simple trade
+might be learned in three years, but to become a goldsmith one must be
+an apprentice for ten years. The number of apprentices that a master
+workman might employ was strictly limited, in order that the journeymen
+might not become too numerous. The way in which each trade was to be
+practiced was carefully regulated, as well as the time that should be
+spent in work each day. The system of guilds discouraged enterprise but
+maintained a uniform efficiency everywhere. Had it not been for these
+unions, the defenseless, isolated workmen, serfs as they had formerly
+been, would have found it impossible to secure freedom and municipal
+independence from the feudal lords who had formerly been their masters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Practical disappearance of commerce in the early Middle
+Ages.</div>
+
+<p><b>94.</b> The chief reason for the growth of the towns and their increasing
+prosperity was a great development of trade throughout western Europe.
+Commerce had pretty much disappeared with the decline of the Roman roads
+and the general disorganization produced by the barbarian invasions.
+There was no one in the Middle Ages to mend the ancient Roman roads. The
+great network of highways from Persia to Britain fell apart when
+independent nobles or poor local communities took the place of a world
+empire. All trade languished, for there was little demand for those
+articles of luxury which the Roman communities in the North had been
+accustomed to obtain from the South. There was little money and scarcely
+any notion of luxury, for the nobility lived a simple life in their
+dreary and rudely furnished castles.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Italian cities trade with the Orient.</div>
+
+<p>In Italy, however, trade does not seem to have altogether ceased.
+Venice, Genoa, Amalfi, and other towns appear to have developed a
+considerable Mediterranean commerce even before the Crusades. Their
+merchants, as we have seen, supplied the destitute crusaders with the
+material necessary for the conquest of Jerusalem. The passion for
+pilgrimages offered inducements to the Italian merchants for expeditions
+to the Orient, whither they transported the pilgrims and returned with
+the products of the East. The Italian cities established trading
+stations in the East and carried on a direct traffic with the caravans
+which brought to the shores of the Mediterranean the products of Arabia,
+Persia, India, and the Spice Islands. The southern French towns and
+Barcelona entered also into commercial relations with the Mohammedans in
+northern Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image33.jpg" width="300" height="591" alt="Street in Frankfort-on-the-Main" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Street in Frankfort-on-the-Main</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Commerce stimulates industry.</div>
+
+<p>This progress in the South could not but stir the lethargy of the rest
+of Europe. The new commerce encouraged a revolution in industry. So long
+as the manor system prevailed and each man was occupied in producing
+only what he and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> the other members of his group needed, there was
+nothing to send abroad and nothing to exchange for luxuries. But when
+merchants began to come with tempting articles, the members of a
+community were encouraged to produce a surplus of goods above what they
+themselves needed, and to sell or exchange this surplus for commodities
+coming from a distance. Merchants and artisans gradually directed their
+energies toward the production of what others wished as well as what was
+needed by the little group to which they belonged.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The luxuries of the East introduced into Europe.</div>
+
+<p>The romances of the twelfth century indicate that the West was
+astonished and delighted by the luxuries of the East,&mdash;the rich fabrics,
+Oriental carpets, precious stones, perfumes, drugs (like camphor and
+laudanum), silks and porcelains from China, spices from India, and
+cotton from Egypt. Venice introduced the silk industry from the East and
+the manufacture of those glass articles which the traveler may still buy
+in the Venetian shops. The West learned how to make silk and velvet as
+well as light and gauzy cotton and linen fabrics. The eastern dyes were
+introduced, and Paris was soon imitating the tapestries of the Saracens.
+In exchange for those luxuries which they were unable to produce, the
+Flemish towns sent their woolen cloths to the East, and Italy its wines.
+But there was apparently always a considerable cash balance to be paid
+to the Oriental merchants, since the West could not produce enough to
+pay by exchange for all that it demanded from the Orient.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Some of the important commercial centers.</div>
+
+<p>The northern merchants dealt mainly with Venice and brought their wares
+across the Brenner Pass and down the Rhine, or sent them by sea to be
+exchanged in Flanders. By the thirteenth century important centers of
+trade had come into being, some of which are still among the great
+commercial towns of the world. Hamburg, L&uuml;beck, and Bremen carried on
+active trade with the countries on the Baltic and with England. Augsburg
+and Nuremberg, in the south of Germany, became important on account of
+their situation on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> the line of trade between Italy and the North.
+Bruges and Ghent sent their manufactures everywhere. English commerce
+was relatively unimportant as yet compared with that of the great ports
+of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Restrictions on trade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Idea of a 'just' price.</div>
+
+<p><b>95.</b> A word must be said of the numerous and almost incredible obstacles
+in the way of commerce in the Middle Ages. There was very little of that
+freedom which we now regard as essential to successful business. Our
+wholesale dealers would have been considered an abomination in the
+Middle Ages. Those who bought up a quantity of a commodity in order to
+sell it at a high rate were called by the ugly name of <i>forestallers</i>.
+It was universally believed that everything had a "just" price, which
+was merely enough to cover the cost of the materials used in its
+manufacture and remunerate the maker for the work he had put upon it. It
+was considered outrageous to sell a thing for more than the just price,
+no matter how anxious the purchaser might be to obtain it. Every
+manufacturer was required to keep a shop in which he offered at retail
+all that he made. Those who lived near a town were permitted to sell
+their products in the market place within the walls on condition that
+they sold directly to the consumers. They might not dispose of their
+whole stock to one dealer, for fear that if he had all there was of a
+commodity he might raise the price above a just one.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Payment of interest on money forbidden.</div>
+
+<p>Akin to these prejudices against wholesale trade was that against
+interest. Money was believed to be a dead and sterile thing, and no one
+had a right to demand any return for lending it. Interest was wicked,
+since it was exacted by those who took advantage of the embarrassments
+of others. Usury, as the taking of even the most moderate and reasonable
+rate of interest was then called, was strenuously forbidden by the laws
+of the Church. We find church councils ordering that impenitent usurers
+should be refused Christian burial and have their wills annulled. So
+money-lending, necessary to all great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> commercial and industrial
+undertakings, was left to the Jews, from whom Christian conduct was not
+expected.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Jews as money-lenders.</div>
+
+<p>This ill-starred people played a most important part in the economic
+development of Europe, but they were terribly maltreated by the
+Christians, who held them guilty of the supreme crime of putting Christ
+to death. The active persecution of the Jews did not, however, become
+common before the thirteenth century, when they first began to be
+required to wear a peculiar cap, or badge, which made them easily
+recognized and exposed them to constant insult. Later they were
+sometimes shut up in a particular quarter of the city, called the Jewry.
+Since they were excluded from the guilds, they not unnaturally turned to
+the business of money-lending, which no Christian might practice.
+Undoubtedly their occupation had much to do in causing their
+unpopularity. The kings permitted them to make loans, often at a most
+exorbitant rate; Philip Augustus allowed them to exact forty-six per
+cent, but reserved the right to extort their gains from them when the
+royal treasury was empty. In England the usual rate was a penny a pound
+for each week.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Lombards' as bankers.</div>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century the Italians&mdash;"Lombards"&mdash;began to go into a
+sort of banking business and greatly extended the employment of bills of
+exchange. They lent for nothing, but exacted damages for all delay in
+repayment. This appeared reasonable and right even to those who
+condemned ordinary interest. Capitalists, moreover, could contribute
+money towards an enterprise and share the profits as long as no interest
+was exacted. In these and other ways the obstacles offered by the
+prejudice against interest were much reduced, and large commercial
+companies came into existence, especially in Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tolls, duties, and other annoyances to which merchants were
+subjected on land.</div>
+
+<p><b>96.</b> Another serious disadvantage which the medi&aelig;val merchant had to face
+was the payment of an infinite number of tolls and duties which were
+exacted by the lords through whose domains his way passed. Not only were
+duties exacted on the highways, bridges, and at the fords, but those
+barons who were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> so fortunate as to have castles on a navigable river
+blocked the stream in such a way that the merchant could not bring his
+vessel through without a payment for the privilege. The charges were
+usually small, but the way in which they were exacted and the repeated
+delays must have been a serious source of irritation and loss to the
+merchants. For example, a certain monastery lying between Paris and the
+sea required that those hastening to town with fresh fish should stop
+and let the monks pick out what they thought worth three pence, with
+little regard to the condition in which they left the goods. When a boat
+laden with wine passed up the Seine to Paris, the agent of the lord of
+Poissy could have three casks broached, and, after trying them all, he
+could take a measure from the one he liked best. At the markets all
+sorts of dues had to be paid, such, for example, as payments for using
+the lord's scales or his measuring rod. Besides this, the great variety
+of coinage which existed in feudal Europe caused infinite perplexity and
+delay.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dangers by sea.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pirates.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Strand laws.</div>
+
+<p>Commerce by sea had its own particular trials, by no means confined to
+the hazards of wind and wave, rock and shoal. Pirates were numerous in
+the North Sea. They were often organized and sometimes led by men of
+high rank, who appear to have regarded the business as no disgrace. Then
+there were the so-called <i>strand laws</i>, according to which a ship with
+its cargo became the property of the owner of the coast upon which it
+might be wrecked or driven ashore. Lighthouses and beacons were few and
+the coasts dangerous. Moreover, natural dangers were increased by false
+signals which wreckers used to lure ships to shore in order to plunder
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Hanseatic League.</div>
+
+<p>With a view to mitigating these manifold perils, the towns early began
+to form unions for mutual defense. The most famous of these was that of
+the German cities, called the <i>Hanseatic League</i>. L&uuml;beck was always the
+leader, but among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> the seventy towns which at one time and another were
+included in the confederation, we find Cologne, Brunswick, Dantzig, and
+other centers of great importance. The union purchased and controlled
+settlements in London,&mdash;the so-called <i>Steelyard</i> near London
+Bridge,&mdash;at Wisby, Bergen, and the far-off Novgorod in Russia. They
+managed to monopolize nearly the whole trade on the Baltic and North
+Sea, either through treaties or the influence that they were able to
+bring to bear.</p>
+
+<p>The League made war on the pirates and did much to reduce the dangers of
+traffic. Instead of dispatching separate and defenseless merchantmen,
+their ships sailed out in fleets under the protection of a man-of-war.
+On one occasion the League undertook a successful war against the king
+of Denmark, who had interfered with their interests. At another time it
+declared war on England and brought her to terms. For two hundred years
+before the discovery of America, the League played a great part in the
+commercial affairs of western Europe; but it had begun to decline even
+before the discovery of new routes to the East and West Indies
+revolutionized trade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Trade regulated by the towns (thirteenth to fifteenth
+century), not by nations or individuals.</div>
+
+<p>It should be observed that, during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
+fifteenth centuries, trade was not carried on between nations, but by
+the various towns, like Venice, L&uuml;beck, Ghent, Bruges, Cologne. A
+merchant did not act or trade as an independent individual but as a
+member of a particular merchant guild, and he enjoyed the protection of
+his town and of the treaties it arranged. If a merchant from a certain
+town failed to pay a debt, a fellow-townsman might be seized where the
+debt was due. At the period of which we have been speaking, an
+inhabitant of London was considered a foreigner or an alien in Bristol,
+just as was the merchant from Cologne or Antwerp. Only gradually did the
+towns merge into the nations to which their people belonged.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The burghers, or commons, become an influential class.</div>
+
+<p>The increasing wealth of the merchants could not fail to raise them to a
+position of importance in society which they had not hitherto enjoyed.
+Their prosperity enabled them to vie with the clergy in education and
+with the nobility in the luxury of their dwellings and surroundings.
+They began to give some attention to reading, and as early as the
+fourteenth century many of the books appear to have been written with a
+view of meeting their tastes and needs. Representatives of the towns
+were called into the councils of the king, who was obliged to take their
+advice along with their contributions to the support of the government.
+The rise of the burgher class alongside the older orders of the clergy
+and nobility, which had so long dominated the life of western Europe, is
+one of the most momentous changes of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gibbins</span>, <i>History of Commerce in Europe</i> (The
+Macmillan Company, 90 cents), the best short account of the
+subject, with good maps of trade routes. <span class="smcap">Ingram</span>, <i>History of
+Slavery and Serfdom</i> (Black, London, $2.00), especially Chapters IV
+and V. <span class="smcap">Cunningham</span>, <i>Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects</i>,
+Vol. II, Medi&aelig;val and Modern Times (The Macmillan Company, $1.25),
+is very suggestive. There are several excellent accounts of the
+economic situation in England in the Middle Ages, which, in many
+respects, was similar to the conditions on the continent. <span class="smcap">Cheyney</span>,
+<i>Industrial and Social History of England</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$1.40); <span class="smcap">Gibbins</span>, <i>The Industrial History of England</i> (Methuen,
+$1.00), and a more elaborate treatise by the same writer, <i>Industry
+in England</i> (Methuen, $3.00); <span class="smcap">Cunningham</span>, <i>Outlines of English
+Industrial History</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.50), and much fuller
+by the same writer, <i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce during
+the Middle Ages</i> (The Macmillan Company, $4.00). All these give
+excellent accounts of the manor, the guilds, the fairs, etc. See
+also <span class="smcap">Jessopp</span>, <i>Coming of the Friars</i>, second essay, "Village Life
+Six Hundred Years Ago."</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>97.</b> The interest of the Middle Ages lies by no means exclusively in the
+statesmanship of kings and emperors, their victories and defeats; in the
+policy of popes and bishops; or even in feudalism and Europe's escape
+from it. Important as all these are, we should have but a very imperfect
+idea of the period which we have been studying if we left it without
+considering the intellectual life and the art of the time, the books
+that were written, the universities that were founded, and the
+cathedrals that were built.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General use of Latin in the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>To begin with, the Middle Ages differed from our own time in the very
+general use then made of Latin, both in writing and speaking. In the
+thirteenth century, and long after, all books that made any claim to
+learning were written in Latin;<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> the professors in the universities
+lectured in Latin, friends wrote to one another in Latin, and state
+papers, treaties, and legal documents were drawn up in the same
+language. The ability of every educated person to make use of Latin, as
+well as of his native tongue, was a great advantage at a time when there
+were many obstacles to intercourse among the various nations. It helps
+to explain, for example, the remarkable way in which the pope kept in
+touch with all the clergymen of western Christendom, and the ease with
+which students, friars, and merchants could wander from one country to
+another. There is no more interesting or important revolution than that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+by which the language of the people in the various European countries
+gradually pushed aside the ancient tongue and took its place, so that
+even scholars scarcely ever think now of writing books in Latin.</p>
+
+<p>In order to understand how it came about that two languages, the Latin
+and the native speech, were both commonly used in all the countries of
+western Europe all through the Middle Ages, we must glance at the origin
+of the modern languages. These all fall into two quite distinct groups,
+the Germanic and the Romance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Germanic languages derived from the dialects of the
+German barbarians.</div>
+
+<p>Those German peoples who had continued to live outside of the Roman
+Empire, or who, during the invasions, had not settled far enough within
+its bounds to be led, like the Franks in Gaul, to adopt the tongue of
+those they had conquered, naturally adhered to the language they had
+always used, namely, the particular Germanic dialect which their
+forefathers had spoken for untold generations. From the various
+languages spoken by the German barbarians, modern German, English,
+Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, and Icelandic are derived.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Romance languages derived from the spoken Latin.</div>
+
+<p>The second group of languages developed within the territory which had
+formed a part of the Roman Empire, and includes modern French, Italian,
+Spanish, and Portuguese. It has now been clearly proved, by a very
+minute study of the old forms of words, that these Romance languages
+were one and all derived from the <i>spoken</i> Latin, employed by the
+soldiers, merchants, and people at large. This differed considerably
+from the elaborate and elegant written Latin which was used, for
+example, by Cicero and C&aelig;sar. It was undoubtedly much simpler in its
+grammar and doubtless varied a good deal in different regions;&mdash;a Gaul,
+for instance, could not pronounce the words like an Italian. Moreover,
+in conversation people did not always use the same words as those in the
+books. For example, a horse was commonly spoken of as <i>caballus</i>,
+whereas a writer would use the word <i>equus</i>; it is from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> <i>caballus</i> that
+the word for horse is derived in Spanish, Italian, and French
+(<i>caballo</i>, <i>cavallo</i>, <i>cheval</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As time went on the spoken language diverged farther and farther from
+the written. Latin is a troublesome speech on account of its complicated
+inflections and grammatical rules, which can be mastered only after a
+great deal of study. The people of the Roman provinces and the incoming
+barbarians naturally paid very little attention to the niceties of
+syntax and found easy ways of saying what they wished.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> Yet several
+centuries elapsed after the German invasions before there was anything
+written in the language of conversation. So long as the uneducated could
+understand the correct Latin of the books when they heard it read or
+spoken, there was no necessity of writing anything in their familiar
+daily speech. But the gulf between the spoken and the written language
+had become so great by the time Charlemagne came to the throne, that he
+advised that sermons should be given thereafter in the language of the
+people, who, apparently, could no longer follow the Latin. The Strasburg
+oaths<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> are, however, about the first example which has come down to
+us of the speech which was growing into French.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Earliest examples of the Germanic languages.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gothic.</div>
+
+<p><b>98.</b> As for the Germanic languages, one at least was reduced to writing
+even before the break-up of the Empire. An eastern bishop, Ulfilas (d.
+381), had undertaken to convert the Goths while they were still living
+north of the Danube before the battle of Adrianople. In order to carry
+on his work, Ulfilas translated a great part of the Bible into Gothic,
+using the Greek letters to represent the sounds. With the single
+exception of the Gothic, there is no example of writing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> in any German
+language before Charlemagne's time. There is no doubt, however, that the
+Germans possessed an unwritten literature, which was passed down by word
+of mouth for several centuries before any of it was written out.
+Charlemagne caused certain ancient poems to be collected, which
+presumably celebrated the great deeds of the German heroes during the
+invasions. These invaluable specimens of ancient German are said to have
+been destroyed by the order of Louis the Pious, who was shocked by their
+paganism. The great German epic, the <i>Song of the Niebelungs</i>, was not
+reduced to writing until the end of the twelfth century, after it had
+been transmitted orally for many generations.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ancient English, or Anglo-Saxon.</div>
+
+<p>The oldest form of English is commonly called Anglo-Saxon and is so
+different from the language that we use that, in order to read it, it
+must be learned like a foreign language. We hear of an English poet,
+C&aelig;dmon, as early as Bede's time, a century before Charlemagne. A
+manuscript of an Anglo-Saxon epic, called <i>Beowulf</i>, has been preserved
+which belongs perhaps to the close of the eighth century. The interest
+which King Alfred displayed in the mother tongue has already been
+mentioned. This old form of our language prevailed until after the
+Norman Conquest; the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, which does not close until
+1154, is written in pure Anglo-Saxon. Then changes may be noticed in the
+language as it appears in the books of the time, and decade by decade it
+approaches more nearly to that which we speak. Although the first public
+document in English (1256), which belongs to the reign of Henry III, is
+scarcely to be understood without study, a poem written in his son's
+time is tolerably intelligible.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>
+
+<p>English literature was destined one day to arouse the admiration of the
+peoples across the Channel and exercise an important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> influence upon
+other literatures. In the Middle Ages, however, French, not English, was
+the most important of the vernacular languages of western Europe. In
+France a vast literature was produced in the language of the people
+during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries which profoundly affected
+the books written in Italy, Spain, Germany, and England.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">French and Proven&ccedil;al.</div>
+
+<p><b>99.</b> Two quite different languages had gradually developed in France from
+the spoken Latin of the Roman Empire. If a line were drawn on the map
+from La Rochelle, on the Atlantic, eastward to the Alps, crossing the
+Rhone a little below Lyons, it would give a general idea of the limits
+of the two tongues. To the north, French was spoken; to the south, in a
+region bounded by the Pyrenees and the Alps, Proven&ccedil;al.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Medi&aelig;val French romances.</div>
+
+<p>Very little in the ancient French language written before the year 1100
+has been preserved. The West Franks undoubtedly began much earlier to
+sing of their heroes, of the great deeds of Clovis, Dagobert, and
+Charles Martel. These famous rulers were, however, completely
+overshadowed later by Charlemagne, who became the unrivaled hero of
+medi&aelig;val poetry and romance. It was believed that he had reigned for a
+hundred and twenty-five years, and the most marvelous exploits were
+attributed to him and his knights. He was supposed, for instance, to
+have led a crusade to Jerusalem. Such themes as these&mdash;more legend than
+history&mdash;were woven into long epics, which were the first written
+literature of the Frankish people. These poems, combined with the
+stories of adventure, developed a spirit of patriotic enthusiasm among
+the French which made them regard "fair France" as the especial care of
+Providence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>Song of Roland</i>.</div>
+
+<p>It is little wonder that the best of these long poems came to be looked
+upon as the national epic of the French. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> is the <i>Song of Roland</i>,
+probably written just before the First Crusade. It tells the story of
+Charlemagne's retreat from Spain, during which Roland, one of his
+commanders, lost his life in a romantic encounter in the defiles of the
+Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p class="poems">
+That death was on him he knew full well;<br />
+Down from his head to his heart it fell.<br />
+On the grass beneath a pine tree's shade,<br />
+With face to earth, his form he laid,<br />
+Beneath him placed he his horn and sword,<br />
+And turned his face to the heathen horde.<br />
+Thus hath he done the sooth to show,<br />
+That Karl and his warriors all may know,<br />
+That the gentle count a conqueror died.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Romances of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.</div>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the twelfth century the romances of King Arthur
+and his Knights of the Round Table begin to appear. These enjoyed great
+popularity in all western Europe for centuries, and they are by no means
+forgotten yet. Arthur, of whose historical existence no one can be quite
+sure, was supposed to have been king of Britain shortly after the Saxons
+gained a foothold in the island. In other long poems of the time,
+Alexander the Great, C&aelig;sar, and other ancient worthies appear as heroes.
+The absolute disregard of historical facts and the tendency to represent
+the warriors of Troy and Rome as medi&aelig;val knights, show the inability of
+the medi&aelig;val mind to understand that the past could have been different
+from the present. All these romances are full of picturesque adventures
+and present a vivid picture of the valor and loyalty of the true knight,
+as well as of his ruthlessness and contempt for human life.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The <i>fabliaux</i> and the fables.</div>
+
+<p>Besides the long and elaborate epics, like <i>Roland</i>, and the romances in
+verse and prose, there were numberless short stories in verse (the
+<i>fabliaux</i>), which usually dealt with the incidents of everyday life,
+especially with the comical ones. Then there were the fables, the most
+famous of which are the stories of Reynard the Fox, which were satires
+upon the customs of the time, particularly the weaknesses of the priests
+and monks.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The troubadours.</div>
+
+<p><b>100.</b> Turning now to southern France, the beautiful songs of the
+troubadours, which were the glory of the Proven&ccedil;al tongue, reveal a gay
+and polished society at the courts of the numerous feudal princes. The
+rulers not merely protected and encouraged the poets; they aspired to be
+poets themselves and to enter the ranks of the troubadours, as the
+composers of these elegant verses were called. These songs were always
+sung to an accompaniment on some instrument, usually the lute. Those who
+merely sang them, without being themselves poets, were called
+<i>jongleurs</i>. The troubadours and jongleurs traveled from court to court,
+not only in France, but north into Germany and south into Italy,
+carrying with them the southern French poetry and customs. We have few
+examples of Proven&ccedil;al before the year 1100, but from that time on, for
+two centuries, countless songs were written, and many of the troubadours
+enjoyed an international reputation. The terrible Albigensian crusade
+brought misery and death into the sprightly circles which had gathered
+about the count of Toulouse and others who had treated the heretics too
+leniently. But the literary critic traces signs of decline in the
+Proven&ccedil;al verse even before this disaster.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Chivalry.</div>
+
+<p>For the student of history, the chief interest of the epics of northern
+France and the songs of the South lies in the insight that they give
+into the life and aspirations of this feudal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> period. These are usually
+summed up in the term <i>chivalry</i>, or <i>knighthood</i>, of which a word may
+properly be said here, since we should know little of it were it not for
+the literature of which we have been speaking. The knights play the
+chief r&ocirc;le in all the medi&aelig;val romances; and, as many of the troubadours
+belonged to the knightly class, they naturally have much to say of it in
+their songs.</p>
+
+<p>Chivalry was not a formal institution established at any particular
+moment. Like feudalism, with which it was closely connected, it had no
+founder, but appeared spontaneously throughout western Europe to meet
+the needs and desires of the period. We learn from Tacitus that even in
+his time the Germans considered the moment a solemn one when the young
+warrior was first invested with the arms of a soldier. "This was the
+sign that the youth had reached manhood; this was his first honor." It
+is probably a survival of this feeling which we find in the idea of
+knighthood. When the youth of good family had been carefully trained to
+ride his horse, use his sword, and manage his hawk in the hunt, he was
+made a <i>knight</i> by a ceremony in which the Church took part, although
+the knighthood was actually conferred by an older knight.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nature of the knightly order.</div>
+
+<p>The knight was a Christian soldier, and he and his fellows were supposed
+to form, in a way, a separate order with high ideals of the conduct
+befitting their class. Knighthood was not, however, membership in an
+association with officers and a written constitution. It was an ideal,
+half-imaginary society,&mdash;a society to which even those who enjoyed the
+title of king or duke were proud to belong. One was not born a knight as
+he might be born a duke or count, and could become one only through the
+ceremony mentioned above. One might be a noble and still not belong to
+the knightly order, and, on the other hand, one baseborn might be raised
+to knighthood on account of some valorous deed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The ideals of the knight.</div>
+
+<p>The knight must, in the first place, be a Christian and must obey and
+defend the Church on all occasions. He must respect all forms of
+weakness and defend the helpless wherever he might find them. He must
+fight the infidel ceaselessly, pitilessly, and never give way before the
+enemy. He must perform all his feudal duties, be faithful in all things
+to his lord, never lie or violate his plighted word. He must be generous
+and give freely and ungrudgingly to the needy. He must be faithful to
+his lady and be ready to defend her person and her honor at all costs.
+Everywhere he must be the champion of the right against injustice and
+oppression. In short, chivalry was the Christianized profession of arms.</p>
+
+<p>In the stories of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table there
+is a beautiful picture of the ideal knight. The dead Lancelot is
+addressed by one of his sorrowing companions as follows: "Thou wert the
+courtliest knight that ever bare shield, and thou wert the truest friend
+to thy lover that ever bestrode horse, and thou wert the truest lover of
+a sinful man [i.e., among sinful men] that ever loved woman, and thou
+wert the kindest man that ever struck with sword, and thou wert the
+goodliest person that ever came among the press of knights, and thou
+wert the meekest man and the gentlest that ever ate in hall among
+ladies, and thou wert the sternest knight to thy mortal foe that ever
+put spear in breast."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The German minnesingers.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Walther von der Vogelweide.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Parsifal.</i></div>
+
+<p>The Germans also made their contribution to the literature of chivalry.
+The German poets of the thirteenth century are called <i>minnesingers</i>.
+Like the troubadours, whom they greatly admired, they usually sang of
+love (German, <i>Minne</i>). The most famous of the minnesingers was Walther
+von der Vogelweide (d. about 1228), whose songs are full of charm and of
+enthusiasm for his German fatherland. Wolfram von Eschenbach (d. about
+1225) in his story of <i>Parsifal</i> gives the long and sad adventures of a
+knight in search of the Holy Grail,&mdash;the sacred vessel which had held
+the blood of Christ. Only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> those perfectly pure in thought, word, and
+deed could hope to behold it. Parsifal failed to speak a word of
+sympathy to a suffering man and was forced to undergo a long atonement.
+At last he learned that only through pity and humility and faith in God
+could he hope to find the Grail.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Difference between the earlier and later ideals of chivalry.</div>
+
+<p>The chivalry depicted in the <i>Song of Roland</i> and the more serious poems
+of northern France is of a severe type, in which the service of the
+Church, especially against the infidel, and the obligations to the
+feudal suzerain have the predominant place. On the other hand, in the
+Arthurian legends, and, above all, in the songs of the troubadours, the
+ideal conduct of a polished and valorous gentleman, especially toward
+the lady of his choice, finds expression. The later romances of chivalry
+(in the thirteenth and following centuries) deal very largely with
+knighthood in the latter sense of the word. No one, indeed, any longer
+thought of fighting the infidel; for the Crusades were over and the
+knight was forced to seek adventures nearer home.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General ignorance of the past.</div>
+
+<p><b>101.</b> So long as all books had to be copied by hand, there were, of
+course, but few of them compared with modern times. The literature of
+which we have been speaking was not in general read, but was listened
+to, as it was sung or recited by those who made it their profession.
+Wherever the wandering jongleur appeared he was sure of a delighted
+audience for his songs and stories, both serious and light. Those
+unfamiliar with Latin could, however, learn little of the past; there
+were no translations of the great classics of Greece and Rome, of Homer,
+Plato, Cicero, or Livy. All that they could know of ancient history was
+derived from the fantastic romances referred to above, which had for
+their theme the quite preposterous deeds ascribed to Alexander the
+Great, &AElig;neas, and C&aelig;sar. As for their own history, the epics relating to
+the earlier course of events in France and the rest of Europe were
+hopelessly confused.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> The writers attributed a great part of the acts of
+the Frankish kings, from Clovis to Pippin, to Charlemagne. The first
+real history written in French is Villehardouin's account of the capture
+of Constantinople by the crusaders (in 1204), which he witnessed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Medi&aelig;val popular science.</div>
+
+<p>What we should call scientific literature was practically wanting. It is
+true that there was a kind of encyclopedia in verse which gave a great
+deal of misinformation about things in general. Every one believed in
+strange animals like the unicorn, the dragon, and the phoenix, and in
+still stranger habits of real animals. A single example will suffice to
+show what passed for zo&ouml;logy in the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>"There is a little beast made like a lizard and such is its nature that
+it will extinguish fire should it fall into it. The beast is so cold and
+of such a quality that fire is not able to burn it, nor will trouble
+happen in the place where it shall be." This beast signifies the holy
+man who lives by faith, who "will never have hurt from fire nor will
+hell burn him.... This beast we name also by another name,&mdash;it is called
+salamander, as you find written,&mdash;it is accustomed to mount into
+apple-trees, poisons the apples, and in a well where it shall fall it
+will poison the water."</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the habits of the animals were supposed to have
+some spiritual meaning and carry with them a lesson for mankind. It may
+be added that this and similar stories were centuries old. The most
+improbable things were repeated from generation to generation without
+its occurring to any one to inquire if there was any truth in them. Even
+the most learned men of the time believed in astrology and in the
+miraculous virtues of herbs and gems. For instance, Albertus Magnus, one
+of the most distinguished scientists of the thirteenth century, agrees
+that a sapphire will drive away boils and that the diamond can be
+softened in the blood of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> stag, which will work best if the stag has
+been fed on wine and parsley.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>102.</b> It is not only in the literature of the Middle Ages that we find
+the thought and life of the people reflected, but in the art as well,
+for painters, sculptors, and builders were at work in every country of
+western Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Illuminations done by the monks.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">In religious works.</div>
+
+<p>The paintings were altogether different from those of to-day, and
+consisted chiefly of illustrations in the books, called <i>illuminations</i>.
+Just as the books had all to be laboriously written out by hand, so each
+picture was painted on the parchment page with tiny brushes and usually
+in brilliant colors with a generous use of gold. And as the monks wrote
+out the books, so it was, in general, the monks who painted the
+pictures. The books that they adorned were chiefly those used in the
+church services, especially the breviary, the psalter, and the book of
+hours. Naturally these pictures usually dealt with religious subjects
+and illustrated the lives of the saints or the events of biblical
+history. Virtue was encouraged by representations of the joys of heaven
+and also stimulated by spirited portrayals of the devil and his fiends,
+and of the sufferings of the lost.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">In secular books.</div>
+
+<p>Secular works, too, were sometimes provided with pictures drawn from a
+wide variety of subjects. We find in their pages such homely and
+familiar figures as the farmer with his plow, the butcher at his block,
+the glass blower at his furnace; then, again, we are transported to an
+imaginary world, peopled with strange and uncouth beasts and adorned
+with fantastic architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The artist governed by fixed rules.</div>
+
+<p>The medi&aelig;val love of symbols and of fixed rules for doing things is
+strikingly illustrated in these illuminations. Each color had its
+especial significance. There were certain established attitudes and ways
+of depicting various characters and emotions which were adhered to by
+generation after generation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> of artists and left comparatively little
+opportunity for individual talent or lifelike presentation. On the other
+hand, these little pictures&mdash;for of course they were always
+small<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>&mdash;were often executed with exquisite care and skill and
+sometimes in the smaller details with great truth to nature.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the pictures of which we have been speaking, it was a common
+practice to adorn the books with gay illuminated initials or page
+borders, which were sometimes very beautiful in both design and color.
+In these rather more freedom was allowed to the caprice of the
+individual artist, and they were frequently enlivened with very charming
+and lifelike flowers, birds, squirrels, and other small animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image34.jpg" width="500" height="409" alt="A Romanesque Church" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Romanesque Church</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sculpture subservient to architecture.</div>
+
+<p>The art of sculpture was more widely and successfully cultivated during
+the Middle Ages than painting. Medi&aelig;val sculpture did not, however,
+concern itself chiefly with the representation of the human figure, but
+with what we may call <i>decorative carving</i>; it was almost wholly
+subservient to the dominant art of the Middle Ages, namely,
+architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Architecture the dominant art of the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>It is in the great cathedrals and other churches scattered throughout
+England, France, Spain, Holland, Belgium, and Germany, that we find the
+noblest and most lasting achievements of medi&aelig;val art, which all the
+resources of modern skill have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> been unable to equal. Everybody belonged
+to the Church, but the Church, too, belonged to each individual. The
+building and beautifying of a new church was a matter of interest to the
+whole community,&mdash;to men of every rank. It gratified at once their
+religious sentiments, their local pride, and their artistic cravings.
+All the arts and crafts ministered to the construction and adornment of
+the new edifice, and, in addition to its religious significance, it took
+the place of our modern art museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image35.jpg" width="500" height="695" alt="Durham Cathedral (Romanesque)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Durham Cathedral (Romanesque)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Romanesque style.</div>
+
+<p>Up to the beginning of the thirteenth century the churches were built in
+the Romanesque style.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> They were, generally speaking, in the form of
+a cross, with a main aisle, and two side aisles which were both narrower
+and lower than the main aisle. The aisles were divided from each other
+by massive round pillars which supported the round vaulting of the roof
+and were connected by round arches. The round-arched windows were
+usually small for the size of the building, so that the interior was not
+very light. The whole effect was one of massive simplicity. There was,
+however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> especially in the later churches of this style, a profusion of
+carved ornament, usually in geometric designs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Introduction of the Gothic style.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The pointed arch.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Flying buttresses.</div>
+
+<p>The <i>pointed</i> form of arch was used occasionally in windows during the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries. But about the beginning of the
+thirteenth century<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> it began to be employed much more extensively,
+and in an incredibly short time practically superseded the round arch
+and became the characteristic feature of a new style, called <i>Gothic</i>.
+The adoption of the pointed arch had very important results. It enabled
+the builder to make arches of the same height but various widths, and of
+varying height and the same width. A round arch of a given span can be
+only half as high as it is wide, but the pointed arch may have a great
+diversity of proportions. The development of the Gothic style was
+greatly forwarded by the invention of the "flying buttress." By means of
+this graceful outside prop it became possible to lighten the masonry of
+the hitherto massive walls and pierce them with great windows which let
+a flood of light into the hitherto dark churches.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image36.jpg" width="400" height="673" alt="Round and Pointed Arches" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Round and Pointed Arches</span>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image37.jpg" width="500" height="747" alt="FA&Ccedil;ADE OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="FACcedilADE_OF_RHEIMS_CATHEDRAL" id="FACcedilADE_OF_RHEIMS_CATHEDRAL"></a>FA&Ccedil;ADE OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Stained glass.</div>
+
+<p>The light from all these great windows might even have been too glaring
+had it not been for the wonderful stained glass set in exquisite stone
+tracery with which they were filled. The stained glass of the medi&aelig;val
+cathedral, especially in France, where the glass workers brought their
+art to the greatest perfection, was one of its chief glories. By far the
+greater part of this old glass has of course been destroyed, but it is
+still so highly prized that every bit of it is now carefully preserved,
+for it has never since been equaled. A window set with odd bits of it
+pieced together like crazy patch-work is more beautiful, in its rich and
+jewel-like coloring, than the finest modern work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image38.jpg" width="400" height="531" alt="Flying Buttresses of Notre Dame, Paris" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Flying Buttresses of Notre Dame, Paris</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sculptured ornament.</div>
+
+<p>As the Gothic style developed and the builders grew all the time more
+skillful and daring, the churches became marvels of lightness and
+delicacy of detail and finish, while still retaining their dignity and
+beauty of proportion. Sculptors enriched them with the most beautiful
+creations of their art. Moldings and capitals, pulpits, altars, and
+choir screens, the wooden seats for the clergy and choristers, are
+sometimes literally covered with carving representing graceful leaf and
+flower forms, familiar animals or grotesque monsters, biblical incidents
+or homely scenes from everyday life. In the cathedral of Wells,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> in
+England, one capital shows us among its vines and leaves a boy whose
+face is screwed up with pain from the thorn he is extracting from his
+foot; another depicts a whole story of sin found out, thieves stealing
+grapes pursued by an angry farmer with a pitchfork. One characteristic
+of the medi&aelig;val imagination is its fondness for the grotesque. It loved
+queer beasts, half eagle, half lion, hideous batlike creatures, monsters
+like nothing on land or sea. They lurk among the foliage on choir
+screens, leer at you from wall or column, or squat upon the gutters high
+on roof and steeple.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image39.jpg" width="400" height="583" alt="Window in the Cathedral of Sens, France" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Window in the Cathedral of Sens, France</span>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gothic sculpture.</div>
+
+<p>A striking peculiarity of the Gothic structure is the great number of
+statues of apostles, saints, and rulers which adorn the fa&ccedil;ades and
+especially the main portal of the churches. These figures are cut from
+the same kind of stone of which the building is made and appear to be
+almost a part of it. While, compared with later sculpture, they seem
+somewhat stiff and unlifelike, they harmonize wonderfully with the whole
+building, and the best of them are full of charm and dignity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image40.jpg" width="500" height="751" alt="INTERIOR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="INTERIOR_OF_EXETER_CATHEDRAL" id="INTERIOR_OF_EXETER_CATHEDRAL"></a>INTERIOR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Secular buildings.</div>
+
+<p>So far we have spoken only of the church architecture, and that was by
+far the most important during the period with which we have been
+dealing. Later, in the fourteenth century, many beautiful secular
+buildings were constructed in the Gothic style. The most striking and
+important of these were the guildhalls built by the rich merchant
+guilds, and the townhalls of some of the important cities. But the
+Gothic style has always been especially dedicated to, and seems
+peculiarly fitted for, ecclesiastical architecture. Its lofty aisles and
+open floor spaces, its soaring arches leading the eye toward heaven, and
+its glowing windows suggesting the glories of paradise, may well have
+fostered the ardent faith of the medi&aelig;val Christian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image41.jpg" width="500" height="454" alt="Figures (gargoyles) on Notre Dame, Paris" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figures (gargoyles) on Notre Dame, Paris</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The medi&aelig;val castle.</div>
+
+<p>We have already touched upon some of the characteristics of domestic
+architecture in referring to the medi&aelig;val castle. This was rather a
+stronghold than a home,&mdash;strength and inaccessibility were its main
+requirements. The walls were many feet thick and the tiny windows, often
+hardly more than slits in the massive walls, the stone floors, the great
+bare halls warmed only by large fireplaces, suggest nothing of the
+comfort of a modern household. At the same time they imply a simplicity
+of taste and manners and a hardihood of body which we may well envy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The schools before the eleventh century.</div>
+
+<p><b>103.</b> On turning from the language and books of the people and the art of
+the period to the occupations of the learned class, who carried on their
+studies and discussions in Latin, we naturally inquire where such
+persons obtained their education. During the long centuries which
+elapsed between the time when Justinian closed the government schools
+and the advent of Frederick Barbarossa, there appears to have been
+nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> in western Europe, outside of Italy and Spain, corresponding to
+our universities and colleges. Some of the schools which the bishops and
+abbots had established in accordance with Charlemagne's commands were,
+it is true, maintained all through the dark and disorderly times which
+followed his death. But the little that we know of the instruction
+offered in them would indicate that it was very elementary, although
+there were sometimes noted men at their head.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abelard, d. 1142.</div>
+
+<p>About the year 1100 an ardent young man named Abelard started out from
+his home in Brittany to visit all the places where he might hope to
+receive instruction in logic and philosophy, in which, like all his
+learned contemporaries, he was especially interested. He reports that he
+found teachers in several of the French towns, particularly in Paris,
+who were attracting large numbers of students to listen to their
+lectures upon logic, rhetoric, and theology. Abelard soon showed his
+superiority to his teachers by defeating them several times in debate.
+Before long he began lecturing on his own account, and such was his
+success that thousands of students flocked to hear him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abelard's <i>Yea and Nay</i>.</div>
+
+<p>He prepared a remarkable little text-book, called <i>Yea and Nay</i>,
+containing seemingly contradictory opinions of the church fathers upon
+particular questions. The student was left to reconcile the
+contradictions, if he could, by careful reasoning; for Abelard held that
+a constant questioning was the only path to real knowledge. His free way
+of dealing with the authorities upon which men based their religious
+beliefs seemed wicked to many of his contemporaries, especially to St.
+Bernard, who made him a great deal of trouble. Nevertheless it soon
+became the fashion to discuss the various doctrines of Christianity with
+great freedom and to try to make a well-reasoned system of theology by
+following the rules of Aristotle's logic. It was just after Abelard's
+death (1142) that Peter Lombard published his <i>Sentences</i>, already
+described.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p><p>Abelard did not found the University of Paris, as has sometimes been
+supposed, but he did a great deal to make the discussions of theological
+problems popular, and by his attractive method of teaching he greatly
+increased the number of those who wished to learn. The sad story of his
+life, which he wrote when he was worn out with the calamities that had
+overtaken him, is the best and almost the only account which exists of
+the remarkable interest in learning which explains the origin of the
+University of Paris.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the University of Paris.</div>
+
+<p>Before the end of the twelfth century the teachers had become so
+numerous in Paris that they formed a union, or guild, for the
+advancement of their interests. This union of professors was called by
+the usual name for corporations in the Middle Ages, <i>universitas</i>; hence
+our word "university." The king and pope both favored the university and
+granted the teachers and students many of the privileges of the clergy,
+a class to which they were regarded as belonging, because learning had
+for so many centuries been confined to the clergy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Study of the Roman and canon law in Bologna.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian.</div>
+
+<p>About the time that we find the beginnings of a university or guild of
+professors at Paris, a great institution of learning was growing up at
+Bologna. Here the chief attention was given, not to theology, as at
+Paris, but to the study of the law, both Roman and canon. Very early in
+the twelfth century a new interest in the Roman law became apparent in
+Italy, where the old jurisprudence of Rome had never been completely
+forgotten. Then, in 1142 or thereabouts, a monk, Gratian, published a
+great work in which he aimed to reconcile all the conflicting
+legislation of the councils and popes and to provide a convenient
+text-book for the study of the church or canon law. Students then began
+to stream to Bologna in greater numbers than ever before. In order to
+protect themselves in a town where they were regarded as strangers, they
+organized themselves into associations, which became so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> powerful that
+they were able to force the professors to obey the rules which they laid
+down.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Other universities founded.</div>
+
+<p>The University of Oxford was founded in the time of Henry II, probably
+by English students and masters who had become discontented at Paris for
+some reason. The University of Cambridge, as well as numerous
+universities in France, Italy, and Spain, appeared in the thirteenth
+century. The German universities, which are still so famous, were
+established somewhat later, most of them in the latter half of the
+fourteenth and in the fifteenth centuries. The northern institutions
+generally took the great mother university on the Seine as their model,
+while those in southern Europe usually adopted the habits of Bologna.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The academic degree.</div>
+
+<p>When, after some years of study, a student was examined by the
+professors, he was, if successful, admitted to the corporation of
+teachers and became a master himself. What we call a degree to-day was
+originally, in the medi&aelig;val universities, nothing more than the
+qualification to teach. But in the thirteenth century many began to
+desire the honorable title of master or doctor (which is only the Latin
+word for <i>teacher</i>) who did not care to become professors in our sense
+of the word.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Simple methods of instruction.</div>
+
+<p>The students in the medi&aelig;val universities were of all ages, from
+thirteen to forty, and even older. There were no university buildings,
+and in Paris the lectures were given in the Latin quarter, in Straw
+Street, so called from the straw strewn on the floors of the hired rooms
+where the lecturer explained the text-book, with the students squatting
+on the floor before him. There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> were no laboratories, for there was no
+experimentation. All that was required was a copy of the
+text-book,&mdash;Gratian's <i>Decretum</i>, the <i>Sentences</i>, a treatise of
+Aristotle, or a medical book. This the lecturer explained sentence by
+sentence, and the students listened and sometimes took notes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The universities could move freely from one town to another.</div>
+
+<p>The fact that the masters and students were not bound to any particular
+spot by buildings and apparatus left them free to wander about. If they
+believed themselves ill-treated in one town they moved to another,
+greatly to the disgust of the tradespeople of the place which they
+deserted, who of course profited by the presence of the university. The
+universities of Oxford and of Leipsic, among others, were founded by
+professors and students who had deserted their former home.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Course of study.</div>
+
+<p>The course in arts, which corresponded to our college course and led to
+the degree of Master of Arts, occupied six years at Paris. The studies
+were logic, various sciences,&mdash;physics, astronomy, etc.,&mdash;studied in
+Aristotle's treatises, and some philosophy and ethics. There was no
+history, no Greek. Latin had to be learned in order to carry on the work
+at all, but little attention was given to the Roman classics. The new
+modern languages were considered entirely unworthy of the learned. It
+must of course be remembered that none of the books which we consider
+the great classics in English, French, Italian, or Spanish had as yet
+been written.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Aristotle's works become known in the West.</div>
+
+<p><b>104.</b> The most striking peculiarity of the instruction in the medi&aelig;val
+university was the supreme deference paid to Aristotle. Most of the
+courses of lectures were devoted to the explanation of some one of his
+numerous treatises,&mdash;his <i>Physics</i>, his <i>Metaphysics</i>, his various
+treatises on logic, his <i>Ethics</i>, his minor works upon the soul, heaven
+and earth, etc. Only his <i>Logic</i> had been known to Abelard, as all his
+other works had been forgotten. But early in the thirteenth century all
+his comprehensive contributions to science reached the West, either from
+Constantinople or through the Arabs who had brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> them to Spain. The
+Latin translations were bad and obscure, and the lecturer had enough to
+do to give some meaning to them, to explain what the Arab philosophers
+had said of them, and, finally, to reconcile them to the teachings of
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Veneration for Aristotle.</div>
+
+<p>Aristotle was, of course, a pagan. He was uncertain whether the soul
+continued to exist after death; he had never heard of the Bible and knew
+nothing of the salvation of man through Christ. One would have supposed
+that he would have been promptly rejected with horror by those who never
+questioned the doctrines of Christianity. But the teachers of the
+thirteenth century were fascinated by his logic and astonished at his
+learning. The great theologians of the time, Albertus Magnus (d. 1280)
+and Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), did not hesitate to prepare elaborate
+commentaries upon all his works. He was called "The Philosopher"; and so
+fully were scholars convinced that it had pleased God to permit
+Aristotle to say the last word upon each and every branch of knowledge
+that they humbly accepted him, along with the Bible, the church fathers,
+and the canon and Roman law, as one of the unquestioned authorities
+which together formed a complete guide for humanity in conduct and in
+every branch of science.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scholasticism.</div>
+
+<p>The term <i>scholasticism</i> is commonly given to the philosophy, theology,
+and method of discussion of the medi&aelig;val professors. To those who later
+outgrew the fondness for logic and the supreme respect for Aristotle,
+scholasticism, with its neglect of Greek and Roman literature, came to
+seem an arid and profitless plan of education. Yet if we turn over the
+pages of the wonderful works of Thomas Aquinas, we see that the
+scholastic philosopher might be a person of extraordinary insight and
+erudition, ready to recognize all the objections to his position, and
+able to express himself with great clearness and cogency.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> The
+training in logic, if it did not increase the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> sum of human knowledge,
+accustomed the student to make careful distinctions and present his
+material in an orderly way.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roger Bacon's attack on scholasticism.</div>
+
+<p>Even in the thirteenth century there were a few scholars who criticised
+the habit of relying upon Aristotle for all knowledge. The most
+distinguished fault-finder was Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan monk
+(d. about 1290), who declared that even if Aristotle were very wise he
+had only planted the tree of knowledge and that this had "not as yet put
+forth all its branches nor produced all its fruits." "If we could
+continue to live for endless centuries we mortals could never hope to
+reach full and complete knowledge of all the things which are to be
+known. No one knows enough of nature completely to describe the
+peculiarities of a single fly and give the reason for its color and why
+it has just so many feet, no more and no less." Bacon held that truth
+could be reached a hundred thousand times better by experiments with
+real things than by poring over the bad Latin translations of Aristotle.
+"If I had my way," he declared, "I should burn all the books of
+Aristotle, for the study of them can only lead to a loss of time,
+produce error and increase ignorance."</p>
+
+<p>So we find that even when scholasticism was most popular in the
+universities, there were keen-sighted scientists who recommended the
+modern scientific method of discovering truth. This does not consist in
+discussing, according to the rules of logic, what a Greek philosopher
+said hundreds of years ago, but in the patient observation of things
+about us.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class="sidenote">Review of the great changes between the break-up of the Roman
+Empire in the west and the end of the thirteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>We have now traversed somewhat over one half of the long period of
+fifteen hundred years which separates Europe of to-day from the
+disintegrating Roman Empire of the fifth century. The eight hundred
+years which lie between the century of Alaric, Attila, Leo the Great,
+and Clovis, and that of Innocent III, St. Louis, and Edward I, witnessed
+momentous changes, quite as important as any that have occurred since.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The 'dark ages.'</div>
+
+<p>It is true that it seemed at first as if the barbarous Goths, Franks,
+Vandals, and Burgundians were bringing nothing but turmoil and
+distraction. Even the strong hand of Charlemagne curbed the unruly
+elements for only a moment; then the discord of his grandsons and the
+incursions of Northmen, Hungarians, Slavs, and Saracens plunged western
+Europe once more into the same anarchy and ignorance through which it
+had passed in the seventh and eighth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years and more elapsed after Charlemagne's death before we
+can begin once more to note signs of progress. While we know little of
+the eleventh century, and while even its most distinguished writers are
+forgotten by all save the student of the period, it was undoubtedly a
+time of preparation for the brilliant twelfth century&mdash;for Abelard and
+St. Bernard, for the lawyers, poets, architects, and philosophers who
+seem to come suddenly upon the scene.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The twelfth and thirteenth centuries a period of rapid
+advance.</div>
+
+<p>The Middle Ages may therefore be divided into two fairly distinct and
+quite different periods. The centuries prior to the age of Gregory VII
+and of William the Conqueror may, on account of their disorder and
+ignorance, be properly called the "dark ages," although they beheld some
+important stages in the transformation of Europe. The later Middle Ages,
+on the contrary, were a time of rapid and unmistakable progress in
+almost every line of human endeavor. Indeed by the end of the thirteenth
+century a great part of those changes were well under way which serve to
+make modern Europe so different from the condition of western Europe
+under the Roman Empire. The most striking of these are the following.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Appearance of national states.</div>
+
+<p>(1) A group of national states in which a distinct feeling of
+nationality was developing had taken the place of the Roman Empire,
+which made no allowance in its government for the differences between
+Italians, Gauls, Germans, and Britons. The makeshift feudal government
+which had grown up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> during the dark ages was yielding to the kingly
+power (except in Germany and Italy) and there was no hope of ever
+reuniting western Europe into a single empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The national states begin to deprive the Church of its
+governmental powers.</div>
+
+<p>(2) The Church had, in a way, taken the place of the Roman Empire by
+holding the various peoples of western Europe together under the
+headship of the pope and by assuming the powers of government during the
+period when the feudal lords were too weak to secure order and justice.
+Organized like an absolute monarchy, the Church was in a certain sense
+far the most powerful state of the Middle Ages. But it attained the
+zenith of its political influence under Innocent III, at the opening of
+the thirteenth century; before its close the national states had so
+grown in strength that it was clear that they would gradually reassume
+the powers of government temporarily exercised by the Church and confine
+the pope and clergy more and more to their strictly religious functions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Appearance of the commons or third estate.</div>
+
+<p>(3) A new social class had come into prominence alongside the clergy and
+the knightly aristocracy. The emancipation of the serfs, the founding of
+towns, and the growth of commerce made it possible for merchants and
+successful artisans to rise to importance and become influential through
+their wealth. From these beginnings the great intelligent and educated
+public of modern times has sprung.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Books begin to be written in the language of the people.</div>
+
+<p>(4) The various modern languages began to be used in writing books. For
+five or six hundred years after the invasions of the Germans, Latin was
+used by all writers, but in the eleventh and following centuries the
+language of the people began to replace the ancient tongue. This enabled
+the laymen who had not mastered the intricacies of the old Roman speech
+to enjoy the stories and poems which were being composed in French,
+Proven&ccedil;al, German, English, and Spanish, and, somewhat later, in
+Italian.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The clergy lose the monopoly of learning.</div>
+
+<p>Although the clergy still directed education, laymen were beginning to
+write books as well as to read them, and gradually the churchmen ceased
+to enjoy the monopoly of learning which they had possessed during the
+early Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Study of law, theology, and philosophy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The universities.</div>
+
+<p>(5) Scholars began as early as the year 1100 to gather eagerly about
+masters who lectured upon the Roman and canon law or upon logic,
+philosophy, or theology. The works of Aristotle, the most learned of the
+ancients, were sought out, and students followed him enthusiastically
+into all fields of knowledge. The universities grew up which are now so
+conspicuous a feature of our modern civilization.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginnings of experimental science.</div>
+
+<p>(6) Scholars could not satisfy themselves permanently with the works of
+Aristotle but began themselves to add to the fund of human knowledge. In
+Roger Bacon and his sympathizers we find a group of scientific
+investigators who were preparing the way for the unprecedented
+achievements in natural science which are the glory of recent times.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Artistic progress.</div>
+
+<p>(7) The developing appreciation of the beautiful is attested by the
+skill and taste expressed in the magnificent churches of the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries, which were not a revival of any ancient style but
+the original production of the architects and sculptors of the period.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The most convenient and readable account of
+medi&aelig;val literature is perhaps that of <span class="smcap">Saintsbury</span>, <i>The Flourishing
+of Romance</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.50). For chivalry, see
+<span class="smcap">Cornish</span>, <i>Chivalry</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.75). For Gothic
+architecture, see <span class="smcap">C.H. Moore</span>, <i>Development and Character of Gothic
+Architecture</i> (The Macmillan Company, $4.50). For the art in
+general, <span class="smcap">L&uuml;bke</span>, <i>Outlines of the History of Art</i> (Dodd, Mead &amp; Co.,
+2 vols., $7.50). For the universities, <span class="smcap">Rashdall</span>, <i>History of the
+Universities of the Middle Ages</i> (Clarendon Press, 3 vols.,
+$14.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Plan of the following four chapters.</div>
+
+<p><b>105.</b> In dealing with the history of Europe during the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries the following order has been adopted. (1) England
+and France are treated together, since the claims of the English kings
+to the French crown, and the long Hundred Years' War between the two
+countries, bring them into the same tale of disorder and final
+reorganization. (2) Next the history of the papal power and the
+remarkable efforts to better the Church at the great Council of
+Constance (1414) are considered. (3) Then the progress of enlightenment
+is taken up, particularly in the Italian towns, which were the leaders
+in culture during this period. This leads to an account of the invention
+of printing and the extraordinary geographical discoveries of the latter
+part of the fifteenth century. (4) In a fourth chapter the situation of
+western Europe at the opening of the sixteenth century is described, in
+order that the reader may be prepared to understand the great revolt
+against the Church under the leadership of Martin Luther.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extent of the king of England's realms before Edward I
+(1272&ndash;1307).</div>
+
+<p>We turn first to England. The English kings who preceded Edward I had
+ruled over only a portion of the island of Great Britain. To the west of
+their kingdom lay the mountainous district of Wales, inhabited by that
+remnant of the original Britons which the German invaders had been
+unable to conquer. To the north of England was the kingdom of Scotland,
+which was quite independent except for an occasional vague recognition
+on the part of its rulers of the English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> kings as their feudal
+superiors. Edward I, however, succeeded in conquering Wales permanently
+and Scotland temporarily.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;"><a href="images/map278.jpg">
+<img src="images/map278th.jpg" width="442" height="600" alt="THE BRITISH ISLES" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE BRITISH ISLES</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Welsh and their bards.</div>
+
+<p>For centuries a border warfare had been carried on between the English
+and the Welsh. William the Conqueror had found it necessary to establish
+a chain of earldoms on the Welsh frontier, and Chester, Shrewsbury, and
+Monmouth became the outposts of the Normans. While the raids of the
+Welsh constantly provoked the English kings to invade Wales, no
+permanent conquest was possible, for the enemy retreated into the
+mountains about Snowdon and the English soldiers were left to starve in
+the wild regions into which they had ventured. The long and successful
+resistance which the Welsh made against the English must be attributed
+not only to their inaccessible retreats but also to the patriotic
+inspiration of their bards. These fondly believed that their people
+would sometime reconquer the whole of England, which they had possessed
+before the coming of the Angles and Saxons.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward I conquers Wales.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The title of 'Prince of Wales.'</div>
+
+<p>When Edward I came to the throne he demanded that Llewelyn, Prince of
+Wales, as the head of the Welsh clans was called, should do him homage.
+Llewelyn, who was a man of ability and energy, refused the king's
+summons, and Edward marched into Wales. Two campaigns were necessary
+before the Welsh finally succumbed. Llewelyn was killed (1282), and with
+him expired the independence of the Welsh people. Edward divided the
+country into shires and introduced English laws and customs, and his
+policy of conciliation was so successful that there was but a single
+rising in the country for a whole century. He later presented his son to
+the Welsh as their prince, and from that time down to the present the
+title of "Prince of Wales" has usually been conferred upon the heir to
+the English throne.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scotland before Edward I.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Highlands and Lowlands.</div>
+
+<p>The conquest of Scotland proved a far more difficult matter than that of
+Wales. The early history of the kingdom of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> Scotland is a complicated
+one. When the Angles and Saxons landed in Britain, a great part of the
+mountainous region north of the Firth of Forth was inhabited by a Celtic
+tribe, the Picts. There was, however, on the west coast a little kingdom
+of the Irish Celts, who were then called Scots. By the opening of the
+tenth century the Picts had accepted the king of the Scots as their
+ruler, and the annalists begin to refer to the highland region as the
+land of the Scots. As time went on the English kings found it to their
+advantage to grant to the Scottish rulers certain border districts,
+including the Lowlands, between the river Tweed and the Firth of Forth.
+This region was English in race and speech, while the Celts in the
+Highlands spoke, and still speak, Gaelic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of the inhabitants of the Lowlands.</div>
+
+<p>It was very important in the history of Scotland that its kings chose to
+dwell in the Lowlands rather than in the Highlands, and made Edinburgh,
+with its fortress, their chief town. With the coming of William the
+Conqueror many Englishmen, and also a number of discontented Norman
+nobles, fled across the border to the Lowlands of Scotland, and founded
+some of the great families, like those of Balliol and Bruce, who later
+fought for Scottish liberty. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
+the country, especially in the south, developed rapidly under the
+influence of the neighboring Anglo-Norman civilization, and the towns
+increased in size and importance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward intervenes in Scotch affairs.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alliance between Scotland and France.</div>
+
+<p>It was not until the time of Edward I that the long series of troubles
+between England and Scotland began. The death of the last representative
+of the old line of Scotch kings in 1290 was followed by the appearance
+of a number of claimants to the crown. In order to avoid civil war,
+Edward was asked to decide who should be king. He agreed to make the
+decision on condition that the one whom he selected should hold Scotland
+as a fief from the English king. This arrangement was adopted, and the
+crown was given to Robert Balliol. But Edward unwisely made demands upon
+the Scots which aroused<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> their anger, and their king renounced his
+homage to the king of England. The Scotch, moreover, formed an alliance
+with Edward's enemy, Philip the Fair of France; thenceforth, in all the
+difficulties between England and France, the English kings had always to
+reckon with the disaffected Scotch, who were glad to aid England's
+enemies.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward attempts to incorporate Scotland with England.</div>
+
+<p>Edward marched in person against the Scotch (1296) and speedily put down
+what he regarded as a rebellion. He declared that Balliol had forfeited
+his fief through treason, and that consequently the English king had
+become the immediate lord of the Scotch nobles, whom he forced to do him
+homage. He emphasized his claim by carrying off the famous Stone of
+Scone, upon which the kings of Scotland had been crowned for ages.
+Continued resistance led Edward to attempt to incorporate Scotland with
+England in the same way that he had treated Wales. This was the
+beginning of three hundred years of intermittent war between England and
+Scotland, which ended only when a Scotch king, James VI, succeeded to
+the English throne in 1603 as James I.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scotland gains its independence under Robert Bruce.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Bannockburn, 1314.</div>
+
+<p>That Scotland was able to maintain her independence was mainly due to
+Robert Bruce, a national hero who succeeded in bringing both the
+nobility and the people under his leadership. Edward I died, old and
+worn out, in 1307, when on his way north to put down a rising under
+Bruce, and left the task of dealing with the Scotch to his incompetent
+son, Edward II. The Scotch acknowledged Bruce as their king and
+decisively defeated Edward II in the great battle of Bannockburn, the
+most famous conflict in Scottish history. Nevertheless, the English
+refused to acknowledge the independence of Scotland until forced to do
+so in 1328.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Scottish nation differs from the English.</div>
+
+<p>In the course of their struggles with England the Scotch people of the
+Lowlands had become more closely welded together, and the independence
+of Scotland, although it caused much bloodshed, first and last, served
+to develop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> certain permanent differences between the little Scotch
+nation and the rest of the English race. The peculiarities of the people
+north of the Tweed have been made familiar by the writings of gifted
+Scotchmen like Burns, Scott, and Stevenson.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growth of the power of Parliament.</div>
+
+<p>Edward II's numerous enemies took advantage of his weakness to bring
+about his downfall, but it is noteworthy that they worked through
+Parliament and in that way strengthened that fundamental national
+institution. We have seen how Edward I called representatives of the
+townspeople, as well as the nobles and prelates, to the Model Parliament
+of 1295.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> This important innovation was formally ratified by his
+son, who solemnly promised that all questions relating to his realm and
+its people should be settled in parliaments in which the commons should
+be included. Thereafter no statute could be legally passed without their
+consent. In 1327 Parliament showed its power by forcing Edward II to
+abdicate in favor of his son, and thereby established the principle that
+the representatives of the nation might even go so far as to depose
+their ruler, should he show himself clearly unfit for his high duties.
+About this time Parliament began to meet in two distinct divisions,
+which later became the House of Lords and the House of Commons. In
+modern times this form of legislative assembly has been imitated by most
+of the countries of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cause of the Hundred Years' War.</div>
+
+<p><b>106.</b> The so-called Hundred Years' War, which we must now review, was a
+long but frequently interrupted series of conflicts between the English
+and the French kings. It began in the following manner. The king of
+England, through John's misconduct, had lost Normandy and other portions
+of the great Plantagenet realm on the continent.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> He still retained,
+however, the extensive duchy of Guienne, for which he did homage to the
+king of France, whose most powerful vassal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> he was. This arrangement was
+bound to produce constant difficulty, especially as the French kings
+were, as we have discovered, bent upon destroying as fast as possible
+the influence of their vassals, so that the royal power should
+everywhere take the place of that of the feudal lords. It was obviously
+out of the question for the king of England meekly to permit the French
+monarch to extend his control directly over the people of Guienne, and
+yet this was the constant aim of Philip the Fair<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> and his
+successors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The French Kings during the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image295.png" width="500" height="464" alt="French Kings" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The French succession in 1328.</div>
+
+<p>The inevitable struggle between England and France was rendered the more
+serious by the claim made by Edward III that he was himself the rightful
+king of France. He based his pretensions upon the fact that his mother
+Isabella was the daughter of Philip the Fair. Philip, who died in 1314,
+had been followed by his three sons in succession, none of whom had left
+a male heir, so that the direct male line of the Capetians was
+extinguished in 1328. The lawyers thereupon declared that it was a
+venerable law in France that no woman should succeed to the throne. The
+principle was also asserted that a woman could not even transmit the
+crown to her son. Consequently Edward III appeared to be definitely
+excluded, and Philip VI of Valois, a nephew of Philip the Fair, became
+king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward III claims the French crown.</div>
+
+<p>At first Edward III, who was a mere boy in 1328, appeared to recognize
+the propriety of this settlement and did qualified homage to Philip VI
+for Guienne. But when it became apparent later that Philip was not only
+encroaching upon Edward's prerogatives in Guienne but had sent French
+troops to aid the Scotch, the English king bethought him of his
+neglected claim to the French crown.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Flemish towns.</div>
+
+<p>The advantage of publicly declaring himself the rightful king of France
+was increased by the attitude of the flourishing towns of Flanders.
+Philip VI had assisted the count of Flanders in a bitter struggle to
+prevent the towns from establishing their independence. Consequently the
+Flemish burghers now announced their willingness to desert Philip and
+acknowledge and aid Edward as their king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Commercial relations between the Flemish towns and England.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">English wool.</div>
+
+<p>Flanders at this period was the most important trading and manufacturing
+country in western Europe. Ghent was a great manufacturing town, like
+Manchester to-day, and Bruges a busy port, like modern Antwerp or
+Liverpool. All this prosperity was largely dependent upon England, for
+it was from there that the Flemish manufacturers procured the fine, long
+wool which they wove on their looms into cloth and spun into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> yarn. In
+1336 the count of Flanders, perhaps at Philip's suggestion, ordered the
+imprisonment of all the Englishmen in Flanders. Edward promptly
+retaliated by prohibiting the export of wool from England and the
+importation of cloth. At the same time he protected and encouraged the
+Flemish artisans who had emigrated across the Channel and were carrying
+on their industry in the county of Norfolk.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image43.jpg" width="400" height="473" alt="Royal Arms of Edward III" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Royal Arms of Edward III</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is clear, then, that the Flemish burghers had good reason for wishing
+Edward to become their king, so that their relations with England might
+not be broken off. They did their part in inducing him to undertake the
+conquest of France, and (in 1340) we find him adding the <i>fleur de lis</i>
+of France to the lions of the English royal arms.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward III invades France, 1346.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The English victory at the battle of Cr&eacute;cy, 1346.</div>
+
+<p>Edward did not invade France for some years, but his sailors destroyed
+the French fleet and began to show themselves able to maintain their
+king's claim to be lord of the English seas upon every side. In 1346
+Edward himself landed in Normandy, devastated the country, and marched
+up the Seine almost to Paris, but was then obliged to retreat northward
+before a large army which Philip had collected. Edward made a halt at
+Cr&eacute;cy, and here one of the most celebrated battles of history took
+place. It taught the world a great lesson in warfare by proving once
+more, as the battle of Bannockburn had already done, that foot soldiers,
+properly armed and trained to act in concert, could defeat the feudal
+cavaliers in spite of their lances and heavy armor. The proud mounted
+knights of France performed prodigies of valor, each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> for himself, but
+they did not act together and could not hold their ground against the
+deadly shower of arrows poured into their midst from the long bows of
+the English archers. The flower of French chivalry was routed with
+terrible slaughter by the serried ranks of the humble English foot
+soldiers.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> It was at Cr&eacute;cy that Edward's son, the Black Prince,&mdash;so
+named from his black armor,&mdash;won his spurs.<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The English take Calais.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Black Prince wins a second great victory at Poitiers,
+1356.</div>
+
+<p>After this great victory the English king proceeded to lay siege to
+Calais, the French coast town nearest England. This he took, drove out a
+great part of the inhabitants, and substituted Englishmen for them. The
+town remained subject to England for two centuries. When the war was
+renewed the Black Prince, now at the height of his fame, was able to
+deal the enemy a still more crushing blow than at Cr&eacute;cy. He again put
+the French knights to flight in the battle of Poitiers; he even captured
+the French king, John, and carried him off to London.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Estates General attempt to control the king and reform
+the government.</div>
+
+<p><b>107.</b> The French quite properly attributed the signal disasters of Cr&eacute;cy
+and Poitiers to the inefficiency of their king and his advisers.
+Accordingly, after the second defeat, the Estates General, which had
+been summoned to approve the raising of more money, attempted to take
+matters into their own hands. The representatives of the towns, whom
+Philip the Fair had first called in,<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> were on this occasion more
+numerous than the members of the clergy and nobility. A great list of
+reforms was drawn up, which provided, among other things, that the
+Estates should meet regularly whether summoned by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> the king or not, and
+that the collection and expenditure of the public revenue should be no
+longer entirely under the control of the king but should be supervised
+by the representatives of the people. The city of Paris rose in support
+of the revolutionary Estates, but the violence of its allies discredited
+rather than helped the movement, and France was soon glad to accept the
+unrestricted rule of its king once more.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between the position of the Estates General and the
+English Parliament.</div>
+
+<p>This unsuccessful attempt to reform the French government is interesting
+in two ways. In the first place, there was much in the aims of the
+reformers and in the conduct of the Paris mob that suggests the great
+successful French revolution of 1789, which at last fundamentally
+modified the organization of the state. In the second place, the history
+of the Estates forms a curious contrast to that of the English
+Parliament, which was laying the foundation of its later power during
+this very period. While the French king occasionally summoned the
+Estates when he needed money, he did so only in order that their
+approbation of new taxes might make it easier to collect them. He never
+admitted that he had not the right to levy taxes if he wished without
+consulting his subjects. In England, on the other hand, the kings ever
+since the time of Edward I had repeatedly agreed that no new taxes
+should be imposed without the consent of Parliament. Edward II had gone
+farther and accepted the representatives of the people as his advisers
+in all important matters touching the welfare of the realm. While the
+French Estates gradually sank into insignificance, the English
+Parliament soon learned to grant no money until the king had redressed
+the grievances which it pointed out, and thus it insured its influence
+over the king's policy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treaty of Bretigny, 1360.</div>
+
+<p>Edward III found it impossible to conquer France in spite of the
+victories of the Black Prince and the capture of John. He was glad in
+1360 to sign the treaty of Bretigny, in which he not only renounced his
+pretensions to the French crown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> but agreed to say no more of the old
+claims of his family to Normandy and the Plantagenet provinces north of
+the Loire. In return for these concessions he received, in full
+sovereignty and without any feudal obligations to the king of France,
+Poitou, Guienne, Gascony, and the town of Calais, amounting to about one
+third of the territory of France.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image44.jpg" width="500" height="483" alt="French Territory ceded to England by the Treaty of Bretigny, 1360" title="" />
+<span class="caption">French Territory ceded to England by the Treaty of Bretigny, 1360</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England loses most of its French territory before the death
+of Edward III, 1377.</div>
+
+<p>The promising peace of Bretigny was however soon broken. The Black
+Prince, to whom the government of Guienne was delegated by his father,
+levied such heavy taxes that he quickly alienated the hearts of a people
+naturally drawn to France rather than to England. When the sagacious
+Charles V of France (1364&ndash;1380) undertook to reconquer the territory
+which his father had ceded to England, he met with no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> determined
+opposition; Edward III was getting old and his warlike son, the Black
+Prince, had fallen mortally ill. So when Edward died in 1377 nothing
+remained to the English king except Calais and a strip of land from
+Bordeaux southward.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Miserable condition of France.</div>
+
+<p>For a generation after the death of Edward III the war with France was
+almost discontinued. France had suffered a great deal more than England.
+In the first place, all the fighting had been done on her side of the
+Channel, and in the second place, the soldiers who found themselves
+without occupation after the treaty of Bretigny had wandered about in
+bands maltreating and plundering the people. Petrarch, who visited
+France at this period, tells us that he could not believe that this was
+the same kingdom which he had once seen so rich and flourishing.
+"Nothing presented itself to my eyes but fearful solitude and extreme
+poverty, uncultivated land and houses in ruins. Even about Paris there
+were everywhere signs of fire and destruction. The streets were
+deserted; the roads overgrown with weeds."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The bubonic plague of 1348&ndash;1349, commonly called the 'black
+death.'</div>
+
+<p>The horrors of war had been increased by the deadly bubonic plague which
+appeared in Europe early in 1348. In April it had reached Florence; by
+August it was devastating France and Germany; it then spread over
+England from the southwest northward, attacking every part of the
+country during the year 1349. This disease, like other terrible
+epidemics, such as smallpox and cholera, came from Asia. Those who were
+stricken with it usually died in two or three days. It is impossible to
+tell what proportion of the population perished. Reports of the time say
+that in one part of France but one tenth of the people survived, in
+another but one sixteenth; and that for a long time five hundred bodies
+were carried from the great hospital of Paris every day. A careful
+estimate shows that in England toward one half of the population died.
+At the Abbey of Newenham only the abbot and two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> monks were left alive
+out of twenty-six. There were constant complaints that certain lands
+were no longer of any value to their lords because the tenants were all
+dead.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conditions of English labor.</div>
+
+<p><b>108.</b> In England the growing discontent among the agricultural classes
+may be ascribed partly to the results of the great pestilence and partly
+to the new taxes which were levied in order to prolong the disastrous
+war with France. Up to this time the majority of those who cultivated
+the land belonged to some particular manor, paid stated dues to their
+lord, and performed definite services for him. Hitherto there had been
+relatively few farm hands who might be hired and who sought employment
+anywhere that they could get it. The black death, by greatly decreasing
+the number of laborers, raised wages and served to increase the
+importance of the unattached laborer. Consequently he not only demanded
+higher wages than ever before, but readily deserted one employer when
+another offered him more money.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Statutes of Laborers issued in 1351 and following years.</div>
+
+<p>This appeared very shocking to those who were accustomed to the
+traditional rates of payment; and the government undertook to keep down
+wages by prohibiting laborers from asking more than had been customary
+during the years that preceded the pestilence. Every laborer, when
+offered work at the established wages, was ordered to accept it on pain
+of imprisonment. The first "Statute of Laborers"<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> was issued in
+1351; but apparently it was not obeyed and similar laws were enacted
+from time to time for a century. Nevertheless complaints continued that
+serfs and laborers persisted in demanding "outrageous and excessive
+hire." This seems to indicate that the efforts of Parliament to
+interfere with the law of supply and demand were unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Breaking up of the medi&aelig;val manors in England.</div>
+
+<p>The old manor system was breaking up. Many of the laboring class in the
+country no longer held land as serfs but moved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> from place to place and
+made a living by working for wages. The <i>villain</i>, as the serf was
+called in England, began to regard the dues which he had been accustomed
+to pay to his lord as unjust. A petition to Parliament in 1377 asserts
+that the villains are refusing to pay their customary services to their
+lords or to acknowledge the obligations which they owe as serfs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Causes of discontent among the English peasants.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">'The Vision of Piers Ploughman.'</div>
+
+<p>The discontent was becoming general. We see it reflected in a remarkable
+poem of the time, "The Vision of Piers Ploughman," in which the
+unfortunate position of the peasant is vividly portrayed.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> This is
+only the most notable example of a great number of pamphlets, some in
+prose and some in bad verse, which were calculated to make the people
+more discontented than ever. The efforts to enforce the provisions of
+the Statutes of Laborers had undoubtedly produced much friction between
+the landlords and their employees. A new form of taxation also caused
+much irritation. A general poll tax, which was to be paid by every one
+above sixteen years of age, was established in 1379 and another one in
+the following year to meet the expenses of the hopeless French war which
+was now being conducted by incapable and highly unpopular ministers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The peasant revolt of 1381.</div>
+
+<p>In 1381 rioting began among the peasants in Kent and Essex, and several
+bodies of the insurgents determined to march upon London. As they passed
+along the road their ranks were swelled by discontented villagers and by
+many of the poorer workingmen from the towns. Soon the revolt spread all
+through southern and eastern England. The peasants burned some of the
+houses of the gentry and of the rich ecclesiastics, and took particular
+pains to see that the lists for the collection of the hated poll tax
+were destroyed, as well as the registers kept by the various lords
+enumerating the obligations of their serfs. The gates of London were
+opened to the insurgents by sympathizers within the walls, and several
+of the king's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> officers were seized and put to death. Some of the simple
+people imagined that they might induce the boy king, Richard II, to
+become their leader. He had no idea of aiding them; he went out,
+however, to meet them and induced them to disperse by promising that he
+would abolish serfdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Final disappearance of serfdom in England.</div>
+
+<p>Although the king did not keep his promise, serfdom decayed rapidly. It
+became more and more common for the serf to pay his dues to the lord in
+money instead of working for him, and in this way he lost one of the
+chief characteristics of a serf. The landlord then either hired men to
+cultivate the fields which he reserved for his own use<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> or rented
+the land to tenants. These tenants were not in a position to force their
+fellow-tenants on the manor to pay the full dues which had formerly been
+exacted by the lord. Sixty or seventy years after the Peasants' War the
+English rural population had in one way or another become free men, and
+serfs had practically disappeared.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Deposition of Richard II and accession of Henry IV of
+Lancaster, 1399&ndash;1413.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry V claims the French crown, 1414.</div>
+
+<p><b>109.</b> The war with France had, as we have seen, almost ceased for a
+generation after the death of Edward III. The young son of the Black
+Prince, Richard II, who succeeded his grandfather on the throne, was
+controlled by the great noblemen whose rivalries fill much space in the
+annals of England. He was finally forced to abdicate in 1399. Henry IV,
+of the powerful house of Lancaster,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> was recognized as king in spite
+of the fact that he had less claim than another descendant of Edward
+III, who was, however, a mere boy. Henry IV's uncertain title may have
+made him less enterprising than Edward III; at any rate, it was left for
+his son, Henry V (1413&ndash;1422), to continue the French war. The conditions
+in France were such as to encourage the new claim which Henry V made to
+the French crown in 1414.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Civil war in France between the houses of Burgundy and
+Orleans.</div>
+
+<p>The able French king, Charles V, who had delivered his country for a
+time from the English invaders,<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> had been followed in 1380 by
+Charles VI, who soon lost his mind. The right to govern France
+consequently became a matter of dispute among the insane king's uncles
+and other relations. The country was divided between two great factions,
+one of which was headed by the powerful duke of Burgundy, who was
+building up a new state between France and Germany, and the other by the
+duke of Orleans. In 1407 the duke of Orleans was brutally murdered by
+order of the duke of Burgundy,&mdash;a by no means uncommon way at that time
+of disposing of one's enemies in both France and England. This led to a
+prolonged civil war between the two parties, and saved England from an
+attack which the duke of Orleans had been planning.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Position of Henry V.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Agincourt, 1415.</div>
+
+<p>Henry V had no real basis for his claim to the French crown. Edward III
+had gone to war because France was encroaching upon Guienne and aiding
+Scotland, and because he was encouraged by the Flemish towns. Henry V,
+on the other hand, was merely anxious to make himself and his house
+popular by deeds of valor. Nevertheless his very first victory, the
+battle of Agincourt, was as brilliant as that of Cr&eacute;cy or Poitiers. Once
+more the English bowmen slaughtered great numbers of French knights. The
+English then proceeded to conquer Normandy and march upon Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treaty of Troyes, 1420.</div>
+
+<p>Burgundians and Orleanists were upon the point of forgetting their
+animosities in their common fear of the English, when the duke of
+Burgundy, as he was kneeling to kiss the hand of his future sovereign,
+the Dauphin,<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> was treacherously attacked and killed by a band of his
+enemies. His son, the new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, immediately
+joined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> the English against the Dauphin, whom he believed to be
+responsible for his father's murder. Henry then forced the French to
+sign the treaty of Troyes (1420), which provided that he was to become
+king of France upon the death of the mad Charles VI.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry VI recognized as king in northern France.</div>
+
+<p>Both Henry V and Charles VI died two years later. Henry V's son, Henry
+VI, was but nine months old; nevertheless according to the terms of the
+treaty of Troyes he succeeded to the throne in France as well as in
+England. The child was recognized only in a portion of northern France.
+Through the ability of his uncle, the duke of Bedford, his interests
+were defended with such good effect that the English succeeded in a few
+years in conquering all of France north of the Loire, although the south
+continued to be held by Charles VII, the son of Charles VI.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Joan of Arc.</div>
+
+<p>Charles VII had not yet been crowned and so was still called the Dauphin
+even by his supporters. Weak and indolent, he did nothing to stem the
+tide of English victories or restore the courage and arouse the
+patriotism of his distressed subjects. This great task was reserved for
+a young peasant girl from a remote village on the eastern border of
+France. To her family and her companions Joan of Arc seemed only "a good
+girl, simple and pleasant in her ways," but she brooded much over the
+disasters that had overtaken her country, and a "great pity on the fair
+realm of France" filled her heart. She saw visions and heard voices that
+bade her go forth to the help of the king and lead him to Rheims to be
+crowned.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relief of Orleans by Joan, 1429.</div>
+
+<p>It was with the greatest difficulty that she got anybody to believe in
+her mission or to help her to get an audience with the Dauphin. But her
+own firm faith in her divine guidance triumphed over all doubts and
+obstacles. She was at last accepted as a God-sent champion and placed at
+the head of some troops despatched to the relief of Orleans. This city,
+which was the key to southern France, had been besieged by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> the English
+for some months and was on the point of surrender. Joan, who rode on
+horseback at the head of her troops, clothed in armor like a man, had
+now become the idol of the soldiers and of the people. Under the
+guidance and inspiration of her indomitable courage, sound sense, and
+burning enthusiasm, Orleans was relieved and the English completely
+routed. The Maid of Orleans, as she was henceforth called, was now free
+to conduct the Dauphin to Rheims, where he was crowned in the cathedral
+(July 17, 1429).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image45.jpg" width="500" height="483" alt="Possessions of the English King in France upon the
+Accession of Henry VI, 1424" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Possessions of the English King in France upon the
+Accession of Henry VI, 1424</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Execution of Joan, 1431.</div>
+
+<p>The Maid now felt that her mission was accomplished and begged
+permission to return to her home and her brothers and sisters. To this
+the king would not consent, and she continued to fight his battles with
+undiminished loyalty. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> the other leaders were jealous of her, and
+even her friends, the soldiers, were sensitive to the taunt of being led
+by a woman. During the defense of Compi&egrave;gne in May, 1430, she was
+allowed to fall into the hands of the duke of Burgundy, who sold her to
+the English. They were not satisfied with simply holding as prisoner
+that strange maiden who had so discomfited them; they wished to
+discredit everything that she had done, and so declared, and undoubtedly
+believed, that she was a witch who had been helped by the Evil One. She
+was tried by a court of ecclesiastics, found guilty of heresy, and
+burned at Rouen in 1431. Her bravery and noble constancy affected even
+her executioners, and an English soldier who had come to triumph over
+her death was heard to exclaim: "We are lost&mdash;we have burned a saint."
+The English cause in France was indeed lost, for her spirit and example
+had given new courage and vigor to the French armies.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England loses her French possessions.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">End of the Hundred Years' War, 1453.</div>
+
+<p>The English Parliament became more and more reluctant to grant funds
+when there were no more victories gained. Bedford, through whose ability
+the English cause had hitherto been maintained, died in 1435, and Philip
+the Good, Duke of Burgundy, renounced his alliance with the English and
+joined Charles VII. Owing to his acquisition of the Netherlands, the
+possessions of Philip were now so great that he might well be regarded
+as a European potentate whose alliance with France rendered further
+efforts on England's part hopeless. From this time on the English lost
+ground steadily. They were expelled from Normandy in 1450. Three years
+later, the last vestige of their long domination in southern France
+passed into the hands of the French king. The Hundred Years' War was
+over, and although England still retained Calais, the great question
+whether she should extend her sway upon the continent was finally
+settled.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and
+York, 1455&ndash;1485.</div>
+
+<p><b>110.</b> The close of the Hundred Years' War was followed in England by the
+Wars of the Roses, between the rival houses which were struggling for
+the crown. The badge of the house of Lancaster, to which Henry VI
+belonged, was a red rose, and that of the duke of York, who proposed to
+push him off his throne, was a white one. Each party was supported by a
+group of the wealthy and powerful nobles whose rivalries, conspiracies,
+treasons, murders, and executions fill the annals of England during the
+period which we have been discussing. Vast estates had come into the
+hands of the higher nobility by inheritance, and marriages with wealthy
+heiresses. Many of the dukes and earls were related to the royal family
+and consequently were inevitably drawn into the dynastic struggles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Retainers.</div>
+
+<p>The nobles no longer owed their power to vassals who were bound to
+follow them to war. Like the king, they relied upon hired soldiers. It
+was easy to find plenty of restless fellows who were willing to become
+the retainers of a nobleman if he would agree to clothe them with his
+livery and keep open house, where they might eat and drink their fill.
+Their master was to help them when they got into trouble, and they on
+their part were expected to intimidate, misuse, and even murder at need
+those who opposed the interests of their chief. When the French war was
+over, the unruly elements of society poured back across the Channel and,
+as retainers of the rival lords, became the terror of the country. They
+bullied judges and juries, and helped the nobles to control the
+selection of those who were sent to Parliament.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward IV secures the crown.</div>
+
+<p>It is needless to speak of the several battles and the many skirmishes
+of the miserable Wars of the Roses. These lasted from 1455, when the
+duke of York set seriously to work to displace the weak-minded
+Lancastrian king, Henry VI, until the accession of Henry VII, of the
+house of Tudor, thirty years later. After several battles the Yorkist
+leader, Edward IV, assumed the crown in 1461 and was recognized by
+Parliament,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> which declared Henry VI and the two preceding Lancastrian
+kings usurpers.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Edward was a vigorous monarch and maintained his
+own until his death in 1483.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward V, 1483; Richard III, 1483&ndash;1485.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Richard in the battle of Bosworth Field.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Henry VII of the house of Tudor, 1485.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">End of the Wars of the Roses.</div>
+
+<p>Edward's son, Edward V, was only a little boy, so that the government
+fell into the hands of the young king's uncle, Richard, Duke of
+Gloucester. The temptation to make himself king was too great to be
+resisted, and Richard soon seized the crown. Both the sons of Edward IV
+were killed in the Tower of London, and with the knowledge of their
+uncle, as it was commonly believed. This murder made Richard unpopular
+even at a time when one could kill one's political rivals without
+incurring general opprobrium. A new aspirant to the throne organized a
+conspiracy. Richard III was defeated and slain in the battle of Bosworth
+Field in 1485, and the crown which had fallen from his head was placed
+upon that of the first Tudor king, Henry VII. The latter had no
+particular right to it, although he was descended from Edward III
+through his mother. He hastened to procure the recognition of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+Parliament, and married Edward IV's daughter, thus blending the red and
+white roses in the Tudor badge.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a href="images/map298.jpg">
+<img src="images/map298th.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XI" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XI</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The despotism of the Tudors.</div>
+
+<p>The Wars of the Roses had important results. Nearly all the powerful
+families of England had been drawn into the fierce struggles, and a
+great part of the nobility, whom the kings had formerly feared, had
+perished on the battlefield or lost their heads in the ruthless
+executions carried out by each party after it gained a victory. This
+left the king far more powerful than ever before. He could now dominate
+Parliament, if he could not dispense with it. For a century and more the
+Tudor kings enjoyed almost despotic power. England ceased for a time to
+enjoy the free government for which the foundations had been laid under
+the Edwards and the Lancastrian kings, whose embarrassments at home and
+abroad had made them constantly dependent upon the aid of the
+nation.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France establishes a standing army, 1439.</div>
+
+<p><b>111.</b> In France the closing years of the Hundred Years' War had witnessed
+a great increase of the king's power through the establishment of a
+well-organized standing army. The feudal army had long since
+disappeared. Even before the opening of the war the nobles had begun to
+be paid for their military services and no longer furnished troops as a
+condition of holding fiefs. But the companies of soldiers, although
+nominally under the command of royal officers, were often really
+independent of the king. They found their pay very uncertain, and
+plundered their countrymen as well as the enemy. As the war drew to a
+close, the lawless troopers became a terrible scourge to the country and
+were known as <i>flayers</i>, on account of the horrible way in which they
+tortured the peasants in the hope of extracting money from them. In 1439
+the Estates General approved a plan devised by the king, for putting an
+end to this evil. Thereafter no one was to raise a company<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> without the
+permission of the king, who was to name the captains and fix the number
+of the soldiers and the character of their arms.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The permanent tax fatal to the powers of the Estates
+General.</div>
+
+<p>The Estates agreed that the king should use a certain tax, called the
+<i>taille</i>, to support the troops necessary for the protection of the
+frontier. This was a fatal concession, for the king now had an army and
+the right to collect what he chose to consider a permanent tax, the
+amount of which he later greatly increased; he was not dependent, as was
+the English king, upon the grants made for brief periods by the
+representatives of the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The new feudalism.</div>
+
+<p>Before the king of France could hope to establish a compact,
+well-organized state it was necessary for him to reduce the power of his
+vassals, some of whom were almost his equals in strength. The older
+feudal dynasties, as we have seen, had many of them succumbed to the
+attacks and the diplomacy of the kings of the thirteenth century,
+especially of St. Louis. But he and his successors had raised up fresh
+rivals by granting whole provinces, called <i>appanages</i>,<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> to their
+younger sons. In this way new and powerful lines of feudal nobles were
+established, such, for example, as the houses of Orleans, Anjou,
+Bourbon, and, above all, of Burgundy. The accompanying map shows the
+region immediately subject to the king&mdash;the royal domain&mdash;at the time of
+the expulsion of the English. It clearly indicates what still remained
+to be done in order to free France from feudalism and make it a great
+nation. The process of reducing the prerogatives of the nobles had been
+begun. They had been forbidden to coin money, to maintain armies, and to
+tax their subjects, and the powers of the king's judges had been
+extended over all the realm. But the task of consolidating France was
+reserved for the son of Charles VII, the shrewd and treacherous Louis XI
+(1461&ndash;1483).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Extent of the Burgundian possessions in the fifteenth
+century.</div>
+
+<p>By far the most dangerous of Louis' vassals were Philip the Good, Duke
+of Burgundy (1419&ndash;1467), and his impetuous son, Charles the Bold
+(1467&ndash;1477). Just a century before Louis XI came to the throne, the old
+line of Burgundian dukes had died out, and in 1363 the same King John
+whom the English captured and carried off to England, presented Burgundy
+to his younger son Philip.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> By fortunate marriages and lucky
+windfalls the dukes of Burgundy had added a number of important fiefs to
+their original possessions, and Philip the Good ruled over
+Franche-Comt&eacute;, Luxembourg, Flanders, Artois, Brabant, and other
+provinces and towns which lie in what is now Holland and Belgium.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image46.jpg" width="400" height="480" alt="Louis XI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Louis XI</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ambition of Charles the Bold, 1467&ndash;1477.</div>
+
+<p>Charles the Bold busied himself for some years before his father's death
+in forming alliances with the other powerful French vassals and
+conspiring against Louis. Upon becoming duke himself he set his heart
+upon two things. He resolved, first, to conquer Lorraine, which divided
+his territories into two parts and made it difficult to pass from
+Franche-Comt&eacute; to Luxembourg. In the second place, he proposed to have
+himself crowned king of the territories which his forefathers had
+accumulated and in this way establish a strong new state between France
+and Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles defeated by the Swiss at Granson and Murten, 1476.</div>
+
+<p>Naturally neither the king of France nor the emperor sympathized with
+Charles' ambitions. Louis taxed his exceptional ingenuity in frustrating
+his aspiring vassal; and the emperor refused to crown Charles as king
+when he appeared at Trier eager for the ceremony. The most humiliating,
+however, of the defeats which Charles encountered came from an
+unexpected quarter. He attempted to chastise his neighbors the Swiss for
+siding with his enemies and was soundly beaten by that brave people in
+two memorable battles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image47.jpg" width="500" height="705" alt="BRONZE STATUES OF PHILIP THE GOOD AND CHARLES THE BOLD AT INNSBRUCK" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="BRONZE_STATUES" id="BRONZE_STATUES"></a>BRONZE STATUES OF PHILIP THE GOOD AND CHARLES THE BOLD AT INNSBRUCK</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Death of Charles, 1477.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian of Austria.</div>
+
+<p>The next year Charles fell ingloriously in an attempt to take the town
+of Nancy. His lands went to his daughter Mary, who was immediately
+married to the emperor's son, Maximilian, much to the disgust of Louis,
+who had already seized the duchy of Burgundy and hoped to gain still
+more. The great importance of this marriage, which resulted in bringing
+the Netherlands into the hands of Austria, will be seen when we come to
+consider Charles V (the grandson of Mary and Maximilian) and his vast
+empire.<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Work of Louis XI.</div>
+
+<p>Louis XI did far more for the French monarchy than check his chief
+vassal and reclaim a part of the Burgundian territory. He had himself
+made heir to a number of provinces in central and southern
+France,&mdash;Anjou, Maine, Provence, etc.,&mdash;which by the death of their
+possessors came under the king's immediate control (1481). He humiliated
+in various ways the vassals who in his early days had combined with
+Charles the Bold against him. The duke of Alen&ccedil;on he imprisoned; the
+rebellious duke of Nemours he caused to be executed in the most cruel
+manner. Louis' political aims were worthy, but his means were generally
+despicable. It sometimes seemed as if he gloried in being the most
+rascally among rascals, the most treacherous among the traitors whom he
+so artfully circumvented in the interests of the French monarchy.<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England and France establish strong national governments.</div>
+
+<p>Both England and France emerged from the troubles and desolations of the
+Hundred Years' War stronger than ever before. In both countries the
+kings had overcome the menace of feudalism by destroying the power of
+the great families.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> The royal government was becoming constantly more
+powerful. Commerce and industry increased the national wealth and
+supplied the monarchs with the revenue necessary to maintain government
+officials and a sufficient armed force to execute the laws and keep
+order throughout their realms. They were no longer forced to rely upon
+the uncertain pledges of their vassals. In short, the French and the
+English were both becoming nations, each with a strong national feeling
+and a king whom every one, both high and low, recognized and obeyed as
+the head of the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of the development of modern states upon the
+position of the medi&aelig;val Church.</div>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the strengthening of the royal power could hardly
+fail to alter the position of the medi&aelig;val Church. This was, as we have
+seen, not simply a religious institution but a sort of international
+state which performed a number of important governmental duties. We
+must, therefore, now turn back and review the history of the Church from
+the time of Edward I and Philip the Fair to the opening of the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;For the political history of this period, <span class="smcap">Lodge</span>,
+<i>Close of the Middle Ages</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.75), is the
+best work, although rather dry and cumbered with names which might
+have been omitted. For the general history of France, see in
+addition to <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, <i>Growth of the French Nation</i> (The Macmillan
+Company, $1.25), <span class="smcap">Duruy</span>, <i>A History of France</i> (T.Y. Crowell,
+$2.00). The economic history of England is to be found in the works
+mentioned at the end of Chapter XVIII. The following collections of
+documents furnish illustrative material in abundance: <span class="smcap">Lee</span>,
+<i>Source-book of English History</i> (Holt, $2.00); <span class="smcap">Colby</span>, <i>Selections
+from the Sources of English History</i>, (Longmans, Green &amp; Co.,
+$1.50); <span class="smcap">Adams &amp; Stephens</span>, <i>Select Documents of English
+Constitutional History</i> (The Macmillan Company, $2.25); <span class="smcap">Kendall</span>,
+<i>Source Book of English History</i> (The Macmillan Company, 80 cents).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE POPES AND THE COUNCILS</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The problem of the relation of church and state.</div>
+
+<p><b>112.</b> The influence which the Church and its head exercised over the
+civil government in the Middle Ages was due largely to the absence of
+strong, efficient rulers who could count upon the support of a large
+body of prosperous and loyal subjects. So long as the feudal anarchy
+continued, the Church endeavored to supply the deficiencies of the
+restless and ignorant princes by striving to maintain order, administer
+justice, protect the weak, and encourage learning. So soon, however, as
+the modern state began to develop, difficulties arose. The clergy
+naturally clung to the powers and privileges which they had long
+enjoyed, and which they believed to be rightly theirs. On the other
+hand, the state, so soon as it felt itself able to manage its own
+affairs, protect its subjects, and provide for their worldly interests,
+was less and less inclined to tolerate the interference of the clergy
+and their head, the pope. Educated laymen were becoming more and more
+common, and the king was no longer obliged to rely upon the assistance
+of the clergy in conducting his government. It was natural that he
+should look with disfavor upon their privileges, which put them upon a
+different footing from the great mass of his subjects, and upon their
+wealth, which he would deem excessive and dangerous to his power. This
+situation raised the fundamental problem of the proper relation of
+church and state, upon which Europe has been working ever since the
+fourteenth century and has not completely solved yet.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Edward I and Philip the Fair attempt to tax the clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The difficulty which the Church experienced in maintaining its power
+against the kings is excellently shown by the famous struggle between
+Philip the Fair, the grandson of St. Louis, and Boniface VIII, an old
+man of boundless ambition and inexhaustible energy who came to the papal
+throne in 1294. The first serious trouble arose over the habit into
+which the kings of England and France had fallen, of taxing the property
+of the churchmen like that of other subjects. It was natural after a
+monarch had squeezed all that he could out of the Jews and the towns,
+and had exacted every possible feudal due, that he should turn to the
+rich estates of the clergy, in spite of their claim that their property
+was dedicated to God and owed the king nothing. The extensive
+enterprises of Edward I led him in 1296 to demand one fifth of the
+personal property of the clergy. Philip the Fair exacted one hundredth
+and then one fiftieth of the possessions of clergy and laity alike.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The bull <i>Clericis laicos</i> of Boniface VIII, 1296.</div>
+
+<p>Against this impartial system Boniface protested in the famous bull
+<i>Clericis laicos</i> (1296). He claimed that the laity had always been
+exceedingly hostile to the clergy, and that the rulers were now
+exhibiting this hostility by imposing heavy burdens upon the Church,
+forgetting that they had no control over the clergy and their
+possessions. The pope, therefore, forbade all churchmen, including the
+monks, to pay, without his consent, to a king or ruler any part of the
+Church's revenue or possessions upon any pretext whatsoever. He likewise
+forbade the kings and princes under pain of excommunication to presume
+to exact any such payments.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Boniface concedes a limited right to tax churchmen.</div>
+
+<p>It happened that just as the pope was prohibiting the clergy from
+contributing to the taxes, Philip the Fair had forbidden the exportation
+of all gold and silver from the country. In that way he cut off an
+important source of the pope's revenue, for the church of France could
+obviously no longer send anything to Rome. The pope was forced to give
+up his extreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> claims. He explained the following year that he had not
+meant to interfere with the payment on the clergy's part of customary
+feudal dues nor with their loans of money to the king.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The jubilee of 1300.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of this setback, the pope never seemed more completely the
+recognized head of the western world than during the first great
+jubilee, in the year 1300, when Boniface called together all Christendom
+to celebrate the opening of the new century by a great religious
+festival at Rome. It is reported that two millions of people, coming
+from all parts of Europe, visited the churches of Rome, and that in
+spite of widening the streets many were crushed in the crowd. So great
+was the influx of money into the papal treasury that two assistants were
+kept busy with rakes collecting the offerings which were deposited at
+the tomb of St. Peter.</p>
+
+<p>Boniface was, however, very soon to realize that even if Christendom
+regarded Rome as its religious center, the nations would not accept him
+as their political head. When he dispatched an obnoxious prelate to
+Philip the Fair, ordering him to free the count of Flanders whom he was
+holding prisoner, the king declared the harsh language of the papal
+envoy to be high treason and sent one of his lawyers to the pope to
+demand that the messenger be degraded and punished.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Estates General of 1302.</div>
+
+<p>Philip was surrounded by a body of lawyers, and it would seem that they,
+rather than the king, were the real rulers of France. They had, through
+their study of Roman law, learned to admire the absolute power exercised
+by the Roman emperor. To them the civil government was supreme, and they
+urged the king to punish what they regarded as the insolent conduct of
+the pope. Before taking any action against the head of the Church,
+Philip called together the representatives of his people, including not
+only the clergy and the nobility but the people of the towns as well.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> Estates General, after hearing a statement of the case from one of
+Philip's lawyers, agreed to support their monarch.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nogaret insults Boniface VIII.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Boniface, 1303.</div>
+
+<p>Nogaret, one of the chief legal advisers of the king, undertook to face
+the pope. He collected a little troop of soldiers in Italy and marched
+against Boniface, who was sojourning at Anagni, where his predecessors
+had excommunicated two emperors, Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II.
+As Boniface, in his turn, was preparing solemnly to proclaim the king of
+France an outcast from the Church, Nogaret penetrated into the papal
+palace with his soldiers and heaped insults upon the helpless but
+defiant old man. The townspeople forced Nogaret to leave the next day,
+but Boniface's spirit was broken and he soon died at Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Clement V, 1305&ndash;1314, and his subservience to Philip the
+Fair.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The popes take up their residence at Avignon.</div>
+
+<p>King Philip now proposed to have no more trouble with popes. He arranged
+in 1305 to have the Archbishop of Bordeaux chosen head of the Church,
+with the understanding that he should transfer the papacy to France. The
+new pope accordingly summoned the cardinals to meet him at Lyons, where
+he was crowned under the title of Clement V. He remained in France
+during his whole pontificate, moving from one rich abbey to another. At
+Philip's command he reluctantly undertook a sort of trial of the
+deceased Boniface VIII, who was accused by the king's lawyers of all
+sorts of abominable crimes. A great part of Boniface's decrees were
+revoked, and those who had attacked him were exculpated. Then, to please
+the king, Clement brought the Templars to trial; the order was abolished
+and its possessions in France, for which the king had longed, were
+confiscated. Obviously it proved very advantageous to the king to have a
+pope within his realm. Clement V died in 1314. His successors took up
+their residence in the town of Avignon, just outside the French frontier
+of those days. There they built a sumptuous palace in which successive
+popes lived in great splendor for sixty years.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Babylonian Captivity of the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>113.</b> The prolonged exile of the popes from Rome, lasting from 1305 to
+1377, is commonly called the Babylonian Captivity<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> of the Church, on
+account of the woes attributed to it. The popes of this period were for
+the most part good and earnest men; but they were all Frenchmen, and the
+proximity of their court to France led to the natural suspicion that
+they were controlled by the French kings. This, together with their
+luxurious court, brought them into discredit with the other
+nations.<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The papal taxation.</div>
+
+<p>At Avignon the popes were naturally deprived of some of the revenue
+which they had enjoyed from their Italian possessions when they lived at
+Rome. This deficiency had to be made up by increased taxation,
+especially as the expenses of the splendid papal court were very heavy.
+The papacy was, consequently, rendered still more unpopular by the
+methods employed to raise money, particularly by the granting of
+benefices throughout Europe to the pope's courtiers, by the heavy
+contributions which were demanded for dispensations, for the
+confirmation of bishops, and for granting the pallium to archbishops, as
+well as the high fees for the trial of law suits.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope's control of church benefices.</div>
+
+<p>Many of the church offices, such as those of the bishops and abbots,
+insured a more than ample revenue to their holders. It was natural,
+therefore, that the pope, in his endeavor to increase his income, should
+have tried to bring as many of these appointments as he could into his
+own hands. He did this by reserving to himself the filling of certain
+benefices so soon as they should become vacant. He then chose some one
+to whom he wished to do a favor and promised him the benefice upon the
+death of the one then holding it. Men appointed in this way were called
+<i>provisors</i> and were extremely unpopular. They were very often
+foreigners, and it was suspected that they had obtained these positions
+from the pope simply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> for the sake of the revenue, and had no intention
+whatever of performing the duties connected with them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Statute of provisors, 1352.</div>
+
+<p>The papal exactions met with the greatest opposition in England because
+the popes were thought to favor France, with which country the English
+were at war. A law was passed by Parliament in 1352 ordering that all
+who procured appointments from the pope should be outlawed, that any one
+might injure such offenders at will, and that the injured should have no
+redress, since they were enemies of the king and his realm.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> This
+and similar laws failed, however, to prevent the pope from filling
+English benefices to the advantage of himself and his courtiers. The
+English king was unable to keep the money of his realm from flowing to
+Avignon on one pretext or another. It was declared by the Good
+Parliament, held in 1376, that the taxes levied by the pope in England
+were five times those raised by the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John Wycliffe.</div>
+
+<p>The most famous and conspicuous critic of the pope and of the policy of
+the Roman Church at this time was John Wycliffe, a teacher at Oxford. He
+was born about 1320; but we know little of him before 1366, when Urban V
+demanded that England should pay the tribute promised by King John when
+he became the pope's vassal.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> Parliament declared that John had no
+right to bind the people without their consent, and Wycliffe began his
+career of opposition to the papacy by trying to prove that John's
+compact was void. About ten years later we find the pope issuing bulls
+against the teachings of Wycliffe, who had begun to assert that the
+state might appropriate the property of the Church if it was misused,
+and that the pope had no authority except as he acted according to the
+Gospels. Soon Wycliffe went further and boldly attacked the papacy
+itself, as well as indulgences, pilgrimages, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> worship of the
+saints; finally he even denied the truth of the doctrine of
+transubstantiation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wycliffe's 'simple priests.'</div>
+
+<p>He did not, however, confine his work to a denunciation of what he
+considered wrong in the teaching and conduct of the churchmen. He
+established an order of "simple priests" who were to go about doing good
+and reprove by their example the worldly habits of the general run of
+priests and monks.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wycliffe the father of English prose.</div>
+
+<p>Wycliffe's anxiety to reach the people and foster a higher spiritual
+life among them led him to have the Bible translated into English. He
+also prepared a great number of sermons and tracts in English. He is the
+father of English prose, and it has been well said that "the exquisite
+pathos, the keen, delicate irony, and the manly passion of his short,
+nervous sentences, fairly overmaster the weakness of the unformed
+language and give us English which cannot be read without a feeling of
+its beauty to this hour."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of Wycliffe's teaching.</div>
+
+<p>Wycliffe and his "simple priests" were charged with fomenting the
+discontent and disorder which culminated in the Peasants' War. Whether
+this charge was true or not, it caused many of his more aristocratic
+followers to fall away from him. But in spite of this and the
+denunciations of the Church, Wycliffe was not seriously interfered with
+and died peaceably in 1384. While his followers appear to have yielded
+pretty readily to the persecution which soon overtook them, his
+doctrines were spread abroad in Bohemia by another ardent reformer, John
+Huss, who was destined to give the Church a great deal of trouble.
+Wycliffe is remarkable as being the first distinguished scholar and
+reformer to repudiate the headship of the pope and those practices of
+the Church of Rome which a hundred and fifty years after his death were
+attacked by Luther in his successful revolt against the medi&aelig;val
+Church.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The papal court moves back to Rome, 1377.</div>
+
+<p><b>114.</b> In 1377 Pope Gregory XI moved back again to Rome after the popes
+had been exiles for seventy years, during which much had happened to
+undermine the papal power and supremacy. Yet the discredit into which
+the papacy had fallen during its stay at Avignon was as nothing compared
+with the disasters which befell it after the return to Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of Urban VI, 1378.</div>
+
+<p>Gregory died the year after his return and the cardinals assembled to
+choose his successor. A great part of them were French. They had found
+Rome in a sad state of ruin and disorder and heartily regretted the gay
+life and the comforts and luxuries of Avignon. They determined therefore
+to select a pope who would take them back to the banks of the Rhone.
+While they were deliberating, the Roman populace was yelling outside the
+conclave and demanding that a Roman be chosen, or at least an Italian. A
+simple Italian monk was accordingly selected, Urban VI, who it was
+supposed would agree to the wishes of the cardinals.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of an anti-pope, Clement VII.</div>
+
+<p>The new pope, however, soon showed that he had no idea of returning to
+Avignon. He treated the cardinals with harshness and proposed a stern
+reformation of their habits. The cardinals speedily wearied of this
+treatment; they retired to the neighboring Anagni and declared that they
+had been frightened by the Roman mob into selecting the obnoxious Urban.
+They then elected a new pope, who took the title of Clement VII,
+returned to Avignon, and established his court there. Urban, although
+deserted by his cardinals, had no intention of yielding and proceeded to
+create twenty-eight new cardinals.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Great Schism.</div>
+
+<p>This double election was the beginning of the <i>Great Schism</i>, which was
+to last for forty years and expose the papacy to new attacks on every
+side. There had been many anti-popes in earlier centuries, set up
+usually by the emperors; but there had ordinarily been little question
+as to who was really the legitimate pope. In the present case Europe was
+seriously in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> doubt, for it was difficult to decide whether the election
+of Urban had really been forced and was consequently invalid as the
+cardinals claimed. No one, therefore, could be perfectly sure which of
+the rival popes was the real successor of St. Peter. There were now two
+colleges of cardinals whose very existence depended upon the exercise of
+their right of choosing the pope. It was natural that Italy should
+support Urban VI, while France as naturally obeyed Clement VII; England,
+hostile to France, accepted Urban; Scotland, hostile to England,
+supported Clement.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church divided within itself and the consequences.</div>
+
+<p>Each of two men, with seemingly equal right, now claimed to be Christ's
+vicar on earth; each proposed to enjoy to the full the vast prerogatives
+of the head of Christendom, and each denounced, and attempted to depose,
+the other. The schism in the headship of the Church naturally extended
+to the bishoprics and abbeys, and everywhere there were rival prelates,
+each of whom could claim that he had been duly confirmed by one pope or
+the other. All this produced an unprecedented scandal in the Church. It
+emphasized all the abuses among the clergy and gave free rein to those
+who were inclined to denounce the many evils which had been pointed out
+by Wycliffe and his followers. The condition was, in fact, intolerable
+and gave rise to widespread discussion, not only of the means by which
+the schism might be healed, but of the nature and justification of the
+papacy itself. The discussion which arose during these forty years of
+uncertainty did much to prepare the mind of western Europe for the
+Protestant revolt in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Idea of the supremacy of a general council.</div>
+
+<p>The selfish and futile negotiations between the colleges of cardinals
+and the popes justified the notion that there might perhaps be a power
+in Christendom superior even to that of the pope. Might not a council,
+representing all Christendom, and inspired by the Holy Ghost, judge even
+a pope? Such councils had been held in the East during the later Roman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>
+Empire, beginning with the first general or ecumenical council of Nic&aelig;a
+under Constantine. They had established the teachings of the Church and
+had legislated for all Christian people and clergy.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Question whether the pope or a general council is the supreme
+authority in the Church.</div>
+
+<p>As early as 1381 the University of Paris advocated the summoning of a
+general council which should adjust the claims of the rival popes and
+give Christendom once more a single head. This raised the question
+whether a council was really superior to the pope or not. Those who
+believed that it was, maintained that the Church at large had deputed
+the election of the pope to the cardinals and that it might, therefore,
+interfere when the cardinals had brought the papacy into disrepute; that
+a general assembly of all Christendom, speaking under the inspiration of
+the Holy Spirit, was a higher authority than even the successor of St.
+Peter. Others strenuously denied this. They claimed that the pope
+received his authority over the Church immediately from Christ, and that
+he had always possessed supreme power from the very first, although he
+had not always exercised it and had permitted the earlier councils a
+certain freedom. No council, they urged, could be considered a general
+one which was called against the will of the pope, because, without the
+bishop of the Roman or mother church, the council obviously could not
+lay claim to represent all Christendom. The defenders of the papal power
+maintained, moreover, that the pope was the supreme legislator, that he
+might change or annul the act of any council or of a previous pope, that
+he might judge others but might not himself be judged by any one.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Council of Pisa, 1409 adds a third rival pope.</div>
+
+<p>After years of discussion and fruitless negotiations between the rival
+popes and their cardinals, members of both of the colleges decided in
+1409 to summon a council at Pisa, which should put an end to the schism.
+While large numbers of churchmen answered the summons and the various
+monarchs took an active interest in the council, its action was hasty
+and ill-advised. Gregory XII, the Roman pope, elected in 1406, and
+Benedict XIII, the Avignon pope, elected in 1394, were solemnly summoned
+from the doors of the cathedral at Pisa. As they failed to appear they
+were condemned for contumacy and deposed. A new pope was then elected,
+and on his death a year later, he was succeeded by the notorious John
+XXIII, who had been a soldier of fortune in his earlier days. John was
+selected on account of his supposed military prowess. This was
+considered essential in order to guard the papal territory against the
+king of Naples, who had announced his intention of getting possession of
+Rome. Neither of the deposed popes yielded, and as they each continued
+to enjoy a certain support, the Council of Pisa, instead of healing the
+schism, added a third person who claimed to be the supreme ruler of
+Christendom.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Council of Constance meets, 1414.</div>
+
+<p><b>115.</b> The failure of the Council of Pisa made it necessary to summon
+another congress of Christendom. Through the influence of the emperor
+Sigismund, John XXIII reluctantly agreed that the council should be held
+in Germany, in the imperial town of Constance. The Council of Constance,
+which began to assemble in the fall of 1414, is one of the most
+noteworthy international assemblies ever held. It lasted for over three
+years and excited the deepest interest throughout Europe. There were in
+attendance, besides the pope and the emperor-elect, twenty-three
+cardinals, thirty-three archbishops and bishops, one hundred and fifty
+abbots, and one hundred dukes and earls, as well as hundreds of lesser
+persons.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The three great objects of the Council of Constance.</div>
+
+<p>Three great tasks confronted the council: (1) the healing of the schism,
+which involved the disposal of the three existing popes and the
+selection of a single universally acknowledged head of the Church; (2)
+the extirpation of heresy, which, under the influence of Huss, was
+threatening the authority of the Church in Bohemia; (3) a general
+reformation of the Church "in head and members."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The healing of the schism.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The decree <i>Sacrosancta</i>, 1415.</div>
+
+<p>1. The healing of the long schism was the most important of the
+council's achievements. John XXIII was very uncomfortable in Constance.
+He feared not only that he would be forced to resign but that there
+might be an investigation of his very dubious past. In March he fled in
+disguise from Constance, leaving his cardinals behind him. The council
+was dismayed at the pope's departure, as it feared that he would
+dissolve it as soon as he was out of its control. It thereupon issued a
+famous decree (April 6, 1415) declaring its superiority to the pope. It
+claimed that a general council had its power immediately from Christ.
+Every one, even the pope, who should refuse to obey its decrees or
+instructions should be suitably punished.</p>
+
+<p>A long list of terrible crimes of which John was suspected, was drawn up
+and he was formally deposed. He received<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> but little encouragement in
+his opposition to the council and soon surrendered unconditionally.
+Gregory XII, the Roman pope, showed himself amenable to reason and
+relieved the perplexity of the council by resigning in July. The third
+pope, the obstinate Benedict XIII, flatly refused to resign. But the
+council induced the Spaniards, who were his only remaining supporters,
+to desert him and send envoys to Constance. Benedict was then deposed
+(July, 1417) and in the following November the cardinals who were at the
+council were permitted to elect a new pope, Martin V, and so the Great
+Schism was brought to an end.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John Huss.</div>
+
+<p>2. During the first year of its sessions the Council of Constance was
+attempting to stamp out heresy as well as to heal the schism. The
+marriage of an English king, Richard II, to a Bohemian princess shortly
+before Wycliffe's death, had encouraged some intercourse between Bohemia
+and England and had brought the works of the English reformer to the
+attention of those in Bohemia who were intent upon the improvement of
+the Church. Among these the most conspicuous was John Huss (b. about
+1369), whose ardent devotion to the interests of the Bohemian nation and
+enthusiasm for reform secured for him great influence in the University
+of Prague, with which he was connected.</p>
+
+<p>Huss reached the conclusion that Christians should not be forced to obey
+those who were living in mortal sin and were apparently destined never
+to reach heaven themselves. This view was naturally denounced by the
+Church as a most dangerous error, destructive of all order and
+authority. As his opponents urged, the regularly appointed authorities
+must be obeyed, not because they are good men but because they govern in
+virtue of the law. In short, Huss appeared not only to defend the
+heresies of Wycliffe, but at the same time to preach a doctrine
+dangerous alike to the power of the civil government and of the Church.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The 'safe-conduct.'</div>
+
+<p>Huss felt confident that he could convince the council of the truth of
+his views and willingly appeared at Constance. He was provided with a
+"safe-conduct," a document in which Emperor Sigismund ordered that no
+one should do him any violence and which permitted the bearer to leave
+Constance whenever he wished. In spite of this he was speedily arrested
+and imprisoned, in December, 1414. His treatment well illustrates the
+medi&aelig;val attitude towards heresy. When Sigismund indignantly protested
+against the violation of his safe-conduct, he was informed that the law
+did not recognize faith pledged to suspected heretics, for they were out
+of the king's jurisdiction. The council declared that no pledge which
+was prejudicial to the Catholic faith was to be observed. In judging
+Sigismund's failure to enforce his promise of protection to Huss it must
+be remembered that heresy was at that time considered a far more
+terrible crime than murder, and that it was the opinion of the most
+authoritative body in Christendom that Sigismund would do a great wrong
+if he prevented the trial of Huss.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Trial of Huss.</div>
+
+<p>Huss was treated in what would seem to us a very harsh way; but from the
+standpoint of the council he was given every advantage. By special favor
+he was granted a public hearing. The council was anxious that Huss
+should retract; but no form of retraction could be arranged to which he
+would agree. The council, in accordance with the usages of the time,
+demanded that he should recognize the error of all the propositions
+which they had selected from his writings, that he should retract them
+and never again preach them, and that he should agree to preach the
+contrary. The council did not consider it its business to decide whether
+Huss was right or wrong, but simply whether his doctrines, which they
+gathered from his books, were in accordance with the traditional views
+of the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conviction and execution of Huss, July, 1415.</div>
+
+<p>Finally, the council condemned Huss as a convicted and impenitent
+heretic. On July 6, 1415, he was taken out before the gates of the city
+and given one more chance to retract. As<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> he refused, he was degraded
+from the priesthood and handed over to the civil government to be
+executed for heresy, which, as we have seen, the state regarded as a
+crime and undertook to punish.<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> The civil authorities made no
+further investigation but accepted the verdict of the council and burned
+Huss upon the spot. His ashes were thrown into the Rhine lest they
+should become an object of veneration among his followers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Hussite wars, 1419&ndash;1431.</div>
+
+<p>The death of Huss rather promoted than checked the spread of heresy in
+Bohemia. A few years later the Germans undertook a series of crusades
+against the Bohemians. This embittered the national animosity between
+the two races, which has even yet by no means died out. The heretics
+proved valiant fighters and after several bloody wars succeeded in
+repulsing the enemy and even invaded Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opportunity of the council to reform the church.</div>
+
+<p>3. The third great task of the Council of Constance was the general
+reformation of the Church. After John's flight it had claimed the right
+(in the decree <i>Sacrosancta</i>) to reform even the papacy. This was a
+splendid opportunity at least to mitigate the abuses in the Church. The
+council was a great representative body, and every one was looking to it
+to remedy the old evils which had become more pronounced than ever
+during the Great Schism. Many pamphlets were published at the time by
+earnest men denouncing the corrupt practices of the clergy. The evils
+were of long standing and have all been described in earlier
+chapters.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The failure of the council to effect any definite reforms.</div>
+
+<p>Although every one recognized the abuses, the council found itself
+unable to remedy them or to accomplish the hoped-for reformation. After
+three years of fruitless deliberations the members of the assembly
+became weary and hopeless. They finally contented themselves with
+passing a decree (Oct. 9, 1417) declaring that the neglect to summon
+general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> councils in the past had fostered all the evils in the Church
+and that thereafter councils should be regularly summoned at least every
+ten years.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> In this way it was hoped that the absolute power of the
+popes might be checked in somewhat the same way that the Parliament in
+England and the Estates General in France controlled the monarch.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abuses enumerated by the council.</div>
+
+<p>After the passing of this decree the council drew up a list of abuses
+demanding reform, which the new pope was to consider with certain of its
+members after the main body of the council had returned home. Chief
+among the questions which the council enumerated for consideration were
+the number, character, and nationality of the cardinals, the benefices
+to which the pope had a right to appoint, what cases might be brought
+before his court, for what reason and in what manner the pope might be
+corrected or deposed, how heresy might be extirpated, and the matter of
+dispensations, indulgences, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the healing of the schism, the results of the Council of
+Constance were slight. It had burned Huss but had by no means checked
+heresy. It had considered for three years the reformation of the Church
+but had at last confessed its inability to carry it out. The pope later
+issued a few reform decrees, but the state of the Church was not
+materially bettered.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Council of Basel, 1431&ndash;1449.</div>
+
+<p><b>116.</b> The sturdy resistance of the Bohemians to those who proposed to
+bring them back to the orthodox faith by arms finally attracted the
+attention of Europe and called forth considerable sympathy. In 1431 the
+last of the crusades against them came to an ignominious end, and Martin
+V was forced to summon a new council in order to consider the policy
+which should be adopted toward the heretics. The Council of Basel lasted
+for no less than eighteen years. At first its prestige was sufficient to
+enable it to dominate the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> pope, and it reached its greatest authority
+in 1434 after it had arranged a peace with the moderate party of the
+Bohemian heretics. The council, however, continued its hostility towards
+Pope Eugene IV (elected in 1431), and in 1437 he declared the council
+dissolved and summoned a new one to meet at Ferrara. The Council of
+Basel thereupon deposed Eugene and chose an anti-pope. This conduct did
+much to discredit the idea of a general council in the eyes of Europe.
+The assembly gradually dwindled away and finally in 1449 acknowledged
+the legitimate pope once more.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Council of Ferrara-Florence, 1438&ndash;1439.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Union of Eastern and Western Churches.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Council of Ferrara<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> had taken up the momentous
+question of consolidating the Eastern and Western Churches. The empire
+of the East was seriously threatened by the on-coming Ottoman Turks, who
+had made conquests even west of Constantinople. The Eastern emperor's
+advisers urged that if a reconciliation could be arranged with the
+Western Church, the pope might use his influence to supply arms and
+soldiers to be used against the Mohammedans. When the representatives of
+the Eastern Church met with the Council of Ferrara the differences in
+doctrine were found to be few, but the question of the headship of the
+Church was a most difficult one. A form of union was, nevertheless,
+agreed upon in which the Eastern Church accepted the headship of the
+pope, "saving the privileges and rights of the patriarchs of the East."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results of the Council of Ferrara.</div>
+
+<p>While Eugene received the credit for healing the breach between the East
+and the West, the Greek prelates, upon returning home, were hailed with
+indignation and branded as robbers and matricides for the concessions
+which they had made. The chief results of the council were (1) the
+advantage gained by the pope in once more becoming the recognized head
+of Christendom in spite of the opposition of the Council of Basel, and
+(2) the fact that certain learned Greeks remained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> in Italy, and helped
+to stimulate the growing enthusiasm for Greek literature.</p>
+
+<p>No more councils were held during the fifteenth century, and the popes
+were left to the task of reorganizing their dominions in Italy. They
+began to turn their attention very largely to their interests as Italian
+princes, and some of them, beginning with Nicholas V (1447&ndash;1455), became
+the patrons of artists and men of letters. There is probably no period
+in the history of the papacy when the head of the Church was more
+completely absorbed in forwarding his political interests and those of
+his relatives, and in decorating his capital, than in the seventy years
+which elapsed between 1450 and the beginning of the German revolt
+against the Church.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Creighton</span>, <i>History of the Papacy</i> (Longmans,
+Green &amp; Co., 6 vols., $2.00 each), Vol. I, is perhaps the best
+treatment of the Great Schism and the Council of Constance. <span class="smcap">Pastor</span>,
+<i>History of the Popes</i> (Herder, 6 vols., $18.00), Vol. I, Book 1,
+gives the most recent and scholarly account from the standpoint of
+a Roman Catholic.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ITALIAN CITIES AND THE RENAISSANCE</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Italy the center of European culture in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries.</div>
+
+<p><b>117.</b> While England and France were settling their differences in the
+wretched period of the Hundred Years' War, and the little German
+principalities, left without a leader,<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> were busied with their petty
+concerns, Italy was the center of European culture. Its
+cities,&mdash;Florence, Venice, Milan, and the rest,&mdash;reached a degree of
+prosperity and refinement undreamed of beyond the Alps. Within their
+walls learning and art made such extraordinary progress that this period
+has received a special name,&mdash;the <i>Renaissance</i>,<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> or new birth. The
+Italian towns, like those of ancient Greece, were really little states,
+each with its own peculiar life and institutions. Of these city-states a
+word must be said before considering the new enthusiasm for the works of
+the Romans and Greeks and the increasing skill which the Italian artists
+displayed in painting, sculpture, and architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Map of Italy in the fourteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>The map of Italy at the beginning of the fourteenth century was still
+divided into three zones, as it had been in the time of the
+Hohenstaufens. To the south lay the kingdom of Naples. Then came the
+states of the Church, extending diagonally across the peninsula. To the
+north and west lay the group of city-states to which we now turn our
+attention.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Venice and its relations with the East.</div>
+
+<p>Of these none was more celebrated than Venice, which in the history of
+Europe ranks in importance with Paris and London. This singular town was
+built upon a group of sandy islets lying in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> the Adriatic Sea about two
+miles from the mainland. It was protected from the waves by a long,
+narrow sand bar, similar to those which fringe the Atlantic coast from
+New Jersey southward. Such a situation would not ordinarily have been
+deliberately chosen as the site of a great city; but its very desolation
+and inaccessibility had recommended it to its first settlers, who, in
+the middle of the fifth century, had fled from their homes on the
+mainland to escape the savage Huns.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> As time went on the location
+proved to have its advantages commercially, and even before the Crusades
+Venice had begun to engage in foreign trade. Its enterprises carried it
+eastward, and it early acquired possessions across the Adriatic and in
+the Orient.<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> The influence of this intercourse with the East is
+plainly shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> in the celebrated church of St. Mark, whose domes and
+decorations suggest Constantinople rather than Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image48.jpg" width="500" height="399" alt="A Scene in Venice" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A Scene in Venice</span>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image49.jpg" width="500" height="386" alt="St Mark&#39;s, Venice" title="" />
+<span class="caption">St Mark&#39;s, Venice</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Venice extends her sway on the Italian mainland.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The aristocratic government of Venice.</div>
+
+<p>It was not until early in the fifteenth century that Venice found it to
+her interest to extend her sway upon the Italian mainland. She doubtless
+believed it dangerous to permit her rival, Milan, to get possession of
+the Alpine passes through which her goods found their way north. It may
+be, too, that she preferred to draw her food supplies from the
+neighborhood instead of transporting them across the Adriatic from her
+eastern possessions. Moreover, all the Italian cities except Venice
+already controlled a larger or smaller area of country about them.
+Although Venice was called a republic, there was a strong tendency
+toward a government of the few. About the year 1300 all the townsmen
+except the members of certain noble families were excluded from the
+Grand Council, which was supposed to represent the people at large.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1311 the famous Council of Ten was created, whose members were
+elected by the Grand Council for one year. The whole government,
+domestic and foreign, was placed in the hands of this smaller council,
+in conjunction with the doge (i.e., duke), the nominal head of the
+republic; but they were both held strictly accountable to the Grand
+Council for all that they did. The government was thus concentrated in
+the hands of a very few. Its proceedings were carried on with great
+secrecy, so that public discussion, such as prevailed in Florence and
+led to innumerable revolutions there, was unheard of in Venice. The
+Venetian merchant was a busy person who was quite willing that the state
+should exercise its functions without his interference. In spite of the
+aristocratic measures of the council, there was little tendency to
+rebellion, so common in the other Italian towns. The republic of Venice
+maintained pretty much the same form of government from 1300 until its
+destruction by Napoleon in 1797.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Milan and the despotically governed towns of northern Italy.</div>
+
+<p><b>118.</b> Milan was the most conspicuous example of the large class of
+Italian cities which were governed by an absolute and despotic ruler,
+who secured control of a town either by force or guile, and then managed
+its affairs for his own personal advantage. At the opening of the
+fourteenth century a great part of the towns which had leagued
+themselves against Frederick Barbarossa<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> had become little
+despotisms. Their rulers were constantly fighting among themselves,
+conquering, or being conquered by, their neighbors. The practices of the
+Visconti, the family who seized the government of Milan, offer a fair
+example of the policy of the Italian tyrants.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the Visconti was first established by the archbishop of
+Milan. He imprisoned (1277) in three iron cages the leading members of
+the family who were in control of the city government at the moment, and
+had his nephew, Matteo Visconti, appointed by the emperor as the
+imperial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> representative. Before long Matteo was generally recognized as
+the ruler of Milan, and was followed by his son. For over a century and
+a half some one of the family always showed himself skillful enough to
+hold his precarious position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image50.jpg" width="500" height="776" alt="Tomb of Gian Galeazzo Visconti" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Tomb of Gian Galeazzo Visconti</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gian Galeazzo Visconti, 1385&ndash;1402.</div>
+
+<p>The most distinguished of the Visconti despots was Gian Galeazzo. He
+began his reign by capturing and poisoning his uncle, who was ruling
+over a portion of the already extensive territory of the Visconti.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a>
+It seemed for a time that he might conquer all of northern Italy; but
+his progress was checked by the republic of Florence and then cut short
+by premature death. Gian Galeazzo exhibited all the characteristic
+traits of the Italian despots. He showed himself a skillful and
+successful ruler, able to organize his government admirably. He gathered
+literary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> men about him; and the beautiful buildings which were begun by
+him indicate his enthusiasm for art. Yet he was utterly unprincipled,
+and resorted to the most hideous methods in order to gain possession of
+coveted towns which he could not conquer or buy outright.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Position and character of the Italian despots.</div>
+
+<p>There are many stories of the incredible ferocity exhibited by the
+Italian despots.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> It must be remembered that they were very rarely
+legitimate rulers, but usurpers, who could only hope to retain their
+power so long as they could keep their subjects in check and defend
+themselves against equally illegitimate usurpers in the neighboring
+cities. This situation developed a high degree of sagacity, and many of
+the despots found it to their interest to govern well and even to give
+dignity to their rule by patronizing artists and men of letters. But the
+despot usually made many bitter enemies and was almost necessarily
+suspicious of treason on the part of those about him. He was ever
+conscious that at any moment he might fall a victim to the dagger or the
+poison cup.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>condottieri</i>.</div>
+
+<p>The Italian towns carried on their wars among themselves largely by
+means of hired troops. When a military expedition was proposed, a
+bargain was made with one of the leaders (<i>condottieri</i>), who provided
+the necessary force. As the soldiers had no more interest in the
+conflict than did those whom they opposed, who were likewise hired for
+the occasion, the fight was not usually very bloody; for the object of
+each side was to capture the other without unnecessarily rough
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>It sometimes happened that the leader who had conquered a town for his
+employer appropriated the fruits of the victory for himself. This
+occurred in the case of Milan in 1450.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> The Visconti family having died
+out, the citizens hired a certain captain, named Francesco Sforza, to
+assist them in a war against Venice, whose possessions now extended
+almost to those of Milan. When Sforza had repelled the Venetians, the
+Milanese found it impossible to get rid of him, and he and his
+successors became rulers over the town.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Machiavelli's <i>Prince</i>.</div>
+
+<p>An excellent notion of the position and policy of the Italian despots
+may be derived from a little treatise called <i>The Prince</i>, written by
+the distinguished Florentine historian, Machiavelli. The writer appears
+to have intended his book as a practical manual for the despots of his
+time. It is a cold-blooded discussion of the ways in which a usurper may
+best retain his control over a town after he has once got possession of
+it. The author even takes up the questions as to how far princes should
+consider their promises when it is inconvenient to keep them, and how
+many of the inhabitants the despot may wisely kill. Machiavelli
+concludes that the Italian princes who have not observed their
+engagements over-scrupulously, and who have boldly put their political
+adversaries out of the way, have fared better than their more
+conscientious rivals.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Florence.</div>
+
+<p><b>119.</b> The history of Florence, perhaps the most important of the Italian
+cities, differs in many ways from that of Venice and of the despotisms
+of which Milan is an example. In Florence all classes claimed the right
+to interest themselves in the government. This led to constant changes
+in the constitution and to frequent struggles between the different
+political parties. When one party got the upper hand it generally
+expelled its chief opponents from the city. Exile was a terrible
+punishment to a Florentine, for Florence was not merely his native
+city,&mdash;it was his <i>country</i>, and loved and honored as such.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Medici.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lorenzo the Magnificent.</div>
+
+<p>By the middle of the fifteenth century Florence had come under the
+control of the great family of the Medici, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> members played the
+r&ocirc;le of very enlightened political bosses. By quietly watching the
+elections and secretly controlling the selection of city officials, they
+governed without letting it be suspected that the people had lost their
+power. The most distinguished member of the house of Medici was Lorenzo
+the Magnificent (d. 1492); under his rule Florence reached the height of
+its glory in art and literature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image51.jpg" width="500" height="715" alt="The Palace of the Medici in Florence" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Palace of the Medici in Florence</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of Florentine culture.</div>
+
+<p>As one wanders about Florence to-day, he is impressed with the
+contradictions of the Renaissance period. The streets are lined with the
+palaces of the noble families to whose rivalries much of the continual
+disturbance was due. The lower stories of these buildings are
+constructed of great stones, like fortresses, and their windows are
+barred like those of a prison; yet within they were often furnished with
+the greatest taste and luxury. For in spite of the disorder, against
+which the rich protected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> themselves by making their houses half
+strongholds, the beautiful churches, noble public buildings, and works
+of art which now fill the museums indicate that mankind has never,
+perhaps, reached a higher degree of perfection in the arts of peace than
+amidst the turmoil of this restless town.</p>
+
+<p>"Florence was essentially the city of intelligence in modern times.
+Other nations have surpassed the Italians in their genius.... But
+nowhere else except at Athens has the whole population of a city been so
+permeated with ideas, so highly intellectual by nature, so keen in
+perception, so witty and so subtle, as at Florence. The fine and
+delicate spirit of the Italians existed in quintessence among the
+Florentines. And of this superiority not only they, but the inhabitants
+also of Rome and Lombardy and Naples were conscious.... The primacy of
+the Florentines in literature, the fine arts, law, scholarship,
+philosophy, and science was acknowledged throughout Italy" (Symonds).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Renaissance, or <i>new birth</i>.</div>
+
+<p><b>120.</b> The thirteenth century had been, as we have seen, a period of great
+enthusiasm for learning. The new universities attracted students from
+all parts of Europe, and famous thinkers like Albertus Magnus, Thomas
+Aquinas, and Roger Bacon wrote great treatises on religion, science, and
+philosophy. The public delighted in the songs and romances composed and
+recited in the language of the people. The builders contrived a new and
+beautiful style of architecture, and, with the aid of the sculptors,
+produced buildings which have never since been surpassed and rarely
+equaled. Why, then, are the two succeeding centuries called the period
+of the <i>new birth</i>,&mdash;the Renaissance,&mdash;as if there was a sudden
+reawakening after a long sleep, as if Europe first began in the
+fourteenth century to turn to books and art?</p>
+
+<p>The word <i>renaissance</i> was originally used by writers who had very
+little appreciation of the achievements of the thirteenth century. They
+imagined that there could have been no high degree of culture during a
+period when the Latin and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> Greek classics, which seemed so all-important
+to them, were not carefully studied. But it is now coming to be
+generally recognized that the thirteenth century had worthy intellectual
+and artistic ambitions, although they were different both from those of
+Greece and Rome and from our own.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot, therefore, conceive the "new birth" of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries quite as it was viewed by writers of a century ago,
+who failed to do justice to the preceding period. Nevertheless, about
+the middle of the fourteenth century, a very great and fundamental
+change did begin in thought and taste, in books, buildings, and
+pictures, and this change we may very well continue to call the
+<i>Renaissance</i>. We can best judge of its nature by considering the work
+of the two greatest men of the fourteenth century, Dante and Petrarch.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dante, 1264&ndash;1321.</div>
+
+<p>Dante was first and foremost a poet, and is often ranked with Homer,
+Virgil, and Shakespeare. He is, however, interesting to the historian
+for other things than his flights of fancy and the music of his verse.
+He had mastered all the learning of his day; he was a scientist and a
+scholar as well as a poet. His writings show us how the world appeared
+about the year 1300 to a very acute mind, and what was the range of
+knowledge available to the most thoughtful men of that day.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dante's use of Italian.</div>
+
+<p>Dante was not a churchman, as were all the scholars whom we have
+hitherto considered. He was the first literary layman of renown since
+Boethius,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> and he was interested in helping other laymen who knew
+only their mother tongue to the knowledge heretofore open only to those
+who could read Latin. In spite of his ability to write Latin, he chose
+the mother tongue for his great poem, <i>The Divine Comedy</i>. Italian was
+the last of the important modern languages to develop, perhaps because
+in Italy Latin remained longest intelligible to the mass of the people.
+But Dante believed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> that the exclusive use of Latin for literary
+purposes had already in his time become an affectation. He was confident
+that there were many people, both men and women, who knew only Italian,
+who would gladly read not only his verses but his treatise on
+science,&mdash;<i>The Banquet</i>,<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> as he poetically calls it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extent of Dante's knowledge.</div>
+
+<p>Dante's writings indicate that medi&aelig;val scholars were by no means so
+ignorant of the universe as they are popularly supposed to have been.
+Although they believed, like the ancients, that the earth was the center
+around which the sun and stars revolved, they were familiar with some
+important astronomical phenomena. They knew that the earth was a sphere
+and guessed very nearly its real size. They knew that everything that
+had weight was attracted towards its center, and that there would be no
+danger of falling off should one get on the opposite side of the globe;
+they realized also that when it was day on one side of the earth it was
+night on the other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dante's veneration for the ancient writers.</div>
+
+<p>While Dante shows a keen interest in the theological studies so popular
+in his time and still speaks of Aristotle as "the Philosopher," he
+exhibits a profound admiration for the other great authors of Rome and
+Greece. When in a vision he visits the lower world, Virgil is his guide.
+He is permitted to behold the region inhabited by the spirits of
+virtuous pagans, and there he finds Horace and Ovid, and Homer, the
+sovereign poet. As he reclines upon the green turf he sees a goodly
+company of ancient worthies,&mdash;Socrates, Plato, and other Greek
+philosophers, C&aelig;sar, Cicero, Livy, Seneca, and many others. He is so
+overcome by the honor of sitting among such great men that he finds no
+words to report what passed between them. He feels no horror for their
+paganism, and while he believes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> that they are not admitted to the
+beatific joys of heaven, he assigns them a comfortable abode, where they
+hold dignified converse with "faces neither sad nor glad."<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Petrarch, 1304&ndash;1374.</div>
+
+<p><b>121.</b> The veneration for the ancient writers felt by Dante becomes a
+burning enthusiasm with Petrarch, who has been well called "the first
+modern man." He was the first scholar and man of letters to desert
+entirely the medi&aelig;val learning and lead his contemporaries back to a
+realization of the beauty and value of Greek and Roman literature. In
+the medi&aelig;val universities, logic, theology, and the interpretation of
+Aristotle were the chief subjects of study. While scholars in the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries possessed and read most of the Latin
+writers who have come down to us, they failed to appreciate their beauty
+and would never have dreamed of making them the basis of a liberal
+education.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image52.jpg" width="300" height="316" alt="Petrarch" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Petrarch</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Petrarch declares that when a boy he delighted in the sonorous language
+of Cicero even before he could understand its meaning. As the years went
+on he became convinced that he could have no higher aim in life than
+that of collecting copies of all the Latin classics upon which he could
+lay hands. He was not only an indefatigable scholar himself, but he
+possessed the power of stimulating, by his example, the intellectual
+ambition of those with whom he came in contact. He rendered the study of
+the Latin classics popular among cultivated persons; and by his own
+untiring efforts to discover the lost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> or forgotten works of the great
+writers of antiquity he roused a new enthusiasm for the formation of
+libraries.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Obstacles to the study of the classics.</div>
+
+<p>It is hard for us to imagine the obstacles which confronted Petrarch and
+the scholars of the early Renaissance. They possessed no good editions
+of the Roman and Greek authors, in which the correct wording had been
+determined by a careful comparison of all the known ancient copies. They
+considered themselves fortunate to secure a single manuscript of even
+the best known authors, and they could have no assurance that it was not
+full of mistakes. Indeed, the texts were so corrupted by the
+carelessness of the copyists that Petrarch declares that if Cicero or
+Livy should return and stumblingly read his own writings, he would
+promptly pronounce them the work of another, perhaps a barbarian.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Petrarch's European reputation and influence.</div>
+
+<p>Petrarch enjoyed an unrivaled influence throughout western Europe, akin
+to that of Erasmus and Voltaire in later times. He was in constant
+communication with scholars, not only in Italy, but in the countries
+beyond the Alps. From his numerous letters which have been preserved, a
+great deal may be learned of the intellectual life of the time.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Petrarch has no sympathy with the popular studies of his
+time.</div>
+
+<p>It is clear that he not only promoted the new study of the Roman
+writers, but that he also did much to discredit the learning which was
+popular in the universities. He refused to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> include the works of the
+great scholastic writers of the thirteenth century in his library. Like
+Roger Bacon he was disgusted by the reverence in which the bad
+translations of Aristotle were held. As for the popular study of logic,
+Petrarch declared that it was good enough for boys, but that nothing
+irritated him more than to find a person of mature years devoting
+himself to the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between Petrarch's and Dante's attitude toward their
+mother tongue.</div>
+
+<p>While Petrarch is far better known for his beautiful Italian verses than
+for his long Latin poems, histories, and essays, he did not share
+Dante's confidence in the dignity of their mother tongue. He even
+depreciates his Italian sonnets as mere popular trifles written in his
+youth. It was not unnatural that he and those in whom he aroused an
+enthusiasm for Latin literature should look scornfully upon Italian. It
+seemed to them a crude form of speech, good enough perhaps for the
+common people and for the transaction of the daily business of life, but
+immeasurably inferior to the language in which their predecessors, the
+Roman poets and prose writers, had written. The Italians, it must be
+remembered, felt the same pride in Latin literature that we feel in the
+works of Chaucer and Shakespeare. The Italian scholars of the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries merely turned back to their own earlier national
+literature for their models, and tried their best to imitate the
+language and style of its masters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The humanists.</div>
+
+<p><b>122.</b> Those who devoted themselves to the study and imitation first of
+Roman, and later of Greek literature, are commonly called <i>humanists</i>, a
+name derived from the Latin word <i>humanitas</i>; that is, culture,
+especially in the sense of literary appreciation. They no longer paid
+much attention to Peter Lombard's <i>Sentences</i>. They had, indeed, little
+taste for theology, but looked to Cicero for all those accomplishments
+which go to the making of a man of refinement.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reason for the enthusiastic study of the classics.</div>
+
+<p>The <i>humanities</i>, as Greek and Latin are still called, became almost a
+new religion among the Italian scholars during the century following
+Petrarch's death. In order to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> understand their exclusive attention to
+ancient literature we must remember that they did not have a great many
+of the books that we prize most highly nowadays. Now, every nation of
+Europe has an extensive literature in its own particular tongue, which
+all can read. Besides admirable translations of all the works of
+antiquity, there are innumerable masterpieces, like those of
+Shakespeare, Voltaire, and Goethe, which were unheard of four centuries
+ago. Consequently we can now acquaint ourselves with a great part of the
+best that has been written in all ages without knowing either Latin or
+Greek. The Middle Ages enjoyed no such advantage. So when men began to
+tire of theology, logic, and Aristotle's scientific treatises, they
+naturally turned back with single-hearted enthusiasm to the age of
+Augustus, and, later, to that of Pericles, for their models of literary
+style and for their ideals of life and conduct.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pagan tendencies of the Italian humanists.</div>
+
+<p>A sympathetic study of the pagan authors led many of the humanists to
+reject the medi&aelig;val view of the relation of this life to the next.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>
+They reverted to the teachings of Horace and ridiculed the
+self-sacrifice of the monk. They declared that it was right to make the
+most of life's pleasures and needless to worry about the world to come.
+In some cases the humanists openly attacked the teachings of the Church,
+but generally they remained outwardly loyal to it and many of them even
+found positions among the officers of the papal curia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The classics become the basis of a liberal education.</div>
+
+<p>Humanism produced a revolution in the idea of a liberal education. In
+the sixteenth century, through the influence of those who visited Italy,
+the schools of Germany, England, and France began to make Latin and
+Greek literature, rather than logic and other medi&aelig;val subjects, the
+basis of their college course. It is only within the last generation
+that Latin and Greek have begun to be replaced in our colleges by a
+variety of scientific and historical studies; and many would still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
+maintain, with the humanists of the fifteenth century, that Latin and
+Greek are better worth studying than any other subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ignorance of Greek in the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>The humanists of the fourteenth century ordinarily knew no Greek. Some
+knowledge of that language lingered in the West all through the Middle
+Ages, but we hear of no one attempting to read Plato, Demosthenes,
+&AElig;schylus, or even Homer, and these authors were scarcely ever found in
+the libraries. Petrarch and his followers were naturally much interested
+in the constant references to Greek literature which occur in Cicero and
+Horace, both of whom freely recognized their debt to Athens. Shortly
+after Petrarch's death the city of Florence called to its university a
+professor of Greek, Chrysoloras from Constantinople.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revival of Greek studies in Italy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Chrysoloras in Florence.</div>
+
+<p>A young Florentine law student, Leonardo Bruni, tells us of a dialogue
+which he had with himself when he heard of the coming of Chrysoloras.
+"Art thou not neglecting thy best interests if thou failest now to get
+an insight into Homer, Plato, Demosthenes, and the other great poets,
+philosophers, and orators of whom they are telling such wonderful
+things? Thou, too, mightest commune with them and imbue thyself with
+their wisdom. Wouldst thou let the golden opportunity slip? For seven
+hundred years no one in Italy has known Greek literature, and yet we
+agree that all language comes from the Greeks. How greatly would
+familiarity with that language advantage thee in promoting thy knowledge
+and in the mere increase of thy pleasure? There are teachers of Roman
+law to be found everywhere, and thou wilt never want an opportunity to
+continue that study, but there is but one teacher of Greek, and if he
+escapes thee there will be no one from whom thou canst learn."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The knowledge of Greek becomes common in Europe.</div>
+
+<p>Many students took advantage of the opportunity to study Greek, and
+Chrysoloras prepared the first modern Greek grammar for their use.
+Before long the Greek classics became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> as well known as the Latin.
+Italians even went to Constantinople to learn the language; and the
+diplomatic negotiations which the Eastern Church carried on with the
+Western, with the hope of gaining help against the Turks, brought some
+Greek scholars to Italy. In 1423 an Italian scholar arrived at Venice
+with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight Greek books, thus
+transplanting a whole literature to a new and fruitful soil.<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> Greek
+as well as Latin books were carefully copied and edited, and beautiful
+libraries were established by the Medici, the duke of Urbino, and Pope
+Nicholas V, who founded the great library of the Vatican,<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> still one
+of the most important collections of books in the world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Advantages of printing with movable types.</div>
+
+<p><b>123.</b> It was the glory of the Italian humanists to revive the knowledge
+and appreciation of the ancient literatures, but it remained for patient
+experimenters in Germany and Holland to perfect a system by which books
+could be multiplied rapidly and cheaply. The laborious copying of books
+by hand<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> had several serious disadvantages. The best copyists were,
+it is true, incredibly dexterous with their quills, and made their
+letters as clear and small as if they had been printed. But the work was
+necessarily very slow. When Cosimo, the father of Lorenzo the
+Magnificent, wished to form a library, he applied to a book contractor,
+who procured forty-five copyists. By working hard for nearly two years
+these men were able to produce only two hundred volumes.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it was impossible before the invention of printing to have two
+books exactly alike. Even with the greatest care a scribe could not hope
+to avoid all mistakes, and a careless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> copyist was sure to make a great
+many. The universities required their students to report immediately any
+mistakes discovered in their text-books, in order that the error might
+be promptly rectified and not lead to a misunderstanding of the author.
+With the invention of printing it became possible to produce in a short
+time a great many copies of a given book which were exactly alike.
+Consequently, if great care were taken to see that the types were
+properly set, the whole edition, not simply a single copy, might be
+relied upon as correct.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image53.jpg" width="500" height="271" alt="Closing Lines of the Psalter of 1459 (much reduced)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Closing Lines of the Psalter of 1459 (much reduced)<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The earliest printed books.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Black letter.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roman letters.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Italics.</div>
+
+<p>The earliest book of any considerable size to be printed was the Bible,
+which appears to have been completed at Mayence in the year 1456. A year
+later the famous Mayence Psalter was finished, the first dated book.
+There are, however, earlier examples of little books printed with
+engraved blocks and even with movable types. In the German towns, where
+the art spread rapidly, the printers adhered to the style of letters
+which the scribe had found it convenient to make with his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> quill&mdash;the
+so-called <i>Gothic</i>, or black letter.<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> In Italy, where the first
+printing press was set up in 1466, a type was soon adopted which
+resembled the letters used in ancient Roman inscriptions. This was quite
+similar to the style of letter commonly used to-day. The Italians also
+invented the compressed <i>italic</i> type, which enabled them to get a great
+many words on a page. The early printers generally did their work
+conscientiously, and the very first book printed is in most respects as
+well done as any later book.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of Italian art in the Renaissance period.</div>
+
+<p><b>124.</b> The stimulus of the antique ideals of beauty and the renewed
+interest in man and nature is nowhere more apparent than in the art of
+the Renaissance period in Italy. The bonds of tradition, which had
+hampered medi&aelig;val art,<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> were broken. The painters and sculptors
+continued, it is true, to depict the same religious subjects which their
+medi&aelig;val predecessors had chosen. But in the fourteenth century the
+Italian artists began to draw their inspiration from the fragments of
+antique art which they found about them and from the world full of life
+and beauty in which they lived. Above all, they gave freer rein to their
+own imagination. The tastes and ideals of the individual artist were no
+longer repressed but became the dominant element in his work. The
+history of art becomes, during the Renaissance, a history of artists.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Italian architecture.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Italy inherits the art of Greece and Rome.</div>
+
+<p>The Gothic style in architecture had never taken root in Italy. The
+Italians had continued to build their churches in a more or less
+modified Romanesque<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> form. While the soaring arches and delicate
+tracery of the Gothic cathedral had become the ideal of the North, in
+Italy the curving lines and harmonious proportions of the dome inspired
+the best efforts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> of the Renaissance builders. They borrowed many fine
+details, such as capitals and cornices, from the antique, and also&mdash;what
+was far more important&mdash;the simplicity and beauty of proportion which
+characterized classical architecture. Just as Italy had inherited, in a
+special sense, the traditions of classical literature, so it was natural
+that it should be more directly affected than the rest of Europe by the
+remains of Greek and Roman art. It is in harmony of proportion and
+beauty of detail that the great charm of the best Renaissance buildings
+consists.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Niccola of Pisa, 1206&ndash;1280.</div>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, in sculpture that the influence of the antique models
+was earliest and most obviously shown. The sculptor, Niccola of Pisa
+(Niccola Pisano), stands out as the first distinguished leader in the
+forward movement. It is evident that he studied certain fragments of
+antique sculpture&mdash;a sarcophagus and a marble vase that had been found
+in Pisa&mdash;with the greatest care and enthusiasm. He frankly copied from
+them many details, and even several whole figures, in the reliefs on his
+most famous work, the pulpit in the baptistery at Pisa.<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> But while
+sculpture was the first of the arts to feel the new impetus, its
+progress was slow; it was not until the fifteenth century that it began,
+in Italy, to develop on wholly independent and original lines.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frescoes and easel pictures.</div>
+
+<p>The paintings of the period of the early Renaissance were usually
+frescoes; that is, they were painted directly upon the plaster walls of
+churches and sometimes of palaces. A few pictures, chiefly altar pieces,
+were executed on wooden panels, but it was not until the sixteenth
+century that easel paintings, that is, detached pictures on canvas,
+wood, or other material, became common.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image54.jpg" width="500" height="384" alt="Relief by Niccola of Pisa from Pulpit at Pisa, showing
+Influence of Antique Models" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Relief by Niccola of Pisa from Pulpit at Pisa, showing
+Influence of Antique Models</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Giotto, 1266(?)-1337.</div>
+
+<p>In the fourteenth century there was an extraordinary development in the
+art of painting under the guidance and inspiration of the first great
+Italian painter, Giotto. Before his time the frescoes, like the
+illuminations in the manuscripts of which we have spoken in a previous
+chapter, were exceedingly stiff and unlifelike. With Giotto there comes
+a change. Antique art did not furnish him with any models to copy, for
+whatever the ancients had accomplished in painting had been
+destroyed.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> He had therefore to deal with the problems of his art
+unaided, and of course he could only begin their solution. His trees and
+landscapes look like caricatures, his faces are all much alike, the
+garments hang in stiff straight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> folds. But he aimed to do what the
+earlier painters apparently did not dream of doing&mdash;that is, paint
+living, thinking, feeling men and women. He was not even satisfied to
+confine himself to the old biblical subjects. Among his most famous
+frescoes are the scenes from the life of St. Francis,<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> a theme which
+appealed very strongly to the imagination of people and artists alike
+all through the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Renaissance artists often practiced several arts.</div>
+
+<p>Giotto's dominating influence upon the art of his century is due partly
+to the fact that he was a builder as well as a painter, and also
+designed reliefs for sculpture. This practicing of several different
+arts by the same artist was one of the striking features of the
+Renaissance period.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Italian art in the fifteenth century.</div>
+
+<p><b>125.</b> During the fifteenth century, which is known as the period of the
+Early Renaissance, art in Italy developed and progressed steadily,
+surely, and with comparative rapidity, toward the glorious heights of
+achievement which it reached in the following century. The traditions of
+the Middle Ages were wholly thrown aside, the lessons of ancient art
+thoroughly learned. As the artists became more complete masters of their
+tools and of all the technical processes of their art, they found
+themselves ever freer to express in their work what they saw and felt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Florence the art center of Italy.</div>
+
+<p>Florence was the great center of artistic activity during the fifteenth
+century. The greatest sculptors and almost all of the most famous
+painters and architects of the time either were natives of Florence or
+did their best work there. During the first half of the century
+sculpture again took the lead. The bronze doors of the baptistery at
+Florence by Ghiberti, which were completed about 1450, are among the
+very best products of Renaissance sculpture. Michael Angelo declared
+them worthy to be the doors of paradise. A comparison of them with the
+doors of the cathedral of Pisa, which date from the end of the twelfth
+century, furnishes a striking illustration of the change that had taken
+place. A contemporary of Ghiberti, Luca della Robbia (1400&ndash;1482), is
+celebrated for his beautiful reliefs in glazed baked clay and in marble,
+of which many may be seen in Florence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image55.jpg" width="500" height="754" alt="BRONZE DOORS OF THE CATHEDRAL AT PISA" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="BRONZE_DOORS" id="BRONZE_DOORS"></a>BRONZE DOORS OF THE CATHEDRAL AT PISA
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">(Twelfth Century)</span></span>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image56.jpg" width="500" height="754" alt="GHIBERTI&#39;S DOORS AT FLORENCE" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="GHIBERTI39S_DOORS_AT_FLORENCE" id="GHIBERTI39S_DOORS_AT_FLORENCE"></a>GHIBERTI&#39;S DOORS AT FLORENCE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image57.jpg" width="500" height="540" alt="Relief by Luca della Robbia" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Relief by Luca della Robbia</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the best known painters of the first half of the fifteenth
+century, Fra<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Angelico, was a monk. His frescoes on the walls of the
+monastery of San Marco (and elsewhere) reflect a love of beauty and a
+cheerful piety, in striking contrast to the fiery zeal of
+Savonarola,<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> who, later in the century,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> went forth from this same
+monastery to denounce the vanities of the art-loving Florentines.<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rome becomes the center of artistic activity.</div>
+
+<p><b>126.</b> Florence reached the height of its pre&euml;minence as an art center
+during the reign of Lorenzo the Magnificent, who was an ardent patron of
+all the arts. With his death (1492), and the subsequent brief but
+overwhelming influence of Savonarola, this pre&euml;minence passed to Rome,
+which was fast becoming one of the great capitals of Europe. The
+art-loving popes, Julius II and Leo X,<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> took pains to secure the
+services of the most distinguished artists and architects of the time in
+the building and adornment of St. Peter's and the Vatican, i.e., the
+papal church and palace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The church of St. Peter.</div>
+
+<p>The idea of the dome as the central feature of a church, which appealed
+so strongly to the architects of the Renaissance, reached its highest
+realization in rebuilding the ancient church of St. Peter. The task was
+begun in the fifteenth century; in 1506 it was taken up by Pope Julius
+II with his usual energy, and it was continued all through the sixteenth
+century and well into the seventeenth, under the direction of a
+succession of the most famous artist-architects of the time, including
+Raphael and Michael Angelo. The plan was changed repeatedly, but in its
+final form the building is a Latin cross surmounted by a great dome, one
+hundred and thirty-eight feet in diameter. The dimensions and
+proportions of this greatest of all churches never fail to impress the
+beholder with something like awe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Height of Renaissance art.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael.</div>
+
+<p>During the sixteenth century the art of the Renaissance reached its
+highest development. Among all the great artists of this period three
+stand out in heroic proportions&mdash;Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and
+Raphael. The first two not only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> practiced, but achieved almost equal
+distinction in, the three arts of architecture, sculpture, and
+painting.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> It is impossible to give in a few lines any idea of the
+beauty and significance of the work of these great geniuses. Both
+Raphael and Michael Angelo left behind them so many and such magnificent
+frescoes and paintings, and in the case of Michael Angelo statues as
+well, that it is easy to appreciate their importance. Leonardo, on the
+other hand, left but little completed work. His influence on the art of
+his time, which was probably greater than that of either of the others,
+came from his many-sidedness, his originality, and his unflagging
+interest in the discovery and application of new methods. He was almost
+more experimenter than artist.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image58.jpg" width="500" height="348" alt="St. Peter&#39;s and the Vatican, Rome" title="" />
+<span class="caption">St. Peter&#39;s and the Vatican, Rome</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Venetian school.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Titian, 1477&ndash;1576.</div>
+
+<p>While Florence could no longer boast of being the art center of Italy,
+it still produced great artists, among whom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> Andrea del Sarto may be
+especially mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> But the most important center of artistic
+activity outside of Rome in the sixteenth century was Venice. The
+distinguishing characteristic of the Venetian pictures is their glowing
+color. This is strikingly exemplified in the paintings of Titian, the
+most famous of all the Venetian painters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Painting in northern Europe.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">D&uuml;rer, 1471&ndash;1528.</div>
+
+<p>It was natural that artists from the northern countries should be
+attracted by the renown of the Italian masters and, after learning all
+that Italy could teach them, should return home to practice their art in
+their own particular fashion. About a century after Giotto's time two
+Flemish brothers, Van Eyck by name, showed that they were not only able
+to paint quite as excellent pictures as the Italians of their day, but
+they also discovered a new way of mixing their colors superior to that
+employed in Italy. Later, when painting had reached its height in Italy,
+Albrecht D&uuml;rer and Hans Holbein the Younger<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> in Germany vied with
+even Raphael and Michael Angelo in the mastery of their art. D&uuml;rer is
+especially celebrated for his wonderful woodcuts and copperplate
+engravings, in which field he has perhaps never been excelled.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rubens, 1577&ndash;1640, and Rembrandt, 1607&ndash;1669.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Van Dyck, 1599&ndash;1641, and his portraits.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Velasquez.</div>
+
+<p>When, in the seventeenth century, painting had declined south of the
+Alps, Dutch and Flemish masters,&mdash;above all, Rubens and
+Rembrandt,&mdash;developed a new and admirable school of painting. To Van
+Dyck, another Flemish master, we owe many noble portraits of
+historically important persons.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> Spain gave to the world in the
+seventeenth century a painter whom some would rank higher than even the
+greatest artists of Italy, namely, Velasquez (1599&ndash;1660). His genius,
+like that of Van Dyck, is especially conspicuous in his marvellous
+portraits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image59.jpg" width="500" height="814" alt="GIOTTO&#39;S MADONNA" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="GIOTTO39S_MADONNA" id="GIOTTO39S_MADONNA"></a>GIOTTO&#39;S MADONNA</span>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image60.jpg" width="500" height="656" alt="HOLY FAMILY BY ANDREA DEL SARTO" title="" />
+<span class="caption2"><a name="HOLY_FAMILY_BY_ANDREA_DEL_SARTO" id="HOLY_FAMILY_BY_ANDREA_DEL_SARTO"></a>HOLY FAMILY BY ANDREA DEL SARTO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Geographical knowledge in the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Marco Polo.</div>
+
+<p><b>127.</b> Shortly after the invention of printing, which promised so much for
+the diffusion of knowledge, the horizon of western Europe was further
+enlarged by a series of remarkable sea voyages which led to the
+exploration of the whole globe. The Greeks and Romans knew little about
+the world beyond southern Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia; and
+much that they knew was forgotten during the Middle Ages. The Crusades
+took many Europeans as far east as Egypt and Syria. As early as Dante's
+time two Venetian merchants, the Polo brothers, visited China and were
+kindly received at Pekin by the emperor of the Mongols. On a second
+journey they were accompanied by Marco Polo, the son of one of the
+brothers. When they got safely back to Venice in 1295, after a journey
+of twenty years, Marco gave an account of his experiences which filled
+his readers with wonder. Nothing stimulated the interest of the West
+more than his fabulous description of the golden island of Zipangu
+(Japan) and of the spice markets of the Moluccas and Ceylon.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The discoveries of the Portuguese in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries.</div>
+
+<p>About the year 1318 Venice and Genoa opened up direct communication by
+sea with the towns of the Netherlands.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> Their fleets, which touched
+at the port of Lisbon, aroused the commercial enterprise of the
+Portuguese, who soon began to undertake extended maritime expeditions.
+By the middle of the fourteenth century they had discovered the Canary
+Islands, Madeira, and the Azores. Before this time no one had ventured
+along the coast of Africa beyond the arid region of Sahara. The country
+was forbidding, there were no ports, and mariners were, moreover,
+hindered in their progress by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> general belief that the torrid region
+was uninhabitable. In 1445, however, some adventurous sailors came
+within sight of a headland beyond the desert and, struck by its
+luxuriant growth of tropical trees, they called it Cape Verde (the green
+cape). Its discovery put an end once for all to the idea that there were
+only parched deserts to the south.</p>
+
+<p>For a generation longer the Portuguese continued to venture farther and
+farther along the coast, in the hope of finding it coming to an end, so
+that they might make their way by sea to India. At last, in 1486, Diaz
+rounded the Cape of Good Hope. Twelve years later (1498) Vasco da Gama,
+spurred on by Columbus' great discovery, after sailing around the Cape
+of Good Hope and northward beyond Zanzibar, steered straight across the
+Indian Ocean and reached Calicut, in Hindustan, by sea.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The spice trade.</div>
+
+<p>These adventurers were looked upon with natural suspicion by the
+Mohammedan spice merchants, who knew very well that their object was to
+establish a direct trade between the spice islands and western Europe.
+Hitherto the Mohammedans had had the monopoly of the spice trade between
+the Moluccas and the eastern ports of the Mediterranean, where the
+products were handed over to Italian merchants. The Mohammedans were
+unable, however, to prevent the Portuguese from concluding treaties with
+the Indian princes and establishing trading stations at Goa and
+elsewhere. In 1512 a successor of Vasco da Gama reached Java and the
+Moluccas, where the Portuguese speedily built a fortress. By 1515
+Portugal had become the greatest among maritime powers; and spices
+reached Lisbon regularly without the intervention of the Italian towns,
+which were mortally afflicted by the change.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of spices in encouraging navigation.</div>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the desire to obtain spices was the main reason
+for the exploration of the globe. This motive led European navigators to
+try in succession every possible way to reach the East&mdash;by going around
+Africa, by sailing west in the hope of reaching the Indies, before they
+knew of the existence of America; then, after America was discovered, by
+sailing around it to the north or south, and even sailing around Europe
+to the north. It is hard for us to understand this enthusiasm for
+spices, for which we care much less nowadays. One former use of spices
+was to preserve food, which could not then as now be carried rapidly,
+while still fresh, from place to place; nor did our conveniences then
+exist for keeping it by the use of ice. Moreover, spice served to make
+even spoiled food more palatable than it would otherwise have been.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/image61.jpg" width="700" height="423" alt="The Voyages of Discovery" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Voyages of Discovery</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Idea of reaching the spice islands by sailing westward.</div>
+
+<p>It inevitably occurred to thoughtful men that the East Indies could be
+reached by sailing westward. The chief authority upon the form and size
+of the earth was still the ancient astronomer, Ptolemy, who lived about
+<span class="ampm">A.D.</span> 150. He had reckoned the earth to be about one sixth smaller than
+it is; and as Marco Polo had given an exaggerated idea of the distance
+which he and his companions had traveled eastward, it was supposed that
+it could not be a very long journey from Europe across the Atlantic to
+Japan.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Columbus discovers America, 1492.</div>
+
+<p>The first plan for sailing west was, perhaps, submitted to the
+Portuguese king in 1474, by Toscanelli, a Florentine physician. In 1492,
+as we all know, a Genoese navigator, Columbus (b. 1451), who had had
+much experience on the sea, got together three little ships and
+undertook the journey westward to Zipangu, which he hoped to reach in
+five weeks. After thirty-two days from the time he left the Canary
+Islands he came upon land, the island of San Salvador, and believed
+himself to be in the East Indies. Going on from there he discovered the
+island of Cuba, which he believed to be the mainland of Asia, and then
+Haiti, which he mistook for the longed-for Zipangu. Although he made
+three later expeditions and sailed down the coast of South America as
+far as the Orinoco, he died without realizing that he had not been
+exploring the coast of Asia.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Magellan's expedition around the world.</div>
+
+<p>After the bold enterprises of Vasco da Gama and Columbus, an expedition
+headed by Magellan succeeded in circumnavigating the globe. There was
+now no reason why the new lands should not become more and more familiar
+to the European nations. The coast of North America was explored
+principally by English navigators, who for over a century pressed north,
+still in the vain hope of finding a northwest passage to the spice
+islands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Spanish conquests in America.</div>
+
+<p>Cortez began the Spanish conquests in the western world by undertaking
+the subjugation of the Aztec empire in Mexico in 1519. A few years later
+Pizarro established the Spanish power in Peru. It is hardly necessary to
+say that Europeans exhibited an utter disregard for the rights of the
+people with whom they came in contact, and treated them with
+contemptuous cruelty. Spain now superseded Portugal as a maritime power
+and her importance in the sixteenth century is to be attributed largely
+to the wealth which came to her from her possessions in the New World.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Spanish main.</div>
+
+<p>By the end of the century the Spanish main&mdash;i.e., the northern coast of
+South America&mdash;was much frequented by adventurous seamen, who combined
+in about equal parts the occupations of merchant, slaver, and pirate.
+Many of these hailed from English ports, and it is to them that England
+owes the beginning of her commercial greatness.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Copernicus (1473&ndash;1543) discovers that the earth is not the
+center of the universe.</div>
+
+<p><b>128.</b> While Columbus and the Portuguese navigators were bringing hitherto
+unknown regions of the earth to the knowledge of Europe, a Polish
+astronomer, Kopernik (commonly known by his Latinized name, Copernicus),
+was reaching the conclusion that the ancient writers had been misled in
+supposing that the earth was the center of the universe. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> discovered
+that, with the other planets, the earth revolved about the sun. This
+opened the way to an entirely new conception of the heavenly bodies and
+their motions, which has formed the basis of modern astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>It was naturally a great shock to men to have it suggested that their
+dwelling place, instead of being God's greatest work to which He had
+subordinated everything, was but a tiny speck in comparison to the whole
+universe, and its sun but one of an innumerable host of similar bodies,
+each of which might have its particular family of planets revolving
+about it. Theologians, both Protestant and Catholic, declared the
+statements of Copernicus foolish and wicked and contrary to the
+teachings of the Bible. He was prudent enough to defer the publication
+of his great work until just before his death; he thus escaped any
+persecution to which his discovery might have subjected him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Miscellaneous inventions.</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the various forms of progress of which we have spoken,
+the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries witnessed the invention or wide
+application of a considerable number of practical devices which were
+unknown to the Greeks and Romans. Examples of these are, besides
+printing, the compass, gunpowder, spectacles, and a method of not merely
+softening but of thoroughly melting iron so that it could be cast.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries not merely a period of
+revival.</div>
+
+<p>The period of which we have been speaking was, in short, by no means
+merely distinguished for the revival of classical learning. It was not
+simply a re-birth of the ancient knowledge and art, but a time during
+which Europe laid the foundations for a development essentially
+different from that of the ancient world and for achievements undreamed
+of by Aristotle or Pliny.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The culture of Italy during the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries is best treated by <span class="smcap">Burckhardt</span>, <i>The
+Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$4.00). This is especially adapted for the rather advanced student.
+The towns are interestingly described in <span class="smcap">Symonds</span>, <i>Age of Despots</i>
+(Scribner's Sons, $2.00). For Florence and the Medici, see
+<span class="smcap">Armstrong</span>, <i>Lorenzo de'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> Medici and Florence in the Fifteenth
+Century</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.50). <span class="smcap">Machiavelli's</span> <i>Prince</i> may be
+had in translation (Clarendon Press, $1.10). The best prose
+translation of <span class="smcap">Dante's</span> <i>Divine Comedy</i> is that of Charles Eliot
+Norton (Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., 3 vols., $4.50). In <span class="smcap">Robinson</span> and
+<span class="smcap">Rolfe</span>, <i>Petrarch the First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters</i> (G.P.
+Putnam's Sons, $2.00), the reader will find much material to
+illustrate the beginnings of humanism. The volume consists mainly
+of Petrarch's own letters to his friends. The introduction gives a
+much fuller account of his work than it was possible to include in
+the present volume. For similar material from other writers of the
+time, see <span class="smcap">Whitcomb</span>, <i>A Literary Source Book of the Italian
+Renaissance</i> (Philadelphia, $1.00). The autobiography of Benvenuto
+Cellini is a very amusing and instructive book by one of the
+well-known artists of the sixteenth century. Roscoe's translation
+in the Bohn series (The Macmillan Company, $1.00) is to be
+recommended for school libraries.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest of the sources for the lives of the artists is <span class="smcap">Vasari</span>,
+<i>Lives of Seventy of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and
+Architects</i>. This may be had in the Temple Classics (The Macmillan
+Company, 8 vols., 50 cents each) or a selection of the more
+important lives admirably edited in Blashfield and Hopkins'
+carefully annotated edition (Scribner's Sons, 4 vols., $8.00).
+Vasari was a contemporary of Michael Angelo and Cellini, and writes
+in a simple and charming style. The outlines of the history of the
+various branches of art, with ample bibliographies, are given in
+the "College Histories of Art," edited by John C. Van Dyke; viz.,
+<span class="smcap">Van Dyke</span>, <i>The History of Painting</i>, <span class="smcap">Hamlin</span>, <i>The History of
+Architecture</i>, and <span class="smcap">Marquand</span> and <span class="smcap">Frothingham</span>, <i>The History of
+Sculpture</i> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., each $2.00). Larger works with
+more illustrations, which might be found in any good town library
+are: <span class="smcap">Fergusson</span>, <i>History of Modern Architecture</i>, <span class="smcap">L&uuml;bke</span>, <i>History
+of Sculpture</i>, <span class="smcap">Woltmann</span> and <span class="smcap">Woermann</span>, <i>History of Painting</i>, and
+<span class="smcap">Fletcher</span>, <i>A History of Architecture</i>. Two companies publish very
+inexpensive reproductions of works of art: the so-called Perry
+pictures at a cent apiece, and the still better Cosmos pictures
+(Cosmos Picture Company, New York), costing somewhat more.</p>
+
+<p>For the invention of printing see <span class="smcap">De Vinne</span>, <i>The Invention of
+Printing</i>, unfortunately out of print, and <span class="smcap">Blades</span>, <i>Pentateuch of
+Printing</i> (London, $4.75). Also <span class="smcap">Putnam</span>, <i>Books and their Makers
+during the Middle Ages</i>, Vol. I (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $2.50).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE AT THE OPENING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>129.</b> Two events took place in the early sixteenth century which
+fundamentally influenced the history of Europe. (1) By a series of royal
+marriages a great part of western Europe was brought under the control
+of a single ruler, Emperor Charles V. He inherited Burgundy, Spain,
+portions of Italy, and the Austrian territories; and, in 1519, he was
+chosen emperor. There had been no such dominion as his in Europe since
+the time of Charlemagne. Within its bounds lay Vienna, Brussels, Madrid,
+Palermo, Naples, Milan, even the city of Mexico. Its creation and the
+struggles which accompanied its dissolution form one of the most
+important chapters in the history of modern Europe. (2) Just at the time
+that Charles was assuming the responsibilities that his vast domains
+brought with them, the first successful revolt against the medi&aelig;val
+Church was beginning. This was to result in the disruption of the Church
+and the establishment of two great religious parties, the Catholic and
+the Protestant, which have endured down to the present time. The purpose
+of the present chapter is to describe the origin, extent, and character
+of the empire of Charles V, and to prepare the reader to grasp the
+<i>political</i> import of the Protestant revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Before mentioning the family alliances which led to the consolidation of
+such tremendous political power in the hands of one person, it will be
+necessary, first, to note the rise of the house of Hapsburg to which
+Charles belonged, and secondly, to account for the appearance in
+European affairs of Spain, which has hitherto scarcely come into our
+story.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Reasons why the German kings failed to establish a strong
+state.</div>
+
+<p>The German kings had failed to create a strong kingdom such as those
+over which Louis XI of France and Henry VII of England ruled. Their fine
+title of "emperor" had made them a great deal of trouble, as we have
+seen.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> Their attempts to keep Italy as well as Germany under their
+rule, and the alliance of the mighty Bishop of Rome with their enemies
+had well-nigh ruined them. Their position was further weakened by their
+failure to render their office strictly hereditary. Although the
+emperors were often succeeded by their sons, each new emperor had to be
+<i>elected</i>, and those great vassals who controlled the election naturally
+took care to bind the candidate by solemn promises not to interfere with
+their privileges and independence. The result was that, after the
+downfall of the Hohenstaufens, Germany fell apart into a great number of
+practically independent states, of which none were very large and some
+were extremely small.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rudolf of Hapsburg gets possession of Austria.</div>
+
+<p>After an interregnum, Rudolf of Hapsburg had been chosen emperor in
+1273.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> The original seat of the Hapsburgs, who were destined to play
+a great part in European affairs, was in northern Switzerland, where the
+vestiges of their original castle may still be seen. Rudolf was the
+first prominent member of the family; he established its position and
+influence by seizing the duchies of Austria and Styria, which were to
+become, under his successors, the nucleus of the extensive Austrian
+possessions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The imperial title becomes practically hereditary in the
+house of Austria.</div>
+
+<p>About a century and a half after the death of Rudolf the electors began
+regularly to choose as emperor the ruler of the Austrian possessions, so
+that the imperial title became, to all intents and purposes, hereditary
+in the Hapsburg line.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> The Hapsburgs were, however, far more
+interested in adding to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> their family domains than in advancing the
+interests of the now almost defunct Holy Roman Empire. This, in the
+memorable words of Voltaire, had ceased to be either holy, or Roman, or
+an empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Maximilian I, 1493&ndash;1519, extends the power of the Hapsburgs
+over the Netherlands and Spain.</div>
+
+<p>Maximilian I, who was emperor at the opening of the sixteenth century,
+was absorbed in his foreign enterprises rather than in the improvement
+of the German government. Like so many of his predecessors, he was
+especially anxious to get possession of northern Italy. By his marriage
+with the daughter of Charles the Bold he brought the Netherlands into
+what proved a fateful union with Austria.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Still more important was
+the extension of the power of the Hapsburgs over Spain, a country which
+had hitherto had almost no connection with Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arab civilization in Spain.</div>
+
+<p><b>130.</b> The Mohammedan conquest served to make the history of Spain very
+different from that of the other states of Europe. One of its first and
+most important results was the conversion of a great part of the
+inhabitants to Mohammedanism.<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> During the tenth century, which was
+so dark a period in the rest of Europe, the Arab civilization in Spain
+reached its highest development. The various elements in the population,
+Roman, Gothic, Arab, and Berber, appear to have been thoroughly
+amalgamated. Agriculture, industry, commerce, art, and the sciences made
+rapid progress. Cordova, with its half million of inhabitants, its
+stately palaces, its university, its three thousand mosques and three
+hundred public baths, was perhaps unrivaled at that period in the whole
+world. There were thousands of students at the university of Cordova at
+a time when, in the North, only clergymen had mastered even the simple
+arts of reading and writing. This brilliant civilization lasted,
+however, for hardly more than a hundred years. By the middle of the
+eleventh century the caliphate of Cordova had fallen to pieces, and
+shortly afterwards the country was overrun by new invaders from Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The rise of new Christian kingdoms in Spain.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the vestiges of the earlier Christian rule continued to exist
+in the mountain fastnesses of northern Spain. Even as early as the year
+1000,<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> several small Christian kingdoms&mdash;Castile, Aragon, and
+Navarre&mdash;had come into existence. Castile, in particular, began to push
+back the demoralized Arabs and, in 1085, reconquered Toledo from them.
+Aragon also widened its bounds by incorporating Barcelona and conquering
+the territory watered by the Ebro. By 1250, the long war of the
+Christians against the Mohammedans, which fills the medi&aelig;val annals of
+Spain, had been so successfully prosecuted that Castile extended to the
+south coast and included the great towns of Cordova and Seville. The
+kingdom of Portugal was already as large as it is to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Granada and Castile.</div>
+
+<p>The Moors, as the Spanish Mohammedans were called, maintained themselves
+for two centuries more in the mountainous kingdom of Granada, in the
+southern part of the peninsula. During this period, Castile, which was
+the largest of the Spanish kingdoms and embraced all the central part of
+the peninsula, was too much occupied by internal feuds and struggles
+over the crown to wage successful war against the Moorish kingdom to the
+south.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Granada, the last Moorish stronghold, falls.</div>
+
+<p>The first Spanish monarch whose name need be mentioned here was Queen
+Isabella of Castile, who, in 1469, concluded an all-important marriage
+with Ferdinand, the heir of the crown of Aragon. It is with the
+resulting union of Castile and Aragon that the great importance of Spain
+in European history begins. For the next hundred years Spain was to
+enjoy more military power than any other European state. Ferdinand and
+Isabella undertook to complete the conquest of the peninsula, and in
+1492, after a long siege, the city of Granada fell into their hands, and
+therewith the last vestige of Moorish domination disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map358.jpg">
+<img src="images/map358th.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="EUROPE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">EUROPE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Spain's income from the New World enables her to become a
+European power.</div>
+
+<p>In the same year that the conquest of the peninsula was completed, the
+discoveries of Columbus, made under the auspices of Queen Isabella,
+opened up the sources of undreamed-of wealth beyond the seas. The
+transient greatness of Spain in the sixteenth century is largely to be
+attributed to the riches which poured in from her American possessions.
+The shameless and cruel looting of the Mexican and Peruvian cities by
+Cortez and Pizarro, and the products of the silver mines of the New
+World, enabled Spain to assume, for a time, a position in Europe which
+her internal strength and normal resources would never have permitted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution of the Jews and Moors.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The revival of the Inquisition.</div>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, the most industrious, skillful, and thrifty among the
+inhabitants of Spain, i.e., the Moors and the Jews, who well-nigh
+supported the whole kingdom with the products of their toil, were
+bitterly persecuted by the Christians. So anxious was Isabella to rid
+her kingdom of the infidels that she revived the court of the
+Inquisition.<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> For several decades its tribunals arrested and
+condemned innumerable persons who were suspected of heresy, and
+thousands were burned at the stake during this period. These wholesale
+executions have served to associate Spain especially with the horrors of
+the Inquisition. Finally, in 1609, the Moors were driven out of the
+country altogether. The persecution diminished or disheartened the most
+useful and enterprising portion of the Spanish people, and speedily and
+permanently crippled a country which in the sixteenth century was
+granted an unrivaled opportunity to become a flourishing and powerful
+monarchy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Heritage of Charles V.</div>
+
+<p>Maximilian, the German emperor, was not satisfied with securing Burgundy
+for his house by his marriage with the daughter of Charles the Bold. He
+also arranged a marriage between their son, Philip, and Joanna, the
+daughter of Ferdinand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> and Isabella. Philip died in 1506, and his poor
+wife, Joanna, became insane with grief and was thus incapacitated for
+ruling. So their eldest son, Charles, could look forward to an
+unprecedented accumulation of glorious titles as soon as his
+grand-fathers, Maximilian and Ferdinand, should pass away.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> He was
+soon to be duke of Brabant, margrave of Antwerp, count of Holland,
+archduke of Austria, count of Tyrol, king of Castile, Aragon, and
+Naples, and of the vast Spanish possessions in America,&mdash;to mention a
+few of his more important titles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles and his Spanish possessions.</div>
+
+<p>Ferdinand died in 1516, and Charles, now a lad of sixteen, who had been
+born and reared in the Netherlands, was much bewildered when he landed
+in his Spanish dominions. His Flemish advisers were distasteful to the
+haughty Spaniards; suspicion and opposition awaited him in each of his
+several Spanish kingdoms, for he found by no means a united Spain. Each
+kingdom demanded special recognition of its rights and suggested
+important reforms before it would acknowledge Charles as its king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles elected emperor, 1519.</div>
+
+<p>It seemed as if the boy would have his hands full in asserting his
+authority as "king of Spain"; nevertheless, a still more imposing title
+and still more perplexing responsibilities were to fall upon his
+shoulders before he was twenty years old. It had long been Maximilian's
+ambition that his grandson should succeed him upon the imperial throne.
+After his death in 1519 the electors finally chose Charles instead of
+the rival<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> candidate, Francis I of France. By this election the king of
+Spain, who had not yet been in Germany and who never learned its
+language, became its ruler at a critical juncture, when the teachings of
+Luther were producing unprecedented dissension and political
+distraction. We shall hereafter refer to him by his imperial title of
+Charles V.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image62.jpg" width="300" height="377" alt="Charles V" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Charles V</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>131.</b> In order to understand the Europe of Charles V and the constant
+wars which occupied him all his life, we must turn back and review the
+questions which had been engaging the attention of his fellow-kings
+before he came to the throne. It is particularly necessary to see
+clearly how Italy had suddenly become the center of commotion,&mdash;the
+battlefield for Spain, France, and Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles VIII of France invades Italy.</div>
+
+<p>Charles VIII of France (1483&ndash;1498) possessed little of the practical
+sagacity of his father, Louis XI. He dreamed of a mighty expedition
+against the Turks and of the conquest of Constantinople. As the first
+step he determined to lead an army into Italy and assert his claim,
+inherited from his father, to the kingdom of Naples, which was in the
+hands of the house of Aragon.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> While Italy had everything to lose by
+permitting a powerful monarch to get a foothold in the South, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> was
+no probability that the various little states into which the peninsula
+was divided would lay aside their perpetual animosities and combine
+against the invader. On the contrary, Charles VIII was urged by some of
+the Italians themselves to come.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Savonarola and Charles VIII.</div>
+
+<p>Had Lorenzo the Magnificent still been alive, he might have organized a
+league to oppose the French king, but he had died in 1492, two years
+before Charles started. Lorenzo's sons failed to maintain the influence
+over the people of Florence which their father had enjoyed; and the
+leadership of the city fell into the hands of the Dominican friar,
+Savonarola, whose fervid preaching attracted and held for a time the
+attention of the fickle Florentine populace. He believed himself to be a
+prophet, and proclaimed that God was about to scourge Italy for its
+iniquities, and that men should flee before His wrath by renouncing
+their lives of sin and pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>When Savonarola heard of the French invasion, it appeared to him that
+this was indeed the looked-for scourge of God, which might afflict, but
+would also purify, the Church. His prophecies seemed to be fulfilled,
+and his listeners were stricken with terror. As Charles approached
+Florence, the people rose in revolt against the Medici, sacked their
+palaces, and drove out the three sons of Lorenzo. Savonarola became the
+chief figure in the new republic which was established. Charles was
+admitted into Florence, but his ugly, insignificant figure disappointed
+the Florentines. They soon made it clear to him that they would not
+regard him in any sense as a conqueror, and would oppose a prolonged
+occupation by the French. Savonarola said to him: "The people are
+afflicted by your stay in Florence, and you waste your time. God has
+called you to renew His Church. Go forth to your high calling lest God
+visit you in His wrath and choose another instrument in your stead to
+carry out His designs." So, after a week's stay, the French army left
+Florence and proceeded on its southward journey.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The popes since the Great Schism.</div>
+
+<p>The next power with which Charles VIII had to deal was represented by a
+person in every way the opposite of the Dominican monk&mdash;Pope Alexander
+VI. After the troubles of the Great Schism and the councils, the popes
+had set to work to organize their possessions in central Italy into a
+compact principality. For a time they seemed to be little more than
+Italian princes. But they did not make rapid progress in their political
+enterprises because, in the first place, they were usually advanced in
+years before they came to power and so had little time to carry out
+their projects; and, in the second place, they showed too much anxiety
+to promote the interests of their relatives. The selfish, unscrupulous
+means employed by these worldly prelates naturally brought great
+discredit upon the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope Alexander VI and C&aelig;sar Borgia.</div>
+
+<p>There was probably never a more openly profligate Italian despot than
+Alexander VI (1493&ndash;1503) of the notorious Spanish house of Borgia. He
+frankly set to work to advance the interests of his children, as if he
+were merely a secular ruler. For one of his sons, C&aelig;sar Borgia, he
+proposed to form a duchy east of Florence. C&aelig;sar outdid his father in
+crime. He not only entrapped and mercilessly slaughtered his enemies,
+but had his brother assassinated and thrown into the Tiber. Both he and
+his father were accused of constant recourse to poisoning, in which art
+they were popularly supposed to have gained extraordinary proficiency.
+It is noteworthy that when Machiavelli prepared his <i>Prince</i>,<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> he
+chose for his hero C&aelig;sar Borgia, as possessing in the highest degree
+those qualities which went to make up a successful Italian ruler.</p>
+
+<p>The pope was greatly perturbed by the French invasion, and in spite of
+the fact that he was the head of Christendom, he entered into
+negotiations with the Turkish sultan in the hope of gaining aid against
+the French king. He could not, however, prevent Charles from entering
+Rome and later continuing on his way to Naples.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Charles VIII leaves Italy unconquered.</div>
+
+<p>The success of the French king seemed marvelous, for even Naples
+speedily fell into his hands. But he and his troops were demoralized by
+the wines and other pleasures of the South, and meanwhile his enemies at
+last began to form a combination against him. Ferdinand of Aragon was
+fearful lest he might lose Sicily, and Maximilian objected to having the
+French control Italy. Charles' situation became so precarious that he
+may well have thought himself fortunate, at the close of 1495, to
+escape, with the loss of only a single battle, from the country he had
+hoped to conquer.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results of Charles' expedition.</div>
+
+<p>The results of Charles' expedition appear at first sight trivial; in
+reality they were momentous. In the first place, it was now clear to
+Europe that the Italians had no real national feeling, however much they
+might despise the "barbarians" who lived north of the Alps. From this
+time down to the latter half of the nineteenth century, Italy was
+dominated by foreign nations, especially Spain and Austria. In the
+second place, the French learned to admire the art and culture of Italy.
+The nobles began to change their feudal castles, which since the
+invention of gunpowder were no longer impregnable, into luxurious
+country houses. The new scholarship of Italy took root and flourished
+not only in France, but in England and Germany as well. Consequently,
+just as Italy was becoming, politically, the victim of foreign
+aggressions, it was also losing, never to regain, that intellectual
+pre&euml;minence which it had enjoyed since the revival of interest in
+classical literature.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Savonarola's reforms in Florence.</div>
+
+<p>After Charles VIII's departure, Savonarola continued his reformation
+with the hope of making Florence a model state which should lead to the
+regeneration of the world. At first he carried all before him, and at
+the Carnival of 1496 there were no more of the gorgeous exhibitions and
+reckless gayety which had pleased the people under Lorenzo the
+Magnificent. The next year the people were induced to make a great
+bonfire, in the spacious square before the City Hall, of all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+"vanities" which stood in the way of a godly life&mdash;frivolous and immoral
+books, pictures, jewels, and trinkets.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Savonarola condemned and executed, 1498.</div>
+
+<p>Savonarola had enemies, however, even in his own Dominican order, while
+the Franciscans were naturally jealous of his renown and maintained that
+he was no real prophet. What was more serious, Alexander VI was bitterly
+hostile to the reforming friar because he urged the Florentines to
+remain in alliance with France. Before long even the people began to
+lose confidence in him. He was arrested by the pope's order in 1497 and
+condemned as a heretic and despiser of the Holy See. He was hanged, and
+his body burned, in the same square where the "vanities" had been
+sacrificed hardly more than a twelvemonth before.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis XII's Italian policy.</div>
+
+<p>In the same year (1498), the romantic Charles VIII died without leaving
+any male heirs and was succeeded by a distant relative, Louis XII, who
+renewed the Italian adventures of his predecessor. As his grandmother
+was a member of the Milanese house of the Visconti, Louis laid claim to
+Milan as well as to Naples. He quickly conquered Milan, and then
+arranged a secret treaty with Ferdinand of Aragon (1500) for the
+division of the kingdom of Naples between them. It was not hard for the
+combined French and Spanish troops to conquer the country, but the two
+allies soon disagreed, and four years later Louis sold his title to
+Naples for a large sum to Ferdinand.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope Julius II.</div>
+
+<p><b>132.</b> Pope Julius II, who succeeded the unspeakable Alexander VI (1503),
+was hardly more spiritual than his predecessor. He was a warlike and
+intrepid old man, who did not hesitate on at least one occasion to put
+on a soldier's armor and lead his troops in person. Julius was a
+Genoese, and harbored an inveterate hatred against Genoa's great
+commercial rival, Venice. The Venetians especially enraged the pope by
+taking possession of some of the towns on the northern border of his
+dominions, and he threatened to reduce their city to a fishing village.
+The Venetian ambassador replied, "As for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> you, Holy Father, if you are
+not more reasonable, we shall reduce you to a village priest."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">League of Cambray against Venice, 1508.</div>
+
+<p>With the pope's encouragement, the League of Cambray was formed in 1508
+for the express purpose of destroying one of the most important Italian
+states. The Empire, France, Spain, and the pope were to divide among
+them Venice's possessions on the mainland. Maximilian was anxious to
+gain the districts bordering upon Austria, Louis XII to extend the
+boundaries of his new duchy of Milan, while the pope and Ferdinand were
+also to have their appropriate shares.</p>
+
+<p>Venice was quickly reduced to a few remnants of its Italian domains, but
+the Venetians hastened to make their peace with the pope, who, after
+receiving their humble submission, gave them his forgiveness. In spite
+of his previous pledges to his allies, the pope now swore to exterminate
+the "barbarians" whom he had so recklessly called in. He formed an
+alliance with Venice and induced the new king of England, Henry VIII, to
+attack the French king. As for Maximilian, the pope declared him as
+"harmless as a newborn babe." This "Holy League" against the French led
+to their loss of Milan and their expulsion from the Italian peninsula in
+1512, but it in no way put an end to the troubles in Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pope Leo X, 1513&ndash;1521.</div>
+
+<p>The bellicose Julius was followed in 1513 by Leo X, a son of Lorenzo the
+Magnificent. Like his father, he loved art and literature, but he was
+apparently utterly without religious feelings. He was willing that the
+war should continue, in the hope that he might be able to gain a couple
+of duchies for his nephews.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis I of France, 1515&ndash;1547.</div>
+
+<p>Louis XII died and left his brilliant cousin and successor, Francis I,
+to attempt once more to regain Milan. The new king was but twenty years
+old, gracious in manner, and chivalrous in his ideals of conduct. His
+proudest title was "the gentleman king." Like his contemporaries, Leo X,
+and Henry VIII of England, he patronized the arts, and literature
+flourished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> during his reign. He was not, however, a wise statesman; he
+was unable to pursue a consistent policy, but, as Voltaire says, "did
+everything by fits and starts."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis I in Italy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The republic of Florence becomes the grand duchy of Tuscany.</div>
+
+<p>He opened his reign by a very astonishing victory. He led his troops
+into Italy over a pass which had hitherto been regarded as impracticable
+for cavalry, and defeated the Swiss&mdash;who were in the pope's pay&mdash;at
+Marignano. He then occupied Milan and opened negotiations with Leo X,
+who was glad to make terms with the victorious young king. The pope
+agreed that Francis should retain Milan, and Francis on his part acceded
+to Leo's plan for turning over Florence once more to the Medici. This
+was done, and some years later this wonderful republic became the grand
+duchy of Tuscany, governed by a line of petty princes under whom its
+former glories were never renewed.<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of discord between France and the Hapsburgs.</div>
+
+<p>Friendly relations existed at first between the two young sovereigns,
+Francis I and Charles V, but there were several circumstances which led
+to an almost incessant series of wars between them. France was clamped
+in between the northern and southern possessions of Charles, and had at
+that time no natural boundaries. Moreover, there was a standing dispute
+over portions of the Burgundian realms, for both Charles and Francis
+claimed the <i>duchy</i> of Burgundy and the neighboring <i>county</i> of
+Burgundy&mdash;commonly called Franche-Comt&eacute;. Charles also believed that,
+through his grandfather, Maximilian, he was entitled to Milan, which the
+French kings had set their hearts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> upon acquiring. For a generation the
+rivals fought over these and other matters, and the wars between Charles
+and Francis were but the prelude to a conflict lasting over two
+centuries between France and the overgrown power of the house of
+Hapsburg.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry VIII of England, 1509&ndash;1547.</div>
+
+<p>In the impending struggle it was natural that both monarchs should try
+to gain the aid of the king of England, whose friendship was of the
+greatest importance to each of them, and who was by no means loath to
+take a hand in European affairs. Henry VIII had succeeded his father
+(Henry VII) in 1509 at the age of eighteen. Like Francis, he was
+good-looking and graceful, and in his early years made a very happy
+impression upon those who came in contact with him. He gained much
+popularity by condemning to death the two men who had been most active
+in extorting the "benevolences" which his father had been wont to
+require of unwilling givers. With a small but important class, his
+learning brought him credit. He married, for his first wife, an aunt of
+Charles V, Catherine of Aragon, and chose as his chief adviser Thomas
+Wolsey, whose career and sudden downfall were to be strangely associated
+with the fate of the unfortunate Spanish princess.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles V goes to Germany.</div>
+
+<p>In 1520 Charles V started for Germany to receive the imperial crown at
+Aix-la-Chapelle. On his way he landed in England with the purpose of
+keeping Henry from forming an alliance with Francis. He judged the best
+means to be that of freely bribing Wolsey, who had been made a cardinal
+by Leo X, and who was all-powerful with Henry. Charles therefore
+bestowed on the cardinal a large annuity in addition to one which he had
+granted him somewhat earlier. He then set sail for the Netherlands,
+where he was duly crowned king of the Romans. From there he proceeded,
+for the first time, to Germany, where he summoned his first diet at
+Worms. The most important business of the assembly proved to be the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
+consideration of the case of a university professor, Martin Luther, who
+was accused of writing heretical books, and who had in reality begun
+what proved to be the first successful revolt against the seemingly
+all-powerful medi&aelig;val Church.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;For the Italian wars of Charles VIII and Louis
+XII, <i>Cambridge Modern History</i> (The Macmillan Company, $3.75 per
+vol.), Vol. I, Chapter IV; <span class="smcap">Johnson</span>, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth
+Century</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.75), Chapter I; <span class="smcap">Dyer</span> and
+<span class="smcap">Hassall</span>, <i>Modern Europe</i> (The Macmillan Company, 6 vols., $2.00
+each), Vol. I; <span class="smcap">Creighton</span>, <i>History of the Papacy</i> (see above, p.
+320), Vols. IV, V. For Savonarola, <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Vol.
+I, Chapter V; <span class="smcap">Creighton</span>, Vol. IV, Chapter VIII; <span class="smcap">Lea</span>, <i>History of
+the Inquisition</i> (see above, p. 232), Vol. III, pp. 209&ndash;237;
+<span class="smcap">Symonds</span>, <i>Age of Despots</i> (see above, p. 352), Chapter IX; <span class="smcap">Pastor</span>,
+<i>History of the Popes</i> (see above, p. 320), Vol. V. For Spain,
+<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Vol. I, Chapter XI.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>GERMANY BEFORE THE PROTESTANT REVOLT</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Two unsuccessful revolts preceded the Protestant revolution.</div>
+
+<p><b>133.</b> By far the most important event in the sixteenth century and one of
+the most momentous in the history of the western world, was the revolt
+of a considerable portion of northern and western Europe from the
+medi&aelig;val Church. There had been but two serious rebellions earlier. The
+first of these was that of the Albigenses in southern France in the
+thirteenth century; this had been fearfully punished, and the
+Inquisition had been established to ferret out and bring to trial those
+who were disloyal to the Church. Then, some two centuries later, the
+Bohemians, under the inspiration of Wycliffe's writings, had attempted
+to introduce customs different from those which prevailed elsewhere in
+the Church. They, too, had been forced, after a terrific series of
+conflicts, once more to accept the old system.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther secedes from the Church, 1520.</div>
+
+<p>Finally, however, in spite of the great strength and the wonderful
+organization of the Church, it became apparent that it was no longer
+possible to keep all of western Europe under the sway of the pope. In
+the autumn of 1520, Professor Martin Luther called together the students
+of the University of Wittenberg, led them outside the town walls, and
+there burned the constitution and statutes of the medi&aelig;val Church, i.e.,
+the canon law. In this way he publicly proclaimed and illustrated his
+purpose to repudiate the existing Church with many of its doctrines and
+practices. Its head he defied by destroying the papal bull directed
+against his teachings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Origin of the two great religious parties in western
+Europe,&mdash;the Catholics and Protestants.</div>
+
+<p>Other leaders, in Germany, Switzerland, England, and elsewhere,
+organized separate revolts; rulers decided to accept the teachings of
+the reformers, and used their power to promote the establishment of
+churches independent of the pope. In this way western Europe came to be
+divided into two great religious parties. The majority of its people
+continued to regard the pope as their religious head and to accept the
+institutions under which their forefathers had lived since the times of
+Theodosius. In general, those regions (except England) which had formed
+a part of the Roman empire remained Roman Catholic in their belief. On
+the other hand, northern Germany, a part of Switzerland, England,
+Scotland, and the Scandinavian countries sooner or later rejected the
+headship of the pope and many of the institutions and doctrines of the
+medi&aelig;val Church, and organized new religious institutions. The
+Protestants, as those who seceded from the Church of Rome were called,
+by no means agreed among themselves what particular system should
+replace the old one. They were at one, however, in ceasing to obey the
+pope and in proposing to revert to the early Church as their model and
+accepting the Bible as their sole guide.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolt against the medi&aelig;val Church implied a general
+revolution.</div>
+
+<p>To revolt against the Church was to inaugurate a fundamental revolution
+in many of the habits and customs of the people. It was not merely a
+change of religious belief, for the Church permeated every occupation
+and dominated every social interest. For centuries it had directed and
+largely controlled education, high and low. Each and every important act
+in the home, in the guild, in the town, was accompanied by religious
+ceremonies. The clergy of the Roman Catholic Church had hitherto written
+most of the books; they sat in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> the government assemblies, acted as the
+rulers' most trusted ministers, constituted, in short, outside of Italy,
+the only really educated class. Their r&ocirc;le and the r&ocirc;le of the Church
+were incomparably more important than that of any church which exists
+to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The wars of religion.</div>
+
+<p>Just as the medi&aelig;val Church was by no means an exclusively religious
+institution, so the Protestant revolt was by no means simply a religious
+change, but a social and political one as well. The conflicts which the
+attempt to overthrow this institution, or rather social order, brought
+about were necessarily terrific. They lasted for more than two centuries
+and left no interest, public or private, social or individual, earthly
+or heavenly, unaffected. Nation rose against nation, kingdom against
+kingdom; households were divided among themselves; wars and commotion,
+wrath and desolation, treachery and cruelty filled the states of western
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Our present object is to learn how this successful revolt came about,
+what was its real nature, and why the results were what they were. In
+order to do this, it is necessary to turn to the Germany in which Luther
+lived and see how the nation had been prepared to sympathize with his
+attack on the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Germany of to-day.</div>
+
+<p><b>134.</b> To us to-day, Germany means the German Empire, one of the three or
+four best organized and most powerful of the European states. It is a
+compact federation, somewhat like that of the United States, made up of
+twenty-two monarchies and three little city republics. Each member of
+the union manages its local affairs, but leaves all questions of
+national importance to be settled by the central government at Berlin.
+This federation is, however, of very recent date, being scarcely more
+than thirty years old.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Germanies' of the sixteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>In the time of Charles V there was no such Germany as this, but only
+what the French called "the Germanies"; i.e., two or three hundred
+states, which differed greatly from one another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> in size and character.
+One had a duke, another a count at its head, while some were ruled over
+by archbishops, bishops, or abbots. There were many cities, like
+Nuremberg, Augsburg, Frankfort, and Cologne, which were just as
+independent as the great duchies of Bavaria, W&uuml;rtemberg, and Saxony.
+Lastly there were the knights, whose possessions might consist of no
+more than a single strong castle with a wretched village lying at its
+foot. Their trifling territories must, however, be called states; for
+some of the knights were at that time as sovereign and independent as
+the elector of Brandenburg, who was one day to become the king of
+Prussia, and long after, the emperor of Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map372.jpg">
+<img src="images/map372th.jpg" width="600" height="440" alt="GERMANY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">GERMANY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The seven electors and the other greater German princes.</div>
+
+<p>As for the emperor, he no longer had any power to control his vassals.
+He could boast of unlimited pretensions and a great past, but he had
+neither money nor soldiers. At the time of Luther's birth the
+poverty-stricken Frederick III might have been seen picking up a free
+meal at a monastery, or riding behind a slow but economical ox team. The
+real power in Germany lay in the hands of the more important vassals.
+First and foremost among these were the seven electors, so called
+because, since the thirteenth century, they had enjoyed the right to
+elect the emperor. Three of them were archbishops&mdash;kings in all but name
+of considerable territories on the Rhine, namely, of the electorates of
+Mayence, Treves, and Cologne.<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> Near them, to the south, was the
+region ruled over by the elector of the Palatinate; to the northeast
+were the territories of the electors of Brandenburg and of Saxony; the
+king of Bohemia made the seventh of the group. Beside these states, the
+dominions of other rulers scarcely less important than the electors
+appear on the map. Some of these territories, like W&uuml;rtemberg, Bavaria,
+Hesse, and Baden, are familiar to us to-day as members of the present
+German empire, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> all of them have been much enlarged since the
+sixteenth century by the absorption of the little states that formerly
+lay within and about them.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The towns.</div>
+
+<p>The towns, which had grown up since the great economic revolution that
+had brought in commerce and the use of money in the thirteenth century,
+were centers of culture in the north of Europe, just as those of Italy
+were in the south. Nuremberg, the most beautiful of the German cities,
+still possesses a great part of the extraordinary buildings and works of
+art which it produced in the sixteenth century. Some of the towns held
+directly of the emperor, and were consequently independent of the
+particular prince within whose territory they were situated. These were
+called <i>free</i>, or <i>imperial</i>, cities and must be reckoned among the
+states of Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image63.jpg" width="500" height="666" alt="Wall of the formerly Free Town of Rothenburg" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Wall of the formerly Free Town of Rothenburg</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The knights.</div>
+
+<p>The knights, who ruled over the smallest of the German territories, had
+once formed an important military class, but the invention of gunpowder
+and of new methods of fighting had made their individual prowess of
+little avail. As their tiny realms were often too small to support them,
+they frequently turned to out-and-out robbery for a living. They hated
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> cities because the prosperous burghers were able to live in a
+luxurious comfort which the poor knights envied but could not imitate.
+They hated the princes because these were anxious to incorporate into
+their own territories the inconvenient little districts controlled by
+the knights, many of whom, like the free cities, held directly of the
+emperor, and were consequently practically independent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Complexity of the map of Germany.</div>
+
+<p>It would be no easy task to make a map of Germany in the time of Charles
+V sufficiently detailed to show all the states and scattered fragments
+of states. If, for example, the accompanying map were much larger and
+indicated all the divisions, it would be seen that the territory of the
+city of Ulm completely surrounded the microscopic possessions of a
+certain knight, the lord of Eybach, and two districts belonging to the
+abbot of Elchingen. On its borders lay the territories of four
+knights,&mdash;the lords of Rechberg, Stotzingen, Erbach, and
+Wiesensteig,&mdash;and of the abbots of S&ouml;flingen and Wiblingen, besides
+portions of W&uuml;rtemberg and outlying Austrian possessions. The main cause
+of this bewildering subdivision of Germany was the habit of dealing with
+a principality as if it were merely private property which might be
+divided up among several children, or disposed of piecemeal, quite
+regardless of the wishes of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">No central power to maintain order.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Neighborhood war.</div>
+
+<p>It is clear that these states, little and big, all tangled up with one
+another, would be sure to have disputes among themselves which would
+have to be settled in some way. It would appear to have been absolutely
+necessary under the circumstances that there should be some superior
+court or judge to adjust differences between the many members of the
+empire, as well as a military or police force to carry out the will of
+the tribunal, should one of the parties concerned resist its decrees.
+But although there was an imperial court, it followed the emperor about
+and was therefore hard to get at. Moreover, even if a decision was
+obtained from it, there was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> no way for the aggrieved party to secure
+the execution of the judgment, for the emperor had no force sufficient
+to coerce the larger states. The natural result was a resort to
+self-help. Neighborhood war was permitted by law if only some courteous
+preliminaries were observed. For instance, a prince or town was required
+to give warning three days in advance before attacking another member of
+the empire.<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The German diet.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effort to better the German government.</div>
+
+<p>Toward the end of the fifteenth century the terrible disorder and
+uncertainty which resulted from the absence of a strong central
+government led to serious efforts upon the part of the <i>diet</i>, or
+national assembly, to remedy the evils. It was proposed to establish a
+court to settle all disputes which should arise among the rulers of the
+various states. This was to be held permanently in some convenient
+place. The empire was also to be divided into districts, or "circles,"
+in each of which a military force was to be organized and maintained to
+carry out the law and the decisions of the court. Little was
+accomplished, however, for some years, although the diet met more
+frequently and regularly, and this gave an opportunity to discuss public
+questions. The towns began to send delegates to the diet in 1487, but
+the restless knights and some of the other minor nobles had no part in
+the deliberations and did not always feel that the decisions of the
+assembly were binding upon them. Of the diets which met almost every
+year during the Lutheran period in some one of the great German cities,
+we shall hear more later.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contradiction between Catholic and Protestant writers.</div>
+
+<p><b>135.</b> It is natural that Protestant and Catholic writers should differ in
+their views of Germany at this period. Among Protestants there has
+always been a tendency to see the dark side of affairs, for this exalted
+the work of Luther and made him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> appear the savior of his people. On the
+other hand, the Catholic historians have devoted years of research to an
+attempt to prove that conditions were, on the whole, happy and serene
+and full of hope for the future before Luther and the other
+revolutionary leaders brought division and ruin upon the fatherland by
+attacking the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Corresponding contradictions in the conditions in Germany.</div>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, the life and thought of Germany during the fifty
+years preceding the opening of the Protestant revolt present all sorts
+of contradictions and anomalies. The period was one of marked progress.
+The people were eager to learn, and they rejoiced in the recent
+invention of printing which brought them the new learning from Italy and
+hints of another world beyond the seas. Foreigners who visited Germany
+were astonished at the prosperity, wealth, and luxury of the rich
+merchants, who often spent their money in the encouragement of art and
+literature and in the founding of schools and libraries.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there was great ill feeling between the various
+classes&mdash;the petty princes, the townspeople, the knights, and the
+peasants. It was generally believed by the other classes that the wealth
+of the merchants could only be accounted for by deceit, usury, and sharp
+dealing. Never was begging more prevalent, superstition more rife,
+vulgarity and coarseness more apparent. Attempts to reform the
+government and stop neighborhood war met with little success. Moreover,
+the Turks were advancing steadily upon Christendom. The people were
+commanded by the pope to send up a prayer each day as the noon bell
+rang, that God might deliver them from the on-coming infidel.</p>
+
+<p>Yet we need not be astonished by these contradictions, for history
+teaches that all periods of progress are full of them. Any newspaper
+will show how true this is to-day: we are, as a nation, good and bad,
+rich and poor, peaceful and warlike, learned and ignorant, satisfied and
+discontented, civilized and barbarous, all at once.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Four important characteristics of the time which serve to
+explain the Protestant revolt.</div>
+
+<p>In considering the condition of the Church and of religion in Germany,
+four things are particularly important as explaining the origin and
+character of the Protestant revolt. First, there was an extraordinary
+enthusiasm for all the pomp and ceremony of the old religion, and a
+great confidence in pilgrimages, relics, miracles, and all those things
+which the Protestants were soon to discard. Secondly, there was a
+tendency to read the Bible and to dwell upon the attitude of the sinner
+toward God, rather than upon the external acts of religion. Thirdly,
+there was a conviction, especially among scholars, that the theologians
+had made religion needlessly complicated with their fine-spun logical
+distinctions. And lastly, there was the old and very general belief that
+the Italian prelates, including the pope, were always inventing new
+plans for getting money out of the Germans, whom they regarded as a
+stupid people, easily hoodwinked. These four matters we shall consider
+in turn.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Enthusiasm for religious ceremonies and observances.</div>
+
+<p><b>136.</b> Never had the many ceremonies and observances of the medi&aelig;val
+Church attracted more attention or been carried out on a more prodigious
+scale than during the latter part of the fifteenth, and the opening
+years of the sixteenth century. It seemed as if all Germany agreed to
+join in one last celebration of the old religion, unprecedented in
+magnificence, before its people parted into two irreconcilable parties.
+Great numbers of new churches were erected, and adorned with the richest
+productions of German art. Tens of thousands of pilgrims flocked to the
+various sacred places, and gorgeous ecclesiastical processions moved
+through the streets of the prosperous imperial towns.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relics.</div>
+
+<p>The princes rivaled each other in collecting the relics of saints, which
+were venerated as an aid to salvation. The elector of Saxony, Frederick
+the Wise, who was later to become Luther's protector, had accumulated no
+less than five thousand of these sacred objects. In a catalogue of them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>
+we find the rod of Moses, a bit of the burning bush, thread spun by the
+Virgin, etc. The elector of Mayence possessed even a larger collection,
+which included forty-two whole bodies of saints and some of the earth
+from a field near Damascus out of which God was supposed to have created
+man.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The treasury of 'good works.'</div>
+
+<p>It was the teaching of the Church that prayers, fasts, masses,
+pilgrimages, and other "good works" might be accumulated and form a
+treasury of spiritual goods. Those who were wanting in good deeds might,
+therefore, have their deficiencies offset by the inexhaustible surplus
+of righteous deeds which had been created by Christ and the saints.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Popular reliance upon outward religious acts.</div>
+
+<p>The idea was certainly a beautiful one, that Christians should thus be
+able to help one another by their good works, and that the strong and
+faithful worshiper could aid the weak and indifferent. Yet the
+thoughtful teachers in the Church realized that the doctrine of the
+treasury of good works might be gravely misunderstood; and there was
+certainly a strong inclination among the people to believe that God
+might be propitiated by various outward acts&mdash;attendance at church
+ceremonies, giving of alms, the veneration of relics, the making of
+pilgrimages, etc. It was clear that the hope of profiting by the good
+works of others might lead to the neglect of the true welfare of the
+soul.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demand for more spiritual religion.</div>
+
+<p><b>137.</b> In spite, however, of the popular confidence in outward acts and
+ceremonies, from which the heart was often absent, there were many signs
+of a general longing for deeper and more spiritual religion than that of
+which we have been speaking. The new art of printing was used to
+increase the number of religious manuals. These all emphasized the
+uselessness of outward acts without true contrition and sorrow for sin,
+and urged the sinner to rely upon the love and forgiveness of God.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Bible in German before Luther.</div>
+
+<p>All good Christians were urged, moreover, to read the Bible, of which
+there were a number of editions in German, besides little books in which
+portions of the New Testament were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> given. There are many indications
+that the Bible was commonly read before Luther's time.<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was natural, therefore, that the German people should take a great
+interest in the new and better translation of the Scriptures which
+Luther prepared. Preaching had also become common&mdash;as common perhaps as
+it is now&mdash;before the Protestants appeared. Some towns even engaged
+special preachers of known eloquence to address their citizens
+regularly.</p>
+
+<p>These facts would seem to justify the conclusion that there were many
+before Luther appeared who were approaching the ideas of religion which
+later appealed especially to the Protestants. The insistence of the
+Protestants upon salvation through faith alone in God, their suspicion
+of ceremonies and "good works," their reliance upon the Bible, and the
+stress they laid upon preaching,&mdash;all these were to be found in Germany
+and elsewhere before Luther began to preach.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The German humanists.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rudolph Agricola, 1442&ndash;1485.</div>
+
+<p><b>138.</b> Among the critics of the churchmen, monks, and theologians, none
+were more conspicuous than the humanists. The Renaissance in Italy,
+which may be said to have begun with Petrarch and his library, has
+already been described. The Petrarch of Germany was Rudolph Agricola,
+who, while not absolutely the first German to dedicate himself to
+classical studies, was the first who by his charming personality and
+varied accomplishments stimulated others, as Petrarch had done, to carry
+on the pursuits which he himself so much enjoyed. Unlike most of the
+Italian humanists, however, Agricola and his followers were interested
+in the language of the people as well as in Latin and Greek; and
+proposed that the works of antiquity should be translated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> into German.
+Moreover, the German humanists were generally far more serious and
+devout than the Italian scholars.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The humanists desire to reform the German universities.</div>
+
+<p>As the humanists increased in numbers and confidence they began to
+criticise the excessive attention given in the German universities<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>
+to logic and the scholastic theology. These studies had lost their
+earlier vitality<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> and had degenerated into fruitless disputations.
+The bad Latin which the professors used themselves and taught their
+students, and the preference still given to Aristotle over all other
+ancient writers, disgusted the humanists. They therefore undertook to
+prepare new and better text-books, and proposed that the study of the
+Greek and Roman poets and orators should be introduced into the schools
+and colleges. Some of the classical scholars were for doing away with
+theology altogether, as a vain, monkish study which only obscured the
+great truths of religion. The old-fashioned professors, on their part,
+naturally denounced the new learning, which they declared made pagans of
+those who became enamored of it. Sometimes the humanists were permitted
+to teach their favorite subjects in the universities, but as time went
+on it became clear that the old and the new teachers could not work
+amicably side by side.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The humanist satire on the monks and theologians, the
+so-called <i>Letters of Obscure Men</i>.</div>
+
+<p>At last, a little before Luther's public appearance, a conflict occurred
+between the "poets," as the humanists were fond of calling themselves,
+and the "barbarians," as they called the theologians and monkish
+writers. An eminent Hebrew scholar, Reuchlin, had become involved in a
+bitter controversy with the Dominican professors of the University of
+Cologne. His cause was championed by the humanists, who prepared an
+extraordinary satire upon their opponents. They wrote a series of
+letters, which were addressed to one of the Cologne<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> professors and
+purported to be from his former students and admirers. In these letters
+the writers take pains to exhibit the most shocking ignorance and
+stupidity. They narrate their scandalous doings with the ostensible
+purpose of obtaining advice as to the best way to get out of their
+scrapes. They vituperate the humanists in comically bad Latin, which is
+perhaps the best part of the joke.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> In this way those who later
+opposed Luther and his reforms were held up to ridicule in these letters
+and their opposition to progress seemed clearly made out.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1467?-1536.</div>
+
+<p><b>139.</b> The acknowledged prince of the humanists was Erasmus. No other man
+of letters, unless it be Voltaire, has ever enjoyed such a European
+reputation during his lifetime. He was venerated by scholars far and
+wide, even in Spain and Italy. Although he was born in Rotterdam he was
+not a Dutchman, but a citizen of the world; he is, in fact, claimed by
+England, France, and Germany. He lived in each of these countries for a
+considerable period and in each he left his mark on the thought of the
+time. Erasmus, like most of the northern humanists, was deeply
+interested in religious reform, and he aspired to give the world a
+higher conception of religion and the Church than that which generally
+prevailed. He clearly perceived, as did all the other intelligent people
+of the time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> the vices of the prelates, priests, and especially of the
+monks. Against the latter he had a personal grudge, for he had been
+forced into a monastery when he was a boy, and always looked back to the
+life there with disgust. Erasmus reached the height of his fame just
+before the public appearance of Luther; consequently his writings afford
+an admirable means of determining how he and his innumerable admirers
+felt about the Church and the clergy before the opening of the great
+revolt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Erasmus' edition of the New Testament.</div>
+
+<p>Erasmus spent some time in England between the years 1498 and 1506, and
+made friends of the scholars there. He was especially fond of Sir Thomas
+More, who wrote the famous <i>Utopia</i>, and of a young man, John Colet, who
+was lecturing at Oxford upon the Epistles of St. Paul.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> Colet's
+enthusiasm for Paul appears to have led Erasmus to direct his vast
+knowledge of the ancient languages to the explanation of the New
+Testament. This was only known in the common Latin version (the
+Vulgate), into which many mistakes and misapprehensions had crept.
+Erasmus felt that the first thing to do, in order to promote higher
+ideas of Christianity, was to purify the sources of the faith by
+preparing a correct edition of the New Testament. Accordingly, in 1516,
+he published the original Greek text with a new Latin translation and
+explanations which mercilessly exposed the mistakes of the great body of
+theologians.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image64.jpg" width="300" height="345" alt="Portrait of Erasmus by Holbein" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Portrait of Erasmus by Holbein</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Erasmus would have had the Bible in the hands of every one. In the
+introduction to his edition of the New Testament he says that women
+should read the Gospels and the Epistles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> Paul as well as the men.
+The peasant in the field, the artisan in his shop, and the traveler on
+the highroad should while away the time with passages from the Bible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Erasmus' idea of true religion.</div>
+
+<p>Erasmus believed that the two arch enemies of true religion were (1)
+paganism,&mdash;into which many of the more enthusiastic Italian humanists
+fell in their admiration for the ancient literatures,&mdash;and (2) the
+popular confidence in mere outward acts and ceremonies, like visiting
+the graves of saints, the mechanical repetition of prayers, and so
+forth. He claimed that the Church had become careless and had permitted
+the simple teachings of Christ to be buried under myriads of dogmas
+introduced by the theologians. "The essence of our religion," he says,
+"is peace and harmony. These can only exist where there are few dogmas
+and each individual is left to form his own opinion upon many matters."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">In his <i>Praise of Folly</i> Erasmus attacks the evils in the
+Church.</div>
+
+<p>In his celebrated <i>Praise of Folly</i>,<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> Erasmus has much to say of the
+weaknesses of the monks and theologians, and of the foolish people who
+thought that religion consisted simply in pilgrimages, the worship of
+relics, and the procuring of indulgences. Scarcely one of the abuses
+which Luther later attacked escaped Erasmus' satirical pen. The book is
+a mixture of the lightest humor and the bitterest earnestness. As one
+turns its pages one is sometimes tempted to think Luther half right when
+he declared Erasmus "a regular jester who makes sport of everything,
+even of religion and Christ himself." Yet there was in this humorist a
+deep seriousness that cannot be ignored. Erasmus was really directing
+his extraordinary industry, knowledge, and insight, not toward a revival
+of classical literature, but to <i>a renaissance of Christianity</i>. He
+believed, however, that revolt from the pope and the Church would
+produce a great disturbance and result in more harm than good. He
+preferred to trust in the slower but surer effects of enlightenment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> and
+knowledge. Popular superstitions and any undue regard for the outward
+forms of religion would, he argued, be outgrown and quietly disappear as
+mankind became more cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>To Erasmus and his many sympathizers, culture, promoted especially by
+classical studies, should be the chief agency in religious reform.
+Nevertheless, just as Erasmus thought that his dreams of a peaceful
+reform were to be realized, as he saw the friends and patrons of
+literature,&mdash;Maximilian, Henry VIII, Francis I,&mdash;on the thrones of
+Europe, and a humanist pope, Leo X, at the head of the Church, a very
+different revolution from that which he had planned, had begun and was
+to embitter his declining years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of discontent in Germany with the policy of the papal
+court.</div>
+
+<p><b>140.</b> The grudge of Germany against the papal court never found a more
+eloquent expression than in the verses of its greatest minnesinger,
+Walther von der Vogelweide. Three hundred years before Luther's time he
+declared that the pope was making merry over the stupid Germans. "All
+their goods will be mine, their silver is flowing into my far-away
+chest; their priests are living on poultry and wine and leaving the
+silly layman to fast." Similar sentiments may be found in the German
+writers of all the following generations. Every one of the sources of
+discontent with the financial administration of the Church which the
+councils had tried to correct<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> was particularly apparent in Germany.
+The great German prelates, like the archbishops of Mayence, Treves,
+Cologne, and Salzburg, were each required to contribute no less than ten
+thousand gold guldens to the papal treasury upon having their election
+duly confirmed by the pope; and many thousands more were expected from
+them when they received the pallium.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> The pope enjoyed the right to
+fill many important benefices in Germany, and frequently appointed
+Italians, who drew the revenue without dreaming of performing any of the
+duties attached to the office. A single person frequently held<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> several
+church offices. For example, early in the sixteenth century, the
+Archbishop of Mayence was at the same time Archbishop of Magdeburg and
+Bishop of Halberstadt. In some instances a single person had accumulated
+over a score of benefices.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to exaggerate the impression of deep and widespread
+discontent with the condition of the Church which one meets in the
+writings of the early sixteenth century. The whole German people, from
+the rulers down to the humblest tiller of the fields, felt themselves
+unjustly used. The clergy were denounced as both immoral and
+inefficient. One devout writer exclaims that young men are considered
+quite good enough to be priests to whom one would not intrust the care
+of a cow. While the begging friars&mdash;the Franciscans, Dominicans, and
+Augustinians<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a>&mdash;were scorned by many, they, rather than the secular
+clergy, appear to have carried on the real religious work. It was an
+Augustinian monk, we shall find, who preached the new gospel of
+justification by faith.</p>
+
+<p>Very few indeed thought of withdrawing from the Church or of attempting
+to destroy the power of the pope. All that most of the Germans wished
+was that the money which, on one pretense or another, flowed toward Rome
+should be kept at home, and that the clergy should be upright, earnest
+men who should conscientiously perform their religious duties. One
+patriotic writer, however, Ulrich von Hutten, was preaching something
+very like revolution at the same time that Luther began his attack on
+the pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ulrich von Hutten, 1488&ndash;1523.</div>
+
+<p>Hutten was the son of a poor knight, but early tired of the monotonous
+life of the castle and determined to seek the universities and acquaint
+himself with the ancient literatures, of which so much was being said.
+In order to carry on his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> studies he visited Italy and there formed a
+most unfavorable impression of the papal court and of the Italian
+churchmen, whom he believed to be oppressing his beloved fatherland.
+When the <i>Letters of Obscure Men</i> appeared, he was so delighted with
+them that he prepared a supplementary series in which he freely
+satirized the theologians. Soon he began to write in German as well as
+in Latin, in order the more readily to reach the ears of the people. In
+one of his pamphlets attacking the popes he explains that he has himself
+seen how Leo X spends the money which the Germans send him. A part goes
+to his relatives, a part to maintain the luxurious papal court, and a
+part to worthless companions and attendants, whose lives would shock any
+honest Christian.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, of all the countries of Europe, conditions were such that
+Luther's appearance wrought like an electric shock throughout the
+nation, leaving no class unaffected. Throughout the land there was
+discontent and a yearning for betterment. Very various, to be sure, were
+the particular longings of the prince and the scholar, of knight,
+burgher, and peasant; but almost all were ready to consider, at least,
+the teachings of one who presented to them a new conception of salvation
+which made the old Church superfluous.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The most complete account of the conditions in
+Germany before Luther is to be found in <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, <i>History of the
+German People</i> (Herder, Vols. I and II, $6.25). <i>Cambridge Modern
+History</i> (The Macmillan Company, $3.75 per vol.), Vol. I, Chapters
+IX and XIX; <span class="smcap">Creighton</span>, <i>History of the Papacy</i> (see Vol. I, p.
+320), Vol. VI, Chapters I and II; and <span class="smcap">Beard</span>, <i>Martin Luther</i> (P.
+Green, London, $1.60), Chapters I and III, are excellent treatments
+of the subject. For Erasmus, see <span class="smcap">Emerton's</span> charming <i>Desiderius
+Erasmus</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.50), which gives a considerable
+number of his letters.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXV</h2>
+
+<h3>MARTIN LUTHER AND HIS REVOLT AGAINST THE CHURCH</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's birth and education.</div>
+
+<p><b>141.</b> Martin Luther was of peasant origin. His father was very poor, and
+was trying his fortune as a miner near the Harz Mountains when his
+eldest son, Martin, was born in 1483. Martin sometimes spoke, in later
+life, of the poverty and superstition which surrounded him in his
+childhood; of how his mother carried on her back the wood for the
+household and told him stories of a witch who had made away with the
+village priest. The boy was sent early to school, for his father was
+determined that his eldest son should be a lawyer. At eighteen, Martin
+entered the greatest of the north-German universities, at Erfurt, where
+he spent four years. There he became acquainted with some of the young
+humanists, for example, the one who is supposed to have written a great
+part of the <i>Letters of Obscure Men</i>. He was interested in the various
+classical writers, but devoted the usual attention to logic and
+Aristotle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther decides to become a monk.</div>
+
+<p>Suddenly, when he had completed his college course and was ready to
+enter the law school, he called his friends together for one last hour
+of pleasure, and the next morning he led them to the gate of an
+Augustinian monastery, where he bade them farewell and turning his back
+on the world became a mendicant friar. That day, July 17, 1505, when the
+young master of arts, regardless of his father's anger and
+disappointment, sought salvation within the walls of a monastery, was
+the beginning of a religious experiment which had momentous consequences
+for the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Luther's disappointment in the monastery.</div>
+
+<p>Luther later declared that "if ever a monk got to heaven through
+monkery," he was assuredly among those who merited salvation. So great
+was his ardor, so nervously anxious was he to save his soul by the
+commonly recognized means of fasts, vigils, prolonged prayers, and a
+constant disregard of the usual rules of health, that he soon could no
+longer sleep. He fell into despondency, and finally into despair. The
+ordinary observance of the rules of the monastery, which satisfied most
+of the monks, failed to give him peace. He felt that even if he
+outwardly did right he could never purify all his thoughts and desires.
+His experience led him to conclude that neither the Church nor the
+monastery provided any device which enabled him to keep his affections
+always centered on what he knew to be holy and right. Therefore they
+seemed to him to fail and to leave him, at heart, a hopelessly corrupt
+sinner, justly under God's condemnation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Justification by faith, not through 'good works.'</div>
+
+<p>Gradually a new view of Christianity came to him. The head of the
+monastery bade him trust in God's goodness and mercy and not to rely
+upon his own "good works." He began to study the writings of St. Paul
+and of Augustine, and from them was led to conclude that man was
+incapable, in the sight of God, of any good works whatsoever, and could
+only be saved by faith in God's promises. This gave him much comfort,
+but it took him years to clarify his ideas and to reach the conclusion
+that the existing Church was opposed to the idea of justification by
+faith, because it fostered what seemed to him a delusive confidence in
+"good works." He was thirty-seven years old before he finally became
+convinced that it was his duty to become the leader in the destruction
+of the old order.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther becomes a teacher in the University of Wittenberg,
+1508.</div>
+
+<p>It was no new thing for a young monk, suddenly cut off from the sunshine
+and hoping for speedy spiritual peace, to suffer disappointment and fall
+into gloomy forebodings, as did Brother Martin. He, however, having
+fought the battle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> through to victory, was soon placed in a position to
+bring comfort to others similarly afflicted with doubts as to their
+power to please God. In 1508 he was called to the new university which
+Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, had established at Wittenberg. We
+know little of his early years as a professor, but he soon began to
+lecture on the epistles of Paul and to teach his students the doctrine
+of justification by faith.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image65.jpg" width="300" height="352" alt="Luther" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Luther</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's visit to Rome.</div>
+
+<p>Luther had as yet no idea of attacking the Church. When, about 1511, he
+journeyed to Rome on business of his order, he devoutly visited all the
+holy places for the good of his soul, and was almost tempted to wish
+that his father and mother were dead, so that he might free them from
+purgatory by his pious observances. Yet he was shocked by the impiety of
+the Italian churchmen and the scandalous stories about popes Alexander
+VI and Julius II, the latter of whom was just then engaged in his
+warlike expeditions into northern Italy. The evidences of immorality on
+the part of the popes may well have made it easier for him later to
+reach the conclusion that the head of the Church was the chief enemy of
+religion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther teaches a new kind of theology.</div>
+
+<p>Before long he began to encourage his students to defend his favorite
+beliefs in the debates in which they took part. For instance, one of the
+candidates for a degree, under Luther's inspiration, attacked the old
+theology against which the humanists had been fighting. "It is an
+error," he says, "to declare that no one can become a theologian without
+Aristotle; on the contrary, no one can become a theologian except it be
+without him." Luther desired the students to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> rely upon the Bible,
+Paul's writings above all, and upon the church fathers, especially
+Augustine.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's theses on indulgences.</div>
+
+<p><b>142.</b> In October, 1517, Tetzel, a Dominican monk, began granting
+indulgences in the neighborhood of Wittenberg, and making claims for
+them which appeared to Luther wholly irreconcilable with the deepest
+truths of Christianity as he understood and taught them. He therefore,
+in accordance with the custom of the time, wrote out a series of
+ninety-five statements in regard to indulgences. These he posted on the
+church door and invited any one interested in the matter to enter into a
+discussion with him on the subject, which he believed was very ill
+understood. In posting these <i>theses</i>, as they were called, Luther did
+not intend to attack the Church, and had no expectation of creating a
+sensation. The theses were in Latin and addressed only to scholars. It
+turned out, however, that every one, high and low, learned and
+unlearned, was ready to discuss the perplexing theme of the nature of
+indulgences. The theses were promptly translated into German, printed,
+and scattered throughout the land.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The nature of indulgences.</div>
+
+<p>In order to understand the indulgence, it must be remembered that the
+priest had the right to forgive the sin of the truly contrite sinner who
+had duly confessed his evil deeds.<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> Absolution freed the sinner from
+the deadly guilt which would otherwise have dragged him down to hell,
+but it did not free him from the penalties which God, or his
+representative, the priest, might choose to impose upon him. Serious
+penances had earlier been imposed by the Church for wrongdoing, but in
+Luther's time the sinner who had been absolved was chiefly afraid of the
+sufferings reserved for him in purgatory. It was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> there that his soul
+would be purified by suffering and prepared for heaven. The indulgence
+was a pardon, usually granted by the pope, through which the contrite
+sinner escaped a part, or all, of the punishment which remained even
+after he had been absolved. The pardon did not therefore forgive the
+guilt of the sinner, for that had necessarily to be removed before the
+indulgence was granted; it only removed or mitigated the penalties which
+even the forgiven sinner would, without the indulgence, have expected to
+undergo in purgatory.<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first indulgences for the <i>dead</i> had been granted shortly before the
+time of Luther's birth. By securing one of these, the relatives or
+friends of those in purgatory might reduce the period of torment which
+the sufferers had to undergo before they could be admitted to heaven.
+Those who were in purgatory had, of course, been duly absolved of the
+guilt of their sins before their death; otherwise their souls would have
+been lost and the indulgence could not advantage them in any way.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Leo X issues indulgences in connection with the rebuilding of
+St. Peter's.</div>
+
+<p>With a view of obtaining funds from the Germans to continue the
+reconstruction of the great church of St. Peter,<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Leo X had arranged
+for the extensive grant of indulgences, both for the living and for the
+dead. The contribution for them varied greatly; the rich were required
+to pay a considerable sum, while the <i>very</i> poor were to receive these
+pardons gratis. The representatives of the pope were naturally anxious
+to collect all the money possible, and did their best to induce every
+one to secure an indulgence, either for himself or for his deceased
+friends in purgatory. In their zeal they made many reckless claims for
+the indulgences, to which no thoughtful churchman or even layman could
+listen without misgivings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Contents of Luther's theses.</div>
+
+<p>Luther was not the first to criticise the current notions of
+indulgences, but his theses, owing to the vigor of their language and
+the existing irritation of the Germans against the administration of the
+Church, first brought the subject into prominence. He declared that the
+indulgence was very unimportant and that the poor man would better spend
+his money for the needs of his household. The truly repentant, he
+argued, do not flee punishment, but bear it willingly in sign of their
+sorrow. Faith in God, not the procuring of pardons, brings forgiveness,
+and every Christian who feels true contrition for his sins will receive
+full remission of the punishment as well as of the guilt. Could the pope
+know how his agents misled the people, he would rather have St. Peter's
+burn to ashes than build it up with money gained under false pretenses.
+Then, Luther adds, there is danger that the common man will ask awkward
+questions. For example, "If the pope releases souls from purgatory for
+money, why not for charity's sake?" or, "Since the pope is rich as
+Cr&#339;sus, why does he not build St. Peter's with his own money, instead
+of taking that of the poor man?"<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther summoned to Rome.</div>
+
+<p><b>143.</b> The theses were soon forwarded to Rome, and a few months after they
+were posted Luther received a summons to appear at the papal court to
+answer for his heretical assertions. Luther still respected the pope as
+the head of the Church, but he had no wish to risk his safety by going
+to Rome. As Leo X was anxious not to offend so important a person as the
+elector of Saxony, who intervened for Luther, he did not press the
+matter, and agreed that Luther should confer with the papal emissaries
+in Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The discussion continues.</div>
+
+<p>Brother Martin was induced to keep silence for a time, but was aroused
+again by a great debate arranged at Leipsic in the summer of 1519. Here
+Eck, a German theologian noted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> for his devotion to the pope and his
+great skill in debate, challenged one of Luther's colleagues, Carlstadt,
+to discuss publicly some of the matters in which Luther himself was
+especially interested. Luther therefore asked to be permitted to take
+part.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The debate at Leipsic, 1519.</div>
+
+<p>The discussion turned upon the powers of the pope. Luther, who had been
+reading church history, declared that the pope had not enjoyed his
+supremacy for more than four hundred years. This statement was
+inaccurate, but, nevertheless, he had hit upon an argument against the
+customs of the Roman Catholic Church which has ever since been
+constantly urged by Protestants. They assert that the medi&aelig;val Church
+and the papacy developed slowly, and that the apostles knew nothing of
+masses, indulgences, purgatory, and the headship of the Bishop of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Eck forces Luther to admit that the Council of Constance was
+wrong and Huss right.</div>
+
+<p>Eck promptly pointed out that Luther's views resembled those of Wycliffe
+and Huss, which had been condemned by the Council of Constance. Luther
+was forced reluctantly to admit that the council had condemned some
+thoroughly Christian teachings. This was a decisive admission. Like
+other Germans, Luther had been accustomed to abhor Huss and the
+Bohemians, and to regard with pride the great general Council of
+Constance, which had been held in Germany and under the auspices of its
+emperor. He now admitted that even a general council could err, and was
+soon convinced "that we are all Hussites, without knowing it; yes, Paul
+and St. Augustine were good Hussites." Luther's public encounter with a
+disputant of European reputation, and the startling admissions which he
+was compelled to make, first made him realize that he might become the
+leader in an attack on the Church. He began to see that a great change
+and upheaval was unavoidable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther and the humanists natural allies.</div>
+
+<p><b>144.</b> As Luther became a confessed revolutionist he began to find friends
+among other revolutionists and reformers. He had some ardent admirers
+even before the disputation at Leipsic,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> especially at Wittenberg and in
+the great city of Nuremberg. To the humanists, Luther seemed a natural
+ally. They might not understand his religious beliefs, but they clearly
+saw that he was beginning to attack a class of people that they
+disliked, particularly the old-fashioned theologians who venerated
+Aristotle. He felt, moreover, as they did in regard to the many vices in
+the Church, and was becoming suspicious of the begging monks, although
+he was himself at the head of the Wittenberg monastery. So those who had
+defended Reuchlin were now ready to support Luther, to whom they wrote
+encouraging letters. Luther's works were published by Erasmus' printer
+at Basel, and sent to Italy, France, England, and Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Erasmus' attitude toward the Lutheran movement.</div>
+
+<p>But Erasmus, the mighty sovereign of the men of letters, refused to take
+sides in the controversy. He asserted that he had not read more than a
+dozen pages of Luther's writings. Although he admitted that "the
+monarchy of the Roman high priest was, in its existing condition, the
+pest of Christendom," he believed that a direct attack upon it would do
+no good. Luther, he urged, would better be discreet and trust that
+mankind would become more intelligent and outgrow their false ideas.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between Luther and Erasmus.</div>
+
+<p>To Erasmus, man was capable of progress; cultivate him and extend his
+knowledge, and he would grow better and better. He was a free agent,
+with, on the whole, upright tendencies. To Luther, on the other hand,
+man was utterly corrupt, and incapable of a single righteous wish or
+deed. His will was enslaved to evil, and his only hope lay in the
+recognition of his absolute inability to better himself, and in a humble
+reliance upon God's mercy. By faith only, not by conduct, could he be
+saved. Erasmus was willing to wait until every one agreed that the
+Church should be reformed. Luther had no patience with an institution
+which seemed to him to be leading souls to destruction by inducing men
+to rely upon their good works. Both men realized that they could not
+agree. For a time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> they expressed respect for each other, but at last
+they became involved in a bitter controversy in which they gave up all
+pretense to friendship. Erasmus declared that Luther, by scorning good
+works and declaring that no one could do right, had made his followers
+indifferent to their conduct, and that those who accepted Luther's
+teachings straightway became pert, rude fellows, who would not take off
+their hats to him on the street.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ulrich von Hutten espouses Luther's cause.</div>
+
+<p>Ulrich von Hutten, on the other hand, warmly espoused Luther's cause as
+that of a German patriot and an opponent of Roman tyranny, intrigue, and
+oppression. "Let us defend our freedom," he wrote, "and liberate the
+long enslaved fatherland. We have God on our side, and if God be with
+us, who can be against us?" Hutten enlisted the interest of some of the
+other knights, who offered to defend Luther should the churchmen attack
+him, and invited him to take refuge in their castles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther begins to use violent language.</div>
+
+<p><b>145.</b> Thus encouraged, Luther, who gave way at times to his naturally
+violent disposition, became threatening, and suggested that the civil
+power should punish the churchmen and force them to reform their
+conduct. "We punish thieves with the gallows, bandits with the sword,
+heretics with fire; why should we not, with far greater propriety,
+attack with every kind of weapon these very masters of perdition, the
+cardinals, popes, and the whole mob in the Roman Sodom?" "The die is
+cast," he writes to a friend; "I despise Rome's wrath as I do her favor;
+I will have no reconciliation or intercourse with her in all time to
+come. Let her condemn and burn my writings. I will, if fire can be
+found, publicly condemn and burn the whole papal law."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's and Hutten's appeal to the German people.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's <i>Address to the German Nobility</i>.</div>
+
+<p>Hutten and Luther vied with one another during the year 1520 in
+attacking the pope and his representatives. They both possessed a fine
+command of the German language, and they were fired by a common hatred
+of Rome. Hutten had little or none of Luther's religious fervor, but he
+could not find colors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> too dark in which to picture to his countrymen
+the greed of the papal curia, which he described as a vast den, to which
+everything was dragged which could be filched from the Germans. Of
+Luther's popular pamphlets, the first really famous one was his <i>Address
+to the German Nobility</i>, in which he calls upon the rulers of Germany,
+especially the knights, to reform the abuses themselves, since he
+believed that it was vain to wait for the Church to do so.</p>
+
+<p>He explains that there are three walls behind which the papacy had been
+wont to take refuge when any one proposed to remedy its abuses. There
+was, first, the claim that the clergy formed a separate class, superior
+even to the civil rulers, who might not punish a churchman, no matter
+how bad he was. Secondly, the pope claimed to be superior to a council,
+so that even the representatives of the Church might not correct him.
+And, lastly, the pope assumed the sole right to interpret the meaning of
+the Scriptures; consequently he could not be refuted by arguments from
+the Bible. Thus the pope had stolen the three rods with which he might
+have been punished. Luther claimed to cast down these defenses by
+denying, to begin with, that there was anything especially sacred about
+a clergyman except the duties which he had been designated to perform.
+If he did not attend to his work he might be deprived of his office at
+any moment, just as one would turn off an incompetent tailor or farmer,
+and in that case he became a simple layman again. Luther claimed that it
+was the right and duty of the civil government to punish a churchman who
+does wrong just as if he were the humblest layman. When this first wall
+was destroyed the others would fall easily enough, for the dominant
+position of the clergy was the very corner stone of the medi&aelig;val
+Church.<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Luther advocates social as well as religious reforms.</div>
+
+<p>The pamphlet closes with a long list of evils which must be done away
+with before Germany can become prosperous. Luther saw that his view of
+religion really implied a social revolution. He advocated reducing the
+monasteries to a tenth of their number and permitting those who were
+disappointed in the good they got from living in them freely to leave.
+He would not have them prisons, but hospitals and refuges for the
+soul-sick. He points out the evils of pilgrimages and of the numerous
+church holidays, which interfere with daily work. The clergy, he urged,
+should be permitted to marry and have families like other citizens. The
+universities should be reformed, and "the accursed heathen, Aristotle,"
+should be cast out from them.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted that Luther appeals to the authorities not in the
+name of religion chiefly, but in that of public order and prosperity. He
+says that the money of the Germans flies feather-light over the Alps to
+Italy, but it suddenly becomes like lead when there is a question of its
+coming back. He showed himself a master of vigorous language, and his
+denunciations of the clergy and the Church resounded like a trumpet call
+in the ears of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther attacks the sacramental system in his <i>Babylonian
+Captivity of the Church</i>, 1520.</div>
+
+<p>Luther had said little of the doctrines of the Church in his <i>Address to
+the German Nobility</i>, but within three or four months he issued a second
+work, in which he sought to overthrow the whole system of the
+sacraments, as it had been taught by Peter Lombard and the theologians
+of the thirteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> Four of the seven
+sacraments&mdash;ordination, marriage, confirmation, and extreme unction&mdash;he
+rejected altogether. He completely revised the conception of the Mass,
+or the Lord's Supper. He stripped the priest of his singular powers by
+denying that he performed the miracle of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>transubstantiation or offered
+a sacrifice for the living and the dead when he officiated at the Lord's
+Supper. The priest was, in his eyes, only a minister, in the Protestant
+sense of the word, one of whose chief functions was preaching.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther excommunicated.</div>
+
+<p><b>146.</b> Luther had long expected to be excommunicated. But it was not until
+late in 1520 that his adversary, Eck, arrived in Germany with a papal
+bull condemning many of Luther's assertions as heretical and giving him
+sixty days in which to recant. Should he fail to come to himself within
+that time, he and all who adhered to or favored him were to be
+excommunicated, and any place which harbored him should fall under the
+interdict. Now, since the highest power in Christendom had pronounced
+Luther a heretic, he should unhesitatingly have been delivered up by the
+German authorities. But no one thought of arresting him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The German authorities reluctant to publish the bull against
+Luther.</div>
+
+<p>The bull irritated the German princes; whether they liked Luther or not,
+they decidedly disliked to have the pope issuing commands to them. Then
+it appeared to them very unfair that Luther's personal enemy should have
+been intrusted with the publication of the bull. Even the princes and
+universities that were most friendly to the pope published the bull with
+great reluctance. The students of Erfurt and Leipsic pursued Eck with
+pointed allusions to Pharisees and devil's emissaries. In many cases the
+bull was ignored altogether. Luther's own sovereign, the elector of
+Saxony, while no convert to the new views, was anxious that Luther's
+case should be fairly considered, and continued to protect him. One
+mighty prince, however, the young emperor Charles V, promptly and
+willingly published the bull; not, however, as emperor, but as ruler of
+the Austrian dominions and of the Netherlands. Luther's works were
+burned at Louvain, Mayence, and Cologne, the strongholds of the old
+theology.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther defies pope and emperor.</div>
+
+<p>"Hard it is," Luther exclaimed, "to be forced to contradict all the
+prelates and princes, but there is no other way to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> escape hell and
+God's anger." Never had one man so unreservedly declared war upon pretty
+much the whole consecrated order of things. As one power arrayed against
+an equal, the Wittenberg professor opposed himself to pope and emperor,
+giving back curse for curse and fagot for fagot. His students were
+summoned to witness "the pious, religious spectacle," when he cast Leo's
+bull on the fire, along with the canon law and one of the books of
+scholastic theology which he most disliked.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hutten's plan for an immediate destruction of the old
+Church.</div>
+
+<p>Never was the temptation so great for Luther to encourage a violent
+demolition of the old structure of the Church as at this time. Hutten
+was bent upon the speedy carrying out of the revolution which both he
+and Luther were forwarding by their powerful writings. Hutten had taken
+refuge in the castle of the leader of the German knights, Franz von
+Sickingen, who he believed would be an admirable military commander in
+the coming contest for truth and liberty. Hutten frankly proposed to the
+young emperor that the papacy should be abolished, that the property of
+the Church should be confiscated, and that ninety-nine out of a hundred
+of the clergy should be dispensed with as superfluous. In this way
+Germany would be freed, he argued, from the control of the "parsons" and
+from their corruption. From the vast proceeds of the confiscation the
+state might be strengthened and an army of knights might be maintained
+for the defense of the empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Views of the papal representative on public opinion in
+Germany.</div>
+
+<p>Public opinion appeared ready for a revolution. "I am pretty familiar
+with the history of this German nation," Leo's representative, Aleander,
+remarked; "I know their past heresies, councils, and schisms, but never
+were affairs so serious before. Compared with present conditions, the
+struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII was as violets and roses....
+These mad dogs are now well equipped with knowledge and arms; they boast
+that they are no longer ignorant brutes like their predecessors; they
+claim that Italy has lost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> the monopoly of the sciences and that the
+Tiber now flows into the Rhine." "Nine-tenths of the Germans," he
+calculated, "are shouting 'Luther,' and the other tenth goes so far at
+least as 'Death to the Roman curia.'"</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's attitude toward a violent realization of his
+reforms.</div>
+
+<p>Luther was too frequently reckless and violent in his writings. He often
+said that bloodshed could not be avoided when it should please God to
+visit his judgments upon the stiff-necked and perverse generation of
+"Romanists," as the Germans contemptuously called the supporters of the
+pope. Yet he always discouraged precipitate reform. He was reluctant to
+make changes, except in belief. He held that so long as an institution
+did not mislead, it did no harm. He was, in short, no fanatic at heart.
+The pope had established himself without force, so would he be crushed
+by God's word without force. This, we may assume, was Luther's most
+profound conviction, even in the first period of enthusiasm and
+confidence. He perhaps never fully realized how different Hutten's ideas
+were from his own, for the poet knight died while still a young man. And
+as for Franz von Sickingen, Luther soon learned to execrate the
+ruthless, worldly soldier who brought discredit by his violence upon the
+cause of reform.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles V's want of sympathy with the German reformers.</div>
+
+<p><b>147.</b> Among the enemies of the German reformers none was more important
+than the young emperor. It was toward the end of the year 1520 that
+Charles came to Germany for the first time. After being crowned king of
+the Romans at Aix-la-Chapelle, he assumed, with the pope's consent, the
+title of emperor elect, as his grandfather Maximilian had done. He then
+moved on to the town of Worms, where he was to hold his first diet and
+face the German situation.</p>
+
+<p>Although scarcely more than a boy in years, Charles had already begun to
+take life very seriously. He had decided that Spain, not Germany, was to
+be the bulwark and citadel of all his realms. Like the more enlightened
+of his Spanish subjects, he realized the need of reforming the Church,
+but he had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> no sympathy whatever with any change of doctrine. He
+proposed to live and die a devout Catholic of the old type, such as his
+orthodox ancestors had been. He felt, moreover, that he must maintain
+the same religion in all parts of his heterogeneous dominions. If he
+should permit the Germans to declare their independence of the Church,
+the next step would be for them to claim that they had a right to
+regulate their government regardless of their emperor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther summoned to the diet at Worms.</div>
+
+<p>Upon arriving at Worms the case of Luther was at once forced upon
+Charles' attention by the assiduous papal representative, Aleander, who
+was indefatigable in urging him to outlaw the heretic without further
+delay. While Charles seemed convinced of Luther's guilt, he could not
+proceed against him without serious danger. The monk had become a
+national hero and had the support of the powerful elector of Saxony.
+Other princes, who had ordinarily no wish to protect a heretic, felt
+that Luther's denunciation of the evils in the Church and of the actions
+of the pope was very gratifying. After much discussion it was finally
+arranged, to the great disgust of the zealous Aleander, that Luther
+should be summoned to Worms and be given an opportunity to face the
+German nation and the emperor, and to declare plainly whether he was the
+author of the heretical books ascribed to him, and whether he still
+adhered to the doctrines which the pope had declared wrong.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor accordingly wrote the "honorable and respected" Luther a
+very polite letter, ordering him to appear at Worms and granting him a
+safe-conduct thither. Luther said, on receiving the summons, that if he
+was going to Worms merely to retract, he might better stay in
+Wittenberg, where he could, if he would, abjure his errors quite as well
+as on the Rhine. If, on the other hand, the emperor wished him to come
+to Worms in order that he might be put to death, he was quite ready to
+go, "for, with Christ's help, I will not flee and leave the Word in the
+lurch. My revocation will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> in this wise: 'Earlier I said that the
+pope was God's vicar; now I revoke and say, the pope is Christ's enemy
+and an envoy of the devil.'"</p>
+
+<p><b>148.</b> Luther accordingly set out for Worms accompanied by the imperial
+herald. He enjoyed a triumphal progress through the various places on
+his way and preached repeatedly, in spite of the fact that he was an
+excommunicated heretic. He found the diet in a great state of commotion.
+The papal representative was the object of daily insults, and Hutten and
+Sickingen talked of scattering Luther's enemies by a sally from the
+neighboring castle of Ebernburg.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther before the diet.</div>
+
+<p>It was not proposed to give Luther an opportunity to defend his beliefs
+before the diet. When he appeared before "emperor and empire," he was
+simply asked if a pile of his Latin and German works were really his,
+and, if so, whether he revoked what he had said in them. To the first
+question the monk replied in a low voice that he had written these and
+more. As to the second question, which involved the welfare of the soul
+and the Word of God, he asked that he might have a little while to
+consider.</p>
+
+<p>The following day, in a Latin address which he repeated in German, he
+admitted that he had been overviolent in his attacks upon his opponents;
+but he said that no one could deny that, through the popes' decrees, the
+consciences of faithful Christians had been miserably ensnared and
+tormented, and their goods and possessions, especially in Germany,
+devoured. Should he recant those things which he had said against the
+pope's conduct he would only strengthen the papal tyranny and give an
+opportunity for new usurpations. If, however, adequate arguments against
+his position could be found in the Scriptures, he would gladly and
+willingly recant. He could not, however, accept the decision either of
+pope or of council, since both, he believed, had made mistakes and
+contradicted themselves. "I must," he concluded, "allow my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> conscience
+to be controlled by God's Word. Recant I can not and will not, for it is
+hazardous and dishonorable to act against one's conscience."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The emperor forced by the law to outlaw Luther.</div>
+
+<p>There was now nothing for the emperor to do but to outlaw Luther, who
+had denied the binding character of the commands of the head of the
+Church and of the highest Christian tribunal, a general council. His
+argument that the Scriptures sustained him in his revolt could not be
+considered by the diet.<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Edict of Worms, 1521.</div>
+
+<p>Aleander was accordingly assigned the agreeable duty of drafting the
+famous Edict of Worms. This document declared Luther an outlaw on the
+following grounds: that he disturbed the recognized number and
+celebration of the sacraments, impeached the regulations in regard to
+marriage, scorned and vilified the pope, despised the priesthood and
+stirred up the laity to dip their hands in the blood of the clergy,
+denied free will, taught licentiousness, despised authority, advocated a
+brutish existence, and was a menace to Church and State alike. Every one
+was forbidden to give the heretic food, drink, or shelter, and required
+to seize him and deliver him to the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the decree provides that "no one shall dare to buy, sell,
+read, preserve, copy, print, or cause to be copied or printed any books
+of the aforesaid Martin Luther, condemned by our holy father the pope,
+as aforesaid, or any other writings in German or Latin hitherto composed
+by him, since they are foul, noxious, suspected, and published by a
+notorious and stiff-necked heretic. Neither shall any one dare to affirm
+his opinions, or proclaim, defend, or advance them in any other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> way
+that human ingenuity can invent,&mdash;notwithstanding that he may have put
+some good into his writings in order to deceive the simple man."<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the last time the empire had recognized its obligation to carry out
+the decrees of the Bishop of Rome. "I am becoming ashamed of my
+fatherland," Hutten cried. So general was the disapproval of the edict
+that few were willing to pay any attention to it. Charles immediately
+left Germany, and for nearly ten years was occupied outside it with the
+government of Spain and a succession of wars.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Beard</span>, <i>Martin Luther</i> (see above, p. 386), is
+probably the best account in English of Luther before his
+retirement to the Wartburg; <span class="smcap">K&ouml;stlin</span>, <i>Life of Luther</i> (Scribner's
+Sons, $2.50), is excellent. An account of Luther and Hutten by a
+learned Roman Catholic writer may be found in <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, <i>History of
+the German People</i> (see above, p. 386), Vol. III; <span class="smcap">Creighton</span>,
+<i>History of the Papacy</i> (see above, p. 320), Vol. VI; Chapters III
+and V are devoted to Luther and the diet of Worms.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVI</h2>
+
+<h3>COURSE OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN GERMANY<br />
+
+1521&ndash;1555</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther begins a new translation of the Bible in the
+Wartburg.</div>
+
+<p><b>149.</b> As Luther neared Eisenach upon his way home from Worms he was
+seized by a band of men and conducted to the Wartburg, a castle
+belonging to the elector of Saxony. Here he was concealed until any
+danger from the action of the emperor or diet should pass by. His chief
+occupation during several months of hiding was to begin a new
+translation of the Bible into German. He had finished the New Testament
+before he left the Wartburg in March, 1522.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time, German editions of the Scriptures, while not uncommon,
+were poor and obscure. Luther's task was a difficult one. He said with
+truth that "translation is not an art to be practiced by every one; it
+demands a right pious, true, industrious, reverent, Christian,
+scholarly, experienced, and well-trained mind." He had studied Greek for
+only two or three years, and he knew far less Hebrew than Greek.
+Moreover, there was no generally accepted form of the German language of
+which he could make use. Each region had its peculiar dialect which
+seemed outlandish to the neighboring district.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's Bible the first important book in modern German.</div>
+
+<p>He was anxious above all that the Bible should be put into language that
+would seem perfectly clear and natural to the common folk. So he went
+about asking the mothers and children and the laborers questions which
+might draw out the expression that he was looking for. It sometimes took
+him two or three weeks to find the right word. But so well did<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> he do
+his work that his Bible may be regarded as a great landmark in the
+history of the German language. It was the first book of any importance
+written in modern German, and it has furnished an imperishable standard
+for the language.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General discussion of public questions in pamphlets and
+satires.</div>
+
+<p>Previous to 1518 there had been very few books or pamphlets printed in
+German. The translation of the Bible into language so simple that even
+the unlearned might profit by it was only one of the signs of a general
+effort to awaken the minds of the common people. Luther's friends and
+enemies also commenced to write for the great German public in its own
+language. The common man began to raise his voice, to the scandal of the
+learned.</p>
+
+<p>Hundreds of pamphlets, satires, and pictorial caricatures have come down
+to us which indicate that the religious and other questions of the day
+were often treated in somewhat the same spirit in which our comic papers
+deal with political problems and discussions now. We find, for instance,
+a correspondence between Leo X and the devil, and a witty dialogue
+between Franz von Sickingen and St. Peter at the gate of heaven. In the
+latter Peter confesses that he has never heard of the right "to loose
+and to bind," of which his successors say so much. He refuses to discuss
+military matters with Sickingen, but calls in St. George, who is
+supposed to be conversant with the art of war. In another satire, a
+vacation visit of St. Peter to the earth is described. He is roughly
+treated, especially by the soldiers at an inn, and hastens back to
+heaven with a sad tale of the evil plight of Germany, of how badly
+children are brought up, and how unreliable the servants are.<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divergent notions of how the Church should actually be
+reformed.</div>
+
+<p><b>150.</b> Hitherto there had been a great deal of talk of reform, but as yet
+nothing had actually been done. There was no sharp line drawn between
+the different classes of reformers. All agreed that something should be
+done to better the Church, few realized how divergent were the real ends
+in view. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> princes listened to Luther because they hoped to control
+the churchmen and their property and check the outflow of money to Rome.
+The knights, under Sickingen, hated the princes, of whose increasing
+power they were jealous. Their idea of "righteousness" involved the
+destruction of the existing rulers and the exaltation of their own
+class. The peasants heard Luther gladly because he seemed to furnish new
+proofs of the injustice of the dues which they paid to their lords. The
+higher clergy were bent upon escaping the papal control, and the lower
+clergy wished to have their marriages sanctioned. It is clear that
+religious motives must have been often subordinated to other interests.</p>
+
+<p>Disappointment and chagrin awaited Luther when each of the various
+parties began to carry out its particular notions of reform. His
+doctrines were misunderstood, distorted, and dishonored. He sometimes
+was driven to doubt if his belief in justification by faith were not
+after all a terrible mistake. His first shock came from Wittenberg.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Carlstadt advocates breaking up the monasteries.</div>
+
+<p>While Luther was still at the Wartburg, Carlstadt, one of his colleagues
+in the university, became convinced that the monks and nuns ought to
+leave their cloisters and marry like other people. This was a serious
+proposition for two reasons. In the first place, those who deserted the
+cloister were violating an oath which they had voluntarily taken; in the
+second place, if the monasteries were broken up the problem would
+present itself of the disposal of the property, which had been given to
+them by pious persons for the good of their souls, and with the
+expectation that the monks would give the donors the benefit of their
+prayers. Nevertheless, the monks began to leave Luther's own monastery,
+and the students and citizens to tear down the images of the saints in
+the churches. The Lord's Supper was no longer celebrated in the form of
+the Mass, since that was declared to be an idolatrous worshiping of the
+bread and wine. Then Carlstadt reached the conclusion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> that all learning
+was superfluous, for the Scriptures said plainly that God had concealed
+himself from the wise and revealed the truth unto babes. He astonished
+the tradespeople by consulting them in regard to obscure passages in the
+Bible. The school at Wittenberg was turned into a bake-shop. The
+students, who had been attracted to the university from all parts of
+Germany, began to return home, and the professors prepared to emigrate.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther returns to Wittenberg and explains his plan of reform,
+1522.</div>
+
+<p>When the news of these events reached Luther, he left his concealment,
+regardless of the danger, and returned to Wittenberg. Here he preached a
+series of vigorous sermons in which he pleaded for moderation and
+reason. With some of the changes advocated by Carlstadt he sympathized.
+He would, for instance, have done away with the adoration of the host
+and the celebration of private masses. On the other hand, he disapproved
+of the disorderly breaking up of the monasteries, although he held that
+those who had accepted the doctrine of justification by faith might lay
+aside their cowls, since they had taken their vows when they were under
+the misapprehension that they could save themselves by good works. Those
+who remained in the monasteries were not, moreover, to beg any longer,
+but should earn an honest livelihood.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther advocates patience and moderation.</div>
+
+<p>Luther felt that all changes in religious practices should be made by
+the government; it should not be left to "Mr. Everybody" (<i>Herr Omnes</i>)
+to determine what should be rejected and what retained. If the
+authorities refused to act, then there was nothing to do but to be
+patient and use one's influence for good. "Teach, speak, write, and
+preach that the ordinances of man are naught. Advise that no one shall
+any more become a priest, monk, or nun, and that those who occupy such
+positions shall leave them. Give no more money for papal privileges,
+candles, bells, votive tablets, and churches, but say that a Christian
+life consists in faith and love. Let us keep this up for two years and
+you will see where pope, bishop, monks,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> nuns, and all the hocus-pocus
+of the papal government will be; it will vanish away like smoke." God,
+Luther urged, has left us free to choose whether we shall marry, become
+monks, fast, confess, or place images in the churches. These things are
+not vital to salvation, and each may do what seems to him to be helpful
+in his particular case.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Impossibility of peaceful reform.</div>
+
+<p>Luther's plan of moderation was, however, wholly impracticable. The
+enthusiasm of those who rejected the old views led to a whole-hearted
+repudiation of everything which suggested their former beliefs. Few
+could look with forbearance upon the symbols and practices of a form of
+religion which they had learned to despise. Moreover, many who had no
+deep religious feelings delighted in joining in the destruction of the
+paintings, stained glass, and statues in the churches, simply from a
+love of disorder.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Franz von Sickingen attacks the Archbishop of Treves.</div>
+
+<p><b>151.</b> Luther was soon to realize that a peaceful revolution was out of
+the question. His knightly adherents, Hutten and Franz von Sickingen,
+were the first to bring discredit upon the religious movement by their
+violence. In the autumn of 1522 Sickingen declared war upon his
+neighbor, the Archbishop of Treves, in order to make a beginning in the
+knights' proposed attack upon the princes in general. He promised the
+people of Treves "to free them from the heavy, unchristian yoke of the
+parsons and to lead them into evangelical liberty." He had already
+abolished the Mass in his castle and given shelter to some of Luther's
+followers. But Franz, in undertaking to put the gospel, as he understood
+it, in practice by arms, had other than religious motives. His
+admiration of Luther probably had but little to do with his anxiety to
+put down a hated ecclesiastical prince and seize his property.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Confederation of knights broken up by the princes.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Franz von Sickingen and Hutten.</div>
+
+<p>The Archbishop of Treves proved himself a sagacious military commander
+and gained the support of his subjects. Franz was forced to retire to
+his castle, where he was besieged by the neighboring elector of the
+Palatinate and the landgrave of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> Hesse, a friend of Luther's. The walls
+of the stronghold were battered down by the "unchristian cannonading,"
+and the "executor of righteousness," as Franz was called, was fatally
+injured by a falling beam. A few months later, Hutten died, a miserable
+fugitive in Switzerland. A confederation of the knights, of which
+Sickingen had been the head, aroused the apprehension of the princes,
+who gathered sufficient forces to destroy more than twenty of the
+knights' castles. So Hutten's great plan for restoring the knights to
+their former influence came to a sad and sudden end. It is clear that
+these men had little in common with Luther; yet they talked much of
+evangelical reform, and he was naturally blamed for their misdeeds.
+Those who adhered to the old Church now felt that they had conclusive
+proof that heresy led to anarchy; and since it threatened the civil
+government as well as the Church, they urged that it should be put down
+with fire and sword.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hadrian VI confesses the evil deeds of the papacy.</div>
+
+<p><b>152.</b> While Luther was in the Wartburg, the cultured and worldly Leo X
+had died and had been succeeded by a devout professor of theology, who
+had once been Charles V's tutor. The new pope, Hadrian VI, was honest
+and simple, and a well-known advocate of reform without change of
+belief. He believed that the German revolt was a divine judgment called
+down by the wickedness of men, especially of the priests and prelates.
+He freely confessed, through his legate, in a meeting of the German diet
+at Nuremberg, that the popes had been perhaps the most conspicuous
+sinners. "We well know that for many years the most scandalous things
+have happened in this holy see [of Rome],&mdash;abuses in spiritual matters,
+violations of the canons,&mdash;that, in short, everything has been just the
+opposite of what it should have been. What wonder, then, if the disease
+has spread from the head to the members, from the popes to the lower
+clergy. We clergymen have all strayed from the right path, and for a
+long time there has been no one of us righteous, no, not one."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Hadrian's denunciation of Luther.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of this honest confession, Hadrian was unwilling to listen to
+the grievances of the Germans until they had put down Luther and his
+heresies. He was, the pope declared, a worse foe to Christendom than the
+Turk. There could be nothing fouler or more disgraceful than Luther's
+teachings. He sought to overthrow the very basis of religion and
+morality. He was like Mohammed, but worse, for he would have the
+consecrated monks and nuns marry. Nothing would be securely established
+among men if every presumptuous upstart should insist that he had the
+right to overturn everything which had been firmly established for
+centuries and by saints and sages.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The action of the diet of Nuremberg, 1522.</div>
+
+<p>The diet was much gratified by the pope's frank avowal of the sins of
+his predecessors, in which it heartily concurred. It was glad that the
+pope was going to begin his reform at home, but it strenuously refused
+to order the enforcement of the Edict of Worms for fear of stirring up
+new troubles. The Germans were too generally convinced that they were
+suffering from the oppression of the Roman curia to permit Luther to be
+injured. His arrest would seem an attack upon the freedom of gospel
+teaching and a defence of the old system; it might even lead to civil
+war. So the diet advised that a Christian council be summoned in Germany
+to be made up of laymen as well as clergymen, who should be charged to
+speak their opinions freely and say, not what was pleasant, but what was
+true. In the meantime, only the pure gospel should be preached according
+to the teaching of the Christian Church. As to the complaint of the pope
+that the monks had deserted their monasteries and the priests taken
+wives, these were not matters with which the civil authority had
+anything to do. As the elector of Saxony observed, he paid no attention
+to the monks when they ran into the monastery, and he saw no reason for
+noticing when they ran out. Luther's books were, however, to be no
+longer published, and learned men were to admonish the erring preachers.
+Luther, himself, was to hold his peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> This doubtless gives a fair
+idea of public opinion in Germany. It is noteworthy that Luther did not
+seem to the diet to be a very discreet person and it showed no
+particular respect for him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Pope Clement VII.</div>
+
+<p><b>153.</b> Poor Hadrian speedily died, worn out with the vain effort to
+correct the abuses close at home. He was followed by Clement VII, a
+member of the house of Medici, less gifted but not less worldly than Leo
+X. A new diet, called in 1524, adhered to the policy of its predecessor.
+It was far from approving of Luther, but it placed no effective barrier
+in the way of his work.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The formation of a Catholic party at Regensburg.</div>
+
+<p>The papal legate, realizing the hopelessness of inducing all the members
+of the diet to co&ouml;perate with him in bringing the country once more
+under the pope's control, called together at Regensburg a certain number
+of rulers whom he believed to be rather more favorably disposed toward
+the pope than their fellows. Among these were Charles V's brother,
+Ferdinand, Duke of Austria, the two dukes of Bavaria, the archbishops of
+Salzburg and of Trent, and the bishops of Bamberg, Speyer, Strasburg,
+etc. By means of certain concessions on the part of the pope, he induced
+all these to unite in opposing the Lutheran heresy. The chief concession
+was a reform decree which provided that only authorized preachers should
+be tolerated, and that these should base their teaching on the works of
+the four great church fathers, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory
+the Great. The clergy were to be subjected to careful discipline; there
+was to be no more financial oppression and no unseemly payments demanded
+for performing the church services. Abuses arising from the granting of
+indulgences were to be remedied and the excessive number of holidays
+reduced.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Religious division of Germany.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginning of a reform within the Catholic Church.</div>
+
+<p>This agreement of Regensburg is of great importance, for it served to
+separate Germany into two camps. Austria, Bavaria, and the great
+ecclesiastical states in the south definitely took sides with the pope
+against Luther, and to this day they still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> remain Catholic countries.
+In the north, on the other hand, it became more and more apparent that
+the princes proposed to secede from the Catholic Church. Moreover, the
+skillful diplomacy of the papal legate was really the beginning of a
+reformation of the old Church in Germany. Many of the abuses were done
+away with, and the demand for reform, without revolution in doctrine and
+institutions, was thereby gratified.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> A German Bible for Catholic
+readers was soon issued, and a new religious literature grew up designed
+to prove the truth of the beliefs sanctioned by the Roman Catholic
+Church and to spiritualize its institutions and rites.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther's rash talk about the princes and nobles serves to
+encourage the revolt of the peasants.</div>
+
+<p><b>154.</b> In 1525 the conservative party, who were frankly afraid of Luther,
+received a new and terrible proof, as it seemed to them, of the noxious
+influence of his teachings. The peasants rose, in the name of "God's
+justice," to avenge their wrongs and establish their rights. Luther was
+not responsible for the civil war which ensued, but he had certainly
+helped to stir up discontent. He had asserted that, owing to the habit
+of foreclosing small mortgages, "any one with a hundred guldens could
+gobble up a peasant a year." The German feudal lords he had declared to
+be hangmen, who knew only how to swindle the poor man. "Such fellows
+were formerly called rascals, but now must we call them 'Christian and
+revered princes.'" Wise rulers are rare indeed: "they are usually either
+great fools or the worst rogues on earth." Yet in spite of his harsh
+talk about the princes, Luther really relied upon them to forward his
+movement, and he justly claimed that he had greatly increased their
+power by destroying the authority of the pope and subjecting the clergy
+in all things to the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The demands of the peasants in the 'Twelve Articles.'</div>
+
+<p>Some of the demands of the peasants were perfectly reasonable. The most
+popular expression of their needs was the dignified "Twelve
+Articles."<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> In these they claimed that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> Bible did not sanction
+many of the dues which the lords demanded of them, and that as
+Christians they should no longer be held as serfs. They were willing to
+pay all the old and well-established dues, but they asked to be properly
+remunerated for extra services demanded by the lord. They thought too
+that each community should have the right freely to choose its own
+pastor and to dismiss him if he proved negligent or inefficient.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demands of the working classes of the towns.</div>
+
+<p>Much more radical demands came from the working classes in the towns,
+who in some cases joined the country people in their revolt. The
+articles drawn up in the town of Heilbronn, for example, give a good
+idea of the sources of discontent. The church property was to be
+confiscated and used for the good of the community, except in so far as
+it was necessary to support the pastors chosen by the people. The clergy
+and nobility were to be deprived of all their privileges and powers, so
+that they could no longer oppress the poor man.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luther urges the government to suppress the revolt.</div>
+
+<p>There were, moreover, leaders who were still more violent, who proposed
+to kill the "godless" priests and nobles. Hundreds of castles and
+monasteries were destroyed by the frantic peasantry, and some of the
+nobility were murdered with shocking cruelty. Luther tried to induce the
+peasants, with whom, as the son of a peasant, he was at first inclined
+to sympathize, to remain quiet; but when his warnings proved vain, he
+attacked the rebels violently. He declared that they were guilty of the
+most fearful crimes, for which they deserved death of both body and soul
+many times over. They had broken their allegiance, they had wantonly
+plundered and robbed castles and monasteries, and lastly, they had tried
+to cloak their dreadful sins with excuses from the Gospel. He therefore
+urged the government to put down the insurrection. "Have no pity on the
+poor folk; stab, smite, throttle, who can!"</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The peasant revolt put down with great cruelty.</div>
+
+<p>Luther's advice was followed with terrible literalness by the German
+rulers, and the nobility took fearful revenge for the depredations of
+the peasants. In the summer of 1525 the chief<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> leader of the peasants
+was defeated and killed, and it is estimated that ten thousand peasants
+were put to death, many with the utmost cruelty. Few rulers or lords
+introduced any reforms, and the misfortunes due to the destruction of
+property and to the despair of the peasants cannot be imagined. The
+people concluded that the new gospel was not for them, and talked of
+Luther as "Dr. L&uuml;gner," i.e., liar. The old exactions of the lords of
+the manors were in no way lightened, and the situation of the peasants
+for centuries following the great revolt was worse rather than better.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Catholic and Protestant unions of the German princes.</div>
+
+<p><b>155.</b> The terror inspired by the peasant war led to new measures against
+further attempts to change the religious beliefs of the land. The League
+of Dessau was formed among some of the leading rulers of central and
+northern Germany, to stamp out "the accursed Lutheran sect." The union
+included Luther's arch enemy, Duke George of Saxony, the electors of
+Brandenburg and Mayence, and two princes of Brunswick. The rumor that
+the emperor, who had been kept busy for some years by his wars with
+Francis I, was planning to come to Germany in order to root out the
+growing heresy, led the few princes who openly favored Luther to unite
+also. Among these the chief were the new elector of Saxony, John
+Frederick, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse. These two proved themselves
+the most ardent and conspicuous defenders of the Protestant faith in
+Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The diet of Speyer gives to the individual rulers the right
+to determine the religion of their subjects, 1526.</div>
+
+<p>A new war, in which Francis and the pope sided against the emperor,
+prevented Charles from turning his attention to Germany, and he
+accordingly gave up the idea of enforcing the Edict of Worms against the
+Lutherans. Since there was no one who could decide the religious
+question for all the rulers, the diet of Speyer (1526) determined that,
+pending the meeting of a general council, each ruler, and each knight
+and town owing immediate allegiance to the emperor, should decide
+individually what particular form of religion should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> prevail in his
+realm. Each prince was "so to live, reign, and conduct himself as he
+would be willing to answer before God and His Imperial Majesty." For the
+moment, then, the various German governments were left to determine the
+religion of their subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Yet all still hoped that one religion might ultimately be agreed upon.
+Luther trusted that all Christians would sometime accept the new gospel.
+He was willing that the bishops should be retained, and even that the
+pope should still be regarded as a sort of presiding officer in the
+Church. As for his enemies, they were equally confident that the
+heretics would in time be suppressed as they had always been in the
+past, and that harmony would thus be restored. Neither party was right;
+for the decision of the diet of Speyer was destined to become a
+permanent arrangement, and Germany remained divided between different
+religious faiths.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles V again intervenes in the religious controversy in
+Germany.</div>
+
+<p>New sects opposed to the old Church had begun to appear. Zwingli, a
+Swiss reformer, was gaining many followers, and the Anabaptists were
+rousing Luther's apprehensions by their radical plans for doing away
+with the Catholic religion. As the emperor found himself able for a
+moment to attend to German affairs he bade the diet, again meeting at
+Speyer in 1529, to order the enforcement of the edict against the
+heretics. No one was to preach against the Mass and no one was to be
+prevented from attending it freely.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the term 'Protestant.'</div>
+
+<p>This meant that the "Evangelical" princes would be forced to restore the
+most characteristic Catholic ceremony. As they formed only a minority in
+the diet, all that they could do was to draw up a <i>protest</i>, signed by
+John Frederick, Philip of Hesse, and fourteen of the imperial towns
+(Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, etc.). In this they claimed that the
+majority had no right to abrogate the edict of the former diet of Speyer
+for that had passed unanimously and all had solemnly pledged themselves
+to observe the agreement. They therefore appealed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> to the emperor and a
+future council against the tyranny of the majority.<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> Those who
+signed this appeal were called from their action <i>Protestants</i>. Thus
+originated the name which came to be generally applied to those who do
+not accept the rule and teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Preparations for the diet of Augsburg.</div>
+
+<p><b>156.</b> Since the diet at Worms the emperor had resided in Spain, busied
+with a succession of wars carried on with the king of France. It will be
+remembered that both Charles and Francis claimed Milan and the duchy of
+Burgundy, and they sometimes drew the pope into their conflicts.<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a>
+But in 1530 the emperor found himself at peace for the moment and held a
+brilliant diet of his German subjects at Augsburg in the hope of
+settling the religious problem, which, however, he understood very
+imperfectly. He ordered the Protestants to draw up a statement of
+exactly what they believed, which should serve as a basis for
+discussion. Melanchthon, Luther's most famous friend and colleague, who
+was noted for his great learning and moderation, was intrusted with the
+delicate task.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Augsburg Confession.</div>
+
+<p>The Augsburg Confession, as his declaration was called, is an historical
+document of great importance for the student of the Protestant
+revolt.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> Melanchthon's gentle and conciliatory disposition led him
+to make the differences between his belief and that of the old Church
+seem as few and slight as possible. He showed that both parties held the
+same fundamental views of Christianity. The Protestants, however,
+defended their rejection of a number of the practices of the Roman
+Catholics, such as the celibacy of the clergy and the observance of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
+fast days. There was little or nothing in the Augsburg Confession
+concerning the organization of the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles V's attempt at pacification.</div>
+
+<p>Certain theologians, some of whom, like Eck, had been loud in their
+denunciations of Luther, were ordered by the emperor to prepare a
+refutation of the Protestant views. The statement of the Catholics
+admitted that a number of Melanchthon's positions were perfectly
+orthodox; but the portion of the Augsburg Confession which dealt with
+the practical reforms introduced by the Protestants was rejected
+altogether. Charles declared the Catholic statement to be "Christian and
+judicious" and commanded the Protestants to accept it. They were to
+cease troubling the Catholics and were to give back all the monasteries
+and church property which they had seized. The emperor agreed to urge
+the pope to call a council to meet within a year. This, he hoped, would
+be able to settle all differences and reform the Church according to the
+views of the Catholics.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress of Protestantism up to the Peace of Augsburg, 1555.</div>
+
+<p><b>157.</b> It is unnecessary to follow in detail the progress of Protestantism
+in Germany during the quarter of a century succeeding the diet of
+Augsburg. Enough has been said to show the character of the revolt and
+the divergent views taken by the German princes and people. For ten
+years after the emperor left Augsburg he was kept busy in southern
+Europe by new wars; and in order to secure the assistance of the
+Protestants, he was forced to let them go their own way. Meanwhile the
+number of rulers who accepted Luther's teachings gradually increased.
+Finally there was a brief war between Charles and the Protestant
+princes, but the origin of the conflict was mainly political rather than
+religious. It occurred to the youthful Maurice, Duke of Saxony, that by
+aiding the emperor against the Protestants he might find a good excuse
+for dispossessing his Protestant relative, John Frederick, of his
+electorate. There was but little fighting done. Charles V brought his
+Spanish soldiers into Germany and captured both John Frederick and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> his
+ally, Philip of Hesse, the chief leaders of the Lutheran cause, whom he
+kept prisoners for several years.<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Peace of Augsburg.</div>
+
+<p>This episode did not check the progress of Protestantism. Maurice, who
+had been granted John Frederick's electorate, soon turned about and
+allied himself with the Protestants. The king of France promised them
+help against his enemy, the emperor, and Charles was forced to agree to
+a preliminary peace with the Protestants. Three years later, in 1555,
+the religious Peace of Augsburg was ratified. Its provisions are
+memorable. Each German prince and each town and knight immediately under
+the emperor was to be at liberty to make a choice between the beliefs of
+the venerable Catholic Church and those embodied in the Augsburg
+Confession. If, however, an ecclesiastical prince&mdash;an archbishop,
+bishop, or abbot&mdash;declared himself a Protestant, he must surrender his
+possessions to the Church. Every one was either to conform to the
+religious practices of his particular state, or emigrate.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The principle that the government should determine the
+religion of its subjects.</div>
+
+<p>This religious peace in no way established freedom of conscience, except
+for the rulers. Their power, it must be noted, was greatly increased,
+inasmuch as they were given the control of religious as well as of
+secular matters. This arrangement which permitted the ruler to determine
+the religion of his realm was natural, and perhaps inevitable, in those
+days. The Church and the civil government had been closely associated
+with one another for centuries. No one as yet dreamed that every
+individual, so long as he did not violate the law of the land, might
+safely be left quite free to believe what he would and to practice any
+religious rites which afforded him help and comfort.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Weaknesses of the Peace of Augsburg.</div>
+
+<p>There were two noteworthy weaknesses in the Peace of Augsburg which were
+destined to make trouble. In the first place, only one group of
+Protestants was included in it. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span> now numerous followers of the
+French reformer, Calvin, and of the Swiss reformer, Zwingli, who were
+hated alike by Catholic and Lutheran, were not recognized. Every German
+had to be either a Catholic or a Lutheran in order to be tolerated. In
+the second place, the clause which decreed that ecclesiastical princes
+converted to Protestantism should surrender their property could not be
+enforced, for there was no one to see to its execution.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN SWITZERLAND AND ENGLAND</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>158.</b> For at least a century after Luther's death the great issue between
+Catholics and Protestants dominates the history of all the countries
+with which we have to do, except Italy and Spain, where Protestantism
+never took permanent root. In Switzerland, England, France, and Holland
+the revolt against the medi&aelig;val Church produced profound changes, which
+must be understood in order to follow the later development of these
+countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the Swiss Confederation.</div>
+
+<p>We turn first to Switzerland, lying in the midst of the great chain of
+the Alps which extends from the Mediterranean to Vienna. During the
+Middle Ages, the region destined to be included in the Swiss
+Confederation formed a part of the empire, and was scarcely
+distinguishable from the rest of southern Germany. As early as the
+thirteenth century the three "forest" cantons on the shores of the
+winding lake of Lucerne had formed a union to protect their liberties
+against the encroachments of their neighbors, the Hapsburgs. It was
+about this tiny nucleus that Switzerland gradually consolidated. In 1315
+the cantons gained their first great victory over the Hapsburgs at
+Morgarten and thereupon solemnly renewed their league. This was soon
+joined by Lucerne and the free imperial towns of Zurich and Berne. By
+brave fighting the Swiss were able to frustrate the renewed efforts of
+the Hapsburgs to subjugate them. Later, when a still more formidable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>
+enemy, Charles the Bold, undertook to conquer them they put his armies
+to rout at Granson and Murten (1476).<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image66.jpg" width="500" height="501" alt="The Swiss Confederation" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Swiss Confederation</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Switzerland becomes a separate country; mixed nationality of
+its people.</div>
+
+<p>Various districts in the neighborhood successively joined the Swiss
+union, and even the region lying on the Italian slopes of the Alps was
+brought under its control. Gradually the bonds between the members of
+the union and the empire were broken. They were recognized as being no
+more than "relatives" of the empire; in 1499 they were finally freed
+from the jurisdiction of the emperor, and Switzerland became a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
+practically independent country. Although the original union had been
+made up of German-speaking people, considerable districts had been
+annexed in which Italian or French was spoken.<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> The Swiss did not,
+therefore, form a compact, well-defined nation, and for some centuries
+their confederation was weak and ill-organized.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Zwingli (1484&ndash;1531) leads the revolt in Switzerland against
+the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>159.</b> In Switzerland the leader of the revolt against the Church was
+Zwingli, who was a year younger than Luther and like him was the son of
+peasant parents. Zwingli's father was prosperous, however, and the boy
+had the best education which could be obtained, at Basel and Vienna. His
+later discontent with the old Church came not through spiritual
+wrestlings in the monastery, but from the study of the classics and of
+the Greek New Testament. Zwingli had become a priest and settled at the
+famous monastery of Einsiedeln near the lake of Zurich. This was the
+center of pilgrimages on account of a wonder-working image in the cell
+of St. Meinrad. "Here," he says, "I began to preach the Gospel of Christ
+in the year 1516, before any one in my locality had so much as heard the
+name of Luther."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Zwingli denounces the abuses in the Church and the traffic in
+soldiers.</div>
+
+<p>Three years later he was called to an influential position as preacher
+in the cathedral of Zurich, and there his great work began. Through his
+efforts a Dominican who was preaching indulgences was expelled from the
+country. He then began to denounce the abuses in the Church as well as
+the shameless traffic in soldiers, which he had long regarded as a blot
+upon his country's honor.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> The pope had found the help of the Swiss
+troops indispensable, and had granted annuities and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span> lucrative positions
+in the Church to influential Swiss, who were expected to work in his
+interest. So, from the first, Zwingli was led to combine with his
+religious reform a political reform which should put the cantons on
+better terms with one another and prevent the destruction of their young
+men in wars in which they had no possible interest. A new demand of the
+pope for troops in 1521 led Zwingli to attack him and his commissioners.
+"How appropriate," he exclaims, "that they should have red hats and
+cloaks! If we shake them, crowns and ducats fall out. If we wring them,
+out runs the blood of your sons and brothers and fathers and good
+friends."<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Zurich, under the influence of Zwingli, begins a reform.</div>
+
+<p>Such talk soon began to arouse comment, and the old forest cantons were
+for a violent suppression of the new teacher, but the town council of
+Zurich stanchly supported their priest. Zwingli then began to attack
+fasts and the celibacy of the clergy. In 1523 he prepared a complete
+statement of his belief, in the form of sixty-seven theses. In these he
+maintained that Christ was the only high priest and that the Gospel did
+not gain its sanction from the authority of the Church. He denied the
+existence of purgatory and rejected those practices of the Church which
+Luther had already set aside. Since no one presented himself to refute
+Zwingli, the town council ratified his conclusions and so withdrew from
+the Roman Catholic Church. The next year the Mass, processions, and the
+images of the saints were abolished; the shrines were opened and the
+relics buried.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Other towns follow Zurich's example.</div>
+
+<p>Some other towns followed Zurich's example; but the original cantons
+about the lake of Lucerne, which feared that they might lose the great
+influence that, in spite of their small size, they had hitherto enjoyed,
+were ready to fight for the old faith. The first armed collision, half
+political and half religious, between the Swiss Protestants and
+Catholics took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> place at Kappel in 1531, and Zwingli fell in the battle.
+The various cantons and towns never came to an agreement in religious
+matters, and Switzerland is still part Catholic and part Protestant.</p>
+
+<p>The chief importance for the rest of Europe of Zwingli's revolt was the
+influence of his conception of the Lord's Supper. He not only denied
+transubstantiation,<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> but also the "real presence" of Christ in the
+elements (in which Luther believed), and conceived the bread and wine to
+be mere symbols. Those in Germany and England who accepted Zwingli's
+idea added one more to the Protestant parties, and consequently
+increased the difficulty of reaching a general agreement among those who
+had revolted from the Church.<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calvin (1509&ndash;1564) and the Presbyterian Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>160.</b> Far more important than Zwingli's teachings, especially for England
+and America, was the work of Calvin, which was carried on in the ancient
+city of Geneva on the very outskirts of the Swiss confederation. It was
+Calvin who organized the Presbyterian Church and formulated its beliefs.
+He was born in northern France in 1509; he belonged, therefore, to the
+second generation of Protestants. He was early influenced by the
+Lutheran teachings, which had already found their way into France. A
+persecution of the Protestants under Francis I drove him out of the
+country and he settled for a time in Basel.<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calvin's <i>Institutes of Christianity</i>.</div>
+
+<p>Here he issued the first edition of his great work, <i>The Institutes of
+Christianity</i>, which has been more widely discussed than any other
+Protestant theological treatise. It was the first orderly exposition of
+the principles of Christianity from a Protestant standpoint. Like Peter
+Lombard's <i>Sentences</i>, it formed a convenient manual for study and
+discussion. The <i>Institutes</i> are based upon the infallibility of the
+Bible and reject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> the infallibility of the Church and the pope. Calvin
+possessed a remarkably logical mind and a clear and admirable style. The
+French version of his great work is the first example of the successful
+use of that language in an argumentative treatise.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calvin's reformation in Geneva.</div>
+
+<p>Calvin was called to Geneva about 1540 and intrusted with the task of
+reforming the town, which had secured its independence of the duke of
+Savoy. He drew up a constitution and established an extraordinary
+government, in which the church and the civil government were as closely
+associated as they had ever been in any Catholic country.<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> The
+Protestantism which found its way into France was that of Calvin, not
+that of Luther, and the same may be said of Scotland.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The gradual revolt of England from the Church.</div>
+
+<p><b>161.</b> The revolt of England from the medi&aelig;val Church was very gradual and
+halting. Although there were some signs that Protestantism was gaining a
+foothold in the island not long after Luther's burning of the canon law,
+a generation at least passed away before the country definitely
+committed itself, upon the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558, to the
+change in religion. It seems at first sight as if the revolution were
+due mainly to the irritation of Henry VIII against the pope, who refused
+to grant the king a divorce from his first wife in order that he might
+marry a younger and prettier woman. But a permanent change in the
+religious convictions of a whole people cannot fairly be attributed to
+the whim of even so despotic a ruler as Henry. There were changes taking
+place in England before the revolt similar to those which prepared the
+way in Germany for Luther's success.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John Colet.</div>
+
+<p>English scholars began, in the latter part of the fifteenth century, to
+be affected by the new learning which came to them from Italy.
+Colet,<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> among others, strove to introduce the study of Greek in
+Oxford. Like Luther he found himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> especially attracted by St. Paul,
+and had begun to teach the doctrine of justification by faith long
+before the German reformer was heard of.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sir Thomas More and his 'Utopia.'</div>
+
+<p>The most distinguished writer of the period was, perhaps, Sir Thomas
+More. The title of his famous little book, <i>Utopia</i>, i.e. "Nowhere,"
+published about 1515, has become synonymous with ideal and impracticable
+schemes for bettering the world. He pictures the happy conditions in an
+undiscovered land where a perfect form of government has done away with
+all the evils which he observes about him in the England of his day. The
+Utopians, unlike the English, fought only to keep out invaders or to
+free others from tyranny, and never undertook wars of aggression such as
+Henry VIII was constantly contemplating. In Utopia no one was persecuted
+for his religion so long as he treated others fairly.<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The English admirers of Erasmus.</div>
+
+<p>When Erasmus came to England about 1500 he was delighted with the
+society which he found, and we may assume that his views, which we have
+before described,<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> represented those of a considerable number of
+intelligent Englishmen. It was at the house of More that he finished the
+<i>Praise of Folly</i>, and he carried on his studies with such success in
+England and found such congenial companions there that it seemed to him
+that it was hardly worth while to go to Italy for intellectual
+inspiration. There is every reason to suppose that there were, in
+England, many who were quite conscious of the vices of the churchmen and
+who were ready to accept a system which would abolish those practices
+that had come to seem useless and pernicious.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wolsey's policy of peace and his idea of the balance of
+power.</div>
+
+<p><b>162.</b> Henry VIII's minister, Cardinal Wolsey, deserves great credit for
+having constantly striven to discourage his sovereign's ambition to take
+part in the wars on the continent. The cardinal's argument that England
+could become great by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> peace better than by war was a momentous
+discovery. Peace he felt would be best secured by maintaining the
+<i>balance of power</i> on the continent so that no ruler should become
+dangerous by unduly extending his sway. For example, he thought it good
+policy to side with Charles when Francis was successful, and then with
+Francis after his terrible defeat at Pavia (1525) when he fell into the
+hands of Charles. This idea of the balance of power came to be
+recognized later by the European countries as a very important
+consideration in determining their policy. But Wolsey was not long to be
+permitted to put his enlightened ideas in practice. His fall and the
+progress of Protestantism in England are both closely associated with
+the notorious divorce case of Henry VIII.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image67.jpg" width="300" height="360" alt="Henry VIII of England" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Henry VIII of England</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry VIII's divorce case.</div>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that Henry had married Catherine of Aragon, the
+aunt of Charles V. Only one of their children, Mary, had survived to
+grow up. Henry was very anxious to have a son and heir, for he was
+fearful lest a woman might not be permitted to succeed to the throne.
+Moreover, Catherine, who was older than he, had become distasteful to
+him.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine had first married Henry's older brother, who had died almost
+immediately after the marriage. Since it was a violation of the rule of
+the Church to marry a deceased brother's wife, Henry professed to fear
+that he was committing a sin by retaining Catherine as his wife and
+demanded to be divorced from her on the ground that his marriage had
+never been legal. His anxiety to rid himself of Catherine was greatly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
+increased by the appearance at court of a black-eyed girl of sixteen,
+named Anne Boleyn, with whom the king fell in love.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Clement VII refuses to divorce Henry.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fall of Wolsey.</div>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for his case, his marriage with Catherine had been
+authorized by a dispensation from the pope, so that Clement VII, to whom
+the king appealed to annul the marriage, could not, even if he had been
+willing to alienate the queen's nephew, Charles V, have granted Henry's
+request. Wolsey's failure to induce the pope to permit the divorce
+excited the king's anger, and with rank ingratitude for his minister's
+great services, Henry drove him from office (1529) and seized his
+property. From a life of wealth which was fairly regal, Wolsey was
+precipitated into extreme poverty. An imprudent but innocent act of his
+soon gave his enemies a pretext for charging him with treason; but the
+unhappy man died on his way to London before his head could be brought
+to the block.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry forces the English clergy to recognize him as the
+supreme head of the Church of England.</div>
+
+<p><b>163.</b> The king's next move was to bring a preposterous charge against the
+whole English clergy by declaring that, in submitting to Wolsey's
+authority as papal legate, they had violated an ancient law forbidding
+papal representatives to appear in England without the king's
+permission. Yet Henry had approved Wolsey's appointment as papal legate.
+The clergy met at Canterbury and offered to buy pardon for their alleged
+offense by an enormous grant of money. But Henry refused to forgive them
+unless they would solemnly acknowledge him to be the supreme head of the
+English Church. This they accordingly did;<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> they agreed, moreover,
+to hold no general meetings or pass any rules without the king's
+sanction. The submission of the clergy ensured Henry against any future
+criticism on their part of the measures he proposed to take in the
+matter of his divorce.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Parliament forbids all appeals to the pope, 1533.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">An English court declares Henry's marriage with Catherine
+void.</div>
+
+<p>He now induced Parliament to threaten to cut off the income which the
+pope had been accustomed to receive from newly appointed bishops. The
+king hoped in this way to bring Clement VII to terms. He failed,
+however, in this design and, losing patience, married Anne Boleyn
+secretly without waiting for the divorce. Parliament was then persuaded
+to pass the Act of Appeals, declaring that lawsuits of all kinds should
+be finally and definitely decided within the realm, and that no appeal
+might be made to any one outside the kingdom. Catherine's appeal to the
+pope was thus rendered illegal. When, shortly after, her marriage was
+declared void by a Church court summoned by Henry, she had no remedy.
+Parliament also declared Henry's marriage with Catherine unlawful and
+that with Anne legal. Consequently it was decreed that Elizabeth, Anne's
+daughter, who was born in 1533, was to succeed her father on the throne,
+instead of Mary, the daughter of Catherine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Act of Supremacy and the denial of the pope's authority
+over England.</div>
+
+<p>In 1534 the English Parliament completed the revolt of the English
+Church from the pope by assigning to the king the right to appoint all
+the English prelates and to enjoy all the income which had formerly
+found its way to Rome. In the Act of Supremacy, Parliament declared the
+king to be "the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England,"
+and that he should enjoy all the powers which the title naturally
+carried with it. Two years later every officer in the kingdom, whether
+lay or ecclesiastical, was required to swear to renounce the authority
+of the Bishop of Rome. Refusal to take this oath was to be adjudged high
+treason. Many were unwilling to deny the pope's headship merely because
+king and Parliament renounced it, and this legislation led to a
+persecution in the name of treason which was even more horrible than
+that which had been carried on in the supposed interest of religion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry VIII no Protestant.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The English Bible.</div>
+
+<p>It must be carefully noted that Henry VIII was not a Protestant in the
+Lutheran sense of the word. He was led, it is true,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> by Clement VII's
+refusal to declare his first marriage illegal, to break the bond between
+the English and the Roman Church, and to induce the English clergy and
+Parliament to acknowledge him as supreme head in the religious as well
+as in the temporal interests of the country. No earlier English
+sovereign had ever ventured to go so far as this in the previous
+conflicts with Rome. He was ready, too, as we shall see, to appropriate
+the property of the monasteries on the ground that these institutions
+were so demoralized as to be worse than useless. Important as these acts
+were, they did not lead Henry to accept the teachings of Protestant
+leaders, like Luther, Zwingli, or Calvin. He shared the popular distrust
+of the new doctrines, and showed himself anxious to explain the old ones
+and free them from the objections which were beginning to be urged
+against them. A proclamation was made, under the authority of the king,
+in which the sacraments of baptism, penance, and the Mass were
+explained. Henry also authorized a new translation of the Bible into
+English. A fine edition of this was printed (1539), and every parish was
+ordered to obtain a copy and place it in the parish church, where all
+the people could readily make use of it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry's anxiety to prove himself a good Catholic.</div>
+
+<p>Henry was anxious to prove that he was orthodox, especially after he had
+seized the property of the monasteries and the gold and jewels which
+adorned the receptacles in which the relics of the saints were kept. He
+presided in person over the trial of one who accepted the opinion of
+Zwingli, that the body and blood of Christ were not present in the
+sacrament. He quoted Scripture to prove the contrary, and the prisoner
+was condemned and burned as a heretic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Six Articles.'</div>
+
+<p>In 1539 Parliament passed a statute called the "Six Articles." These
+declared first that the body and blood of Christ were actually present
+in the bread and the wine of the Lord's Supper; whoever ventured
+publicly to question this was to be burned. For speaking against five
+other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> tenets<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> of the old Church, offenders were to suffer
+imprisonment and loss of goods for the first offense, and to be hanged
+for the second. Two bishops, who had ventured to go farther in the
+direction of Protestantism than Henry himself had done, were driven from
+office and some offenders were put to death under this act.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry's tyranny.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Execution of Sir Thomas More.</div>
+
+<p><b>164.</b> Henry was heartless and despotic. With a barbarity not uncommon in
+those days, he allowed his old friend and adviser, Sir Thomas More, to
+be beheaded for refusing to pronounce the marriage with Catherine void.
+He caused numbers of monks to be executed for refusing to swear that his
+first marriage was illegal and for denying his title to supremacy in the
+Church. Others he permitted to die of starvation and disease in the
+filthy prisons of the time. Many Englishmen would doubtless have agreed
+with one of the friars who said humbly: "I profess that it is not out of
+obstinate malice or a mind of rebellion that I do disobey the king, but
+only for the fear of God, that I offend not the Supreme Majesty; because
+our Holy Mother, the Church, hath decreed and appointed otherwise than
+the king and Parliament hath ordained."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dissolution of the English monasteries.</div>
+
+<p>Henry wanted money; some of the English abbeys were rich, and the monks
+were quite unable to defend themselves against the charges which were
+brought against them. The king sent commissioners about to inquire into
+the moral state of the monasteries. A large number of scandalous tales
+were easily collected, some of which were undoubtedly true. The monks
+were doubtless often indolent and sometimes wicked.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> Nevertheless, they
+were kind landlords, hospitable to the stranger, and good to the poor.
+The plundering of the smaller monasteries, with which the king began,
+led to a revolt, due to a rumor that the king would next proceed to
+despoil the parish churches as well. This gave Henry an excuse for
+attacking the larger monasteries. The abbots and priors who had taken
+part in the revolt were hanged and their monasteries confiscated. Other
+abbots, panic-stricken, confessed that they and their monks had been
+committing the most loathsome sins and asked to be permitted to give up
+their monasteries to the king. The royal commissioners then took
+possession, sold every article upon which they could lay hands,
+including the bells and the lead on the roofs. The picturesque remains
+of the great abbey churches are still among the chief objects of
+interest to the sight-seer in England. The monastery lands were, of
+course, appropriated by the king. They were sold for the benefit of the
+government or given to nobles whose favor the king wished to secure.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Destruction of shrines and images for the benefit of the
+king's treasury.</div>
+
+<p>Along with the destruction of the monasteries went an attack upon the
+shrines and images in the churches, which were adorned with gold and
+jewels. The shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury was destroyed and the
+bones of the saint were burned. An old wooden figure revered in Wales
+was used to make a fire to burn an unfortunate friar who maintained that
+in things spiritual the pope rather than the king should be obeyed.
+These acts suggest the Protestant attacks on images which occurred in
+Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The object of the king and
+his party was probably in the main a mercenary one, although the reason
+urged for the destruction was the superstitious veneration in which the
+relics and images were popularly held.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry's third marriage and the birth of Edward VI.</div>
+
+<p>Henry's domestic troubles by no means came to an end with his marriage
+with Anne Boleyn. Of her, too, he soon tired, and three years after
+their marriage he had her executed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> on a series of monstrous charges.
+The next day he married his third wife, Jane Seymour, who was the mother
+of his son and successor, Edward VI. Jane died a few days after her
+son's birth, and later Henry married in succession three other women who
+are historically unimportant since they left no children as claimants
+for the crown. Henry took care that his three children, all of whom were
+destined to reign, should be given their due place by act of Parliament
+in the line of inheritance.<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> His death in 1547 left the great
+problem of Protestantism and Catholicism to be settled by his son and
+daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Edward VI's ministers introduce Protestant practices.</div>
+
+<p><b>165.</b> While the revolt of England against the ancient Church was carried
+through by the government at a time when the greater part of the nation
+was still Catholic, there was undoubtedly, under Henry VIII, an
+ever-increasing number of aggressive and ardent Protestants who
+applauded the change. During the six years of the boy Edward's reign&mdash;he
+died in 1553 at the age of sixteen&mdash;those in charge of the government
+favored the Protestant party and did what they could to change the faith
+of all the people by bringing Protestant teachers from the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>A general demolition of all the sacred images was ordered; even the
+beautiful stained glass, the glory of the cathedrals, was destroyed,
+because it often represented saints and angels. The king was to appoint
+bishops without troubling to observe the old forms of election, and
+Protestants began to be put into the high offices of the Church.
+Parliament turned over to the king the funds which had been established
+for the purpose of having masses chanted for the dead, and decreed that
+thereafter the clergy should be free to marry.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The prayer-book and the 'Thirty-Nine Articles.'</div>
+
+<p>A prayer-book in English was prepared under the auspices of Parliament
+not very unlike that used in the Church of England to-day. Moreover,
+forty-two articles of faith were drawn up by the government, which were
+to be the standard of belief for the country. These, in the time of
+Queen Elizabeth, were revised and reduced to the famous "Thirty-Nine
+Articles," which still constitute the creed of the Church of
+England.<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Protestantism partially discredited by Edward's ministers.</div>
+
+<p>The changes in the church services must have sadly shocked a great part
+of the English people, who had been accustomed to watch with awe and
+expectancy the various acts associated with the many church ceremonies
+and festivals.<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> Earnest men who watched the misrule of those who
+conducted Edward's government in the name of Protestantism, must have
+concluded that the reformers were chiefly intent upon advancing their
+own interests by plundering the Church. We get some idea of the
+desecrations of the time from the fact that Edward was forced to forbid
+"quarreling and shooting in churches" and "the bringing of horses and
+mules through the same, making God's house like a stable or common inn."
+Although many were heartily in favor of the recent changes it is no
+wonder that after Edward's death there was a revulsion in favor of the
+old religion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Queen Mary, 1553&ndash;1558, and the Catholic reaction.</div>
+
+<p><b>166.</b> Edward VI was succeeded in 1553 by his half-sister Mary, who had
+been brought up in the Catholic faith and held firmly to it. Her ardent
+hope of bringing her kingdom back once more to her religion did not seem
+altogether ill-founded, for the majority of the people were still
+Catholics at heart, and many who were not disapproved of the policy of
+Edward's ministers, who had removed abuses "in the devil's own way, by
+breaking in pieces."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Mary's marriage with Philip II of Spain.</div>
+
+<p>The Catholic cause appeared, moreover, to be strengthened by Mary's
+marriage with the Spanish prince, Philip II, the son of the orthodox
+Charles V. But although Philip later distinguished himself, as we shall
+see, by the merciless way in which he strove to put down heresy within
+his realms, he never gained any great influence in England. By his
+marriage with Mary he acquired the title of king, but the English took
+care that he should have no hand in the government, nor be permitted to
+succeed his wife on the English throne.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Kneeling Parliament,' 1554.</div>
+
+<p>Mary succeeded in bringing about a nominal reconciliation between
+England and the Roman Church. In 1554 the papal legate restored to the
+communion of the Catholic Church the "Kneeling Parliament," which
+theoretically, of course, represented the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution of the Protestants under Mary.</div>
+
+<p>During the last four years of Mary's reign the most serious religious
+persecution in English history occurred. No less than 277 persons were
+put to death for denying the teachings of the Roman Church. The majority
+of the victims were humble artisans and husbandmen. The two most notable
+sufferers were Bishops Latimer and Ridley, who were burned in Oxford.
+Latimer cried to his fellow-martyr in the flames: "Be of good cheer and
+play the man; we shall this day light such a candle in England as shall
+never be put out!"</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mary's failure to restore the Catholic religion in England.</div>
+
+<p>It was Mary's hope and belief that the heretics sent to the stake would
+furnish a terrible warning to the Protestants and check the spread of
+the new teachings, but it fell out as Latimer had prophesied.
+Catholicism was not promoted; on the contrary, doubters were only
+convinced of the earnestness of the Protestants who could die with such
+constancy.<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION&mdash;PHILIP II</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The conservative or Catholic reformation.</div>
+
+<p><b>167.</b> There had been many attempts, as we have seen, before Luther's
+appearance, to better the clergy and remedy the evils in the Church
+without altering its organization or teachings. Hopeful progress toward
+such a conservative reform had been made even before the Protestants
+threw off their allegiance to the pope.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> Their revolt inevitably
+hastened and stimulated the reform of the ancient Church, to which the
+greater part of western Europe still remained faithful. The Roman
+Catholic churchmen were aroused to great activity by the realization
+that they could no longer rely upon the general acceptance of their
+teachings. They were forced to defend the beliefs and ceremonies of
+their Church from the attacks of the Protestants, to whose ranks whole
+countries were deserting. If the clergy were to make head against the
+dreaded heresy which threatened their position and power, they must
+secure the loyalty of the people to them and to the great institution
+which they represented, by leading upright lives, giving up the old
+abuses, and thus regaining the confidence of those intrusted to their
+spiritual care.</p>
+
+<p>A general council was accordingly summoned at Trent to consider once
+more the remedying of the long recognized evils, and to settle
+authoritatively numerous questions of belief upon which theologians had
+differed for centuries. New religious orders sprang up, whose object was
+better to prepare the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> priests for their work and to bring home religion
+to the hearts of the people. Energetic measures were taken to repress
+the growth of heresy in countries which were still Roman Catholic and to
+prevent the dissemination of Protestant doctrines in books and
+pamphlets. Above all, better men were placed in office, from the pope
+down. The cardinals, for example, were no longer merely humanists and
+courtiers, but among them might be found the leaders of religious
+thought in Italy. Many practices which had formerly irritated the people
+were permanently abolished. These measures resulted in a remarkable
+reformation of the ancient Church, such as the Council of Constance had
+striven in vain to bring about.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> Before turning to the terrible
+struggles between the two religious parties in the Netherlands and
+France during the latter half of the sixteenth century, a word must be
+said of the Council of Trent and of an extraordinarily powerful new
+religious order, the Jesuits.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles V's confidence in the settlement of the religious
+differences by a council.</div>
+
+<p>Charles V, who did not fully grasp the irreconcilable differences
+between Protestant and Catholic beliefs, made repeated efforts to bring
+the two parties together by ordering the Protestants to accept what
+seemed to him a simple statement of the Christian faith. He had great
+confidence that if representatives of the old and the new beliefs could
+meet one another in a church council all points of disagreement might be
+amicably settled. The pope was, however, reluctant to see a council
+summoned in Germany, for he had by no means forgotten the conduct of the
+Council of Basel. To call the German Protestants into Italy, on the
+other hand, would have been useless, for none of them would have
+responded or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> have paid any attention to the decisions of a body which
+would appear to them to be under the pope's immediate control. It was
+only after years of delay that in 1545, just before Luther's death, a
+general council finally met in the city of Trent, on the border between
+Germany and Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Council of Trent, 1545&ndash;1563, sanctions the teaching of
+the Roman Catholic Church.</div>
+
+<p>As the German Protestants were preoccupied at the moment by an
+approaching conflict with the emperor and, moreover, hoped for nothing
+from the council's action, they did not attend its sessions.
+Consequently the papal representatives and the Roman Catholic prelates
+were masters of the situation. The council immediately took up just
+those matters in which the Protestants had departed farthest from the
+old beliefs. In its early sessions it proclaimed all those accursed who
+taught that the sinner was saved by faith alone, or who questioned man's
+power, with God's aid, to forward his salvation by good works. Moreover,
+it declared that if any one should say&mdash;as did the Protestants&mdash;that the
+sacraments were not all instituted by Christ; "or that they are more or
+less than seven, to wit, Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance,
+Extreme Unction, Ordination, and Matrimony; or even that any one of
+these is not truly and properly a sacrament, let him be accursed." The
+ancient Latin translation of the Bible&mdash;the Vulgate&mdash;was fixed as the
+standard. No one should presume to question its accuracy so far as
+doctrine was concerned, or be permitted to publish any interpretation of
+the Bible differing from that of the Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reform measures of the council.</div>
+
+<p>While the council thus finally rejected any possibility of compromise
+with the Protestants, it took measures to do away with the abuses of
+which the Protestants complained. The bishops were ordered to reside in
+their respective dioceses, to preach regularly, and to see that those
+who were appointed to church benefices should fulfill the duties of
+their offices and not merely enjoy the revenue. Measures were also taken
+to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> improve education and secure the regular reading of the Bible in
+churches, monasteries, and schools.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Final sessions of the Council of Trent, 1562&ndash;1563.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of the council's work.</div>
+
+<p>When the council had been in session for something more than a year, its
+meetings were interrupted by various unfavorable conditions. Little was
+accomplished for a number of years, but in 1562 the members once more
+reassembled to prosecute their work with renewed vigor. Many more of the
+doctrines of the Roman Church in regard to which there had been some
+uncertainty, were carefully defined, and the teachings of the heretics
+explicitly rejected. A large number of decrees directed against existing
+abuses were also ratified. <i>The Canons and Decrees of the Council of
+Trent</i>, which fill a stout volume, provided a new and solid foundation
+for the law and doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, and they
+constitute an historical source of the utmost importance.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> They
+furnish, in fact, our most complete and authentic statement of the Roman
+Catholic form of Christianity. They, however, only restate long-accepted
+beliefs and sanction the organization of the Church briefly described in
+an earlier chapter (XVI).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ignatius Loyola, 1491&ndash;1556, the founder of the Jesuits.</div>
+
+<p><b>168.</b> Among those who, during the final sessions of the council, sturdily
+opposed every attempt to reduce in any way the exalted powers of the
+pope, was the head of a new religious society, which was becoming the
+most powerful organization in Europe. The Jesuit order, or Society of
+Jesus, was founded by a Spaniard, Ignatius Loyola. He had been a soldier
+in his younger days, and while bravely fighting for his king, Charles V,
+had been wounded by a cannon ball (1521). Obliged to lie inactive for
+weeks, he occupied his time in reading the lives of the saints, and
+became filled with a burning ambition to emulate their deeds. Upon
+recovering he dedicated himself to the service of the Lord, donned a
+beggar's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> gown, and started on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. When there he
+began to realize that he could do little without an education. So he
+returned to Spain and, although already thirty-three years old, took his
+place beside the boys who were learning the elements of Latin grammar.
+After two years he entered a Spanish university, and later went to Paris
+to carry on his theological studies.</p>
+
+<p>In Paris he sought to influence his fellow-students at the university,
+and finally, in 1534, seven of his companions agreed to follow him to
+Palestine, or, if they were prevented from that, to devote themselves to
+the service of the pope. On arriving in Venice they found that war had
+broken out between that republic and the Turks. They accordingly gave up
+their plan for converting the infidels in the Orient and, with the
+pope's permission, began to preach in the neighboring towns, explaining
+the Scriptures and bringing comfort to those in the hospitals. When
+asked to what order they belonged, they replied, "to the Society of
+Jesus."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rigid organization and discipline of the Jesuits.</div>
+
+<p>In 1538 Loyola summoned his disciples to Rome, and there they worked out
+the principles of their order. The pope then incorporated these in a
+bull in which he gave his sanction to the new society.<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> The
+organization was to be under the absolute control of a <i>general</i>, who
+was to be chosen for life by the general assembly of the order. Loyola
+had been a soldier, and he laid great and constant stress upon the
+source of all efficient military discipline, namely, absolute and
+unquestioning obedience. This he declared to be the mother of all virtue
+and happiness. Not only were all the members to obey the pope as
+Christ's representative on earth, and undertake without hesitation any
+journey, no matter how distant or perilous, which he might command, but
+each was to obey his superiors in the order as if he were receiving
+directions from Christ in person. He must have no will or preference of
+his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span> own, but must be as the staff which supports and aids its bearer in
+any way in which he sees fit to use it. This admirable organization and
+incomparable discipline were the great secret of the later influence of
+the Jesuits.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Objects and methods of the new order.</div>
+
+<p>The object of the society was to cultivate piety and the love of God,
+especially through example. The members were to pledge themselves to
+lead a pure life of poverty and devotion. Their humility was to show
+itself in face and attitude, so that their very appearance should
+attract those with whom they came in contact to the service of God. The
+methods adopted by the society for reaching its ends are of the utmost
+importance. A great number of its members were priests, who went about
+preaching, hearing confession, and encouraging devotional exercises. But
+the Jesuits were teachers as well as preachers and confessors. They
+clearly perceived the advantage of bringing young people under their
+influence, and they became the schoolmasters of Catholic Europe. So
+successful were their methods of instruction that even Protestants
+sometimes sent their children to them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rapid increase of the Jesuits in numbers.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their missions and explorations.</div>
+
+<p>It was originally proposed that the number of persons admitted to the
+order should not exceed sixty, but this limit was speedily removed, and
+before the death of Loyola over a thousand persons had joined the
+society. Under his successor the number was trebled, and it went on
+increasing for two centuries. The founder of the order had been, as we
+have seen, attracted to missionary work from the first, and the Jesuits
+rapidly spread not only over Europe, but throughout the whole world.
+Francis Xavier, one of Loyola's original little band, went to Hindustan,
+the Moluccas, and Japan. Brazil, Florida, Mexico, and Peru were soon
+fields of active missionary work at a time when Protestants scarcely
+dreamed as yet of carrying Christianity to the heathen. We owe to the
+Jesuits' reports much of our knowledge of the condition of America when
+white men first began to explore Canada and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> the Mississippi valley, for
+the followers of Loyola boldly penetrated into regions unknown to
+Europeans, and settled among the natives with the purpose of bringing
+the Gospel to them.<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their fight against the Protestants.</div>
+
+<p>Dedicated as they were to the service of the pope, the Jesuits early
+directed their energies against Protestantism. They sent their members
+into Germany and the Netherlands, and even made strenuous efforts to
+reclaim England. Their success was most apparent in southern Germany and
+Austria, where they became the confessors and confidential advisers of
+the rulers. They not only succeeded in checking the progress of
+Protestantism, but were able to reconquer for the pope districts in
+which the old faith had been abandoned.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accusations brought against the Jesuits.</div>
+
+<p>Protestants soon realized that the new order was their most powerful and
+dangerous enemy. Their apprehensions produced a bitter hatred which
+blinded them to the high purposes of the founders of the order and led
+them to attribute an evil purpose to every act of the Jesuits. The
+Jesuits' air of humility the Protestants declared to be mere hypocrisy
+under which they carried on their intrigues. The Jesuits' readiness to
+adjust themselves to circumstances and the variety of the tasks that
+they undertook seemed to their enemies a willingness to resort to any
+means in order to reach their ends. They were popularly supposed to
+justify the most deceitful and immoral measures on the ground that the
+result would be "for the greater glory of God." The very obedience of
+which the Jesuits said so much was viewed by the hostile Protestant as
+one of their worst offenses, for he believed that the members of the
+order were the blind tools of their superiors and that they would not
+hesitate even to commit a crime if so ordered.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decline and abolition of the Jesuits, 1773.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Re&euml;stablishment of the order, 1814.</div>
+
+<p>Doubtless there have been many unscrupulous Jesuits and some wicked
+ones, and as time went on the order degenerated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span> just as the earlier
+ones had done. In the eighteenth century it was accused of undertaking
+great commercial enterprises, and for this and other reasons lost the
+confidence of even the Catholics. The king of Portugal was the first to
+banish the Jesuits, and then France, where they had long been very
+unpopular with an influential party of the Catholics, expelled them in
+1764. Convinced that the order could no longer serve any useful purpose,
+the pope abolished it in 1773. It was, however, restored in 1814, and
+now again has thousands of members.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image68.jpg" width="300" height="402" alt="Philip II of Spain" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Philip II of Spain</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip II, the chief enemy of Protestantism among the rulers
+of Europe.</div>
+
+<p><b>169.</b> The chief ally of the pope and the Jesuits in their efforts to
+check Protestantism in the latter half of the sixteenth century was the
+son of Charles V, Philip II. Like the Jesuits he enjoys a most
+unenviable reputation among Protestants. Certain it is that they had no
+more terrible enemy among the rulers of the day than he. He closely
+watched the course of affairs in France and Germany with the hope of
+promoting the cause of the Catholics. He eagerly forwarded every
+conspiracy against England's Protestant queen, Elizabeth, and finally
+manned a mighty fleet with the purpose of overthrowing her. He resorted,
+moreover, to incredible cruelty in his attempts to bring back his
+possessions in the Netherlands to what he considered the true faith.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Division of the Hapsburg possessions between the German and
+Spanish branches.</div>
+
+<p>Charles V, crippled with the gout and old before his time, laid down the
+cares of government in 1555&ndash;1556. To his brother Ferdinand, who had
+acquired by marriage the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, Charles had
+earlier<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> transferred the German possessions of the Hapsburgs. To his
+son, Philip II (1556&ndash;1598), he gave Spain with its great American
+colonies, Milan, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the
+Netherlands.<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip II's fervent desire to stamp out Protestantism.</div>
+
+<p>Charles had constantly striven to maintain the old religion within his
+dominions. He had never hesitated to use the Inquisition in Spain and
+the Netherlands, and it was the great disappointment of his life that a
+part of his empire had become Protestant. He was, nevertheless, no
+fanatic. Like many of the princes of the time, he was forced to take
+sides on the religious question without, perhaps, himself having any
+deep religious sentiments. The maintenance of the Catholic faith he
+believed to be necessary in order that he should keep his hold upon his
+scattered and diverse dominions. On the other hand, the whole life and
+policy of his son Philip were guided by a fervent attachment to the old
+religion. He was willing to sacrifice both himself and his country in
+his long fight against the detested Protestants within and without his
+realms. And he had vast resources at his disposal, for Spain was a
+strong power, not only on account of her income from America, but also
+because her soldiers and their commanders were the best in Europe at
+this period.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Netherlands.</div>
+
+<p><b>170.</b> The Netherlands,<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> which were to cause Philip his first and
+greatest trouble, included seventeen provinces which Charles V had
+inherited from his grandmother, Mary of Burgundy. They occupied the
+position on the map where we now find the kingdoms of Holland and
+Belgium. Each of the provinces had its own government, but Charles had
+grouped them together and arranged that the German empire should protect
+them. In the north the hardy Germanic population had been able, by means
+of dikes which kept out the sea, to reclaim large tracts of lowlands.
+Here considerable cities had grown up,&mdash;Harlem, Leyden, Amsterdam, and
+Rotterdam. To the south were the flourishing towns of Ghent, Bruges,
+Brussels, and Antwerp, which had for hundreds of years been centers of
+manufacture and trade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip II's harsh attitude toward the Netherlands.</div>
+
+<p>Charles, in spite of some very harsh measures, had retained the loyalty
+of the people of the Netherlands, for he was himself one of them and
+they felt a patriotic pride in his achievements. Toward Philip their
+attitude was very different. His sour face and haughty manner made a
+disagreeable impression upon the people at Brussels when Charles V first
+introduced him to them as their future ruler. He was to them a Spaniard
+and a foreigner, and he ruled them as such after he returned to Spain.
+Instead of attempting to win them by meeting their legitimate demands,
+he did everything to alienate all classes in his Burgundian realm and
+increase their natural hatred and suspicion of the Spaniards. The people
+were forced to house Spanish soldiers whose insolence drove them nearly
+to desperation. A half-sister of the king, the duchess of Parma, who did
+not even know their language, was given to them as their regent. Philip
+put his trust in a group of upstarts rather than in the nobility of the
+provinces, who naturally felt that they should be given some part in the
+direction of affairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Inquisition in the Netherlands.</div>
+
+<p>What was still worse, Philip proposed that the Inquisition should carry
+on its work far more actively than hitherto and put an end to the heresy
+which appeared to him to defile his fair realms. The Inquisition was no
+new thing to the provinces. Charles V had issued the most cruel edicts
+against the followers of Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. According to a law
+of 1550, heretics who persistently refused to recant were to be burned
+alive. Even those who confessed their errors and abjured their heresy
+were, if men, to lose their heads, if women, to be buried alive. In both
+cases their property was to be confiscated. The lowest estimate of those
+who were executed in the Netherlands during Charles' reign is fifty
+thousand. Although these terrible laws had not checked the growth of
+Protestantism, all of Charles' decrees were solemnly re&euml;nacted by Philip
+in the first month of his reign.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Protest against Philip's policy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Beggars.'</div>
+
+<p>For ten years the people suffered Philip's rule; but their king, instead
+of listening to the protests of their leaders who were quite as earnest
+Catholics as himself, appeared to be bent on the destruction of the
+land. So in 1566 some five hundred of the nobles, who were later joined
+by many of the citizens, pledged themselves to make a common stand
+against Spanish tyranny and the Inquisition. Although they had no idea
+as yet of a revolt, they planned a great demonstration during which they
+presented a petition to the duchess of Parma requesting the suspension
+of the king's edicts. The story is that one of the duchess' councilors
+assured her that she had no reason to fear these "beggars." This name
+was voluntarily assumed by the petitioners and an important group of the
+insurgents in the later troubles were known as "Beggars."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The image-breaking Protestants.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip sends the duke of Alva to the Netherlands.</div>
+
+<p>The Protestant preachers now took courage, and large congregations
+gathered in the fields to hear them. Excited by their exhortations,
+those who were converted to the new religion rushed into the Catholic
+churches, tore down the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> images, broke the stained glass windows, and
+wrecked the altars. The duchess of Parma was just succeeding in quieting
+the tumult when Philip took a step which led finally to the revolt of
+the Netherlands. He decided to dispatch to the low countries the
+remorseless duke of Alva, whose conduct has made his name synonymous
+with blind and unmeasured cruelty.</p>
+
+<p><b>171.</b> The report that Alva was coming caused the flight of many of those
+who especially feared his approach. William of Orange, who was to be the
+leader in the approaching war against Spain, went to Germany. Thousands
+of Flemish weavers fled across the North Sea, and the products of their
+looms became before long an important article of export from England.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alva's cruel administration, 1567&ndash;1573.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Council of Blood.</div>
+
+<p>Alva brought with him a fine army of Spanish soldiers, ten thousand in
+number and superbly equipped. He judged that the wisest and quickest way
+of pacifying the discontented provinces was to kill all those who
+ventured to criticise "the best of kings," of whom he had the honor to
+be the faithful servant. He accordingly established a special court for
+the speedy trial and condemnation of all those whose fidelity to Philip
+was suspected. This was popularly known as the Council of Blood, for its
+aim was not justice but butchery. Alva's administration from 1567 to
+1573 was a veritable reign of terror. He afterwards boasted that he had
+slain eighteen thousand, but probably not more than a third of that
+number were really executed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William of Orange, called the Silent, 1533&ndash;1584.</div>
+
+<p>The Netherlands found a leader in William, Prince of Orange and Count of
+Nassau. He is a national hero whose career bears a striking resemblance
+to that of Washington. Like the American patriot, he undertook the
+seemingly hopeless task of freeing his people from the oppressive rule
+of a distant king. To the Spaniards he appeared to be only an
+impoverished nobleman at the head of a handful of armed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span> peasants and
+fishermen, contending against the sovereign of the richest realm in the
+world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William the Silent collects an army.</div>
+
+<p>William had been a faithful servant of Charles V and would gladly have
+continued to serve his son after him had the oppression and injustice of
+the Spanish dominion not become intolerable. But Alva's policy convinced
+him that it was useless to send any more complaints to Philip. He
+accordingly collected a little army in 1568 and opened the long struggle
+with Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Differences between the northern i.e., Dutch, provinces and
+the southern.</div>
+
+<p>William found his main support in the northern provinces, of which
+Holland was the chief. The Dutch, who had very generally accepted
+Protestant teachings, were purely German in blood, while the people of
+the southern provinces, who adhered (as they still do) to the Roman
+Catholic faith, were more akin to the population of northern France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William chosen governor of Holland and Zealand, 1572.</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish soldiers found little trouble in defeating the troops which
+William collected. Like Washington again, he seemed to lose almost every
+battle and yet was never conquered. The first successes of the Dutch
+were gained by the "sea beggars,"&mdash;freebooters who captured Spanish
+ships and sold them in Protestant England. Finally they seized the town
+of Brille and made it their headquarters. Encouraged by this, many of
+the towns in the northern provinces of Holland and Zealand ventured to
+choose William as their governor, although they did not throw off their
+allegiance to Philip. In this way these two provinces became the nucleus
+of the United Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Both the northern and southern provinces combine against
+Spain, 1576.</div>
+
+<p>Alva recaptured a number of the revolted towns and treated their
+inhabitants with his customary cruelty; even women and children were
+slaughtered in cold blood. But instead of quenching the rebellion, he
+aroused even the Catholic southern provinces to revolt. He introduced an
+unwise system of taxation which required that ten per cent of the
+proceeds of every sale should be paid to the government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span> This caused
+the thrifty Catholic merchants of the southern towns to close their
+shops in despair.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Spanish fury.'</div>
+
+<p>After six years of this tyrannical and mistaken policy, Alva was
+recalled. His successor soon died and left matters worse than ever. The
+leaderless soldiers, trained in Alva's school, indulged in wild orgies
+of robbery and murder; they plundered and partially reduced to ashes the
+rich city of Antwerp. The "Spanish fury," as this outbreak was called,
+together with the hated taxes, created such general indignation that
+representatives from all of Philip's Burgundian provinces met at Ghent
+in 1576 with the purpose of combining to put an end to the Spanish
+tyranny.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Union of Utrecht.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The northern provinces declare themselves independent of
+Spain, 1581.</div>
+
+<p>This union was, however, only temporary. Wiser and more moderate
+governors were sent by Philip to the Netherlands, and they soon
+succeeded in again winning the confidence of the southern provinces. So
+the northern provinces went their own way. Guided by William the Silent,
+they refused to consider the idea of again recognizing Philip as their
+king. In 1579 seven provinces (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland,
+Overyssel, Groningen, and Friesland, all lying north of the mouths of
+the Rhine and the Scheldt) formed the new and firmer Union of Utrecht.
+The articles of this union served as a constitution for the United
+Provinces which, two years later, at last formally declared themselves
+independent of Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Assassination of William the Silent.</div>
+
+<p>Philip realized that William was the soul of the revolt and that without
+him it might not improbably have been put down. The king therefore
+offered a patent of nobility and a large sum of money to any one who
+should make away with the Dutch patriot. After several unsuccessful
+attempts, William, who had been chosen hereditary governor of the United
+Provinces, was shot in his house at Delft, 1584. He died praying the
+Lord to have pity upon his soul and "on this poor people."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Reasons why the Dutch finally won their independence.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Independence of the United Provinces acknowledged by Spain,
+1648.</div>
+
+<p>The Dutch had long hoped for aid from Queen Elizabeth or from the
+French, but had heretofore been disappointed. At last the English queen
+decided to send troops to their assistance. While the English rendered
+but little actual help, Elizabeth's policy so enraged Philip that he at
+last decided to attempt the conquest of England. The destruction of the
+great fleet which he equipped for that purpose interfered with further
+attempts to subjugate the United Provinces, which might otherwise have
+failed to preserve their liberty in spite of their heroic resistance.
+Moreover, Spain's resources were being rapidly exhausted and the state
+was on the verge of bankruptcy in spite of the wealth which it had been
+drawing from across the sea. But even when Spain had to surrender the
+hope of winning back the lost provinces, which now became a small but
+important European power, she refused formally to acknowledge their
+independence until 1648<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> (Peace of Westphalia).</p>
+
+<p><b>172.</b> The history of France during the latter part of the sixteenth
+century is little more than a chronicle of a long and bloody series of
+civil wars between the Catholics and Protestants. Each party, however,
+had political as well as religious objects, and the religious issues
+were often almost altogether obscured by the worldly ambition of the
+leaders.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginnings of Protestantism in France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lef&egrave;vre, 1450&ndash;1537.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution of the Protestants under Francis I.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Massacre of the Waldensians, 1545.</div>
+
+<p>Protestantism began in France<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> in much the same way as in England.
+Those who had learned from the Italians to love the Greek language,
+turned to the New Testament in the original and commenced to study it
+with new insight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> Lef&egrave;vre, the most conspicuous of these Erasmus-like
+reformers, translated the Bible into French and began to preach
+justification by faith before he had ever heard of Luther. He and his
+followers won the favor of Margaret, the sister of Francis I and queen
+of the little kingdom of Navarre, and under her protection they were
+left unmolested for some years. The Sorbonne, the famous theological
+school at Paris, finally stirred up the suspicions of the king against
+the new ideas. While, like his fellow-monarchs, Francis had no special
+interest in religious matters, he was shocked by an act of desecration
+ascribed to the Protestants, and in consequence forbade the circulation
+of Protestant books. About 1535 several adherents of the new faith were
+burned, and Calvin was forced to flee to Basel, where he prepared a
+defense of his beliefs in his <i>Institutes of Christianity</i>. This is
+prefaced by a letter to Francis in which he pleads with him to protect
+the Protestants.<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> Francis, before his death, became so intolerant
+that he ordered the massacre of three thousand defenseless peasants who
+dwelt on the slopes of the Alps, and whose only offense was adherence to
+the simple teachings of the Waldensians.<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution under Henry II, 1547&ndash;1559.</div>
+
+<p>Francis' son, Henry II (1547&ndash;1559), swore to extirpate the Protestants,
+and hundreds of them were burned. Nevertheless, Henry's religious
+convictions did not prevent him from willingly aiding the German
+Protestants against his enemy Charles V, especially when they agreed to
+hand over to him three bishoprics which lay on the French
+boundary,&mdash;Metz, Verdun, and Toul.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis II, 1559&ndash;1560, Mary, Queen of Scots, and the Guises.</div>
+
+<p>Henry II was accidentally killed in a tourney and left his kingdom to
+three weak sons, the last scions of the house of Valois, who succeeded
+in turn to the throne during a period of unprecedented civil war and
+public calamity. The eldest son, Francis II, a boy of sixteen, succeeded
+his father. His chief importance for France arose from his marriage with
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Relations of the Guises, Mary Stuart, the Valois, and the Bourbons</span><br />
+<br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image471.png" width="600" height="334" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p><p>daughter of King James V of Scotland, Mary Stuart, who became famous as
+Mary, Queen of Scots. Her mother was the sister of two very ambitious
+French nobles, the duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine. Francis
+II was so young that Mary's uncles, the Guises, eagerly seized the
+opportunity to manage his affairs for him. The duke put himself at the
+head of the army, and the cardinal of the government. When the king
+died, after reigning but a year, the Guises were naturally reluctant to
+surrender their power, and many of the woes of France for the next forty
+years were due to the machinations which they carried on in the name of
+the Holy Catholic religion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The queen mother, Catherine de' Medici.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Bourbons.</div>
+
+<p><b>173.</b> The new king, Charles IX (1560&ndash;1574), was but ten years old, and
+his mother, Catherine de' Medici, of the famous Florentine family,
+claimed the right to conduct the government for her son. The rivalries
+of the time were complicated by the existence of a younger branch of the
+French royal family, namely, the Bourbons, one of whom was king of
+Navarre. The Bourbons formed an alliance with the Huguenots,<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> as the
+French Calvinists were called.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Huguenots and their political ambition.</div>
+
+<p>Many of the leading Huguenots, including their chief Coligny, belonged
+to noble families and were anxious to play a part in the politics of the
+time. This fact tended to confuse religious with political motives. In
+the long run this mixture of motives proved fatal to the Protestant
+cause in France, but for the time being the Huguenots formed so strong a
+party that they threatened to get control of the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Catherine grants conditional toleration to the Protestants,
+1562.</div>
+
+<p>Catherine tried at first to conciliate both parties, and granted a
+Decree of Toleration (1562) suspending the former edicts against the
+Protestants and permitting them to assemble for worship during the
+daytime and outside of the towns. Even this restricted toleration of the
+Protestants appeared an abomination to the more fanatical Catholics, and
+a savage act of the duke of Guise precipitated civil war.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The massacres of Vassy and the opening of the wars of
+religion.</div>
+
+<p>As he was passing through the town of Vassy on a Sunday he found a
+thousand Huguenots assembled in a barn for worship. The duke's followers
+rudely interrupted the service, and a tumult arose in which the troops
+killed a considerable number of the defenseless multitude. The news of
+this massacre aroused the Huguenots and was the beginning of a war which
+continued, broken only by short truces, until the last weak descendant
+of the house of Valois ceased to reign. As in the other religious wars
+of the time, both sides exhibited the most inhuman cruelty. France was
+filled for a generation with burnings, pillage, and every form of
+barbarity. The leaders of both the Catholic and the Protestant party, as
+well as two of the French kings themselves, fell by the hands of
+assassins, and France renewed in civil war all the horrors of the
+English invasion in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Coligny's influence and plan for a national war against
+Philip II.</div>
+
+<p>In 1570 a brief peace was concluded. The Huguenots were to be tolerated,
+and certain towns were assigned to them, including La Rochelle, where
+they might defend themselves in case of renewed attacks from the
+Catholics. For a time both the king and the queen mother were on the
+friendliest terms with the Huguenot leader Coligny, who became a sort of
+prime minister. He was anxious that Catholics and Protestants should
+join in a great national war against Spain. In this way the people of
+France would combine, regardless of their differences in religion, in a
+patriotic effort to win the county of Burgundy and a line of fortresses
+to the north and east, which seemed naturally to belong to France rather
+than to Spain. Coligny did not, of course, overlook the consideration
+that in this way he could aid the Protestant cause in the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572.</div>
+
+<p>The strict Catholic party of the Guises frustrated this plan by a most
+fearful expedient. They easily induced Catherine de' Medici to believe
+that she was being deceived by Coligny, and an assassin was engaged to
+put him out of the way; but the scoundrel missed his aim and only
+wounded his victim.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span> Fearful lest the young king, who was faithful to
+Coligny, should discover her part in the attempted murder, the queen
+mother invented a story of a great Huguenot conspiracy. The credulous
+king was deceived, and the Catholic leaders at Paris arranged that at a
+given signal not only Coligny, but all the Huguenots, who had gathered
+in great numbers in the city to witness the marriage of the Protestant
+Henry of Navarre with the king's sister, should be massacred on the eve
+of St. Bartholomew's Day (August 23, 1572).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Holy League.</div>
+
+<p>The signal was duly given, and no less than two thousand persons were
+ruthlessly murdered in Paris before the end of the next day. The news of
+this attack spread into the provinces and it is probable that, at the
+very least, ten thousand more Protestants were put to death outside of
+the capital. Both the pope and Philip II expressed their gratification
+at this signal example of French loyalty to the Church. Civil war again
+broke out, and the Catholics formed the famous Holy League, under the
+leadership of Henry of Guise, for the advancement of their interests and
+the extirpation of heresy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Question of the succession to the French throne.</div>
+
+<p>Henry III (1574&ndash;1589), the last of the sons of Henry II, who succeeded
+Charles IX, had no heirs, and the great question of succession arose.
+The Huguenot, Henry of Navarre, was the nearest male relative, but the
+League could never consent to permit the throne of France to be sullied
+by heresy, especially as their leader, Henry of Guise, was himself
+anxious to become king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War of the Three Henrys, 1585&ndash;1589.</div>
+
+<p>Henry III was driven weakly from one party to the other, and it finally
+came to a war between the three Henrys,&mdash;Henry III, Henry of Navarre,
+and Henry of Guise (1585&ndash;1589). It ended in a characteristic way. Henry
+the king had Henry of Guise assassinated. The sympathizers of the League
+then assassinated Henry the king, which left the field to Henry of
+Navarre. He ascended the throne as Henry IV<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> in 1589, and is an
+heroic figure in the line of French kings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Henry IV, 1589&ndash;1610, becomes a Catholic.</div>
+
+<p><b>174.</b> The new king had many enemies, and his kingdom was devastated and
+demoralized by years of war. He soon saw that he must accept the
+religion of the majority of his people if he wished to reign over them.
+He accordingly asked to be readmitted to the Catholic Church (1593),
+excusing himself on the ground that "Paris was worth a mass." He did not
+forget his old friends, however, and in 1598 he issued the Edict of
+Nantes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Edict of Nantes, 1598.</div>
+
+<p>By this edict of toleration the Calvinists were permitted to hold
+services in all the towns and villages where they had previously held
+them, but in Paris and a number of other towns all Protestant services
+were prohibited. The Protestants were to enjoy the same political rights
+as Catholics, and to be eligible to public office. A number of fortified
+towns were to remain in the hands of the Huguenots, particularly La
+Rochelle, Montauban, and N&icirc;mes. Henry's only mistake lay in granting the
+Huguenots the exceptional privilege of holding and governing fortified
+towns. In the next generation, this privilege aroused the suspicion of
+the king's minister, Richelieu, who attacked the Huguenots, not so much
+on religious grounds, as on account of their independent position in the
+state, which suggested that of the older feudal nobles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ministry of Sully.</div>
+
+<p>Henry IV chose Sully, an upright and able Calvinist, for his chief
+minister. Sully set to work to re&euml;stablish the kingly power, which had
+suffered greatly under the last three brothers of the house of Valois.
+He undertook to lighten the tremendous burden of debt which weighed upon
+the country. He laid out new roads and canals, and encouraged
+agriculture and commerce; he dismissed the useless noblemen and officers
+whom the government was supporting without any advantage to itself. Had
+his administration not been prematurely interrupted, France might have
+reached unprecedented power and prosperity; but religious fanaticism put
+an end to his reforms.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Assassination of Henry IV, 1610.</div>
+
+<p>In 1610 Henry IV, like William the Silent, was assassinated just in the
+midst of his greatest usefulness to his country. Sully could not agree
+with the regent, Henry's widow, and retired to his castle, where he
+dictated his memoirs, which give a remarkable account of the stirring
+times in which he had played so important a part. Before many years,
+Richelieu, perhaps the greatest minister France has ever had, rose to
+power, and from 1624 to his death in 1642 he governed France for Henry's
+son, Louis XIII (1610&ndash;1643). Something will be said of his policy in
+connection with the Thirty Years' War.<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England under Elizabeth, 1558&ndash;1603.</div>
+
+<p><b>175.</b> The long and disastrous civil war between Catholics and
+Protestants, which desolated France in the sixteenth century, had
+happily no counterpart in England. During her long and wise reign Queen
+Elizabeth<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> succeeded not only in maintaining peace at home, but in
+frustrating the conspiracies and attacks of Philip II, which threatened
+her realm from without. Moreover, by her interference in the
+Netherlands, she did much to secure their independence of Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Elizabeth restores the Protestant service.</div>
+
+<p>Upon the death of Catholic Mary and the accession of her sister
+Elizabeth in 1558, the English government became once more Protestant.
+Undoubtedly a great majority of Elizabeth's subjects would have been
+satisfied to have had her return to the policy of her father, Henry
+VIII. They still venerated the Mass and the other ancient ceremonies,
+although they had no desire to acknowledge the supremacy of the pope
+over their country. Elizabeth believed, however, that Protestantism
+would finally prevail. She therefore reintroduced the Book of Prayer of
+Edward VI, with some modifications, and proposed that all her subjects
+should conform in public to the form of worship sanctioned by the state.
+Elizabeth did not adopt the Presbyterian organization, which had a good
+many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> advocates, but retained the old system of church government with
+its archbishops, bishops, deans, etc. Naturally, however, Protestant
+clergymen were substituted for the Catholics who had held office under
+Mary. Elizabeth's first Parliament gave to the queen the power though
+not the title of supreme head of the English church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Presbyterian Church established in Scotland.</div>
+
+<p>Elizabeth's position in regard to the religious question was first
+threatened by events in Scotland. There, shortly after her accession,
+the ancient Church was abolished, largely in the interest of the nobles,
+who were anxious to get the lands of the bishops into their own hands
+and enjoy the revenue from them. John Knox, a veritable second Calvin in
+his stern energy, secured the introduction of the Presbyterian form of
+faith and church government which still prevail in Scotland.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mary Stuart the Scotch queen, becomes the hope of the
+Catholics.</div>
+
+<p>In 1561 the Scotch queen, Mary Stuart, whose French husband, Francis II,
+had just died, landed at Leith. She was but nineteen years old, of great
+beauty, and, by reason of her Catholic faith and French training, almost
+a foreigner to her subjects. Her grandmother was a sister of Henry VIII,
+and Mary claimed to be the rightful heiress to the English throne should
+Elizabeth die childless. Consequently the beautiful Queen of Scots
+became the hope of all those, including Philip II and Mary's relatives,
+the Guises, who wished to bring back England and Scotland to the Roman
+Catholic faith.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mary's suspicious conduct.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mary flees to England, 1568.</div>
+
+<p>Mary made no effort to undo the work of John Knox, but she quickly
+discredited herself with both Protestants and Catholics by her conduct.
+After marrying her second cousin, Lord Darnley, she discovered that he
+was a dissolute scapegrace, and came to despise him. She then formed an
+attachment for a reckless nobleman named Bothwell. The house near
+Edinburgh in which the wretched Darnley was lying ill was blown up one
+night with gunpowder, and he was killed. The public suspected that both
+Bothwell and the queen were implicated. How far Mary was responsible for
+her husband's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> death no one can be sure. It is certain that she later
+married Bothwell and that her indignant subjects thereupon deposed her
+as a murderess. After fruitless attempts to regain her power, she
+abdicated in favor of her infant son, James VI, and then fled to England
+to appeal to Elizabeth. While the prudent Elizabeth denied the right of
+the Scotch to depose their queen, she took good care to keep her rival
+practically a prisoner.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The rising in the north, 1569, and Catholic plans for
+deposing Elizabeth.</div>
+
+<p><b>176.</b> As time went on it became increasingly difficult for Elizabeth to
+adhere to her policy of moderation in the treatment of the Catholics. A
+rising in the north of England (1569) showed that there were many who
+would gladly re&euml;stablish the Catholic faith by freeing Mary and placing
+her on the English throne. This was followed by the excommunication of
+Elizabeth by the pope, who at the same time absolved her subjects from
+their allegiance to their heretical ruler. Happily for Elizabeth the
+rebels could look for no help either from Alva or the French king. The
+Spaniards had their hands full, for the war in the Netherlands had just
+begun; and Charles IX, who had accepted Coligny as his adviser, was at
+that moment in hearty accord with the Huguenots. The rising in the north
+was suppressed, but the English Catholics continued to harbor
+treasonable designs and to look to Philip for help. They opened
+correspondence with Alva and invited him to come with six thousand
+Spanish troops to dethrone Elizabeth and make Mary Stuart queen of
+England in her stead. Alva hesitated, for he characteristically thought
+that it would be better to kill Elizabeth, or at least capture her.
+Meanwhile the plot was discovered and came to naught.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">English mariners capture Spanish ships.</div>
+
+<p>Although Philip found himself unable to harm England, the English
+mariners, like the Dutch "sea beggars," caused great loss to Spain. In
+spite of the fact that Spain and England were not openly at war, the
+English seamen extended their operations as far as the West Indies, and
+seized Spanish treasure ships, with the firm conviction that in robbing
+Philip they were serving God.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> The daring Sir Francis Drake even
+ventured into the Pacific, where only the Spaniards had gone heretofore,
+and carried off much booty on his little vessel, the <i>Pelican</i>. At last
+he took "a great vessel with jewels in plenty, thirteen chests of silver
+coin, eighty pounds weight of gold, and twenty-six tons of silver." He
+then sailed around the world, and on his return presented his jewels to
+Elizabeth, who paid little attention to the expostulations of the king
+of Spain.<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relations between England and Catholic Ireland.</div>
+
+<p>One hope of the Catholics has not yet been mentioned, namely, Ireland,
+whose relations with England from very early times down to the present
+day form one of the most cheerless pages in the history of Europe.
+Ireland was no longer, as it had been in the time of Gregory the Great,
+a center of culture.<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> The population was divided into numerous clans
+and their chieftains fought constantly with one another as well as with
+the English, who were vainly endeavoring to subjugate the island. Under
+Henry II and later kings England had conquered a district in the eastern
+part of Ireland, and here the English managed to maintain a foothold in
+spite of the anarchy outside. Henry VIII had suppressed a revolt of the
+Irish and assumed the title of King of Ireland. Mary had hoped to
+promote better relations by colonizing Kings County and Queens County
+with Englishmen. This led, however, to a long struggle which only ended
+when the colonists had killed all the natives in the district they
+occupied.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth's interest in the perennial Irish question was stimulated by
+the probability that Ireland might become a basis for Catholic
+operations, since Protestantism had made little progress among its
+simple and half-barbarous people. Her fears were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> realized. Several
+attempts were made by Catholic leaders to land troops in Ireland with
+the purpose of making the island the base for an attack on England.
+Elizabeth's officers were able to frustrate these enterprises, but the
+resulting disturbances greatly increased the misery of the Irish. In
+1582 no less than thirty thousand people are said to have perished,
+chiefly from starvation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution of the English Catholics.</div>
+
+<p>As Philip's troops began to get the better of the opposition in the
+southern Netherlands, the prospect of sending a Spanish army to England
+grew brighter. Two Jesuits were sent to England in 1580 to strengthen
+the adherents of their faith and were supposed to be urging them to
+assist the foreign force against their queen when it should come.
+Parliament now grew more intolerant and ordered fines and imprisonment
+to be inflicted on those who said or heard mass, or who refused to
+attend the English services. One of the Jesuits was cruelly tortured and
+executed for treason but the other escaped to the continent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Plans to assassinate Elizabeth.</div>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1582 the first attempt to assassinate the heretical
+queen was made at Philip's instigation. It was proposed that, when
+Elizabeth was out of the way, the duke of Guise should see that an army
+was sent to England in the interest of the Catholics. But Guise was kept
+busy at home by the War of the Three Henrys, and Philip was left to
+undertake the invasion of England by himself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Execution of Mary Queen of Scots, 1587.</div>
+
+<p>Mary did not live to witness the attempt. She became implicated in
+another plot for the assassination of Elizabeth. Parliament now realized
+that as long as Mary lived Elizabeth's life was in constant danger;
+whereas, if Mary were out of the way, Philip would have no interest in
+the death of Elizabeth, since Mary's son, James VI of Scotland, was a
+Protestant. Elizabeth was therefore reluctantly persuaded by her
+advisers to sign a warrant for Mary's execution in 1587.<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Destruction of Philip's Armada, 1588.</div>
+
+<p>Philip by no means gave up his project of reclaiming Protestant England.
+In 1588 he brought together a great fleet, including his best and
+largest warships, which was proudly called by the Spaniards the
+"Invincible Armada" (i.e., fleet). This was to sail up the Channel to
+Flanders and bring over the duke of Parma and his veterans, who, it was
+expected, would soon make an end of Elizabeth's raw militia. The English
+ships were inferior to those of Spain in size although not in number,
+but they had trained commanders, such as Drake and Hawkins. These famous
+captains had long sailed the Spanish Main and knew how to use their
+cannon without getting near enough to the Spaniards to suffer from their
+short-range weapons. When the Armada approached, it was permitted by the
+English fleet to pass up the Channel before a strong wind which later
+became a storm. The English ships then followed and both fleets were
+driven past the coast of Flanders. Of the hundred and twenty Spanish
+ships, only fifty-four returned home; the rest had been destroyed by
+English valor, or by the gale to which Elizabeth herself ascribed the
+victory.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> The defeat of the Armada put an end to the danger from
+Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prospects of the Catholic cause at the opening of the reign
+of Philip II.</div>
+
+<p><b>177.</b> As we look back over the period covered by the reign of Philip II,
+it is clear that it was a most notable one in the history of the
+Catholic Church. When he ascended the throne Germany, as well as
+Switzerland and the Netherlands, had become largely Protestant. England,
+however, under his Catholic wife, Mary, seemed to be turning back to the
+old religion, while the French monarchs showed no inclination to
+tolerate the heretical Calvinists. Moreover, the new and enthusiastic
+order of the Jesuits promised to be a potent agency in inducing the
+disaffected people to accept once more the supremacy of the pope and the
+doctrines of the ancient church as formulated by the Council of Trent.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> tremendous power and apparently boundless resources of Spain
+itself,&mdash;which were viewed by the rest of Europe with the gravest
+apprehension, not to say terror,&mdash;Philip was willing to dedicate to the
+extirpation of heresy in his own dominions and the destruction of
+Protestantism throughout western Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Outcome of Philip's policy.</div>
+
+<p>When Philip died all was changed. England was hopelessly Protestant: the
+"Invincible Armada" had been miserably wrecked, and Philip's plan for
+bringing England once more within the fold of the Roman Catholic Church
+was forever frustrated. In France the terrible wars of religion were
+over, and a powerful king, lately a Protestant himself, was on the
+throne, who not only tolerated the Protestants but chose one of them for
+his chief minister, and would brook no more meddling of Spain in French
+affairs. A new Protestant state, the United Netherlands, had actually
+appeared within the bounds of the realm bequeathed to Philip by his
+father. In spite of its small size this state was destined to play, from
+that time on, quite as important a part in European affairs as the harsh
+Spanish stepmother from whose control it had escaped.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decline of Spain after the sixteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>Spain itself had suffered most of all from Philip's reign.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> His
+domestic policy and his expensive wars had weakened a country which had
+never been intrinsically strong. The income from across the sea was
+bound to decrease as the mines were exhausted. The final expulsion of
+the industrious Moors, shortly after Philip's death, left the indolent
+Spaniards to till their own fields, which rapidly declined in fertility
+under their careless cultivation. Poverty was deemed no disgrace but
+manual labor was. Some one once ventured to tell a Spanish king that
+"not gold and silver but sweat is the most precious metal, a coin which
+is always current and never depreciates"; but it was a rare form of
+currency in the Spanish peninsula. After Philip II's death Spain sinks
+to the rank of a secondary European power.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Thirty Years' War really a series of wars.</div>
+
+<p><b>178.</b> The last great conflict caused by the differences between the
+Catholics and Protestants was fought out in Germany during the first
+half of the seventeenth century. It is generally known as the Thirty
+Years' War (1618&ndash;1648), but there was in reality a series of wars; and
+although the fighting was done upon German territory, Sweden, France,
+and Spain played quite as important a part as Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Weaknesses of the Peace of Augsburg.</div>
+
+<p>Just before the abdication of Charles V, the Lutheran princes had forced
+the emperor to acknowledge their right to their own religion and to the
+church property which they had appropriated. The religious Peace of
+Augsburg had, however, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> two great weaknesses. In
+the first place, only those Protestants who held the Lutheran faith were
+to be tolerated. The Calvinists, who were increasing in numbers, were
+not included in the peace. In the second place, the peace did not put a
+stop to the seizure of church property by the Protestant princes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Spread of Protestantism.</div>
+
+<p>During the last years of Ferdinand I's reign and that of his successor
+there was little trouble. Protestantism, however, made rapid progress
+and invaded Bavaria, the Austrian possessions, and above all, Bohemia,
+where the doctrines of Huss had never died out. So it looked for a time
+as if even the German Hapsburgs were to see large portions of their
+territory falling away from the old Church. But the Catholics had in the
+Jesuits a band of active and efficient missionaries. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span> not only
+preached and founded schools, but also succeeded in gaining the
+confidence of some of the German princes, whose chief advisers they
+became. Conditions were very favorable, at the opening of the
+seventeenth century, for a renewal of the religious struggle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Formation of the Protestant Union and the Catholic League.</div>
+
+<p>The Lutheran town of Donauw&ouml;rth permitted the existence of a monastery
+within its limits. In 1607 a Protestant mob attacked the monks as they
+were passing in procession through the streets. Duke Maximilian of
+Bavaria, an ardent Catholic, on the border of whose possessions the town
+lay, gladly undertook to punish this outrage. His army entered
+Donauw&ouml;rth, re&euml;stablished the Catholic worship, and drove out the
+Lutheran pastor. This event led to the formation of the Protestant Union
+under the leadership of Frederick, elector of the Palatinate. The Union
+included by no means all the Protestant princes; for example, the
+Lutheran elector of Saxony refused to have anything to do with the
+Calvinistic Frederick. The next year the Catholics, on their part,
+formed the Catholic League under a far more efficient head, namely,
+Maximilian of Bavaria.<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bohemia revolts from the Hapsburg rule, 1618.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick, elector of the Palatinate, chosen king of
+Bohemia.</div>
+
+<p>These were the preliminaries of the Thirty Years' War. Hostilities began
+in Bohemia, which had been added to the Hapsburg possessions through the
+marriage of Ferdinand I. The Protestants were so strong in that country
+that they had forced the emperor in 1609 to grant them privileges
+greater even than those enjoyed by the Huguenots in France. The
+government, however, failed to observe this agreement, and the
+destruction of two Protestant churches resulted in a revolution at
+Prague in 1618. Three representatives of the emperor were seized by the
+irritated Bohemian leaders and thrown out of the window of the palace.
+After this emphatic protest against the oppressive measures of the
+government, Bohemia endeavored to establish itself once more as an
+independent kingdom. It renounced the rule of the Hapsburgs and chose
+Frederick,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span> the elector of the Palatinate, as its new king. He appeared
+to the Bohemians to possess a double advantage; in the first place, he
+was the head of the Protestant Union, and in the second, he was the
+son-in-law of the king of England, James I, to whom they looked for
+help.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Failure of the Bohemian revolt.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle on the White Hill, 1620.</div>
+
+<p>The Bohemian venture proved a most disastrous one for Germany and for
+Protestantism. The new emperor, Ferdinand II (1619&ndash;1637), who was at
+once an uncompromising Catholic and a person of considerable ability,
+appealed to the League for assistance. Frederick, the new king of
+Bohemia, showed himself entirely unequal to the occasion. He and his
+English wife, the Princess Elizabeth, made a bad impression on the
+Bohemians, and they failed to gain the support of the neighboring
+Lutheran elector of Saxony. A single battle, which the army of the
+League under Maximilian won in 1620, put to flight the poor "winter
+king," as he was derisively called on account of his reign of a single
+season. The emperor and the duke of Bavaria set vigorously to work to
+suppress Protestantism within their borders. The emperor arbitrarily
+granted the eastern portion of the Palatinate to Maximilian and gave him
+the title of Elector, without consulting the diet.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England and France unable to assist the Protestants.</div>
+
+<p><b>179.</b> Matters were becoming serious for the Protestant party, and England
+might have intervened had it not been that James I believed that he
+could by his personal influence restore peace to Europe and induce the
+emperor and Maximilian of Bavaria to give back the Palatinate to the
+"winter king." Even France might have taken a hand, for although
+Richelieu, then at the head of affairs, had no love for the Protestants,
+he was still more bitterly opposed to the Hapsburgs. However, his hands
+were tied for the moment, for he was just undertaking to deprive the
+Huguenots of their strong towns.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Christian IV of Denmark invades Germany, but is defeated.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wallenstein.</div>
+
+<p>A diversion came, nevertheless, from without. Christian IV, king of
+Denmark, invaded northern Germany in 1625 with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span> view of relieving his
+fellow Protestants. In addition to the army of the League which was
+dispatched against him, a new army was organized by the notorious
+commander, Wallenstein. The emperor was poor and gladly accepted the
+offer of this ambitious Bohemian nobleman<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> to collect an army which
+should support itself upon the proceeds of the war, to wit, confiscation
+and robbery. Christian met with two serious defeats in northern Germany;
+even his peninsula was invaded by the imperial forces, and in 1629 he
+agreed to retire from the conflict.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Edict of Restitution, 1629.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dismissal of Wallenstein.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Appearance of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, 1594&ndash;1632.</div>
+
+<p>The emperor was encouraged by the successes of the Catholic armies to
+issue that same year an Edict of Restitution. In this he ordered the
+Protestants throughout Germany to give back all the church possessions
+which they had seized since the religious Peace of Augsburg (1555).
+These included two archbishoprics (Magdeburg and Bremen), nine
+bishoprics, about one hundred and twenty monasteries, and other church
+foundations. Moreover, he decreed that only the Lutherans might enjoy
+the practice of their religion; the other "sects" were to be broken up.
+As Wallenstein was preparing to execute this decree in his usual
+merciless fashion, the war took a new turn. The League had become
+jealous of a general who threatened to become too powerful, and it
+accordingly joined in the complaints, which came from every side, of the
+terrible extortions and incredible cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's
+troops. The emperor consented, therefore, to dismiss this most competent
+commander and lose a large part of his army. Just as the Catholics were
+thus weakened, a new enemy arrived upon the scene who was far more
+dangerous than any they had yet had to face, Gustavus Adolphus, king of
+Sweden.<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The kingdom of Sweden.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gustavus Vasa, 1523&ndash;1560.</div>
+
+<p><b>180.</b> We have had no occasion hitherto to speak of the Scandinavian
+kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> which the northern German
+peoples had established about Charlemagne's time; but from now on they
+begin to take part in the affairs of central Europe. The Union of Calmar
+(1397) had brought these three kingdoms, previously separate, under a
+single ruler. About the time that the Protestant revolt began in Germany
+the union was broken by the withdrawal of Sweden. Gustavus Vasa, a
+Swedish noble, led the movement and was subsequently chosen king of
+Sweden (1523). In the same year Protestantism was introduced. Vasa
+confiscated the church lands, got the better of the aristocracy, and
+started Sweden on its way toward national greatness. Under his successor
+the eastern shores of the Baltic were conquered and the Russians cut off
+from the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Motives of Gustavus Adolphus in invading Germany, 1630.</div>
+
+<p>Gustavus Adolphus (1594&ndash;1632) was induced to invade Germany for two
+reasons. In the first place, he was a sincere and enthusiastic
+Protestant and by far the most generous and attractive figure of his
+time. He was genuinely afflicted by the misfortunes of his Protestant
+brethren and anxious to devote himself to their welfare. Secondly, he
+dreamed of extending his domains so that one day the Baltic might
+perhaps become a Swedish lake. He undoubtedly hoped by his invasion not
+only to free his co-religionists from the oppression of the emperor and
+of the League, but to gain a strip of territory for Sweden.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Destruction of Magdeburg, 1631.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gustavus Adolphus victorious at Breitenfeld, 1631.</div>
+
+<p>Gustavus was not received with much cordiality at first by the
+Protestant princes of the north; but they were brought to their senses
+by the awful destruction of Magdeburg by the troops of the League under
+General Tilly. Magdeburg was the most important town of northern
+Germany. When it finally succumbed after an obstinate and difficult
+siege, twenty thousand of its inhabitants were killed and the town
+burned to the ground. Although Tilly's reputation for cruelty is quite
+equal to that of Wallenstein, he was probably not responsible for the
+fire. After Gustavus Adolphus had met<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span> Tilly near Leipsic and
+victoriously routed the army of the League, the Protestant princes began
+to look with more favor on the foreigner. Gustavus then moved westward
+and took up his winter quarters on the Rhine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wallenstein recalled.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gustavus Adolphus killed at L&uuml;tzen, 1632.</div>
+
+<p>The next spring he entered Bavaria and once more defeated Tilly (who was
+mortally wounded in the battle), and forced Munich to surrender. There
+seemed now to be no reason why he should not continue his way to Vienna.
+At this juncture the emperor recalled Wallenstein, who collected a new
+army over which the emperor gave him absolute command. After some delay
+Gustavus met Wallenstein on the field of L&uuml;tzen, in November, 1632,
+where, after a fierce struggle, the Swedes gained the victory. But they
+lost their leader and Protestantism its hero, for the Swedish king
+ventured too far into the lines of the enemy and was surrounded and
+killed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Murder of Wallenstein.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of N&ouml;rdlingen, 1634.</div>
+
+<p>The Swedes did not, however, retire from Germany, but continued to
+participate in the war, which now degenerated into a series of raids by
+leaders whose soldiers depopulated the land by their unspeakable
+atrocities. Wallenstein roused the suspicions of the Catholics by
+entering into mysterious negotiations with Richelieu and with the German
+Protestants. This treasonable correspondence quickly reached the ears of
+the emperor. Wallenstein, who had long been detested by even the
+Catholics, was deserted by his soldiers and murdered (in 1634), to the
+great relief of all parties. In the same year the imperial army won the
+important battle of N&ouml;rdlingen, one of the most bloody and at the same
+time decisive engagements of the war. Shortly after, the elector of
+Saxony withdrew from his alliance with the Swedes and made peace with
+the emperor. It looked as if the war were about to come to an end, for
+many others among the German princes were quite ready to lay down their
+arms.<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Richelieu renews the struggle of France against the
+Hapsburgs.</div>
+
+<p><b>181.</b> Just at this critical moment Richelieu decided that it would be to
+the interest of France to renew the old struggle with the Hapsburgs by
+sending troops against the emperor. France was still shut in, as she had
+been since the time of Charles V, by the Hapsburg lands. Except on the
+side toward the ocean her boundaries were in the main artificial ones,
+and not those established by great rivers and mountains. She therefore
+longed to weaken her enemy and strengthen herself by winning Roussillon
+on the south, and so make the crest of the Pyrenees the line of
+demarcation between France and Spain. She dreamed, too, of extending her
+sway toward the Rhine by adding the county of Burgundy (i.e.,
+Franche-Comt&eacute;) and a number of fortified towns which would afford
+protection against the Spanish Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Richelieu checks Spanish aggression in Italy.</div>
+
+<p>Richelieu had been by no means indifferent to the Thirty Years' War. He
+had encouraged the Swedish king to intervene, and had supplied him with
+funds if not with troops. Moreover, he himself had checked Spanish
+progress in northern Italy. In 1624 Spanish troops had invaded the
+valley of the Adda, a Protestant region, with the evident purpose of
+conquest. This appeared a most serious aggression to Richelieu, for if
+the Spanish won the valley of the Adda, the last barrier between the
+Hapsburg possessions in Italy and in Germany would be removed. French
+troops were dispatched to drive out the Spaniards, but it was in the
+interest of France rather than in that of the oppressed Calvinists, for
+whom Richelieu could hardly have harbored a deep affection. A few years
+later it became a question whether a Spanish or a French candidate
+should obtain the vacant duchy of Mantua, and Richelieu led another
+French army in person to see that Spain was again discomfited. It was,
+then, not strange that he should decide to deal a blow at the emperor
+when the war appeared to be coming to a close that was tolerably
+satisfactory from the standpoint of the Hapsburgs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Richelieu's intervention prolongs the war.</div>
+
+<p>Richelieu declared war against Spain in May, 1635. He had already
+concluded an alliance with the chief enemies of the house of Austria.
+Sweden agreed not to negotiate for peace until France was ready for it.
+The United Provinces joined France, as did some of the German princes.
+So the war was renewed, and French, Swedish, Spanish, and German
+soldiers ravaged an already exhausted country for a decade longer. The
+dearth of provisions was so great that the armies had to move quickly
+from place to place in order to avoid starvation. After a serious defeat
+by the Swedes, the emperor (Ferdinand III, 1637&ndash;1657) sent a Dominican
+monk to expostulate with Cardinal Richelieu for his crime in aiding the
+German and Swedish heretics against the unimpeachably orthodox Austria.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France succeeds Spain in the military supremacy of western
+Europe.</div>
+
+<p>The cardinal had, however, just died (December, 1642), well content with
+the results of his diplomacy. The French were in possession of
+Roussillon and of Artois, Lorraine, and Alsace. The military exploits of
+the French generals, especially Turenne and Cond&eacute;, during the opening
+years of the reign of Louis XIV (1643&ndash;1715) showed that a new period had
+begun in which the military and political supremacy of Spain was to give
+way to that of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648.</div>
+
+<p><b>182.</b> The participants in the war were now so numerous and their objects
+so various and conflicting, that it is not strange that it required some
+years to arrange the conditions of peace even when every one was ready
+for it. It was agreed (1644) that France and the empire should negotiate
+at M&uuml;nster, and the emperor and the Swedes at Osnabr&uuml;ck,&mdash;both of which
+towns lie in Westphalia. For four years the representatives of the
+several powers worked upon the difficult problem of satisfying every
+one, but at last the treaties of Westphalia were signed late in 1648.
+Their provisions continued to be the basis of the international law of
+Europe down to the French Revolution.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Provisions of the treaties of Westphalia.</div>
+
+<p>The religious troubles in Germany were settled by extending the
+toleration of the Peace of Augsburg so as to include the Calvinists as
+well as the Lutherans. The Protestant princes were, regardless of the
+Edict of Restitution, to retain the lands which they had in their
+possession in the year 1624, and each ruler was still to have the right
+to determine the religion of his state. The dissolution of the German
+empire was practically acknowledged by permitting the individual states
+to make treaties among themselves and with foreign powers; this was
+equivalent to recognizing the practical independence which they had, as
+a matter of fact, already long enjoyed. A part of Pomerania and the
+districts at the mouth of the Oder, the Elbe, and the Weser were ceded
+to Sweden. This territory did not, however, cease to form a part of the
+empire, for Sweden was thereafter to have three votes in the German
+diet.</p>
+
+<p>As for France, it was definitely given the three bishoprics of Metz,
+Verdun, and Toul, which Henry II had bargained for when he allied
+himself with the Protestants a century earlier.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> The emperor also
+ceded to France all his rights in Alsace, although the city of Strasburg
+was to remain with the empire. Lastly, the independence both of the
+United Netherlands and of Switzerland was acknowledged.<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disastrous results of the war in Germany.</div>
+
+<p>The accounts of the misery and depopulation of Germany caused by the
+Thirty Years' War are well-nigh incredible. Thousands of villages were
+wiped out altogether; in some regions the population was reduced by one
+half, in others to a third, or even less, of what it had been at the
+opening of the conflict. The flourishing city of Augsburg was left with
+but sixteen thousand souls instead of eighty thousand. The people were
+fearfully barbarized by privation and suffering and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span> by the atrocities
+of the soldiers of all the various nations. Until the end of the
+eighteenth century Germany was too exhausted and impoverished to make
+any considerable contribution to the culture of Europe. Only one hopeful
+circumstance may be noted as we leave this dreary subject. After the
+Peace of Westphalia the elector of Brandenburg was the most powerful of
+the German princes next to the emperor. As king of Prussia he was
+destined to create another European power, and at last to humble the
+house of Hapsburg and create a new German empire in which Austria should
+have no part.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;The most complete and scholarly account of the
+Thirty Years' War to be had in English is <span class="smcap">Gindely</span>, <i>History of the
+Thirty Years' War</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., $3.50).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXX</h2>
+
+<h3>STRUGGLE IN ENGLAND FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The question of absolute or limited monarchy in England.</div>
+
+<p><b>183.</b> The great question which confronted England in the seventeenth
+century was whether the king should be permitted to rule the people, as
+God's representative, or should submit to the constant control of the
+nation's representatives, i.e., Parliament. In France the Estates
+General met for the last time in 1614, and thereafter the French king
+made laws and executed them without asking the advice of any one except
+his immediate counselors. In general, the rulers on the continent
+exercised despotic powers, and James I of England and his son Charles I
+would gladly have made themselves absolute rulers, for they entertained
+the same exalted notions of the divine right of kings which prevailed
+across the English Channel. England finally succeeded, however, in
+adjusting the relations between king and Parliament in a very happy way,
+so as to produce a limited, or constitutional, monarchy. The long and
+bitter struggle between the house of Stuart and the English Parliament
+plays an important r&ocirc;le in the history of Europe at large, as well as in
+that of England. After the French Revolution, at the end of the
+eighteenth century, the English system began to become popular on the
+continent, and it has now replaced the older absolute monarchy in all
+the kingdoms of western Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of James I, 1603&ndash;1625.</div>
+
+<p>On the death of Elizabeth in 1603, James I, the first of the Stuarts,
+ascended the English throne. He was, it will be remembered, the son of
+Mary Queen of Scots, and was known<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span> in Scotland as James VI;
+consequently England and Scotland now came under the same ruler. This
+did not, however, make the relations between the two countries much
+happier, for a century to come at least.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">James' belief in the 'divine right' of kings.</div>
+
+<p>The chief interest of James' reign lay in his tendency to exalt the
+royal prerogative, and in the systematic manner in which he extolled
+absolute monarchy in his writings and speeches and discredited it by his
+conduct. James was an unusually learned man, for a king, but his
+learning did not enlighten him in matters of common sense. As a man and
+a ruler, he was far inferior to his unschooled and light-hearted
+contemporary, Henry IV of France. Henry VIII had been a heartless
+despot, and Elizabeth had ruled the nation in a high-handed manner; but
+both of them had known how to make themselves popular and had had the
+good sense to say as little as possible about their rights. James, on
+the contrary, had a fancy for discussing his high position.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His own expression of his claims.</div>
+
+<p>"As for the absolute prerogative of the crown," he declares, "that is no
+subject for the tongue of a lawyer, nor is it lawful to be disputed. It
+is atheism and blasphemy to dispute what God can do: ... so it is
+presumption and high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can
+do, or say that a king cannot do this or that." The king, James claimed,
+could make any kind of law or statute that he thought meet, without any
+advice from Parliament, although he might, if he chose, accept its
+suggestions. "He is overlord of the whole land, so is he master over
+every person who inhabiteth the same, having power over the life and
+death of every one of them: for although a just prince will not take the
+life of one of his subjects without a clear law, yet the same laws
+whereby he taketh them are made by himself and his predecessors; so the
+power flows always from himself." A good king will act according to law,
+but he is above the law and is not bound thereby except voluntarily and
+for good-example giving to his subjects.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The theory of 'divine right.'</div>
+
+<p>These theories, taken from James' work on <i>The Law of Free Monarchies</i>,
+seem strange and unreasonable to us. But he was really only claiming the
+rights which his predecessors had enjoyed, and such as were conceded to
+the kings of France until the French Revolution. According to the theory
+of "divine right," the king did not owe his power to the nation but to
+God, who had appointed him to be the father of his people. From God he
+derived all the prerogatives necessary to maintain order and promote
+justice; consequently he was responsible to God alone, and not to the
+people, for the exercise of his powers. It is unnecessary to follow in
+detail the troubles between James and his Parliament and the various
+methods which he invented for raising money without the sanction of
+Parliament, for all this forms only the preliminary to the fatal
+experience of James' son, Charles I.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">James I's foreign policy.</div>
+
+<p>In his foreign policy James showed as little sense as in his relations
+with his own people. He refused to help his son-in-law when he became
+king of Bohemia.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> But when the Palatinate was given by the emperor
+to Maximilian of Bavaria, James struck upon the extraordinary plan of
+forming an alliance with the hated Spain and inducing its king to
+persuade the emperor to reinstate the "winter king" in his former
+possessions. In order to conciliate Spain, Charles, Prince of Wales, was
+to marry a Spanish princess. Naturally this proposal was very unpopular
+among the English Protestants, and it finally came to nothing.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Literature in the time of Elizabeth and James I.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Shakespeare, 1564&ndash;1616.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis Bacon, 1561&ndash;1626.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The King James translation of the Bible.</div>
+
+<p>Although England under James I failed to influence deeply the course of
+affairs in Europe at large, his reign is distinguished by the work of
+unrivaled writers who gave England a literature which outshone that of
+any other of the European countries. Shakespeare is generally admitted
+to have been the greatest dramatist the world has ever produced. While
+he wrote many of his plays before the death of Elizabeth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> <i>Othello</i>,
+<i>King Lear</i>, and <i>The Tempest</i> belong to the reign of James. Francis
+Bacon, philosopher and statesman, did much for the advancement of
+scientific research by advocating new methods of reasoning based upon a
+careful observation of natural phenomena instead of upon Aristotle's
+logic. He urged investigators to take the path already indicated over
+three centuries earlier by his namesake, Roger Bacon.<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> The most
+worthy monument of the strong and beautiful English of the period is to
+be found in the translation of the Bible, prepared in James' reign and
+still generally used in all the countries where English is spoken.<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles I, 1625&ndash;1649.</div>
+
+<p><b>184.</b> Charles I was somewhat more dignified than his father, but he was
+quite as obstinately set upon having his own way and showed no more
+skill in winning the confidence of his subjects. He did nothing to
+remove the disagreeable impressions of his father's reign and began
+immediately to quarrel with Parliament. When that body refused to grant
+him any money, mainly because they thought that it was likely to be
+wasted by his favorite, the duke of Buckingham, Charles formed the plan
+of winning their favor by a great military victory.</p>
+
+<p>After James I had reluctantly given up his cherished Spanish alliance,
+Charles had married a French princess, Henrietta Maria, the daughter of
+Henry IV. In spite of this marriage Charles now proposed to aid the
+Huguenots whom Richelieu was besieging in their town of La Rochelle. He
+also hoped to gain popularity by prosecuting a war against Spain, whose
+king was energetically supporting the Catholic League in Germany.
+Accordingly, in spite of Parliament's refusal to grant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> him the
+necessary funds, he embarked in war. With only the money which he could
+raise by irregular means, Charles arranged an expedition to take Cadiz
+and the Spanish treasure ships which arrived there once a year from
+America, laden with gold and silver. The expedition failed, as well as
+Charles' attempt to help the Huguenots.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles' exactions and arbitrary acts.</div>
+
+<p>In his attempts to raise money without a regular grant from Parliament,
+Charles had resorted to vexatious exactions. The law prohibited him from
+asking for <i>gifts</i> from his people, but it did not forbid his asking
+them to <i>lend</i> him money, however little prospect there might be of his
+ever repaying it. Five gentlemen who refused to pay such a forced loan
+were imprisoned by the mere order of the king. This raised the question
+of whether the king had the right to send to prison those whom he wished
+without showing legal cause for their arrest.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Petition of Right.</div>
+
+<p>This and other attacks upon the rights of his subjects roused
+Parliament. In 1628 that body drew up the celebrated Petition of
+Right,<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> which is one of the most important documents in the history
+of the English Constitution. In it Parliament called the king's
+attention to his illegal exactions, and to the acts of his agents who
+had in sundry ways molested and disquieted the people of the realm.
+Parliament therefore "humbly prayed" the king that no man need
+thereafter "make or yield any gift, loan, benevolence, tax, or such like
+charge" without consent of Parliament; that no free man should be
+imprisoned or suffer any punishment except according to the laws and
+statutes of the realm as presented in the Great Charter; and that
+soldiers should not be quartered upon the people on any pretext
+whatever. Very reluctantly Charles consented to this restatement of the
+limitations which the English had always, in theory at least, placed
+upon the arbitrary power of their king.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Religious differences between Charles and the Commons.</div>
+
+<p>The disagreement between Charles and Parliament was rendered much more
+serious by religious differences. The king had married a Catholic
+princess, and the Catholic cause seemed to be gaining on the continent.
+The king of Denmark had just been defeated by Wallenstein and Tilly, and
+Richelieu had succeeded in depriving the Huguenots of their cities of
+refuge. Both James and Charles had shown their readiness to enter into
+engagements with France and Spain to protect English Catholics, and
+there was evidently a growing inclination in England to revert to the
+older ceremonies of the Church, which shocked the more strongly
+Protestant members of the House of Commons. The communion table was
+again placed by many clergymen at the eastern end of the church and
+became fixed there as an altar, and portions of the service were once
+more chanted.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image70.jpg" width="300" height="686" alt="Charles I (After a painting by Vandyke)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Charles I (After a painting by Vandyke)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles dissolves Parliament (1629) and determines to rule by
+himself.</div>
+
+<p>These "popish practices," with which the king was supposed to
+sympathize, served to widen the breach between him and the Commons which
+had been opened by the king's attempt to raise taxes on his own account.
+The Parliament of 1629, after a stormy session, was dissolved by the
+king, who determined to rule thereafter by himself. For eleven years no
+new Parliament was summoned.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p><p><b>185.</b> Charles was not well fitted by nature to try the experiment of
+personal government. Moreover, the methods resorted to by his ministers
+to raise money without recourse to Parliament rendered the king more and
+more unpopular and prepared the way for the triumphant return of
+Parliament.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles' financial exactions.</div>
+
+<p>According to an ancient law of England, those who had a certain amount
+of land must become knights; but since the decay of the feudal system,
+landowners had given up the meaningless form of qualifying themselves as
+knights. It now occurred to the king's government that a large amount of
+money might be raised by fining these delinquents. Other unfortunates
+who had settled within the boundaries of the royal forests were either
+heavily fined or required to pay enormous arrears of rent.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these sources of income, Charles applied to his subjects
+for <i>ship money</i>.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> He was anxious to equip a fleet, but instead of
+requiring the various ports to furnish ships, as was the ancient custom,
+he permitted them to buy themselves off by contributing to the fitting
+out of large ships owned by himself. Even those living inland were asked
+for ship money. The king maintained that this was not a tax but simply a
+payment by which his subjects freed themselves from the duty of
+defending their country. John Hampden, a squire of Buckinghamshire, made
+a bold stand against this illegal demand by refusing to pay twenty
+shillings of ship money which was levied upon him. The case was tried
+before the king's judges, a bare majority of whom decided against
+Hampden. But the trial made it tolerably clear that the country would
+not put up long with the king's despotic policy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William Laud made Archbishop of Canterbury.</div>
+
+<p>In 1633 Charles made William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud
+believed that the English Church would strengthen both itself and the
+government by following a middle course<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span> which should lie between that
+of the Church of Rome and that of Calvinistic Geneva. He declared that
+it was the part of good citizenship to conform outwardly to the services
+of the state church, but that the state should not undertake to oppress
+the individual conscience, and that every one should be at liberty to
+make up his own mind in regard to the interpretation to be given to the
+Bible and to the church fathers. As soon as he became archbishop he
+began a series of visitations through his province. Every clergyman who
+refused to conform to the Prayer Book, or opposed the placing of the
+communion table at the east end of the church, or declined to bow at the
+name of Jesus, was, if obstinate, to be brought before the king's
+special Court of High Commission to be tried and if convicted to be
+deprived of his benefice.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The different sects of Protestants.</div>
+
+<p>Laud's conduct was no doubt gratifying to the High Church party among
+the Protestants, that is, those who still clung to some of the ancient
+practices of the Roman Church, although they rejected the doctrine of
+the Mass and refused to regard the pope as their head. The Low Church
+party, or <i>Puritans</i>, on the contrary, regarded Laud and his policy with
+aversion. While, unlike the Presbyterians, they did not urge the
+abolition of the bishops, they disliked all "superstitious usages," as
+they called the wearing of the surplice by the clergy, the use of the
+sign of the cross at baptism, the kneeling posture in partaking of the
+communion. The Presbyterians, who are often confused with the Puritans,
+agreed with them in many respects, but went farther and demanded the
+introduction of Calvin's system of church government.<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Independents.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Pilgrim Fathers.</div>
+
+<p>Lastly, there was an ever-increasing number of Separatists, or
+Independents. These rejected both the organization of the Church of
+England and that of the Presbyterians, and desired that each religious
+community should organize itself independently. The government had
+forbidden these Separatists<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span> to hold their little meetings, which they
+called <i>conventicles</i>, and about 1600 some of them fled to Holland. The
+community of them which established itself at Leyden dispatched the
+<i>Mayflower</i>, in 1620, with colonists&mdash;since known as the Pilgrim
+Fathers&mdash;to the New World across the sea.<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> It was these colonists
+who laid the foundations of a <i>New England</i> which has proved a worthy
+offspring of the mother country. The form of worship which they
+established in their new home is still known as Congregational.<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles summons Parliament once more, to aid him in fighting
+the Scotch Presbyterians, 1640.</div>
+
+<p><b>186.</b> In 1640 Charles found himself forced to resort to Parliament, for
+he was involved in a war with Scotland which he could not carry on
+without money. There the Presbyterian system had been pretty generally
+introduced by John Knox in Queen Mary's time, but the bishops had been
+permitted to maintain a precarious existence in the interest of the
+nobles who enjoyed their revenues. James I had always had a strong
+dislike for Presbyterianism. He once said, "A Scottish presbytery
+agreeth as well with the monarchy as God with the devil. Then Jack and
+Tom and Will and Dick shall meet and at their pleasure censure me and my
+council." He much preferred a few bishops appointed by himself to
+hundreds of presbyteries over whose sharp eyes and sharper tongues he
+could have little control. So bishops were reappointed in Scotland in
+the early years of his reign and got back some of their powers. The
+Presbyterians, however, were still in the majority, and they continued
+to regard the bishops as the tools of the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The National Covenant, 1638.</div>
+
+<p>An attempt on the part of Charles to force the Scots to accept a
+modified form of the English Prayer Book led to the signing of the
+National Covenant in 1638. This pledged those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span> who attached their names
+to it to re&euml;stablish the purity and liberty of the Gospel, which, to
+most of the Covenanters, meant Presbyterianism. Charles thereupon
+undertook to coerce the Scots. Having no money, he bought on credit a
+large cargo of pepper, which had just arrived in the ships of the East
+India Company, and sold it cheap for ready cash. The soldiers, however,
+whom he got together showed little inclination to fight the Scots, with
+whom they were in tolerable agreement on religious matters. Charles was
+therefore at last obliged to summon a Parliament, which, owing to the
+length of time it remained in session, is known as the Long Parliament.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The measures of the Long Parliament against the king's
+tyranny.</div>
+
+<p>The Long Parliament began by imprisoning Strafford, the king's most
+conspicuous minister, and Archbishop Laud in the Tower of London. The
+help that Strafford had given to the king in ruling without Parliament
+had mortally offended the House of Commons. They declared him guilty of
+treason, and he was executed in 1641, in spite of Charles' efforts to
+save him. Laud met the same fate four years later. Parliament also tried
+to strengthen its position by passing the Triennial Bill, which provided
+that it should meet at least once in three years, even if not summoned
+by the king. The courts of Star Chamber and High Commission, which had
+arbitrarily condemned a number of the king's opponents, were abolished,
+and ship money declared illegal.<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> In short, Charles' whole system of
+government was abrogated. The efforts of the queen to obtain money and
+soldiers from the pope, and a visit of Charles to Scotland, which
+Parliament suspected was for the purpose of forcing the Scots to lend
+him an army to use against themselves, led to the Grand Remonstrance. In
+this all of Charles' errors were enumerated and a demand was made that
+the king's ministers should thereafter be responsible to Parliament.
+This document Parliament ordered to be printed and circulated throughout
+the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Charles' attempts to arrest five members of the House of
+Commons.</div>
+
+<p>Exasperated at the conduct of the Commons, Charles attempted to
+intimidate the opposition by undertaking the arrest of five of its most
+active leaders, whom he declared to be traitors. But when he entered the
+House of Commons and looked around for his enemies, he found that they
+had taken shelter in London, whose citizens later brought them back in
+triumph to Westminster.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The beginning of civil war, 1642.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cavaliers and Roundheads.</div>
+
+<p><b>187.</b> Both Charles and Parliament now began to gather troops for the
+inevitable conflict, and England was plunged into civil war. Those who
+supported Charles were called <i>Cavaliers</i>. They included not only most
+of the aristocracy and the papal party, but also a number of members of
+the House of Commons who were fearful lest Presbyterianism should
+succeed in doing away with the English Church. The parliamentary party
+was popularly known as the <i>Roundheads</i>, since some of them cropped
+their hair close because of their dislike for the long locks of their
+more aristocratic and worldly opponents.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image71.jpg" width="300" height="388" alt="Oliver Cromwell" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Oliver Cromwell</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Oliver Cromwell.</div>
+
+<p>The Roundheads soon found a distinguished leader in Oliver Cromwell<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a>
+(b. 1599), a country gentleman and member of Parliament, who was later
+to become the most powerful ruler of his time. Cromwell organized a
+compact army of God-fearing men, who indulged in no profane words or
+light talk, as is the wont of soldiers, but advanced upon their enemies
+singing psalms. The king enjoyed the support of northern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> England, and
+also looked for help from Ireland, where the royal and Catholic causes
+were popular.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The losing cause of the king.</div>
+
+<p>The war continued for several years, and a number of battles were fought
+which, after the first year, went in general against the Cavaliers. The
+most important of these were the battle of Marston Moor in 1644, and
+that of Naseby the next year, in which the king was disastrously
+defeated. The enemy came into possession of his correspondence, which
+showed them how their king had been endeavoring to bring armies from
+France and Ireland into England. This encouraged Parliament to prosecute
+the war with more energy than ever. The king, defeated on every hand,
+put himself in the hands of the Scotch army which had come to the aid of
+Parliament (1646), and the Scotch soon turned him over to Parliament.
+During the next two years Charles, while held in captivity, entered into
+negotiations with the various parties in turn, but played fast and loose
+with them all.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pride's Purge.</div>
+
+<p>There were many in the House of Commons who still sided with the king,
+and in December, 1648, that body declared for a reconciliation with the
+monarch, whom they had safely imprisoned in the Isle of Wight. The next
+day Colonel Pride, representing the army,&mdash;which constituted a party in
+itself and was opposed to all negotiations between the king and the
+Commons,&mdash;stood at the door of the House with a body of soldiers and
+excluded all the members who took the side of the king. This outrageous
+act is known in history as Pride's Purge.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Execution of Charles, 1649.</div>
+
+<p>In this way the House was brought completely under the control of those
+most bitterly hostile to Charles, whom they now proposed to bring to
+trial. They declared that the House of Commons, since it was chosen by
+the people, was supreme in England and the source of all just power, and
+that consequently neither king nor House of Lords was necessary. The
+mutilated House appointed a special High Court of Justice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span> made up of
+Charles' sternest opponents, who alone would consent to sit in judgment
+on him. They passed sentence upon him, and on January 30, 1649, Charles
+was beheaded in front of his palace of Whitehall, London. It must be
+clear from the above account that it was not the nation at large which
+demanded Charles' death, but a very small group of extremists who
+claimed to be the representatives of the nation.<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England becomes a commonwealth or republic.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cromwell at the head of the government.</div>
+
+<p><b>188.</b> The Rump Parliament, as the remnant of the House of Commons was
+contemptuously called, proclaimed England to be thereafter a
+commonwealth, that is, a republic, without a king or House of Lords.
+Cromwell, the head of the army, was the real ruler of England. He
+derived his main support from the Independents; and it is very
+surprising that he was able to maintain himself so long, considering
+what a small portion of the English people was in sympathy with the
+religious ideas of that sect and with the abolition of kingship. Even
+the Presbyterians were on the side of Charles II, the legal heir to the
+throne. Yet Cromwell represented the principles for which the opponents
+of tyranny had been contending. He was, moreover, a vigorous and
+skillful administrator, and had a well-organized army of fifty thousand
+men at his command; otherwise the republic could scarcely have lasted
+more than a few months.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ireland and Scotland subdued.</div>
+
+<p>Cromwell found himself confronted by every variety of difficulty. The
+three kingdoms had fallen apart. The nobles and Catholics in Ireland
+proclaimed Charles II as king, and Ormond, a Protestant leader, formed
+an army of Irish Catholics and English royalist Protestants with a view
+of overthrowing the Commonwealth. Cromwell accordingly set out for
+Ireland, where, after taking Drogheda, he mercilessly slaughtered two
+thousand of the "barbarous wretches," as he called them. Town after town
+surrendered to Cromwell's army, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> 1652, after much cruelty, the
+island was once more conquered. A large part of it was confiscated for
+the benefit of the English, and the Catholic landowners were driven into
+the mountains. In the meantime (1650) Charles II had landed in Scotland,
+and upon his agreeing to be a Presbyterian king, the whole Scotch nation
+was ready to support him. But Scotland was subdued even more promptly
+than Ireland had been. So completely was the Scottish army destroyed
+that Cromwell found no need to draw the sword again in the British
+Isles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Navigation Act, 1651.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Commercial war between Holland and England.</div>
+
+<p>Although it would seem that Cromwell had enough to keep him busy at
+home, he had already engaged in a victorious foreign war against the
+Dutch, who had become dangerous commercial rivals of England. The ships
+which went out from Amsterdam and Rotterdam were the best merchant
+vessels in the world, and had got control of the carrying trade between
+Europe and the colonies. In order to put an end to this, the English
+Parliament passed the Navigation Act (1651), which permitted only
+English vessels to bring goods to England, unless the goods came in
+vessels belonging to the country which had produced them. This led to a
+commercial war between Holland and England, and a series of battles was
+fought between the English and Dutch fleets, in which sometimes one and
+sometimes the other gained the upper hand. This war is notable as the
+first example of the commercial struggles which were thereafter to take
+the place of the religious conflicts of the preceding period.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament (1653), and is made
+Lord Protector by his own Parliament.</div>
+
+<p>Cromwell failed to get along with Parliament any better than Charles had
+done. The Rump Parliament had become very unpopular, for its members, in
+spite of their boasted piety, accepted bribes and were zealous in the
+promotion of their relatives in the public service. At last Cromwell
+upbraided them angrily for their injustice and self-interest, which were
+injuring the public cause. On being interrupted by a member, he cried
+out, "Come, come, we have had enough of this.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span> I'll put an end to this.
+It's not fit that you should sit here any longer," and calling in his
+soldiers he turned the members out of the House and sent them home.
+Having thus made an end of the Long Parliament (April, 1653), he
+summoned a Parliament of his own, made up of God-fearing men whom he and
+the officers of his army chose. This extraordinary body is known as
+Barebone's Parliament, from a distinguished member, a London merchant,
+with the characteristically Puritan name of Praisegod Barebone. Many of
+these godly men were unpractical and hard to deal with. A minority of
+the more sensible ones got up early one winter morning (December, 1653)
+and, before their opponents had a chance to protest, declared Parliament
+dissolved and placed the supreme authority in the hands of Cromwell.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Protector's foreign policy.</div>
+
+<p>For nearly five years Cromwell was, as Lord Protector,&mdash;a title
+equivalent to that of regent,&mdash;practically king of England, although he
+refused actually to accept the royal insignia. He did not succeed in
+permanently organizing the government at home but showed remarkable
+ability in his foreign negotiations. He formed an alliance with France,
+and English troops aided the French in winning a great victory over
+Spain. England gained thereby Dunkirk, and the West Indian island of
+Jamaica. The French king, Louis XIV, at first hesitated to address
+Cromwell, in the usual courteous way of monarchs, as "my cousin," but
+soon admitted that he would have to call Cromwell "father" should he
+wish it, as the Protector was undoubtedly the most powerful person in
+Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Cromwell, September, 1658.</div>
+
+<p>In May, 1658, Cromwell fell ill, and as a great storm passed over
+England at that time, the Cavaliers asserted that the devil had come to
+fetch home the soul of the usurper. Cromwell was dying, it is true, but
+he was no instrument of the devil. He closed a life of honest effort for
+his fellow-beings with a last touching prayer to God, whom he had
+consistently sought to serve: "Thou hast made me, though very unworthy,
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span> mean instrument to do Thy people some good and Thee service: and many
+of them have set too high a value upon me, though others wish and would
+be glad of my death. Pardon such as desire to trample upon the dust of a
+poor worm, for they are Thy people too; and pardon the folly of this
+short prayer, even for Jesus Christ's sake, and give us a good night, if
+it be Thy pleasure. Amen."<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Restoration.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles II welcomed back as king, 1660.</div>
+
+<p><b>189.</b> After Cromwell's death his son Richard, who succeeded him, found
+himself unable to carry on the government. He soon abdicated, and the
+remnants of the Long Parliament met once more. But the power was really
+in the hands of the soldiers. In 1660 George Monk, who was in command of
+the forces in Scotland, came to London with a view of putting an end to
+the anarchy. He soon concluded that no one cared to support the Rump,
+and that body peacefully disbanded of its own accord. Resistance would
+have been vain in any case with the army against it. The nation was glad
+to acknowledge Charles II, whom every one preferred to a government by
+soldiers. A new Parliament, composed of both houses, was assembled,
+which welcomed a messenger from the king and solemnly resolved that,
+"according to the ancient and fundamental laws of this kingdom, the
+government is, and ought to be, by king, lords, and commons." Thus the
+Puritan revolution and the ephemeral republic was followed by the
+<i>Restoration</i> of the Stuarts.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of Charles II.</div>
+
+<p>Charles II was quite as fond as his father of having his own way, but he
+was a man of more ability. He disliked to be ruled by Parliament; but,
+unlike his father, he was unwilling to arouse the nation against him. He
+did not propose to let anything happen which would send him on his
+travels again. He and his courtiers were fond of pleasure of a
+light-minded and immoral kind. The licentious dramas of the Restoration
+seem to indicate that those who had been forced by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span> Puritans to give
+up their legitimate pleasures now welcomed the opportunity to indulge in
+reckless gayety without regard to the bounds imposed by custom and
+decency.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Religious measures adopted by Parliament.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Act of Uniformity.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Dissenters.</div>
+
+<p>Charles' first Parliament was a moderate body, but his second was made
+up almost wholly of Cavaliers, and it got along, on the whole, so well
+with the king that he did not dissolve it for eighteen years. It did not
+take up the old question, which was still unsettled, as to whether
+Parliament or the king was really supreme. It showed its hostility,
+however, to the Puritans by a series of intolerant acts, which are very
+important in English history. It ordered that no one should hold a
+municipal office who had not received the Eucharist according to the
+rites of the Church of England. This was aimed at both the Presbyterians
+and the Independents. By the Act of Uniformity (1662), every clergyman
+who refused to accept everything contained in the Book of Common Prayer
+was to be excluded from holding his benefice. Two thousand clergymen
+thereupon resigned their positions for conscience' sake. These laws
+tended to throw all those Protestants who refused to conform to the
+Church of England into a single class, still known as Dissenters. It
+included the Independents, the Presbyterians, and the newer bodies of
+the Baptists, and the Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers.
+These sects abandoned any idea of controlling the religion or politics
+of the country, and asked only that they might be permitted to worship
+in their own way outside of the English Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Toleration favored by the king.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Conventicle Act.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Test Act.</div>
+
+<p>Toleration found an unexpected ally in the king, who, in spite of his
+dissolute habits, had interest enough in religion to have secret
+leanings toward Catholicism. He asked Parliament to permit him to
+moderate the rigor of the Act of Uniformity by making some exceptions.
+He even issued a declaration in the interest of toleration, with a view
+of bettering the position of the Catholics and nonconformists. Suspicion
+was, however, aroused lest this toleration might lead to the restoration
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span> "popery," and Parliament passed the harsh Conventicle Act (1664).
+Any adult attending a conventicle&mdash;that is to say, any religious meeting
+not held in accordance with the practice of the English Church&mdash;was
+liable to penalties which culminated in transportation to some distant
+colony. Samuel Pepys, who saw some of the victims of this law upon their
+way to a terrible exile, notes in his famous diary: "They go like lambs
+without any resistance. I would to God that they would conform or be
+more wise and not be catched." A few years later Charles issued a
+declaration giving complete religious liberty to Roman Catholics as well
+as to Dissenters. Parliament not only forced him to withdraw this
+enlightened measure but passed the Test Act, which excluded every one
+from public office who did not accept the Anglican views.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with Holland.</div>
+
+<p>The old war with Holland, begun by Cromwell, was renewed under Charles
+II, who was earnestly desirous to increase English commerce and to found
+new colonies. The two nations were very evenly matched on the sea, but
+in 1664 the English seized some of the West Indian Islands from the
+Dutch and also their colony on Manhattan Island, which was renamed New
+York in honor of the king's brother. In 1667 a treaty was signed by
+England and Holland which confirmed these conquests. Three years later
+Charles was induced by Louis XIV to conclude a secret treaty, by which
+he engaged to aid Louis in a fresh war upon Holland. Louis cherished a
+grudge against Holland for preventing him from seizing the Spanish
+Netherlands, to which he asserted a claim on behalf of his Spanish
+wife.<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> In return for Charles' promised aid, Louis was to support him
+with money and troops whenever Charles thought fit publicly to declare
+himself a Catholic&mdash;he had already acknowledged his conversion to a
+select circle. But Charles' nephew, William of Orange,&mdash;the
+great-grandson of William the Silent,&mdash;who was later to become king<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span> of
+England, encouraged the Dutch to withstand, and Louis was forced to
+relinquish his purpose of conquering this stubborn people. Peace was
+concluded in 1674, and England and Holland soon became allies against
+Louis, who was now recognized as the greatest danger which Europe had to
+face.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">James II, 1685&ndash;1688.</div>
+
+<p><b>190.</b> Upon Charles' death he was succeeded by his brother James, who was
+an avowed Catholic and had married, as his second wife, a Catholic, Mary
+of Modena. He was ready to re&euml;stablish Catholicism in England regardless
+of what it might cost him. Mary, James' daughter by his first wife, had
+married William, Prince of Orange, the head of the United Netherlands.
+The nation might have tolerated James so long as they could look forward
+to the accession of his Protestant daughter. But when a son was born to
+his Catholic second wife, and James showed unmistakably his purpose of
+favoring the Catholics, messengers were dispatched by a group of
+Protestants to William of Orange, asking him to come and rule over them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image511.png" width="600" height="198" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The revolution of 1688 and the accession of William III,
+1688&ndash;1702.</div>
+
+<p>William landed in November, 1688, and marched upon London, where he
+received general support from all the English Protestants, regardless of
+party. James started to oppose William, but his army refused to fight,
+and his courtiers deserted him. William was glad to forward James'
+flight to France, as he would hardly have known what to do with him had
+James insisted on remaining in the country. A new Parliament declared
+the throne vacant, on the ground that King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span> James II, "by the advice of
+the Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental
+laws and withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, had abdicated the
+government."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Declaration of Rights.</div>
+
+<p>A Declaration of Rights was then drawn up, condemning James' violation
+of the constitution and appointing William and Mary joint sovereigns.
+The Declaration of Rights, which is an important monument in English
+constitutional history, once more stated the fundamental rights of the
+English nation and the limitations which the Petition of Right and Magna
+Charta had placed upon the king. By this peaceful revolution of 1688 the
+English rid themselves of the Stuarts and their claims to rule by divine
+right, and once more declared themselves against the domination of the
+Church of Rome.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gardiner</span>, <i>The First Two Stuarts and the Puritan
+Revolution</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.00). <span class="smcap">Gardiner</span>,
+<i>Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution</i> (Clarendon
+Press, $2.25). For Cromwell, <span class="smcap">Carlyle</span>, "The Hero as King" in <i>Heroes
+and Hero Worship</i>. <span class="smcap">Morley</span>, <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (The Century Company,
+$3.50). For the Puritans, <span class="smcap">Campbell</span>, <i>The Puritans in Europe,
+Holland, England, and America</i> (2 vols., Harper, $5.00). <span class="smcap">Fiske</span>,
+<i>The Beginnings of New England</i> (Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., $2.00).
+<span class="smcap">Macaulay</span>, <i>Essay on Milton</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ASCENDENCY OF FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">France at the accession of Louis XIV, 1643&ndash;1715.</div>
+
+<p><b>191.</b> Under the despotic rule of Louis XIV (1643&ndash;1715) France enjoyed a
+commanding influence in European affairs. After the wars of religion
+were over, the royal authority had been re&euml;stablished by the wise
+conduct of Henry IV. Richelieu had solidified the monarchy by depriving
+the Huguenots of the exceptional privileges granted to them for their
+protection by Henry IV; he had also destroyed the fortified castles of
+the nobles, whose power had greatly increased during the turmoil of the
+Huguenot wars. His successor, Cardinal Mazarin, who conducted the
+government during Louis XIV's boyhood, was able to put down a last
+rising of the discontented nobility.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">What Richelieu and Mazarin had done for the French Monarchy.</div>
+
+<p>When Mazarin died in 1661, he left to the young monarch a kingdom such
+as no previous French king had enjoyed. The nobles, who for centuries
+had disputed the power with Hugh Capet and his successors, were no
+longer feudal lords but only courtiers. The Huguenots, whose claim to a
+place in the state beside the Catholics had led to the terrible civil
+wars of the sixteenth century, were reduced in numbers and no longer
+held fortified towns from which they could defy the king's agents.
+Richelieu and Mazarin had successfully taken a hand in the Thirty Years'
+War, and France had come out of it with enlarged territory and increased
+importance in European affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The government of Louis XIV.</div>
+
+<p>Louis XIV carried the work of these great ministers still farther. He
+gave that form to the French monarchy which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span> it retained until the
+French Revolution. He made himself the very mirror of kingship. His
+marvelous court at Versailles became the model and the despair of other
+less opulent and powerful princes, who accepted his theory of the
+absolute power of kings but could not afford to imitate his luxury. By
+his incessant wars of aggression he kept Europe in turmoil for over half
+a century. The distinguished generals who led his newly organized
+troops, and the wily diplomats who arranged his alliances and negotiated
+his treaties, made France feared and respected by even the most powerful
+of the other European states.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The theory of the 'divine right' of kings in France.</div>
+
+<p><b>192.</b> Louis XIV had the same idea of kingship that James I had tried in
+vain to induce the English people to accept. God had given kings to men,
+and it was His will that monarchs should be regarded as His lieutenants
+and that all those subject to them should obey them absolutely, without
+asking any questions or making any criticisms; for in yielding to their
+prince they were really yielding to God Himself. If the king were good
+and wise, his subjects should thank the Lord; if he proved foolish,
+cruel, or perverse, they must accept their evil ruler as a punishment
+which God had sent them for their sins. But in no case might they limit
+his power or rise against him.<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Different attitude of the English and French nations toward
+absolute monarchy.</div>
+
+<p>Louis had two great advantages over James. In the first place the
+English nation has always shown itself far more reluctant than France to
+place absolute power in the hands of its rulers. By its Parliament, its
+courts, and its various declarations of the nation's rights, it had
+built up traditions which made it impossible for the Stuarts to
+establish their claim to be absolute rulers. In France, on the other
+hand, there was no Great Charter or Bill of Rights; the Estates General
+did not hold the purse strings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span> and the king was permitted to raise
+money without asking their permission or previously redressing the
+grievances which they chose to point out. They were therefore only
+summoned at irregular intervals. When Louis XIV took charge of the
+government, forty-seven years had passed without a meeting of the
+Estates General, and a century and a quarter was still to elapse before
+another call to the representatives of the nation was issued in 1789.
+Moreover, the French people placed far more reliance upon a powerful
+king than the English, perhaps because they were not protected by the
+sea from their neighbors, as England was. On every side France had
+enemies ready to take advantage of any weakness or hesitation which
+might arise from dissension between a parliament and the king. So the
+French felt it best, on the whole, to leave all in the king's hands,
+even if they suffered at times from his tyranny.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image73.jpg" width="300" height="432" alt="Louis XIV" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Louis XIV</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Personal characteristics of Louis XIV.</div>
+
+<p>Louis had another great advantage over James. He was a handsome man, of
+elegant and courtly mien and the most exquisite perfection of manner;
+even when playing billiards he retained an air of world mastery. The
+first of the Stuarts, on the contrary, was a very awkward man, whose
+slouching gait, intolerable manners, and pedantic conversation were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span>
+utterly at variance with his lofty pretensions. Louis added to his
+graceful exterior a sound judgment and quick apprehension. He said
+neither too much nor too little. He was, for a king, a hard worker and
+spent several hours a day attending to the business of government. It
+requires, in fact, a great deal of energy and application to be a real
+despot. In order really to understand and to solve the problems which
+constantly face the ruler of a great state, a monarch must, like
+Frederick the Great or Napoleon, rise early and toil late. Louis was
+greatly aided by the able ministers who sat in his council, but he
+always retained for himself the place of first minister. He would never
+have consented to be dominated by an adviser, as his father had been by
+Richelieu. "The profession of the king," he declared, "is great, noble,
+and delightful if one but feels equal to performing the duties which it
+involves,"&mdash;and he never harbored a doubt that he himself was born for
+the business.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The king's palace at Versailles.</div>
+
+<p><b>193.</b> Louis XIV was careful that his surroundings should suit the
+grandeur of his office. His court was magnificent beyond anything that
+had been dreamed of in the West. He had an enormous palace constructed
+at Versailles, just outside of Paris, with interminable halls and
+apartments and a vast garden stretching away behind it. About this a
+town was laid out, where those who were privileged to be near his
+majesty or supply the wants of the royal court lived. This palace and
+its outlying buildings, including two or three less gorgeous residences
+for the king when he occasionally tired of the ceremony of Versailles,
+probably cost the nation about a hundred million dollars, in spite of
+the fact that thousands of peasants and soldiers were forced to turn to
+and work without remuneration. The furnishings and decorations were as
+rich and costly as the palace was splendid. For over a century
+Versailles continued to be the home of the French kings and the seat of
+their government.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image74.jpg" width="500" height="360" alt="The King&#39;s Bedroom in the Palace of Versailles" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The King&#39;s Bedroom in the Palace of Versailles</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Life at Louis XIV's court.</div>
+
+<p>This splendor and luxury helped to attract the nobility, who no longer
+lived on their estates in well-fortified castles, planning how they
+might escape the royal control. They now dwelt in the effulgence of the
+king's countenance. They saw him to bed at night and in stately
+procession they greeted him in the morning. It was deemed a high honor
+to hand him his shirt as he was being dressed, or, at dinner, to provide
+him with a fresh napkin. Only by living close to the king could the
+courtiers hope to gain favors, pensions, and lucrative offices for
+themselves and their friends, and perhaps occasionally to exercise some
+little influence upon the policy of the government. For they were now
+entirely dependent upon the good will of their monarch.<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The reforms of Colbert.</div>
+
+<p>The reforms which Louis carried out in the earlier part of his reign
+were largely the work of the great financier,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span> Colbert, to whom France
+still looks back with gratitude. He early discovered that Louis'
+officials were stealing and wasting vast sums. The offenders were
+arrested and forced to disgorge, and a new system of bookkeeping was
+introduced similar to that employed by business men. He then turned his
+attention to increasing the manufactures of France by establishing new
+industries and seeing that the older ones kept to a high standard, which
+would make French goods sell readily in foreign markets. He argued
+justly that if foreigners could be induced to buy French goods, these
+sales would bring gold and silver into the country and so enrich it. He
+made rigid rules as to the width and quality of cloths which the
+manufacturers might produce and the dyes which they might use. He even
+reorganized the old medi&aelig;val guilds; for through them the government
+could keep its eye on all the manufacturing that was done, and this
+would have been far more difficult if every one had been free to carry
+on any trade which he might choose. There were serious drawbacks to this
+kind of government regulation, but France accepted it, nevertheless, for
+many years.<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Art and literature in the reign of Louis XIV.</div>
+
+<p>It was, however, as a patron of art and literature that Louis XIV gained
+much of his celebrity. Moli&egrave;re, who was at once a playwright and an
+actor, delighted the court with comedies in which he delicately
+satirized the foibles of his time. Corneille, who had gained renown by
+the great tragedy of <i>The Cid</i> in Richelieu's time, found a worthy
+successor in Racine, the most distinguished perhaps of French tragic
+poets. The charming letters of Madame de S&eacute;vign&eacute; are models of prose
+style and serve at the same time to give us a glimpse into the more
+refined life of the court. In the famous memoirs of Saint-Simon, the
+weaknesses of the king, as well as the numberless intrigues of the
+courtiers, are freely exposed with inimitable skill and wit.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The government fosters the development of the French
+language and literature.</div>
+
+<p>Men of letters were generously aided by the king with pensions. Colbert
+encouraged the French Academy, which had been created by Richelieu. This
+body gave special attention to making the French tongue more eloquent
+and expressive by determining what words should be used. It is now the
+greatest honor that a Frenchman can obtain to be made one of the forty
+members of this association. A magazine which still exists, the <i>Journal
+des Savants</i>, was founded for the promotion of science. Colbert had an
+astronomical observatory built at Paris; and the Royal Library, which
+only possessed about sixteen thousand volumes, began to grow into that
+great collection of two and a half million volumes&mdash;by far the largest
+in existence&mdash;which to-day attracts scholars to Paris from all parts of
+the world. In short, Louis and his ministers believed one of the chief
+objects of any government to be the promotion of art, literature, and
+science, and the example they set has been followed by almost every
+modern state.<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis XIV's warlike enterprises.</div>
+
+<p><b>194.</b> Unfortunately for France, the king's ambitions were by no means
+altogether peaceful. Indeed, he regarded his wars as his chief glory. He
+employed a carefully reorganized army and the skill of his generals in a
+series of inexcusable attacks on his neighbors, in which he finally
+squandered all that Colbert's economies had accumulated and led France
+to the edge of financial ruin.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">He aims to restore the 'natural boundaries' of France.</div>
+
+<p>Louis XIV's predecessors had had, on the whole, little time to think of
+conquest. They had first to consolidate their realms and gain the
+mastery of their feudal dependents, who shared the power with them; then
+the claims of the English Edwards and Henrys had to be met, and the
+French provinces freed from their clutches; lastly, the great religious
+dispute was only settled after many years of disintegrating civil war.
+But Louis was now at liberty to look about him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span> and consider how he
+might best realize the dream of his ancestors and perhaps re&euml;stablish
+the ancient boundaries which C&aelig;sar reported that the Gauls had occupied.
+The "natural limits" of France appeared to be the Rhine on the north and
+east, the Jura Mountains and the Alps on the southeast, and to the south
+the Mediterranean and the Pyrenees. Richelieu had believed that it was
+the chief end of his ministry to restore to France the boundaries
+determined for it by nature. Mazarin had labored hard to win Savoy and
+Nice, and to reach the Rhine on the north. Before his death France at
+least gained Alsace and reached the Pyrenees, "which," as the treaty
+with Spain says (1659), "formerly divided the Gauls from Spain."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis lays claim to the Spanish Netherlands.</div>
+
+<p>Louis first turned his attention to the conquest of the Spanish
+Netherlands, to which he laid claim through his wife, the elder sister
+of the Spanish king, Charles II (1665&ndash;1700). In 1667 he surprised Europe
+by publishing a little treatise in which he set forth his claims not
+only to the Spanish Netherlands, but even to the whole Spanish monarchy.
+By confounding the kingdom of France with the old empire of the Franks
+he could maintain that the people of the Netherlands were his subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The invasion of the Netherlands, 1667.</div>
+
+<p>Louis placed himself at the head of the army which he had reformed and
+reorganized, and announced that he was to undertake a "journey," as if
+his invasion was only an expedition into another part of his undisputed
+realms. He easily took a number of towns on the border, and completely
+conquered Franche-Comt&eacute;. This was an outlying province of Spain,
+isolated from her other lands, and a most tempting morsel for the hungry
+king of France. These conquests alarmed Europe, and especially Holland,
+which could not afford to have the barrier between it and France
+removed, for Louis would be an uncomfortable neighbor. A Triple
+Alliance, composed of Holland, England, and Sweden, was accordingly
+organized to induce France to make peace with Spain. Louis contented
+himself for the moment with the dozen border towns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span> that he had taken
+and which Spain ceded to him on condition that he would return
+Franche-Comt&eacute; (Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis breaks up the Triple Alliance and allies himself with
+Charles II of England.</div>
+
+<p>The success with which Holland had held her own against the navy of
+England<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> and brought the proud king of France to a halt, produced an
+elation on the part of that tiny country which was very aggravating to
+Louis. He was thoroughly vexed that he should have been blocked by so
+trifling an obstacle as Dutch intervention. He consequently conceived a
+strong dislike for the United Provinces, which was increased by the
+protection that they afforded to political writers who annoyed him with
+their attacks. He broke up the Triple Alliance by inducing Charles II of
+England to conclude a treaty which arranged that England should help
+France in a new war against the Dutch.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis' invasion of Holland, 1672.</div>
+
+<p>Louis then startled Europe again by seizing the duchy of Lorraine, which
+brought him to the border of Holland. At the head of a hundred thousand
+men he crossed the Rhine (1672) and easily conquered southern Holland.
+For the moment the Dutch cause appeared to be lost. But William of
+Orange showed the spirit of his great ancestor, William the Silent; the
+sluices in the dikes were opened and the country flooded, so the French
+army was checked before it could take Amsterdam and advance into the
+north. Holland found an ally in the elector of Brandenburg, and the war
+became general. The emperor sent an army against Louis, and England
+deserted him and made peace with Holland.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peace of Nimwegen, 1678.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis' encroachments on German territory.</div>
+
+<p>When a general peace was concluded at Nimwegen, at the end of six years,
+the chief provisions were that Holland should be left intact, and that
+France should retain Franche-Comt&eacute;, which had been conquered by Louis in
+person. This bit of the Burgundian heritage thus became at last a part
+of France, after France and Spain had quarreled over it for a century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span>
+and a half. For the ten years following there was no open war, but Louis
+busied himself in the interval by instituting courts in the debatable
+region between France and Germany, to decide what neighboring districts
+belonged to the various territories and towns which had been ceded to
+France by the treaties of Westphalia and later ones. The vestiges of the
+old feudal entanglements gave ample scope for claims, which were
+re&euml;nforced by Louis' troops. Louis, moreover, seized the important free
+city of Strasburg, and made many other less conspicuous but equally
+unwarranted additions to his territory. The emperor was unable to do
+more than protest against these outrageous encroachments, for he was
+fully occupied with the Turks, who had just laid siege to Vienna.<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Situation of the Huguenots at the beginning of Louis XIV's
+reign.</div>
+
+<p><b>195.</b> Louis XIV exhibited as woeful a want of statesmanship in the
+treatment of his Protestant subjects as in the prosecution of disastrous
+wars. The Huguenots, deprived of their former military and political
+power, had turned to manufacture, trade, and banking; "as rich as a
+Huguenot" had become a proverb in France. There were perhaps a million
+of them among fifteen million Frenchmen, and they undoubtedly formed by
+far the most thrifty and enterprising part of the nation. The Catholic
+clergy, however, did not cease to urge the complete suppression of
+heresy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis' policy of suppression.</div>
+
+<p>Louis XIV had scarcely taken the reins of government into his own hands
+before the perpetual nagging and injustice to which the Protestants had
+been subjected at all times took a more serious form. Upon one pretense
+or another their churches were demolished. Children were authorized to
+renounce Protestantism when they reached the age of seven. If they were
+induced by the offer of a toy or a sweetmeat to say, for example, the
+words "Ave Maria" (Hail, Mary), they might be taken from their parents
+to be brought up in a Catholic school. In this way Protestant families
+were pitilessly broken up. Rough<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span> and licentious dragoons were quartered
+upon the Huguenots with the hope that the insulting behavior of the
+soldiers might drive the heretics to accept the religion of the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and its results.</div>
+
+<p>At last Louis was led by his officials to believe that practically all
+the Huguenots had been converted by these drastic measures. In 1685,
+therefore, he revoked the Edict of Nantes, and the Protestants thereby
+became outlaws and their ministers subject to the death penalty. Even
+liberal-minded Catholics, like the kindly writer of fables, La Fontaine,
+and the charming letter writer, Madame de S&eacute;vign&eacute;, hailed the
+re&euml;stablishment of "religious unity" with delight. They believed that
+only an insignificant and seditious remnant still clung to the beliefs
+of Calvin. But there could have been no more serious mistake. Thousands
+of the Huguenots succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the royal
+officials and fled, some to England, some to Prussia, some to America,
+carrying with them their skill and industry to strengthen France's
+rivals. This was the last great and terrible example of that fierce
+religious intolerance which had produced the Albigensian Crusade, the
+Spanish Inquisition, and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew.<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis' operations in the Rhenish Palatinate.</div>
+
+<p>Louis now set his heart upon conquering the Rhenish Palatinate, to which
+he easily discovered that he had a claim. The rumor of his intention and
+the indignation occasioned in Protestant countries by the revocation of
+the Edict of Nantes, resulted in an alliance against the French king
+headed by William of Orange. Louis speedily justified the suspicions of
+Europe by a frightful devastation of the Palatinate, burning whole towns
+and destroying many castles, including the exceptionally beautiful one
+of the elector at Heidelberg. Ten years later, however, Louis agreed to
+a peace which put things back as they were before the struggle began. He
+was preparing for the final and most ambitious undertaking of his life,
+which precipitated the longest and bloodiest war of all his warlike
+reign.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map506.jpg">
+<img src="images/map506th.jpg" width="600" height="433" alt="TREATY OF UTRECHT" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">TREATY OF UTRECHT</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The question of the Spanish succession.</div>
+
+<p><b>196.</b> The king of Spain, Charles II, was childless and brotherless, and
+Europe had long been discussing what would become of his vast realms
+when his sickly existence should come to an end. Louis had married one
+of his sisters, and the emperor, Leopold I, another, and these two
+ambitious rulers had been considering for some time how they might
+divide the Spanish possessions between the Bourbons and the Hapsburgs.
+But when Charles II died, in 1700, it was discovered that he had left a
+will in which he made Louis' younger grandson, Philip, the heir to his
+twenty-two crowns, but on the condition that France and Spain should
+never be united.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis' grandson, Philip, becomes king of Spain.</div>
+
+<p>It was a weighty question whether Louis should permit his grandson to
+accept this hazardous honor. Should Philip become king of Spain, Louis
+and his family would control all of southwestern Europe from Holland to
+Sicily, as well as a great part of North and South America. This would
+mean the establishment of an empire more powerful than that of Charles
+V. It was clear that the disinherited emperor and the ever watchful
+William of Orange, now king of England, would never permit this
+unprecedented extension of French influence. They had already shown
+themselves ready to make great sacrifices in order to check far less
+serious aggressions on the part of the French king. Nevertheless, family
+pride and personal ambition led Louis criminally to risk the welfare of
+his country. He accepted the will and informed the Spanish ambassador at
+the French court that he might salute Philip V as his new king. The
+leading French newspaper of the time boldly proclaimed that the Pyrenees
+were no more.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The War of the Spanish Succession.</div>
+
+<p>King William soon succeeded in forming a new Grand Alliance (1701) in
+which Louis' old enemies, England, Holland, and the emperor, were the
+most important members. William himself died just as hostilities were
+beginning, but the long War of the Spanish Succession was carried on
+vigorously by the great English general, the duke of Marlborough, and
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span> Austrian commander, Eugene of Savoy. The conflict was even more
+general than the Thirty Years' War; even in America there was fighting
+between French and English colonists, which passes in American histories
+under the name of Queen Anne's War. All the more important battles went
+against the French, and after ten years of war, which was rapidly
+ruining the country by the destruction of its people and its wealth,
+Louis was willing to consider some compromise, and after long discussion
+a peace was arranged in 1713.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Treaty of Utrecht, 1713.</div>
+
+<p>The Treaty of Utrecht changed the map of Europe as no previous treaty
+had done, not even that of Westphalia. Each of the chief combatants got
+its share of the Spanish booty over which they had been fighting. The
+Bourbon Philip V was permitted to retain Spain and its colonies on
+condition that the Spanish and French crowns should never rest on the
+same head. To Austria fell the Spanish Netherlands, hereafter called the
+Austrian Netherlands, which continued to form a barrier between Holland
+and France. Holland received certain fortresses to make its position
+still more secure. The Spanish possessions in Italy, i.e., Naples and
+Milan, were also given to Austria, and in this way Austria got the hold
+on Italy which it retained until 1866. England acquired from France,
+Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay region, and so began the
+expulsion of the French from North America. Besides these American
+provinces she received the island of Minorca with its fortress, and the
+rock and fortress of Gibraltar, which still gives her command of the
+narrow entrance to the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The development of international law.</div>
+
+<p>The period of Louis XIV is remarkable for the development of
+international law. The incessant wars, the great alliances embracing
+several powers, and the prolonged peace negotiations, such as those
+which preceded the treaties of Westphalia and Utrecht, made increasingly
+clear the need of well-defined rules governing independent states in
+their relations with one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span> another both in peace and in war. It was of
+the utmost importance to determine, for instance, the rights of
+ambassadors and of the vessels of neutral powers not engaged in the war,
+and what should be considered fair conduct in warfare and in the
+treatment of prisoners.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Grotius' <i>War and Peace</i>.</div>
+
+<p>The first great systematic treatise on international law was published
+by Grotius in 1625, when the horrors of the Thirty Years' War were
+impressing men's minds with the necessity of finding some other means
+than war of settling disputes between nations. Grotius' <i>War and Peace</i>
+was followed, in Louis XIV's time, by Pufendorf's <i>On the Law of Nature
+and Nations</i> (1672). While the rules laid down by these and later
+writers on international law have by no means put an end to war, they
+have prevented many conflicts by settling certain questions and by
+increasing the ways in which nations may come to an understanding with
+one another through their ambassadors without recourse to arms.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIV outlived his son and grandson, and left a sadly demoralized
+kingdom to his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV (1715&ndash;1774). The
+national treasury was depleted, the people were reduced in numbers and
+were in a miserable state, and the army, once the finest in Europe, was
+in no condition to gain further victories. Later we must study the
+conditions in France which led to the great Revolution. Now, however, we
+turn to the rise of two new European powers, Prussia and Russia, which
+began in the eighteenth century to play a prominent r&ocirc;le in European
+affairs.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXII</h2>
+
+<h3>RISE OF RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>197.</b> We have had little occasion hitherto, in dealing with the history
+of western Europe, to speak of the Slavic peoples, to whom the Russians,
+Poles, Bohemians, and many other nations of eastern Europe belong.
+Together they form the most numerous race in Europe, but, as has been
+well said, "they occupy a greater place on the map than in history." In
+the eighteenth century, however, Russia began to take an increasingly
+important part in European affairs, and it is now a great force in the
+politics of the world. The realms of the Tsar which lie in Europe exceed
+in extent those of all the other rulers of the continent put together,
+and yet they are scarcely more than a quarter of his whole dominion,
+which embraces northern and central Asia, and forms together an empire
+occupying toward three times the area of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Movements of the Slavs during the period of the German
+invasions.</div>
+
+<p>The Slavs were settled along the Dnieper, Don, and Vistula long before
+the Christian era. After the East Goths had penetrated into the Roman
+empire, the Slavs followed their example and invaded, ravaged, and
+conquered the Balkan Peninsula, which they held for some time. When the
+German Lombards went south into Italy, about 569, the Slavs pressed
+behind them into Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, where they still live
+within the bounds of the Austrian empire. Other Slavic hordes had driven
+the Germans across the Oder and upper Elbe. Later the German emperors,
+beginning with Charlemagne, began to push them back, but the Bohemians
+and Moravians still hold an advanced position on the borders of Bavaria
+and Saxony.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Beginnings of Russia.</div>
+
+<p>In the ninth century some of the Northmen invaded the districts to the
+east of the Baltic, while their relatives were causing grievous trouble
+in France and England. It is generally supposed that one of their
+leaders, Rurik, was the first to consolidate the Slavic tribes about
+Novgorod into a sort of state in 862. Rurik's successor extended the
+bounds of the new empire so as to include the important town of Kiev on
+the Dnieper. The word <i>Russia</i> is probably derived from <i>Rous</i>, the name
+given by the neighboring Finns to the Norman adventurers. Before the end
+of the tenth century the Greek form of Christianity was introduced and
+the Russian ruler was baptized. The frequent intercourse with
+Constantinople might have led to rapid advance in civilization had it
+not been for a great disaster which put Russia back for centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Tartar invasion of the thirteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>Russia is geographically nothing more than an extension of the vast
+plain of northern Asia, which the Russians were destined finally to
+conquer. It was therefore exposed to the great invasion of the Tartars
+or Mongols, who swept in from the east in the thirteenth century. The
+powerful Tartar ruler, Genghiz Khan (1162&ndash;1227), conquered northern
+China and central Asia, and the mounted hordes of his successors crossed
+into Europe and overran Russia, which had fallen apart into numerous
+principalities. The Russian princes became the dependents of the Great
+Khan, and had frequently to seek his far distant court, some three
+thousand miles away, where he freely disposed of both their crowns and
+their heads. The Tartars exacted tribute of the Russians, but left them
+undisturbed in their laws and religion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of the Tartar occupation on manners and customs.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ivan the Terrible assumes the title of Tsar.</div>
+
+<p>Of the Russian princes who went to prostrate themselves at the foot of
+the Great Khan's throne, none made a more favorable impression upon him
+than the prince of Moscow, in whose favor the Khan was wont to decide
+all cases of dispute between the prince and his rivals. When the Mongol
+power had begun to decline in strength and the princes of Moscow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span> had
+grown stronger, they ventured to kill the Mongol ambassadors sent to
+demand tribute in 1480, and thus freed themselves from the Mongol yoke.
+But the Tartar occupation had left its mark, for the princes of Moscow
+imitated the Khans rather than the western rulers, of whom, in fact,
+they knew nothing. In 1547 Ivan the Terrible assumed the Asiatic title
+of Tsar,<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> which appeared to him more worthy than that of king or
+emperor. The costumes and etiquette of the court were also Asiatic. The
+Russian armor suggested that of the Chinese, and their headdress was a
+turban. It was the task of Peter the Great to Europeanize Russia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peter the Great, 1672&ndash;1725.</div>
+
+<p><b>198.</b> At the time of Peter's accession, Russia, which had grown greatly
+under Ivan the Terrible and other enterprising rulers, still had no
+outlet to the sea. In manners and customs the kingdom was Asiatic, and
+its government was that of a Tartar prince. Peter had no quarrel with
+the despotic power which fell to him and which the Russian monarchs
+still exercise, since there is no parliament or constitution in that
+country down to the present day. But he knew that Russia was very much
+behind the rest of Europe, and that his crudely equipped soldiers could
+never make head against the well armed and disciplined troops of the
+West. He had no seaport and no ships, without which Russia could never
+hope to take part in the world's affairs. His two great tasks were,
+therefore, to introduce western habits and to "make a window," as he
+expressed it, through which Russia might look abroad.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peter's travels in Europe.</div>
+
+<p>In 1697&ndash;1698 Peter himself visited Germany, Holland, and England with a
+view to investigating every art and science of the West, as well as the
+most approved methods of manufacture, from the making of a man-of-war to
+the etching of an engraving. Nothing escaped the keen eyes of this rude,
+half-savage northern giant. For a week he put on the wide<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span> breeches of a
+Dutch laborer and worked in the shipyard at Saardam near Amsterdam. In
+England, Holland, and Germany he engaged artisans, scientific men,
+architects, ship captains, and those versed in artillery and the
+training of troops, all of whom he took back with him to aid in the
+reform and development of Russia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Suppression of revolt against foreign ideas.</div>
+
+<p>He was called home by the revolt of the royal guard, who had allied
+themselves with the very large party of nobles and churchmen who were
+horrified at Peter's desertion of the habits and customs of his
+forefathers. They hated what they called "German ideas," such as short
+coats, tobacco smoking, and beardless faces. The clergy even suggested
+that Peter was perhaps Antichrist. Peter took a fearful revenge upon the
+rebels, and is said to have himself cut off the heads of many of them.
+Like the barbarian that he was at heart, he left their heads and bodies
+lying about all winter, unburied, in order to make the terrible results
+of revolt against his power quite plain to all.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peter's reform measures.</div>
+
+<p>Peter's reforms extended through his whole reign. He made his people
+give up their cherished oriental beards and long flowing garments. He
+forced the women of the better class, who had been kept in a sort of
+oriental harem, to come out and meet the men in social assemblies, such
+as were common in the West. He invited foreigners to settle in Russia,
+and insured them protection, privileges, and the free exercise of their
+religion. He sent young Russians abroad to study. He reorganized the
+government officials on the model of a western kingdom, and made over
+his army in the same way.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Founding of a new capital, St. Petersburg.</div>
+
+<p>Finding that the old capital of Moscow clung persistently to its ancient
+habits, he prepared to found a new capital for his new Russia. He
+selected for this purpose a bit of territory on the Baltic which he had
+conquered from Sweden,&mdash;very marshy, it is true, but where he might hope
+to construct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span> Russia's first real port. Here he built St. Petersburg at
+enormous expense and colonized it with Russians and foreigners. Russia
+was at last becoming a European power.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image75.jpg" width="500" height="435" alt="Northeastern Europe at the Opening of the Eighteenth Century" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Northeastern Europe at the Opening of the Eighteenth Century</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The military prowess of Charles XII of Sweden.</div>
+
+<p>In his ambition to get to the sea, Peter naturally collided with Sweden,
+to which the provinces between Russia and the Baltic belonged. Never had
+Sweden, or any other country, had a more warlike king than the one with
+whom Peter had to contend, the youthful prodigy, Charles XII. When
+Charles came to the throne in 1697 he was only fifteen years old, and it
+seemed to the natural enemies of Sweden an auspicious time to profit by
+the supposed weakness of the boy ruler. So a union was formed between
+Denmark, Poland, and Russia, with the object of increasing their
+territories at Sweden's expense.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span> But Charles turned out to be a second
+Alexander the Great in military prowess. He astonished Europe by
+promptly besieging Copenhagen and forcing the king of Denmark to sign a
+treaty of peace. He then turned like lightning against Peter, who was
+industriously besieging Narva, and with eight thousand Swedes wiped out
+an army of fifty thousand Russians (1700). Lastly he defeated the king
+of Poland.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Defeat and death of Charles XII.</div>
+
+<p>Though Charles was a remarkable military leader, he was a foolish ruler.
+He undertook to wrest Poland from its king, to whom he attributed the
+formation of the league against him. He had a new king crowned at
+Warsaw, whom he at last succeeded in getting recognized. He then turned
+his attention to Peter, who had meanwhile been conquering the Baltic
+provinces. This time fortune turned against the Swedes. The long march
+to Moscow proved as fatal to them as to Napoleon a century later.
+Charles XII was totally defeated in the battle of Pultowa (1709). He
+fled to Turkey and spent some years there in vainly urging the Sultan to
+attack Peter. At last he returned to his own kingdom, which he had
+utterly neglected for years. He was killed in 1718 while besieging a
+town.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Russia acquires the Baltic provinces and attempts to get a
+footing on the Black Sea.</div>
+
+<p>Soon after Charles' death a treaty was concluded between Sweden and
+Russia by which Russia gained Livonia, Esthonia, and the other Swedish
+provinces at the eastern end of the Baltic. Peter had made less
+successful attempts to get a footing on the Black Sea. He had first
+taken Azof, which he soon lost during the war with Sweden, and then
+several towns on the Caspian. It had become evident that if the Turks
+should be driven out of Europe, Russia would be a mighty rival of the
+western powers in the division of the spoils.<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a></p>
+
+<p>For a generation after the death of Peter the Great, Russia fell into
+the hands of incompetent rulers. It only appears again as a European
+state when the great Catherine II came<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[Pg 515]</a></span> to the throne in 1762. From that
+time on, the western powers had always to consider the vast Slavic
+empire in all their great struggles. They had also to consider a new
+kingdom in northern Germany, which was just growing into a great power
+as Peter began his work. This was Prussia, whose beginnings we must now
+consider.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Brandenburg and the Hohenzollerns.</div>
+
+<p><b>199.</b> The electorate of Brandenburg had figured on the map of Germany for
+centuries, and there was no particular reason to suppose that it was to
+become one day the dominant state in Germany. At the time of the Council
+of Constance the old line of electors had died out, and the impecunious
+Emperor Sigismund had sold it to a hitherto inconspicuous house, the
+Hohenzollerns, which is known to us now through such names as those of
+Frederick the Great, William I, the first German emperor, and his
+grandson, the present emperor. Beginning with a strip of territory
+extending some ninety or a hundred miles to the east and to the west of
+the little town of Berlin, the successive representatives of the line
+have gradually extended their boundaries until the present kingdom of
+Prussia embraces nearly two thirds of Germany. Of the earlier little
+annexations nothing need be said. While it has always been the pride of
+the Hohenzollern family that practically every one of its reigning
+members has added something to what his ancestors handed down to him, no
+great extension took place until just before the Thirty Years' War.
+About that time the elector of Brandenburg inherited Cleves, and thus
+got his first hold on the Rhine district.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prussia acquired by the elector of Brandenburg.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The elector of Brandenburg assumes the title of King of
+Prussia, 1701.</div>
+
+<p>What was quite as important, he won, far to the east, the duchy of
+Prussia, which was separated from Brandenburg by Polish territory.
+Prussia was originally the name of a region on the Baltic inhabited by
+heathen Slavs. These had been conquered in the thirteenth century by one
+of the orders of crusading knights, who, when the conquest of the Holy
+Land was abandoned, looked about for other occupation. The region
+filled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span> up with German colonists, but it came under the sovereignty of
+the neighboring kingdom of Poland, whose king annexed the western half
+of the territory of the Teutonic Order, as the German knights were
+called.<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> In Luther's day the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights,
+who happened to be a relative of the electors of Brandenburg, concluded
+to abolish the order and become duke of Prussia. In good time his family
+died out, and the duchy fell to the electors of Brandenburg. When one of
+them was permitted by the emperor, in the year 1701, to assume the title
+of king, he chose to be called King of Prussia.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Great Elector, 1640&ndash;1688.</div>
+
+<p>Brandenburg accepted the Protestant religion before Luther's death, but
+played a pitiful part in the Thirty Years' War. Its real greatness dates
+from the Great Elector (1640&ndash;1688). In the treaties of Westphalia he
+acquired a goodly strip on the Baltic, and he succeeded in creating an
+absolute monarchy on the model furnished by his contemporary, Louis XIV.
+He joined England and Holland in their alliances against Louis, and the
+army of Brandenburg began to be known and feared.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick William I, 1713&ndash;1740.</div>
+
+<p>While it was reserved for Frederick the Great to stir Europe to its
+depths and establish the right of the new kingdom of Prussia to be
+considered one of the great European powers, he owed to his father,
+Frederick William I, the resources which made his victories possible.
+Frederick William strengthened the government and collected an army
+nearly as large as that maintained by France or Austria. He had,
+moreover, by miserly thrift and entire indifference to the amenities and
+luxuries of life, treasured up a large sum of money. Consequently
+Frederick, upon his accession, had an admirable army ready for use and
+an ample supply of gold.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Hapsburgs in Austria.</div>
+
+<p><b>200.</b> Prussia's aspiration to become a great European power made it
+necessary for her to extend her territory. This inevitably brought her
+into rivalry with Austria. It will be remembered that Charles V, shortly
+after his accession, ceded to his brother, Ferdinand I, the German or
+Austrian possessions of the house of Hapsburg, while he himself retained
+the Spanish, Burgundian, and Italian dominions. Ferdinand, by a
+fortunate marriage with the heiress of the kingdoms of Bohemia and
+Hungary, greatly augmented his territory. Hungary was, however, almost
+completely occupied by the Turks at that time, and till the end of the
+seventeenth century the energies of the Austrian rulers were largely
+absorbed in a long struggle against the Mohammedans.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquests of the Turks in Europe.</div>
+
+<p>A Turkish tribe from western Asia had, at the opening of the fourteenth
+century, established themselves in western Asia Minor under their leader
+Othman (d. 1326). It was from him that they derived their name of
+Ottoman Turks, to distinguish them from the Seljuk Turks, with whom the
+crusaders had come into contact. The leaders of the Ottoman Turks showed
+great energy. They not only extended their Asiatic territory far toward
+the east, and later into Africa, but they gained a footing in Europe as
+early as 1353. They gradually conquered the Slavic peoples in Macedonia
+and occupied the territory about Constantinople, although it was a
+hundred years before they succeeded in capturing the ancient capital of
+the Eastern Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The defense of Europe against the Turks.</div>
+
+<p>This advance of the Turks naturally aroused grave apprehensions in the
+states of western Europe lest they too might be deprived of their
+independence. The brunt of the defense against the common foe devolved
+upon Venice and the German Hapsburgs, who carried on an almost
+continuous war with the Turks for nearly two centuries. As late as 1683
+the Mohammedans collected a large force and besieged Vienna, which might
+very well have fallen into their hands had it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[Pg 518]</a></span> not been for the timely
+assistance which the city received from the king of Poland. From this
+time on, the power of the Turks in Europe rapidly decreased, and the
+Hapsburgs were able to regain the whole territory of Hungary and
+Transylvania, their possession of which was formally recognized by the
+Sultan in 1699.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The question of the Austrian succession.</div>
+
+<p>In 1740, a few months before the accession of Frederick II of Prussia,
+the emperor Charles VI, who was the last representative of the direct
+line of the Hapsburgs, died. Foreseeing the difficulties which would
+arise at his death in regard to the inheritance of his possessions, he
+had spent a great part of his life in trying to induce the European
+powers to promise that his daughter, Maria Theresa, should be recognized
+as his successor. England, Holland, and even Prussia were ready to bid
+Godspeed to the new archduchess of Austria and queen of Hungary and
+Bohemia, but France, Spain, and the neighboring Bavaria held back in the
+hope of gaining some portion of the scattered Austrian dominions for
+themselves. The duke of Bavaria insisted that he was the rightful heir
+and managed to have himself elected emperor under the title of Charles
+VII.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Frederick II of Prussia, called 'the Great,'
+1740&ndash;1786.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick's attack upon Silesia.</div>
+
+<p><b>201.</b> In his early years Frederick II grieved and disgusted his boorish
+but energetic old father by his dislike for military life and his
+interest in books and music. He was a particular admirer of the French
+and preferred their language to his own. No sooner had he become king,
+however, than he suddenly developed marvelous energy and skill in
+warlike enterprises. He realized that Prussia must widen its boundaries,
+and he saw no better way of accomplishing this than by robbing the
+seemingly defenseless Maria Theresa of Silesia, a strip of territory
+lying to the southeast of Brandenburg. He accordingly marched his army
+into the coveted district, and occupied the important city of Breslau
+without declaring war or offering any excuse except a vague claim to a
+portion of the land.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The War of the Austrian Succession.</div>
+
+<p>France, stimulated by Frederick's example, joined with Bavaria in the
+attack upon Maria Theresa. It seemed for a time as if her struggle to
+maintain the integrity of her realm would be vain; but the loyalty of
+all the various peoples under her scepter was roused by her
+extraordinary courage and energy. The French were driven back, but Maria
+Theresa was forced to grant Silesia to Frederick in order to induce him
+to retire from the war. Finally, England and Holland joined in an
+alliance for maintaining the balance of power, for they had no desire to
+see France annex the Austrian Netherlands. On the death of the emperor
+Charles VII (1745), Maria Theresa's husband, Francis, duke of Lorraine,
+was chosen emperor. A few years later (1748) all the powers, tired of
+the war, laid down their arms and agreed to what is called in diplomacy
+the <i>status quo ante bellum</i>, which simply means that things were to be
+restored to the condition in which they had been before the opening of
+hostilities.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick promotes the material development of Prussia.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick and Voltaire.</div>
+
+<p>Frederick was, however, permitted to keep Silesia, which increased his
+dominions by about one third of their former extent. He now turned his
+attention to making his subjects happier and more prosperous, by
+draining the swamps, promoting industry, and drawing up a new code of
+laws. He found time, also, to gratify his interest in men of letters,
+and invited Voltaire, the most distinguished writer of the eighteenth
+century, to make his home at Berlin. It will not seem strange to any one
+who knows anything of the character of these two men, that they
+quarreled after two or three years, and that Voltaire left the Prussian
+king with very bitter feelings.<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Seven Years' War.</div>
+
+<p><b>202.</b> Maria Theresa was by no means reconciled to the loss of Silesia,
+and she began to lay her plans for expelling the perfidious Frederick
+and regaining her lost territory. This led to one of the most important
+wars in modern history, in which not only almost every European power
+joined, but which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span> involved the whole world, from the Indian rajahs of
+Hindustan to the colonists of Virginia and New England. This Seven
+Years' War (1756&ndash;1763) will be considered in its broader aspects in the
+next chapter. We note here only the part played in it by the king of
+Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The alliance against Prussia.</div>
+
+<p>Maria Theresa's ambassador at Paris was so skillful in his negotiations
+with the French court that in 1756 he induced it, in spite of its two
+hundred years of hostility to the house of Hapsburg, to enter into an
+alliance with Austria against Prussia. Russia, Sweden, and Saxony also
+agreed to join in a concerted attack on Prussia. Their armies, coming as
+they did from every point of the compass, threatened the complete
+annihilation of Austria's rival. It seemed as if the new kingdom of
+Prussia might disappear altogether from the map of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick's victorious defense.</div>
+
+<p>However, it was in this war that Frederick earned his title of "the
+Great" and showed himself the equal of the ablest generals the world has
+seen, from Alexander to Napoleon. Learning the object of the allies, he
+did not wait for them to declare war against him, but occupied Saxony at
+once and then moved on into Bohemia, where he nearly succeeded in taking
+the capital, Prague. Here he was forced to retire, but in 1757 he
+defeated the French and his German enemies in the most famous, perhaps,
+of his battles, at Rossbach. A month later he routed the Austrians at
+Leuthen, not far from Breslau. Thereupon the Swedes and Russians retired
+from the field and left Frederick for the moment master of the
+situation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick finally triumphs over Austria.</div>
+
+<p>England now engaged the French and left Frederick at liberty to deal
+with his other enemies. While he exhibited marvelous military skill, he
+was by no means able to gain all the battles in which he engaged. For a
+time, indeed, it looked as if he might after all be vanquished. But the
+accession of a new Tsar, who was an ardent admirer of Frederick,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span> led
+Russia to conclude peace with Prussia, whereupon Maria Theresa
+reluctantly agreed to give up once more her struggle with her inveterate
+enemy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The kingdom of Poland and its defective constitution.</div>
+
+<p>Frederick was able during his reign greatly to strengthen his kingdom by
+adding to it the Polish regions which had hitherto divided his
+possessions in Brandenburg from those which lay across the Vistula. The
+kingdom of Poland, which in its declining years was to cause western
+Europe much trouble, was shut in between Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
+The Slavic population of this region had come under an able ruler about
+the year 1000, and the Polish kings had succeeded for a time in
+extending their power over a large portion of Russia, Moravia, and the
+Baltic regions. They had never been able, however, to establish a
+successful form of government. This was largely due to the fact that the
+kings were elected by the nobles, the crown not passing from father to
+son, as in the neighboring kingdoms. The elections were tumultuous
+affairs, and foreigners were frequently chosen. Moreover, each noble had
+the right to veto any law proposed in the diet, and consequently a
+single person might prevent the passage of even the most important
+measure. The anarchy which prevailed in Poland had become proverbial.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The first partition of Poland, 1772.</div>
+
+<p>On the pretense that this disorderly country was a menace to their
+welfare, the neighboring powers, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, agreed to
+reduce the danger by each helping itself to a slice of the unfortunate
+kingdom. This amicable arrangement resulted in what is known as the
+first partition of Poland. It was succeeded by two others (1793 and
+1795), by the last of which this ancient state was wiped from the map
+altogether.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Achievements of Frederick the Great.</div>
+
+<p>When Frederick died (1786) he left the state which had been intrusted to
+him by his father nearly doubled in size. He had rendered it illustrious
+by his military glory, and had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span> vastly increased its resources by
+improving the condition of the people in the older portions of his
+territory and by establishing German colonies in the desolate regions of
+West Prussia, which he strove in this way to bind closely to the rest of
+the kingdom.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tuttle</span>, <i>History of Prussia</i> (4 vols., Houghton,
+Mifflin &amp; Co., $8.25). <span class="smcap">Carlyle</span>, <i>Frederick the Great</i> (3 vols.,
+Chapman, $2.25). <span class="smcap">Longman, F.W.</span>, <i>Frederick the Great</i> (Charles
+Scribner's Sons, $1.00). <span class="smcap">Rambaud</span>, <i>History of Russia</i> (2 vols.,
+Coryell &amp; Co., $2.00). For Peter the Great and his Age,
+<span class="smcap">Waliszewski</span>, <i>Life of Peter the Great</i> (D. Appleton &amp; Co., $2.00).
+For the Seven Years' War and France, <span class="smcap">Perkins</span>, <i>France under Louis
+XV</i> (2 vols., Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., $4.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>203.</b> In the last chapter we reviewed the progress of affairs in eastern
+Europe and noted the appearance of two new and important powers, Prussia
+and Russia, which, together with Austria, were engaged during the
+eighteenth century in extending their bounds at the expense of their
+weak neighbors, Poland and Turkey.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">In the eighteenth century England lays the foundation of her
+commercial greatness.</div>
+
+<p>In the west, England was rapidly becoming a dominant power. While she
+did not play a very important part in the wars on the continent, she was
+making herself mistress of the seas. At the close of the War of the
+Spanish Succession her navy was superior to that of any other European
+power, for both France and Holland had been greatly weakened by the long
+conflict. Fifty years after the Treaty of Utrecht, England had succeeded
+in driving the French from both North America and India and in laying
+the foundation of her vast colonial empire, which still gives her the
+commercial supremacy among the European countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Questions settled by the accession of William and Mary.</div>
+
+<p>With the accession of William and Mary, England may be regarded as
+having practically settled the two great questions which had produced
+such serious dissensions during the previous fifty years. In the first
+place, the nation had clearly shown that it proposed to remain
+Protestant; and the relations between the Church of England and the
+dissenters were gradually being satisfactorily adjusted. In the second
+place, the powers of the king had been carefully defined, and from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span>
+opening of the eighteenth century to the present time no English monarch
+has ventured to veto an act of Parliament.<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Queen Anne, 1702&ndash;1714.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The union of England and Scotland, 1707.</div>
+
+<p>William III was succeeded in 1702 by his sister-in-law, Anne, a younger
+daughter of James II. Far more important than the war which her generals
+carried on against Spain was the final union of England and Scotland. As
+we have seen, the difficulties between the two countries had led to much
+bloodshed and suffering ever since Edward I's futile attempt to conquer
+Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> The two countries had, it is true, been under the same
+ruler since the accession of James I, but each had maintained its own
+independent parliament and system of government. Finally, in 1707, both
+nations agreed to unite their governments into one. Forty-five members
+of the British House of Commons were to be chosen thereafter in
+Scotland, and sixteen Scotch lords were to be added to the British House
+of Lords. In this way the whole island of Great Britain was placed under
+a single government, and the occasions for strife were thereby greatly
+reduced.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of George I (1714&ndash;1727), the first of the house of
+Hanover.</div>
+
+<p>Since none of Anne's children survived her, she was succeeded, according
+to an arrangement made before her accession, by the nearest Protestant
+heir. This was the son of James I's granddaughter Sophia. She had
+married the elector of Hanover<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a>; consequently the new king of
+England, George I, was also elector of Hanover and a member of the Holy
+Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The king ceases to attend the meetings of the cabinet, which
+comes to be regarded as the real governing body.</div>
+
+<p>The new king was a German who could not speak English and was forced to
+communicate with his ministers in bad Latin. The king's leading
+ministers had come to form a little body by themselves, called the
+<i>cabinet</i>. As George could not understand the discussions he did not
+attend the meetings of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span> ministers, and thereby set an example which
+has been followed by his successors. In this way the cabinet came to
+hold its meetings and transact its business independently of the king.
+Before long it became a recognized principle in England that it was the
+cabinet that really governed rather than the king; and that its members,
+whether the king liked them or not, might retain their offices so long
+as they continued to enjoy the confidence and support of Parliament.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 856px;">
+<img src="images/image76.png" width="856" height="574" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England and the 'balance of power.'</div>
+
+<p><b>204.</b> William of Orange had been a continental statesman before he became
+king of England, and his chief aim had always been to prevent France
+from becoming over-powerful. He had joined in the War of the Spanish
+Succession in order to maintain the "balance of power" between the
+various European countries.<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> During the eighteenth century England
+continued, for the same reason, to engage in the struggles between the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[Pg 526]</a></span>
+continental powers, although she had no expectation of attempting to
+extend her sway across the Channel. The wars which she waged in order to
+increase her own power and territory were carried on in distant parts of
+the world, and more often on sea than on land.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peace under Walpole as prime minister, 1721&ndash;1742.</div>
+
+<p>For a quarter of a century after the Treaty of Utrecht, England enjoyed
+peace.<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> Under the influence of Walpole, who for twenty-one years was
+the head of the cabinet and the first to be called "prime minister,"
+peace was maintained within and without. Not only did Walpole avoid
+going to war with other countries, but he was careful to prevent the
+ill-feeling at home from developing into civil strife. His principle was
+to "let sleeping dogs lie"; so he strove to conciliate the dissenters
+and to pacify the Jacobites,<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> as those were called who still desired
+to have the Stuarts return.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England in the War of the Austrian Succession.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">'Prince Charlie,' the Young Pretender, in Scotland.</div>
+
+<p>When, in 1740, Frederick the Great and the French attacked Maria
+Theresa, England's sympathies were with the injured queen. As elector of
+Hanover, George II (who had succeeded his father in 1727), led an army
+of German troops against the French and defeated them on the river Main.
+Frederick then declared war on England; and France sent the grandson of
+James II,<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> the Young Pretender, as he was called, with a fleet to
+invade England. The attempt failed, for the fleet was dispersed by a
+storm. In 1745 the French defeated the English and Dutch forces in the
+Netherlands; this encouraged the Young Pretender to make another attempt
+to gain the English crown. He landed in Scotland, where he found support
+among the Highland chiefs, and even Edinburgh welcomed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[Pg 527]</a></span> "Prince
+Charlie." He was able to collect an army of six thousand men, with which
+he marched into England. He was quickly forced back into Scotland,
+however, and after a disastrous defeat on Culloden Moor (1746) and many
+romantic adventures, he was glad to reach France once more in safety.</p>
+
+<p><b>205.</b> Soon after the close of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748,
+England entered upon a series of wars which were destined profoundly to
+affect not only her position, but also the fate of distant portions of
+the globe. In order to follow these changes intelligently we must
+briefly review the steps by which the various European states had
+extended their sway over regions separated from them by the ocean.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Colonial policy of Portugal, Spain, and Holland in the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.</div>
+
+<p>The voyages which had brought America and India within the ken of Europe
+during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were, as we know,
+mainly undertaken by the Portuguese and Spaniards. Portugal was the
+first to realize the advantage of extending her commerce by establishing
+stations in India and on the Brazilian coast of South America; then
+Spain laid claim to Mexico, the West Indies, and a great part of South
+America. These two powers found their first rival in the Dutch; for when
+Philip II was able to add Portugal to the realms of the Spanish monarchs
+for a few decades (1580&ndash;1640), he immediately closed the port of Lisbon
+to the Dutch ships. Thereupon the United Provinces, whose merchants
+could no longer procure the spices which the Portuguese brought from the
+East, resolved to take possession of the source of supplies. They
+accordingly expelled the Portuguese from a number of their settlements
+in India and the Spice Islands and brought Java, Sumatra, and other
+tropical regions under Dutch control.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Settlements of the French and English in North America.</div>
+
+<p>In North America the chief rivals were England and France, both of which
+succeeded in establishing colonies in the early part of the seventeenth
+century. Englishmen successively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[Pg 528]</a></span> settled at Jamestown in Virginia
+(1607), then in New England, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. The
+colonies owed their growth to the influx of refugees,&mdash;Puritans,
+Catholics, and Quakers,&mdash;who exiled themselves in the hope of gaining
+the right freely to enjoy their particular forms of religion.<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a></p>
+
+<p>Just as Jamestown was being founded by the English the French were
+making their first successful settlement in Nova Scotia and at Quebec.
+Although England made no attempt to oppose the French occupation of
+Canada, it progressed but slowly. In 1673 Marquette, a Jesuit
+missionary, and Joliet, a merchant, discovered the Mississippi River. La
+Salle sailed down the great stream and named the new country which he
+entered Louisiana, after his king. The city of New Orleans was founded
+near the mouth of the river in 1718, and the French established a chain
+of forts between it and Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>England was able, however, by the Treaty of Utrecht, to establish
+herself in the northern regions, for France thereby ceded to her
+Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the borders of Hudson Bay. While the
+number of English in North America at the beginning of the Seven Years'
+War is supposed to have been over a million, the French scarcely
+exceeded a twentieth of that number. Yet careful observers at the time
+were by no means sure that France was not destined to dominate the new
+country, rather than England.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extent of India.</div>
+
+<p>The rivalry of England and France was not confined to the wildernesses
+of North America, occupied by half a million of savage red men. At the
+opening of the eighteenth century both countries had gained a foothold
+on the borders of the vast Indian empire, inhabited by two hundred
+millions of people and the seat of an ancient and highly developed
+civilization. One may gain some idea of the extent of India by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[Pg 529]</a></span> laying
+the map of Hindustan upon that of the United States. If the southernmost
+point, Cape Comorin, be placed over New Orleans, Calcutta will lie
+nearly over New York City and Bombay in the neighborhood of Des Moines,
+Iowa.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Mongolian emperors of Hindustan.</div>
+
+<p>A generation after Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut,<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> a Mongolian
+conqueror, Baber,<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> had established his empire in India. The dynasty
+of Mongolian rulers which he founded had been able to keep the whole
+country under its control for toward two centuries; then their empire
+had fallen apart in much the same way as that of Charlemagne had done.
+Like the counts and dukes of the Carolingian period, the emperor's
+officials, the subahdars and nawabs (nabobs), and the rajahs&mdash;i.e.,
+Hindu princes temporarily subjugated by the Mongols&mdash;had gradually got
+the power in their respective districts into their own hands. Although
+the emperor, or Great Mogul, as the English called him, continued to
+maintain himself in his capital of Delhi, he could no longer be said to
+rule the country at the opening of the eighteenth century when the
+French and English were seriously beginning to turn their attention to
+his coasts.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">English and French settlements in India.</div>
+
+<p>In the time of Charles I (1639), a village had been purchased by the
+English East India Company on the southeastern coast of Hindustan, which
+grew into the important English station of Madras. About a generation
+later the district of Bengal was occupied and Calcutta founded. Bombay
+was already an English station. The Mongolian emperor of India at first
+scarcely deigned to notice the presence of a few foreigners on the
+fringe of his vast realms. But before the end of the seventeenth century
+hostilities began between the English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span> East India Company and the native
+rulers which made it plain that the foreigners would be forced to defend
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The English had not only to face the opposition of the natives, but that
+of a European power as well. France also had an East India Company, and
+Pondicherry, at the opening of the eighteenth century, was its chief
+center with a population of sixty thousand, of which two hundred only
+were Europeans. It soon became apparent that there was little danger
+from the Great Mogul; moreover, the Portuguese and Dutch were out of the
+race. So the native princes and the French and English were left to
+fight among themselves for the supremacy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England victorious in the struggle for supremacy in America.</div>
+
+<p><b>206.</b> Just before the general clash of European rulers known as the Seven
+Years' War came in 1756, the French and English had begun their struggle
+for control in both America and India. In America the so-called French
+and Indian War began in 1754 between the English and French colonists.
+General Braddock was sent from England to capture Fort Duquesne, which
+the French had established to keep their rivals out of the Ohio valley.
+Braddock knew nothing of border warfare, and he was killed and his
+troops routed. Fortunately for England, France, as the ally of Austria,
+was soon engaged in a war with Prussia that prevented her from giving
+proper attention to her American possessions. A famous statesman, the
+elder Pitt, was now at the head of the English ministry. He was able not
+only to succor the hard-pressed king of Prussia with money and men, but
+also to support the militia of the thirteen American colonies. The
+French forts at Ticonderoga and Niagara were taken in 1759. Quebec was
+won in Wolfe's heroic attack, and the following year all Canada
+submitted to the English. England's supremacy on the sea was
+demonstrated by three admirals, each of whom destroyed a French fleet in
+the same year that Quebec was lost to France.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[Pg 531]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Dupleix and Clive in India.</div>
+
+<p>In India conflicts between the French and the English had occurred
+during the War of the Austrian Succession. The governor of the French
+station of Pondicherry was Dupleix, a soldier of great energy, who
+proposed to drive out the English and firmly establish the power of
+France over Hindustan. His chances of success were greatly increased by
+the quarrels among the native rulers, some of whom belonged to the
+earlier Hindu inhabitants and some to the Mohammedan Mongolians who had
+conquered India in 1526. Dupleix had very few French soldiers, but he
+began the enlistment of the natives, a custom eagerly adopted by the
+English. These native soldiers, whom the English called Sepoys, were
+taught to fight in the manner of Europeans.<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Clive defeats Dupleix.</div>
+
+<p>But the English colonists, in spite of the fact that they were mainly
+traders, discovered among the clerks in Madras a leader equal in
+military skill and energy to Dupleix himself. Robert Clive, who was but
+twenty-five years old at this time, organized a large force of Sepoys
+and gained a remarkable ascendency over them by his astonishing bravery.
+Dupleix paid no attention to the fact that peace had been declared in
+Europe at Aix-la-Chapelle, but continued to carry on his operations
+against the English. But Clive proved more than his equal and in two
+years had established English supremacy in the southeastern part of
+India.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Clive renders English influence supreme in India.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Black Hole' of Calcutta.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Plassey, 1757.</div>
+
+<p>At the moment that the Seven Years' War was beginning, bad news reached
+Clive from the English settlement of Calcutta, about a thousand miles to
+the northeast of Madras. The subahdar of Bengal had seized the property
+of some English merchants and imprisoned one hundred and forty-five
+Englishmen in a little room, where most of them died of suffocation
+before morning. Clive hastened to Bengal, and with a little army of nine
+hundred Europeans and fifteen hundred Sepoys he gained a great victory
+at Plassey over the subahdar's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span> army of fifty thousand men. Clive then
+replaced the subahdar of Bengal by a man whom he believed to be friendly
+to the English. Before the Seven Years' War was over the English had won
+Pondicherry and deprived the French of all their former influence in the
+region of Madras.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England's gains in the Seven Years' War.</div>
+
+<p>When the Seven Years' War was brought to an end in 1763 by the Treaty of
+Paris, it was clear that England had gained far more than any other
+power. She was to retain her two forts commanding the Mediterranean,
+Gibraltar, and Port Mahon on the island of Minorca; in America, France
+ceded to her the vast region of Canada and Nova Scotia, as well as
+several of the islands in the West Indies. The region beyond the
+Mississippi was ceded to Spain by France, who thus gave up all her
+claims to North America. In India, France, it is true, received back the
+towns which the English had taken from her, but she had permanently lost
+her influence over the native rulers, for Clive had made the English
+name greatly feared among them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginning of trouble with the American colonies.</div>
+
+<p><b>207.</b> England, with the help of her colonists, had thus succeeded in
+driving the French from North America and in securing the continent,
+with the exception of Mexico, for the English race. She was not,
+however, long to enjoy her victory, for no sooner had the Peace of Paris
+been signed than she and her American colonies became involved in a
+dispute over taxation, which led to a new war and the creation of an
+independent English-speaking nation, the United States of America.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Stamp Act and its repeal.</div>
+
+<p>It seemed right to England that the colonies should help pay the
+expenses of the late war, which were very heavy, and also support a
+small standing army of English soldiers. Parliament therefore passed the
+Stamp Act in 1765, which required the colonists to pay for stamps to be
+used on legal documents. The Americans declared that Parliament had no
+right to tax them, since they were not represented in that body. The
+opposition to the stamp tax was so great that Parliament repealed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span> the
+act, but with the explicit assertion that it nevertheless had the right
+to tax the colonies as well as to make laws for them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opposition to 'taxation without representation.'</div>
+
+<p>The effort to make the Americans pay a very moderate import duty on tea
+produced further trouble in 1773. The young men of Boston seditiously
+boarded a tea ship in the harbor and threw the cargo into the water.
+Burke, perhaps the most able member of the House of Commons, urged the
+ministry to leave the Americans to tax themselves, but George III
+(1760&ndash;1820) and Parliament as a whole could not forgive the colonists
+their opposition. They believed that the trouble was largely confined to
+New England and could be easily overcome. In 1774 acts were passed
+prohibiting the landing and shipping of goods at Boston, and the colony
+of Massachusetts was deprived of its former right to choose its judges
+and the members of the upper house of its legislature. These
+appointments were now placed in the hands of the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Continental Congress.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Outbreak of war.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776.</div>
+
+<p>Such measures, instead of bringing Massachusetts to terms, so roused the
+apprehension of the rest of the colonists that a congress was summoned,
+and met at Philadelphia. This decided that all trade with Great Britain
+should cease until the grievances of the colonies had been redressed.
+The following year the Americans made a brave stand against British
+troops at Lexington and in the battle of Bunker Hill. The new Congress
+decided to prepare for war and raised an army which was put under the
+command of George Washington, a Virginia planter who had gained some
+distinction in the late French and Indian War. Up to this time the
+colonies had not intended to secede from the mother country, but the
+proposed compromises came to nothing, and in July, 1776, Congress
+declared that "these United States are, and of right ought to be, free
+and independent."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The United States seeks and receives aid from France.</div>
+
+<p>This occurrence naturally excited great interest in France. The outcome
+of the Seven Years' War had been most lamentable for that country, and
+any trouble which came to her old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span> enemy England could not but be a
+source of congratulation to the French. The United States regarded
+France as her natural ally and immediately sent Benjamin Franklin to
+Versailles with the hope of obtaining the aid of the new French king,
+Louis XVI. The king's ministers were doubtful whether the colonies could
+long maintain their resistance against the overwhelming strength of the
+mother country. It was only after the Americans had defeated Burgoyne at
+Saratoga in 1777, that France concluded a treaty with the United States
+in which the independence of the new republic was recognized. This was
+tantamount to declaring war upon England. The enthusiasm for the
+Americans was so great in France that a number of the younger nobles,
+the most conspicuous of whom was Lafayette, crossed the Atlantic to
+fight in the American army.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Close of the war, 1783.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England acknowledges the independence of the United States.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of the skill and heroic self-sacrifice of Washington, the
+Americans lost more battles than they gained. It is extremely doubtful
+if they would have succeeded in bringing the war to a favorable close,
+by forcing the English general, Cornwallis, to capitulate at Yorktown
+(1781), had it not been for the aid of the French fleet. Before the war
+was terminated by the Peace of Paris (1783), Spain had joined in the
+hostilities, and the Spanish and French fleets laid siege to Gibraltar.
+Their floating batteries were finally destroyed by the red-hot shot of
+the British, and the enemies of England gave up further attempts to
+dislodge her from this important station. The chief result of the war
+was the recognition by England of the United States, whose territory was
+to extend to the Mississippi River. To the west of the Mississippi, the
+vast territory of Louisiana still remained in the hands of Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results in Europe of wars between Treaty of Utrecht and Peace
+of Paris.</div>
+
+<p><b>208.</b> The results of the European wars during the sixty years which
+elapsed between the Treaty of Utrecht and the Peace of Paris may be
+summarized as follows. In the northeast two new powers, Russia and
+Prussia, had come into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[Pg 535]</a></span> European family of nations. Prussia had
+greatly extended her territory by gaining Silesia and West Poland. She
+and Austria were, in the nineteenth century, to engage in a struggle for
+supremacy in Germany, which was to result in substituting the present
+German empire under the headship of the Hohenzollerns for the Holy Roman
+Empire, of which the house of Hapsburg had so long been the nominal
+chief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the 'eastern question.'</div>
+
+<p>The power of the Sultan was declining so rapidly that Austria and Russia
+were already considering the seizure of his European possessions. This
+presented a new problem to the European powers, which came to be known
+in the nineteenth century as the "eastern question." Were Austria and
+Russia permitted to aggrandize themselves by adding the Turkish
+territory to their possessions, it would gravely disturb the balance of
+power which England had so much at heart. So it came about that, from
+this time on, Turkey was admitted in a way to the family of western
+European nations, for it soon appeared that some of the states of
+western Europe were willing to form alliances with the Sultan, and even
+aid him directly in defending himself against his neighbors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">England's colonial possessions.</div>
+
+<p>England had lost her American colonies, and by her perverse policy had
+led to the creation of a sister state speaking her own language and
+destined to occupy the central part of the North American continent from
+the Atlantic to the Pacific. She still retained Canada, however, and in
+the nineteenth century added a new continent in the southern hemisphere,
+Australia, to her vast colonial empire. In India she had no further
+rivals among European nations, and gradually extended her influence over
+the whole region south of the Himalayas. In 1877 Queen Victoria was
+proclaimed Empress of India as the successor of the Grand Mogul.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France under Louis XV, 1715&ndash;1774.</div>
+
+<p>As for France, she had played a rather pitiful r&ocirc;le during the long
+reign of Louis XIV's great grandson, Louis XV (1715&ndash;1774). She had,
+however, been able to increase her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[Pg 536]</a></span> territory by the addition of
+Lorraine (1766) and, in 1768, of the island of Corsica. A year later a
+child was born in the Corsican town of Ajaccio, who one day, by his
+genius, was to make France the center for a time of an empire rivaling
+that of Charlemagne in extent. When the nineteenth century opened France
+was no longer a monarchy, but a republic; and her armies were to occupy
+in turn every European capital, from Madrid to Moscow. In order to
+understand the marvelous transformations produced by the French
+Revolution and the wars of Napoleon, we must consider somewhat carefully
+the conditions in France which led to a great reform of her institutions
+in 1789, and to the founding of a republic four years later.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;For the French in America, <span class="smcap">Parkman</span>, <i>The Pioneers
+of France in the New World</i> (Little, Brown &amp; Co., $2.00), also <i>A
+Half Century of Conflict</i> (same publisher, 2 vols., $6.00). For
+India, <span class="smcap">Malleson</span>, <i>Clive</i> (Oxford, University Press, 60 cents), and
+Macaulay's Essay on Clive. For the growth of the British Empire, <span class="smcap">H.
+de B. Gibbins</span>, <i>History of Commerce in Europe</i> (The Macmillan
+Company, 90 cents), and <span class="smcap">Seeley</span>, <i>The Expansion of England</i> (Little,
+Brown &amp; Co., $1.75).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>209.</b> When we meet the words "French Revolution," they are pretty sure to
+call up before our mind's eye the guillotine and its hundreds of
+victims, the storming of the Bastile, the Paris mob shouting the
+Marseillaise hymn as they parade the streets with heads of unfortunate
+"aristocrats" on their pikes. Every one knows something of this terrible
+episode in French history. Indeed, it has made so deep an impression on
+posterity that we sometimes forget that the Reign of Terror was <i>not</i>
+the French Revolution. Mere disorder and bloodshed never helped mankind
+along; and the Revolution must assuredly have produced some great and
+lasting alteration in France and in Europe to deserve to be ranked&mdash;as
+it properly is&mdash;with the Renaissance and the Protestant Revolt, as one
+of the three most momentous changes of the last six hundred years. The
+Reign of Terror was, in fact, only a sequel to the <i>real</i> Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>Ancien R&eacute;gime</i>.</div>
+
+<p>The French Revolution, in the truest sense of the term, was a great and
+permanent reform, which did away with many absurd and vexatious laws and
+customs, and with abuses of which the whole nation was heartily tired,
+from the king down to the humblest peasant. Whenever a Frenchman, in the
+eighteenth century, seriously considered the condition of his country,
+most of the institutions in the midst of which he lived appeared to him
+to be <i>abuses</i>, contrary to reason and humanity. These vicious
+institutions,&mdash;relics of bygone times and outlived conditions,&mdash;which
+the Revolution destroyed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[Pg 538]</a></span> forever, are known by the general name <i>Ancien
+R&eacute;gime</i>, that is, "the old system." Whole volumes have been written
+about the causes of the French Revolution. The real cause is, however,
+easily stated; the old system was bad, and almost every one, both high
+and low, had come to realize that it was bad, and consequently the
+French did away with it and substituted a modern and more rational order
+for the long-standing disorder.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France not a well-organized state in the eighteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>Of the evils which the Revolution abolished, none was more important
+than the confusion due to the fact that France was not in the eighteenth
+century a well-organized, homogeneous state whose citizens all enjoyed
+the same rights and privileges. A long line of kings had patched it
+together, adding bit by bit as they could. By conquest and bargain, by
+marrying heiresses, and through the extinction of the feudal dynasties,
+the original restricted domains of Hugh Capet about Paris and Orleans
+had been gradually increased by his descendants until, when Louis XVI
+came to the throne in 1774, he found himself ruler of practically the
+whole territory which makes up France to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the districts which the kings of France brought under their
+sway, like Languedoc, Provence, Brittany, and Navarre, were considerable
+states in themselves, each with its own laws, customs, and system of
+government. When these provinces had come, at different times, into the
+possession of the king of France, he had not changed their laws so as to
+make them correspond with those of his other domains. He was satisfied
+if his new provinces paid their due share of the taxes and treated his
+officials with respect. In some cases the provinces retained their local
+assemblies, and controlled, to a certain extent, their own affairs. The
+provinces into which France was divided before the Revolution were not,
+therefore, merely artificial divisions created for the purposes of
+administrative convenience, like the modern French departments,<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> but
+represented real historical differences.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[Pg 539]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Various systems of law.</div>
+
+<p>While in a considerable portion of southern France the Roman law still
+prevailed, in the central parts and in the west and north there were no
+less than two hundred and eighty-five different local codes of law in
+force; so that one who moved from his own to a neighboring town might
+find a wholly unfamiliar legal system.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image76.jpg" width="500" height="474" alt="The Provinces of France in the Eighteenth Century,
+showing Interior Customs Lines" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Provinces of France in the Eighteenth Century,
+showing Interior Customs Lines</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Interior customs lines.</div>
+
+<p>Neither was France commercially a single state. The chief customs duties
+were not collected upon goods as they entered French territory from a
+foreign country; for the customs lines lay within France itself, so that
+the central provinces about Paris were cut off from the outlying ones as
+from a foreign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span> land.<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> A merchant of Bordeaux sending goods to Paris
+would have to see that the duties were paid on them as they passed the
+customs line, and, conversely, a merchant of Paris would have to pay a
+like duty on commodities sent to places without the line.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Inequalities of taxation illustrated by the salt tax.</div>
+
+<p>The monstrous inequalities in levying one of the oldest and heaviest of
+the taxes, i.e., the salt tax, still better illustrates the strange
+disorder that existed in France in the eighteenth century. The
+government raised this tax by monopolizing the sale of salt and then
+charging a high price for it. There would have been nothing remarkable
+in this had the same price been charged everywhere, but as it was, the
+people in one town might be forced to pay thirty times as much as their
+neighbors in an adjacent district. The accompanying map shows how France
+was arbitrarily divided. To take a single example: at Dijon, a certain
+amount of salt cost seven francs; a few miles to the east, on entering
+Franche-Comt&eacute;, one had to pay, for the same amount, twenty-five francs;
+to the north, in Burgundy, fifty-eight francs; to the south, in the
+region of the little salt tax, twenty-eight francs; while still farther
+off, in Gex, there was no tax whatever. The government had to go to
+great expense to guard the boundary lines between the various districts,
+for there was every inducement to smugglers to carry salt from those
+parts of the country where it was cheap into the land of the great salt
+tax.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The privileged classes.</div>
+
+<p><b>210.</b> Besides these unfortunate local differences, there were class
+differences which caused great discontent. All Frenchmen did not enjoy
+the same rights as citizens. Two small but very important classes, the
+nobility and the clergy, were treated differently by the state from the
+rest of the people. They did not have to pay one of the heaviest of the
+taxes, the notorious <i>taille</i>, and on one ground or another they escaped
+other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[Pg 541]</a></span> burdens which the rest of the citizens bore. For instance, they
+were not required to serve in the militia or help build the roads.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image77.jpg" width="500" height="500" alt="Map showing the Amount paid in the Eighteenth Century for
+Salt in Various Parts of France" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Map showing the Amount paid in the Eighteenth Century for
+Salt in Various Parts of France</span><a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Church.</div>
+
+<p>We have seen how great and powerful the medi&aelig;val Church was. In France,
+as in other Catholic countries of Europe, it still retained in the
+eighteenth century a considerable part of the power that it had
+possessed in the thirteenth, and it still performed important public
+functions. It took charge of education and of the relief of the sick and
+the poor. It was very wealthy and is supposed to have owned one fifth of
+all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[Pg 542]</a></span> land in France. The clergy still claimed, as Boniface VIII had
+done, that their property, being dedicated to God, was not subject to
+taxation. They consented, however, to help the king from time to time by
+a "free gift," as they called it. The church still collected the tithes
+from the people, and its vast possessions made it very independent.
+Those who did not call themselves Roman Catholics were excluded from
+some of the most important rights of citizenship. Since the revocation
+of the Edict of Nantes no Protestant could be legally married or have
+the births of his children registered, or make a legal will.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The clergy.</div>
+
+<p>A great part of the enormous income of the church went into the pockets
+of the higher clergy, the bishops, archbishops, and abbots. These were
+appointed by the king,<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> often from among his courtiers, and they
+paid but little attention to their duties as officers of the church and
+were generally nothing but "great lords with a hundred thousand francs
+income." While they amused themselves at Versailles, the real work was
+performed&mdash;and well performed&mdash;by the lower clergy, who often received
+scarcely enough to keep soul and body together. We shall see that, when
+the Revolution began, the parish priests sided with the people instead
+of with their ecclesiastical superiors.<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The privileges of the nobility.</div>
+
+<p>The privileges of the nobles, like those of the clergy, had originated
+in the medi&aelig;val conditions described in an earlier chapter.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> A
+detailed study of their rights would reveal many survivals of the
+conditions which prevailed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when
+the great majority of the people were serfs living upon the manors.
+While serfdom had largely disappeared in France long before the
+eighteenth century, and the peasants were generally free men who owned
+or rented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[Pg 543]</a></span> their land, the lords still enjoyed the right to collect a
+variety of time-honored dues from the inhabitants living within the
+limits of the former manors.</p>
+
+<p>The privileges and dues enjoyed by the nobles varied greatly in
+different parts of France. It was quite common for the noble landowner
+to have a right to a certain portion of the peasants' crops;
+occasionally he could collect a toll on sheep and cattle driven past his
+house. In some cases the lord maintained, as he had done in the Middle
+Ages, the only mill, wine press, or oven within a certain district, and
+could require every one to make use of these and pay him a share of the
+product. Even when a peasant owned his land, the neighboring lord
+usually had the right to exact one fifth of its value every time it was
+sold. The nobles, too, enjoyed the aristocratic privilege of the hunt.
+The game which they preserved for their amusement often did great damage
+to the crops of the peasants, who were forbidden to interfere with
+hares, deer, pigeons, etc.</p>
+
+<p>All these privileges were vestiges of the powers which the nobles had
+enjoyed when they ruled their estates as feudal lords. Louis XIV had, as
+we know, induced them to leave their domains and gather round him at
+Versailles, where all who could afford it lived for at least part of the
+year. The higher offices in the army were reserved for the nobles, as
+well as the easiest and most lucrative places in the church and about
+the king's person.<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The third estate.</div>
+
+<p><b>211.</b> Everybody who did not belong to either the clergy or nobility was
+regarded as being of the <i>third estate</i>. The third estate was therefore
+nothing more than the nation at large, which was made up in 1789 of
+about twenty-five million souls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[Pg 544]</a></span> The privileged classes can scarcely
+have counted altogether more than two hundred and seventy thousand
+individuals. A great part of the third estate lived in the country and
+tilled the soil. Most historians have been inclined to make out their
+condition as very bad indeed. They were certainly oppressed by an
+abominable system of taxation and were irritated by the dues which they
+had to pay to the lords. They also suffered frequently from local
+famines. Yet there is no doubt that the evils of their situation have
+been greatly exaggerated. When Thomas Jefferson traveled through France
+in 1787 he reports that the country people appeared to be comfortable
+and that they had plenty to eat. Arthur Young, a famous English traveler
+who has left us an admirable account of his journeys in France during
+the years 1787&ndash;1789, found much prosperity and contentment, although he
+gives, too, some forlorn pictures of destitution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Favorable situation of the peasant in France compared with
+other countries.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rapid increase of population in the eighteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>The latter have often been unduly emphasized by historical writers; for
+it has commonly been thought that the Revolution was to be explained by
+the misery and despair of the people who could tolerate the old system
+no longer. If, however, instead of comparing the situation of the French
+peasant under the old r&eacute;gime with that of an English or American farmer
+to-day, we contrast his position with that of his fellow-peasant in
+Prussia, Austria, or Italy, it will be clear that in France the
+agricultural classes were really much better off than elsewhere on the
+continent. In Prussia, for example, the peasants were still serfs: they
+had to work three whole days in each week for their lord; they could not
+marry or dispose of their land without his permission. Moreover, the
+fact that the population of France had steadily increased from seventeen
+million after the close of the wars of Louis XIV to about twenty-five
+million at the opening of the Revolution, indicates that the general
+condition of the people was improving rather than growing worse.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[Pg 545]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Popular discontent, not the exceptionally miserable
+condition of the French people, accounts for the Revolution.</div>
+
+<p>The real reason why France was the first among the European countries to
+carry out a great reform and do away with the irritating survivals of
+feudalism was not that the nation was miserable and oppressed above all
+others, but that it was sufficiently free and enlightened to realize the
+evils and absurdities of the old r&eacute;gime. Mere oppression and misery does
+not account for a revolution, there must also be active <i>discontent</i>;
+and of that there was a great abundance in France, as we shall see. The
+French peasant no longer looked up to his lord as his ruler and
+protector, but viewed him as a sort of legalized robber who demanded a
+share of his precious harvest, whose officers awaited the farmer at the
+crossing of the river to claim a toll, who would not let him sell his
+produce when he wished, or permit him to protect his fields from the
+ravages of the pigeons which it pleased the lord to keep.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France still a despotism in the eighteenth century.</div>
+
+<p><b>212.</b> In the eighteenth century France was still the despotism that Louis
+XIV had made it.<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> Louis XVI once described it very well in the
+following words: "The sovereign authority resides exclusively in my
+person. To me solely belongs the power of making the laws, and without
+dependence or co&ouml;peration. The entire public order emanates from me, and
+I am its supreme protector. My people are one with me. The rights and
+interests of the nation are necessarily identical with mine and rest
+solely in my hands." In short, the king still ruled "by the grace of
+God," as Louis XIV had done. He needed to render account to no man for
+his governmental acts; he was responsible to God alone. The following
+illustrations will make clear the dangerous extent of the king's power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The king's control of the government funds.</div>
+
+<p>In the first place, it was he who levied each year the heaviest of the
+taxes, the hated <i>taille</i>, from which the privileged classes were
+exempted. This tax brought in about one sixth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[Pg 546]</a></span> of the whole revenue of
+the state. The amount collected was kept secret, and no report was made
+to the nation of what was done with it or with any other part of the
+king's income. Indeed, no distinction was made between the king's
+private funds and the state treasury, whereas in England the monarch was
+given a stated allowance. The king of France could issue as many drafts
+payable to bearer as he wished; the royal officials must pay all such
+orders and ask no questions. Louis XV is said to have spent no less than
+seventy million dollars in this fashion in a single year.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Lettres de cachet.</i></div>
+
+<p>But the king not only controlled his subjects' purses; he had a terrible
+authority over their persons as well. He could issue orders for the
+arrest and arbitrary imprisonment of any one he pleased. Without trial
+or formality of any sort, a person might be cast into a dungeon for an
+indefinite period, until the king happened to remember him again or was
+reminded of him by the poor man's friends. These notorious orders of
+arrest were called <i>lettres de cachet</i>, i.e., sealed letters. They were
+not difficult to obtain for any one who had influence with the king or
+his favorites, and they furnished a particularly easy and efficacious
+way of disposing of an enemy. These arbitrary orders lead one to
+appreciate the importance of the provision of Magna Carta which
+establishes that "no freeman shall be taken or imprisoned except by the
+lawful sentence of his peers and in accordance with the law of the
+land." Some of the most distinguished men of the time were shut up by
+the king's order, often on account of books or pamphlets written by them
+which displeased the king or those about him. The distinguished
+statesman, Mirabeau, was imprisoned several times through <i>lettres de
+cachet</i> obtained by his father as a means of checking his reckless
+dissipation.<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Limitations placed upon the power of the French king.</div>
+
+<p><b>213.</b> Yet, notwithstanding the seemingly unlimited powers of the French
+king, and in spite of the fact that France had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[Pg 547]</a></span> written constitution
+and no legislative body to which the nation sent representatives, the
+monarch was by no means absolutely free to do just as he pleased. He had
+not the time nor inclination to carry on personally the government of
+twenty-five million subjects, and he necessarily and willingly left much
+of the work to his ministers and the numerous public officials, who were
+bound to obey the laws and regulations established for their control and
+guidance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>parlements</i> and their protests.</div>
+
+<p>Next to the king's council the most important governmental bodies were
+the higher courts of law, the <i>parlements</i>. These resembled the English
+Parliament in almost nothing but name. The French <i>parlements</i>&mdash;of which
+the most important one was at Paris and a dozen more were scattered
+about the provinces&mdash;did not, however, confine themselves strictly to
+the business of trying lawsuits. They claimed, and quite properly, that
+when the king decided to make a new law he must send it to them to be
+registered, else they would have no means of knowing just what the law
+was of which they were to be the guardians. Now, although they
+acknowledged that the right to make the laws belonged to the monarch,
+they nevertheless often sent a "protest" to the king instead of
+registering a law of which they disapproved. They would urge that the
+ministers had abused His Majesty's confidence. They would see, too, that
+their protest was printed and sold on the streets at a penny or two a
+copy, so that people should get the idea that the <i>parlement</i> was
+defending the nation against the oppressive measures of the king's
+ministers.</p>
+
+<p>When the king received one of these protests two alternatives were open
+to him. He might recall the distasteful decree altogether or modify it
+so as to suit the court; or he could summon the <i>parlement</i> before him
+and in a solemn session (called a <i>lit de justice</i>) command it with his
+own mouth to register the law in its books. The <i>parlement</i> would then
+reluctantly obey, but as the Revolution approached it began to claim
+that a decree registered against its will was not valid.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The <i>parlements</i> help to prepare the way for the
+Revolution.</div>
+
+<p>Struggles between the <i>parlements</i> and the ministers were very frequent
+in the eighteenth century. They prepared the way for the Revolution,
+first, by bringing important questions to the attention of the people;
+for there were no newspapers and no parliamentary or congressional
+debates to enable the public to understand the policy of the government.
+Secondly, the <i>parlements</i> not only frankly criticised the proposed
+measures of the king and his ministers, but they familiarized the nation
+with the idea that the king was not really at liberty to alter what they
+called "the fundamental laws" of the state. By this they meant that
+there was an unwritten constitution, of which they were the guardians
+and which limited the king's power. In this way they promoted the
+growing discontent with a government which was carried on in secret, and
+which left the nation at the mercy of the men in whom the king might for
+the moment repose confidence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Public opinion.</div>
+
+<p>It is a great mistake to suppose that public opinion did not exercise a
+powerful check upon the king, even under the autocratic old r&eacute;gime. It
+was, as one of Louis XVI's ministers declared, "an invisible power
+which, without treasury, guards, or an army, ruled Paris and the
+court,&mdash;yes, the very palace of the king." The latter half of the
+eighteenth century was a period of outspoken and acrid criticism of the
+whole existing social and governmental system. Reformers, among whom
+many of the king's ministers were counted, loudly and eloquently
+discussed the numerous abuses and the vicious character of the
+government, which gradually came to seem just as bad to the people of
+that day as it would to us now.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Discussion of public questions.</div>
+
+<p>Although there were no daily newspapers to discuss public questions,
+large numbers of pamphlets were written and circulated by individuals
+whenever there was an important crisis, and they answered much the same
+purpose as the editorials in a modern newspaper. These pamphlets and the
+books of the time sometimes treated the government, the clergy, or the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[Pg 549]</a></span>
+Catholic religion, with such open contempt, that the king, the clergy,
+or the courts felt it necessary to prevent their circulation. The
+<i>parlement</i> of Paris now and then ordered some offensive writing to be
+burned by the common hangman. Several distinguished writers were even
+imprisoned for expressing themselves too freely, and some booksellers
+and printers banished. But the attempted suppression of free discussion
+seemed an outrage to the more thoughtful among the public, and rather
+promoted than prevented the consideration of the weaknesses of the
+church and of the king's government.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image78.jpg" width="400" height="484" alt="Voltaire" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Voltaire</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Voltaire, 1694&ndash;1778.</div>
+
+<p><b>214.</b> By far the most conspicuous and important reformer of the
+eighteenth century was Voltaire (1694&ndash;1778), who was born twenty years
+before Louis XIV died, and yet lived to see Louis XVI mount the throne.
+"When the right sense of historical proportion is more fully developed
+in men's minds, the name of Voltaire will stand out like the names of
+the great decisive movements in the European advance, like the Revival
+of Learning or the Reformation. The existence, character, and career of
+this extraordinary person constituted in themselves a new and prodigious
+era" (Morley). To understand Voltaire and the secret of his fame would
+be to understand France before the Revolution. His mission was to exalt
+and popularize reason; and since a great part of the institutions of his
+day were not based upon reason, but upon mere tradition, and were
+utterly opposed to common sense, "the touch of reason was fatal to the
+whole structure, which instantly began to crumble."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[Pg 550]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Voltaire's wide influence and popularity.</div>
+
+<p>Voltaire had little respect for the past which had bequeathed to France
+her disorderly government and, above all, her church. His keen eye was
+continually discovering some new absurdity in the existing order, which,
+with incomparable wit and literary skill, he would expose to his eager
+readers. He was interested in almost everything; he wrote histories,
+dramas, philosophic treatises, romances, epics, and innumerable letters
+to his innumerable admirers. He was a sort of intellectual arbiter of
+Europe, such as Petrarch and Erasmus had been. The vast range of his
+writings enabled him to bring his bold questionings to the attention of
+all sorts and conditions of men,&mdash;not only to the general reader, but
+even to the careless playgoer.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Voltaire's attack upon the church.</div>
+
+<p>While Voltaire was successfully inculcating free criticism in general,
+he led in a relentless attack upon the most venerable, probably the most
+powerful, institution in France, the Roman Catholic church. The absolute
+power of the king did not greatly trouble him, but the church, with, as
+he deemed, its deep-seated opposition to a free exercise of reason and
+its hostility to reform, seemed to him fatally to block all human
+progress. He was wont to close his letters with the exhortation, "Crush
+the infamous thing." The church, as it fully realized, had never
+encountered a more deadly enemy. Not only was Voltaire supremely
+skillful in his varied methods of attack, but there were thousands of
+both the thoughtful and the thoughtless ready to applaud him; for many
+had reached the same conclusions, although they might not be able to
+express their thoughts so persuasively as he. Voltaire repudiated the
+beliefs of the Protestant churches as well as of the Roman church. He
+was, however, no atheist, as his enemies&mdash;and they have been many and
+bitter&mdash;have so often asserted. He believed in God, and at his country
+home near Geneva he dedicated a temple to Him. Like many of his
+contemporaries he was a deist, and held that God had revealed Himself in
+nature and in our hearts, not in Bible or church.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[Pg 551]</a></span></p><p>Were there space at command a great many good things and plenty of bad
+ones might be told of this extraordinary man. He was often superficial
+in his judgments, and sometimes jumped to unwarranted conclusions. He
+saw only the evil in the church, and seemed incapable of understanding
+all that it had done for mankind during the bygone ages. He maliciously
+attributed to evil motives teachings which were accepted by the best and
+loftiest of men. He bitterly ridiculed even the holiest and purest
+aspirations, along with the alleged deceptions of the Jesuits and the
+quarrels of the theologians. He could, however, fight bravely against
+wrong and oppression.<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> The abuses against which he fought were in
+large part abolished by the Revolution. It is extremely unfair to notice
+only his mistakes and exaggerations, as many writers, both Catholic and
+Protestant, have done, for he certainly did more than any one else to
+prepare the way for the great and permanent reform of the church, as a
+political and social institution, in 1789&ndash;1790.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rousseau, 1712&ndash;1778.</div>
+
+<p>Next to Voltaire the writer who did most to cultivate discontent was
+Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712&ndash;1778). His famous little treatise, <i>The
+Social Contract</i>, takes up the great question, By what right does one
+man rule over others? The book opens with the words: "Man is born free
+and yet is now everywhere in chains. One man believes himself the master
+of others and yet is after all more of a slave than they. How did this
+change come about? I do not know. What can render it legitimate? I
+believe that I can answer that question." It is, Rousseau declares, the
+will of the people that renders government legitimate. The real
+sovereign is the people. Although they may appoint a single person, a
+king, to manage the government for them, they should make the laws,
+since it is they who must obey them. We shall find that the first French
+constitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[Pg 552]</a></span> accepts Rousseau's doctrine and defines law as "the
+expression of the general will,"&mdash;not the will of a king reigning by the
+grace of God.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Montesquieu.</div>
+
+<p>Montesquieu, the most profound of the political writers of the
+eighteenth century, did his part in opening the eyes of thoughtful
+Frenchmen to the disadvantages of their government by his eulogy of the
+limited monarchy of England. He pointed out that the freedom which
+Englishmen enjoyed was due to the fact that the three powers of
+government&mdash;legislative, executive, and judicial&mdash;were not as in France
+in the same hands. Parliament made the laws, the king executed them, and
+the courts, independent of both, saw that they were observed. He
+believed that the English would lose their liberties so soon as these
+powers fell under the control of one person or body of persons. This
+principle of "the separation of powers" is now recognized in many modern
+governments, notably in that of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The new science of political economy.</div>
+
+<p><b>215.</b> About the middle of the eighteenth century the science of political
+economy was born. Scholars began to investigate far more thoroughly than
+ever before the sources and distribution of the wealth of the nation.
+The unjust system of taxation, which tended to exempt the richer classes
+from their just share of the public burdens; the wasteful and irritating
+methods of collecting the taxes; the interior customs lines, preventing
+the easy passage of goods from one part of France to another; the
+extravagance of the king's household; the pensions granted to
+undeserving persons; every evil of the bungling, iniquitous old r&eacute;gime
+was brought under the scrutiny of the new thinkers, who tested the
+existing system by the light of reason and the welfare of the great mass
+of the people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Economists argue against government restrictions on trade and
+manufacture.</div>
+
+<p>The economists wrote treatises on taxation, scattered pamphlets about,
+and conducted a magazine or two. They not only brought the existing
+economic evils home to the intelligent reader, but suggested remedies
+for them.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span></p><p>The French government had been in the habit of regulating well-nigh
+everything. In order that the goods that were produced in France might
+find a ready sale abroad, the government fixed the quality and width of
+the cloth which might be manufactured and the character of the dyes
+which should be used.<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> The king's ministers kept a constant eye upon
+the dealers in grain and breadstuffs, forbidding the storing up of these
+products or their sale outside a market. In this way they had hoped to
+prevent speculators from accumulating grain in times of scarcity in
+order to sell it at a high rate.</p>
+
+<p>It was now pointed out that these government restrictions produced some
+very bad results. They failed to prevent famine, and in the case of
+industry they discouraged new inventions and the adoption of better
+methods. The economists claimed that it would be far better to leave the
+manufacturer to carry on his business in his own way. They urged the
+king to adopt the motto, <i>laissez faire</i>, "Let things alone," if he
+would see his realms prosper.<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Louis XVI.</div>
+
+<p><b>216.</b> In 1774 the old king, Louis XV, died after a long and disgraceful
+reign. His unsuccessful wars had brought France to the verge of
+bankruptcy, and his ministers had been unable to meet the obligations of
+the government. The taxes were already so oppressive as to arouse great
+discontent, and yet the government was running behind seventy million
+dollars a year. His grandson and successor, Louis XVI (1774&ndash;1793), was a
+young man of excellent intentions. He was only twenty,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[Pg 554]</a></span> and his wife,
+the beautiful Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa, was still
+younger. The new king almost immediately summoned Turgot, the ablest of
+the economists, and placed him in the most important of the government
+offices, that of controller general.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Turgot controller general, 1774&ndash;1776.</div>
+
+<p>Turgot was an experienced government official as well as a scholar. For
+thirteen years he had been the king's representative in Limoges, one of
+the least prosperous portions of France. There he had had ample
+opportunity to see the vices of the prevailing system of taxation. He
+had made every effort to induce the government to better its methods,
+and had tried to familiarize the people with the principles of political
+economy. Consequently, when he was put in charge of the nation's
+finances, it seemed as if he and the conscientious young king might find
+some remedy for the long-standing abuses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Turgot advocates economy.</div>
+
+<p>The first and most natural measure was economy, for only in that way
+could the government be saved from bankruptcy, and the burden of
+taxation be lightened. Turgot felt that the vast amount spent in
+maintaining the luxury of the royal court at Versailles should be
+reduced. The establishments of the king, the queen, and the princes of
+the blood royal cost the state annually toward twelve million dollars.
+Then the French king had long been accustomed to grant "pensions" in a
+reckless manner to his courtiers, and this required nearly twelve
+million dollars more. Any attempt, however, to reduce this amount would
+arouse the immediate opposition of the courtiers, and it was the
+courtiers who really governed France. They had every opportunity to
+influence the king's mind against a man whose economies they disliked.
+They were constantly about the monarch from the moment when he awoke in
+the morning until he went to bed at night; therefore they had an obvious
+advantage over the controller general, who only saw him in business
+hours.<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[Pg 555]</a></span></p><p>Although the privileged class so stoutly opposed Turgot's reforms that
+he did not succeed in abolishing the abuses himself,<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> he did a great
+deal to forward their destruction not many years after his retirement.
+Immediately after coming into power he removed a great part of the
+restrictions on the grain trade. He prefaced the edict with a very frank
+denunciation of the government's traditional policy of preventing
+persons from buying and selling their grain when and where they wished.
+He showed that this did not obviate famines, as the government hoped
+that it might, and that it caused great loss and hardship. If the
+government would only let matters alone the grain would always go to
+those provinces where it was most needed, for there it would bring the
+best price. Turgot seized this and every similar opportunity to impress
+important economic truths upon the minds of the people.<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Turgot's position.</div>
+
+<p>An Italian economist, when he heard of Turgot's appointment, wrote to a
+friend in France as follows: "So Turgot is controller general! He will
+not remain in office long enough to carry out his plans. He will punish
+some scoundrels; he will bluster about and lose his temper; he will be
+anxious to do good, but will run against obstacles and rogues at every
+turn. Public credit will fall; he will be detested; it will be said that
+he is not fitted for his task. Enthusiasm will cool; he will retire or
+be sent off, and we shall have a new proof of the mistake of filling a
+position like his in a monarchy like yours with an upright man and a
+philosopher."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Turgot dismissed, May 1776.</div>
+
+<p>The Italian could not have made a more accurate statement of the case
+had he waited until after the dismissal of Turgot, which took place in
+May, 1776, much to the satisfaction of the court. The king, although
+upright and well-intentioned,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[Pg 556]</a></span> was not fond of the governmental duties
+to which Turgot was always calling his attention. It was much the
+easiest way to let things go along in the old way; for reforms not only
+required much extra work, but they also forced him to refuse the
+customary favors to those around him. The discontent of his young queen
+or of an intimate companion outweighed the woes of the distant peasant.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Necker succeeds Turgot.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Necker's financial report.</div>
+
+<p><b>217.</b> Necker, who after a brief interval succeeded Turgot, contributed to
+the progress of the coming revolution in two ways. He borrowed vast sums
+of money in order to carry on the war which France, as the ally of the
+United States, had undertaken against England. This greatly embarrassed
+the treasury later and helped to produce the financial crisis which was
+the immediate cause of the Revolution. Secondly, he gave the nation its
+first opportunity of learning what was done with the public funds, by
+presenting to the king (February, 1781) a <i>report</i> on the financial
+condition of the kingdom; this was publicly printed and eagerly read.
+There the people could see for the first time how much the <i>taille</i> and
+the salt tax actually took from them, and how much the king spent on
+himself and his favorites.<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calonne, controller general, 1783&ndash;1787.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calonne informs the king that France is on the verge of
+bankruptcy, August, 1786.</div>
+
+<p>Necker was soon followed by Calonne, who may be said to have
+precipitated the momentous reform which constitutes the French
+Revolution. He was very popular at first with king and courtiers, for he
+spent the public funds far more recklessly than his predecessors. But,
+naturally, he soon found himself in a position where he could obtain no
+more money. The <i>parlements</i> would consent to no more loans in a period
+of peace, and the taxes were as high as it was deemed possible to make
+them. At last Calonne, finding himself desperately put to it, informed
+the astonished king that the state was on the verge of bankruptcy and
+that in order to save it a radical reformation of the whole public order
+was necessary. This report of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[Pg 557]</a></span> Calonne's may be taken as the beginning
+of the French Revolution, for it was the first of the series of events
+that led to the calling of a representative assembly which abolished the
+old r&eacute;gime and gave France a written constitution.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;For general conditions in France before the
+Revolution, <span class="smcap">Lowell</span>, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i> (Houghton,
+Mifflin &amp; Co., $2.00). <span class="smcap">Maclehose</span>, <i>The Last Days of the French
+Monarchy</i> (The Macmillan Company, $2.25). <span class="smcap">De Tocqueville</span>, <i>State of
+Society in France before the Revolution of 1789</i> (John Murray,
+$3.00), a very remarkable work. <span class="smcap">Taine</span>, <i>The Ancient R&eacute;gime</i> (Henry
+Holt &amp; Co., $2.50) contains excellent chapters on the life at the
+king's court and upon the literature of the period. <span class="smcap">Arthur Young</span>,
+<i>Travels in France in 1787&ndash;1789</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.00),
+very interesting and valuable. For Turgot's reforms, <span class="smcap">Stephens</span>,
+<i>Life and Writings of Turgot</i> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., $4.50),
+containing translations from Turgot's writings. <span class="smcap">Montesquieu</span>, <i>The
+Spirit of Laws</i> (The Macmillan Company, 2 vols., $2.00). <span class="smcap">Rousseau</span>,
+<i>The Social Contract</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.25, or Charles
+Scribner's Sons, $1.00). <i>Translations and Reprints,</i> Vol. VI, No.
+1, gives short extracts from some of the most noted writers of the
+eighteenth century. In Vol. V, No. 2, of the same series, may be
+found a "Protest of the Cour des Aides," one of the higher courts
+of France, issued in 1775, which casts a great deal of light upon
+the evils of the old r&eacute;gime. John Morley has written a number of
+works upon France before the Revolution: <i>Voltaire, Rousseau</i>, 2
+vols., <i>Diderot and the Encyclop&aelig;dists</i>, 2 vols. (The Macmillan
+Company, $1.50 a volume).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[Pg 558]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FRENCH REVOLUTION</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reforms proposed by Calonne.</div>
+
+<p><b>218.</b> It was necessary, in order to avoid ruin, Calonne claimed, "to
+reform everything vicious in the state." He proposed, therefore, to
+reduce the <i>taille</i>, reform the salt tax, do away with the interior
+customs lines, correct the abuses of the guilds, etc. But the chief
+reform, and by far the most difficult one, was to force the privileged
+classes to surrender their important exemptions from taxation. He hoped,
+however, that if certain concessions were made to them they might be
+brought to consent to a land tax to be paid by all alike. So he proposed
+to the king that he should summon an assembly of persons prominent in
+church and state, called <i>Notables</i>, to ratify certain changes which
+would increase the prosperity of the country and give the treasury money
+enough to meet the necessary expenses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Summoning of the Notables, 1786.</div>
+
+<p>The summoning of the Notables in 1786 was really a revolution in itself.
+It was a confession on the part of the king that he found himself in a
+predicament from which he could not escape without the aid of his
+people. The Notables whom he selected&mdash;bishops, archbishops, dukes,
+judges, high government officials&mdash;were practically all members of the
+privileged classes; but they still represented the nation, after a
+fashion, as distinguished from the king's immediate circle of courtiers.
+At any rate it proved an easy step from calling the Notables to
+summoning the ancient Estates General, and that, in its turn, speedily
+became a modern representative body.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Calonne denounces the abuses.</div>
+
+<p>In his opening address Calonne gave the Notables an idea of the sad
+financial condition of the country. The government was running behind
+some forty million dollars a year. He could not continue to borrow, and
+economy, however strict, would not suffice to cover the deficit. "What,
+then," he asked, "remains to fill this frightful void and enable us to
+raise the revenue to the desired level? <i>The Abuses!</i> Yes, gentlemen,
+the abuses offer a source of wealth which the state should appropriate,
+and which should serve to re&euml;stablish order in the finances.... The
+abuses which must now be destroyed for the welfare of the people are the
+most important and the best guarded of all, the very ones which have the
+deepest roots and the most spreading branches. For example, those which
+weigh on the laboring classes, the pecuniary privileges, exceptions to
+the law which should be common to all, and many an unjust exemption
+which can only relieve certain taxpayers by embittering the condition of
+others; the general want of uniformity in the assessment of the taxes
+and the enormous difference which exists between the contributions of
+different provinces and of the subjects of the same sovereign; the
+severity and arbitrariness in the collection of the <i>taille</i>; the
+apprehensions, embarrassment, almost dishonor, associated with the trade
+in breadstuffs; the interior custom-houses and barriers which make the
+various parts of the kingdom like foreign countries to one another
+...,"&mdash;all these evils, which public-spirited citizens had long
+deprecated, Calonne proposed to do away with forthwith.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calonne and the Notables dismissed.</div>
+
+<p>The Notables, however, had no confidence in Calonne, and refused to
+ratify his programme of reform. The king then dismissed him and soon
+sent them home, too (May, 1787). Louis XVI then attempted to carry
+through some of the more pressing financial reforms in the usual way by
+sending them to the <i>parlements</i> to be registered.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>parlement</i> of Paris refuses to register new taxes and
+calls for the Estates General.</div>
+
+<p><b>219.</b> The <i>parlement</i> of Paris resolved, as usual, to make the king's
+ministry trouble and gain popularity for itself. This time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span> it resorted
+to a truly extraordinary measure. It not only refused to register two
+new taxes which the king desired, but asserted that "<i>Only the nation
+assembled in the Estates General can give the consent necessary to the
+establishment of a permanent tax</i>." "Only the nation," the <i>parlement</i>
+continued, "after it has learned the true state of the finances can
+destroy the great abuses and open up important resources." This
+declaration was followed in a few days by the humble request that the
+king assemble the Estates General of his kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The refusal of the <i>parlement</i> to register the new taxes led to one of
+the old struggles between it and the king's ministers. A compromise was
+arranged in the autumn of 1787; the <i>parlement</i> agreed to register a
+great loan, and the king pledged himself to assemble the Estates General
+within five years. In the early months of 1788 many pamphlets appeared,
+criticising the system of taxation and the unjust privileges and
+exemptions enjoyed by a few of the citizens to the detriment of the
+great mass of the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>parlement</i> of Paris protests against the 'reform' of the
+judicial system.</div>
+
+<p>Suddenly the <i>parlement</i> of Paris learned that the king's ministers were
+planning to put an end to its troublesome habit of opposing their
+measures. The ministers proposed to remodel the whole judicial system
+and take from the courts the right to register new decrees and
+consequently the right to protest. This the <i>parlement</i> loudly
+proclaimed was in reality a blow at the nation itself. The ministers
+were attacking the court simply because it had acknowledged its lack of
+power to grant new taxes and had requested the king to assemble the
+representatives of the nation. The ministers, it claimed, were bent upon
+establishing an out-and-out despotism in which there should no longer be
+any check whatever on the arbitrary power of the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Protests from the provinces.</div>
+
+<p>Some of the provinces became very apprehensive when they learned that
+the king proposed to take from the local <i>parlements</i> the right to
+examine edicts before registering them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span> Might not the tyrannically
+inclined ministers proceed to make new laws for the whole realm and
+ignore the special privileges which the king had pledged himself to
+maintain when Brittany, Dauphiny, Bearn, and other important provinces
+were originally added to France? The cause of the <i>parlements</i> became in
+this way the cause of the people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Estates General summoned.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the ministers were becoming very hard pressed for funds to
+meet the regular expenses of the government. The <i>parlements</i> had not
+only refused to register taxes but had done everything that they could
+to embarrass the ministers and destroy the confidence of those who might
+otherwise have lent money to the government. There seemed no other
+resort except to call the representatives of the people together. The
+Estates General were accordingly summoned to meet on May 1, 1789.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General ignorance in regard to the Estates General.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The old system of voting by classes in the Estates General.</div>
+
+<p><b>220.</b> It was now discovered that no one knew much about this body of
+which every one was talking, for it had not met since 1614. The king
+accordingly issued a general invitation to scholars to find out all they
+could about the customs observed in the former meetings of the Estates.
+The public naturally became very much interested in a matter which
+touched them so closely, and there were plenty of readers for the
+pamphlets which now began to appear in greater numbers than ever before.
+The old Estates General had been organized in a way appropriate enough
+to the feudal conditions under which they originated.<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> All three of
+the estates of the realm&mdash;clergy, nobility, and third estate&mdash;each sent
+an equal number of representatives, who were expected to consider not
+the interests of the nation but the special interests of the particular
+social class to which they respectively belonged. Accordingly, the
+deputies of the three estates did not sit together, or vote as a single
+body. The members of each group first came to an agreement among
+themselves and then a single vote was cast for the whole order.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[Pg 562]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Objections to this system.</div>
+
+<p>It was natural that this system should seem preposterous to the average
+Frenchman in 1788. If the estates should be convoked according to the
+ancient forms, the two privileged classes would be entitled to twice the
+number of representatives allotted to the other twenty-five million
+inhabitants of France. What was much worse, it seemed impossible that
+any important reforms could be adopted in an assembly where those who
+had every selfish reason for opposing the most necessary changes were
+given two votes out of three. Necker, whom the king had recalled in the
+hope that he might succeed in adjusting the finances, agreed that the
+third estate might have as many deputies as both the other orders put
+together, namely six hundred, but he would not consent to having the
+three orders sit and vote together like a modern representative body.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>cahiers</i>.</div>
+
+<p>Besides the great question as to whether the deputies should vote by
+head or by order, the pamphlets discussed what reforms the Estates
+should undertake.<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> We have, however, a still more interesting and
+important expression of public opinion in France at this time, in the
+<i>cahiers</i>,<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> or lists of grievances and suggestions for reform which,
+in pursuance of an old custom, the king asked the nation to prepare.
+Each village and town throughout France had an opportunity to tell quite
+frankly exactly what it suffered from the existing system, and what
+reforms it wished that the Estates General might bring about. These
+<i>cahiers</i><a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> were the "last will and testament" of the old r&eacute;gime, and
+they constitute a unique historical document, of unparalleled
+completeness and authenticity. No one can read the <i>cahiers</i> without
+seeing that the whole nation was ready for the great transformation
+which within a year was to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[Pg 563]</a></span> destroy a great part of the social and
+political system under which the French had lived for centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Desire of the nation for a constitutional, instead of an
+absolute, monarchy.</div>
+
+<p>Almost all the <i>cahiers</i> agreed that the prevailing disorder and the
+vast and ill-defined powers of the king and his ministers were perhaps
+the fundamental evils. One of the <i>cahiers</i> says: "Since arbitrary power
+has been the source of all the evils which afflict the state, our first
+desire is the establishment of a really national constitution, which
+shall define the rights of all and provide the laws to maintain them."
+No one dreamed at this time of displacing the king or of taking the
+government out of his hands. The people only wished to change an
+absolute monarchy into a limited, or constitutional, one. All that was
+necessary was that the things which the government might <i>not</i> do should
+be solemnly and irrevocably determined and put upon record, and that the
+Estates General should meet periodically to grant the taxes, give the
+king advice in national crises, and expostulate, if necessary, against
+any violations of the proposed charter of liberties.<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Estates General meet May 5, 1789.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The representatives of the third estate declare themselves a
+'National Assembly.'</div>
+
+<p><b>221.</b> With these ideas in mind, the Estates assembled in Versailles and
+held their first session on May 5, 1789. The king had ordered the
+deputies to wear the same costumes that had been worn at the last
+meeting of the Estates in 1614; but no royal edict could call back the
+spirit of earlier centuries. In spite of the king's commands the
+representatives of the third estate refused to organize themselves in
+the old way as a separate order. They sent invitation after invitation
+to the deputies of the clergy and nobility, requesting them to join the
+people's representatives and deliberate in common on the great interests
+of the nation. Some of the more liberal of the nobles&mdash;Lafayette, for
+example&mdash;and a large minority of the clergy wished to meet with the
+deputies of the third estate. But they were outvoted, and the deputies
+of the third estate, losing patience, finally declared themselves, on
+June 17, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[Pg 564]</a></span> "National Assembly." They argued that, since they
+represented at least ninety-six per cent of the nation, the deputies of
+the privileged orders might be neglected altogether. This usurpation of
+power on the part of the third estate transformed the old feudal
+Estates, voting by orders, into the first modern national representative
+assembly on the continent of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Tennis-Court' oath.</div>
+
+<p>Under the influence of his courtiers the king tried to restore the old
+system by arranging a solemn joint session of the three orders, at which
+he presided in person. He presented a long programme of excellent
+reforms, and then bade the Estates sit apart, according to the old
+custom. But it was like bidding water to run up hill. Three days before,
+when the commons had found themselves excluded from their regular place
+of meeting on account of the preparations for the royal session, they
+had betaken themselves to a neighboring building called the "Tennis
+Court." Here, on June 20, they took the famous "Tennis-Court" oath, "to
+come together wherever circumstances may dictate, until the constitution
+of the kingdom shall be established." They were emboldened in their
+purpose to resist all schemes to frustrate a general reform by the
+support of over half of the deputies of the clergy, who joined them the
+day before the royal session.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The nobility and clergy forced to join the third estate.</div>
+
+<p>Consequently, when the king finished his address and commanded the three
+orders to disperse immediately in order to resume their separate
+sessions, most of the bishops, some of the parish priests, and a great
+part of the nobility obeyed; the rest sat still, uncertain what they
+should do. When the master of ceremonies ordered them to comply with the
+king's commands, Mirabeau, the most distinguished statesman among the
+deputies, told him bluntly that they would not leave their places except
+at the point of the bayonet. The weak king almost immediately gave in
+and a few days later ordered all the deputies of the privileged orders
+who had not already done so to join the commons.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[Pg 565]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The fall of the Bastille, July 14, 1789.</div>
+
+<p><b>222.</b> The National Assembly now began in earnest the great task of
+preparing a constitution and regenerating France. It was soon
+interrupted, however, by events at Paris. The king had been advised by
+those about him to gather together the Swiss and German troops who
+formed the royal guard, so that if he decided to send the insolent
+deputies home he would be able to put down any disorder which might
+result. He was also induced to dismiss Necker, who enjoyed a popularity
+that he had done little to merit. When the people of Paris saw the
+troops gathering and when they heard of the dismissal of Necker, there
+was general excitement and some disorder.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image79.jpg" width="400" height="519" alt="Mirabeau" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Mirabeau</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On July 14 crowds of people assembled, determined to procure arms to
+protect themselves and mayhap to perform some daring "deed of
+patriotism." One of the bands, led by the old Parisian guards, turned to
+the ancient fortress of the Bastile, on the parapets of which guns had
+been mounted which made the inhabitants of that part of the city very
+nervous. The castle had long had a bad reputation as a place of
+confinement for prisoners of state and for those imprisoned by <i>lettres
+de cachet</i>. When the mob demanded admission, it was naturally denied
+them, and they were fired upon and nearly a hundred were killed. After a
+brief, courageous attack the place was surrendered, and the mob rushed
+into the gloomy pile. They found only seven prisoners, but one poor
+fellow had lost his wits and another had no idea why he had been kept
+there for years. The captives were freed amidst great enthusiasm, and
+the people soon set to work to demolish the walls.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[Pg 566]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Formation of the 'national guard.'</div>
+
+<p>The actual occurrences of this celebrated day were soon "disfigured and
+transfigured by legends," and the anniversary of the fall of the Bastile
+is still celebrated as the great national holiday of France.<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> The
+rising of the people to protect themselves against the machinations of
+the king's associates who, it was believed, wished to block reform, and
+the successful attack on a monument of ancient tyranny appeared to be
+the opening of a new era of freedom. The disorders of these July days
+led to the formation of the "national guard." This was made up of
+volunteers from among the more prosperous citizens, who organized
+themselves to maintain order and so took from the king every excuse for
+calling in the regular troops for that purpose. Lafayette was put in
+command of this body.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Establishment of communes in Paris and other cities.</div>
+
+<p>The government of Paris was reorganized, and a mayor, chosen from among
+the members of the National Assembly, was put at the head of the new
+<i>commune</i>, as the municipal government was called. The other cities of
+France also began with one accord, after the dismissal of Necker and the
+fall of the Bastile, to promote the Revolution by displacing or
+supplementing their old royal or aristocratic governments by committees
+of their citizens. These improvised communes, or city governments,
+established national guards, as Paris had done, and thus maintained
+order. The news that the king had approved the Paris revolution
+confirmed the opinion that the citizens of other cities had done right
+in taking the control into their own hands. We shall hear a good deal of
+the commune of Paris later, as it played a very important r&ocirc;le in the
+Reign of Terror.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disorder in the country districts.</div>
+
+<p>By the end of the month of July the commotion reached the country
+districts. A curious panic swept over the land, which the peasants long
+remembered as "the great fear." A mysterious rumor arose that the
+"brigands" were coming! The terrified people did what they could to
+prepare for the danger;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[Pg 567]</a></span> neighboring communities combined with one
+another for mutual protection. When the panic was over and people saw
+that there were no brigands after all, they turned their attention to an
+enemy by no means imaginary, i.e., the old r&eacute;gime. The peasants
+assembled on the village common or in the parish church and voted to pay
+the feudal dues no longer. The next step was to burn the castles of the
+nobles in order to destroy the records of the peasants' obligations to
+their feudal lords.<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The decree abolishing the survivals of serfdom and feudalism,
+August, 1789.</div>
+
+<p><b>223.</b> About the first of August news began to reach the National Assembly
+of the serious disorders in the provinces. This led to the first
+important reforms of the Assembly. A momentous decree abolishing the
+survivals of serfdom and feudalism was passed in a night session (August
+4&ndash;5) amid great excitement, the representatives of the privileged orders
+vying with each other in surrendering their ancient privileges. The
+exclusive right of the nobility to hunt and to maintain pigeon houses
+was abolished, and the peasant was permitted to kill game which he found
+on his land. The president of the Assembly was "commissioned to ask the
+king to recall those persons who had been sent to the galleys or exiled
+simply for the violation of the hunting regulations." The tithes of the
+church were done away with. Exemptions from the payment of taxes were
+abolished forever. It was decreed that "taxes shall be collected from
+all citizens and from all property in the same manner and in the same
+form," and that "all citizens, without distinction of birth, are
+eligible to any office or dignity." Moreover, inasmuch as a national
+constitution would be of more advantage to the provinces than the
+privileges which some of these enjoyed, and,&mdash;so the decree
+continues,&mdash;"inasmuch as the surrender of such privileges is essential
+to the intimate union of all parts of the realm, it is decreed that all
+the peculiar privileges, pecuniary or otherwise, of the provinces,
+principalities, districts, cantons, cities and communes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[Pg 568]</a></span> are once for
+all abolished and are absorbed into the law common to all
+Frenchmen."<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map568.jpg">
+<img src="images/map568th.jpg" width="600" height="437" alt="FRANCE IN DEPARTMENTS" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">FRANCE IN DEPARTMENTS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Unification of France through the abolition of the ancient
+provinces and the creation of the present departments.</div>
+
+<p>This decree established the equality and uniformity for which the French
+people had sighed so long. The injustice of the former system of
+taxation could never be reintroduced. All France was to have the same
+laws, and its citizens were henceforth to be treated in the same way by
+the state, whether they lived in Brittany or Dauphiny. The Assembly soon
+went a step farther in consolidating and unifying France. It wiped out
+the old provinces altogether, by dividing the whole country into
+districts of convenient size, called <i>departments</i>. These were much more
+numerous than the ancient divisions, and were named after rivers and
+mountains. This obliterated from the map all reminiscences of the feudal
+disunion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Declaration of the Rights of Man.</div>
+
+<p><b>224.</b> Many of the <i>cahiers</i> had suggested that the Estates should draw up
+a clear statement of the rights of the individual citizen. It was urged
+that the recurrence of abuses and the insidious encroachments of
+despotism might in this way be forever prevented. The National Assembly
+consequently determined to prepare such a declaration in order to
+gratify and reassure the people and to form a basis for the new
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>This Declaration (completed August 26) is one of the most notable
+documents in the history of Europe. It not only aroused general
+enthusiasm when it was first published, but it appeared over and over
+again, in a modified form, in the succeeding French constitutions down
+to 1848, and has been the model for similar declarations in many of the
+other continental states. It was a dignified repudiation of the abuses
+described in the preceding chapter. Behind each article there was some
+crying evil of long standing against which the people wished to be
+forever protected.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contents of the Declaration.</div>
+
+<p>The Declaration sets forth that "Men are born and remain equal in
+rights. Social distinctions can only be founded upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[Pg 569]</a></span> the general good."
+"Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to
+participate, personally or through his representative, in its formation.
+It must be the same for all." "No person shall be accused, arrested, or
+imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by
+law." "No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including
+his religious views, provided that their manifestation does not disturb
+the public order established by law." "The free communication of ideas
+and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every
+citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, being
+responsible, however, for such abuses of this freedom as shall be
+defined by law." "All citizens have a right to decide, either personally
+or by their representative, as to the necessity of the public
+contribution, to grant this freely, to know to what uses it is put, and
+to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection, and the
+duration of the taxes." "Society has the right to require of every
+public agent an account of his administration." Well might the Assembly
+claim, in its address to the people, that "the rights of man had been
+misconceived and insulted for centuries," and boast that they were
+"re&euml;stablished for all humanity in this declaration, which shall serve
+as an everlasting war cry against oppressors."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image80.jpg" width="400" height="518" alt="Louis XVI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Louis XVI</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Suspicion aroused against the court.</div>
+
+<p><b>225.</b> The king hesitated to ratify the Declaration of the Rights of Man,
+and about the first of October rumors became current that, under the
+influence of the courtiers, he was calling together troops and preparing
+for another attempt to put an end to the Revolution, similar to that
+which the attack on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[Pg 570]</a></span> Bastile had frustrated. It was said that the
+new national colors&mdash;red, white, and blue&mdash;had been insulted at a
+banquet at Versailles. These things, along with the scarcity of food due
+to the poor crops of the year, aroused the excitable Paris populace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A Paris mob invades the king's palace and carries him off to
+Paris.</div>
+
+<p>On October 5 several thousand women and a number of armed men marched
+out to Versailles to ask bread of the king, in whom they had great
+confidence personally, however suspicious they might be of his friends
+and advisers. Lafayette marched after the mob with the national guard,
+but did not prevent some of the rabble from invading the king's palace
+the next morning and nearly murdering the queen, who had become very
+unpopular. She was believed to be still an Austrian at heart and to be
+in league with the counter-revolutionary party.</p>
+
+<p>The mob declared that the king must accompany them to Paris, and he was
+obliged to consent. Far from being disloyal, they assumed that the
+presence of the royal family would insure plenty and prosperity. So they
+gayly escorted the "baker and the baker's wife and the baker's boy," as
+they jocularly termed the king and queen and the little dauphin, to the
+Palace of the Tuilleries, where the king took up his residence,
+practically a prisoner, as it proved. The National Assembly soon
+followed him and resumed its sittings in a riding school near the
+Tuilleries.</p>
+
+<p>This transfer of the king and the Assembly to the capital was the first
+great misfortune of the Revolution. At a serious crisis the government
+was placed at the mercy of the leaders of the disorderly elements of
+Paris. We shall see how the municipal council of Paris finally usurped
+the powers of the national government.<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Unjust apportionment of the revenue of the church.</div>
+
+<p><b>226.</b> As we have seen, the church in France was very rich and retained
+many of its medi&aelig;val prerogatives and privileges.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[Pg 571]</a></span> Its higher officials,
+the bishops and abbots, received very large revenues and often a single
+prelate held a number of rich benefices, the duties of which he utterly
+neglected. The parish priests, on the other hand, who really performed
+the manifold and important functions of the church, were scarcely able
+to live on their incomes. This unjust apportionment of the vast revenue
+of the church naturally suggested the idea that, if the state
+confiscated the ecclesiastical possessions, it could see that those who
+did the work were properly paid for it, and might, at the same time,
+secure a handsome sum which would help the government out of its
+financial troubles. Those who sympathized with Voltaire's views were
+naturally delighted to see their old enemy deprived of its independence
+and made subservient to the state, and even many good Catholics could
+not but hope that the new system would be an improvement upon the old.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The property of the church confiscated by the government.</div>
+
+<p>The tithes had been abolished in August along with the feudal dues. That
+deprived the church of perhaps thirty million dollars a year. On
+November 2 a decree was passed providing that "All the ecclesiastical
+possessions are at the disposal of the nation on condition that it
+provides properly for the expenses of maintaining religious services,
+for the support of those who conduct them and for the succor of the
+poor." This decree deprived the bishops and priests of their benefices
+and made them dependent on salaries paid by the state. The monks,
+monasteries, and convents, too, lost their property.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>assignats</i>, or paper currency.</div>
+
+<p>The National Assembly resolved to issue a paper currency for which the
+newly acquired lands should serve as security. Of these <i>assignats</i>, as
+this paper money was called, we hear a great deal during the
+revolutionary period. They soon began to depreciate, and ultimately a
+great part of the forty billions of francs issued during the next seven
+years was repudiated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Civil Constitution of the Clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The Assembly set to work completely to reorganize the church. The
+anxiety for simplification and complete uniformity shows itself in the
+reckless way that it dealt with this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[Pg 572]</a></span> most venerable institution of
+France, the customs of which were hallowed not only by age, but by
+religious veneration. The one hundred and thirty-four ancient
+bishoprics, some of which dated back to the Roman Empire, were replaced
+by the eighty-three new departments into which France had already been
+divided.<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> Each of these became the diocese of a bishop, who was
+looked upon as an officer of the state and was to be elected by the
+people. The priests, too, were to be chosen by the people, and their
+salaries were much increased, so that even in the smallest villages they
+received over twice the minimum amount paid under the old r&eacute;gime.</p>
+
+<p>This Civil Constitution of the Clergy<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> was the first serious mistake
+on the part of the National Assembly. While the half-feudalized church
+had sadly needed reform, the worst abuses might have been remedied
+without shocking and alienating thousands of those who had hitherto
+enthusiastically applauded the great reforms which the Assembly had
+effected. The king gave his assent to the changes, but with the feeling
+that he might be losing his soul by so doing. From that time on, he
+became at heart an enemy of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Harsh treatment of the 'non-juring' clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The discontent with the new system on the part of the clergy led to
+another serious error on the part of the Assembly. It required the
+clergy to take an oath to be faithful to the law and "to maintain with
+all their might the constitution decreed by the assembly." Only six of
+the bishops consented to this and but a third of the lower clergy,
+although they were much better off under the new system. Forty-six
+thousand parish priests refused to sacrifice their religious scruples,
+and before long the pope forbade them to take the required oath to the
+Constitution. As time went on, the "non-juring" clergy were dealt with
+more and more harshly by the government,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[Pg 573]</a></span> and the way was prepared for
+the horrors of the Reign of Terror. The Revolution ceased to stand for
+liberty, order, and the abolition of ancient abuses, and came to mean,
+in the minds of many besides those who had lost their former privileges,
+irreligion, violence, and a new kind of oppression worse than the old.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;There are a great many histories of the French
+Revolution. The best and most modern account is <span class="smcap">Stephens</span>, <i>The
+French Revolution</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, 3 vols., $2.50 each).
+<span class="smcap">Shailer Mathews</span>, <i>The French Revolution</i> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co.,
+$1.25), is an excellent short account. See also the brief but
+admirable chapters in <span class="smcap">Rose</span>, <i>The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era</i>
+(The Macmillan Company, $1.25). <span class="smcap">Carlyle's</span> famous <i>French
+Revolution</i> is hardly a history but rather a series of vivid
+pictures, valuable only to those who already have some knowledge of
+the course of events. For Mirabeau see <span class="smcap">Willert</span>, <i>Mirabeau</i> (The
+Macmillan Company, 75 cents).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">[Pg 574]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXVI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The permanent reforms of 1789.</div>
+
+<p><b>227.</b> We have now studied the progress and nature of the revolution which
+destroyed the old r&eacute;gime and created modern France. Through it the
+unjust privileges, the perplexing irregularities, and the local
+differences were abolished, and the people admitted to a share in the
+government. This vast reform had been accomplished without serious
+disturbance and, with the exception of some of the changes in the
+church, it had been welcomed with enthusiasm by the French nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The second revolution.</div>
+
+<p>This permanent, peaceful revolution, or reformation, was followed by a
+second revolution of unprecedented violence, which for a time destroyed
+the French monarchy. It also introduced a series of further changes many
+of which were absurd and unnecessary and could not endure since they
+were approved by only a few fanatical leaders. France, moreover, became
+involved in a war with most of the powers of western Europe. The
+weakness of her government which permitted the forces of disorder and
+fanaticism to prevail, combined with the imminent danger of an invasion
+by the united powers of Europe, produced the Reign of Terror. After a
+period of national excitement and disorder, France gladly accepted the
+rule of a foreigner, who proved himself far more despotic than its
+former kings had been. Napoleon did not, however, undo the great work of
+1789; his colossal ambition was, indeed, the means of extending,
+directly or indirectly, many of the benefits of the Revolution to other
+parts of western Europe. When, after Napoleon's fall, the brother of
+Louis XVI came to the throne,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[Pg 575]</a></span> the first thing that he did was solemnly
+to assure the people that all the great gains of the first revolution
+should be maintained.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The emigration of the nobles.</div>
+
+<p><b>228.</b> While practically the whole of the nation heartily rejoiced in the
+earlier reforms introduced by the National Assembly and celebrated the
+general satisfaction and harmony by a great national festival held at
+Paris on the first anniversary of the fall of the Bastile, some of the
+higher nobility refused to remain in France. The king's youngest
+brother, the count of Artois, set the example by leaving the country. He
+was followed by others who were terrified or disgusted by the burning of
+the ch&acirc;teaux, the loss of their privileges, and the unwise abolition of
+hereditary nobility by the National Assembly in June, 1790. Before long
+these emigrant nobles (<i>&eacute;migr&eacute;s</i>), among whom were many military
+officers, organized a little army across the Rhine, and the count of
+Artois began to plan an invasion of France. He was ready to ally himself
+with Austria, Prussia, or any other foreign government which he could
+induce to help undo the Revolution and give back to the French king his
+former absolute power and to the nobles their old privileges.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The conduct of the emigrant nobles discredits the king and
+queen.</div>
+
+<p>The threats and insolence of the emigrant nobles and their shameful
+negotiations with foreign powers discredited the members of their class
+who still remained in France. The people suspected that the plans of the
+runaways met with the secret approval of the king, and more especially
+of the queen, whose brother was now emperor and ruler of the Austrian
+dominions. This, added to the opposition of the non-juring clergy,
+produced a bitter hostility between the so-called "patriots" and those
+who, on the other hand, were supposed to be secretly hoping for a
+counter revolution which would re&euml;stablish the old r&eacute;gime.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The flight to Varennes, June 21, 1791.</div>
+
+<p>The worst fears of the people appeared to be justified by the secret
+flight of the royal family from Paris, in June, 1791. Ever since the
+king had reluctantly signed the Civil Constitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[Pg 576]</a></span> of the Clergy,
+flight had seemed to him his only resource. There was a body of regular
+troops on the northeastern boundary; if he could escape from Paris and
+join them he hoped that, aided by a demonstration on the part of the
+queen's brother, he might march back and check the further progress of
+the revolutionary movement with which he could no longer sympathize. He
+had, it is true, no liking for the emigrants and heartily disapproved of
+their policy, nor did he believe that the old r&eacute;gime could ever be
+restored. But, unfortunately, his plans led him to attempt to reach the
+boundary just at that point where the emigrants were collected. He and
+the queen were, however, arrested on the way, at Varennes, and speedily
+brought back to Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effect of the king's flight.</div>
+
+<p>The desertion of the king appears to have terrified rather than angered
+the nation. The grief of the people at the thought of losing, and their
+joy at regaining, a poor weak ruler like Louis XVI clearly shows that
+France was still profoundly royalist in its sympathies. The National
+Assembly pretended that the king had not fled, but that he had been
+carried off. This gratified France at large; still in Paris there were
+some who advocated the deposition of the king, and for the first time a
+<i>republican</i> party appeared, though it was still small.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The constitution completed, 1791.</div>
+
+<p>The National Assembly at last put the finishing touches to the new
+constitution upon which it had been working for two years, and the king
+readily swore to observe it faithfully. A general amnesty was then
+proclaimed. All the discord and suspicion of the past months were to be
+forgotten. The National Assembly had completed its appointed task,
+perhaps the greatest that a single body of men ever undertook. It had
+made France over and had given her an elaborate constitution. It was now
+ready to give way to the regular Legislative Assembly provided for in
+the constitution. This held its first session October 1, 1791.<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Sources of danger at the opening of the Legislative
+Assembly, October, 1791.</div>
+
+<p><b>229.</b> In spite of the great achievements of the National Assembly it left
+France in a critical situation. Besides the emigrant nobles abroad,
+there were the non-juring clergy at home, and a king who was secretly
+corresponding with foreign powers with the hope of securing their aid.
+When the news of the arrest of the king and queen at Varennes reached
+the ears of Marie Antoinette's brother, the Austrian ruler, Leopold II,
+he declared that the violent arrest of the king sealed with unlawfulness
+all that had been done in France and "compromised directly the honor of
+all the sovereigns and the security of every government." He therefore
+proposed to the rulers of Russia, England, Prussia, Spain, Naples, and
+Sardinia that they should come to some understanding between themselves
+as to how they might "re&euml;stablish the liberty and honor of the most
+Christian king and his family, and place a check upon the dangerous
+excesses of the French Revolution, the fatal example of which it
+behooves every government to repress."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Declaration of Pillnitz, August 27, 1791.</div>
+
+<p>On August 27 Leopold had issued, in conjunction with the king of
+Prussia, the famous Declaration of Pillnitz. In this the two sovereigns
+state that, in accordance with the wishes of the king's brothers (the
+leaders of the emigrant nobles), they are ready to join the other
+European rulers in an attempt to place the king of France in a position
+to establish a form of government "that shall be once more in harmony
+with the rights of sovereigns and shall promote the welfare of the
+French nation." In the meantime they promised to prepare their troops
+for active service.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effect of the Declaration.</div>
+
+<p>The Declaration was little more than an empty threat; but it seemed to
+the French people a sufficient proof that the monarchs were ready to
+help the seditious French nobles to re&euml;stablish the old r&eacute;gime against
+the wishes of the nation and at the cost of infinite bloodshed. The idea
+of foreign rulers intermeddling with their internal affairs would in
+itself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[Pg 578]</a></span> have been intolerable to a proud people like the French, even if
+the permanence of the new reforms had not been endangered. Had it been
+the object of the allied monarchs to hasten instead of to prevent the
+deposition of Louis XVI, they could hardly have chosen a more efficient
+means than the Declaration of Pillnitz.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The newspapers.</div>
+
+<p><b>230.</b> The political excitement and the enthusiasm for the Revolution were
+kept up by the newspapers which had been established, especially in
+Paris, since the meeting of the Estates General. The people did not need
+longer to rely upon an occasional pamphlet, as was the case before 1789.
+Many journals of the most divergent kinds and representing the most
+diverse opinions were published. Some were no more than a periodical
+editorial written by one man; for example, the notorious "Friend of the
+People," by the insane Marat. Others, like the famous "Moniteur," were
+much like our papers of to-day and contained news, reports of the
+debates in the assembly, announcements of theaters, etc. Some of the
+papers were illustrated, and the representations of contemporaneous
+events, especially the numerous caricatures, are highly diverting.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image81.jpg" width="400" height="486" alt="Caricature representing Louis XVI as a Constitutional
+Monarch" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Caricature representing Louis XVI as a Constitutional
+Monarch</span><a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Jacobins.</div>
+
+<p>Of the numerous political clubs, by far the most famous was that of the
+<i>Jacobins</i>. When the Assembly moved into Paris, some of the provincial
+representatives of the third estate rented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span> a large room in the
+monastery of the Jacobin monks, not far from the building where the
+National Assembly itself met. A hundred deputies perhaps were present at
+the first meeting. The next day the number had doubled. The aim of this
+society was to discuss questions which were about to come before the
+National Assembly. The club decided beforehand what should be the policy
+of its members and how they should vote; and in this way they
+successfully combined to counteract the schemes of the aristocratic
+party in the assembly. The club rapidly grew and soon admitted some who
+were not deputies to its sessions. In October, 1791, it decided to
+permit the public to attend its discussions.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually similar societies were formed in the provinces.<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> These
+affiliated themselves with the "mother" society at Paris and kept in
+constant communication with it. In this way the Jacobins of Paris
+stimulated and controlled public opinion throughout France, and kept the
+opponents of the old r&eacute;gime alert. When the Legislative Assembly met,
+the Jacobins had not as yet become republicans, but they believed that
+the king should have hardly more power than the president of a republic.
+They were even ready to promote his deposition if he failed to stand by
+the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The emigrant nobles declared traitors.</div>
+
+<p><b>231.</b> The growing discord in the nation was increased by the severe
+edicts that the Legislative Assembly directed against the emigrant
+nobles and the non-juring clergy. "The Frenchmen assembled on the
+frontier" were declared under suspicion of conspiring against their
+country. If they did not return to France by January 1, 1792, they were
+to be regarded as convicted traitors, to be punished, if caught, with
+death; their property was to be confiscated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Harsh measures of the Assembly toward non-juring clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The harsh treatment of the emigrant nobles was perhaps justified by
+their desertion and treasonable intrigues; but the conduct of the
+Assembly toward the clergy was both unstatesmanlike<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[Pg 580]</a></span> and iniquitous.
+Those who had refused to take the oath to support a system which was in
+conflict with their religious convictions and which had been condemned
+by the pope, were commanded to do so within a week on penalty of losing
+their income from the state and being put under surveillance as
+suspects. As this failed to bring the clergy to terms, the Assembly
+later (May, 1792) ordered the deportation from the country of those who
+steadily persisted in their refusal to accept the Civil Constitution of
+the Clergy. In this way the Assembly aroused the active hostility of a
+great part of the most conscientious among the lower clergy, who had
+loyally supported the commons in their fight against the privileged
+orders. It also lost the confidence of the great mass of faithful
+Catholics,&mdash;merchants, artisans, and peasants,&mdash;who had gladly accepted
+the abolition of the old abuses, but who would not consent to desert
+their religious leaders.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Legislative Assembly precipitate a war with Europe.</div>
+
+<p><b>232.</b> By far the most important act of the Legislative Assembly during
+the one year of its existence was its precipitation of a war between
+France and Austria. It little dreamed that this was the beginning of a
+war between revolutionary France and the rest of western Europe, which
+was to last, with slight interruptions, for over twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>To many of the leaders in the Assembly it seemed that the existing
+conditions were intolerable. The emigrant nobles were forming little
+armies on the boundaries of France and had, as we have seen, induced
+Austria and Prussia to consider interfering in French affairs. The
+Assembly suspected that Louis was negotiating with foreign rulers and
+would be glad to have them intervene and re&euml;stablish him in his old
+despotic power. The deputies argued, therefore, that a war against the
+hated Austria would unite the sympathies of the nation and force the
+king to show his true character; for he would be obliged either to
+become the nation's leader or show himself the traitor they suspected
+him to be.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[Pg 581]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">France declares war upon Austria, April, 1792.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The king suspected and his life threatened.</div>
+
+<p>It was with a heavy heart that the king, urged on by the clamors of the
+Assembly, declared war upon Austria in April, 1792. The unpopularity of
+the king only increased, however. He refused to ratify certain popular
+measures of the Assembly and dismissed the ministers who had been forced
+upon him. In June a mob of Parisians invaded the Palace of the
+Tuilleries, and the king might have been killed had he not consented to
+don the "cap of liberty," the badge of the "citizen patriots."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growth of republican feeling.</div>
+
+<p>When France declared war, Prussia immediately allied itself with
+Austria. Both powers collected their forces and, to the great joy of the
+emigrant nobles, who joined them, prepared to march upon France. The
+early attempts of the French to get a footing in the Austrian
+Netherlands were not successful, and the troops and people accused the
+nobles, who were in command of the French troops, of treason. As the
+allies approached the boundaries it became clearer and clearer that the
+king was utterly incapable of defending France, and the Assembly began
+to consider the question of deposing him. The duke of Brunswick, who was
+at the head of the Prussian forces, took the very worst means of helping
+the king, by issuing a manifesto in which he threatened utterly to
+destroy Paris should the king suffer any harm.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Insurrection of August 10, 1792.</div>
+
+<p>Angered by this declaration and aroused by the danger, the populace of
+Paris again invaded the Tuilleries, August 10, 1792, and the king was
+obliged to take refuge in the building in which the Assembly was in
+session. Those who instigated the attack were men who had set their
+heart upon doing away with the king altogether and establishing a
+republic. A group of them had taken possession of the city hall, pushed
+the old members of the municipal council off from their seats, and taken
+the government in their own hands. In this way the members of the Paris
+commune became the leaders in the revolution which established the first
+French republic.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[Pg 582]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">France proclaimed a republic, September 22, 1792.</div>
+
+<p><b>233.</b> The Assembly agreed with the commune in desiring a republic. If, as
+was proposed, France was henceforth to do without a king, it was
+obviously necessary that the monarchical constitution so recently
+completed should be replaced by a republican one. Consequently, the
+Assembly arranged that the people should elect delegates to a
+constitutional <i>Convention</i>, which should draw up a new system of
+government. The Convention met on the 21st of September, and its first
+act was to abolish the ancient monarchy and proclaim France a republic.
+It seemed to the enthusiasts of the time that a new era of liberty had
+dawned, now that the long oppression by "despots" was ended forever. The
+twenty-second day of September, 1792, was reckoned as the first day of
+the Year One of French liberty.<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The September massacres, 1792.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the usurping Paris commune had taken matters into its own
+hands and had brought discredit upon the cause of liberty by one of the
+most atrocious acts in history. On the pretext that Paris was full of
+traitors, who sympathized with the Austrians and the emigrant nobles,
+they had filled the prisons with three thousand innocent citizens. On
+September 2 and 3 hundreds of these were executed with scarcely a
+pretense of a trial. The members of the commune who perpetrated this
+deed probably hoped to terrify those who might still dream of returning
+to the old system of government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress of the war with Austria and Prussia.</div>
+
+<p>Late in August the Prussians crossed the French boundary and on
+September 2 took the fortress of Verdun. It now seemed as if there was
+nothing to prevent their marching upon Paris. The French general,
+Dumouriez, blocked their advance, however, and without a pitched battle
+caused the enemy to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[Pg 583]</a></span> retreat. Notwithstanding the fears of the French,
+the king of Prussia had but little interest in the war; the Austrian
+troops were lagging far behind, and both powers were far more absorbed
+in a second partition of Poland, which was approaching, than in the fate
+of the French king. The French now invaded Germany and took several
+important towns on the Rhine, including Mayence, which gladly opened its
+gates to them. They also occupied the Spanish Netherlands and Savoy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Trial and execution of the king, January, 1793.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the new Convention was puzzled to determine what would best be
+done with the king. A considerable party felt that he was guilty of
+treason in secretly encouraging the foreign powers to come to his aid.
+He was therefore brought to trial, and when it came to a final vote, he
+was, by a small majority, condemned to death. He mounted the scaffold on
+January 21, 1793, with the fortitude of a martyr. Nevertheless, one
+cannot but feel that through his earlier weakness and indecision he
+brought untold misery upon his own kingdom and upon Europe at large. The
+French people had not dreamed of a republic until his absolute
+incompetence forced them, in self-defense, to abolish the monarchy in
+the hope of securing a more efficient government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Convention proposes to aid other countries to rid
+themselves of their monarchs.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France declares war on England, February 1, 1793.</div>
+
+<p><b>234.</b> The exultation of the Convention over the conquests which their
+armies were making, encouraged them to offer the assistance of the new
+republic to any country that wished to establish its freedom by throwing
+off the yoke of monarchy. They even proposed a republic to the English
+people. One of the French ministers declared, "We will hurl thither
+fifty thousand caps of liberty, we will plant there the sacred tree of
+liberty." February 1, 1793, France greatly added to her embarrassments
+by declaring war on England, a country which proved her most inveterate
+enemy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The allies settle their differences and renew the war against
+France.</div>
+
+<p>The war now began to go against the French. The allies had hitherto been
+suspicious of one another and fearful lest Russia should take advantage
+of their preoccupation with France to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 584]</a></span> seize more than her share of
+Poland. They now came to an agreement. It was arranged that Prussia and
+Russia should each take another piece of Poland, while Austria agreed to
+go without her share if the powers would aid her in inducing the elector
+of Bavaria to exchange his possessions for the Spanish Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image82.jpg" width="500" height="463" alt="The Partitions of Poland" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Partitions of Poland</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">French driven from the Netherlands; desertion of Dumouriez.</div>
+
+<p>This adjustment of the differences between the allies gave a wholly new
+aspect to the war with France. When in March, 1793, Spain and the Holy
+Roman Empire joined the coalition, France was at war with all her
+neighbors. The Austrians defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden and drove the
+French out of the Netherlands. Thereupon Dumouriez, disgusted by the
+failure of the Convention to support him and by their execution of the
+king, deserted to the enemy with a few hundred soldiers who consented to
+follow him.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">French government put in the hands of the Committee of
+Public Safety, April, 1793.</div>
+
+<p>The loss of the Netherlands and the treason of their best general made a
+deep impression upon the members of the Convention. If the new French
+republic was to defend itself against the "tyrants" without and its many
+enemies within, it could not wait for the Convention to draw up an
+elaborate, permanent constitution. An efficient government must be
+devised immediately to maintain the loyalty of the nation to the
+republic, and to raise and equip armies and direct their commanders. The
+Convention accordingly put the government into the hands of a small
+committee, consisting originally of nine, later of twelve, of its
+members. This famous Committee of Public Safety was given practically
+unlimited powers. "We must," one of the leaders exclaimed, "establish
+the despotism of liberty in order to crush the despotism of kings."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Girondists.</div>
+
+<p><b>235.</b> Within the Convention itself there were two groups of active men
+who came into bitter conflict over the policy to be pursued. There was,
+first, the party of the Girondists, so called because their leaders came
+from the department of Gironde, in which the great city of Bordeaux lay.
+They were moderate republicans and counted among their numbers some
+speakers of remarkable eloquence. The Girondists had enjoyed the control
+of the Legislative Assembly in 1792 and had been active in bringing on
+the war with Austria and Prussia. They hoped in that way to complete the
+Revolution by exposing the bad faith of the king and his sympathy with
+the emigrant nobles. They were not, however, men of sufficient decision
+to direct affairs in the terrible difficulties in which France found
+herself after the execution of the king. They consequently lost their
+influence, and a new party, called the "Mountain" from the high seats
+that they occupied in the Convention, gained the ascendency.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The extreme republicans, called the 'Mountain.'</div>
+
+<p>This was composed of the most vigorous and uncompromising republicans.
+They believed that the French people had been depraved by the slavery to
+which their kings had subjected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a></span> them. Everything, they argued, which
+suggested the former rule of kings must be wiped out. A new France
+should be created, in which liberty, equality, and fraternity should
+take the place of the tyranny of princes, the insolence of nobles, and
+the impostures of the priests. The leaders of the Mountain held that the
+mass of the people were by nature good and upright, but that there were
+a number of adherents of the old system who would, if they could, undo
+the great work of the Revolution and lead the people back to slavery
+under king and church. All who were suspected by the Mountain of having
+the least sympathy with the nobles or persecuted priests were branded as
+counter-revolutionary. The Mountain was willing to resort to any
+measures, however shocking, to rid the nation of those suspected of
+counter-revolutionary tendencies, and its leaders relied upon the
+populace of Paris to aid them in reaching their ends.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Girondist leaders expelled from the Convention, June 2,
+1793.</div>
+
+<p>The Girondists, on the other hand, abhorred the furious Paris mob and
+the cruel fanatics who composed the commune of the capital. They argued
+that Paris was not France, and that it had no right to assume a despotic
+rule over the nation. They proposed that the commune should be dissolved
+and that the Convention should remove to another town where they would
+not be subject to the intimidation of the Paris mob. The Mountain
+thereupon accused the Girondists of an attempt to break up the republic,
+"one and indivisible," by questioning the supremacy of Paris and the
+duty of the provinces to follow the lead of the capital. The mob, thus
+encouraged, rose against the Girondists. On June 2 it surrounded the
+meeting place of the Convention, and deputies of the commune demanded
+the expulsion from the Convention of the Girondist leaders, who were
+placed under arrest.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France threatened with civil war.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The revolt of the peasants of Brittany against the
+Convention.</div>
+
+<p>The conduct of the Mountain and its ally, the Paris commune, now began
+to arouse opposition in various parts of France, and the country was
+threatened with civil war at a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a></span> time when it was absolutely necessary
+that all Frenchmen should combine in the loyal defense of their country
+against the invaders who were again approaching its boundaries. The
+first and most serious opposition came from the peasants of Brittany,
+especially in the department of La Vend&eacute;e. There the people still loved
+the monarchy and their priests and even the nobles; they refused to send
+their sons to fight for a republic which had killed their king and was
+persecuting the clergymen who declined to take an oath which their
+conscience forbade. The Vendean royalists defeated several corps of the
+national guard which the Convention sent against them, and it was not
+until autumn that the distinguished general, Kl&eacute;ber, was able to put
+down the insurrection.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolt of the cities against the Convention.</div>
+
+<p>The great cities of Marseilles and Bordeaux were indignant at the
+treatment to which the Girondist deputies were subjected in Paris, and
+organized a revolt against the Convention. In the manufacturing city of
+Lyons the merchants hated the Jacobins and their republic, since the
+demand for silk and other luxuries produced at Lyons had come from the
+nobility and clergy, who were now no longer in a position to buy. The
+prosperous classes were therefore exasperated when the commissioners of
+the Convention demanded money and troops. The citizens gathered an army
+of ten thousand men and placed it under a royalist leader. The
+Convention, however, called in troops from the armies on the frontier,
+bombarded and captured the city, and wreaked a terrible vengeance upon
+those who had dared to revolt against the Mountain. Frightened by the
+experience of Lyons, Bordeaux and Marseilles decided that resistance was
+futile and admitted the troops of the Convention. Some of the Girondist
+deputies had escaped from Paris and attempted to gather an army in
+Normandy; but they failed, too. The Convention's Committee of Public
+Safety showed itself far more efficient than the scattered and disunited
+opponents who questioned its right to govern France.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The French repulse the English and Austrians.</div>
+
+<p>While the Committee of Public Safety had been suppressing the revolts
+within the country, it had taken active measures to meet its foreign
+enemies. The distinguished military organizer, Carnot, had become a
+member of the Committee in August and immediately called for a general
+levy of troops. He soon had five hundred and fifty thousand men; these
+he divided into thirteen armies and dispatched them against the allies.
+The English and Hanoverians, who were besieging Dunkirk, were driven off
+and the Austrians were defeated, so that by the close of the year 1793
+all danger from invasion was past, for the time being at least.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Reign of Terror.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Revolutionary Tribunal.</div>
+
+<p><b>236.</b> In spite of the marvelous success with which the Committee of
+Public Safety had crushed its opponents at home and repelled the forces
+of the coalition, it continued its policy of stifling all opposition by
+terror. Even before the fall of the Girondists a special court had been
+established in Paris, known as the Revolutionary Tribunal. Its duty was
+to try all those who were suspected of treasonable acts. At first the
+cases were very carefully considered and few persons were condemned. In
+September, after the revolt of the cities, two new men, who had been
+implicated in the September massacres, were added to the Committee of
+Public Safety. They were selected with the particular purpose of
+intimidating the counter-revolutionary party by bringing all the
+disaffected to the guillotine.<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> A terrible law was passed, declaring
+all those to be suspects who by their conduct or remarks had shown
+themselves enemies of liberty. The former nobles, including the wives,
+fathers, mothers, and children of the "emigrants," unless they had
+constantly manifested their attachment to the Revolution, were ordered
+to be imprisoned.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[Pg 589]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Execution of Marie Antoinette, October, 1793.</div>
+
+<p>In October, the queen, Marie Antoinette, after a trial in which the most
+false and atrocious charges were brought against her, was executed in
+Paris, and a number of high-minded and distinguished persons suffered a
+like fate. But the most horrible acts of the Reign of Terror were
+perpetrated in the provinces. A representative of the Convention had
+thousands of the people of Nantes shot down or drowned. The convention
+proposed to destroy the great city of Lyons altogether, and though this
+decree was only partially carried out, thousands of its citizens were
+executed.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Schism in the party of the Mountain.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Robespierre as dictator.</div>
+
+<p>Soon the radical party which was conducting the government began to
+disagree among themselves. Danton, a man of fiery zeal for the republic,
+who had hitherto enjoyed great popularity with the Jacobins, became
+tired of bloodshed, and believed that the system of terror was no longer
+necessary. On the other hand, H&eacute;bert the leader of the commune felt that
+the revolution was not yet complete. He proposed, for example, that the
+worship of Reason should be substituted for the worship of God, and
+arranged a service in the great church of Notre Dame, where Reason, in
+the person of a handsome actress, took her place on the altar. The most
+powerful member of the Committee of Public Safety was Robespierre, who,
+although he was insignificant in person and a tiresome speaker, enjoyed
+a great reputation for republican virtue. He disapproved alike of
+Danton's moderation and of the worship of Reason advocated by the
+commune. Through his influence the leaders of both the moderate and the
+extreme party were arrested and executed (March and April, 1794).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Fall of Robespierre, July 27, 1794.</div>
+
+<p>It was, of course, impossible for Robespierre to maintain his
+dictatorship permanently. He had the revolutionary tribunal divided into
+sections, and greatly increased the rapidity of the executions with a
+view of destroying all his enemies; but his colleagues in the Convention
+began to fear that he would demand their heads next. A coalition was
+formed against him, and the Convention ordered his arrest.<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> He
+called upon the commune to defend him, but the Convention roused Paris
+against the commune, which was no longer powerful enough to intimidate
+the whole city, and he and his supporters were sent to the guillotine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reaction after the overthrow of Robespierre.</div>
+
+<p><b>237.</b> In successfully overthrowing Robespierre the Convention and
+Committee of Public Safety had rid the country of the only man, who,
+owing to his popularity and his reputation for uprightness, could have
+prolonged the Reign of Terror. There was an immediate reaction after his
+death, for the country was weary of executions. The Revolutionary
+Tribunal henceforth convicted very few indeed of those who were brought
+before it. It made an exception, however, of those who had themselves
+been the leaders in the worst atrocities, for example, as the public
+prosecutor, who had brought hundreds of victims to the guillotine in
+Paris, and the brutes who had ordered the massacres at Nantes and Lyons.
+Within a few months the Jacobin Club at Paris was closed by the
+Convention, and the commune abolished.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constitution of the year III.</div>
+
+<p>The Convention now at last turned its attention to the great work for
+which it had originally been summoned, and drew up a constitution for
+the republic. This provided that the lawmaking power should be vested in
+a legislative assembly consisting of two houses. The lower house was
+called the Council of the Five Hundred, and the upper chamber the
+Council of the Elders. Members of the latter were required to be at
+least<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[Pg 591]</a></span> forty years of age. The executive powers were put in the hands of
+a <i>Directory</i> of five persons to be chosen by the two chambers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The dissolution of the Convention, October, 1795, its
+achievements.</div>
+
+<p>In October, 1795, the Convention finally dissolved itself, having
+governed the country during three years of unprecedented excitement,
+danger, and disorder. While it was responsible for the horrors of the
+Reign of Terror, its committees had carried France through the terrible
+crisis of 1793. The civil war had been brought to a speedy end, and the
+coalition of foreign powers had been defeated. Meanwhile other
+committees appointed by the Convention had been quietly working upon the
+problem of bettering the system of education, which had been taken by
+the state out of the hands of the clergy. Progress had also been made
+toward establishing a single system of law for the whole country to
+replace the old confusion. The new republican calendar was not destined
+to survive many years, but the metric system of weights and measures
+introduced by the Convention has now been adopted by most European
+countries, and is used by men of science in England and America.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the Reign of Terror, the depreciated paper
+currency,<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> and many hasty and unwise laws passed by the Convention
+had produced all sorts of disorder and uncertainty. The Directory did
+little to better conditions, and it was not until Napoleon's strong hand
+grasped the helm of government in the year 1800 that order was really
+restored.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;In addition to the references given at the end of
+the preceding chapter, <span class="smcap">Belloc</span>, <i>Danton</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons,
+$2.50) and <i>Robespierre</i> by the same author (same publisher,
+$2.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[Pg 592]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXVII</h2>
+
+<h3>NAPOLEON BONAPARTE</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Napoleonic Period.</div>
+
+<p><b>238.</b> The aristocratic military leaders of old France had either run away
+or been discredited along with the noble class to which they belonged.
+Among the commanders who, through exceptional ability, arose in their
+stead, one was soon to dominate the history of Europe as no man before
+him had ever done. For fifteen years, his biography and the political
+history of Europe are so nearly synonymous that the period that we are
+now entering upon may properly be called after him, the Napoleonic
+Period.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon Bonaparte (b. 1769), a Corsican by birth, an Italian
+by descent.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon Bonaparte was hardly a Frenchman in origin. It is true that the
+island of Corsica, where he was born August 15, 1769, had at that time
+belonged to France for a year. But Napoleon's native language was
+Italian, he was descended from Italian ancestors who had come to the
+island in the sixteenth century, and his career revives, on a
+magnificent scale, the ambitions and the policy of a <i>condottiere</i>
+despot of the fifteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The young Bonaparte in a French military school.</div>
+
+<p>When he was ten years old he was taken to France by his father. After
+learning a little of the French language, which he is said never to have
+mastered perfectly, he was put into a military school where he remained
+for six years. He soon came to hate the young French aristocrats with
+whom he was associated. He wrote to his father, "I am tired of exposing
+my poverty and seeing these shameless boys laughing over it, who are
+superior to me only in their wealth, but infinitely beneath me in noble
+sentiments." Gradually the ambition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[Pg 593]</a></span> to free his little island country
+from French control developed in him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His political intrigues in Corsica.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Bonapartes banished from Corsica, 1793.</div>
+
+<p>On completing his course in the military school he was made second
+lieutenant. Poor and without influence, he had little hope of any
+considerable advance in the French army, and he was drawn to his own
+country both by a desire to play a political r&ocirc;le there and to help his
+family, which had been left in straitened circumstances by his father's
+death. He therefore absented himself from his command as often and as
+long as he could, and engaged in a series of intrigues in Corsica with a
+hope of getting control of the forces of the island. He fell out,
+however, with the authorities, and he and his family were banished in
+1793, and fled to France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon made commander-in-chief of the army of Italy, 1796.</div>
+
+<p>The following three years were for Bonaparte a period of great
+uncertainty. He had lost his love for Corsica and as yet he had no
+foothold in France. He managed, however, to demonstrate his military
+skill and decision on two occasions and gained thereby the friendship of
+the Directory. In the spring of 1796 he was made by the Directory
+commander-in-chief of the army of Italy. This important appointment at
+the age of twenty-seven forms the opening of a military career which in
+extent and grandeur hardly finds a parallel in history, except that of
+Alexander the Great. And of all Bonaparte's campaigns, none is more
+interesting perhaps than his first, that in Italy in 1796&ndash;1797.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prussia and Spain conclude peace with the French republic,
+1795.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The campaign in Italy, 1796&ndash;1797.</div>
+
+<p><b>239.</b> After the armies raised by the Committee of Public Safety had
+driven back their enemies in the autumn of 1793, the French occupied the
+Austrian Netherlands, Holland, and that portion of Germany which lies on
+the left, or west, bank of the Rhine. Austria and Prussia were again
+busy with a new, and this time final, partition of Poland. As Prussia
+had little real interest in the war with France, she soon concluded
+peace with the new republic, April, 1795. Spain followed her example and
+left Austria, England, and Sardinia to carry on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[Pg 594]</a></span> the war. General
+Bonaparte had to face the combined armies of Austria and of the king of
+Sardinia. By marching north from Savona he skillfully separated his two
+enemies, forced the Sardinian troops back toward Turin, and compelled
+the king of Sardinia to conclude a truce with France.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image83.jpg" width="400" height="494" alt="Napoleon Bonaparte during the Italian Campaign" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Napoleon Bonaparte during the Italian Campaign</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This left him free to advance against the Austrians. These he outflanked
+and forced to retreat. On May 15, 1796, he entered Milan. The Austrian
+commander then shut himself up in the impregnable fortress of Mantua,
+where Bonaparte promptly besieged him. There is no more fascinating
+chapter in the history of warfare than the story of the audacious
+maneuvers by which Bonaparte successfully repulsed four attempts on the
+part of the Austrians to relieve Mantua, which was finally forced to
+capitulate at the beginning of February of the following year. As soon
+as he had removed all danger of an attack in the rear, the young French
+general led his army toward Vienna, and by April, 1797, the Austrian
+court was glad to sign a preliminary peace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The treaty of Campo-Formio, 1797.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Creation of the Cisalpine republic.</div>
+
+<p>The provisions of the definitive peace which was concluded at
+Campo-Formio, October 17, 1797, illustrate the unscrupulous manner in
+which Austria and the French republic disposed of the helpless lesser
+states. It inaugurated the bewilderingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[Pg 595]</a></span> rapid territorial
+redistribution of Europe, which was so characteristic of the Napoleonic
+period. Austria ceded to France the Austrian Netherlands and secretly
+agreed to use its good offices to secure for France a great part of the
+left bank of the Rhine. Austria also recognized the Cisalpine republic
+which Bonaparte had created out of the smaller states of northern Italy,
+and which was under the "protection" of France. This new state included
+Milan, Modena, some of the papal dominions, and, lastly, a part of the
+possessions of the venerable and renowned but defenseless republic of
+Venice which Napoleon had iniquitously destroyed. Austria received as a
+partial indemnity the rest of the possessions of the Venetian republic,
+including Venice itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General Bonaparte holds court; his analysis of the French
+character and of his own aims.</div>
+
+<p><b>240.</b> While the negotiations were going on at Campo-Formio, the young
+general had established a brilliant court. "His salons," an observer
+informs us, "were filled with a throng of generals, officials, and
+purveyors, as well as the highest nobility and the most distinguished
+men of Italy, who came to solicit the favor of a glance or a moment's
+conversation." He appears already to have conceived the r&ocirc;le that he was
+to play later. We have a report of a most extraordinary conversation
+which occurred at this time.</p>
+
+<p>"What I have done so far," he declared, "is nothing. I am but at the
+opening of the career that I am to run. Do you suppose that I have
+gained my victories in Italy in order to advance the lawyers of the
+Directory?... Do you think either that my object is to establish a
+republic? What a notion!... What the French want is Glory and the
+satisfaction of their vanity; as for Liberty, of that they have no
+conception. Look at the army! The victories that we have just gained
+have given the French soldier his true character. I am everything to
+him. Let the Directory attempt to deprive me of my command and they will
+see who is the master. The nation must have a head, a head who is
+rendered illustrious by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[Pg 596]</a></span> glory and not by theories of government, fine
+phrases, or the talk of idealists, of which the French understand not a
+whit."</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt whom General Bonaparte had in mind when he spoke of
+the needed head of the French nation who should be "rendered illustrious
+by glory." This son of a poor Corsican lawyer, but yesterday a mere
+unlucky adventurer, had arranged his programme; two years and a half
+later he was the master of the French republic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Personal characteristics.</div>
+
+<p>We naturally ask what manner of person this was who could frame such
+audacious schemes at twenty-eight and realize them at thirty years of
+age. He was a little man, less than five feet two inches in height. At
+this time he was extremely thin, but his striking features, quick,
+searching eye, abrupt, animated gestures and rapid speech, incorrect as
+it was, made a deep impression upon those who came in contact with him.
+He possessed in a supreme degree two qualities that are ordinarily
+incompatible. He was a dreamer, and at the same time a man whose
+practical skill and mastery of detail amounted to genius. He once told a
+friend that he was wont, when a poor lieutenant, to allow his
+imagination full play and fancy things just as he would have them. Then
+he would coolly consider the exact steps to be taken if he were to try
+to make his dream come true.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of power in Napoleon's character.</div>
+
+<p>In order to explain Bonaparte's success it must be remembered that he
+was not hampered or held back by the fear of doing wrong. He was utterly
+unscrupulous, whether dealing with an individual or a nation, and
+appears to have been absolutely without any sense of moral
+responsibility. Affection for his friends and relatives never stood in
+the way of his personal aggrandizement. To these traits must be added
+unrivaled military genius and the power of intense and almost
+uninterrupted work.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The political conditions which rendered Napoleon's wonderful
+successes possible.</div>
+
+<p>But even Bonaparte, unexampled as were his abilities, could never have
+extended his power over all of western Europe, had it not been for the
+peculiar political weakness of most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[Pg 597]</a></span> of the states with which he had to
+deal. There was no strong German empire in his day, no united Italy, no
+Belgium whose neutrality was guaranteed&mdash;as it now is&mdash;by the other
+powers of Europe. The French republic was surrounded by petty
+independent, or practically independent, principalities which were
+defenseless against an unscrupulous invader. Prussia, much smaller than
+it now is, offered, as we shall see, no efficient opposition to the
+extension of French control. Austria had been forced to capitulate,
+after a short campaign, by an enemy far from its source of supplies and
+led by a young and inexperienced general.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon conceives the idea of an expedition to Egypt.</div>
+
+<p><b>241.</b> After arranging the Peace of Campo-Formio, General Bonaparte
+returned to Paris. He at once perceived that France, in spite of her
+enthusiasm for him, was not yet ready to accept him as her ruler. He
+saw, too, that he would soon sacrifice his prestige if he lived quietly
+in Paris like an ordinary person. His active mind soon conceived a plan
+which would forward his interests. France was still at war with England,
+its most persevering enemy during this period. Bonaparte convinced the
+Directory that England could best be ruined in the long run by seizing
+Egypt and threatening her commerce through the Mediterranean, and
+perhaps ultimately her dominion in the East. Bonaparte, fascinated by
+the career of Alexander the Great, pictured himself riding to India on
+the back of an elephant and dispossessing England of her most precious
+colonial dependencies. He had, however, still another and a
+characteristic reason for undertaking the expedition. France was on the
+eve of a new war with the European powers. Bonaparte foresaw that, if he
+could withdraw with him some of France's best officers, the Directory
+might soon find itself so embarrassed that he could return as a national
+savior. And even so it fell out.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The campaign in Egypt, 1798&ndash;1799.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nelson destroys the French fleet.</div>
+
+<p>The French fleet left Toulon, May 19, 1798. It was so fortunate as to
+escape the English squadron under Nelson,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span> which sailed by it in the
+night. Bonaparte arrived at Alexandria, July 1, and easily defeated the
+Turkish troops in the famous battle of the Pyramids. Meanwhile Nelson,
+who did not know the destination of the enemy's fleet, had returned from
+the Syrian coast where he had looked for the French in vain. He
+discovered Bonaparte's ships in the harbor of Alexandria and completely
+annihilated them in the first battle of the Nile (August 1, 1798). The
+French troops were now completely cut off from Europe.<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Syrian campaign.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bonaparte deserts the army in Egypt and returns to Paris.</div>
+
+<p>The Porte (i.e., the Turkish government) declared war against France,
+and Bonaparte resolved to attack Turkey by land. He accordingly marched
+into Syria in the spring of 1799, but was repulsed at Acre, where the
+Turkish forces were aided by the English fleet. Pursued by pestilence,
+the army regained Cairo in June after terrible suffering and loss. It
+was still strong enough to annihilate a Turkish army that landed at
+Alexandria; but news now reached Bonaparte from Europe which convinced
+him that the time had come for him to hasten back. Northern Italy, which
+he had won, was lost; the allies were about to invade France, and the
+Directory was completely demoralized. Bonaparte accordingly secretly
+deserted his army and managed, by a series of happy accidents, to reach
+France by October 9, 1799.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of the 18th Brumaire, November 9, 1799.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bonaparte made First Consul.</div>
+
+<p><b>242.</b> The Directory, one of the most corrupt and inefficient governmental
+bodies that the world has ever seen, had completely disgraced
+itself.<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> Bonaparte readily found others to join with him in a
+conspiracy to overthrow it. A plan was formed for abruptly destroying
+the old government and replacing it by a new one without observing any
+constitutional forms. This is a procedure so familiar in France during
+the past century that it is known even in English as a <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i>
+(literally translated, a "stroke of state"). The conspirators had a good
+many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[Pg 599]</a></span> friends in the two assemblies, especially among the "Elders."
+Nevertheless Bonaparte had to order his soldiers to invade the hall in
+which the Assembly of the Five Hundred was in session and scatter his
+opponents before he could accomplish his purpose. A chosen few were then
+reassembled under the presidency of Lucien Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's
+brothers, who was a member of the assembly. They voted to put the
+government in the hands of General Bonaparte and two others, to be
+called <i>Consuls</i>. These were to proceed, with the aid of a commission
+and of the "Elders," to draw up a new constitution.<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The constitution of the year VIII.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Council of State.</div>
+
+<p>The new constitution<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> was a very cumbrous and elaborate one. It
+provided for no less than four assemblies, one to propose the laws, one
+to consider them, one to vote upon them, and one to decide on their
+constitutionality. But Bonaparte saw to it that as First Consul he
+himself had practically all the power in his own hands. The Council of
+State, to which he called talented men from all parties and over which
+he presided, was the most important of the governmental bodies. This
+body and the administrative system which he soon established have
+endured, with a few changes, down to the present day. There is no surer
+proof of Napoleon's genius than that, with no previous experience, he
+could conceive a plan of government that should serve a great state like
+France, through all its vicissitudes, for a century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The administrative system instituted by Napoleon.</div>
+
+<p>In each department he put an officer called a <i>prefect</i>, in each
+subdivision of the department a <i>subprefect</i>. These, together with the
+mayors and police commissioners of the towns, were all appointed by the
+First Consul. The prefects, "little First Consuls," as Bonaparte called
+them, resembled the intendants&mdash;the king's officers under the old
+r&eacute;gime. Indeed, the new government suggested in several important
+respects that of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[Pg 600]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The new government accepted by a plebiscite.</div>
+
+<p>The new ruler objected as decidedly as Louis XIV had done to the idea of
+being controlled by the people, who, he believed, knew nothing of public
+affairs. It was enough, he thought, if they were allowed to say whether
+they wished a certain form of government or not. He therefore introduced
+what he called a <i>plebiscite</i>. The new constitution when completed was
+submitted to the nation at large, and all were allowed to vote "yes" or
+"no" on the expediency of its adoption. Over three million voted in
+favor of it and only fifteen hundred and sixty-two against it. This did
+not necessarily mean, however, that practically the whole nation wished
+to have General Bonaparte as its ruler. A great many may have preferred
+what seemed to them an objectionable form of government to the risk of
+rejecting it. Herein lies the injustice of the plebiscite. There are
+many questions that cannot be answered by a simple "yes" or "no."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bonaparte generally acceptable to France as First Consul.</div>
+
+<p>Yet the accession of the popular young general to power was undoubtedly
+grateful to the majority of citizens, who longed above all for a stable
+government. The Swedish envoy wrote just after the <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i>: "A
+legitimate monarch has perhaps never found a people more ready to do his
+bidding than Bonaparte, and it would be inexcusable if this talented
+general did not take advantage of this to introduce a better form of
+government upon a firmer basis. It is literally true that France will
+perform impossibilities in order to aid him in this. The people (with
+the exception of a despicable horde of anarchists) are so sick and weary
+of revolutionary horrors and folly that they believe that any change
+cannot fail to be for the better.... Even the royalists, whatever their
+views may be, are sincerely devoted to Bonaparte, for they attribute to
+him the intention of gradually restoring the old order of things. The
+indifferent element cling to him as the one most likely to give France
+peace. The enlightened republicans, although they tremble for their form
+of government,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">[Pg 601]</a></span> prefer to see a single man of talent possess himself of
+the power than a club of intriguers."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Necessity of renewing the war.</div>
+
+<p><b>243.</b> Upon becoming First Consul, General Bonaparte found France at war
+with England, Russia, Austria, Turkey, and Naples. These powers had
+formed a coalition in December, 1798, had defeated the armies that the
+Directory sent against them, and undone Bonaparte's work in Italy. It
+now devolved upon him to re&euml;stablish the prestige of France abroad, as
+well as to restore order and prosperity at home. A successful campaign
+would, moreover, fill the empty treasury of the state; for Bonaparte
+always exacted large contributions from the defeated enemy and from
+those of his allies, like the ephemeral Cisalpine republic, who were
+under the "protection" of France. Besides, he must keep himself before
+the people as a military hero if he wished to maintain his supremacy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon crosses the Alps and surprises the Austrians.</div>
+
+<p>Early in the year 1800 Bonaparte began secretly to collect an army near
+Dijon. This he proposed to direct against an Austrian army which was
+besieging the French general, Mass&eacute;na, in Genoa. Instead of marching
+straight into Italy, as would have been most natural, the First Consul
+resolved to take the Austrian forces in the rear. Emulating Hannibal, he
+led his troops over the famous Alpine pass of the Great St. Bernard,
+dragging his cannon over in the trunks of trees which had been hollowed
+out for the purpose. He arrived safely in Milan on the 2d of June to the
+utter astonishment of the Austrians, who were taken completely by
+surprise.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800.</div>
+
+<p>Bonaparte now moved westward, but in his uncertainty as to the exact
+whereabouts of the Austrians, he divided his force when near the village
+of Marengo (June 14) and sent a contingent under Desaix southward to
+head off the enemy in that direction. In the meantime the whole Austrian
+army approached from Alessandria and the engagement began. The Austrians
+at first repulsed the French, and Bonaparte saw all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">[Pg 602]</a></span> his great plans in
+jeopardy as he vainly besought his soldiers to make another stand. The
+defeat was soon turned, however, into one of the most brilliant
+victories; for Desaix had heard the firing and returned with his
+division. Meanwhile the aged and infirm Austrian commander had returned
+to Alessandria, supposing that the battle was won. The result was that
+the French troops, re&euml;nforced, returned to the attack and carried all
+before them. The brave Desaix, who had really saved the day, was killed;
+Bonaparte simply said nothing of his own temporary defeat, and added one
+more to the list of his great military successes. A truce was signed
+next day, and the Austrians retreated behind the Mincio River, leaving
+Bonaparte to restore French influence in Lombardy. The districts that he
+had "freed" had to support his army, and the re&euml;stablished Cisalpine
+republic was forced to pay a monthly tax of two million francs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A general pacification, 1801.</div>
+
+<p>A victory gained by the French at Hohenlinden in December of the same
+year brought Austria to terms, and she agreed to conclude a separate
+peace with the French republic. This was the beginning of a general
+pacification. During the year 1801 treaties were signed with all the
+powers with which France had been at war, even with England, who had not
+laid down her arms since war was first declared in 1793.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Two most important provisions of the treaties of 1801.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bonaparte sells Louisiana to the United States, 1803.</div>
+
+<p>Among many merely transitory results of these treaties there were two
+provisions of momentous import. The first of these, Spain's cession of
+Louisiana to France in exchange for certain advantages in Italy, does
+not concern us here directly. When war again broke out, Bonaparte sold
+the district to the United States, and among the many transfers of
+territory that he made during his reign, none was more important than
+this. We must, however, treat with some detail the second of the great
+changes, which led to the complete reorganization of Germany and
+ultimately rendered possible the establishment of the present powerful
+German empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">[Pg 603]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France and the
+results for Germany.</div>
+
+<p><b>244.</b> In the treaty signed by Austria at Lun&eacute;ville in February, 1801, the
+emperor agreed, on his own part and on the part of the Holy Roman
+Empire, that the French republic should thereafter possess in full
+sovereignty the territories lying on the left bank of the Rhine which
+belonged to the empire, and that thereafter the Rhine should form the
+boundary of France from the point where it left Switzerland to where it
+flowed into Dutch territory. As a natural consequence of this cession,
+various princes and states of the empire found themselves dispossessed,
+either wholly or in part, of their lands. The empire bound itself to
+furnish the hereditary princes who had lost possessions on the left bank
+of the Rhine with "an indemnity within the empire."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Secularization of church lands.</div>
+
+<p>This provision implied a veritable territorial metamorphosis of the old
+Holy Roman Empire, which, except for the development of Prussia, was
+still in pretty much the same condition as in Luther's time.<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> There
+was no unoccupied land to give the dispossessed princes; but there were
+two classes of states in the empire that did not belong to <i>hereditary</i>
+princes, namely, the ecclesiastical states and the free towns. As the
+churchmen,&mdash;archbishops, bishops, and abbots,&mdash;who ruled over the
+ecclesiastical states, were forbidden by the rules of the church to
+marry, they could of course have no lawful heirs. Should an
+ecclesiastical ruler be deprived of his realms, he might, therefore, be
+indemnified by a pension for life, with no fear of any injustice to
+heirs, since there could be none. The transfer of the lands of an
+ecclesiastical prince to a lay, i.e., hereditary, prince was called
+<i>secularization</i>. The towns, once so powerful and important, had lost
+their former influence, and seemed as much of an anomaly in the German
+Confederation as the ecclesiastical states.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decree of the German diet redistributing German territory,
+1803.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disappearance of the imperial cities.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fate of the knights.</div>
+
+<p><i>Reichsdeputationshauptschluss</i> was the high-sounding German name of the
+great decree issued by the imperial diet in 1803,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">[Pg 604]</a></span> redistributing the
+territory so as to indemnify the hereditary princes dispossessed by the
+cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France. All the ecclesiastical
+states, except the electorate of Mayence, were turned over to lay
+rulers. Of the forty-eight imperial cities, only six were left. Three of
+these still exist as republican members of the present German
+federation; namely, the Hanseatic towns,&mdash;Hamburg, Bremen, and L&uuml;beck.
+Bavaria received the bishoprics of W&uuml;rzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg,
+Freising, and a number of the imperial cities. Baden received the
+bishoprics of Constance, Basel, Speyer, etc. The knights who had lost
+their possessions on the left bank were not indemnified, and those on
+the right bank were deprived of their political rights within the next
+two or three years, by the several states within whose boundaries they
+lay.<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of the extinction of the smaller German states.</div>
+
+<p>The final distribution was preceded by a bitter and undignified scramble
+among the princes for additional bits of territory. All turned to Paris
+for favors, since the First Consul, and not the German diet, was really
+the arbiter in the matter. Germany never sank to a lower degree of
+national degradation than at this period. But this amalgamation was,
+nevertheless, the beginning of her political regeneration; for without
+the consolidation of the hundreds of practically independent little
+states into a few well-organized monarchies, such a union as the present
+German empire would have been impossible, and the country must have
+remained indefinitely in its traditional impotency.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extension of French territory.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">French dependencies.</div>
+
+<p>The treaties of 1801 left France in possession of the Austrian
+Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine, to which increase of
+territory Piedmont was soon added. Bonaparte found a further resource in
+the dependencies, which it was his consistent policy to create. Holland
+became the Batavian republic, and, with the Italian (originally the
+Cisalpine)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span> republic, came under French control and contributed money
+and troops for the forwarding of French interests. The constitution of
+Switzerland was improved in the interests of the First Consul and,
+incidentally, to the great advantage of the country itself.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[Pg 606]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE AND NAPOLEON</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The demoralized condition of France, and Bonaparte's
+reforms.</div>
+
+<p><b>245.</b> The activity of the extraordinary man who had placed himself at the
+head of the French republic was by no means confined to the important
+alterations of the map of Europe described in the previous chapter. He
+was indefatigable in carrying out a series of internal reforms, second
+only in importance to those of the great Revolution of 1789. The Reign
+of Terror and the incompetence of the Directory's government had left
+France in a very bad plight.<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> Bonaparte's reorganization of the
+government has already been noticed. The finances, too, were in a
+terrible condition. These the First Consul adjusted with great skill and
+quickly restored the national credit.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The adjustment of relations with the pope and the church.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Concordat of 1801.</div>
+
+<p>He then set about settling the great problem of the non-juring clergy,
+who were still suffering for refusing to sanction the Civil Constitution
+of the Clergy.<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> All imprisoned priests were now freed, on promising
+not to oppose the constitution. Their churches were given back to them,
+and the distinction between "non-juring" and "constitutional" clergymen
+was obliterated. Sunday, which had been abolished by the republican
+calendar, was once more observed, and all the revolutionary holidays
+except July 14,&mdash;the anniversary of the fall of the Bastile,&mdash;and the
+first day of the republican year, were done away with.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[Pg 607]</a></span> A formal treaty
+with the pope, the Concordat of 1801, was concluded, which revoked some
+of the provisions of the Civil Constitution, especially the election of
+the priests and bishops by the people, and recognized the pope as the
+head of the church. It is noteworthy, however, that Bonaparte did not
+restore to the church its ancient possessions, and that he reserved to
+himself the right to appoint the bishops, as the former kings had done.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The emigrant nobles permitted to return.</div>
+
+<p>As for the emigrant nobles, Bonaparte decreed that no more names should
+be added to the lists. The striking of names from the list and the
+return of confiscated lands that had not already been sold, he made
+favors to be granted by himself. Parents and relatives of emigrants were
+no longer to be regarded as incapable of holding public offices. In
+April, 1802, a general amnesty was issued, and no less than forty
+thousand families returned to France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Old habits resumed.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The grateful reliance of the nation on Bonaparte.</div>
+
+<p>There was a gradual reaction from the fantastic innovations of the Reign
+of Terror. The old titles of address, Monsieur and Madame, were again
+used instead of the revolutionary "Citizen." Streets which had been
+rebaptized with republican names resumed their former ones. Old titles
+of nobility were revived, and something very like a royal court began to
+develop at the Palace of the Tuilleries; for, except in name, Bonaparte
+was already a king, and his wife, Josephine, a queen. It had been clear
+for some years that the nation was weary of political agitation. How
+great a blessing after the anarchy of the past to put all responsibility
+upon one who showed himself capable of concluding a long war with
+unprecedented glory for France and of re&euml;stablishing order and the
+security of person and property, the necessary conditions for renewed
+prosperity! How natural that the French should welcome a despotism to
+which they had been accustomed for centuries, after suffering as they
+had under nominally republican institutions!</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>Code Napol&eacute;on</i>.</div>
+
+<p>One of the greatest and most permanent of Bonaparte's achievements still
+remains to be noted. The heterogeneous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[Pg 608]</a></span> laws of the old r&eacute;gime had been
+much modified by the legislation of the successive assemblies. All this
+needed a final revision, and Bonaparte appointed a commission to
+undertake this great task. Their draft of the new code was discussed in
+the Council of State, and the First Consul had many suggestions to make.
+The resulting codification of the civil law&mdash;the <i>Code Napol&eacute;on</i>&mdash;is
+still used to-day, not only in France, but also, with some
+modifications, in Rhenish Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Holland, Belgium,
+Italy, and even in the state of Louisiana. The criminal and commercial
+law was also codified. These codes carried with them into foreign lands
+the principles of equality upon which they were based, and thus diffused
+the benefits of the Revolution beyond the borders of France.<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon made Consul for life, 1802; and Emperor, 1804.</div>
+
+<p>Bonaparte was able gradually to modify the constitution so that his
+power became more and more absolute. In 1802 he was appointed Consul for
+life and given the right to name his successor. Even this did not
+satisfy his insatiable ambition, which demanded that his actual power
+should be clothed with all the attributes and surroundings appropriate
+to an hereditary ruler. In May, 1804, he was accordingly given the title
+of Emperor, and (in December) crowned, as the successor of Charlemagne,
+with great pomp in the cathedral of Notre Dame. He at once proceeded to
+establish a new nobility to take the place of that abolished by the
+first National Assembly in 1790.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's censorship of the press.</div>
+
+<p>From this time on he became increasingly tyrannical and hostile to
+criticism. At the very beginning of his administration he had suppressed
+a great part of the numerous political newspapers and forbidden the
+establishment of new ones. As emperor he showed himself still more
+exacting. His police furnished the news to the papers and carefully
+omitted all that might offend their suspicious master. He ordered the
+journals to "put in quarantine all news that might be disadvantageous or
+disagreeable to France." His ideal was to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_609" id="Page_609">[Pg 609]</a></span> suppress all newspapers but
+one, which should be used for official purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image84.jpg" width="400" height="497" alt="Napoleon" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Napoleon</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon on the necessity of war for France.</div>
+
+<p><b>246.</b> A great majority of the French undoubtedly longed for peace, but
+Napoleon's position made war a personal necessity for him. No one saw
+this more clearly than he. "If," he said to his Council of State in the
+summer of 1802, "the European states intend ever to renew the war, the
+sooner it comes the better. Every day the remembrance of their defeats
+grows dimmer and at the same time the prestige of our victories
+pales.... France needs glorious deeds, and hence war. She must be the
+first among the states, or she is lost. I shall put up with peace as
+long as our neighbors can maintain it, but I shall regard it as an
+advantage if they force me to take up my arms again before they are
+rusted.... In our position I shall look on each conclusion of peace as
+simply a short armistice, and I regard myself as destined during my term
+of office to fight almost without intermission."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon dreams of becoming emperor of Europe.</div>
+
+<p>On another occasion, in 1804, Napoleon said, "There will be no rest in
+Europe until it is under a single chief&mdash;an emperor who shall have kings
+for officers, who shall distribute kingdoms to his lieutenants, and
+shall make this one king of Italy, that one of Bavaria; this one ruler
+of Switzerland, that one governor of Holland, each having an office of
+honor in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610">[Pg 610]</a></span> imperial household." This was the ideal that he now found
+himself in a situation to carry out with marvelous exactness.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reasons for England's persistent opposition to Napoleon.</div>
+
+<p>There were many reasons why the peace with England (concluded at Amiens
+in March, 1802) should be speedily broken, especially as the First
+Consul was not averse to a renewal of the war. The obvious intention of
+Napoleon to bring as much of Europe under his control as he could, and
+the imposition of high duties on English goods in those territories that
+he already controlled, filled commercial and industrial England with
+apprehension. The English people longed for peace, but peace appeared
+only to offer an opportunity to the Corsican usurper to ruin England by
+a continuous war upon her commerce. This was the secret of England's
+pertinacity. All the other European powers concluded peace with Napoleon
+at some time during his reign. England alone did not lay down her arms a
+second time until the emperor of the French was a prisoner.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War between France and England renewed in 1803.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon institutes a coast blockade.</div>
+
+<p><b>247.</b> War was renewed between England and France in 1803. Bonaparte
+promptly occupied Hanover, of which it will be remembered that the
+English king was elector, and declared the coast blockaded from Hanover
+to Otranto. Holland, Spain, Portugal, and the Ligurian
+republic&mdash;formerly the republic of Genoa&mdash;were, by hook or by crook,
+induced to agree to furnish each their contingent of men or money to the
+French army and to exclude English ships from their ports.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon threatens to invade England.</div>
+
+<p>To cap the climax, England was alarmed by the appearance of a French
+army at Boulogne, just across the Channel. A great number of flatboats
+were collected, and troops trained to embark and disembark. Apparently
+Napoleon harbored the firm purpose of invading the British Isles. Yet
+the transportation of a large body of troops across the English Channel,
+trifling as is the distance, would have been very hazardous, and by many
+it was deemed downright impossible. No one knows whether Napoleon really
+expected to make the trial.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[Pg 611]</a></span> It is quite possible that his main purpose
+in collecting an army at Boulogne was to have it in readiness for the
+continental war which he saw immediately ahead of him. He succeeded, at
+any rate, in terrifying England, who prepared to defend herself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Coalition of Russia, Austria, England, and Sweden.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon king of Italy.</div>
+
+<p>The Tsar, Alexander I, had submitted a plan for the reconciliation of
+France and England in August, 1803. The rejection of this and the
+evident intention of Napoleon to include the eastern coast of the
+Adriatic in his sphere of influence, led Russia to join a new coalition
+which, by July, 1805, included Austria, Sweden, and, of course, England.
+Austria was especially affected by the increase of Napoleon's power in
+Italy. He had been crowned king of Italy in May, 1805, had created a
+little duchy in northern Italy for his sister, and had annexed the
+Ligurian republic to France. There were rumors, too, that he was
+planning to seize the Venetian territories of Austria.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The war of 1805.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Occupation of Vienna.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805.</div>
+
+<p>War was declared against Austria, August 23, and four days later the
+army at Boulogne was ordered eastward. One of the Austrian commanders
+exhibited the most startling incapacity in allowing himself to be shut
+up in Ulm, where he was forced to capitulate with all his troops
+(October 20). Napoleon then marched down the Danube with little
+opposition, and before the middle of November Vienna was in the
+possession of French troops. Napoleon thereupon led his forces north to
+meet the allied armies of Austria and Russia; these he defeated on
+December 2, in the terrible winter battle of Austerlitz. Russia then
+withdrew for a time and signed an armistice; and Austria was obliged to
+submit to a humiliating peace, the Treaty of Pressburg.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Treaty of Pressburg.</div>
+
+<p>By this treaty Austria recognized all Napoleon's changes in Italy, and
+ceded to his kingdom of Italy that portion of the Venetian territory
+that she had received at Campo-Formio. Moreover, she ceded Tyrol to
+Bavaria, which was friendly to Napoleon, and other of her possessions to
+W&uuml;rtemberg and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[Pg 612]</a></span> Baden, also friends of the French emperor. She further
+agreed to ratify the assumption, on the part of the rulers of Bavaria
+and W&uuml;rtemberg, of the titles of King. Napoleon was now in a position
+still further to reorganize western Europe, with a view to establishing
+a great international federation of which he should be the head.<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806.</div>
+
+<p><b>248.</b> Napoleon had no desire to unify Germany; he merely wished to
+maintain a certain number of independent states, or groups of states,
+which he could conveniently control. He had provided, in the Treaty of
+Pressburg, that the newly created sovereigns should enjoy the "plenitude
+of sovereignty" and all the rights derived therefrom, precisely as did
+the rulers of Austria and Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>This, by explicitly declaring several of the most important of the
+German states altogether independent of the emperor, rendered the
+further existence of the Holy Roman Empire impossible. The emperor,
+Francis II, accordingly abdicated, August 6, 1806. Thus the most
+imposing and enduring political office known to history was formally
+abolished.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Francis II assumes the title of 'Emperor of Austria.'</div>
+
+<p>Francis II did not, however, lose his title of Emperor. Shortly after
+the First Consul had received that title, Francis adopted the formula
+"Emperor of Austria," to designate him as the ruler of all the
+possessions of his house. Hitherto he had been officially known as King
+of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Galicia, and Laodomeria, Duke of
+Lorraine, Venice, Salzburg, etc., Grand Duke of Transylvania, Margrave
+of Moravia, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Confederation of the Rhine.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Napoleon had organized a union of the southern German states,
+called the Confederation of the Rhine, and had assumed its headship as
+"Protector." This he had done, he assured Europe, "in the dearest
+interests of his people and of his neighbors," adding the pious hope
+that the French armies had crossed the Rhine for the last time, and that
+the people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[Pg 613]</a></span> of Germany would witness no longer, "except in the annals of
+the past, the horrible pictures of disorder, devastation, and slaughter
+that war invariably brings with it."<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a></p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon proclaimed that the
+king of Naples, who had allied himself with the English, had ceased to
+reign, and French generals were ordered to occupy Naples. In March,
+1806, he made his brother Joseph king of Naples and Sicily, his brother
+Louis king of Holland, and his brother-in-law, Murat, duke of Cleves and
+Berg. These states and those of his German allies constituted what he
+called "the real French Empire."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prussia forced into war with France.</div>
+
+<p><b>249.</b> One of the most important of the continental states, it will have
+been noticed, had taken no part as yet in the opposition to the
+extension of Napoleon's power. Prussia, the first power to conclude
+peace with the new French republic in 1795, had since that time
+maintained a strict neutrality. Had it yielded to Tsar Alexander's
+persuasions and joined the coalition in 1805, it might have turned the
+tide at Austerlitz, or at any rate have encouraged further resistance to
+the conqueror. The hesitation of Frederick William III cost him dear,
+for Napoleon now forced him into war at a time when he could look for no
+efficient assistance from Russia or the other powers. The immediate
+cause of the declaration of war was the disposal of Hanover. This
+electorate Frederick William had consented to hold provisionally,
+pending its possible transfer to him should the English king give his
+assent. Prussia was anxious to get possession of Hanover because it lay
+just between her older possessions and the territory which she had
+gained in the redistribution of 1803.<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's insolent behavior toward Prussia.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon, as usual, did not fail either to see or to use his advantage.
+His conduct toward Prussia was most insolent. After setting her at
+enmity with England and promising that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[Pg 614]</a></span> she should have Hanover, he
+unblushingly offered to restore the electorate to George III. His
+insults now began to arouse the national spirit in Prussia, and the
+reluctant Frederick William was forced by the party in favor of war,
+which included his beautiful queen Louise, and the great statesman
+Stein, to break with Napoleon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map614.jpg">
+<img src="images/map614th.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="EUROPE AT THE HEIGHT OF NAPOLEON&#39;S POWER" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">EUROPE AT THE HEIGHT OF NAPOLEON&#39;S POWER</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decisive defeat of the Prussian army at Jena, 1806.</div>
+
+<p>Her army was, however, as has been well said, "only that of Frederick
+the Great grown twenty years older"; one of Frederick's generals, the
+aged duke of Brunswick, who had issued the famous manifesto in
+1792,<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> was its leader. A single defeat, near Jena (October 14,
+1806), put Prussia completely in the hands of her enemy. This one
+disaster produced complete demoralization throughout the country.
+Fortresses were surrendered without resistance, and the king fled to the
+uttermost parts of his realm on the Russian boundary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The campaign in Poland.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Territorial changes of the treaties of Tilsit, July, 1807.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Creation of the grand duchy of Warsaw and the kingdom of
+Westphalia.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon now led his army into Poland, where he spent the winter in
+operations against Russia and her feeble Prussian ally. He closed an
+arduous campaign by a signal victory at Friedland (June 14, 1807), which
+was followed by the treaties of Tilsit with Russia and Prussia (July 7
+and 9). Napoleon had no mercy on Prussia. Frederick William III lost all
+his possessions to the west of the Elbe and all that Prussia had gained
+in the second and third partitions of Poland. The Polish territory
+Napoleon made into a new subject kingdom called the grand duchy of
+Warsaw, and chose his friend, the king of Saxony, as its ruler. Out of
+the western lands of Prussia, which he later united with Hanover, he
+created the kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome. Russia, on the
+other hand, was treated with marked consideration. The Tsar finally
+consented to recognize all the sweeping territorial changes that
+Napoleon had made, and secretly agreed to enforce the blockade against
+England should that country refuse to make peace.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The continental blockade.</div>
+
+<p><b>250.</b> Napoleon's most persevering enemy still remained unconquered and
+inaccessible. Just as Napoleon was undertaking his successful campaign
+against Austria in 1805, Nelson had annihilated the French fleet for the
+second time in the renowned naval engagement of Trafalgar, off the coast
+of Spain. It seemed more than ever necessary, therefore, to ruin England
+commercially and industrially, since there was obviously no likelihood
+of subduing it by arms.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Berlin Decree and Napoleon's 'paper' blockade.</div>
+
+<p>In May, 1806, England had declared the coast from the Elbe to Brest to
+be blockaded. Napoleon replied to this with the Berlin Decree (November
+21, 1806), in which he proclaimed it a monstrous abuse of the right for
+England to declare great stretches of coast in a state of blockade which
+her whole fleet would be unable to enforce. He retaliated with a
+"paper"<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> blockade of the British Isles, which forbade all commerce
+with them. Letters or packages directed to England or to an Englishman
+or written in the English language were not to be permitted to pass
+through the mails in the countries he controlled. Every English subject
+in countries occupied by French troops or in the territory of Napoleon's
+allies was to be regarded as a prisoner of war and his property as a
+lawful prize. All trade in English goods was forbidden.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disastrous effects of the blockades on the commerce of the
+United States.</div>
+
+<p>A year later England established a similar paper blockade of the ports
+of the French empire and its allies, but permitted the ships of neutral
+powers to proceed, provided that they touched at an English port,
+secured a license from the English government, and paid a heavy export
+duty. Napoleon promptly declared all ships that submitted to these
+humiliating regulations to be lawful prizes of French privateers. The
+ships of the United States were at this time the most numerous and
+important of the neutral carriers. The disastrous results of these
+restrictions led to the various embargo acts (the first of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[Pg 616]</a></span> which was
+passed by Congress in December, 1807), and ultimately to the destruction
+of the flourishing carrying trade of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's attempt to make the continent independent of
+English colonial products.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon tried to render Europe permanently independent of the colonial
+productions brought from English colonies and by English ships. He
+encouraged the substitution of chicory for coffee, the cultivation of
+the sugar beet, and the discovery of new dyes to replace those coming
+from the tropics. But the distress caused by the disturbance in trade
+produced great discontent, especially in Russia; it rendered the
+domination of Napoleon more and more distasteful, and finally
+contributed to his downfall.<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's policy in France.</div>
+
+<p><b>251.</b> France owed much to Napoleon, for he had restored order and
+guaranteed many of the beneficent achievements of the Revolution of
+1789. His boundless ambition was, it is true, sapping her strength by
+forcing younger and younger men into his armies in order to build up the
+vast international federation of which he dreamed. But his victories and
+the commanding position to which he had raised France could not but fill
+the nation with pride.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Public works.</div>
+
+<p>He sought to gain popular approval by great public improvements. He
+built marvelous roads across the Alps and along the Rhine, which still
+fill the traveler with admiration. He beautified Paris by opening up
+wide streets and quays, and building magnificent bridges and triumphal
+arches that kept fresh in the people's mind the recollection of his
+victories. By these means he gradually converted a medi&aelig;val town into
+the most beautiful of modern capitals.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reorganization of education.</div>
+
+<p>The whole educational system was reorganized and made as highly
+centralized and as subservient to the aims of the emperor as any
+department of government. Napoleon argued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617">[Pg 617]</a></span> that one of the chief aims of
+education should be the formation of loyal subjects who would be
+faithful to the emperor and his successors. An imperial catechism was
+prepared, which not only inculcated loyalty to Napoleon, but actually
+threatened with eternal perdition those who should fail in their
+obligations to him, including military service.<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The new nobility and the Legion of Honor.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon created a new nobility, and he endeavored to assure the support
+of distinguished individuals by making them members of the Legion of
+Honor which he founded. The "Princes" whom he nominated received an
+annual income of two hundred thousand francs. The ministers of state,
+senators, members of his Council of State, and the archbishops received
+the title of Count and a revenue of thirty thousand francs, and so on.
+The army was not forgotten, for Napoleon felt that to be his chief
+support. The incomes of his marshals were enormous, and brave actions
+among the soldiers were rewarded with the decoration of the Legion of
+Honor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's despotism in France.</div>
+
+<p>As time went on Napoleon's despotism grew more and more oppressive. No
+less than thirty-five hundred prisoners of state were arrested at his
+command, one because he hated Napoleon, another because in his letters
+he expressed sentiments adverse to the government, and so on. No
+grievance was too petty to attract the attention of the emperor's
+jealous eye. He ordered the title of a <i>History of Bonaparte</i> to be
+changed to the <i>History of the Campaigns of Napoleon the Great</i>.<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> He
+forbade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span> the performance of certain of Schiller's and Goethe's plays in
+German towns, as tending to arouse the patriotic discontent of the
+people with his rule.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's European power threatened by the growth of
+national opposition to him.</div>
+
+<p><b>252.</b> Up to this time Napoleon had had only the opposition of the several
+European courts to overcome in the extension of his power. The people of
+the various states which he had conquered showed an extraordinary
+indifference toward the political changes. It was clear, however, that
+as soon as the national spirit was once awakened, the highly artificial
+system created by the French emperor would collapse. His first serious
+reverse came from the people and from an unexpected quarter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon makes his brother Joseph king of Spain.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon decided, after Tilsit, that the Spanish peninsula must be
+brought more completely under his control. Portugal was too friendly to
+the English, and Spain, owing to serious dissensions in the royal
+family, seemed an easy prey. In the spring of 1808 Napoleon induced both
+the king and the crown prince of Spain to meet him at Bayonne. Here he
+was able to persuade or force both of them to surrender their rights to
+the throne; on June 6 he appointed his brother Joseph king of Spain,
+making Murat king of Naples in his stead.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolt in Spain against the foreign ruler.</div>
+
+<p>Joseph entered Madrid in July, armed with excellent intentions and a new
+constitution. The general rebellion in favor of the crown prince which
+immediately broke out had an element of religious enthusiasm in it, for
+the monks stirred up the people against Napoleon, on the ground that he
+was oppressing the pope and depriving him of his dominions. One French
+army was captured at Baylen, and another capitulated to the English
+forces which had landed in Portugal. Before the end of July Joseph and
+the French troops had been compelled to retreat behind the Ebro River.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Spain subdued by arms.</div>
+
+<p>In November the French emperor himself led a magnificent army into
+Spain, two hundred thousand strong, in the best of condition and
+commanded by his ablest marshals. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[Pg 619]</a></span> Spanish troops, perhaps one
+hundred thousand in number, were ill clad and inadequately equipped;
+what was worse, they were over-confident in view of their late victory.
+They were, of course, defeated, and Madrid surrendered December 4.
+Napoleon immediately abolished the Inquisition, the feudal dues, the
+internal customs lines, and two thirds of the cloisters. This is typical
+of the way in which the French Revolution went forth in arms to spread
+its principles throughout western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The next month Napoleon was back in Paris, as he saw that he had another
+war with Austria on his hands. He left Joseph on his insecure throne,
+after assuring the Spanish that God had given the French emperor the
+power and the will to overcome all obstacles.<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> He was soon to
+discover, however, that these very Spaniards could maintain a guerilla
+warfare against which his best troops and most distinguished generals
+were powerless. His ultimate downfall was in no small measure due to the
+persistent hostility of the Spanish people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with Austria, 1809.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Wagram.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extension of the boundaries of France.</div>
+
+<p>In April, 1809, Austria ventured to declare war once more on the "enemy
+of Europe," but this time she found no one to aid her. The great battle
+of Wagram, near Vienna (July 5&ndash;6), was not perhaps so unconditional a
+victory for the French as that of Austerlitz, but it forced Austria into
+just as humiliating a peace as that of Pressburg. Austria's object had
+been to destroy Napoleon's system of dependencies and "to restore to
+their rightful possessors all those lands belonging to them respectively
+before the Napoleonic usurpations." Instead of accomplishing this end,
+Austria was obliged to cede more territory to Napoleon and his allies,
+and he went on adding to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[Pg 620]</a></span> dependencies. After incorporating into
+France the kingdom of Etruria and the papal dominions (1808&ndash;1809),
+Napoleon was encouraged by his victory over Austria to annex
+Holland<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> and the German districts to the north, including the
+Hanseatic towns. Consequently, in 1810 France stretched from the
+confines of Naples to the Baltic. One might travel from L&uuml;beck to Rome
+without leaving Napoleon's realms.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon was anxious to have an heir to whom he could transmit his vast
+dominions. As Josephine bore him no children, he decided to divorce her,
+and after considering a Russian princess, he married the Archduchess
+Maria Louisa, the daughter of the Austrian emperor and a grandniece of
+Marie Antoinette. In this way the former Corsican adventurer gained
+admission to one of the oldest and proudest of reigning families, the
+Hapsburgs. His new wife soon bore him a son, who was styled King of
+Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relations between Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia.</div>
+
+<p><b>253.</b> Among the continental states Russia alone was entirely out of
+Napoleon's control. There were plenty of causes for misunderstanding
+between the ardent young Tsar Alexander I and Napoleon. Up to this time
+the agreement of Tilsit had been maintained. Napoleon was, however,
+secretly opposing Alexander's plans for adding the Danubian provinces
+and Finland to his possessions. Then the possibility of Napoleon's
+re&euml;stablishing Poland as a national kingdom which might threaten
+Russia's interests, was a constant source of apprehension to Alexander.
+By 1812 Napoleon believed himself to be in a condition to subdue this
+doubtful friend, who might at any moment become a dangerous enemy.
+Against the advice of his more far-sighted counselors, the emperor
+collected on the Russian frontier a vast army of four hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[Pg 621]</a></span> thousand
+men, composed to a great extent of young conscripts and the contingents
+furnished by his allies.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon's campaign in Russia, 1812.</div>
+
+<p>The story of the fearful Russian campaign which followed cannot be told
+here in detail. Napoleon had planned to take three years to conquer
+Russia, but he was forced on by the necessity of gaining at least one
+signal victory before he closed the season's campaign. The Russians
+simply retreated and led him far within a hostile and devastated country
+before they offered battle at Borodino (September 7). Napoleon won the
+battle, but his army was reduced to something over one hundred thousand
+men when he entered Moscow a week later. The town had been set on fire
+by the Russians before his arrival; he found his position untenable, and
+had to retreat as winter came on. The cold, the want of food, and the
+harassing attacks of the people along the route made that retreat the
+most signal military tragedy on record. Napoleon regained Poland early
+in December with scarcely twenty thousand of the four hundred thousand
+with which he had started less than six months before.<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon collects a new army.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon hastened back to Paris, where he freely misrepresented the true
+state of affairs, even declaring that the army was in a good condition
+up to the time that he turned it over to Murat in December. While the
+loss of men in the Russian campaign was enormous, just those few had
+naturally survived who would be most essential in the formation of a new
+army, namely, the officers. With their help, Napoleon soon had a force
+of no less than six hundred thousand men with which to return to the
+attack. This contained one hundred and fifty thousand conscripts who
+should not have been called into service until 1814, besides older men
+who had been hitherto exempted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Social conditions in Prussia before 1806.</div>
+
+
+<p><b>254.</b> By the end of February, 1813, the timid Frederick William had been
+induced by public sentiment in Prussia to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[Pg 622]</a></span> break with his oppressor and
+join Russia. On March 17, he issued a famous address "To my People," in
+which he called upon them to assist him in the recovery of Prussian
+independence. Up to the defeat of Jena, Prussia was far more backward in
+its social organization than France had been before 1789. The
+agricultural classes were serfs, who were bound to the land and
+compelled to work a certain part of each week for the lord without
+remuneration.<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> The population was divided into strict social castes.
+Moreover, no noble could buy citizen or peasant land; no citizen, noble
+or peasant land; no peasant, noble or citizen land.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reform of the social system in Prussia.</div>
+
+<p>The disaster of Jena and the losses at Tilsit convinced the
+clearer-sighted statesmen of Prussia, especially Stein, that the
+country's only hope of recovery was a complete social and political
+revolution, not unlike that which had taken place in France. They saw
+that the feudal system must be abolished, the peasants freed, and the
+restrictions which hedged about the different classes done away with,
+before it would be possible to arouse public spirit to a point where a
+great popular uprising might expel the intruder forever.</p>
+
+<p>The first great step toward this general reform was the royal decree of
+October 9, 1807,<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> intended to "remove every obstacle that has
+hitherto prevented the individual from attaining such a degree of
+prosperity as he was capable of reaching." Serfdom was abolished and the
+restrictions on landholding removed, so that any one, regardless of
+class, was at liberty to purchase and hold landed property of every
+kind. In some cases the principles of the French Revolution had been
+introduced by Napoleon or the rulers that he set up. In this case it was
+the necessity of preparing the country to throw off his yoke and regain
+its independence that led to the same result.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Napoleon defeated by the allied Russians, Prussians, and
+Austrians, October, 1813.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Leipsic, October 16&ndash;19, 1813.</div>
+
+<p><b>255.</b> Napoleon had therefore to face now, not only the cabinets of Europe
+and the regular armies that they directed, but a people who were being
+organized to defend their country. His soldiers were, however, still
+triumphant for a time. He met with no successful opposition, and on May
+14, 1813, he occupied Dresden in the territory of his faithful ally, the
+king of Saxony. This he held during the summer, and inflicted several
+defeats upon the allies, who had been joined by Austria in August. He
+gained his last great victory, the battle of Dresden, August 26&ndash;27.
+Finding that the allied armies of the Russians, Prussians, and
+Austrians, which had at last learned the necessity of co&ouml;perating
+against their powerful common enemy, were preparing to cut him off from
+France, he retreated early in October and was totally defeated in the
+tremendous "Battle of the Nations," as the Germans love to call it, in
+the environs of Leipsic (October 16&ndash;19).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Germany, Holland, and Spain throw off the Napoleonic yoke.</div>
+
+<p>As the defeated emperor crossed the Rhine with the remnants of his army,
+the whole fabric of his political edifice in Germany and Holland
+collapsed. The members of the Confederation of the Rhine joined the
+allies. Jerome Bonaparte fled from his kingdom of Westphalia, and the
+Dutch drove the French officials from Holland. During the year 1813 the
+Spanish, with the aid of the English under Wellington, had practically
+cleared their country of the French intruders.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Occupation of Paris by the allies, March 31, 1814.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon abdicates and is banished to the island of Elba.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of these disasters, Napoleon refused the propositions of peace
+made on condition that he would content himself henceforth with his
+dominion over France. The allies consequently marched into France, and
+the almost superhuman activity of the hard-pressed emperor could not
+prevent their occupation of Paris (March 31, 1814). Napoleon was forced
+to abdicate, and the allies, in seeming derision, granted him full
+sovereignty over the tiny island of Elba and permitted him to retain his
+imperial title. In reality he was a prisoner on his island kingdom, and
+the Bourbons reigned again in France.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[Pg 624]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Return of Napoleon.</div>
+
+<p>Within a year, encouraged by the dissensions of the allies and the
+unpopularity of the Bourbons, he made his escape, landed in France
+(March 1, 1815), and was received with enthusiasm by a portion of the
+army. Yet France as a whole was indifferent, if not hostile, to his
+attempt to re&euml;stablish his power. Certainly no one could place
+confidence in his talk of peace and liberty. Moreover, whatever
+disagreement there might be among the allies on other matters, there was
+perfect unanimity in their attitude toward "the enemy and destroyer of
+the world's peace." They solemnly proclaimed him an outlaw, and devoted
+him to public vengeance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Waterloo, June, 1815.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Exile to Saint Helena.</div>
+
+<p>Upon learning that English troops under Wellington and a Prussian army
+under Bl&uuml;cher had arrived in the Netherlands, Napoleon decided to attack
+them with such troops as he could collect. In the first engagements he
+defeated and drove back the Prussians. Wellington then took his station
+south of Brussels, at Waterloo. Napoleon advanced against him (June 18,
+1815) and might have defeated the English had they not been opportunely
+re&euml;nforced by Bl&uuml;cher's Prussians, who had recovered themselves. As it
+was, Napoleon lost the most memorable of modern battles. Yet, even if he
+had not been defeated at Waterloo, he could not long have opposed the
+vast armies which were being concentrated to overthrow him. This time he
+was banished to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he could only
+brood over the past and prepare his <i>Memoirs</i>, in which he carefully
+strove to justify his career of ambition.<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;Of the many lives of Napoleon the best and most
+recent are the following: <span class="smcap">Fournier</span>, <i>Life of Napoleon</i> (a
+translation of this work from the original German, edited by E.G.
+Bourne, is announced by Holt &amp; Co.); <span class="smcap">Rose</span>, <i>Life of Napoleon the
+First</i> (The Macmillan Company, 2 vols., $4.00). The fullest
+biography of Napoleon is that of <span class="smcap">Sloane</span>, <i>Life of Napoleon
+Bonaparte</i> (The Century Co., 4 vols., $18). An excellent sketch of
+the military history may be found in <span class="smcap">Ropes</span>, <i>The First Napoleon</i>
+(Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., $2.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[Pg 625]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXXIX</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Problem of the reconstruction of Europe after Napoleon's
+fall.</div>
+
+<p><b>256.</b> There is no more important chapter in the political history of
+Europe than the reconstruction of the map after Napoleon's abdication.
+The allies immediately reinstated the Bourbon dynasty on the throne of
+France in the person of Louis XVI's younger brother, the count of
+Provence, who became Louis XVIII.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> They first restricted France to
+the boundaries that she had had at the beginning of 1792, but later
+deprived her of Savoy as a punishment for yielding to the domination of
+Napoleon after his return from Elbe. A great congress of the European
+powers was summoned to meet at Vienna, where the allies proposed to
+settle all those difficult problems that faced them. They had no idea of
+re&euml;stablishing things just as they were before the Napoleonic cataclysm,
+for the simple reason that Austria, Russia, and Prussia all had schemes
+for their own advantage that precluded so simple an arrangement.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Provisions of the Congress of Vienna in regard to the
+Netherlands, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.</div>
+
+<p>The Congress of Vienna began its sessions November 1, 1814. The allies
+quickly agreed that Holland should become an hereditary kingdom under
+the house of Orange, which had long played so conspicuous a r&ocirc;le in the
+nominal republic. In order that Holland might be the better able to
+check any new encroachments on the part of France, the former Austrian
+Netherlands were given to her. Switzerland was declared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626">[Pg 626]</a></span> independent, as
+were all the small Italian states which had existed prior to the
+innovations of Napoleon, except the ancient republics of Venice and
+Genoa, neither of which was restored. Genoa was given to the king of
+Sardinia; Venetia to Austria, as an indemnity for her losses in the
+Netherlands. Austria also received back her former territory of Milan,
+and became, by reason of her control of northern Italy, a powerful
+factor in determining the policy of the whole Italian peninsula. As to
+Germany, no one desired to undo the great work of 1803 and restore the
+old anarchy. The former members of the Rhine Confederation were bent
+upon maintaining the "sovereignty" which Napoleon had secured for them;
+consequently the allies determined that the several states of Germany
+should be independent, but "united in a federal union."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map626.jpg">
+<img src="images/map626th.jpg" width="600" height="426" alt="EUROPE IN 1815" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">EUROPE IN 1815</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dispute over disposal of the Polish territory and the fate of
+the kingdom of Saxony.</div>
+
+<p>So far all was tolerably harmonious. Nevertheless, serious differences
+of opinion developed at the congress, which nearly brought on war among
+the allies themselves, and encouraged Napoleon's return from Elba. These
+concerned the disposition of the Polish territory that Napoleon had
+converted into the grand duchy of Warsaw. Prussia and Russia were agreed
+that the best way would be to let the Tsar make a separate state of this
+territory, and unite it in a personal union with his Russian realms.
+Prussia was then to be indemnified for her losses in the East by
+annexing the lands of the king of Saxony, who, it was argued, merited
+this retribution for remaining faithful to Napoleon after the other
+members of the Confederation of the Rhine had repudiated him.</p>
+
+<p>Austria and England, on the other hand, were bitterly opposed to this
+arrangement. They approved neither of dispossessing the king of Saxony
+nor of extending the Tsar's influence westward by giving him Poland. The
+great diplomatist, Talleyrand, who represented Louis XVIII at the
+congress, now saw his chance. The allies had resolved to treat France as
+a black sheep, and permit the other four great powers to arrange<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">[Pg 627]</a></span>
+matters to suit themselves. But they were now hopelessly at odds, and
+Austria and England found France a welcome ally in their opposition to
+the northern powers. So in this way the disturber of the peace of Europe
+for the last quarter of a century was received back into the family of
+nations.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The compromise.</div>
+
+<p>A compromise was at last reached. The Tsar was allowed to create a
+kingdom of Poland out of the grand duchy of Warsaw, but only half of the
+possessions of the king of Saxony were ceded to Prussia. As a further
+indemnity, Frederick William III was given certain districts on the left
+bank of the Rhine which had belonged to ecclesiastical and petty lay
+princes before the Treaty of Lun&eacute;ville. The great importance of this
+arrangement we shall see later when we come to trace the development of
+the present German empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Changes in the map of Europe since 1815.</div>
+
+<p>If one compares the map of Europe in 1815 with that of the present
+day,<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> he will be struck with the following differences. In 1815
+there was no German empire, and Prussia was a much smaller and less
+compact state than now. It has evidently grown at the expense of its
+neighbors, as several of the lesser German states of 1815,&mdash;Hanover,
+Nassau, and Hesse-Cassel,&mdash;no longer appear on the map, and Schleswig
+Holstein, which then belonged to Denmark, is now Prussian. It will be
+noted that the present German empire does not include any part of the
+Austrian countries, as did the Confederation of 1815, and that, on the
+other hand, it does include all of Prussia. The kingdom of Poland has
+become an integral part of the Russian dominions. Austria, excluded from
+the German union, has entered into a dual union with Hungary, in which
+the two countries are placed upon the same footing.</p>
+
+<p>There was no kingdom of Italy in 1815. Now Austria has lost all hold on
+Lombardy and Venetia, and all the little states re&euml;stablished by the
+Congress of Vienna, including the Papal States, have disappeared. A new
+kingdom, Belgium, has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[Pg 628]</a></span> created out of the old Austrian Netherlands
+which the congress gave to the king of Holland. France, now a republic
+again, has recovered Savoy, but has lost all her possessions on the
+Rhine by the cession of Alsace and Lorraine to the German empire.
+Lastly, Turkey in Europe has nearly disappeared, and several new states,
+Greece, Servia, Roumania, and Bulgaria, have appeared in southeastern
+Europe. It is the purpose of the following chapters to show how the
+great changes indicated on the map took place and explain the
+accompanying internal changes, in so far as they represent the general
+trend of modern development or have an importance for Europe at large.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of Napoleon in spreading the reforms achieved by
+the Revolution.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reactionary policy in the smaller states of Europe.</div>
+
+<p><b>257.</b> Napoleon had been as thoroughly despotic in his government as any
+of the monarchs who regained their thrones after his downfall, but he
+was a son of the Revolution and had no sympathy with the ancient abuses
+that it had done away with. In spite of his despotism the people of the
+countries that had come under his influence had learned the great
+lessons of the French Revolution. Nevertheless, the restored monarchs in
+many of the smaller European states proceeded to re&euml;stablish the ancient
+feudal abuses and to treat their subjects as if there had been no French
+Revolution and no such man as Napoleon. In Spain, for example, the
+Inquisition and the monasteries were restored and the clergy exempted
+anew from taxation. In Hesse-Cassel, which had formed a part of the
+kingdom of Westphalia, all the reforms introduced by Napoleon and his
+brother were abolished. The privileges of the nobility, and also the
+feudal burdens of the peasantry, were restored. The soldiers were even
+required to assume the discarded pigtails and powdered wigs of the
+eighteenth century. In Sardinia and Naples the returning monarchs
+pursued the same policy of reaction. The reaction was not so sudden and
+obvious in the greater European states,&mdash;France, Prussia, Austria, and
+Russia.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629">[Pg 629]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The restoration of the Bourbons in France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of Louis XVIII, 1814&ndash;1824.</div>
+
+<p><b>258.</b> The French had aroused themselves in 1793&ndash;1794 to repel the foreign
+powers, Austria and Prussia, who threatened to intervene in the domestic
+concerns of the country, and to re&euml;stablish the old r&eacute;gime. Twenty years
+later, in 1814, when the allies entered Paris, there was no danger
+either of a popular uprising, or of the re&euml;stablishment of the old
+abuses. It is true that the Bourbon line of kings was restored; but
+France had always been monarchical at heart. It was only the ill-advised
+conduct of Louis XVI in the peculiar circumstances of 1791&ndash;1792 that had
+led to his deposition and the establishment of a republic, which
+Napoleon had easily converted into a monarchy. The new king, Louis
+XVIII, left the wonderful administrative system of Napoleon intact and
+made no effort to destroy the great achievements of the Revolution. He
+granted the nation a constitution called the "Charter," which is a most
+interesting document from two standpoints.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Charter of 1814.</div>
+
+<p>In the first place, the provisions of the Charter of 1814 furnish us
+with a statement of the permanent results of the Revolution. The
+concessions that Louis XVIII found it expedient to make, "in view of the
+expectations of enlightened Europe," help us to measure the distance
+that separates his time from that of his elder brother. In the second
+place, no other constitution has yet lasted the French so long as did
+the Charter.<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> Although somewhat modified in 1830, it was maintained
+down to 1848.</p>
+
+<p>All Frenchmen are declared by the Charter to be equal before the law,
+and equally eligible to civil and military positions. Personal and
+religious liberty is insured, and all citizens, without distinction of
+rank, are required to contribute to the taxes in proportion to their
+means. In short, almost all the great reforms proclaimed by the first
+Declaration of the Rights of Man are guaranteed. The laws are to be made
+by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">[Pg 630]</a></span> the king in co&ouml;peration with a House of Peers and a popular body,
+the Chamber of Deputies; the latter may impeach the king's ministers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of the reactionary party in France.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of these enlightened provisions attempts were made by the old
+emigrant nobles&mdash;still led by their original leader, the king's brother,
+the count of Artois&mdash;and by the clergy, to further a reaction in France.
+This party induced the French <i>parlement</i> to pass certain oppressive
+measures, and, as we shall see, persuaded Louis XVIII to co&ouml;perate with
+the other reactionary rulers in interfering to quell the revolutionary
+movements in Italy and Spain.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">The Last Bourbon Kings</span><br />
+<br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 775px;">
+<img src="images/image648.png" width="775" height="414" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charles X deposed in 1830 and replaced by Louis Philippe.</div>
+
+<p>In 1824 Louis XVIII died and was succeeded by the count of Artois, who
+took the title of Charles X. Under his rule the reactionary policy of
+the government naturally became more pronounced. A bill was passed
+indemnifying the nobility for the property they had lost during the
+Revolution. Other less just measures led to the dethronement of the
+unpopular king in 1830, by a revolution. Louis Philippe, the descendant
+of Henry IV through the younger, or Orleans, branch of the Bourbon
+family, was put upon the throne.<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[Pg 631]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Three chief results of Napoleon's influence in Germany.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disappearance of most of the little states.</div>
+
+<p><b>259.</b> The chief effects of the Napoleonic occupation of Germany were
+three in number. First, the consolidation of territory that followed the
+cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France had, as has been
+explained, done away with the anomalous ecclesiastical states, the
+territories of knights, and most of the free towns. Only thirty-eight
+German states, including four towns, were left when the Congress of
+Vienna took up the question of forming a confederation to replace the
+defunct Holy Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Advantageous position of Prussia.</div>
+
+<p>Second, the external and internal conditions of Prussia had been so
+changed as to open the way for it to replace Austria as the controlling
+power in Germany. A great part of the Slavic possessions gained in the
+last two partitions of Poland had been lost, but as an indemnity Prussia
+had received half of the kingdom of Saxony, in the very center of
+Germany, and also the Rhine provinces, where the people were thoroughly
+imbued with the revolutionary doctrines that had prevailed in France.
+Prussia now embraced all the various types of people included in the
+German nation and was comparatively free from the presence of non-German
+races. In this respect it offered a marked contrast to the heterogeneous
+and mongrel population of its great rival Austria.</p>
+
+<p>The internal changes were no less remarkable. The reforms carried out
+after Jena by the distinguished minister Stein and his successor,
+Hardenberg, had done for Prussia somewhat the same that the first
+National Assembly had done for France. The abolition of the feudal
+social castes, and the liberation of the serfs made the economic
+development of the country possible. The reorganization of the whole
+military system prepared the way for Prussia's great victories in 1866
+and 1870, which led to the formation of a new German empire under her
+headship.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demand for constitutional government.</div>
+
+<p>Third, the agitations of the Napoleonic period had aroused the national
+spirit. The appeal to the people to aid in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[Pg 632]</a></span> freeing of their country
+from foreign oppression, and the idea of their participation in a
+government based upon a written constitution, had produced widespread
+discontent with the old absolute monarchy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The German Confederation of 1815.</div>
+
+<p>When the form of union for the German states came up for discussion at
+the Congress of Vienna, two different plans were advocated. Prussia's
+representatives submitted a scheme for a firm union like that of the
+United States, in which the central government should control the
+individual states in all matters of general interest. This idea was
+successfully opposed by Austria, supported by the other German rulers.
+Austria realized that her possessions, as a whole, could never be
+included in any real German union, for even in the western portion of
+her territory there were many Slavs, while in Hungary and the southern
+provinces there were practically no Germans at all. On the other hand,
+she felt that she might be the leader in a very loose union in which all
+the members should be left practically independent. Her ideal of an
+international union of sovereign princes under her own headship was
+almost completely realized in the constitution adopted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of the German constitution.</div>
+
+<p>The confederation was not a union of the various <i>countries</i> involved,
+but of "The Sovereign Princes and Free Towns of Germany," including the
+emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia for such of their possessions
+as were formerly included in the German empire; the king of Denmark for
+Holstein; and the king of the Netherlands for the grand duchy of
+Luxembourg. The union thus included two sovereigns who were out-and-out
+foreigners, and did not include all the possessions of its two most
+important members.<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a></p>
+
+<p>The diet which met at Frankfort was composed (as was perfectly logical),
+not of representatives of the people, but of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633">[Pg 633]</a></span> plenipotentiaries of the
+rulers who were members of the confederation. The members reserved to
+themselves the right of forming alliances of all kinds, but pledged
+themselves to make no agreement prejudicial to the safety of the union
+or of any of its members, or to make war upon any member of the
+confederation on any pretense whatsoever. The constitution could not be
+amended without the approval of <i>all</i> the governments concerned. In
+spite of its obvious weaknesses, the confederation of 1815 lasted for a
+half a century, until Prussia finally expelled Austria from the union by
+arms, and began the formation of the present German federation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Political associations of German students.</div>
+
+<p><b>260.</b> The liberal and progressive party in Germany was sadly disappointed
+by the failure of the Congress of Vienna to weld Germany into a really
+national state. They were troubled, too, by the delay of the king of
+Prussia in granting the constitution that he had promised to his
+subjects. Other indications were not wanting that the German princes
+might not yet be ready to give up their former despotic power and adopt
+the principles of the French Revolution advocated by the liberals. A
+"League of Virtue" had been formed after the disastrous battle of Jena
+to arouse and keep alive the zeal of the nation for expelling the
+invader. This began to be re&euml;nforced, about 1815, by student
+associations organized by those who had returned to their studies from
+the war of independence. The students anathematized the reactionary
+party in their meetings, and drank to the freedom of Germany. October
+18, 1817, they held a celebration in the Wartburg to commemorate both
+Luther's revolt and the anniversary of the battle of Leipsic. Speeches
+were made in honor of the brave who had fallen in the war of
+independence, and of the grand duke of Weimar, who was the first of the
+North German princes to give his people a constitution. The day closed
+with the burning of certain reactionary pamphlets.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[Pg 634]</a></span></p><p>This innocent burst of enthusiasm excited great apprehension in the
+minds of the conservative statesmen of Europe, the leader among whom was
+the Austrian minister, Metternich. The murder by a fanatical student of
+a journalist, who was supposed to have influenced the Tsar to desert his
+former liberal policy, cast discredit upon the liberal party. It also
+gave Metternich an opportunity to emphasize the terrible results which
+he anticipated would come from the students' associations, liberal
+governments, and the freedom of the press.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image85.jpg" width="400" height="490" alt="Metternich" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Metternich</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The 'Carlsbad Resolutions,' 1819.</div>
+
+<p>The extreme phase in the progress of reaction in Germany was reached
+when, with this murder as an excuse, Metternich called together the
+representatives of the larger states of the confederation at Carlsbad in
+August, 1819. Here a series of resolutions were drawn up with the aim of
+checking the free expression of opinions hostile to existing
+institutions, and of discovering and bringing to justice the
+revolutionists who were supposed to exist in dangerous numbers. These
+"Carlsbad Resolutions" were laid before the diet by Austria and adopted,
+though not without protest.</p>
+
+<p>They provided that there should be a special official in each university
+to watch the professors. Should any of them be found "abusing their
+legitimate influence over the youthful mind and propagating harmful
+doctrines hostile to the public order or subversive of the existing
+governmental institutions," the offenders were to lose their positions.
+The general students' union, which was suspected of being too
+revolutionary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[Pg 635]</a></span> was to be suppressed. Moreover, no newspaper, magazine,
+or pamphlet was to go to press without the previous approval of
+government officials, who were to determine whether it contained
+anything tending to foster discontent with the government. Lastly, a
+special commission was appointed to investigate the revolutionary
+conspiracies which Metternich and his sympathizers supposed to exist
+throughout Germany.<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a></p>
+
+<p>The attack upon the freedom of the press, and especially the
+interference with the liberty of teaching in the great institutions of
+learning, which were already becoming the home of the highest
+scholarship in the world, scandalized all the progressive spirits in
+Germany. Yet no successful protest was raised, and Germany as a whole,
+acquiesced for a generation in Metternich's system of discouraging
+reform of all kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The southern German states receive constitutions, 1818&ndash;1820.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Formation of a customs union&mdash;<i>zollverein</i>&mdash;with Prussia at
+its head.</div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, important progress was made in southern Germany. As early
+as 1818 the king of Bavaria granted his people a constitution in which
+he stated their rights and admitted them to a share in the government by
+establishing a parliament. His example was followed within two years by
+the rulers of Baden, W&uuml;rtemberg, and Hesse. Another change for the
+better was the gradual formation of a customs union, which permitted
+goods to be sent freely from one German state to another without the
+payment of duties at each boundary line. This yielded some of the
+advantages of a political union. This economic union, of which Prussia
+was the head, and from which Austria was excluded, was a harbinger of
+the future German empire.<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Metternich opposes revolutionary movements in Spain and
+Italy.</div>
+
+<p><b>261.</b> Metternich had met with signal success in his efforts to keep
+Germany at a standstill. When, in 1820, the kings of Spain and Naples
+were compelled by popular uprisings to accept constitutions, and so
+surrender their ancient right to rule their subjects despotically, it
+was but natural that Metternich<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[Pg 636]</a></span> should urge the European powers to
+unite for the purpose of suppressing such manifestations. He urged that
+revolts of this kind set a dangerous example and threatened the
+tranquillity and security of all the other absolute monarchs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Italy only 'a geographical expression' in 1820.</div>
+
+<p>Italy was at this time what Metternich called only "a geographical
+expression"; it had no political unity whatever. Lombardy and Venetia,
+in the northern part, were in the hands of Austria, and Parma, Modena,
+and Tuscany belonged to members of the Austrian family. In the south,
+the considerable kingdom of the Two Sicilies was ruled over by a branch
+of the Spanish Bourbons. In the center, cutting the peninsula in twain,
+were the Papal States, which extended north to the Po. The presence of
+Austria, and the apparent impossibility of inducing the pope to submit
+to any government but his own, seemed to preclude all hope of making
+Italy into a true nation. Yet fifty years later the kingdom of Italy, as
+it now appears on the map of Europe, came into existence through the
+final exclusion of Austria from the peninsula and the extinction of the
+political power of the pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reforms introduced in Italy during the Napoleonic
+occupation.</div>
+
+<p>Although Napoleon had governed Italy despotically he had introduced a
+great many important reforms. He had established political equality and
+an orderly administration, and had forwarded public improvements; the
+vestiges of the feudal r&eacute;gime had vanished at his approach. Moreover, he
+had held out the hope of a united Italy, from which the foreign powers
+who had plagued and distracted her for centuries should be banished. But
+his unscrupulous use of Italy to advance his personal ambitions
+disappointed those who at first had placed their hopes in him, and they
+came to look for his downfall as eagerly as did the nobility and the
+dispossessed clergy, whose hopes were centered in Austria. It became
+clear to the more thoughtful Italians that Italy must look to herself
+and her own resources if she were ever to become an independent European
+state.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637">[Pg 637]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Reaction in Italy after Napoleon's downfall.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The <i>Carbonari</i>.</div>
+
+<p>The downfall of Napoleon left Italy seemingly in a worse state than that
+in which he had found it. The hold of Austria was strengthened by her
+acquisition of Venice. The petty despots of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany,
+reseated on their thrones by the Congress of Vienna, hastened to sweep
+away the reforms of the Corsican and to re&euml;stablish all the abuses of
+the old r&eacute;gime, now doubly conspicuous and obnoxious by reason of their
+temporary abolition. The lesser Italian princes, moreover, showed
+themselves to be heartily in sympathy with the hated Austria. Popular
+discontent spread throughout the peninsula and led to the formation of
+numerous secret societies, which assumed strange names, practiced
+mysterious rites, and plotted darkly in the name of Italian liberty and
+independence. By far the most noted of these associations was that of
+the <i>Carbonari</i>, i.e., charcoal burners. Its objects were individual
+liberty, constitutional government, and national independence and unity;
+these it undertook to promote by agitation, conspiracy, and, if
+necessary, by revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Temporary constitutions in Spain and Naples, 1820.</div>
+
+<p>The Italian agitators had a superstitious respect for a constitution;
+they appear to have regarded it not so much as a form of government to
+be carefully adapted to the needs of a particular country and time, as a
+species of talisman which would insure liberty and prosperity to its
+happy possessor. So when the Neapolitans heard that the king of Spain
+had been forced by an insurrection to grant a constitution, they made
+the first attempt on the part of the Italian people to gain
+constitutional liberty by compelling their king to agree to accept the
+Spanish constitution (July, 1820). However, at the same time that he was
+invoking the vengeance of God upon his own head should he violate his
+oath of fidelity to the constitution, he was casting about for foreign
+assistance to suppress the revolution and enable him to return to his
+old ways.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Austria intervenes in Italy (1821), in support of
+absolutism.</div>
+
+<p><b>262.</b> He had not long to wait. The alert Metternich invited Russia,
+Prussia, France, and England to unite in order<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">[Pg 638]</a></span> to check the development
+of "revolt and crime." He declared that the liberal movements, if
+unrestrained, would prove "not less tyrannical and fearful" in their
+results than that against which the allies had combined in the person of
+Napoleon. "Revolution" appeared to him and his conservative sympathizers
+as heresy appeared to Philip II,&mdash;it was a fearful disease that not only
+destroyed those whom it attacked directly, but spread contagion wherever
+it appeared and justified prompt and sharp measures of quarantine and
+even violent intervention with a view of stamping out the devastating
+plague.</p>
+
+<p>To the great joy of the king of Naples, Austria marched its troops into
+his territory (March, 1821) and, meeting but an ill-organized
+opposition, freed him from the limitations which his subjects had for
+the moment imposed upon him. An attempt on the part of the subjects of
+the king of Sardinia to win a constitution was also repressed by
+Austrian troops.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hopeful signs in Italy.</div>
+
+<p>The weakness of the liberal movement in both southern and northern Italy
+appeared to be conclusively demonstrated. A new attempt ten years later,
+in Piedmont,<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> Modena, and the Papal States, to get rid of the
+existing despotism was quite as futile as the revolution of 1820&ndash;1821.
+Yet there were two hopeful signs. England protested as early as 1820
+against Metternich's theory of interfering in the domestic affairs of
+other independent states in order to prevent reforms of which he
+disapproved, and France emphatically repudiated the doctrine of
+intervention on the accession of Louis Philippe in 1830. A second and
+far more important indication of progress was the increasing conviction
+on the part of the Italians that their country ought to be a single
+nation and not, as hitherto, a group of small independent states under
+foreign influence.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[Pg 639]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Mazzini, 1805&ndash;1872.</div>
+
+<p>A great leader arose in the person of the delicately organized and
+highly endowed Mazzini. He quickly became disgusted with the
+inefficiency and the silly mystery of the Carbonari, and founded a new
+association, called "Young Italy." This aimed to bring about the
+regeneration of Italy through the education of the young men in lofty
+republican principles. Mazzini had no confidence in princes and treaties
+and foreign aid. "We are of the people and will treat with the people.
+They will understand us," he said. He was not the man to organize a
+successful revolution, but he inspired the young Italians with an almost
+religious enthusiasm for the cause of Italy's liberation. His writings,
+which were widely read throughout the peninsula, created a feeling of
+loyalty to a common country among the patriots who were scattered
+through the different states of Italy.<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Plan of uniting Italy under the headship of the pope.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early reforms of Pius IX (pope, 1846&ndash;1878).</div>
+
+<p>There was a great diversity of opinion among the reformers as to the
+best way to make Italy into a nation. Mazzini's party saw no hope except
+in republican institutions, but others were confident that an
+enlightened pope could form an Italian federation, of which he should be
+the head. And when Pius IX, upon his accession in 1846, immediately
+began to consult the interests and wishes of his people by subjecting
+priests to taxation, admitting laymen to his councils and tribunals,
+granting greater liberty of the press, and even protesting against
+Austrian encroachments, there seemed to be some ground for the belief
+that the pope might take the lead in the regeneration of Italy. But he
+soon grew suspicious of the liberals, and the outcome furnished one more
+proof of the sagacity of Machiavelli, who had pointed out over three
+centuries earlier that the temporal possessions of the pope constituted
+the chief obstacle to Italian unity.</p>
+
+<p>The future belonged neither to the republicans nor to the papal party,
+but to those who looked for salvation in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">[Pg 640]</a></span> gradual reformation of the
+existing monarchies, especially of the kingdom of Sardinia. Only in this
+way was there any prospect of ousting Austria, and without that no
+union, whether federal or otherwise, could possibly be formed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reason of Austria's influence after the Congress of Vienna.</div>
+
+<p>From 1815 to 1848 those who believed in keeping things as they were at
+any cost were able, under the leadership of Metternich, to oppose pretty
+successfully those who from time to time attempted to secure for the
+people a greater control of the government and to satisfy the craving
+for national life. This did not mean, of course, that no progress was
+made during this long period in realizing the ideals of the liberal
+party in the various European states, or that one man can block the
+advance of nations for a generation. The very fact that Austria had,
+after the Congress of Vienna, assumed the leading r&ocirc;le in Europe that
+France had played during the period following the Revolution of 1789, is
+a sufficient indication that Metternich's aversion to change
+corresponded to a general conviction that it was best, for the time
+being, to let well enough alone.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Creation of the kingdom of Greece, 1829.</div>
+
+<p>Two events, at least, during the period of Metternich's influence served
+to encourage the liberals of Europe. In 1821 the inhabitants of Greece
+had revolted against the oppressive government of the Turks. The Turkish
+government set to work to suppress the revolt by atrocious massacres. It
+is said that twenty thousand of the inhabitants of the island of Chios
+were slaughtered. The Greeks, however, succeeded in arousing the
+sympathy of western Europe, and they held out until England, Russia, and
+France intervened and forced the Sultan to recognize the independence of
+Greece in 1829.<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Belgium becomes an independent kingdom in 1831.</div>
+
+<p>Another little kingdom was added to the European states by the revolt of
+the former Austrian Netherlands from the king of Holland, to whom they
+had been assigned by the Congress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[Pg 641]</a></span> of Vienna. The southern Netherlands
+were still as different from the northern as they had been in the time
+of William the Silent.<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> Holland was Protestant and German, while the
+southern provinces, to whom the union had always been distasteful, were
+Catholic and akin to the French in their sympathies. Encouraged by the
+revolution at Paris in 1830, the people of Brussels rose in revolt
+against their Dutch king, and forced his troops to leave the city.
+Through the influence of England and France the European powers agreed
+to recognize the independence of the Belgians, who established a kingdom
+and introduced an excellent constitution providing for a limited
+monarchy modeled upon that of England.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[Pg 642]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XL</h2>
+
+<h3>THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The general revolutionary movement in western Europe in
+1848.</div>
+
+<p><b>263.</b> In 1848 the gathering discontent and the demand for reform suddenly
+showed their full strength and extent; it seemed for a time as if all
+western Europe was about to undergo as complete a revolution as France
+had experienced in 1789. With one accord, and as if obeying a
+preconcerted signal, the liberal parties in France, Italy, Germany, and
+Austria, during the early months of 1848, overthrew or gained control of
+the government, and proceeded to carry out their programme of reform in
+the same thoroughgoing way in which the National Assembly in France had
+done its work in 1789. The general movement affected almost every state
+in Europe, but the course of events in France, and in that part of
+central Europe which had so long been dominated by Austria, merits
+especial attention.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The revolution of 1848 in France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Unpopularity of Louis Philippe among the republicans.</div>
+
+<p>The revolutionary movements of 1848 did not begin in France, but in
+Italy; yet it was the dethronement of Louis Philippe and the
+establishment of a second French republic that gave the signal for the
+general European revolt. The Charter of 1814 had been only slightly
+modified after the revolution of 1830, in spite of the wishes of the
+republicans who had been active in bringing about the deposition of
+Charles X. They maintained that the king had too much power and could
+influence the <i>parlement</i> to make laws contrary to the wishes of the
+people at large. They also protested against the laws which excluded the
+poorer classes from voting (only two hundred thousand among a population
+of thirty million enjoyed that right), and demanded that every
+Frenchman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643">[Pg 643]</a></span> should have the right to vote so soon as he reached maturity.
+As Louis Philippe grew older he became more and more suspicious of the
+liberal parties which had helped him to his throne. He not only opposed
+reforms himself, but also did all he could to keep the <i>parlement</i> and
+the newspapers from advocating any changes which the progressive parties
+demanded. Nevertheless the strength of the republicans gradually
+increased. They found allies in a new group of socialistic writers who
+desired a fundamental reorganization of the state.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The second French republic proclaimed February 27, 1848.</div>
+
+<p>On February 24, 1848, a mob attacked the Tuilleries. The king abdicated
+in favor of his grandson, but it was too late; he and his whole family
+were forced to leave the country. The mob invaded the assembly, as in
+the time of the Reign of Terror, crying, "Down with the Bourbons, old
+and new! Long live the Republic!" A provisional government was
+established which included the writer, Lamartine, Louis Blanc, a
+prominent socialist, two or three editors, and several other
+politicians. The first decree of this body, ratifying the establishment
+of the republic, was solemnly proclaimed on the former site of the
+Bastile, February 27.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The social democrats and the 'red republic.'</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">National workshops established.</div>
+
+<p>The provisional government was scarcely in session before it was
+threatened by the "red republic." Its representatives, the social
+democrats, desired to put the laboring classes in control of the
+government and let them conduct it in their own interests. Some
+advocated community of property, and wished to substitute the red flag
+for the national colors. The government went so far as to concede the
+so-called "right to labor," and established national workshops, in which
+all the unemployed were given an opportunity to work.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The insurrection in Paris, June, 1848.</div>
+
+<p>A National Assembly had been convoked whose members were elected by a
+popular vote of all Frenchmen above the age of twenty-one. The result of
+the election was an overwhelming defeat for the social democrats. Their
+leaders then attempted to overthrow the new assembly on the pretext
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">[Pg 644]</a></span> it did not represent the people; but the national guard frustrated
+the attempt. The number of men now enrolled in the national workshops
+had reached one hundred and seventeen thousand, each of whom received
+two francs a day in return for either useless labor or mere idleness.
+The abolition of this nuisance led to a serious revolt. Battle raged in
+the streets of Paris for three days, and over ten thousand persons were
+killed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis Napoleon elected president.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Establishment of the second empire, 1852.</div>
+
+<p>This wild outbreak of the forces of revolution resulted in a general
+conviction that a strong hand was essential to the maintenance of peace.
+The new constitution decreed that the president of the republic should
+be chosen by the people at large. Their choice fell upon the nephew of
+Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, who had already made two futile
+attempts to make himself the ruler of France. Before the expiration of
+his four years' term he succeeded, by a <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> on the anniversary
+of the coronation of his uncle (December 2, 1851), in setting up a new
+government. He next obtained, by means of a plebiscite,<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> the consent
+of the people to his remaining president for ten years. A year later
+(1852) the second empire was established, and Napoleon III became
+"Emperor of the French by the grace of God and the will of the people."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Austria's commanding position in central Europe.</div>
+
+<p><b>264.</b> When Metternich heard of the February revolution of 1848 in France,
+he declared that "Europe finds herself to-day in the presence of a
+second 1793." This was not true, however. It was no longer necessary for
+France to promote liberal ideas by force of arms, as in 1793. For sixty
+years ideas of reform had been spreading in Europe, and by the year 1848
+they were accepted by a great majority of the people, from Berlin to
+Palermo. The Europe of 1848 was no longer the Europe of 1793.</p>
+
+<p>The overthrow of Louis Philippe encouraged the opponents of Metternich
+in Germany, Austria, and Italy to attempt to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645">[Pg 645]</a></span> make an end of his system
+at once and forever. In view of the important part that Austria had
+played in central Europe since the fall of Napoleon I, it was inevitable
+that she should appear the chief barrier to the attainment of national
+unity and liberal government in Italy and Germany. As ruler of Lombardy
+and Venetia she practically controlled Italy, and as presiding member of
+the German Confederation she had been able to keep even Prussia in line.
+It is not strange that Austria felt that she could make no concessions
+to the spirit of nationality, for the territories belonging to the house
+of Hapsburg, some twenty in number, were inhabited by four different
+races,&mdash;Germans, Slavs, Hungarians, and Italians.<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> The Slavs
+(especially the Bohemians) and the Hungarians longed for national
+independence, as well as the Italians.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Overthrow of Metternich, March, 1848.</div>
+
+<p>On March 13 the populace of Vienna rose in revolt against their
+old-fashioned government. Metternich fled, and all his schemes for
+opposing reform appeared to have come to naught. Before the end of the
+month the helpless Austrian emperor had given his permission to the
+kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia to draw up constitutions for themselves
+incorporating the longed-for reforms (equality of all classes in the
+matter of taxation, religious freedom, liberty of the press, and the
+rest), and providing that each country should have a parliament of its
+own, which should meet annually. The Austrian provinces were promised
+similar advantages. None of these regions, however, showed any desire to
+throw off their allegiance to the Austrian ruler.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginning of Italian war of independence.</div>
+
+<p>The rising in northern Italy, on the contrary, was directed to that
+particular end. Immediately on the news of Metternich's fall the
+Milanese expelled the Austrian troops from their city, and soon Austria
+had evacuated a great part of Lombardy. The Venetians followed the lead
+of Milan and set up a republic once more. The Milanese, anticipating a
+struggle, appealed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[Pg 646]</a></span> to Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, for aid. By
+this time a great part of Italy was in revolt. Constitutions were
+granted to Naples, Rome, Tuscany, and Piedmont by their rulers. The king
+of Sardinia was forced by public opinion to assume the leadership in the
+attempt to expel the interloping Austria and ultimately, perhaps, to
+found some sort of an Italian union which should satisfy the longings
+for national unity. The pope and even the Bourbon king of Naples were
+induced to consent to the arming and dispatch of troops in the cause of
+Italian freedom, and Italy began its first war for independence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The liberal movement in Germany in 1848.</div>
+
+<p>The crisis at home and the Italian war made it impossible for Austria to
+prevent the progress of revolution in Germany. So spontaneous was the
+movement, that before the fall of Metternich reform movements had begun
+in Baden, W&uuml;rtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony. The opportunity seemed to
+have come, now that Austria was hopelessly embarrassed, to reorganize
+the German Confederation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick William IV (1840&ndash;1861) of Prussia takes the lead in
+the reform movement in Germany.</div>
+
+<p>The king of Prussia, seeing his opportunity, suddenly reversed his
+policy of obedience to the dictates of Austria, and determined to take
+the lead in Germany. He agreed to summon an assembly to draw up a
+constitution for Prussia. Moreover, a great national assembly was
+convoked at Frankfurt to draft a constitution for Germany at large.</p>
+
+<p><b>265.</b> By the end of March, 1848, the prospects of reform were bright
+indeed. Hungary and Bohemia had been guaranteed constitutional
+independence; the Austrian provinces awaited their promised
+constitution; Lombardy and Venetia had declared their independence of
+Austria; four Italian states had obtained their longed-for
+constitutions, and all were ready for a war with Austria; Prussia was
+promised a constitution, and lastly, the National Assembly at Frankfurt
+was about to prepare a constitution for a united Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conservatives and radicals both help to frustrate the
+realization of the proposed reforms.</div>
+
+<p>The moderate reformers who had gained these seeming victories had,
+however, only just reached the most difficult<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647">[Pg 647]</a></span> part of their task. They
+had two kinds of enemies, who abhorred each other but who effectually
+combined to undo the work of the moderates. These were, first, the
+conservative party, represented by Austria and the Italian rulers who
+had been forced most reluctantly to grant constitutions to their
+subjects; and, secondly, the radicals, who were not satisfied with the
+prospect of a liberal monarchy and desired a republican or socialistic
+form of government. While the princes were recovering from the
+astonishing humiliations of March, the radicals began to discredit the
+revolutionary movement and alienate public opinion by fantastic
+programmes and the murder of hostile ministers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Defeat of the Italians under Charles Albert of Sardinia,
+July, 1848.</div>
+
+<p>For the moment Austria's chief danger lay in Italy, which was the only
+one of her dependencies that had actually taken up arms against her. The
+Italians had been unable to drive out the Austrian army, which, under
+the indomitable general, Radetzky, had taken refuge in the so-called
+Quadrilateral, in the neighborhood of Mantua, where it was protected by
+four great fortresses. Charles Albert of Sardinia found himself, with
+the exception of a few volunteers, almost unsupported by the other
+Italian states. The best ally of Austria was the absence of united
+action upon the part of the Italians, and the jealousy and indifference
+that they showed as soon as war had actually begun. The pope decided
+that his mission was one of peace and that he could not afford to join
+in a war against Austria, the stoutest ally of the Roman church. The
+king of Naples easily found a pretext for recalling the troops that
+public opinion had compelled him to send to the aid of the king of
+Sardinia. Charles Albert was defeated at Custozza, July 25, and
+compelled to sign a truce with Austria and withdraw his forces from
+Lombardy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of the Italian republicans.</div>
+
+<p>The Italian republicans, who had imputed to Charles Albert merely
+personal motives in his efforts to free Italy, now attempted to carry
+out their own programme. Florence, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[Pg 648]</a></span> well as Venice, proclaimed itself
+a republic. At Rome the liberal and enlightened Rossi, whom the pope had
+put at the head of affairs, was assassinated in November just as he was
+ready to promulgate his reforms. The pope fled from the city and put
+himself under the protection of the king of Naples. A constitutional
+assembly was then convoked by the revolutionists, and under the
+influence of Mazzini, in February, 1849, it declared the temporal power
+of the pope abolished and proclaimed the Roman republic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hostility between the Germans and Czechs in Bohemia.</div>
+
+<p><b>266.</b> Meanwhile the conditions in Austria began to be favorable to a
+re&euml;stablishment of the emperor's former influence. Race rivalry proved
+his friend in his Austrian domains just as republicanism tended to his
+ultimate advantage in Italy. The Czechs<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> in Bohemia hated the
+Germans in 1848, much as they had hated them in the time of Huss. The
+German part of the population naturally opposed the plan of making
+Bohemia practically independent of the government at Vienna, for it was
+to German Vienna that they were wont to look for protection against the
+enterprises of their Czechish fellow-countrymen. The Germans wanted to
+send delegates to the Frankfurt convention, and to maintain the union
+between Bohemia and the German states.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beginnings of revolt in Bohemia suppressed.</div>
+
+<p>The Czechs determined to offset the movement toward German consolidation
+by a Pan-Slavic Congress, which should bring together the various Slavic
+peoples comprised in the Austrian empire. To this assembly, which met in
+Prague in June, 1848, came delegates from the Czechs, Moravians,
+Ruthenians, and Poles in the north, and the Servians and Croatians in
+the south. Its deliberations were interrupted by an insurrection that
+broke out among the people of Prague and gave the commander of the
+Austrian forces a sufficient excuse for intervening. He established a
+military government, and the prospect of independence for Bohemia
+vanished. This was Austria's first real victory.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[Pg 649]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Slavic peoples revolt against Hungary.</div>
+
+<p>The eastern and southern portion of the Hapsburg domains were not more
+homogeneous than the west and north. When a constitution was granted to
+Hungary it was inevitable that the races which the Hungarians (Magyars)
+had long dominated should begin to consider how they might gain the
+right to govern themselves. The Slavs inhabiting Carniola, Carinthia,
+Istria, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, and Servia had long meditated upon
+the possibility of a united Slavic kingdom in the south. Both the
+Servians and Croatians now revolted against Hungary. Like the Germans in
+Bohemia, the Servians and Croatians were on the whole friendly to the
+Vienna government, from which they had less to fear than from the
+establishment of Hungarian independence, which would put them at the
+mercy of the Magyars. It was, therefore, with the support of the
+Austrian ministry that an army of Servians and Croatians crossed into
+Hungary in September.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image86.jpg" width="500" height="382" alt="The Various Races of Austro-Hungary" title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Various Races of Austro-Hungary</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[Pg 650]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Insurrection of the radicals in Vienna suppressed.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Francis Joseph I, 1848-.</div>
+
+<p>In October, 1848, the radical party rose in Vienna as it had in Paris
+after the deposition of Louis Philippe. The minister of war was brutally
+murdered and the emperor fled. The city was, however, besieged by the
+same commander who had put down the insurrection in Prague, and was
+forced to surrender. The imperial government was now in a position still
+further to strengthen itself. The emperor, a notoriously inefficient
+person, was forced to abdicate (December 2, 1848) in favor of his
+youthful nephew, Francis Joseph I, who still sits upon the Austrian
+throne. Moreover, a new Metternich appeared in the person of
+Schwarzenberg.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Suppression of Hungarian republic.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Final peaceful union between Austria and Hungary, 1867.</div>
+
+<p>A vigorous campaign was begun against Hungary, which, under the
+influence of the patriotic Kossuth, had deposed its Hapsburg king and
+declared itself an independent republic under the presidency of Kossuth.
+The Tsar placed his forces at the disposal of Francis Joseph, and with
+the aid of an army of one hundred and fifty thousand Russians, who
+marched in from the east, the Hungarians were compelled, by the middle
+of August, to surrender. Austria took terrible vengeance upon the
+rebels. Thousands were hung, shot, and imprisoned, and many, including
+Kossuth, fled to the United States or elsewhere. But within a few years
+Hungary won its independence by peaceful measures, and it is now on
+exactly the same footing as the western dominions of Francis Joseph in
+the dual federation of Austria-Hungary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Austria defeats the king of Sardinia at Novara, March, 1849.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accession of Victor Emmanuel as king of Sardinia.</div>
+
+<p>It remained for Austria to re&euml;stablish her prestige in Italy and in the
+German Confederation. In March, 1849, Charles Albert renewed the war
+which had been discontinued after the defeat at Custozza. The campaign
+lasted but five days and closed with his crushing and definitive defeat
+at Novara (March 23), which put an end to the hopes of Italian liberty
+for the time being. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor
+Emmanuel, who was destined before many years to become king of Italy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">[Pg 651]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Austria re&euml;stablishes the former conditions in Italy, except
+in Piedmont.</div>
+
+<p>After bringing the king of Sardinia to terms, Austria pushed southward,
+re&euml;stablishing the old order as she went. The ephemeral Italian
+republics were unable to offer any effectual resistance. The former
+rulers were restored in Rome, Tuscany, and Venice, and the constitutions
+were swept away from one end of the peninsula to the other, except in
+Piedmont, the most important part of the king of Sardinia's realms.
+There Victor Emmanuel not only maintained the representative government
+introduced by his father, but, by summoning to his councils d'Azeglio
+and others known throughout Italy for their liberal sentiments, he
+prepared to lead Italy once more against her foreign oppressors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Question of the extent of the proposed union.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Impossibility of a German state which should include both
+Austria and Prussia.</div>
+
+<p><b>267.</b> In Germany, as elsewhere, Austria profited by the dissensions among
+her opponents. On May 18, 1848, the National Assembly, consisting of
+nearly six hundred representatives of the German people, had met at
+Frankfurt. It immediately began the consideration of a new constitution
+that should satisfy the popular longings for a great free German state,
+to be governed by and for the people. But what were to be the confines
+of this new German state? The confederation of 1815 did not include all
+the German inhabitants of Prussia, and did include the heterogeneous
+western possessions of Austria,&mdash;Bohemia and Moravia, for example, where
+a great part of the people were Slavs. There was no hesitation in
+deciding that all the Prussian territories should be admitted to the new
+union. As it appeared impossible to exclude Austria altogether, the
+Assembly agreed to include those parts of her territory which had
+belonged to the confederation formed in 1815. This decision rendered the
+task of founding a real German state practically impossible; for the new
+union was to include two great European powers who might at any moment
+become rivals, since Prussia would hardly consent to be led forever by
+Austria. So heterogeneous a union could only continue to be, as it had
+been, a loose confederation of practically independent princes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[Pg 652]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Assembly at Frankfurt gives Austria time to recover.</div>
+
+<p>The improbability that the Assembly at Frankfurt would succeed in its
+undertaking was greatly increased by its unwise conduct. Instead of
+proceeding immediately to frame a new form of government, it devoted
+several months to the formulation of the general rights of the German
+citizen. This gave a fine opportunity to the theorists, of which there
+were many in the Assembly, to ventilate their views, and by the time
+that the constitution itself came up for discussion, Austria had begun
+to regain her influence and was ready to lead the conservative forces
+once more. She could rely upon the support of the rulers of South
+Germany, for they were well satisfied with the old confederation and the
+independence that it gave them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Assembly asks the king of Prussia to become emperor of
+Germany.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick William IV refuses the imperial crown.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of her partiality for the old union, Austria could not prevent
+the Assembly from completing its new constitution. This provided that
+there should be an hereditary emperor at the head of the government, and
+that exalted office was tendered to the king of Prussia. Frederick
+William IV had been alienated from the liberal cause, which he had at
+first espoused, by an insurrection in Berlin. He was, moreover, timid
+and conservative at heart; he hated revolution and doubted if the
+National Assembly had any right to confer the imperial title. He also
+greatly respected Austria, and felt that a war with her, which was
+likely to ensue if he accepted the crown, would not only be dangerous to
+Prussia, since Francis Joseph could rely upon the assistance of the
+Tsar, but dishonorable as well, in Austria's present embarrassment. So
+he refused the honor of the imperial title and announced his rejection
+of the new constitution (April, 1849).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The National Assembly disperses and the old diet is
+restored.</div>
+
+<p>This decision rendered the year's work of the National Assembly
+fruitless, and its members gradually dispersed, with the exception of
+the radicals, who made a last desperate effort to found a republic.
+Austria now insisted upon the re&euml;stablishment of the old diet, and
+nearly came to war with Prussia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653">[Pg 653]</a></span> over the policy to be pursued.
+Hostilities were only averted by the ignominious submission of Prussia
+to the demands of Schwarzenberg in 1851.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results of the revolutions of 1848.</div>
+
+<p>While the revolutions of 1848 seem futile enough when viewed from the
+standpoint of the hopes of March, they left some important indications
+of progress. The king of Prussia had granted his country a constitution,
+which, with some modifications, has served Prussia down to the present
+day. Piedmont also had obtained a constitution. The internal reforms,
+moreover, which these countries speedily introduced, prepared them to
+head once more, and this time with success, a movement for national
+unity.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that the revolution of 1848 aimed to do more than the
+French Revolution of 1789. Not only was the national question everywhere
+an important one, but there were plans for the economic reorganization
+of society. It was no longer simply a matter of abolishing the remnants
+of feudalism and insuring equal rights to all and the participation of
+the more prosperous classes in the government. Those who lived by the
+labor of their hands and were employed in the vast industries that had
+developed with the application of steam machinery to manufacture also
+had their spokesmen. The relation of the state to the industrial
+classes, and of capital to labor, had become, as they still are, the
+great problems of modern times.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decline of Austrian influence after 1851.</div>
+
+<p>In 1851 Austria had once more, in spite of the greatest obstacles,
+established the system of Metternich. But this victory was of short
+duration, and it was her last. Five years later the encroachments of
+Russia in Turkey brought on the Crimean War, of which something will be
+said later. In this war Austria observed an inglorious neutrality; she
+thereby sacrificed much of her prestige with both Russia and the western
+powers, and encouraged renewed attempts to free both Italy and Germany
+from her control.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[Pg 654]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Development of Piedmont under Cavour.</div>
+
+<p><b>268.</b> Under Victor Emmanuel and his great minister, Cavour, Piedmont had
+rapidly developed into a modern state. It sent a contingent to the aid
+of the western powers in the Crimean War waged by France and England
+against Russia (1853&ndash;1856); it developed its resources, military and
+economic, and at last found an ally to help it in a new attempt to expel
+Austria from Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Position and policy of Napoleon III.</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon III, like his far more distinguished uncle, was a usurper. He
+knew that he could not rely upon mere tradition, but must maintain his
+popularity by deeds that should redound to the glory of France. A war
+with Austria for the liberation of the Italians, who like the French
+were a Latin race, would be popular; especially if France could thereby
+add a bit of territory to her realms, and perhaps become the protector
+of the proposed Italian confederation. A conference was arranged between
+Napoleon and Cavour. Just what agreement was reached we do not know, but
+Napoleon no doubt engaged to come to the aid of the king of Sardinia,
+should the latter find a pretense for going to war with Austria. Should
+they together succeed in expelling Austria from northern Italy, the king
+of Sardinia was to reward France by ceding to her Savoy and Nice, which
+both geographically and racially belonged to her.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image87.jpg" width="400" height="497" alt="Cavour" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Cavour</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Victories of Victor Emmanuel and Napoleon III over Austria.</div>
+
+<p>By April, 1859, Victor Emmanuel had managed to involve himself in a war
+with Austria. The French army promptly joined forces with the
+Piedmontese, defeated the Austrians at Magenta, and on June 8, Napoleon
+III and Victor Emmanuel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">[Pg 655]</a></span> entered Milan amid the rejoicings of the
+people. The Austrians managed the campaign very badly, and were again
+defeated at Solferino (June 24).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon III alarmed by the Italian successes.</div>
+
+<p>Suddenly Europe was astonished to hear that a truce had been concluded,
+and that the preliminaries of a peace had been arranged which left
+Venetia in Austria's hands, in spite of Napoleon III's boast that he
+would free Italy to the Adriatic. The French emperor had begun to fear
+that, with the growing enthusiasm which was showing itself throughout
+the peninsula for Piedmont, there was danger that it might succeed in
+forming a national kingdom so strong as to need no French protector. By
+leaving Venetia in possession of Austria, and agreeing that Piedmont
+should only be increased by the incorporation of Lombardy and the little
+duchies of Parma and Modena, Napoleon III hoped to prevent the
+consolidation of Italy from proceeding too far.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The formation of a kingdom of Italy, 1860.</div>
+
+<p>He had, however, precipitated changes which he was powerless to check.
+Italy was now ready to fuse into a single state. Tuscany, as well as
+Modena and Parma, voted (March, 1860) to unite with Piedmont. Garibaldi,
+a famous republican leader, sailed for Sicily, where he assumed the
+dictatorship of the island in the name of Victor Emmanuel, "King of
+Italy." After expelling the troops of the king of Naples from Sicily, he
+crossed to the mainland, and early in September he entered Naples
+itself, just as the king fled from his capital.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Napoleon III intervenes to prevent the annexation of Rome to
+the kingdom of Italy.</div>
+
+<p>Garibaldi now proposed to march on Rome and proclaim the kingdom of
+Italy from the Quirinal. This would have imperiled all the previous
+gains, for Napoleon III could not, in view of the strong Catholic
+sentiment in France, possibly permit the occupation of Rome and the
+destruction of the political independence of the pope. He agreed that
+Victor Emmanuel might annex the outlying papal possessions to the north
+and re&euml;stablish a stable government in Naples instead of Garibaldi's
+dictatorship. But Rome, the imperial city, with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_656" id="Page_656">[Pg 656]</a></span> territory
+immediately surrounding it, must be left to its old master. Victor
+Emmanuel accordingly marched southward and occupied Naples (October).
+Its king capitulated and all southern Italy became a part of the kingdom
+of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1861, the first Italian parliament was opened at Turin, and
+the process of really amalgamating the heterogeneous portions of the new
+kingdom began. Yet the joy of the Italians over the realization of their
+hopes of unity and national independence was tempered by the fact that
+Austria still held one of the most famous of the Italian provinces, and
+that Rome, which typified Italy's former grandeur, was not included in
+the new kingdom. Within a decade, however, both these districts became a
+part of the kingdom of Italy through the action of Prussia. William I
+and his extraordinary minister and adviser, Bismarck, were about to do
+for Germany what Victor Emmanuel and Cavour had accomplished for
+Italy.<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William I of Prussia, 1861&ndash;1888.</div>
+
+<p><b>269.</b> With the accession of William I in 1858,<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> a new era dawned for
+Prussia. A practical and vigorous man had come into power, whose great
+aim was to expel Austria from the German Confederation, and out of the
+remaining states to construct a firm union, under the leadership of
+Prussia, which should take its place among the most powerful of the
+states of Europe. He saw that war would come sooner or later, and his
+first business was to develop the military resources of his realms.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">William I's plan for strengthening the army.</div>
+
+<p>The German army, which was the outgrowth of the early reforms of William
+I, is so extraordinary a feature of the Europe of to-day, that its
+organization merits attention. The war of independence against Napoleon
+in 1813 had led to the summoning of the nation to arms, and a law was
+passed in Prussia making military service a universal obligation of
+every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_657" id="Page_657">[Pg 657]</a></span> healthy male citizen. The first thing that William I did was to
+increase the annual levy from forty to sixty thousand men, and to see
+that all the soldiers remained in active service three years. They then
+passed into the reserve, according to the existing law, where for two
+years more they remained ready at any time to take up arms should it be
+necessary. William wished to increase the term of service in the reserve
+to four years. In this way the state would claim seven of the years of
+early manhood and have an effective army of four hundred thousand, which
+would permit it to dispense with the service of those who were
+approaching middle life. The lower house of the Prussian parliament
+refused, however, to make the necessary appropriations for increasing
+the strength of the army.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bismarck and his struggle with the Prussian parliament.</div>
+
+<p>The king proceeded, nevertheless, with his plan, and in 1862 called to
+his side one of the most extraordinary statesmen of modern times,
+Bismarck. The new minister conceived a scheme for laying Austria low and
+exalting Prussia, which he succeeded in carrying out with startling
+precision. He could not, however, reveal it to the lower chamber; he
+would, indeed, scarcely hint its nature to the king himself. In defiance
+of the lower house and of the newspapers, he carried on the
+strengthening of the army without formal appropriations, on the theory
+that the constitution had not provided for a dead-lock between the upper
+and lower house, and that consequently the king might exercise, in such
+a case, his former absolute power. For a time it seemed as if Prussia
+was returning to a pure despotism, for there was assuredly no more
+fundamental provision of the constitution than the right of the people
+to control the granting of the taxes. Yet Bismarck was eventually fully
+exonerated by public opinion, and it was generally agreed that the end
+had amply justified the means.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Schleswig-Holstein affair.</div>
+
+<p><b>270.</b> Prussia now had a military force that appeared to justify the hope
+of victory should she undertake a war with her old rival. In order to
+bring about the expulsion of Austria<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658">[Pg 658]</a></span> from the confederation, Bismarck
+took advantage of a knotty problem that had been troubling Germany, and
+which was known as the Schleswig-Holstein affair. The provinces of
+Schleswig and Holstein, although inhabited largely by Germans, had for
+centuries belonged to the king of Denmark. They were allowed, however,
+to retain their provincial assemblies, and were not considered a part of
+Denmark any more than Hanover was a part of Great Britain in the last
+century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1847, just when the growing idea of nationality was about to express
+itself in the Revolution of 1848, the king of Denmark proclaimed that he
+was going to make these German provinces an integral part of the Danish
+kingdom. This aroused great indignation throughout Germany, especially
+as Holstein was a member of the confederation. Frederick William IV
+consented to go to war with Denmark, but only succeeded in delaying for
+a few years the proposed absorption of the provinces by Denmark. The
+constant encroachments of the government at Copenhagen upon the
+privileges claimed by Schleswig-Holstein aroused new apprehension and
+much discontent. In 1863 Schleswig was finally incorporated into the
+Danish kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bismarck's audacious plan for the expulsion of Austria from
+Germany.</div>
+
+<p>"From this time the history of Germany is the history of the profound
+and audacious statecraft and of the overmastering will of Bismarck; the
+nation, except through its valour on the battlefield, ceases to
+influence the shaping of its own fortunes. What the German people
+desired in 1864 was that Schleswig-Holstein should be attached, under a
+ruler of its own, to the German Federation as it then existed; what
+Bismarck intended was that Schleswig-Holstein, itself incorporated more
+or less directly with Prussia, should be made the means of the
+destruction of the existing Federal system and of the expulsion of
+Austria from Germany.... The German people desired one course of action;
+Bismarck had determined on something totally different; with matchless
+resolution and skill he bore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659">[Pg 659]</a></span> down all the opposition of people and of
+the [European] courts, and forced a reluctant nation to the goal which
+he himself had chosen for it" (Fyffe).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image88.jpg" width="400" height="473" alt="Bismarck" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Bismarck</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The working out of the plan.</div>
+
+<p>Bismarck's first step was to invite Austria to co&ouml;perate with Prussia in
+settling the Schleswig-Holstein difficulty. As Denmark refused to make
+any concessions, the two powers declared war, defeated the Danish army,
+and forced the king of Denmark to cede Schleswig-Holstein to the rulers
+of Prussia and Austria jointly (October, 1864). They were to make such
+disposition of the provinces as they saw fit. There was now no trouble
+in picking a quarrel with Austria. Bismarck suggested the nominal
+independence of the duchies, but that they should become practically a
+part of Prussia. This plan was of course indignantly rejected by
+Austria, and it was arranged that, pending an adjustment, Austria should
+govern Holstein, and Prussia, Schleswig.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prussia declares the German Confederation dissolved.</div>
+
+<p>Bismarck now obtained the secret assurance of Napoleon III that he would
+not interfere if Prussia and Italy should go to war with Austria. In
+April, 1866, Italy agreed that, should the king of Prussia take up arms
+during the following three months with the aim of reforming the German
+union, it too would immediately declare war on Austria, with the hope,
+of course, of obtaining Venice. The relations between Austria and
+Prussia grew more and more strained, until finally in June, 1866,
+Austria induced the diet to call out the forces of the confederation
+with a view of making war on Prussia. This act<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_660" id="Page_660">[Pg 660]</a></span> the representative of
+Prussia declared put an end to the existing union. He accordingly
+submitted to the diet Prussia's scheme for the reformation of Germany
+and withdrew from the diet.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War declared between Prussia and Austria.</div>
+
+<p><b>271.</b> On June 12 war was declared between Austria and Prussia. With the
+exception of Mecklenburg and the small states of the north, all Germany
+sided with Austria against Prussia. Bismarck immediately demanded of the
+rulers of the larger North German states&mdash;Hanover, Saxony, and
+Hesse-Cassel&mdash;that they stop their warlike preparations and agree to
+accept Prussia's plan of reform. On their refusal, Prussian troops
+immediately occupied these territories, and war actually began.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prussia victorious.</div>
+
+<p>So admirable was the organization of the Prussian army that, in spite of
+the suspicion and even hatred which the liberal party in Prussia
+entertained for the despotic Bismarck, all resistance on the part of the
+states of the north was promptly prevented, Austria was miserably
+defeated on July 3 in the decisive battle of K&ouml;niggr&auml;tz, or Sadowa,<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a>
+and within three weeks after the breaking off of diplomatic relations
+the war was practically over. Austria's influence was at an end, and
+Prussia had won her right to do with Germany as she pleased.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The North German Federation.</div>
+
+<p>Prussia was aware that the larger states south of the Main River were
+not ripe for the union that she desired. She therefore organized a
+so-called North German Federation, which included all the states north
+of the Main. Prussia had seized the opportunity considerably to increase
+her own boundaries and round out her territory by annexing the North
+German states, with the exception of Saxony, that had gone to war with
+her. Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfurt,
+along with the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, all became Prussian.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Requirements of the proposed constitution.</div>
+
+<p>Prussia, thus enlarged, summoned the lesser states about her to confer
+upon a constitution that should accomplish four ends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">[Pg 661]</a></span> First, it must
+give all the people of the territory included in the new union,
+regardless of the particular state in which they lived, a voice in the
+government. A popular assembly satisfied this demand. Secondly, the
+predominating position of Prussia must be secured, but at the same time
+(thirdly) the self-respect of the other monarchs whose lands were
+included must not be sacrificed. In order to accomplish this double
+purpose the king of Prussia was made president of the federation but not
+its sovereign. The chief governing body was the Federal Council
+(Bundesrath). In this each ruler, however small his state, and each of
+the three free towns&mdash;Hamburg, Bremen, and L&uuml;beck&mdash;had at least one
+vote; in this way it was arranged that the other rulers did not become
+<i>subjects</i> of the king of Prussia. The real sovereign of the North
+German Federation and of the present German empire is not the king of
+Prussia, but "all of the united governments." The votes were distributed
+as in the old diet, so that Prussia, with the votes of the states that
+she annexed in 1860, enjoyed seventeen votes out of forty-three. Lastly,
+the constitution must be so arranged that when the time came for the
+southern states&mdash;Bavaria, W&uuml;rtemberg, Baden, and south Hesse&mdash;to join
+the union, it would be adapted to the needs of the widened empire.</p>
+
+<p>The union was a true federation like that of the United States, although
+its organization violated many of the rules which were observed in the
+organization of the American union. It was inevitable that a union
+spontaneously developed from a group of sovereign <i>monarchies</i>, with
+their traditions of absolutism, would be very different from one in
+which the members, like the states of the American union, had previously
+been governed by republican institutions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disappointment of the hopes of Napoleon III.</div>
+
+<p><b>272.</b> No one was more chagrined by the abrupt termination of the war of
+1866 and the victory of Prussia than Napoleon III. He had hoped that
+both the combatants might be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_662" id="Page_662">[Pg 662]</a></span> weakened by a long struggle, and that at
+last he might have an opportunity to arbitrate and incidentally to gain
+something for France, as had happened after the Italian war. But Prussia
+came out of the conflict with greatly increased power and territory,
+while France had gained nothing. An effort of Napoleon's to get a
+foothold in Mexico had failed, owing to the recovery of the United
+States from the Civil War and their warning that they should regard his
+continued intervention there as an hostile act.<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> His hopes of
+annexing Luxembourg as an offset for the gains that Prussia had made,
+were also frustrated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">France declares war upon Prussia, July 19, 1870.</div>
+
+<p>One course remained for the French usurper, namely, to permit himself to
+be forced into a war against the power which had especially roused the
+jealousy of France. Never was an excuse offered for war more trivial
+than that advanced by the French,<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> never did retribution come more
+speedily. The hostility which the South German states had hitherto shown
+toward Prussia encouraged Napoleon III to believe that so soon as the
+French troops should gain their first victory, Bavaria, W&uuml;rtemberg, and
+Baden would join him. That first victory was never won. War had no
+sooner been declared than the Germans laid all jealousy aside and ranged
+themselves as a nation against a national assailant. The French army,
+moreover, was neither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663">[Pg 663]</a></span> well equipped nor well commanded. The Germans
+hastened across the Rhine, and within a few days were driving the French
+before them. In a series of bloody encounters about Metz, one of the
+French armies was defeated and finally shut up within the fortifications
+about the town. Seven weeks had not elapsed after the beginning of the
+war, before the Germans had captured a second French army and made a
+prisoner of the emperor himself in the great battle of Sedan, September
+1, 1870.<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege of Paris and close of Franco-Prussian War.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cession of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.</div>
+
+<p>The Germans then surrounded and laid siege to Paris. Napoleon III had
+been completely discredited by the disasters about Metz and at Sedan,
+and consequently the empire was abolished and France for the third time
+was declared a republic. In spite of the energy which the new government
+showed in arousing the French against the invaders, prolonged resistance
+was impossible. The capital surrendered January 28, 1871, and an
+armistice was arranged. Bismarck, who had been by no means reluctant to
+go to war, deeply humiliated France, in arranging the treaty of peace,
+by requiring the cession of two French provinces which had formerly
+belonged to Germany,&mdash;Alsace and northeastern Lorraine.<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> In this way
+France was cut off from the Rhine, and the crest of the Vosges Mountains
+was established as its boundary. The Germans exacted, further, an
+enormous indemnity for the unjustifiable attack which the French had
+made upon them. This was fixed at five billion francs, and German troops
+were to occupy France till it was paid. The French people made pathetic
+sacrifices to hasten the payment of this indemnity, in order that the
+country might<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">[Pg 664]</a></span> be freed from the presence of the hated Germans. The
+bitter feeling of the French for the Germans dates from this war, and
+the longing for revenge still shows itself. For many years after the war
+a statue in Paris, representing the lost city of Strasburg, was draped
+in mourning.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The insurrection of the Paris commune of 1871.</div>
+
+<p>Immediately after the surrender of Paris the new republican government
+had been called upon to subdue a terrible insurrection of the Parisian
+populace. The insurgents re&euml;stablished the commune of the Reign of
+Terror, and rather than let Paris come again into the hands of the
+national government, they proposed to burn the city. When, after two
+months of disorder, their forces were completely routed in a series of
+bloody street fights, the city was actually set on fire; but only two
+important public buildings were destroyed,&mdash;the Palace of the Tuilleries
+and the city hall.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The French constitutional laws of 1875.</div>
+
+<p>A National Assembly had been elected by the people in February, 1871, to
+make peace with Germany and to draw up a new constitution. Under this
+temporary government France gradually recovered from the terrible loss
+and demoralization caused by the war. There was much uncertainty for
+several years as to just what form the constitution would permanently
+take, for the largest party in the National Assembly was composed of
+those who favored the re&euml;stablishment of a monarchy.<a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> Those who
+advocated maintaining the republic prevailed, however, and in 1875 the
+assembly passed a series of three laws organizing the government. These
+have since served France as a constitution.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_665" id="Page_665">[Pg 665]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Character of the present French republic.</div>
+
+<p>While France is nominally a republic with a president at its head, its
+government closely resembles that of a limited monarchy like Belgium.
+This is not strange, since the monarchists were in the majority when its
+constitutional laws were passed. The French government of to-day is
+therefore a compromise, and since all attempts to overthrow it have
+proved vain, we may assume that it is suited to the wants of the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Permanent character of the French government in spite of
+changes in the constitution.</div>
+
+<p>As one reviews the history of France since the establishment of the
+first republic in 1792, it appears as if revolutionary changes of
+government had been very frequent. As a matter of fact, the various
+revolutions produced far less change in the system of government than is
+usually supposed. They neither called in question the main provisions of
+the Declaration of the Rights of Man drawn up in 1789, nor did they
+materially alter the system of administration which was established by
+Napoleon immediately after his accession in 1800. So long as the latter
+was retained, the civil rights and equality of all citizens secured, and
+the representatives of the nation permitted to control the ruler, it
+really made little difference whether France was called an empire, a
+constitutional monarchy, or a republic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Final unification of Germany.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Proclamation of the German empire, January 18, 1871.</div>
+
+<p><b>273.</b> The attack of France upon Prussia in 1870, instead of hindering the
+development of Germany as Napoleon III had hoped it would, only served
+to consummate the work of 1866. The South German states,&mdash;Bavaria,
+W&uuml;rtemberg, Baden, and south Hesse&mdash;having sent their troops to fight
+side by side with the Prussian forces, consented after their common
+victory over France to join the North German Federation. Surrounded by
+the German princes, William, King of Prussia and President of the North
+German Federation, was proclaimed German Emperor in the palace of
+Versailles, January, 1871. In this way the present German empire came
+into existence. With its wonderfully organized army and its mighty
+chancellor, Bismarck, it immediately took a leading place among the
+western powers of Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_666" id="Page_666">[Pg 666]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/map666.jpg">
+<img src="images/map666th.jpg" width="600" height="436" alt="EUROPE OF TO-DAY" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">EUROPE OF TO-DAY</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Predominance of Prussia in the present German empire.</div>
+
+<p>The constitution of the North German Federation had been drawn up with
+the hope that the southern states would later become a part of the
+union; consequently, little change was necessary when the empire was
+established. The king of Prussia enjoys the title of German Emperor, and
+is the real head of the federation. He is not, however, <i>emperor of
+Germany</i>, for the sovereignty is vested, theoretically, not in him, but
+in the body of German rulers who are members of the union, all of whom
+send their representatives to the Federal Council (Bundesrath).
+Prussia's influence in the Federal Council is, however, secured by
+assigning her king a sufficient number of votes to enable him to block
+any measure he wishes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image89.jpg" width="500" height="414" alt="Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rome added to the kingdom of Italy, 1870.</div>
+
+<p>The unification of Italy was completed, like that of Germany, by the
+Franco-Prussian War of 1870. After the war of 1866<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_667" id="Page_667">[Pg 667]</a></span> Austria had ceded
+Venetia to Italy. Napoleon III had, however, sent French troops in 1867
+to prevent Garibaldi from seizing Rome and the neighboring districts,
+which had been held by the head of the Catholic church for more than a
+thousand years. In August, 1870, the reverses of the war compelled
+Napoleon to recall the French garrison from Rome, and the pope made
+little effort to defend his capital against the Italian army, which
+occupied it in September. The people of Rome voted by an overwhelming
+majority to join the kingdom of Italy; and the work of Victor Emmanuel
+and Cavour was consummated by transferring the capital to the Eternal
+City.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Position of the pope.</div>
+
+<p>Although the papal possessions were declared a part of the kingdom of
+Italy, a law was passed which guaranteed to the pope the rank and
+privileges of a sovereign prince. He was to have his own ambassadors and
+court like the other European powers. No officer of the Italian
+government was to enter the Lateran or Vatican palaces upon any official
+mission. As head of the church, the pope was to be entirely independent
+of the king of Italy, and the bishops were not required to take the oath
+of allegiance to the government. A sum of over six hundred thousand
+dollars annually was also appropriated to aid the pope in defraying his
+expenses. The pope, however, refused to recognize the arrangement. He
+still regards himself as a prisoner, and the Italian government as a
+usurper who has robbed him of his possessions. He has never accepted the
+income assigned to him, and still maintains that the independence which
+he formerly enjoyed as ruler of the Papal States is essential to the
+best interests of the head of a great international church.<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Southeastern Europe.</div>
+
+<p><b>274.</b> To complete the survey of the great political changes of the
+nineteenth century, we must turn for a moment to southeastern Europe.
+The disposal of the European lands occupied by the Turks has proved a
+very knotty international question.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_668" id="Page_668">[Pg 668]</a></span> We have seen how the Turks were
+expelled from Hungary by the end of the seventeenth century, and how
+Peter the Great and his successors began to dream of acquiring
+Constantinople as a Russian outpost which would enable the Tsar to
+command the eastern Mediterranean.<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> Catherine II (1762&ndash;1796) had
+extended the Russian boundary to the Black Sea. On the whole, however,
+the Turks held their own pretty well during the eighteenth century, but
+the nineteenth witnessed the disruption of European Turkey into a number
+of new and independent Christian states.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Servia and Greece revolt from the Sultan.</div>
+
+<p>The Servians first revolted successfully against their oppressors, and
+forced the Sultan (1817) to permit them to manage their own affairs,
+although he did not grant them absolute independence. Of the war of
+independence which the Greeks waged against the Turks (1821&ndash;1829)
+something has already been said.<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> The intervention of Russia,
+England, and France saved the insurgents from defeat, and in 1829 the
+Porte recognized the independence of Greece, which became a
+constitutional monarchy. The Turkish government also pledged itself to
+allow vessels of all nations to pass freely through the Dardanelles and
+the Bosporus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Crimean War, 1853&ndash;1856.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of the principality of Roumania, 1859.</div>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as a great part of the peoples still under Turkish rule in
+Europe were&mdash;like the Russians&mdash;Slavs and adherents of the Greek church,
+Russia believed that it had the best right to protect the Christians
+within the Sultan's dominions from the atrocious misgovernment of the
+Mohammedans. When in 1853 news reached the Tsar that the Turks were
+troubling Christian pilgrims, he demanded that he be permitted to assume
+a protectorate over all the Christians in Turkey. This the Porte refused
+to grant. Russia declared war and destroyed the Turkish fleet in the
+Black Sea. The English government looked with apprehension upon the
+advance of the Russians. It felt that it would be disastrous to western
+Europe if Russia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_669" id="Page_669">[Pg 669]</a></span> were permitted to occupy the well-nigh impregnable
+Constantinople and send its men-of-war freely about the Mediterranean.
+England therefore induced Napoleon III to combine with her to protect
+the Sultan's possessions. The English and French troops easily defeated
+the Russians, landed in the Crimea, and then laid siege to Sevastopol,
+an important Russian fortress on the Black Sea. Sevastopol fell after a
+long and terrible siege, and the so-called Crimean War came to a close.
+The intervention of the western powers had prevented the capture of
+Constantinople by the Russians, but very soon the powers recognized the
+practical independence of two important Turkish provinces on the lower
+Danube, which were united in 1859 into the principality of Roumania.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolt of Bosnia, 1875.</div>
+
+<p>The Turkish subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina naturally envied the
+happier lot of the neighboring Servians, who had escaped from the
+bondage of the Turks. These provinces were stirred to revolt in 1875,
+when the Turks, after collecting the usual heavy taxes, immediately
+demanded the same amount over again. The oppressed Christians proposed
+to escape Turkish tyranny by becoming a part of Servia. They naturally
+relied upon the aid of Russia to carry out their plans. The insurrection
+spread among the other Christian subjects of the Sultan, especially
+those in Bulgaria.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Bulgarian atrocities.</div>
+
+<p>Here the Turks wreaked vengeance upon the insurgents by atrocities which
+filled Europe with horror and disgust. In a single town six thousand of
+the seven thousand inhabitants were massacred with incredible cruelty,
+and scores of villages were burned. Russia, joined by Roumania,
+thereupon declared war upon the Porte (1877). The Turks were defeated,
+but western Europe would not permit the questions at issue to be settled
+without its approval. Consequently, a congress was called at Berlin
+under the presidency of Bismarck, which included representatives from
+Germany, Austria, Russia, England, France, Italy, and Turkey.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_670" id="Page_670">[Pg 670]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The Congress of Berlin (1878) and the eastern question.</div>
+
+<p>The Congress of Berlin determined that Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania
+should thereafter be altogether independent. The latter two became
+kingdoms within a few years, Roumania in 1881 and Servia in 1882. Bosnia
+and Herzegovina,<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> instead of becoming a part of Servia, as they
+wished, were to be occupied and administered by Austria, although the
+Sultan remained their nominal sovereign. Bulgaria received a Christian
+government, but was forced to continue to recognize the Sultan as its
+sovereign and pay him tribute.<a name="FNanchor_462_462" id="FNanchor_462_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a></p>
+
+<p>To-day the once wide dominions of the Sultan in Europe are reduced to
+the city of Constantinople and a strip of mountainous country stretching
+westward to the Adriatic.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;In addition to the works of Andrews and Fyffe
+referred to in the footnotes, the following are excellent short
+accounts of the political history of Europe since 1815. <span class="smcap">W.A.
+Phillips</span>, <i>Modern Europe</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.50);
+<span class="smcap">Seignobos</span>, <i>Political History of Europe since 1814</i>, carefully
+edited by MacVane (Henry Holt &amp; Co., $3.00), and the readable but
+partisan German work of M&uuml;ller, <i>Political History of Recent Times</i>
+(American Book Company, $2.00). For Germany: <span class="smcap">Munroe Smith</span>,
+<i>Bismarck and German Unity</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.00) and <span class="smcap">Kuno
+Francke</span>, <i>History of German Literature as determined by Social
+Forces</i> (Henry Holt &amp; Co., $2.50). For Italy: <span class="smcap">Thayer</span>, <i>Dawn of
+Italian Independence</i> (Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., 2 vols., $4.00);
+<span class="smcap">Stillman</span>, <i>Union of Italy</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.60); <span class="smcap">Countess
+Cesaresco</span>, <i>Liberation of Italy</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.75)
+and her <i>Cavour</i> (The Macmillan Company, 75 cents). For England:
+<span class="smcap">McCarthy</span>, <i>History of our Own Times</i> (issued by various publishers,
+e.g., Coates &amp; Co., 2 vols., $1.50).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_671" id="Page_671">[Pg 671]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XLI</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE OF TO-DAY</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>275.</b> The scholars and learned men of the Middle Ages were but little
+interested in the world about them. They devoted far more attention to
+philosophy and theology than to what we should call the natural
+sciences. They were satisfied in the main to get their knowledge of
+nature from reading the works of the ancients, above all of Aristotle.
+Roger Bacon, as we have seen, protested against the exaggerated
+veneration for books. He foresaw that a careful examination of the
+things about us,&mdash;like water, air, light, animals and plants,&mdash;would
+lead to important and useful discoveries which would greatly benefit
+mankind.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Modern scientific methods of discovering truth.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Experimentation.</div>
+
+<p>He advocated three methods of reaching truth which are now followed by
+all scientific men. In the first place, he proposed that natural objects
+and changes should be examined with great care, in order that the
+observer might determine exactly what happened in any given case. This
+has led in modern times to incredibly refined measurements and analysis.
+The chemist, for example, can now determine the exact nature and amount
+of every substance in a cup of impure water, which may appear perfectly
+limpid to the casual observer. Then, secondly, Roger Bacon advocated
+experimentation. He was not contented with mere observation of what
+actually happened, but tried new and artificial combinations and
+processes. Nowadays experimentation is constantly used by scientific
+investigators, and by means of it they discover many things which the
+most careful observation would never reveal. Thirdly, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_672" id="Page_672">[Pg 672]</a></span> order to carry
+on investigation and make careful measurements and the desired
+experiments, apparatus designed for the special purpose of discovering
+truth was necessary. As early as the thirteenth century it was found,
+for example, that a convex crystal or bit of glass would magnify
+objects, although several centuries elapsed before the microscope and
+telescope were devised.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Astrology grows into astronomy.</div>
+
+<p>The progress of scientific discovery was hastened, strangely enough, by
+two grave misapprehensions. In the Middle Ages even the most intelligent
+believed that the heavenly bodies influenced the fate of mankind;
+consequently, that a careful observation of the position of the planets
+at the time of a child's birth would make it possible to forecast his
+life. In the same way important enterprises were only to be undertaken
+when the influence of the stars was auspicious. Physicians believed that
+the efficacy of their medicines depended upon the position of the
+planets. This whole subject of the influence of the stars upon human
+affairs was called astrology, and was in some cases taught in the
+medi&aelig;val universities. Those who examined the stars gradually came,
+however, to the conclusion that the movements of the planets had no
+effect upon humanity; but the facts which the astrologers had discovered
+through careful observation became the basis of modern astronomy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alchemy grows into chemistry.</div>
+
+<p>In the same way chemistry developed out of the medi&aelig;val study of
+alchemy. The first experimentation with chemicals was carried on with
+the hope of producing gold by some happy combination of less valuable
+metals. But finally, after learning more about the nature of chemical
+compounds, it was discovered that gold was an element, or simple
+substance, and consequently could not be formed by combinations of other
+substances.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Discovery that the universe follows natural laws.</div>
+
+<p>In short, observation and experimentation were leading to the most
+fundamental of all scientific discoveries, namely, the conviction that
+all the things about us follow certain natural,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_673" id="Page_673">[Pg 673]</a></span> immutable laws. The
+modern scientific investigator devotes a great part of his attention to
+the discovery of these laws and their application. He has given up any
+hope of reading man's fate in the stars or of producing any results by
+magical combinations. Unlike the medi&aelig;val writers, he hesitates to
+accept as true the reports which reach him of miracles, that is, of
+exceptions to the general laws, because he is convinced that the natural
+laws have been found to work regularly in every instance where they have
+been carefully observed. His study of the natural laws has, however,
+enabled him to produce far more marvelous results than those reported of
+the medi&aelig;val magician.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Galileo's telescope.</div>
+
+<p><b>276.</b> In a previous chapter the progress of science for three hundred
+years after Roger Bacon has been briefly noted.<a name="FNanchor_463_463" id="FNanchor_463_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> With the exception
+of Copernicus the investigators of this period are scarcely known to us.
+In the seventeenth century, however, progress became very rapid and has
+been steadily accelerating since. In astronomy, for example, the truths
+which had been only suspected by earlier astronomers were demonstrated
+to the eye by Galileo (1564&ndash;1642). By means of a little telescope, which
+was hardly so powerful as the best modern opera glasses, he discovered
+(in 1610) the spots on the sun. These made it plain that the sun was
+revolving on its axis as astronomers were already convinced that the
+earth revolved. He saw, too, that the moons of Jupiter were revolving
+about their planet in the same way that the planets revolve about the
+sun.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sir Isaac Newton and his discovery of the law of universal
+gravitation.</div>
+
+<p>The year that Galileo died, the famous English mathematician, Sir Isaac
+Newton, was born (1642&ndash;1727). He carried on the work of earlier
+astronomers by the application of higher mathematics, and proved that
+the force of attraction which we call gravitation was a universal one,
+and that the sun and the moon and the earth, and all the heavenly
+bodies, are attracted to one another inversely as the square of the
+distance.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_674" id="Page_674">[Pg 674]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Development of the microscope.</div>
+
+<p>While the telescope aided the astronomer, the microscope contributed far
+more to the extension of practical knowledge. Rude and simple
+microscopes were used with advantage as early as the seventeenth
+century. Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch linen merchant, so far improved his lenses
+that he discovered the blood corpuscles and (1665) the "animalcul&aelig;" or
+minute organisms of various kinds found in pond water and elsewhere. The
+microscope has been rapidly perfected since the introduction of better
+kinds of lenses early in the nineteenth century, so that it is now
+possible to magnify minute objects to more than two thousand times their
+diameters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Advance in medical science.</div>
+
+<p>This has produced the most extraordinary advance in medicine and
+biology. It has made it possible to determine the difference between
+healthy and diseased tissue; and not many years ago the microscope
+revealed the fact that the bodies of animals and men are the home of
+excessively small organisms called bacteria, some of which, through the
+poisonous substances they give out, cause disease. The modern treatment
+of many maladies, such as consumption, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and
+typhoid, is based upon this momentous discovery. The success of surgical
+operations has also been rendered far more secure than formerly by the
+so-called antiseptic measures which are now taken to prevent the
+development of bacteria.<a name="FNanchor_464_464" id="FNanchor_464_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scientific discovery and invention did not affect daily life
+before the end of the eighteenth century.</div>
+
+<p><b>277.</b> The discoveries of the scientist and of the mathematician did not
+begin to be applied to the affairs of daily life until about a hundred
+and fifty years ago. No new ways had previously been discovered for
+traveling from place to place. Spinning and weaving were still carried
+on as they had been before the barbarians overran the Roman Empire.
+Iron, of which we now make our machines, could only be prepared for use
+expensively and in small quantities by means of charcoal and bellows.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_675" id="Page_675">[Pg 675]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">The 'domestic system' of manufacture.</div>
+
+<p>Manufacture still meant, as it did in the original Latin (<i>manu
+facere</i>), to make by hand. Artisans carried on their trade with their
+own tools in their own homes, or in small shops, like the cobbler of
+to-day. Instead of working with hundreds of others in a great factory
+and being entirely dependent upon his wages, the artisan, in England at
+least, was often able to give some attention to a small garden plot from
+which he derived a part of his support. This "domestic system" was
+displaced by factories, as the result of a series of mechanical
+inventions made in England during the latter half of the eighteenth
+century. Through them machinery was substituted for hand and foot power
+and for the simple implements which had served the world for centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cheap iron and adequate power essential to the development of
+machinery.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Watt invents the steam engine.</div>
+
+<p>In order that machinery should develop and become widely useful, two
+things were necessary. In the first place, there must be some strong
+material available of which to make the machines; for that purpose iron
+and steel have, with few exceptions, proved to be the best. In the
+second place, some adequate power must be found to propel the machinery,
+which is ordinarily too heavy to be run by hand or foot power. This
+necessary motive power was discovered in steam. The steam engine was
+devised by James Watt, an English inventor of great ingenuity. He
+invented a cylinder containing a piston, which could be forced back and
+forth by the introduction of steam. His progress was much retarded by
+the inability of the mechanics of his time to make an accurate cylinder
+of sufficient size, but in the year 1777 the new machine was
+successfully used for pumping. A few years later (1785) he arranged his
+engine so that it would turn a wheel. In this way, for the first time,
+steam could be used to run machinery&mdash;the spindles, for example, in a
+cotton mill.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Steam used for spinning and weaving.</div>
+
+<p>A few years before Watt completed his improved steam engine, the old
+spinning wheel had been supplanted by the modern system, in which the
+thread is drawn out by means<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_676" id="Page_676">[Pg 676]</a></span> of spindles revolving at different rates
+of speed. The spindles, which had at first been run by water power,
+could now be propelled by steam. The old loom had also been improved,
+and weaving by steam began to become general after the year 1800.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Use of steam cheapens iron.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">New method of producing steel.</div>
+
+<p>Machinery, however, could not become common so long as iron and steel
+were expensive. The first use, therefore, to which the crude steam
+engines were put was to furnish a blast which enabled the iron smelter
+to employ coal instead of charcoal to fuse the iron ore (1777).
+Moreover, the steam pumps made it possible for the miners to pump out
+the water which impeded their work in the mines, and in this way
+cheapened both the iron and the coal. Soon the so-called "puddling
+furnace" was invented, by means of which steel was produced much more
+economically than it could be earlier. Rolling mills run by steam then
+took the place of the hammers with which the steel had formerly been
+beaten into shape. These discoveries of the use of steam and coal and
+iron revolutionized the life of the people at large in western Europe
+more quickly than any of the events which have been previously recorded
+in this volume. It is the aim of the remainder of this chapter to
+indicate very briefly the variety and importance of the effects produced
+by modern inventions.<a name="FNanchor_465_465" id="FNanchor_465_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Domestic industry supplanted by the factory system.</div>
+
+<p><b>278.</b> Machinery although very efficient was expensive, and had
+necessarily to be near the boilers which produced the steam.
+Consequently machines for particular purposes were grouped in factories,
+and the workmen left their homes and gathered in large establishments.
+The hand worker with his old tools was more and more at a disadvantage
+compared with the workman who produced commodities by machinery. The
+result was inevitable, namely, that domestic industry was supplanted by
+the factory.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_677" id="Page_677">[Pg 677]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">Advantages of machinery.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Division of labor.</div>
+
+<p>One of the principal advantages of the factory system is that it makes
+possible a minute division of labor. Instead of giving his time and
+thought to the whole process, each worker concentrates his attention
+upon one single step of the process, and by repeating a simple set of
+motions over and over again acquires wonderful dexterity. At the same
+time the period of necessary apprenticeship is shortened under the
+factory system, because each separate task is comparatively simple.
+Moreover, the invention of new machinery is increased, because the very
+subdivision of the process into simple steps often suggests some way of
+substituting mechanical motion for the motion of the human hand.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Examples of the increased production of goods by machinery.</div>
+
+<p>An example of the greatly increased output rendered possible by the use
+of machinery and division of labor is given by the distinguished Scotch
+economist, Adam Smith, whose great work, <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>,
+appeared in 1776. Speaking of the manufacture of a pin in his own time,
+Adam Smith says: "To make the head requires two or three distinct
+operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pin is
+another. It is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper, and
+the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into
+about eighteen distinct operations." By this division, he adds, ten
+persons can make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a
+day. A recent writer reports that now an English machine makes one
+hundred and eighty pins a minute, cutting the wire, flattening the
+heads, sharpening the points, and dropping the pin into its proper
+place. In a single factory which he visited seven million pins were made
+in a day, and three men were all that were required to manage the
+mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>Another example of modern mechanical work is found in printing. For
+several centuries after the development of that art the type was set up
+by hand, inked by hand, each sheet of paper was laid by hand upon the
+type and then printed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_678" id="Page_678">[Pg 678]</a></span> means of a press operated by a lever. Nowadays
+our newspapers are, in the great cities at least, printed almost
+altogether by machinery, from the setting up of the type until they are
+dropped complete and counted out by hundreds at the bottom of a rotary
+press. The paper is fed into the press from a great roll and is printed
+on both sides and folded at the rate of two hundred or more newspapers a
+minute.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">New means of communication.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Steamboats.</div>
+
+<p><b>279.</b> The factory system would never have developed upon a vast scale had
+the manufacturers been able to sell their goods only in the
+neighborhood. The discovery that steam could be used to carry the goods
+cheaply and speedily to all parts of the world made it possible for a
+manufacturer to widen his market indefinitely. Fulton, an American
+inventor, devised the first steamboat that was really successful, in
+1807, yet over half a century elapsed before steamships began to
+supplant the old and uncertain sailing ship. It is now possible to make
+the journey from New York to Southampton, three thousand miles, in less
+than six days, and with almost the regularity of an express train. Japan
+may be reached from Vancouver in thirteen days, and from San Francisco
+via Honolulu, a distance of five thousand five hundred miles, in
+eighteen days. A commercial map of the world shows that the globe is now
+crossed in every direction by definite routes, which are followed by
+innumerable freight and passenger steamers passing regularly from one
+port to another. These are able to carry goods for incredibly small
+sums. For example, wheat has frequently been shipped from New York to
+Liverpool for two cents a bushel.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Development of the railroad.</div>
+
+<p>Just as the gigantic modern steamship has taken the place of the
+schooner and clipper, so, on land, the merchandise which used to be
+slowly dragged in carts by means of horses and oxen is now transported
+in long trains of capacious cars, each of which holds as much as many
+ordinary carts. A ton of freight can now be carried for less than a cent
+a mile. In 1825 Stephenson's locomotive was put into operation in
+England.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_679" id="Page_679">[Pg 679]</a></span> Other countries soon began to follow England's lead in
+building railroads. France opened its first railroad in 1828, Germany in
+1835. By 1840 Europe had over eighteen hundred miles of railroad; fifty
+years later this had increased to one hundred and forty thousand.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Startling improvements in the means of communication.</div>
+
+<p>Besides the marvelous cheapening of transportation, other new means of
+communication have resulted from modern inventions. The telegraph, the
+submarine cable, and the telephone, all have served to render
+communication prompt and certain. Steamships and railroads carry letters
+half round the globe for a price too trivial to be paid for delivering a
+message round the corner. The old, awkward methods of making payments
+have given way to a tolerably uniform system of coinage. Instead of each
+petty principality and each town having its own coins, as was common,
+especially in Germany and Italy, before the nineteenth century, all
+coins are now issued by the national central governments. Yet the most
+convenient coins are difficult to transfer in large quantities, and
+nowadays all considerable sums are paid by means of checks and drafts.
+The banks settle their accounts by means of a clearing house, and in
+this way almost no large amount of money need pass from hand to hand.</p>
+
+<p>England took the lead in utilizing all these remarkable new inventions,
+and with their aid became, by the middle of the nineteenth century, the
+manufacturing center of the world. Gradually the new machinery was
+introduced on the continent, and since 1850 countries having the
+necessary coal, such as Germany and Belgium, have developed
+manufacturing industries which now rival those of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Some results of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth
+century.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rapid growth of the towns.</div>
+
+<p><b>280.</b> The <i>industrial revolution</i>, as the changes above referred to are
+usually called, could not but have a profound influence upon the life
+and government of Europe. For example, the population of Europe appears
+to have nearly doubled during the nineteenth century. One of the most
+startling tendencies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_680" id="Page_680">[Pg 680]</a></span> of recent times has been the growth of the towns.
+In 1800 London had a population of less than one million; it now
+contains over four million five hundred thousand inhabitants. Paris, at
+the opening of the French Revolution, contained less than seven hundred
+thousand inhabitants; it now has over two and a half millions. Berlin
+has grown in a hundred years from one hundred and seventy-two thousand
+to nearly two millions. In England a quarter of the whole population
+live in towns having over two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants,
+and less than a quarter still remain in the country. Our modern life is
+dominated by the great cities, which not only are the center of commerce
+and manufacturing, but are the homes of the artist and man of letters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reasons for the growth of the towns.</div>
+
+<p>There are two obvious reasons for the growth of the towns since the
+industrial revolution. In the first place, factories are established in
+places where there is an abundant supply of coal, or where conditions
+are otherwise favorable; and this brings a large number of people
+together. In the second place, there is no limit set to the growth of
+cities, as was formerly the case, by the difficulty of procuring food
+from a distance. Paris, in the time of Louis XVI, was not a large city
+in the modern sense of the word; still the government found it very
+difficult to secure a regular supply of food in the markets. Now grain
+and even meat and fruit are easily carried any distance. England imports
+a large amount of her meat from Australia, on the other side of the
+globe, and even her butter and eggs she gets largely from the continent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abolition of most of the restrictions on trade and industry.</div>
+
+<p><b>281.</b> Before the nineteenth century the European governments had been
+accustomed to regulate trade, industry, and commerce by a great variety
+of laws, which were supposed to be necessary for the protection of the
+public. Of this we find examples in the English Navigation Acts;<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> in
+the guilds, which under the protection of the government enjoyed a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_681" id="Page_681">[Pg 681]</a></span>
+monopoly of their industries in their particular districts; in the
+regulations issued by Colbert<a name="FNanchor_467_467" id="FNanchor_467_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> and in the grain laws in both France
+and England, which limited the free importation and even the exportation
+of grain.</p>
+
+<p>The French and English economists in the eighteenth century, like Turgot
+and Adam Smith, advocated the abolition of all restrictions, which they
+believed did far more harm than good. The expediency of this <i>laissez
+faire</i>,<a name="FNanchor_468_468" id="FNanchor_468_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> or free-trade policy, has now been recognized by most
+European powers. England abolished her grain laws (the so-called Corn
+Laws) in 1846, and since then has adopted the policy of free trade,
+except so far as she raises a revenue from customs duties imposed upon a
+very few commodities, like liquor and tobacco. Low import duties are
+collected by most of the European powers on goods entering their
+territories, but all export duties have been abolished as well as all
+customs barriers within the countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Government regulations protecting the laborer.</div>
+
+<p>A short experience with the factory system showed the need of
+regulations designed to protect the laborer.<a name="FNanchor_469_469" id="FNanchor_469_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> There was a temptation
+for the new factories to force the employees to work an excessive number
+of hours under unhealthful conditions. Women and children were set to
+run the machines, and their strength was often cruelly overtaxed. Women
+and children were also employed in the coal mines, under terribly
+degrading conditions. One of the great functions of our modern
+governments has been to pass laws to protect the working men and women
+and to improve their condition. Germany has been particularly active in
+this sort of regulation, and has gone so far as to compel workingmen to
+insure themselves for the benefit of their families.<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Labor unions.</div>
+
+<p>Another development of the factory system has been the rise of labor
+unions. These are voluntary associations intended to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_682" id="Page_682">[Pg 682]</a></span> promote the
+interests of their members. They have grown as the factory system has
+been extended, and they now enjoy an influence in certain industries
+comparable to that exercised by the craft guilds of the Middle Ages. The
+governments do not undertake, however, to enforce the regulations of the
+labor unions as they formerly did of the guilds.<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The people admitted to a share in the government.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of modern constitutions.</div>
+
+<p><b>282.</b> The extension of manufacturing industries has had much to do with
+the gradual admission of the people to a share in the government. The
+life in towns and cities has quickened the intelligence of the working
+classes, so that they are no longer willing to intrust the affairs of
+government entirely to a king or to the representatives of the upper
+classes. The result of this was, as we have seen, that constitutions
+were, during the nineteenth century, introduced into all the western
+European states. While these differ from one another in detail, they all
+agree in establishing a house of representatives, whose members are
+chosen by the people at large. Gradually the franchise has been extended
+so that the poorest laborer, so soon as he comes of age, is permitted to
+have a voice in the selection of the deputies.<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> Without the sanction
+of the representatives of the people, the king and the upper, more
+aristocratic house are not allowed to pass any law or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_683" id="Page_683">[Pg 683]</a></span> establish any new
+tax. Each year a carefully prepared list of expenses must be presented
+to the lower house and receive its ratification before money collected
+by taxation can be spent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Equality before the law.</div>
+
+<p>The French prefaced their first constitution by the memorable words:
+"All citizens being equal before the law, are alike eligible to all
+public offices and positions of honor and trust, according to their
+capacity, and without any distinction, except that of their character
+and ability." This principle, so different from that which had hitherto
+prevailed, has been recognized in most of the modern European
+constitutions. The privileges and exceptions which everywhere existed
+before the French Revolution have been abolished. Modern European
+governments are supposed to treat all alike, regardless of social rank
+or religious belief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Religious equality in England.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Repeal of the Test Act, 1828.</div>
+
+<p>At the opening of the nineteenth century England still kept on the
+statute book the laws debarring Roman Catholics and dissenters from
+sitting in Parliament or holding any public office. Exceptions, however,
+were made in the case of the dissenters. Finally, after violent
+opposition on the part of the conservative party, the Test Act, passed
+in the reign of Charles II,<a name="FNanchor_473_473" id="FNanchor_473_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> was repealed in 1828. Next year the
+Roman Catholics were also given the right to sit in Parliament and to
+hold office, like the other subjects of the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Free and compulsory education under the control of the
+state.</div>
+
+<p>Education, which was formerly left to the church, has during the
+nineteenth century become one of the most important functions of
+government. Boys and girls of all classes, between the ages of four and
+fourteen or fifteen, are now generally forced to take advantage of the
+schools which the government supports for their benefit. Tuition is free
+in France, Italy, Norway, and Sweden, and only trifling fees are
+required in Germany and elsewhere in western Europe. In 1902 the English
+Parliament and the French Legislative Assembly each appropriated about
+forty million dollars for educational purposes. As an example of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_684" id="Page_684">[Pg 684]</a></span> the
+rapid advance in education in recent times, it may be noted that in
+1843, among those who married in England and Wales, one third of the men
+and half of the women were unable to sign their names in the marriage
+registers. In 1899 all but three men in a hundred could write, and
+almost as many of the women.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Warfare in recent times.</div>
+
+<p><b>283.</b> The general advance in education has not yet taught nations to
+settle all their disputes without recourse to war. It is true that since
+Napoleon's downfall there have been but three or four serious wars in
+western Europe, and these very brief ones compared with the earlier
+conflicts. But the European powers spend vast amounts annually in
+maintaining standing armies and building battle ships. France and
+Germany have each a force of over half a million carefully trained
+soldiers ready to fight at any moment, and two million more who can be
+called out with the utmost speed should war be declared.<a name="FNanchor_474_474" id="FNanchor_474_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> The
+invention of repeating rifles and of new and deadly explosives have,
+however, rendered war so terrible a thing to contemplate that statesmen
+are more and more reluctant to suggest a resort to arms.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">European colonies in the nineteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>Recent wars and the frequent rumors of war have had their origin mainly
+in disagreements over colonial matters. The anxiety of the European
+powers to extend their control over distant parts of the world is now no
+less marked than it was in the eighteenth century. Modern means of
+communication have naturally served to make the world smaller and more
+compact. An event in London is known as promptly in Sydney as in Oxford.
+A government can send orders to its commanders on the opposite side of
+the globe as easily as if they were but five miles away. Supplies,
+ammunition, and arms are, moreover, readily and speedily transferred to
+remote points.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Spanish colonies in North and South America establish
+their independence, 1810&ndash;1826.</div>
+
+<p>At the opening of the nineteenth century Spain still held Mexico,
+Florida, Central America, and most of South America<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_685" id="Page_685">[Pg 685]</a></span> except Brazil,
+which belonged to Portugal. During the Napoleonic period the Spanish
+colonies revolted and declared their independence of the mother
+country,&mdash;Mexico, New Granada, Chile, and the region about Buenos Ayres
+in 1810, Venezuela in 1811, etc. By 1826 Spain had been forced to give
+up the struggle and withdraw her troops from the American continent. In
+1822 Brazil declared itself independent of Portugal. After the recent
+war with the United States Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico, and the
+Philippines, the last remnants of her once imposing colonial domains.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expansion of England during the nineteenth century.</div>
+
+<p>England, on the other hand, has steadily increased her colonial realms
+and her dependencies during the nineteenth century, and has met with no
+serious losses since the successful revolt of the thirteen American
+colonies. In 1814 she acquired the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch, and
+since then the territory has been enlarged by adding the adjacent
+districts. During the last years of the nineteenth century England
+busied herself extending her power over large tracts of western,
+central, and eastern Africa.</p>
+
+<p>England has secured her interests in the eastern Mediterranean by
+gaining control of the Suez Canal, which was completed in 1869, mainly
+with French capital. In 1875 she purchased the shares owned by the
+khedive of Egypt. Then, since the khedive's finances were in a very bad
+way, she arranged to furnish him, in the interest of his creditors and
+in agreement with France, with financial advisers without whose approval
+he can make no financial decision. Moreover, English troops are
+stationed in Egypt with a view of maintaining order.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern hemisphere England has colonized the continent of
+Australia, the large islands of New Zealand, Tasmania, etc. The mother
+country wisely grants these colonies and Canada almost complete freedom
+in managing their own affairs. The Canadian provinces formed a
+federation among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_686" id="Page_686">[Pg 686]</a></span> themselves in 1867, and in 1901 the Commonwealth of
+Australia was proclaimed, a federation of the five Australian colonies
+and the island of Tasmania.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expansion of Russia since the Crimean War.</div>
+
+<p>France exercises a wide influence in Africa and even Germany has made
+some effort to gain a foothold there; but the most momentous extension
+of a European power is that of Russia. Since the Crimean War Russia has
+pressed steadily into central Asia, so that now her boundaries and those
+of the English possessions in India practically touch one another. She
+has also been actively engaged in the Far East. In 1898 she leased Port
+Arthur from China, and now the Trans-Siberian Railroad connects this as
+well as Vladivostok on the Pacific coast with Moscow.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Far Eastern Question.</div>
+
+<p>Recent events have shown that the European powers are likely to come
+into hostile relations with one another in dealing with China. The
+problem of satisfying the commercial and military demands of the various
+nations constitutes what is known as the Far Eastern Question.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General disturbance caused by war in modern conditions.</div>
+
+<p>While all these conquests of the European powers increase the
+probability of friction and misunderstandings, there is a growing
+abhorrence of war. It appears more inhuman to men of to-day than it did
+to their ancestors. Moreover, all parts of the world are now so
+dependent each on the other that even the rumor of war may produce
+disastrous results far and wide. The prospect of war frightens the
+merchants, checks commerce and industry, and causes loss both to the
+laborer and the capitalist.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The peace conference at The Hague, 1899.</div>
+
+<p>Many difficulties between nations can now be adjusted by the rules of
+international law. Arbitration is more and more frequently preferred to
+war. In 1899 an international peace conference was held at The Hague at
+the suggestion of the Tsar. Its object was to consider how the European
+powers might free themselves from the burden of supporting tremendous
+armies and purchasing the terrible engines of destruction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_687" id="Page_687">[Pg 687]</a></span> which modern
+ingenuity has conceived. The resolutions of the conference embody rules
+for adjusting international disputes and prohibiting the use of
+particularly cruel and murderous projectiles, and for the treatment of
+prisoners of war, etc.</p>
+
+<p>It has been possible to mention only a few of the startling achievements
+and changes which the nineteenth century has witnessed. Enough has,
+however, been said to show that Europe to-day differs perhaps more
+fundamentally from the Europe Napoleon knew than did Napoleon's world
+from Charlemagne's. Although civil and religious liberty and equality
+have been established, and incredible progress has been made in
+scientific thought, in general enlightenment, and in domestic comfort,
+yet the growth of democracy, the magnitude of the modern city, and the
+unprecedented development of industry and commerce have brought with
+them new and urgent problems which the future must face.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Reading.</b>&mdash;<i>The Progress of the Century</i> (Harper &amp; Bros.,
+$2.50), a collection of essays by distinguished writers and
+investigators, summing up the changes of the nineteenth century.
+<i>The Statesman's Year Book</i> (The Macmillan Company, $3.00) is
+issued each year and gives much valuable information in regard to
+the population, constitution, finances, educational system, etc.,
+of the European states. <span class="smcap">Wells</span>, <i>Recent Economic Changes</i> (D.
+Appleton &amp; Co., $2.00).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_689" id="Page_689">[Pg 689]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF BOOKS<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Adams, George B.</span>, <i>Civilization during the Middle Ages</i> (Charles
+Scribner's Sons, $2.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Adams, George B.</span>, <i>Growth of the French Nation</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$1.25).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Andrews</span>, <i>Historical Development of Modern Europe</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons,
+$2.75).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bryce</span>, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Volume I (The Macmillan Company, $3.75).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cesaresco</span>, <i>Liberation of Italy</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.75).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cheyney</span>, <i>Industrial and Social History of England</i> (The Macmillan
+Company, $1.40).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Colby</span>, <i>Selections from the Sources of English History</i> (Longmans, Green
+&amp; Co., $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cunningham</span>, <i>Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects: Volume II</i>,
+<i>Medi&aelig;val and Modern Times</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Emerton</span>, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i> (Ginn &amp; Company,
+$1.12).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Emerton</span>, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i> (Ginn &amp; Company, $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Fyffe</span>, <i>History of Modern Europe</i> (Henry Holt &amp; Co., $2.75).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Gardiner</span>, <i>Student's History of England</i> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., $3.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Green</span>, <i>Short History of the English People</i>, Revised Edition (Harper &amp;
+Bros., $1.20).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hassall</span>, <i>The Balance of Power</i> [Europe in the Eighteenth Century] (The
+Macmillan Company, $1.60).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hatch</span>, <i>Growth of Church Institutions</i> (Whittaker, $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, <i>A History of Germany in the Middle Ages</i> (The Macmillan
+Company, $2.60).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_690" id="Page_690">[Pg 690]</a></span></p><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, <i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (The
+Macmillan Company, $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Henderson</span>, <i>Short History of Germany</i>, 2 volumes (The Macmillan Company,
+$4.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hodgkin</span>, <i>Dynasty of Theodosius</i> (Clarendon Press, Oxford, $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Jessop</span>, <i>The Coming of the Friars</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.25).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Johnson</span>, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$1.75)</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Lee</span>, <i>Source-book of English History</i> (Henry Holt &amp; Co., $2.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Lowell, E.J.</span>, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i> (Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co.,
+$2.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mathews</span>, <i>The French Revolution</i> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., $1.25).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Munro</span>, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i> (D.C. Appleton &amp; Co., 90 cents).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Oman</span>, <i>Dark Ages</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.75).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Perkins</span>, <i>France under the Regency</i> (Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., $2.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Phillips</span>, <i>Modern Europe</i> (1815&ndash;1899) (The Macmillan Company, $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Rose</span>, <i>Life of Napoleon the First</i>, 2 volumes (The Macmillan Company,
+$4.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Rose</span>, <i>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$1.25).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Schwill</span>, <i>History of Modern Europe</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Smith, Munroe</span>, <i>Bismarck and German Unity</i> (The Macmillan Company,
+$1.00).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Stephens</span>, <i>The French Revolution</i>, 3 volumes (Charles Scribner's Sons,
+$7.50).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European
+History</i> (Department of History, University of Pennsylvania,
+Philadelphia. Single numbers, 10 cents; double numbers, 20 cents).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Wakeman</span>, <i>Europe from 1598 to 1715</i> (The Macmillan Company, $1.40).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Walker</span>, <i>The Protestant Reformation</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.00).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_691" id="Page_691">[Pg 691]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p class="index">
+<span class="smcap">Abbeys</span>, <i>see</i> Monasteries.<br />
+<br />
+Abbot, meaning of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Abbots chosen by feudal lords, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Abelard, <a href="#Page_268">268</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Absolute monarchy, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> ff., <a href="#Page_496">496</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Acolyte, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Acre taken in First Crusade, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Act of Appeals, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Act of Supremacy, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Act of Uniformity, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adda, valley of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Address to the German Nobility</i>, by Luther, <a href="#Page_396">396</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Adrian VI, Pope, attempts reformation of Church, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adrianople, battle of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>&AElig;neid</i>, copies of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Agincourt, battle of (1415), <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Agricola, Rudolph, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aids, feudal, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Aistulf, Lombard king, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's palace at, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alaric takes Rome, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Albertus Magnus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes commentary on Aristotle, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Albigenses, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crusade against, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> f., <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Alchemy, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aleander's views of Protestant revolt, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alemanni, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted conversion of, by St. Columban, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Alessandria built, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alexander III, Pope, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Alexander VI, Pope (Borgia), <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alexander I, Tsar, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alexius, Emperor, and First Crusade, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Alsace ceded to Germany, <a href="#Page_472">472</a> f., <a href="#Page_663">663</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Alva, <a href="#Page_448">448</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Amalfi, commerce of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ambrose, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+America, North, explored by English, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br />
+<br />
+American colonies of England, revolt of, <a href="#Page_532">532</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+American Revolution, <a href="#Page_533">533</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Amiens, rupture of Treaty of, <a href="#Page_610">610</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Anabaptists, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Anagni, attack on Boniface VIII at, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ancien R&eacute;gime</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Andrea del Sarto, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Angelico, Fra, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Angevins, <i>see</i> Plantagenets.<br />
+<br />
+Angles, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settle in Britain, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Anjou, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Anne, Queen, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Antioch, Latin principality of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Antwerp, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Appanages</i>, creation of, in France, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aquinas, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. <i>See also</i> Guienne.<br />
+<br />
+Arabia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Arabs, condition of, before Mohammed, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquests of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquer Syria, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilization of, in Spain, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Aragon united with Castile, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Archbishops, origin of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">powers of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Arches defined and illustrated, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Architecture, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_692" id="Page_692">[Pg 692]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gothic, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic, <a href="#Page_266">266</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Aristotle, medi&aelig;val veneration for, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dante's estimate of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Arius, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Arles, <i>see</i> Burgundy.<br />
+<br />
+Armada, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Arnold of Brescia, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Arnulf of Carinthia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Art, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fostered by Italian despots, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabic, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Arthur, nephew of John of England, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Artois, count of, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>. <i>See</i> Charles X of France.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Assignats</i>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Astrology, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Astronomy, medi&aelig;val knowledge of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discoveries of Copernicus, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern, <a href="#Page_672">672</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Athanasius, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Athens, school at, closed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Attila, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Augsburg, Hungarians defeated near, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confession of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diet of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious Peace of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a> f., <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Augustine, Bishop of England, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, note, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Augustinian order, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, note, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Austerlitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Australia, <a href="#Page_685">685</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Austrasia, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Austria, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hold of, on Italy, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflicts with Turks, <a href="#Page_517">517</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of 1809 with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mixed population of, <a href="#Page_632">632</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, after 1815, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of 1848 in, <a href="#Page_644">644</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition of, to German unity, <a href="#Page_651">651</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of influence of, after 1851, <a href="#Page_653">653</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Prussia (1866), <a href="#Page_660">660</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Austrian Mark, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Austrian Netherlands, given to France, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Holland, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Austrian Succession, War of, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Avignon, seat of papacy (1305&ndash;1377), <a href="#Page_307">307</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement VII, anti-pope, re&euml;stablishes papal court at, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Azores Islands discovered by Portuguese, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Baber</span>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1305&ndash;1377), <a href="#Page_307">307</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Babylonian Captivity of the Church</i>, by Luther, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Roger, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bacteria, <a href="#Page_674">674</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Baden granted a constitution, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.<br />
+<br />
+B&aelig;da, <i>see</i> Venerable Bede.<br />
+<br />
+Bagdad, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Baillis</i>, established by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Balance of power, <a href="#Page_427">427</a> f., <a href="#Page_625">625</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Baldwin, in First Crusade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruler of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Balliol, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Banking, origin of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bannockburn, battle of (1314), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Banquet</i>, Dante's, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Baptism essential to salvation, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacrament of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Baptists, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Barbarians, <i>see</i> Germans.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Barbarians, Laws of the</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Barbarossa, Frederick, <i>see</i> Frederick I, Emperor.<br />
+<br />
+Barebone's Parliament, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Barons, War of the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Basel, Council of (1431&ndash;1449), <a href="#Page_318">318</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Basil, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bastile, fall of the, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bavaria, conquered by the Franks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made an electorate, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in War of Austrian Succession, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elector of, assumes title of king, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted a constitution, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Baylen, battle of, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bede, <i>see</i> Venerable Bede.<br />
+<br />
+Bedford, duke of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Beggars" of the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Belgium, <a href="#Page_627">627</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes an independent kingdom, <a href="#Page_640">640</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_693" id="Page_693">[Pg 693]</a></span>Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Benedict, St., <a href="#Page_57">57</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rule of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Benedict IX, Pope, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Benedict XIII, Pope, deposed by Council of Pisa, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Council of Constance, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Benedictine order, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Beneficium</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Berbers, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Berlin, Congress of, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bible, translated into Gothic, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wycliffe's translation of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first printed, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, before Luther, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Luther's translation of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, for Catholics, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English translation of, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">King James version of, <a href="#Page_478">478</a> and note.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bishop of Rome, not yet pope in Constantine's time, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obscurity of the early, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valentinian's decree concerning, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pope.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bishops, origin of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of choosing, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complicated position of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duties, position, and importance of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bismarck, <a href="#Page_657">657</a> ff., <a href="#Page_663">663</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Black Death (1348&ndash;1349), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Black Friars, <i>see</i> Dominicans.<br />
+<br />
+"Black Hole" of Calcutta, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Black Prince of England, at Cr&eacute;cy, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Poitiers, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Blockade, <a href="#Page_615">615</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Boethius, last distinguished Roman writer, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> f., <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bohemia, Huss spreads Wycliffe's doctrines in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation with Council of Basel, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolts from the Hapsburgs, <a href="#Page_466">466</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bohemians, Charlemagne forces, to pay tribute, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bohemond, in First Crusade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Boleyn, Anne, <a href="#Page_429">429</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Bologna, study of Roman law at, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bonaparte, analysis of character of, <a href="#Page_595">595</a> ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Napoleon.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bonaventura, head of Franciscan order, quoted, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Boniface, St., apostle to the Germans, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anoints Pippin, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Boniface VIII, Pope, struggle with Philip the Fair, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Book of Prayer, English, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Books copied by monks, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Borgia, C&aelig;sar, hero of Machiavelli's <i>Prince</i>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Borodino, battle of, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bosnia, <a href="#Page_669">669</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Boso, count of Vienne, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bosworth Field, battle of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bothwell, <a href="#Page_459">459</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Boulogne, Napoleon's army at, <a href="#Page_610">610</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Bourbon kings, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brandenburg, electorate of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a> f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Prussia.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brazil, <a href="#Page_685">685</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Breitenfeld, battle of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bremen, foundation of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">member of the German empire, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bretigny, Treaty of (1360), <a href="#Page_286">286</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Britain conquered by the Angles and Saxons, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">church of, yields to Roman Church, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brittany, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bruce, Robert, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Bruges, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brumaire, eighteenth, <a href="#Page_598">598</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bruni, Leonardo, estimate of importance of Greek studies, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bruno, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Buckingham, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_669">669</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Bulgaria, South, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Bulls, papal, origin of name, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Bundesrath</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Burgher class, rise of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Burgundians, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, entering the empire, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Burgundy, county of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Franche-Comt&eacute;.</span><br />
+<br />
+Burgundy, duchy of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_694" id="Page_694">[Pg 694]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance with England, <a href="#Page_292">292</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, under Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Burgundy, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> and note, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Burnt Njal, The Story of</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Buttress, flying, defined and illustrated, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Byzantium, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cabinet</span>, English, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cadiz, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.<br />
+<br />
+C&aelig;dmon, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br />
+<br />
+C&aelig;sar, drives back the Germans, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquers Britain, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Cahiers</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Calais taken by English, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calcutta, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Black Hole" of, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Calendar, French republican, <a href="#Page_582">582</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Caliph, title of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calmar, Union of, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calonne, <a href="#Page_556">556</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms proposed by, <a href="#Page_558">558</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Calvin, <a href="#Page_425">425</a> f., <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calvinists, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cambray, League of (1508), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Campo-Formio, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_594">594</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Canada won by the English, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_685">685</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Canary Islands discovered by Portuguese, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Canon law, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burned by Luther, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Canonical election, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Canons, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Canons and decrees of the Council of Trent, The</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Canossa, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Canterbury, the religious capital of England, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Martin's at, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dispute concerning Archbishop of, under John, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Capet, Hugh, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Capetian kings, position of early, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f., <a href="#Page_124">124</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Capitularies, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Carbonari</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cardinals, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> and note, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carloman, brother of Pippin, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carlsbad Resolutions, <a href="#Page_634">634</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Carlstadt, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Carnot, <a href="#Page_588">588</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carolingian line in France, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cassiodorus, his treatises on the liberal arts and sciences, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Castile, united with Aragon, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Castle, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Catechism, Napoleon's, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cathari, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cathedral, the medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Wells, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Catherine de' Medici, <a href="#Page_454">454</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Catherine of Aragon, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Catherine II of Russia, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Catholic Church, early conception of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Church, Clergy.</span><br />
+<br />
+Catholic League of Dessau, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Catholic League in Germany, <a href="#Page_466">466</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Catholic party, formation of a, at Regensburg, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Catholic reaction, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Catholic reformation, <a href="#Page_412">412</a> f., <a href="#Page_437">437</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Cavaliers, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cavour, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Celibacy of the clergy, <i>see</i> Marriage.<br />
+<br />
+Celts in Britain, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chalcedon, Act of the Council of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ch&acirc;lons, battle of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Champagne, counts of, growth of possessions of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> f;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Chapter, cathedral, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ideal of, of a great German empire, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coronation of, as emperor, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">re&euml;stablishes the Western Empire, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system of government of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his farms, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> and note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interest of, in schools, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> ff., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disruption of empire of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collects German poems, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hero of romances, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aids Boniface, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats the Mohammedans at Tours, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Charles the Bald, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> f., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charles the Fat, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles the Simple, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, note, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_695" id="Page_695">[Pg 695]</a></span>Charles V of France (1364&ndash;1380) reconquers most of English possessions in France, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles VI of France, <a href="#Page_292">292</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles VII of France, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles VIII of France invades Italy, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles IX of France, <a href="#Page_454">454</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Charles X of France, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>. <i>See also</i> Artois, count of.<br />
+<br />
+Charles the Bold of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charles V, Emperor, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessions of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coronation of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wars with Francis I, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at diet of Worms, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Augsburg, <a href="#Page_417">417</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward the Protestants, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abdicates, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Charles VI, Emperor, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charles VII, Emperor, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles I of England, <a href="#Page_478">478</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial exactions of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">execution of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Charles II of England, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Charles II of Spain, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">will of, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Charles XII of Sweden, <a href="#Page_513">513</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charles Albert of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charter, French, of 1814, <a href="#Page_629">629</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Charter, the Great, of England, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charters granted to medi&aelig;val towns, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Chemistry, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chivalry, <a href="#Page_256">256</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Christian IV of Denmark, <a href="#Page_467">467</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Christian missions, map of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Christianity, preparation for, in Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promises of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pagan rites and conceptions adopted by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Christians, persecution of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chrysoloras called to teach Greek in Florence, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Church, apostolic, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organization of, before Constantine, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Theodosian Code, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">survives the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">greatness of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sources of power of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of, toward the civil government, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins to perform the functions of the civil government, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">co&ouml;peration of, with the civil government, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, note, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maintains knowledge of Latin, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of William the Conqueror in regard to English, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wealth of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands of, feudalized, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offices bought and sold, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and state, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and organization of medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">services of, to civilization, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evil effects of wealth upon, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loses power as modern states develop, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reasons for influence of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">corruption of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during Babylonian Captivity of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted reformation of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Constance, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted union of, with Eastern Church, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of humanists toward, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enthusiasm for, in Germany before Luther, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discontent with, in Germany, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France before the Revolution, <a href="#Page_541">541</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Voltaire, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">property of, confiscated by the National Assembly, <a href="#Page_570">570</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands, secularization of, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Church fathers, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cicero, humanists' estimate of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cisalpine republic, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cistercian order, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>City of God, The</i>, Augustine's, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, note, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Civil Constitution of the Clergy, <a href="#Page_571">571</a> f., <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Civil war in England, <a href="#Page_485">485</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Classics, Greek and Roman, neglect of, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dante's respect for, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revival of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petrarch's enthusiasm and search for, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_696" id="Page_696">[Pg 696]</a></span>Clement V, Pope, removes seat of papacy to France, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clement VII, anti-pope, returns to Avignon, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clement VII, Pope, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clergy, minor orders of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">privileges of, in Theodosian Code, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward civil government, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lower, demoralized by simony, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, to civilization, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">benefit of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">corruption of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">secular, opposition of, to mendicant orders, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform of, at Regensburg, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of Henry VIII toward, <a href="#Page_429">429</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France before the Revolution, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">representatives of, join third estate, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil Constitution of, <a href="#Page_571">571</a> f., <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">non-juring, in France, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Marriage.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Clericis laicos</i>, papal bull, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clive, <a href="#Page_531">531</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Clovis, conquests of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conversion of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of soldiers of, baptized, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cnut, king of England, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Coal, use of, <a href="#Page_676">676</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Code Napol&eacute;on</i>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Coinage, French king's control of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Colbert, reforms of, <a href="#Page_499">499</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Colet, <a href="#Page_426">426</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Coligny, <a href="#Page_455">455</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cologne, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elector of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Coloni</i>, condition of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Colonies, European, <a href="#Page_527">527</a> ff., <a href="#Page_684">684</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, in North America, <a href="#Page_527">527</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish, <a href="#Page_684">684</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Columban, St., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Columban St., Life of</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Columbus, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Comitatus</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Comites</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commendation, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Commerce, development of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#Page_243">243</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictions on, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France and England, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Commercial war between Holland and England, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Committee of Public Safety, <a href="#Page_585">585</a>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Common law, English, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commons, House of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. <i>See</i> Parliament.<br />
+<br />
+Commons, summoned to the French Estates General, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the English, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Commonwealth, England a, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commune, Paris, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection of, 1871, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Communes, establishment of, in France in 1789, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Communes, origin of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Communication, modern means of, <a href="#Page_678">678</a> f., <a href="#Page_684">684</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Communion under both kinds, <a href="#Page_432">432</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Compass, invention of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Compendiums, reliance upon, in later Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inherited by Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Compurgation, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Concordat, between Francis I and Pope Leo X, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1801, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cond&eacute;, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Condottieri</i>, Italian mercenary troops, <a href="#Page_326">326</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_612">612</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Confession, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Confession of Augsburg, <a href="#Page_417">417</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Confirmation, sacrament of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Congregational church, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Congress of Berlin, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_625">625</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Conrad II, Emperor, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conrad III, Emperor, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, note, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Consolation of Philosophy, The</i>, of Boethius, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Constance, heiress of Naples and Sicily, marries Emperor Henry VI, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Constance, Peace of (1183), <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Council of (1414), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Constantine, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Constantine VI, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Constantinople, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatened by Turks, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_697" id="Page_697">[Pg 697]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by the Turks, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bishop of, put on an equal footing with the Bishop of Rome, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during First Crusade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture of, affects the West, <a href="#Page_336">336</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desire of Russia for, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Constitution, first French, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the year VIII, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">veneration for a, in Italy, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Constitutional government, desire for, in France, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demand for, in Prussia, <a href="#Page_632">632</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted in southern Germany, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Piedmont, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Consul, title of Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Continental blockade, <a href="#Page_615">615</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Continental system, the, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Continuity of history, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conventicle Act, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Convention, French, <a href="#Page_582">582</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">close of, <a href="#Page_590">590</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Conversion of the Germans, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Saxons, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Copernicus (Kopernik), astronomical discoveries of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Copyists, carelessness of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> and note, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corbie, school at, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cordova, emir of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brilliant civilization of caliphate of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Corn Laws, <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corneille, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corsica added to France, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_592">592</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cortez conquers Mexico, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Council, general, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Clermont, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fourth Lateran, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Pisa, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Constance, <a href="#Page_314">314</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Basel, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Ferrara-Florence, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Luther recognizes fallibility of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Council of Blood, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Council of State, French, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Counter-reformation, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Counties, sheriffs in the English, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Counts, origin of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Counts of the march, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Coup d'&eacute;tat</i>, <a href="#Page_598">598</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Court, lord's, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Court of High Commission, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Covenant, National, <a href="#Page_483">483</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cr&eacute;cy, battle of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Crema destroyed by Frederick I, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Crimean War, <a href="#Page_668">668</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#Page_485">485</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_489">489</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cromwell, Richard, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Crusade, Albigensian, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> f., <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Crusades, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Culloden Moor, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Culture, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general use of Latin, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germanic languages, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romance languages, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">literature, romance, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chivalry, <a href="#Page_256">256</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ignorance of the past, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">popular science, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">art, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education, the universities, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman and canon law, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scholasticism, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Curia, papal, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Customs duties, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Customs lines, interior, <a href="#Page_539">539</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Customs union, German, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cyprian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Czar, <i>see</i> Tsar.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dagobert</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Damascus, seat of the caliphate, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Danegeld, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Danes, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invade England, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Alfred, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Danish language, derivation of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dante, <a href="#Page_330">330</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Danton, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dantzig, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dark age before Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Dark ages," meaning of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Darnley, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dauphin, origin of title, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Deacons, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Declaration of Independence, American, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Declaration of Rights, English, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_698" id="Page_698">[Pg 698]</a></span>Declaration of the Rights of Man, <a href="#Page_568">568</a> ff., <a href="#Page_629">629</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Degrees, university, explained, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Deist, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Departments in France, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Desaix, <a href="#Page_601">601</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Dessau, League of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Dialogues</i> of Gregory the Great, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Diaz rounds Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Dictatus</i> of Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Diet, German, attempts to reform government, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Directory, French, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a> f., <a href="#Page_601">601</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Discoveries in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_347">347</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern scientific, <a href="#Page_671">671</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dispensations, papal, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dissenters, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Divine Comedy</i> of Dante, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Divine right of kings, <a href="#Page_476">476</a> f., <a href="#Page_496">496</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Doge of Venice, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Domain, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Domesday Book</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dominican order organized, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Donauw&ouml;rth, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dresden, battle of, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dukes, origin of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dumouriez, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dunkirk, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dupleix, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.<br />
+<br />
+D&uuml;rer, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dutch, commerce of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Holland.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dutch language, derivation of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">East</span> Frankish kingdom, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br />
+<br />
+East Goths, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> f., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+East India Company, English, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Eastern Church, <i>see</i> Greek Church.<br />
+<br />
+Eastern Empire, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilization of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Eastern question, origin of, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Ecclesiastical states, origin of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, disappearance of, <a href="#Page_603">603</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Eck, <a href="#Page_392">392</a> f., <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Economists, French, <a href="#Page_552">552</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Edessa, Latin principality of, established, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Edict of Nantes, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Edict of Restitution, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Edict of Worms, <a href="#Page_403">403</a> f., <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Education, clerical monopoly of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">humanistic, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compulsory, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Edward I of England, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Edward II, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forced to abdicate, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Edward III, claims French crown, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> f., <a href="#Page_286">286</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Edward IV, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Edward V, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Edward VI, <a href="#Page_434">434</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Egbert, king of Wessex, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Egypt, Bonaparte's expedition to, <a href="#Page_597">597</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English occupation of, <a href="#Page_685">685</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Eisenach, Luther at, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elba, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elders, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Elders, Council of, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Electors in empire, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Elizabeth, queen of England, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a> ff., <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Embargo acts of the United States, <a href="#Page_615">615</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Emigrant nobles, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">permitted to return, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>&Eacute;migr&eacute;s</i>, <i>see</i> Emigrant nobles.<br />
+<br />
+Emirate of Cordova, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+"Emperor Elect," <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Emperor, Roman, his will law, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">worship of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Emperor, title of, held by Italian kings, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">assumed by Otto the Great, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">assumed by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">assumed by Austrian ruler, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Empire, re&euml;stablishment of, in the West, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">divisions of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> f., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with papacy, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Hohenstaufens, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Hapsburgs, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Holy Roman Empire.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_699" id="Page_699">[Pg 699]</a></span>Empire, Roman, character and organization of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Engine, steam, <a href="#Page_675">675</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+England, early culture in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes a part of the Catholic Church, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">claims of kings of, to France, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, in history of Europe, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the accession of William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feudalism in, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norman conquest of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made tributary to pope by John, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> f., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquers Wales, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with Scotland, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">union of, with Scotland, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during the Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> ff., <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff., <a href="#Page_301">301</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">labor problem of, and Peasants' War, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wars of the Roses, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">humanism in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant revolt in, <a href="#Page_426">426</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle for constitutional government, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishment of commonwealth, <a href="#Page_487">487</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restoration of the Stuarts, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of 1688, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the War of the Austrian Succession, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Seven Years' War, <a href="#Page_520">520</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expansion of, <a href="#Page_523">523</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonies of, in North America, <a href="#Page_527">527</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlements of, in India, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial possessions of, at end of eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">involved in war with France (1793), <a href="#Page_583">583</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">renews war with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_610">610</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expansion of, in the nineteenth century, <a href="#Page_685">685</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Britain.</span><br />
+<br />
+English language, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Epictetus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Equality before the law, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Erasmus, <a href="#Page_381">381</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of, toward Luther, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Estates General, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> f. and note, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> f., <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demanded by the <i>parlement</i> of Paris, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summoning of, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of (1789), <a href="#Page_562">562</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Esthonia, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Etruria, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eucharist, <i>see</i> Mass.<br />
+<br />
+Eugene IV, Pope, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eugene of Savoy, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Euric, king of West Goths, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Europe after 1814, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contemporaneous, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Excommunication, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Exorcist, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fabliaux</span>, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Far Eastern Question, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ferdinand I, Emperor, brother of Charles V, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ferdinand II, Emperor, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ferdinand of Aragon, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ferrara-Florence, Council of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Feudal dues, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolition of, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Feudal hierarchy, no regular, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Feudal registers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Feudalism, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origins of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> ff., <a href="#Page_102">102</a> f., <a href="#Page_104">104</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anarchy of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">connection of, with chivalry, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Fief, hereditary character of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions upon which granted, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> and note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classes of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> f., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Five Hundred, Council of, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Flanders, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> f., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weavers from, in England, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with England, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under dukes of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">art of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Flayers," <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Florence, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a> ff., <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Savonarola, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Fontenay, battle of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Foot soldiers, English, defeat French knights at Cr&eacute;cy, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Poitiers, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Agincourt, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Forest cantons, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br />
+<br />
+France, origin of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> f., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of early kings of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f., <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">genealogical table of the kings of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during the Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> ff., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standing army of, established, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_700" id="Page_700">[Pg 700]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition under Louis XI, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of Italian culture, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestantism in, <a href="#Page_451">451</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wars of religion, <a href="#Page_451">451</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">limits of, in 1659, <a href="#Page_501">501</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ascendency of, under Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_495">495</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absolute monarchy in, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms of Colbert, <a href="#Page_499">499</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of, at end of the reign of Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins in War of Austrian Succession, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance with the Hapsburgs, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessions in North America, <a href="#Page_527">527</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_529">529</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses of, at close of Seven Years' War, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aids the United States, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_535">535</a> f., <a href="#Page_537">537</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first Revolution, cause of, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">course of, <a href="#Page_558">558</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Republic, <a href="#Page_581">581</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reign of Terror, <a href="#Page_585">585</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of the year III, <a href="#Page_590">590</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms of Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restoration of the Bourbons, <a href="#Page_629">629</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of 1848, <a href="#Page_642">642</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third Republic, <a href="#Page_664">664</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Franche-Comt&eacute;, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceded to France, <a href="#Page_502">502</a> f. <i>See</i> Burgundy, county of.</span><br />
+<br />
+Francis I, Emperor, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Francis II, Emperor, assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Francis I of France, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wars with Emperor Charles V, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">persecutes the Protestants, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Francis II of France, <a href="#Page_452">452</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Francis Joseph I, accession of, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Francis of Assisi, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Franciscan order founded, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Franconian line of emperors, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Franco-Prussian War, <a href="#Page_662">662</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Frankfurt, National Assembly at, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Franks, conquests of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conversion of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance of, with popes, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> f. <i>See also</i> Charlemagne.</span><br />
+<br />
+Frederick, Elector of the Palatinate, <a href="#Page_466">466</a> f., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick II, Emperor, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> f., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick I of Prussia, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick II of Prussia, <i>see</i> Frederick the Great.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, collects relics, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patron of Luther, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Frederick William III of Prussia, <a href="#Page_613">613</a> f., <a href="#Page_621">621</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Frederick William IV of Prussia, <a href="#Page_652">652</a> f., <a href="#Page_656">656</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Freedmen, condition of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Freedom of the Christian</i>, by Luther, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Freemen in competition with slaves in Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Free towns, German. <i>See</i> Towns.<br />
+<br />
+French Academy, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br />
+<br />
+French and Indian War, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.<br />
+<br />
+French language, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br />
+<br />
+French Revolution, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opening of, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Frequens</i>, decree, of Council of Constance, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Friends, Society of, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Frisia, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fritzlar, sacred oak of Odin at, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fust, John, printer of Psalter of 1459, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Future life, pagan view of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christian view of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Galileo</span>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gall, St., Irish missionary, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monk of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> and note.</span><br />
+<br />
+Garibaldi, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gascony, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gaul, West Goths establish a kingdom in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupied by the Franks, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">church in, reformed and brought under the papal supremacy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gelasius, Pope, his opinion of the relation of the Church and the civil government, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Geneva, Calvin at, <a href="#Page_425">425</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_701" id="Page_701">[Pg 701]</a></span>Genghiz Khan, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Genoa, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">given to Sardinia, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Geoffrey, son of Henry II, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f. and note.<br />
+<br />
+George I of England, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.<br />
+<br />
+George II of England, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.<br />
+<br />
+George III, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br />
+<br />
+German Confederation of 1815, <a href="#Page_632">632</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissolution of, <a href="#Page_660">660</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+German empire, Proclamation of the, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>.<br />
+<br />
+German kings, difficulties of, caused by the imperial title, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vain attempt of, to control Italy, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+German kingship, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+German language, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> f. and note, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced to writing, <a href="#Page_252">252</a> f., <a href="#Page_258">258</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">books published in the, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Luther's time, <a href="#Page_405">405</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Germans, infiltration of, into Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objects of, in invading the Empire, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of invading, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fusion of, with the Romans, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of early, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conversion of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Germany, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foundation of towns in northern, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">assigned to Louis the German, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> f., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, contrasted with that of France, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under the same ruler as Italy, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confusion in, under Henry VI, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">want of unity in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">before Protestant revolt: complexity, organization, the electors, the</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">knights, the cities, neighborhood war, the diet, reorganization in</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fifteenth century, social and intellectual conditions, <a href="#Page_371">371</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during the Protestant revolt, <a href="#Page_405">405</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress of Protestantism in, <a href="#Page_418">418</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious division of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after the Thirty Years' War, <a href="#Page_473">473</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territorial reorganization of, in 1803, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of, in 1814, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of Napoleonic era in, <a href="#Page_631">631</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unification of, <a href="#Page_656">656</a> ff., <a href="#Page_665">665</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ghent, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ghibelline party, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Ghiberti, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gibbon, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">siege of, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Giotto, <a href="#Page_341">341</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Girondists, <a href="#Page_585">585</a> f., <a href="#Page_587">587</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Glass, stained, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> f., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Golden Bull sanctions neighborhood war, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Good Hope, Cape of, rounded by Diaz (1486), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceded to England, <a href="#Page_685">685</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gothic language, Bible translated into, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gothic type, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Government, difficulty of, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of feudalism on, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">natural, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern character of, <a href="#Page_682">682</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Grail, legend of Holy, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Granada, fall of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grand Alliance, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grand Remonstrance, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Granson, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gratian, <i>Decretum</i> of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gravitation, discovery of universal, <a href="#Page_673">673</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gray Friars, <i>see</i> Franciscans.<br />
+<br />
+Great Charter of England, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Great Elector of Prussia, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Great Khan, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Great Mogul, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Great St. Bernard crossed by Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greece, creation of the kingdom of, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greek books brought to Venice in 1423, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greek Church, tends to separate from the Latin, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">union of, with Western Church, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Greek culture in the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_702" id="Page_702">[Pg 702]</a></span>Greek language, knowledge of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revived study of, in Italy, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Greek New Testament, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gregory of Tours, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gregory the Great, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">writings of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missionary work of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gregory VI, Pope, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gregory VII, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, note, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict of, with Henry IV, <a href="#Page_167">167</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gregory XI, Pope, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gregory XII, Pope, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grotius, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guelf party, origin of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guienne, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Aquitaine.</span><br />
+<br />
+Guilds, craft, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> f., <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolition of, in France, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Guillotine, <a href="#Page_588">588</a> f. and notes.<br />
+<br />
+Guise, Henry of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guises, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gunpowder, invention of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gustavus Adolphus, <a href="#Page_468">468</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hades</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hadrian, tomb of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hadrian IV, Pope, and Frederick I, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Hadrian VI, Pope, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hague, peace conference at The, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hampden, John, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hanover, electorate of, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Hanover, house of, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupied by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_610">610</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with Prussia, <a href="#Page_613">613</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hanseatic League, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Hanseatic towns annexed to France, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hapsburg, Rudolf of, king of Germany, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hapsburgs, rise of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> f., <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a> f., <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Harold, Earl of Wessex, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Hastings, battle of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+H&eacute;bert, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Heilbronn, articles of, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hejira, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henrietta Maria, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry II of England, possession of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Henry III of England, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Henry IV of England, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry V of England continues Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Henry VII of England, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Henry VIII of England, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a> ff., <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry II of France, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry III of France, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry IV of France, <a href="#Page_457">457</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Henry I of Germany, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Henry III, Emperor, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intervenes in papal matters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Henry IV of Germany, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict of, with Gregory VII, <a href="#Page_167">167</a> ff., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Henry V, Emperor, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry VI, Emperor, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Henry of Navarre, <i>see</i> Henry IV of France.<br />
+<br />
+Henry the Lion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry the Proud, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Heresy, in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punishment of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Huss, <a href="#Page_314">314</a> f., <a href="#Page_403">403</a> and note.</span><br />
+<br />
+Herzegovina, <a href="#Page_669">669</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Hesse, Philip of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> f., <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hesse-Cassel, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hildebrand, <i>see</i> Gregory VII.<br />
+<br />
+Hindustan, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+History, scope of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">continuity or unity of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">notions of, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hohenstaufens, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Frederick I, Henry VI, Frederick II.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hohenzollern family, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Brandenburg and Prussia.</span><br />
+<br />
+Holbein, Hans, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holidays, number of, reduced in Germany, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holland, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with England, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with France, <a href="#Page_492">492</a> f., <a href="#Page_502">502</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonies of, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes the Batavian republic, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis Bonaparte, king of, <a href="#Page_613">613</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_703" id="Page_703">[Pg 703]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made a kingdom, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_632">632</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> United Netherlands.</span><br />
+<br />
+Holy Land, commercial interests of Italian cities in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Holy League formed by Pope Julius II against France, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holy League, French, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> f., <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">consolidation of, in 1803, <a href="#Page_603">603</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissolution of, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Germany.</span><br />
+<br />
+Homage, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> and note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refusal of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Horace, idea of life entertained by, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Satires</i> of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, note.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hospitalers, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+House of Lords, abolition of, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Parliament.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hrolf, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Huguenots, <a href="#Page_454">454</a> ff., <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Charles I attempts to aid, <a href="#Page_478">478</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, under Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_504">504</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Humanists, Italian, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#Page_379">379</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Humanities, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> ff., <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Hungarians, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Otto the Great, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hungary, freed from the Turks, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during revolution of 1848, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dual union of, with Austria, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Huns, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Huss, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> ff., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hussite wars, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hussites, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hutten, Ulrich von, <a href="#Page_385">385</a> f., <a href="#Page_395">395</a> f., <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Iconoclastic</span> controversy, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Images.</span><br />
+<br />
+Illuminations, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Images, demolition of, in England, <a href="#Page_433">433</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_447">447</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Immunities, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Imperial title, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Emperor.</span><br />
+<br />
+Indemnity, the French, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Independents, <a href="#Page_482">482</a> f. and note.<br />
+<br />
+India, Portuguese seek a sea route to, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europeans in, <a href="#Page_528">528</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during Seven Years' War, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Indulgences attacked by Wycliffe, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explained, <a href="#Page_390">390</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Luther toward, <a href="#Page_390">390</a> ff., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Industrial revolution, <a href="#Page_679">679</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Industry stimulated by commerce in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Infeudation, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of other things than land, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Innocent III, Pope, struggle of, with the Hohenstaufens, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to reform the Church, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Inquisition established, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Institutes of Christianity</i>, Calvin's, <a href="#Page_425">425</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Interdict, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br />
+<br />
+International law, <a href="#Page_507">507</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Invention, progress of, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_352">352</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern, <a href="#Page_674">674</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Investiture, lay, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> ff., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prohibition of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of, settled at Worms, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Invincible Armada, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ireland, <a href="#Page_461">461</a> f., <a href="#Page_487">487</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Irene, Empress, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Irish monks in Britain, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Iron industry, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Isabella, queen of Castile, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Islam, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Italian language, derivation of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by Dante in the <i>Divine Comedy</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Italy, during the barbarian invasions, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">united to Charlemagne's empire, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German kings make vain attempt to control, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">towns of, under Frederick I, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hohenstaufens in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> f., <a href="#Page_243">243</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_704" id="Page_704">[Pg 704]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">divisions of, in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_321">321</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture of, during the Renaissance, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of, by Charles VIII, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hold of Austria on, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bonaparte's campaign in, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon, king of, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after 1815, <a href="#Page_636">636</a> f., <a href="#Page_638">638</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence of, <a href="#Page_645">645</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions granted to various states of, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unification of, <a href="#Page_654">654</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of the present kingdom of, <a href="#Page_655">655</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ivan the Terrible, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Jacobins</span>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a> f., <a href="#Page_590">590</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jacobites, <a href="#Page_526">526</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+James I of England, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theory of kingship of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+James II, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.<br />
+<br />
+James VI of Scotland, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> James I of England.</span><br />
+<br />
+Jamestown, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jefferson, Thomas, opinion of the condition of France, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jena, battle of, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jerome, St., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advocate of the monastic life, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Jerome Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kingdom of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff., <a href="#Page_197">197</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Jesuits, order of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a> f., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jewry, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jews, economic importance of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">persecution of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Joan of Arc, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+John of England, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f., <a href="#Page_144">144</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vassal of pope, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+John, king of France, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+John Frederick of Saxony, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+John XXIII, Pope, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jongleurs, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Josephine, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Journal des Savants</i>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jousts, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jubilee at Rome (1300), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Julius II, Pope, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jury, origin of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Just price, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Justification by faith, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Justinian <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">closes government schools, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kadijah</span>, wife of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Kappel, battle of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Kent, king of, converted, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+King, position of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<br />
+King of Rome, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.<br />
+<br />
+King of the Romans, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Kneeling Parliament, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Knighthood, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Knights, summoned to the English Parliament, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disappearance of, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Knox, John, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Koran, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Kossuth, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Labor</span>, division of, <a href="#Page_677">677</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Labor unions, <a href="#Page_681">681</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Laborers, protection of, <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lafayette, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Laissez faire</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_681">681</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lancaster, house of, in England, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">genealogical table of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, note.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lancelot, description of, quoted, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Landholding, in the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Feudalism.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lanfranc, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Langton, Stephen, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Langue d'oc</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Langue d'o&iuml;l</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+La Rochelle, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.<br />
+<br />
+La Salle, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Latin Church tends to separate from the Greek, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Church.</span><br />
+<br />
+Latin language, contrast of the written, with the spoken, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">knowledge of, preserved by the Church, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general use of, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Latin literature, extinction of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Humanists.</span><br />
+<br />
+Laud, William, <a href="#Page_481">481</a> f., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br />
+<br />
+La Vend&eacute;e, revolt of, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_705" id="Page_705">[Pg 705]</a></span>Law, <i>see</i> Canon and Civil law.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Law of Free Monarchies, The</i>, of James I, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Law of Nature and Nations</i>, by Pufendorf, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Laws of the Barbarians</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lay investiture, <i>see</i> Investiture.<br />
+<br />
+Lea, Henry C., description of Church, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account of mendicants, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lef&egrave;vre, <a href="#Page_452">452</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Legates, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Legion of Honor, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Legislative Assembly, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Legitimists, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Legnano, battle of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leipsic, disputation at, <a href="#Page_392">392</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Leo the Great, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leo III, Emperor, forbids the veneration of images, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leo IX, Pope, reform begun by, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Leo X (Medici), Pope, patron of art, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leonardo da Vinci, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Leopold II, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leopold of Hohenzollern, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Letters of Obscure Men</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a> f., and note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Lettres de cachet</i>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leyden, siege of, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Libraries, destruction of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">established in Italy, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ligurian republic, <a href="#Page_610">610</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lisbon, trade in spices, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Lit de justice</i>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Livonia, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Logic, esteem for, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lombard cities, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> f., <a href="#Page_174">174</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Lombard League, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lombard, Peter, <i>Sentences</i> of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Lombards as bankers, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Lombards, History of the</i>, by Paulus Diaconus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lombards in Italy, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+London, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Long Parliament, <a href="#Page_484">484</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissolved by Cromwell, <a href="#Page_488">488</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lord, medi&aelig;val, position of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of term, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lord Protector, Cromwell, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lord's Supper, Zwingli's conception of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Mass.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lorraine, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">added to France, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">portion of, ceded to Germany, <a href="#Page_663">663</a> and note.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Lorsch, Chronicles of</i>, passage from, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lothaire, son of Louis the Pious, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Lotharii regnum</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis the Fat of France, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis the German, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis the Pious, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis IX (Saint), <a href="#Page_130">130</a> f., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XI of France, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XII of France, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XIII of France, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">idea of position of, <a href="#Page_496">496</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">court of, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wars of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of France at end of reign of, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Louis XV, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XVI, position of, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">removes to Paris, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight of, to Varennes, <a href="#Page_575">575</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment of, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trial and execution of, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Louis XVII, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XVIII, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of, <a href="#Page_629">629</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Louis Philippe, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Louisiana, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Low Church party, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Loyola, Ignatius, <a href="#Page_440">440</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+L&uuml;beck, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lucien Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_387">387</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burns the canon law, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early life and education of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enters monastery, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">justification by faith, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">called to Wittenberg, visits Rome, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">teaches biblical theology, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the theses of, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warfare against indulgences, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_706" id="Page_706">[Pg 706]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">debate with Eck at Leipsic, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with humanists, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Ulrich von Hutten, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Address to the German Nobility</i> of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Babylonian Captivity of the Church</i> of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excommunicated, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at diet of Worms, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outlawed by the emperor, <a href="#Page_403">403</a> and note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">translates the Bible, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of reform of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rash talk of, about princes, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacks the peasants, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+L&uuml;tzen, battle of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Luxembourg, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lyons revolts against the Convention, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Machiavelli</span>, <i>The Prince</i> of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Machinery, introduction of, <a href="#Page_675">675</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Madras, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magdeburg, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magellan circumnavigates the globe, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magyars, <i>see</i> Hungarians.<br />
+<br />
+Major Domus, <i>see</i> Mayors of the Palace.<br />
+<br />
+Malory, the <i>Mort d'Arthur</i> of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Malta, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mandeville, Sir John, referred to, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Manor, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">court of the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mantua, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Manufacture, increase of, in thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Manuscripts, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Marches, establishment of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marcus Aurelius, <i>Meditations of</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marengo, battle of, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Margaret, queen of Navarre, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Margraves, origin of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Maria Louisa, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Maria Theresa, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Marie Antoinette, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marlborough, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marquette, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marquises, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marriage, of the clergy, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> and note, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacrament of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Marseilles, revolt of, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marston Moor, battle of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mary of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mary of Modena, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mary, queen of England, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Mary Queen of Scots, <i>see</i> Mary Stuart.<br />
+<br />
+Mary Stuart, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Mass, the, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> f., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Matilda, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Maurice of Saxony, <a href="#Page_418">418</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Maximilian I, Emperor, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a> f., <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Maximilian of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mayence, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elector of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printing at, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mayflower, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mayors of the Palace, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mazarin, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mazzini, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mecca, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Medici, <a href="#Page_328">328</a> f., <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lorenzo de', <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">library of the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Medicine, modern advance in, <a href="#Page_674">674</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Medina, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Melanchthon, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mendicant orders, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Merovingian documents, carelessness of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Merovingian kings, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mersen, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Metric system, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Metternich, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_644">644</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Metz, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mexican expedition, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mexico, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Microscope, development of, <a href="#Page_674">674</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Middle Ages, meaning of term, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Middle kingdom of Lothaire, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Milan, Edict of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">married clergy in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction of, by Frederick I, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">despots of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">claimed by France, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">claimed by Charles V, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Miles Coverdale, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_707" id="Page_707">[Pg 707]</a></span>Military service, feudal, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Miniature, derivation of word, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Minnesingers, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Minor orders of the clergy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Minorca, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mirabeau, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Miracles, frequency of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Missi dominici</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Missions, greatly increase the power of the pope, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Model Parliament, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Modern languages, origin of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Mohammed, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Mohammedan conquests, <i>see</i> Arabic conquests.<br />
+<br />
+Mohammedan invasion of Italy, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Mohammedans, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> ff., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gradual expulsion of, from Spain, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Moli&egrave;re, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Moluccas, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monasteries, breaking up of, in Germany, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_432">432</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Monasticism, attraction of, for many different classes, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mongol emperors of India, <a href="#Page_529">529</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Mongols, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Moniteur</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monk, George, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monk of St. Gall, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Monks, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin and distinguished services of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> f., <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Monte Cassino, founding of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Montesquieu, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Moors, in Spain, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expulsion of, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Moravians, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+<br />
+More, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Morgarten, battle of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Mort d' Arthur</i>, Malory's, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Moscow, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">princes of, <a href="#Page_510">510</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon at, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mosque, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mountain party, <a href="#Page_585">585</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+M&uuml;nster, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Murat, king of Naples, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Murten, battle of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Nantes</span>, Edict of, granting of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revocation of, <a href="#Page_504">504</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Nantes, massacre at, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Naples, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, note, <a href="#Page_363">363</a> f., <a href="#Page_613">613</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Napoleon Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_592">592</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">idea of, of a European empire, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Memoirs</i> of, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Napoleon II, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Napoleon III, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intervenes in Italy, <a href="#Page_654">654</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, after 1866, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Naseby, battle of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<br />
+<br />
+National Assembly, first French, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">close of, <a href="#Page_576">576</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+National guard, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.<br />
+<br />
+National workshops, <a href="#Page_643">643</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+"Natural boundaries" of France, <a href="#Page_501">501</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Natural laws, discovery of, <a href="#Page_672">672</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Navigation Act, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Necker, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nelson, <a href="#Page_597">597</a> f., <a href="#Page_615">615</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Netherlands, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">come into Austrian hands, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV claims, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish, ceded to Austria, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Neustria, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+New Testament, edition of, by Erasmus, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.<br />
+<br />
+New York, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Newspapers, origin of French, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon's attitude toward, <a href="#Page_608">608</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Newton, Sir Isaac, <a href="#Page_673">673</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nic&aelig;a, Council of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during First Crusades, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Niccola of Pisa, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nicholas II, Pope, decree of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nicholas V, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Niebelungs, Song of the</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nimwegen, Peace of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nobility, origin of Frankish, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">titles of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of feudal, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_708" id="Page_708">[Pg 708]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France under Louis XI, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">established by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Nobles, privileges of, in France, <a href="#Page_542">542</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emigration of French, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Nogaret, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Non-juring clergy, <a href="#Page_572">572</a> f., <a href="#Page_579">579</a>.<br />
+<br />
+N&ouml;rdlingen, battle of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Norman conquest of England, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Normandy, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> f., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Normans, amalgamate with the English, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sicily, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, note. <i>See also</i> Northmen.</span><br />
+<br />
+Norse literature, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+North German Federation, <a href="#Page_660">660</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Northmen, treaty of Charles the Fat with, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> f., <a href="#Page_99">99</a> and note;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Northumbria, king of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Notables, meeting of, <a href="#Page_558">558</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Novara, battle of, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Novgorod, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diet of (1522), <a href="#Page_410">410</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Odo</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Odoacer, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ordeal, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ordination, sacrament of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Orient, European relations with, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Orleanists, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Orleans, duke of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maid of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ormond, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Osnabr&uuml;ck, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ostrogoths, <i>see</i> East Goths.<br />
+<br />
+Other-worldliness of medi&aelig;val Christianity, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Othman, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Otto I, the Great, of Germany, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Otto of Brunswick, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Otto of Freising, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Overlord, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pagan</span> idea of the life after death, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Paganism, merges into Christianity, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Italian humanists, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Painting, Italian, <a href="#Page_340">340</a> f., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in northern Europe, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Palace, school of the, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Palatinate, electorate of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV's operations in, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pallium, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Papacy, origin of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seat of, transferred to Avignon, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> f., <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>. <i>See also</i> Pope.</span><br />
+<br />
+Papal legates, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Papal states, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> f., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>. <i>See also</i> Pope.<br />
+<br />
+Papyrus, supply of, cut off, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Paris, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treaty of (1763), <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peace of (1783), <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commune of, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection of (June, 1848), <a href="#Page_643">643</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1871, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Parish, administration of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Parlements</i>, French, origin of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> f., <a href="#Page_547">547</a> f., <a href="#Page_559">559</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Parliament, English, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Wars of the Roses, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle of, with Charles I, <a href="#Page_478">478</a> ff., <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Parma, duchess of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Parsifal</i>, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Patrick, St., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Paulus Diaconus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peasants' War, in England, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Peasants in France, condition of, before the French Revolution, <a href="#Page_544">544</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Penance, sacrament of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Pepys, <i>Diary</i> of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Persecution, religious, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of English Catholics, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Peter Lombard, <i>Sentences</i> of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peter, St., <a href="#Page_49">49</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_511">511</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Peter the Hermit, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Petition of Right, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Petrarch, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Philip Augustus of France, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> ff., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Philip the Fair, of France, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle of, with Boniface VIII, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_709" id="Page_709">[Pg 709]</a></span>Philip VI of France, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Philip the Good, of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Philip II of Spain, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reign of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Philip V, first Bourbon king of Spain, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Picts, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Piedmont, reforms in, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Piers Ploughman</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pilgrim Fathers, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pillnitz, Declaration of, <a href="#Page_577">577</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Pins, illustration of the manufacture of, <a href="#Page_677">677</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pippin of Heristal, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pippin the Short, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> f., <a href="#Page_75">75</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Pisa, Council of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pitt, the elder, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pius IX, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Plantagenets, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> ff., <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Plassey, battle of, <a href="#Page_531">531</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Plebiscite, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Poitiers, battle of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Poland, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first partition of, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon's campaign in, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dispute over, at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_626">626</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pomerania, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pondicherry, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pope, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of name of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, note; <a href="#Page_54">54</a> f., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance of, with Franks, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> f., <a href="#Page_75">75</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to iconoclasm, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with Otto the Great, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, in tenth and early eleventh centuries, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">election of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">powers of, claimed for by Gregory VII, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, in the Church, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during the Great Schism, <a href="#Page_310">310</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of, toward councils, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of, toward Italian unity, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, since 1870, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Popular sovereignty defended by Rousseau, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Port Mahon, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Portuguese, explorations by, <a href="#Page_347">347</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonies of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_685">685</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Praise of Folly</i>, by Erasmus, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prayer-book, English, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Preaching Friars, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prefects, French, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Presbyterian Church, <a href="#Page_425">425</a> f., <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Presbyters, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> f., <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Press, censorship of, in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pressburg, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pride's Purge, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Priest, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duties of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Prime minister, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prince Charlie, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prince of Wales, origin of title of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Printing, invention of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern methods of, <a href="#Page_678">678</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Privileges in France, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolition of, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Protestant, origin of term, <a href="#Page_416">416</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Protestant revolt, conditions explaining, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">course of, in Germany, <a href="#Page_405">405</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Protestant union of German princes, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Protestantism, in Germany, <a href="#Page_418">418</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_423">423</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_447">447</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_451">451</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Protests" of the French <i>parlements</i>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Proven&ccedil;al language, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">troubadours' songs in, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Provisors, statute of, in England, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prussia, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a> ff., <a href="#Page_544">544</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of, with France, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a> f., <a href="#Page_593">593</a>, <a href="#Page_613">613</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms of Stein and Hardenberg, <a href="#Page_622">622</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after 1815, <a href="#Page_626">626</a> f., <a href="#Page_631">631</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strengthening of army of, <a href="#Page_656">656</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Austria (1866), <a href="#Page_660">660</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with France (1870), <a href="#Page_662">662</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predominating influence of, in the German empire, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Prussians conquered by the Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ptolemy's estimate of size of the world, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pufendorf, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Purgatory, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Puritans, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a> and note, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_710" id="Page_710">[Pg 710]</a></span><span class="smcap">Quakers</span>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Quebec, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Racine</span>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Railroads, development of, <a href="#Page_678">678</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Rajah, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Raphael, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Ravenna, interior of a church at, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reaction, after Napoleon's downfall, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_634">634</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Reason, worship of, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reform Act, English, <a href="#Page_682">682</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Regalia</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Regensburg, formation of Catholic party at, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Regular clergy defined, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Reichsdeputationshauptschluss</i>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reign of Terror, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of, abolished, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Relics, German collections of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Relief, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Religious equality, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Renaissance, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Republic, the "red," in France, <a href="#Page_643">643</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Republican calendar, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Republican party in France, origin of, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Restoration in England, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reuchlin, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Revolution of 1848, <a href="#Page_642">642</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Revolutionary Tribunal, <a href="#Page_588">588</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Reynard the Fox</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rhine, left bank of, ceded to France, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rhine, the Confederation of the, <a href="#Page_612">612</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Richard II of England, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Richard III of England, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Richelieu, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intervenes in the Thirty Years' War, <a href="#Page_471">471</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Rights of Man, Declaration of, <a href="#Page_568">568</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Rising in the north of England, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roads, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">poor, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Robbia, Luca della, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Robert Guiscard in Naples and Sicily, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Robespierre, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>, f.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Rois fain&eacute;ants</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Roland, Song of</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rollo, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Roman Church, the mother church, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reasons for decline of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious revival in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"fall" of, in the West, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with Church, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">continuity of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Roman law, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained by Theodoric, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supplanted by German customs, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">study of, revived, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Romana lingua</i>, <i>see</i> French language.<br />
+<br />
+Romance languages, derivation of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Romances, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Rome, city of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ascendency of, in art, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sack of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, note;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made a republic, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">added to the kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Romulus Augustulus, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roncaglia, Frederick I holds two assemblies at, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Roncesvalles, Pass of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Rossbach, battle of, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Rotten boroughs," <a href="#Page_682">682</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Roumania, <a href="#Page_669">669</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Roumelia, Eastern, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Roundheads, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Round Table, Knights of the, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Rous</i>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rousillon, <a href="#Page_471">471</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Rousseau, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Royal library of France, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rubens, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rudolf of Hapsburg, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rule of St. Benedict, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Rump Parliament, <a href="#Page_487">487</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Rurik, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Russia, <a href="#Page_509">509</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crimean War of, <a href="#Page_668">668</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recent expansion of, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_711" id="Page_711">[Pg 711]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sacraments</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Luther, 397 f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confirmed by the Council of Trent, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Sacrosancta</i>, decree, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sagas</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Dominic, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+St. Francis of Assisi, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> ff., <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Mark's church at Venice, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Meinrad, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Omer, terms of charter of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Peter's Church at Rome, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Petersburg, founding of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Saint-Simon, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Saladin takes Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Salamander, medi&aelig;val account of, quoted, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Salisbury, oath of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Salt tax, French, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Saracens, <i>see</i> Mohammedans.<br />
+<br />
+Saratoga, battle of, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sardinia, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Satires of the sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Savonarola, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Savoy, France deprived of, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Saxons, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> ff., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settle in England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebel against Henry IV, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Saxony, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">electorate of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of, at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_626">626</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Scandinavian kingdoms, <a href="#Page_468">468</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Schism, the Great, <a href="#Page_310">310</a> f., <a href="#Page_314">314</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Schleswig-Holstein affair, <a href="#Page_657">657</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Schoifher, Peter, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Scholasticism, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+School of the palace, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Schools established by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Science, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern methods of, <a href="#Page_678">678</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Scotch people, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Scotland, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> ff., <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under the same ruler as England, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Charles I at war with, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">union with England, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">welcomes the Young Pretender, <a href="#Page_526">526</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Sculpture, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Secular clergy defined, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sedan, battle of, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Seigneur</i>, derivation of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Seneca, opinion on origin of practical arts, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Senior</i>, late Latin, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Senlac, battle of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sentences</i> of Peter Lombard, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sepoys, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.<br />
+<br />
+September massacres, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Serfdom, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disappearance of, in England, <a href="#Page_290">290</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished in France, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Prussia, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Serfs, <i>coloni</i> resemble the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a> ff., <a href="#Page_414">414</a>. <i>See also</i> Serfdom.</span><br />
+<br />
+Servia, <a href="#Page_668">668</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Sevastopol, <a href="#Page_669">669</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Seven Years' War, <a href="#Page_519">519</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_530">530</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+S&eacute;vign&eacute;, Madame de, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sforza family, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_477">477</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Sheriffs appointed by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ship money, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Shires, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Sicily, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Sickingen, Franz von, <a href="#Page_406">406</a> f., <a href="#Page_409">409</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Sigismund, Emperor, <a href="#Page_314">314</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Silesia, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Simon de Montfort leads Albigensian crusade, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Simon de Montfort, Parliament of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Simony, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> f., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Simple priests" of Wycliffe, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Six Articles," the, <a href="#Page_431">431</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Slavery in Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Slavs, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the borders of Germany, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, in Europe, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Smith, Adam, <a href="#Page_677">677</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Social Contract</i> of Rousseau, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Social Democrats, <a href="#Page_643">643</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sophia of Hanover, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sorbonne, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br />
+<br />
+South Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_712" id="Page_712">[Pg 712]</a></span>Southampton granted a charter, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> f., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maritime power of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Charles V, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a> f., <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonies of, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon attempts to control, <a href="#Page_618">618</a> f., <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loses American colonies, <a href="#Page_684">684</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Spanish fury," <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spanish language, derivation of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spanish March, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spanish Netherlands, <i>see</i> Netherlands.<br />
+<br />
+Spanish Succession, War of the, <a href="#Page_506">506</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Spectacles, invention of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Speyer, Edict of (1526), <a href="#Page_415">415</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a> f. and note.</span><br />
+<br />
+Spice trade, importance of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Stamp Act, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Star Chamber, Court of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br />
+<br />
+State, character of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br />
+<br />
+States of the Church, <i>see</i> Papal states.<br />
+<br />
+Statutes of Laborers, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Steam, application of, <a href="#Page_675">675</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Steamboats, <a href="#Page_678">678</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Steel, <a href="#Page_676">676</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Steelyard, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stein, reforms of, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stem duchies in Germany, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Stephen, king of England, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stone of Scone, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Strafford, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Strand laws, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Strasburg, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seized by Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Strasburg oaths, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stuart, house of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Students' associations in Germany, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Subdeacon, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Subinfeudation, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Subtenant, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Subvassals, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Suffrage, extension of, <a href="#Page_682">682</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sully, <a href="#Page_457">457</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Sutri, the council of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Suzerain, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Sweden, <a href="#Page_468">468</a> f., <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Charles XII, <a href="#Page_513">513</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Swiss mercenaries, <a href="#Page_423">423</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Switzerland, origin of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant revolt in, <a href="#Page_423">423</a> ff., <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Symbolism, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Syria, Bonaparte's campaign in, <a href="#Page_598">598</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Taille</span>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a> f., <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Talleyrand, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Tancred, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Tartars, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Taxation, in Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">papal, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of church property, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">without representation, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform of, in France, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Teachers, government, in Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Telescope, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Templars, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> f., <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Temporalities, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Tennis-Court" oath, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Test Act <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">repeal of, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tetzel, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Teutonic order, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Prussia, <a href="#Page_515">515</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Theodoric, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Theodosian Code, provisions of, relating to the Church, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Theodosius the Great, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> f., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Theology in University of Paris, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thermidor, 9th, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Theses, Luther's ninety-five, <a href="#Page_390">390</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Third estate, <a href="#Page_543">543</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Thirty-Nine Articles, the, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thirty Years' War, <a href="#Page_465">465</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Thomas &agrave; Becket, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Thomas Aquinas, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Three Henrys, War of the, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tilly, <a href="#Page_469">469</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Tilsit, treaties of, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Timur, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Tithe, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Titian, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_713" id="Page_713">[Pg 713]</a></span>Toleration, religious, in Germany, <a href="#Page_415">415</a> ff., <a href="#Page_419">419</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_454">454</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tolls in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Toul, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Toulouse, counts of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tourneys, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tours, battle of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Towns, representatives of, summoned to Parliament, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a> f., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of the modern, <a href="#Page_680">680</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Trade, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictions on, abolished, <a href="#Page_680">680</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Trafalgar, battle of, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Transubstantiation, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Treasury of "good works," <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Trent, Council of, <a href="#Page_437">437</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Treves, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">electorate of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Trial by jury, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Trials, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Triple Alliance, <a href="#Page_502">502</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Troubadours, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Troyes, Treaty of (1420), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Truce of God, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tsar, title of, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Tudor, house of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Tuilleries, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Turenne, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Turgot, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, note, <a href="#Page_554">554</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Turkey in Europe, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disruption of, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Turks, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> f., <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Twelve Articles of the peasants, <a href="#Page_413">413</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ulfilas</span> translates Bible into Gothic, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ulm, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Unction, sacrament of extreme, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br />
+<br />
+United Provinces, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Unity of the Church</i>, by Cyprian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Unity of history, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Universities, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> f., <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Urban II, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Usufruct, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Usury, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Utopia</i>, by Sir Thomas More, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Utrecht, Union of, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treaty of, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Valentinian III</span>, decree of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Valois, house of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Van Dyck, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Van Eyck brothers, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vandals, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Varennes, flight to, <a href="#Page_575">575</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Vassals, origin of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> f., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obligations of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Vasco da Gama, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vassy, massacre of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vatican library, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Velasquez, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vend&eacute;e, La, revolt of, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Venerable Bede, the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Venetia given to Austria, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <a href="#Page_655">655</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceded to Italy, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Venice, founding of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> f., <a href="#Page_243">243</a> f., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting at, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of, with League of Cambray, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction of republic of, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>. <i>See</i> Venetia.</span><br />
+<br />
+Verdun, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treaty of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Versailles, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vespasiano, Italian bookseller, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Veto, royal, in England, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> and note.<br />
+<br />
+Victor Emmanuel, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Vienna, siege of, by Turks, <a href="#Page_517">517</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#Page_625">625</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of 1848 in, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Vikings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Villa, Roman, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Villehardouin, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Visconti, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> f., <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Visigoths, <i>see</i> West Goths.<br />
+<br />
+Voltaire, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Vulgate, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wager</span> of battle, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wagram, battle of, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Waibling, castle of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Waldensians, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> f., <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_714" id="Page_714">[Pg 714]</a></span>Waldo, Peter, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wales, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Wallenstein, <a href="#Page_468">468</a> and note, <a href="#Page_469">469</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Wallingford, charter of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Walpole, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Walther von der Vogelweide, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>War and Peace</i> of Grotius, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.<br />
+<br />
+War, neighborhood, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+War of the Barons, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Warfare, modern, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wars of the Roses, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Warsaw, grand duchy of, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wartburg, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">festival at the, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Washington, George, <a href="#Page_533">533</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Waterloo, battle of, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Watt, James, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Welf, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wellington, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Wessex, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br />
+<br />
+West Frankish kingdom, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. <i>See also</i> Franks.<br />
+<br />
+West Goths, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> f., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Westphalia, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Westphalia, Peace of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+Whitby, Council of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+White Hill, battle on the, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br />
+<br />
+William the Conqueror, claim of, to English crown, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of, in England, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> ff., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+William III of England, <a href="#Page_492">492</a> ff., <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a> f., <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.<br />
+<br />
+William of Orange, king of England, <i>see</i> William III.<br />
+<br />
+William of Orange (the Silent), <a href="#Page_448">448</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+William I of Prussia, <a href="#Page_656">656</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chosen emperor, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Winter king," <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Witenagemot, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wittenberg, University of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform at, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Wolfram von Eschenbach, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wolsey, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Worms, council of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Concordat of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diet of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a> f.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edict of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a> f., <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Writing, style of, used in Charlemagne's time, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br />
+<br />
+W&uuml;rtemberg, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duke of, assumes the title of King, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted a constitution, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Wycliffe, John, <a href="#Page_308">308</a> f.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, on Huss, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Xavier</span>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"<span class="smcap">Yea and Nay</span>," by Abelard, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br />
+<br />
+York, house of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, note.<br />
+<br />
+Young, Arthur, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Young Italy, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Young Pretender, <a href="#Page_526">526</a> f.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Zealand</span>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Zipangu (Japan), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Zollverein</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Zurich, <a href="#Page_421">421</a> f., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Zwingli, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a> ff.<br />
+</p>
+<hr />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> There is a short description of Roman society in Hodgkin,
+<i>Dynasty of Theodosius</i>, Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Reference, Adams, <i>Civilization during the Middle Ages</i>,
+Chapter II, "What the Middle Ages started with."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> There are a number of editions of this work in English, and
+selections from Epictetus are issued by several publishers. See
+<i><a href="#Page_24">Readings</a></i>, Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> There is an English translation of this published by Stock
+($1.20).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Whoever separates himself from the Church, writes Cyprian,
+is separated from the promises of the Church. "He is an alien, he is
+profane, he is an enemy, he can no longer have God for his father who
+has not the Church for his mother. If anyone could escape who was
+outside the Ark of Noah, so also may he escape who shall be outside the
+bounds of the Church." See <i>Readings in European History</i>, Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Reference, Adams, <i>Civilization</i>, Chapter III, "The
+Addition of Christianity."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See <i>Readings in European History</i>, Chapter II, for
+extracts from the Theodosian Code.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> An older town called Byzantium was utilized by Constantine
+as the basis of his new imperial city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> St. Augustine, who was then living, gives us an idea of the
+impression that the capture of Rome made upon the minds of
+contemporaries, in an extraordinary work of his called <i>The City of
+God</i>. He undertakes to refute the argument of the pagans that the fall
+of the city was due to the anger of their old gods, who were believed to
+have withdrawn their protection on account of the insults heaped upon
+them by the Christians, who regarded them as demons. He points out that
+the gods whom &AElig;neas had brought, according to tradition, from Troy had
+been unable to protect the city from its enemies and asks why any
+reliance should be placed upon them when transferred to Italian soil.
+His elaborate refutation of pagan objections shows us that heathen
+beliefs still had a strong hold upon an important part of the population
+and that the question of the truth or falsity of the pagan religion was
+still a living one in Italy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Introduction to the Middle Ages</i>,
+Chapter III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Introduction</i>, Chapter V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Reference, Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapter I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Reference, Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_43">Readings</a></i>, Chapter III (end), for historical writings
+of this period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> For Justinian, who scarcely comes into our story, see
+Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapters V&ndash;VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Reference, Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_43">Readings</a></i>, Chapter III, for passages from Gregory of
+Tours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Introduction</i>, 68&ndash;72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Reference, Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapter XV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The northern Franks, who did not penetrate far into the
+Empire, and the Germans who remained in Germany proper and in
+Scandinavia, had of course no reason for giving up their native tongues;
+the Angles and Saxons in Britain also adhered to theirs. These Germanic
+languages in time became Dutch, English, German, Danish, Swedish, etc.
+Of this matter something will be said later. See below, &sect; 97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Extracts from the laws of the Salian Franks may be found
+in Henderson's <i>Historical Documents</i>, pp. 176&ndash;189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Professor Emerton gives an excellent account of the
+Germanic ideas of law in his <i>Introduction</i>, pp. 73&ndash;91; see also
+Henderson, <i>Short History of Germany</i>, pp. 19&ndash;21. For examples of the
+trials, see <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV, No. 4. A philosophical
+account of the character of the Germans and of the effects of the
+invasions is given by Adams, <i>Medi&aelig;val Civilization</i>, Chapters IV-V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Tacitus' <i>Germania</i>, which is our chief source for the
+German customs, is to be found in <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI,
+No. 3. For the habits of the invading Germans, see Henderson, <i>Short
+History of Germany</i>, pp. 1&ndash;11; Hodgkin, <i>Dynasty of Theodosius</i>, last
+half of Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_19">&sect; 7</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> For reports of miracles, see <i>Readings</i>, especially
+<a href="#Page_66">Chapters V</a> and <a href="#Page_215">XVI</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Matt. xvi. 18&ndash;19. Two other passages in the New Testament
+were held to substantiate the divinely ordained headship of Peter and
+his successors: Luke xxii. 32, where Christ says to Peter, "Stablish thy
+brethren," and John xxi. 15&ndash;17, where Jesus said to him, "Feed my
+sheep." See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The name <i>pope</i> (Latin, <i>papa</i> = father) was originally
+and quite naturally applied to all bishops, and even to priests. It
+began to be especially applied to the bishops of Rome perhaps as early
+as the sixth century, but was not apparently confined to them until two
+or three hundred years later. Gregory VII (d. 1085) was the first to
+declare explicitly that the title should be used only for the Bishop of
+Rome. We shall, however, hereafter refer to the Roman bishop as pope,
+although it must not be forgotten that his headship of the Western
+Church did not for some centuries imply the absolute power that he came
+later to exercise over all the other bishops of western Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The great circular tomb was later converted into the chief
+fortress of the popes and called, from the event just mentioned, the
+Castle of the Angel (San Angelo).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> For extracts from Gregory's writings, see <i><a href="#Page_55">Readings</a></i>,
+Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Benedict did not introduce monasticism in the West, as is
+sometimes supposed, nor did he even found an <i>order</i> in the proper sense
+of the word, under a single head, like the later Franciscans and
+Dominicans. Nevertheless, the monks who lived under his rule are
+ordinarily spoken of as belonging to the Benedictine order. A
+translation of the Benedictine rule may be found in Henderson,
+<i>Historical Documents</i>, pp. 274&ndash;314.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Cunningham, <i>Western Civilization</i>, Vol. II, pp. 37&ndash;40,
+gives a brief account of the work of the monks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_66">Readings</a></i>, Chapter V, for Gregory's instructions to
+his missionaries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_66">Readings</a></i>, Chapter V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> There is a <i>Life of St. Columban</i>, written by one of his
+companions, which, although short and simple in the extreme, furnishes a
+better idea of the Christian spirit of the sixth century than the
+longest treatise by a modern writer. This life may be found in
+<i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 7, translated by Professor
+Munro.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> For extracts from the Koran, see <i><a href="#Page_76">Readings</a></i>, Chapter VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> An admirable brief description of the culture of the Arabs
+and their contributions to European civilization will be found in Munro,
+<i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, Chapter IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> One of the most conspicuous features of early
+Protestantism, eight hundred years later, was the revival of Leo's
+attack upon the statues and frescoes which continued to adorn the
+churches in Germany, England, and the Netherlands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Charlemagne is the French form for the Latin, Carolus
+Magnus, i.e., Charles the Great. It has been regarded as good English
+for so long that it seems best to retain it, although some writers,
+fearful lest one may think of Charles as a Frenchman instead of a
+German, use the German form, Karl.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Professor Emerton (<i>Introduction</i>, pp. 183&ndash;185) gives an
+example of the style and spirit of the monk of St. Gall, who was
+formerly much relied upon for knowledge of Charlemagne.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> These decrees lose something of their harshness by the
+provision: "If after secretly committing any one of these mortal crimes
+any one shall flee of his own accord to the priest and, after
+confessing, shall wish to do penance, let him be freed, on the testimony
+of the priest, from death." This is but another illustration of the
+theory that the Church was in the Middle Ages a governmental
+institution. It would be quite out of harmony with modern ideas should
+the courts of law, in dealing with one who had committed a crime,
+consider in any way the relations of the suspected criminal to his
+priest or minister, or modify his sentence on account of any religious
+duties that the criminal might consent to perform.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The king of Prussia still has, among other titles, that of
+Margrave of Brandenburg. The German word <i>Mark</i> is often used for
+"march" on maps of Germany.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The Mohammedan state had broken up in the eighth century,
+and the ruler of Spain first assumed the title of emir (about 756) and
+later (929) that of caliph. The latter title had originally been enjoyed
+only by the head of the whole Arab empire, who had his capital at
+Damascus, and later at Bagdad.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> As Charlemagne was crossing the Pyrenees, on his way back
+from Spain, his rear guard was attacked in the Pass of Roncesvalles. The
+chronicle simply states that Roland, Count of Brittany, was slain. This
+episode, however, became the subject of one of the most famous of the
+epics of the Middle Ages, the <i>Song of Roland</i>. See below, <a href="#Page_254">&sect; 99</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Reference, for Charlemagne's conquests, Emerton,
+<i>Introduction</i>, Chapter XIII; Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapters XX&ndash;XXI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_91">Readings</a></i>, Chapter VII, and Bryce, <i>Holy Roman
+Empire</i>, Chapter V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See extracts from these regulations, and an account of one
+of Charlemagne's farms, in <i>Readings</i>, Chapter VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> For the capitulary relating to the duties of the <i>missi</i>,
+see <i><a href="#Page_91">Reading</a>s</i>, Chapter VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> These lines are taken from a manuscript written in 825.
+They form a part of a copy of Charlemagne's admonition to the clergy
+(789) mentioned below. The part here given is addressed to the bishops
+and warns them of the terrible results of disobeying the rules of the
+Church. Perhaps the scribe did not fully understand what he was doing,
+for he has made some of those mistakes which Charlemagne was so anxious
+to avoid. Then there are some abbreviations which make the lines
+difficult to read. They ought probably to have run as follows: ...
+<i>mereamini. Scit namque prudentia vestra, quam terribili anathematis
+censura feriuntur qui praesumptiose contra statuta universalium
+conciliorum venire audeant. Quapropter et vos diligentius ammonemus, ut
+omni intentione illud horribile execrationis judicium</i> ...</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_91">Readings</a></i>, Chapter VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> References for the reign of Louis the Pious, Henderson,
+<i>Germany in the Middle Ages</i>, Chapter VI; Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapter
+XXIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Named for Lothaire II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> For the text and translation of the Strasburg oaths, see
+Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 26&ndash;27, or Munro, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, p.
+20. A person familiar with Latin and French could puzzle out a part of
+the oath in the <i>lingua romana</i>; that in the <i>lingua teudisca</i> would be
+almost equally intelligible to one familiar with German.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>The following table will show the relationship of the
+descendants of Charlemagne:</p>
+<img src="images/charlemagnetree.jpg" width="500" height="231" alt="" title="" />
+<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56 Charles the Simple]</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Who was too young to be considered in 884, but afterwards
+became king of France and progenitor of the later Carolingian rulers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Reference, Henderson, <i>Germany in the Middle Ages</i>,
+Chapter VII; Oman, <i>Dark Ages</i>, Chapter XXV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Reference, Munro, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, pp. 34&ndash;39. The
+Northmen extended their expeditions to Spain, Italy, and even into
+Russia. In England, under the name of Danes, we find them forcing Alfred
+the Great to recognize them as the masters of northern England (878).
+The Norse pirates were often called <i>vikings</i>, from their habit of
+leaving their long boats in the <i>vik</i>, i.e., bay or inlet. A goodly
+number of the Northmen settled in Iceland, and our knowledge of their
+civilization and customs comes chiefly from the Icelandic <i>sagas</i>, or
+tales. Some of these are of great interest and beauty; perhaps none is
+finer than <i>The Story of Burnt Njal</i>. This and others may be read in
+English. See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter VIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> An account of the manor will be given later, <a href="#Page_233">Chapter
+XVIII</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See an example of an immunity granted by Charlemagne to a
+monastery, in Emerton, <i>Introduction</i>, pp. 246&ndash;249, also Munro,
+<i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, p. 44. Other examples are given in the <i><a href="#Page_119">Readings</a></i>,
+Chapter IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Extracts from the chronicles of the ninth century
+illustrating the disorder of the period will be found in the <i>Readings</i>,
+Chapter VIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See an example of this form of grant in the seventh
+century in <i><a href="#Page_119">Readings</a></i>, Chapter IX. The reader will also find there a
+considerable number of illustrations of feudal contracts, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> See formula of "commendation," as this arrangement was
+called, in <i><a href="#Page_119">Readings</a></i>, Chapter IX. The fact that the Roman imperial
+government forbade this practice under heavy penalties suggests that the
+local magnates used their retainers to establish their independence of
+the imperial taxgatherers and other government officials.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> See Adams, <i>Civilization</i>, pp. 207 <i>sqq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Lord is <i>dominus</i>, or <i>senior</i>, in medi&aelig;val Latin. From
+the latter word the French <i>seigneur</i> is derived. <i>Suzerain</i> is used to
+mean the direct lord and also an <i>overlord</i> separated by one or more
+degrees from a subvassal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> A relic of the time when fiefs were just becoming
+hereditary was preserved in the exaction by the lord of a certain due,
+called the <i>relief</i>. This payment was demanded from the vassal when one
+lord died and a new one succeeded him, and from a new vassal upon the
+death of his predecessor. It was originally the payment for a new grant
+of the land at a time when fiefs were not generally held hereditarily.
+The right did not exist in the case of all fiefs and it varied greatly
+in amount. It was customarily much heavier when the one succeeding to
+the fief was not the son of the former holder but a nephew or more
+distant relative.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Homage is derived from the Latin word for man, <i>homo</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> The conditions upon which fiefs were granted might be
+dictated either by interest or by mere fancy. Sometimes the most
+fantastic and seemingly absurd obligations were imposed. We hear of
+vassals holding on condition of attending the lord at supper with a tall
+candle, or furnishing him with a great yule log at Christmas. Perhaps
+the most extraordinary instance upon record is that of a lord in Guienne
+who solemnly declared upon oath, when questioned by the commissioners of
+Edward I, that he held his fief of the king upon the following terms:
+When the lord king came through his estate he was to accompany him to a
+certain oak. There he must have waiting a cart loaded with wood and
+drawn by two cows without any tails. When the oak was reached, fire was
+to be applied to the cart and the whole burned up "unless mayhap the
+cows make their escape."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The feudal courts, especially those of the great lords and
+of the king himself, were destined to develop later into the centers of
+real government, with regular judicial, financial, and administrative
+bodies for the performance of political functions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> In the following description of the anarchy of feudalism,
+I merely condense Luchaire's admirable chapter on the subject in his
+<i>Manuel des Institutions Fran&ccedil;aises</i>. The <i>Readings</i>, Chapters X, XII,
+XIII, XIV, furnish many examples of disorder.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> The gorgeous affairs of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries were but weak and effeminate counterparts of the rude and
+hazardous encounters of the thirteenth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> References, for the medi&aelig;val castle, the jousts, and the
+life of the nobles, Munro, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, Chapter XIII, and
+Henderson, <i>Short History of Germany</i>, pp. 111&ndash;121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See the famous "Truce of God" issued by the Archbishop of
+Cologne in 1083, in <i><a href="#Page_119">Readings</a></i>, Chapter IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See genealogical table, above, p. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 405&ndash;420.
+<i>Readings</i>, Chapter X.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Not to be confounded with the <i>duchy</i> of Burgundy just
+referred to. See p. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> See genealogical table and map of the Plantagenet
+possessions, pp. <a href="#Page_140">140&ndash;141</a>, below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Henry's family owes its name, Plantagenet, to the habit
+that his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, had of wearing a bit of broom
+(<i>planta genista</i>) in his helmet on his crusading expeditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Geoffrey, the eldest of the three sons of Henry II
+mentioned above, died before his father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The Estates General were so called to distinguish a
+general meeting of the representatives of the three estates of the realm
+from a merely local assembly of the provincial estates of Champagne,
+Provence, Brittany, Languedoc, etc. There are some vague indications
+that Philip had called in a few townspeople even earlier than 1302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> For the French monarchy as organized in the thirteenth
+century, see Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 432&ndash;433; Adams,
+<i>Civilization</i>, pp. 311&ndash;328.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> In spite of the final supremacy of the West Saxons of
+Wessex, the whole land took its name from the more numerous Angles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> References, Green, <i>Short History of the English People</i>
+(revised edition, Harper &amp; Brothers), pp. 48&ndash;52; extracts from the
+<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> may be found in <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> The shires go back at least as far as Alfred the Great,
+and many of their names indicate that they had some relation to the
+earlier little kingdoms, e.g., Sussex, Essex, Kent, Northumberland.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Often called the battle of Hastings from the neighboring
+town of that name.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> For contemporaneous accounts of William's character and
+the relations of Normans and English, see Colby, <i>Sources</i>, pp. 33&ndash;36,
+39&ndash;41; <i>Readings</i>, Ch. XI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Reference, for the Conqueror and his reign, Green, <i>Short
+History</i>, pp. 74&ndash;87, and Gardiner, <i>Students' History</i>, pp. 86&ndash;114.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a>
+</p><img src="images/matildatree.jpg" width="500" height="220" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> References, Green, pp. 104&ndash;112; Gardiner, pp. 138&ndash;158. A
+contemporaneous account of the murder is given by Colby, <i>Sources</i>, pp.
+56&ndash;59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> For John's reign, see Green, pp. 122&ndash;127.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> The text of the Great Charter is given in <i>Translations
+and Reprints</i>, Vol. I, No. 6; extracts, in the <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> These were payments made when the lord knighted his eldest
+son, gave his eldest daughter in marriage, or had been captured and was
+waiting to be ransomed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> See map following p. 152 for the names and position of the
+several duchies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Arnulf, the grandson of Louis the German, who supplanted
+Charles the Fat, died in 899 and left a six-year-old son, Louis the
+Child (d. 911), who was the last of the house of Charlemagne to enjoy
+the German kingship. The aristocracy then chose Conrad I (d. 918), and,
+in 919, Henry I of Saxony, as king of the East Franks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> See Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, Chapter IV, for a clear
+account of the condition of the papacy, the struggles between the rival
+Italian dynasties, and the interference and coronation of Otto the
+Great.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Henry II (1002&ndash;1024) and his successors, not venturing to
+assume the title of emperor till crowned at Rome, but anxious to claim
+the sovereignty of Rome as indissolubly attached to the German crown,
+began to call themselves before their coronation <i>rex Romanorum</i>, i.e.,
+King of the Romans. This habit lasted until Luther's time, when
+Maximilian I got permission from the pope to call himself "Emperor
+Elect" before his coronation, and this title was thereafter taken by his
+successors immediately upon their election.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> For Otto II, Otto III, and Henry II, see Emerton,
+<i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, Chapter V; and Henderson, <i>Germany in the Middle
+Ages</i>, pp. 145&ndash;166.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> These grants of the powers of a count to prelates serve
+to explain the <i>ecclesiastical</i> states,&mdash;for example, the archbishoprics
+of Mayence and Salzburg, the bishopric of Bamberg, and so forth,&mdash;which
+continue to appear upon the map of Germany until the opening of the
+nineteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> From the beginning, single life had appealed to some
+Christians as more worthy than the married state. Gradually, under the
+influence of monasticism, the more devout and enthusiastic clergy
+voluntarily shunned marriage, or, if already married, gave up
+association with their wives after ordination. Finally the Western
+Church condemned marriage altogether for the deacon and the ranks above
+him, and later the sub-deacons were included in the prohibition. The
+records are too incomplete for the historian to form an accurate idea of
+how far the prohibition of the Church was really observed throughout the
+countries of the West. There were certainly great numbers of married
+clergymen in northern Italy, Germany, and elsewhere, in the tenth and
+eleventh centuries. Of course the Church refused to sanction the
+marriage of its officials and called the wife of a clergyman, however
+virtuous and faithful she might be, by the opprobrious name of
+"concubine."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Pronounced <i>s&#301;m'o-ny</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 201&ndash;209.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The word <i>cardinal</i> (Latin, <i>cardinalis</i>, principal) was
+applied to the priests of the various parishes in Rome, to the several
+deacons connected with the Lateran,&mdash;which was the cathedral church of
+the Roman bishopric,&mdash;and, lastly, to six or seven suburban bishops who
+officiated in turn in the Lateran. The title became a very distinguished
+one and was sought by ambitious prelates and ecclesiastical statesmen,
+like Wolsey, Richelieu, and Mazarin. If their official titles were
+examined, it would be found that each was nominally a cardinal bishop,
+priest, or deacon of some Roman church. The number of cardinals varied
+until fixed, in 1586, at six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen
+deacons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> The decree of 1059 is to be found in Henderson,
+<i>Historical Documents</i>, p. 361.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> For text of the <i>Dictatus</i>, see <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.
+The most complete statement of Gregory's view of the responsibility of
+the papacy for the civil government is to be found in his famous letter
+to the Bishop of Metz (1081), <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> For this letter, see Colby, <i>Sources</i>, p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Reissues of this decree in 1078 and 1080 are given in the
+<i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> To be found in the <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Henry's letter and one from the German bishops to the
+pope are both in Henderson, <i>Historical Documents</i>, pp. 372&ndash;376.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Gregory's deposition and excommunication of Henry may be
+found in the <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> For Gregory's own account of the affair at Canossa, see
+<i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> For a fuller account of the troubles between Gregory and
+Henry, see Henderson, <i>Germany in the Middle Ages</i>, pp. 183&ndash;210;
+Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 240&ndash;259.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> For the emperors Lothaire (1125&ndash;1137) and Conrad III
+(1138&ndash;1152), the first of the Hohenstaufens, see Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val
+Europe</i>, pp. 271&ndash;282.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Something will be said of the medi&aelig;val towns in Chapter
+XVIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 271&ndash;291.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Reference, Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 293&ndash;297.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> The origin of the name <i>Ghibelline</i>, applied to the
+adherents of the emperor in Italy, is not known; it may be derived from
+Waibling, a castle of the Hohenstaufens.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> The attention of the adventurous Normans had been called
+to southern Italy early in the eleventh century by some of their people
+who, in their wanderings, had been stranded there and had found plenty
+of opportunities to fight under agreeable conditions for one or another
+of the local rival princes. From marauding mercenaries, they soon became
+the ruling race. They extended their conquests from the mainland to
+Sicily, and by 1140 they had united all southern Italy into a single
+kingdom. The popes had naturally taken a lively interest in the new and
+strong power upon the confines of their realms. They skillfully arranged
+to secure a certain hold upon the growing kingdom by inducing Robert
+Guiscard, the most famous of the Norman leaders, to recognize the pope
+as his feudal lord; in 1059 he became the vassal of Nicholas II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> For John's cession of England and oath of vassalage, see
+Henderson, <i>Historical Documents</i>, pp. 430&ndash;432. For the interdict, see
+Colby, <i>Sources</i>, pp. 72&ndash;73.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> For the career and policy of Innocent III, see Emerton,
+<i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 314&ndash;343.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> An excellent account of Frederick's life is given by
+Henderson, <i>Germany in the Middle Ages</i>, pp. 349&ndash;397.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> For the speech of Urban, see <i><a href="#Page_200">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> The privileges of the crusaders may be found in
+<i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. I, No. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> For Peter the Hermit, see <i>Translations and Reprints</i>,
+Vol. I, No. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> For the routes taken by the different crusading armies,
+see the accompanying map.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> For an account of the prowess of Richard the
+Lion-Hearted, see Colby, <i>Sources</i>, pp. 68&ndash;70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Heraldry may be definitely ascribed to the Crusades, for
+it grew up from the necessity of distinguishing the various groups of
+knights. Some of its terms, for example, <i>gules</i> (red) and <i>azur</i>, are
+of Arabic origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> References. For the highly developed civilization which
+the crusaders found in Constantinople, Munro, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>,
+Chapter X. For the culture of the Saracens, see the same work, Chapter
+IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The law of the Church was known as the <i>canon law</i>. It
+was taught in most of the universities and practiced by a great number
+of lawyers. It was based upon the acts of the various church councils,
+from that of Nic&aelig;a down, and, above all, upon the decrees and decisions
+of the popes. See Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 582&ndash;592.
+</p><p class="noin">
+One may get some idea of the business of the ecclesiastical courts from
+the fact that the Church claimed the right to try all cases in which a
+clergyman was involved, or any one connected with the Church or under
+its special protection, such as monks, students, crusaders, widows,
+orphans, and the helpless. Then all cases where the rites of the Church,
+or its prohibitions, were involved came ordinarily before the church
+courts, as, for example, those concerning marriage, wills, sworn
+contracts, usury, blasphemy, sorcery, heresy, and so forth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Many of the edicts, decisions, and orders of the popes
+were called <i>bulls</i> from the seal (Latin, <i>bulla</i>) attached to them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> For an illustration of provinces and bishoprics, see
+accompanying map of France showing the ecclesiastical divisions. The
+seats of the archbishops are indicated by <img src="images/archbishopsym.jpg" alt=""/>; those of the
+bishops by <img src="images/bishopsym.jpg" alt=""/>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> See below, <a href="#Page_209">&sect; 81</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Except those monasteries and orders whose members were
+especially exempted by the pope from the jurisdiction of the bishops.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Those clergymen who enjoyed the revenue from the endowed
+offices connected with a cathedral church were called <i>canons</i>. The
+office of canon was an honorable one and much sought after, partly
+because the duties were light and could often be avoided altogether. A
+scholar like Petrarch might look to such an office as a means of support
+without dreaming of performing any of the religious services which the
+position implied. For an account of the relations between the chapter
+and the bishop, see Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, pp. 549&ndash;550.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> It should be remembered that only a part of the priests
+were intrusted with the care of souls in a parish. There were many
+priests among the wandering monks, of whom something will be said
+presently. See below, &sect; 91. There were also many chantry priests whose
+main function was saying masses for the dead in chapels and churches
+endowed with revenue or lands by those who in this way provided for the
+repose of their souls or those of their descendants. See below, p. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> For several centuries the <i>Sentences</i> were used as the
+text-book in all the divinity schools. Theologians established their
+reputations by writing commentaries upon them. One of Luther's first
+acts of revolt was to protest against giving the study of the
+<i>Sentences</i> preference over that of the Bible in the universities.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> All the sacraments,&mdash;e.g. orders and matrimony,&mdash;are not
+necessary to every one. Moreover, the sincere <i>wish</i> suffices if one is
+so situated that he cannot possibly actually receive the sacraments.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Confession was a very early practice in the Church.
+Innocent III and the fourth Lateran Council made it obligatory by
+requiring the faithful to confess at least once a year, at Easter time.
+For sacraments, see <i><a href="#Page_215">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XVI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> See above, p. 183, and <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol.
+IV, No. 4, for examples of the interdict and excommunication.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> The privilege of being tried by churchmen, which all
+connected with the Church claimed, was called <i>benefit of clergy</i>. See
+<i><a href="#Page_215">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XVI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> The bishops still constitute an important element in the
+upper houses of parliament in several European countries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> For a satire of the thirteenth century on the papal
+court, see Emerton, <i>Medi&aelig;val Europe</i>, p. 475.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> It must not be forgotten that the monks were regarded as
+belonging to the clergy. For the various new orders of monks and the
+conditions in the monasteries, see Munro, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, Chapter
+XII, and Jessopp, <i>Coming of the Friars</i>, Chapter III, "Daily Life in a
+Medi&aelig;val Monastery."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_232">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XVII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_232">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XVII, for the beliefs of the
+Albigenses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Examples of these decrees are given in <i>Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. III, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> His son married an English lady, became a leader of the
+English barons, and was the first to summon the commons to Parliament.
+See above, pp. <a href="#Page_146">146&ndash;147</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> For the form of relaxation and other documents relating
+to the Inquisition, see <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. III, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> The whole rule is translated by Henderson, <i>Historical
+Documents</i>, p. 344.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more
+general.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> The peasants were the tillers of the soil. They were
+often called <i>villains</i>, a word derived from vill.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> The manner in which serfs disappeared in England will be
+described later.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Reference, Munro, <i>Medi&aelig;val History</i>, Chapter XIV, where
+the subject of this chapter is treated in a somewhat different way.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> In Germany the books published annually in the German
+language did not exceed those in Latin until after 1680.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Even the monks and others who wrote Latin in the Middle
+Ages were unable to follow strictly the rules of the language. Moreover,
+they introduced many new words to meet the new conditions and the needs
+of the time, such as <i>imprisonare</i>, imprison; <i>utlagare</i>, to outlaw;
+<i>baptizare</i>, to baptize; <i>foresta</i>, forest; <i>feudum</i>, fief, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_94">94&ndash;95</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a></p>
+
+<p class="poems">
+"Bytuene Mershe and Avoril<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">When spray beginneth to springe,</span><br />
+The little foul (bird) hath hire wyl<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">On hyre lud (voice) to synge."</span><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Of course there was no sharp line of demarcation between
+the people who used the one language and the other, nor was Proven&ccedil;al
+confined to southern France. The language of Catalonia, beyond the
+Pyrenees, was essentially the same as that of Provence. French was
+called <i>langue d'o&iuml;l</i>, and the southern language <i>langue d'oc</i>, each
+after the word used for "yes."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> The <i>Song of Roland</i> is translated into spirited English
+verse by O'Hagan, London, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> The reader will find a beautiful example of a French
+romance of the twelfth century in an English translation of <i>Aucassin
+and Nicolette</i> (Mosher, Portland, Me.). Mr. Steele gives charming
+stories of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in <i>Huon of Bordeaux</i>,
+<i>Renaud of Montauban</i>, and <i>The Story of Alexander</i> (Allen, London).
+Malory's <i>Mort d'Arthur</i>, a collection of the stories of the Round Table
+made in the fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to
+turn for these famous stories.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> An excellent idea of the spirit and character of the
+troubadours and of their songs may be got from Justin H. Smith,
+<i>Troubadours at Home</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York). See <i><a href="#Page_276">Readings</a></i>,
+Chapter XIX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Reference, Henderson, <i>Short History of Germany</i>, Vol. I,
+pp. 111&ndash;121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> See Steele's <i>Medi&aelig;val Lore</i> for examples of the science
+of the Middle Ages. For the curious notions of the world and its
+inhabitants, see the <i>Travels</i>, attributed to Sir John Mandeville. The
+best edition is published by The Macmillan Company, 1900. See
+<i><a href="#Page_276">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XIX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> The word <i>miniature</i>, which is often applied to them, is
+derived from <i>minium</i>, i.e., vermilion, which was one of the favorite
+colors. Later the word came to be applied to anything small. See the
+frontispiece for an example of an illuminated page from a book of
+hours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> So called because it was derived from the old Roman
+basilicas, or buildings in which the courts were held.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> In France as early as the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Notice flying buttresses shown in the picture of
+Canterbury cathedral, p. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_276">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XIX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> The origin of the bachelor's degree, which comes at the
+end of our college course nowadays, may be explained as follows: The
+bachelor in the thirteenth century was a student who had passed part of
+his examinations in the course in "arts," as the college course was then
+called, and was permitted to teach certain elementary subjects before he
+became a full-fledged master. So the A.B. was inferior to the A.M. then
+as now. After finishing his college course and obtaining his A.M., the
+young teacher often became a student in one of the professional schools
+of law, theology, or medicine, and in time became a master in one of
+these sciences. The words <i>master</i>, <i>doctor</i>, and <i>professor</i> meant
+pretty much the same thing in the thirteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> An example of the scholastic method of reasoning of
+Thomas Aquinas may be found in <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. III,
+No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History of the English People</i>,
+pp. 161&ndash;169.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_127">127&ndash;128</a> and <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_131">131&ndash;132</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> Formerly it was supposed that gunpowder helped to decide
+the battle in favor of the English, but if siege guns, which were
+already beginning to be used, were employed at all they were too crude
+and the charges too light to do much damage. For some generations to
+come the bow and arrow held its own; it was not until the sixteenth
+century that gunpowder came to be commonly and effectively used in
+battles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> For the account of Cr&eacute;cy by Froissart, the celebrated
+historian of the fourteenth century, see <i><a href="#Page_302">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_131">131&ndash;132</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Reference, Adams, <i>Growth of the French Nation</i>, pp.
+116&ndash;123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> For an example of the Statutes of Laborers, see
+<i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, <i>Source-book of
+English History</i>, pp. 206&ndash;208.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> For extracts, see <i><a href="#Page_302">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> For description of manor, see above, pp. <a href="#Page_234">234&ndash;235</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> For this younger line of the descendants of Edward I, see
+genealogical table below, p. <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> See above, p.<a href="#Page_287"> 287</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> The title of Dauphin, originally belonging to the ruler
+of Dauphiny, was enjoyed by the eldest son of the French king after
+Dauphiny became a part of France in 1349, in the same way that the
+eldest son of the English king was called Prince of Wales.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 274&ndash;281. For
+official account of the trial of Joan, see Colby, <i>Sources</i>, pp.
+113&ndash;117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Descent of the Rival Houses of Lancaster and York</span>
+</p><img src="images/lanyorktree.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> References, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 281&ndash;293,
+299&ndash;303.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_302">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Reference, Adams, <i>Growth of the French Nation</i>, pp.
+121&ndash;123, 134&ndash;135.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> See geneological table above, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> See below, Chapter <a href="#Page_354">XXIII</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> Reference, Adams, <i>French Nation</i>, pp. 136&ndash;142.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_320">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XXI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> The name recalled of course the long exile of the Jews
+from their land.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_320">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XXI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> For statutes, see <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II,
+No. 5, and Lee, <i>Source-book</i>, pp. 198&ndash;202.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 235&ndash;244. For
+extracts, see <i><a href="#Page_320">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XXI; <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol.
+II, No. 5; Lee, <i>Source-book</i>, for the treatment of the Lollards, as the
+followers of Wycliffe were called, pp. 209&ndash;223.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> The eighth and last of these eastern councils, which were
+regarded by the Roman Church as having represented all Christendom,
+occurred in Constantinople in 869. In 1123 the first Council of the
+Lateran assembled, and since that five or six Christian congresses had
+been convoked in the West. But these, unlike the earlier ones, were
+regarded as merely ratifying the wishes of the pope, who completely
+dominated the assembly and published its decrees in his own name.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> See above, pp. 202&ndash;203.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a>
+</p><img src="images/popestree.jpg" width="500" height="296" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_222">222&ndash;223</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> For examples of the general criticism of the abuses in
+the Church, see <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. III, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> This decree, <i>Frequens</i>, may be found in <i>Translations
+and Reprints</i>, Vol. III, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> On account of an outbreak of sickness the council was
+transferred to Florence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> This word, although originally French, has come into such
+common use that it is quite permissible to pronounce it as if it were
+English,&mdash;<i>r&#7865;-n&#257;'sens</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_198">198&ndash;199</a> and <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_174">174</a> <i>sqq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> In the year 1300 Milan occupied a territory scarcely
+larger than that of the neighboring states, but under the Visconti it
+conquered a number of towns, Pavia, Cremona, etc., and became, next to
+Venice, the most considerable state of northern Italy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> A single example will suffice. Through intrigue and
+misrepresentation on the part of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Marquis of
+Ferrara became so wildly jealous of his nephew that he beheaded the
+young man and his mother, then burned his own wife and hung a fourth
+member of the family.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_31">31&ndash;32</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> The translation of <i>The Banquet</i> in Morley's "Universal
+Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good
+and is supplied with helpful notes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> See the close of the fourth canto of the <i>Inferno</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_271">271&ndash;272</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Copies of the <i>&AElig;neid</i>, of Horace's <i>Satires</i>, of certain
+of Cicero's <i>Orations</i>, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were
+apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the
+references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the
+original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value
+had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each
+famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims,
+"places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of
+later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful
+barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that
+their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through
+shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to
+those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral
+heritage."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and
+studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be
+found in Robinson and Rolfe, <i>Petrarch</i>, pp. 59&ndash;76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_45">45&ndash;46</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Historians formerly supposed that it was only after
+Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars
+fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and
+literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of
+this oft-repeated error.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> In Whitcomb, <i>Source Book of the Italian Renaissance</i>,
+pp. 70 <i>sqq.</i>, interesting accounts of these libraries may be found,
+written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> Manuscript, <i>manu scriptum</i>, means simply written by
+hand.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> The closing lines (i.e., the so-called <i>colophon</i>) of the
+second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are
+substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be
+translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is
+adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of
+rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious
+invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God
+and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter
+Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of
+August."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> Note the similarity in form of the letters in the
+accompanying illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves
+as the frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to
+tell some early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be
+observed that the Germans still adhere to a type something like that
+used by the first printers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_261">261&ndash;262</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching
+again became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were
+erected in the body of the church, where the people could gather around
+them. These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were
+often very elaborate and beautiful.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of
+ancient painting were not discovered till much later.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of
+St. Francis at Assisi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Fra is an abbreviation of <i>frate</i>, brother.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> See below, pp. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine
+painters of the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his
+contemporaries in being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic
+conceptions, the graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm
+of his faces have especially inspired a famous school of English
+painters in our own day&mdash;the Preraphaelites.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> See below, pp. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of
+Giotto's paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between
+the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> See his portrait of Erasmus below, p. <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in
+Germany in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the
+Good and Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> See his portrait of Charles I below, p. <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for
+example, in <i>The Story of Marco Polo</i>, by Noah Brooks, Century Company,
+1898. A certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East
+somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as
+well as the experiences of other medi&aelig;val travelers, may be found in
+<i>The Travels of Sir John Mandeville</i>, published by The Macmillan
+Company, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> See map above, pp. <a href="#Page_242">242&ndash;243</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Reference, <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Chapter I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Reference, <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Chapter II.
+Kingsley has described these mariners in his <i>Westward Ho</i>. He derives
+his notions of them from the collection of voyages made by an English
+geographer, Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne,
+<i>Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen</i> (Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>sq.</i>, and Chapters <a href="#Page_164">XIII</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_173">XIV</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly
+speaking only king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at
+Rome. See above, pp. <a href="#Page_152">152 n.</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another
+family than the Hapsburgs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> See map above, following p. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the
+Alhambra, which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what
+a high degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and
+impressive arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of
+its arches represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_224">224&ndash;225</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a>
+</p><img src="images/maximiliantree.jpg" width="500" height="184" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> It will be remembered that the popes, in their long
+struggle with Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in
+Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples
+and Sicily. See above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united
+with the kingdom of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to
+the Spanish throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in
+1435 and Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in
+his family when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The
+younger branch of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but
+its members were careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon
+the death of their last representative, this title was transferred to
+Louis XI. He, however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the
+Aragonese usurpers, as he had quite enough to do at home.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> More important for France than the arrangements mentioned
+above was the so-called <i>Concordat</i>, or agreement, between Francis and
+the pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was
+given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots,
+and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich
+offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return
+that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the
+more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover,
+thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had
+been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The
+arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French
+Revolution.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> See below, p. <a href="#Page_428">428&ndash;429</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain
+important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not
+expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by
+"tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and
+his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were
+to be received as from God. See <i><a href="#Page_386">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XXIV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical
+states of Germany, see above, p. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> The manner in which the numerous and often important
+ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become
+clear later. See below, <a href="#Page_603">&sect; 244</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>sqq.</i> For the German law permitting
+feuds, see Henderson, <i>Historical Documents</i>, p. 246. In 1467, the
+German diet ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was
+not, however, permanently prohibited until a generation later.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> For example, in one of the books of instruction for the
+priest we find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to
+the people that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin,
+for otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording
+from his in their particular version and then declare that the priest
+had made a mistake.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> Some seventeen universities had been established by
+German rulers and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest
+of them was founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions,
+for example, Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the
+leading universities of the world.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_271">&sect; 104</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a></p> For examples of these <i>Letters of Obscure Men</i>, see
+Whitcomb, <i>Source Book of the German Renaissance</i>, pp. 67 <i>sq.</i>, and
+<i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the
+satire is due to the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many
+letters of encouragement, which he published under the title, <i>Letters
+of Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin</i>. The humanists then pitched upon the
+modest title, <i>Letters of Obscure Men</i>, for the supposed correspondence
+of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the
+"obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain
+humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the
+eye with his staff.
+
+<p class="poems">
+Et ivi hinc ad Hagenau<br />
+Da wurden mir die Augen blau<br />
+Per te, Wolfgang Angst,<br />
+Gott gib das du hangst,<br />
+Quia me cum baculo<br />
+Percusseras in oculo.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> See below, pp. <a href="#Page_426">426&ndash;7</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons
+($1.25) or Brentano ($1.25).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_317">317&ndash;318</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was
+organized in the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican
+and the Franciscan.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology
+reigns supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible,
+Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and
+Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to
+discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most
+popular in the theological schools. Walker, <i>The Reformation</i>, pp.
+77&ndash;91.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_211">211&ndash;212</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the
+indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed
+in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person
+proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the
+Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the
+theologians, have been quite worthless.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> The complete text of the theses may be found in
+<i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, for the Church's doctrine of the
+"indelible character" which the priest received at ordination.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_209">&sect;&sect; 81</a><a href="#Page_211">&ndash;82</a>. The two great works of Luther, here
+mentioned, as well as his <i>Freedom of the Christian</i>, in which he
+explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace
+and Buchheim, <i>Luther's Primary Works</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business
+to execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In
+the same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy
+urge that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would
+refuse to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty
+imposed by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he
+had committed no wrong.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in
+the <i>Historical Leaflets</i> issued by the Crozer Theological Seminary,
+Chester, Pa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XXVI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> See below, <a href="#Page_437">&sect; 167</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> The "Twelve Articles" may be found in <i>Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in the
+<i>Historical Leaflets</i> published by the Crozer Theological Seminary,
+Chester, Pa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and
+the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth
+Century</i>, pp. 172&ndash;175 and 181&ndash;195.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church.
+Copies of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication
+Society, Philadelphia, for ten cents each.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> Reference, Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i>,
+Chapter V; Walker, <i>The Reformation</i>, pp. 188&ndash;216.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still
+proclaimed in three languages.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when
+Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries
+to fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the
+Swiss who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards
+may still be seen in the pope's palace.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors
+reports that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair
+and turned inside out."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_212">212&ndash;213</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography
+by Samuel Macauley Jackson, <i>Huldreich Zwingli</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons,
+1901).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> See below, p. <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the
+ministers and the elders, or <i>presbyters</i>, hence the name Presbyterian.
+For Calvin's work, see Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i>, pp.
+272&ndash;276.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> An English translation of the <i>Utopia</i> is published by
+the Macmillan Company at 50 cents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_381">&sect; 139</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the
+Church and Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not
+abjure the headship of the pope over the whole Church.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine
+for the laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the
+clergy; the perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the
+propriety of private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was
+popularly known as "the whip with six strings."
+</p><p class="noin">
+[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should
+partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the
+Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and
+the wine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a>
+</p>
+<img src="images/henryviiitree.jpg" width="500" height="57" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="noin">
+It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he
+died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the
+English Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United
+States.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary,
+recording these changes, see <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XXVII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered
+serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant
+successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those
+who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of
+the English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to
+attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have
+been executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished
+miserably in prison. See below, p. 462, and Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp.
+407&ndash;410.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> There is an admirable account of the spirit of the
+conservative reformers in the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Vol. I,
+Chapter XVIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the
+medi&aelig;val Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic
+reaction," as if Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is
+clear, however, that the conservative reform began some time before the
+Protestants revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a
+movement already well under way. See Maurenbrecher, <i>Geschichte der
+Katholischen Reformation</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> They may be had in English, <i>Decrees and Canons of the
+Council of Trent</i>, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New
+York. See extracts from the acts of the council in <i>Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XXVIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> Reference, Parkman's, <i>Jesuits in North America</i>, Vol. I,
+Chapters II and X.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Division of the Hapsburg Possessions between the Spanish
+and the German Branches</span>
+</p>
+<img src="images/hapsburgtree.jpg" width="500" height="190" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="noin">
+The map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>) indicates
+the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German
+Hapsburgs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> Reference, Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i>,
+Chapter VIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the
+heroic deeds of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of
+Leyden. The American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this
+in his well-known <i>Rise of the Dutch Republic</i>, Part IV, Chapter II. The
+most recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch
+won their independence is to be found in the third volume of <i>A History
+of the People of the Netherlands</i>, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated
+by Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own
+charming <i>William the Silent</i> (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many
+fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous
+odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> Reference, Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i>,
+pp. 386&ndash;389.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> See <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XXVIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> The origin of this name is uncertain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman, <i>Europe from 1598&ndash;1715</i>,
+Chapter I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> Reference, Schwill, <i>History of Modern Europe</i>, Chapter
+VI, or a somewhat fuller account in Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth
+Century</i>, Chapter IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 370&ndash;376, 392&ndash;405.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> For English mariners and their voyages and conflicts with
+Spain, see Froude's <i>English Seamen in the Fifteenth Century</i>. The
+account of Drake's voyage is on pp. 75&ndash;103. See also "The Famous Voyage
+of Sir Francis Drake," by one of Drake's gentlemen at arms, in E.J.
+Payne's <i>Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America</i>, Vol. I, pp. 196&ndash;229,
+Oxford, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> Reference for life and death of Mary Stuart, Green,
+<i>Short History</i>, pp. 379&ndash;392, 416&ndash;417.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> References, Green, <i>Short History of the English People</i>,
+pp. 418&ndash;420; Froude, <i>English Seamen</i>, pp. 176&ndash;228.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> Reference, Johnson, <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i>,
+Chapter VII, &sect;&sect; 1 and 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_419">419&ndash;420</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Reference, Wakeman, <i>Europe from 1598-1715</i>, Chapter
+III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> Wallenstein (b. 1583) had been educated in the Catholic
+faith, although he came of a family with Hussite sympathies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> Reference, Wakeman, <i>Europe from 1598-1715</i>, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Reference, Wakeman, <i>Europe from 1598-1715</i>, Chapter V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> Reference, Wakeman, <i>Europe from 1598-1715</i>, Chapter VI.
+For a brief and excellent review of the whole war, see Schwill, <i>Modern
+Europe</i>, pp. 141&ndash;160.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> See the translators' dedication to James I in the
+authorized version of the Bible. Only recently has it been deemed
+necessary to revise the remarkable work of the translators of the early
+seventeenth century. Modern scholars discovered very few serious
+mistakes in this authorized version, but found it expedient for the sake
+of clearness to modernize a number of words and expressions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> See Lee, <i>Source-book of English History</i>, pp. 348&ndash;352.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> See Lee, <i>Source-book of English History</i>, pp. 352&ndash;355,
+for the first writ of ship money.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, n. 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> The name Puritan, it should be noted, was applied loosely
+to the English Protestants, whether Low Churchmen, Presbyterians, or
+Independents, who aroused the antagonism of their neighbors by
+advocating a godly life and opposing popular pastimes, especially on
+Sunday.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 595&ndash;614. For a
+contemporary account of Puritans, see <i>Readings</i>, Chapter XXX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Reference, Lee, <i>Source-book of English History</i>, pp.
+355&ndash;357.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Reference for Cromwell's early career and his
+generalship, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 554&ndash;559.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> For charge against the king, etc., see Lee, <i>Source-book
+of English History</i>, pp. 364&ndash;372.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 580&ndash;588, 594&ndash;600.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> See below, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Reference, Wakeman, <i>Europe from 1598-1715</i>, Chapter
+VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> Louis does not appear to have himself used the famous
+expression, "<i>I</i> am the <i>state</i>," usually attributed to him, but it
+exactly corresponds to his idea of the relation of the king and the
+state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> Reference, Perkins, <i>France under the Regency</i>, pp.
+129&ndash;141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> Reference, Perkins, <i>France under the Regency</i>, Chapter
+IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> Reference, Perkins, <i>France under the Regency</i>, pp.
+141&ndash;147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_488">488</a> and <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> See below, pp. <a href="#Page_517">517&ndash;518</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> Reference, Perkins, <i>France under the Regency</i>, Chapter
+VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> The title Tsar, or Czar, was formerly supposed to be
+connected with C&aelig;sar (German, <i>Kaiser</i>), i.e., emperor, but this appears
+to have been a mistake.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> References, Schwill, <i>Modern Europe</i>, pp. 215&ndash;230;
+Wakeman, <i>European History from 1598-1715</i>, pp. 300&ndash;308.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> The title King of Prussia appeared preferable to the more
+natural King of Brandenburg, because Prussia lay wholly without the
+empire, and consequently its king was not in any sense subject to the
+emperor but was wholly independent. Since western Prussia still belonged
+to Poland in 1701 the new king satisfied himself at first with the
+title, King <i>in</i> Prussia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> Reference, Schwill, <i>Modern Europe</i>, pp. 230&ndash;238.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> Reference, Schwill, <i>Modern Europe</i>, pp. 238&ndash;247.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Reference, Hassall, <i>The Balance of Power</i>, pp. 18, 19,
+303&ndash;317. See map below, p. 584.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> The last instance in which an English ruler vetoed a
+measure passed by Parliament was in 1707.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_278">278&ndash;280</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> Originally there had been but seven electors (see above,
+p. 372), but the duke of Bavaria had been made an elector during the
+Thirty Years' War, and in 1692 the father of George I had been permitted
+to assume the title of Elector of Hanover.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> Wolsey, it will be remembered, had advanced the same
+reason in Henry VIII's time for England's intervention in continental
+wars. See above, p. <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> Except in 1718&ndash;1720, when she joined an alliance against
+Spain, and her admiral, Byng, destroyed the Spanish fleet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> Derived from <i>Jacobus</i>, the Latin for James. The name was
+applied to the adherents of James II and of his son and grandson, the
+elder and younger pretenders to the throne.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> It will be remembered that the children of James II by
+his second and Catholic wife, Mary of Modena, were excluded from the
+throne at the accession of William and Mary. See genealogical table on
+preceding page.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> The Dutch occupation of a portion of the coast of North
+America was brought to an end, as has been mentioned, by the English.
+See above, p. <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> For the settlement of the English and French in North
+America, see Morris, <i>The History of Colonization</i>, Vol. I, Chapter X,
+and Vol. II, Chapter XVII; also Parkman, <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>, Vol. I,
+pp. 20&ndash;35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> Baber claimed to be descended from an earlier invader,
+the famous Timur (or Tamerlane), who died in 1405. The so-called Mongol
+(or Mogul) emperors were really Turkish rather than Mongolian in origin.
+A very interesting account of them and their enlightenment may be found
+in Holden, <i>The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons,
+$2.00).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Reference, Perkins, <i>France under Louis XV</i>, Vol. I,
+Chapter XI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> Reference, Green, <i>Short History of the English People</i>,
+pp. 776&ndash;786.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> See below, p. <a href="#Page_568">568</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> The interior customs lines roughly coincided with the
+boundaries of the region of the great salt tax. See accompanying map.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> The figures indicate the various prices of a given amount
+of salt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> Reference, Lowell, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i>,
+Chapter III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> See above, Chapter <a href="#Page_233">XVIII</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> Only a very small portion of the nobility were
+descendants of the ancient and illustrious families of France. The king
+could grant nobility to whom he would; moreover, many of the government
+offices, especially those of the higher judges, carried the privileges
+of nobility with them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> Reference, Lowell, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i>,
+Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_496">&sect; 192</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> See Lowell, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i>, pp. 116&ndash;118.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> See the account of Voltaire's defense of Calas in
+Perkins, <i>Louis XV</i>, Vol. II, pp. 198 <i>sqq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> Turgot, the leading economist of the time, argues that it
+would be quite sufficient if "the government should always protect the
+natural liberty of the buyer to buy, and of the seller to sell. For the
+buyer being always the master to buy or not to buy, it is certain that
+he will select among the sellers the man who will give him at the best
+bargain the goods that suit him best. It is not less certain that every
+seller, it being his chief interest to merit preference over his
+competitors, will sell in general the best goods and at the lowest price
+at which he can make a profit in order to attract customers. The
+merchant or manufacturer who cheats will be quickly discredited and lose
+his custom without the interference of government."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> Reference, Lowell, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i>,
+Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> Turgot succeeded in inducing the king to abolish the
+guilds and the forced labor on the roads, but the decrees were revoked
+after Turgot's dismissal. For an admirable short account of Turgot's
+life, ideas, and reforms, see Say, <i>Turgot</i> (McClurg, 75 cents).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_386">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XXIV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> Reference, Lowell, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i>, pp.
+238&ndash;242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_131">131&ndash;132</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> Reference, H. Morse Stephens, <i>The French Revolution</i>,
+Vol. I, pp. 13&ndash;15, 20&ndash;24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> Pronounced k&#259;-y&#257;'.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> Examples of the <i>cahiers</i> may be found in <i>Translations
+and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV, No. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> Reference, Lowell, <i>Eve of the French Revolution</i>,
+Chapter XXI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> Reference, Stephens, <i>The French Revolution</i>, Vol. I, pp.
+128&ndash;145.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> Reference, Stephens, <i>The French Revolution</i>, Vol. I,
+Chapter VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> This decree may be found in <i>Translations and Reprints</i>,
+Vol. I, No. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> Reference, Stephens, <i>French Revolution</i>, Vol. I, Chapter
+VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_568">568</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> The text of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy may be
+found in <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. I, No. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> Reference, Mathews, <i>The French Revolution</i>, Chapter
+XII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> The formerly despotic king is represented as safely caged
+by the National Assembly. When asked by Marie Antoinette's brother what
+he is about, Louis XVI replies, "I am signing my name,"&mdash;that is, he had
+nothing to do except meekly to ratify the measures which the Assembly
+chose to pass.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> By June, 1791, there were four hundred and six of these
+affiliated clubs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> A committee of the Convention was appointed to draw up a
+new republican calendar. The year was divided into twelve months of
+thirty days each. The five days preceding September 22, at the end of
+the year, were holidays. Each month was divided into three <i>decades</i>,
+and each "tenth day" (<i>d&eacute;cadi</i>) was a holiday. The days were no longer
+dedicated to saints, but to agricultural implements, vegetables,
+domestic animals, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> In former times it had been customary to inflict capital
+punishment by decapitating the victim with the sword. At the opening of
+the Revolution a certain Dr. Guillotin recommended a new device, which
+consisted of a heavy knife sliding downward between two uprights. This
+instrument, called after him, the guillotine, which is still used in
+France, was more speedy and certain in its action than the sword in the
+hands of the executioner.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> Reference, for the conduct of the terrorists and the
+executions at Paris, Nantes, and Lyons: Mathews, <i>The French
+Revolution</i>, Chapter XVII.
+</p><p class="noin">
+It should not be forgotten that very few of the people at Paris stood in
+any fear of the guillotine. The city during the Reign of Terror was not
+the gloomy place that we might imagine. Never did the inhabitants appear
+happier, never were the theaters and restaurants more crowded. The
+guillotine was making away with the enemies of liberty, so the women
+wore tiny guillotines as ornaments, and the children were given toy
+guillotines and amused themselves decapitating the figures of
+"aristocrats." See Stephens, <i>French Revolution</i>, Vol. II, pp. 343&ndash;361.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> The date of Robespierre's fall is generally known as the
+9th Thermidor, the day and month of the republican calendar.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> There were about forty billions of francs in assignats in
+circulation at the opening of 1796. At that time it required nearly
+three hundred francs in paper money to procure one in specie.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_326">326&ndash;327</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon</i>, Vol. I, Chapter
+VIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era</i>, pp.
+95, 96, 104&ndash;108, 114, 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon</i>, Vol. I, pp.
+144&ndash;148.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> Reference, <i>Ibid.</i>, Chapter X.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> See above, <a href="#Page_371">&sect; 134</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era</i>, pp.
+132&ndash;133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> The roads were dilapidated and the harbors filled with
+sand; taxes were unpaid, robbery prevailed, and there was a general
+decay in industry. A manufacturer in Paris who had employed sixty to
+eighty workmen now had but ten. The lace, paper, and linen industries
+were as good as destroyed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_572">572&ndash;573</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579&ndash;580</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon</i>, Vol. I, Chapter
+XII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era</i>, pp.
+148&ndash;163.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> See <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_604">604</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> That is, a blockade too extensive to be really carried
+out by the ships at the disposal of the power proclaiming it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon</i>, Vol. II, pp.
+197&ndash;207. For documents relating to the blockade and "the Continental
+system," see <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II, No. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> See <i><a href="#Page_624">Readings</a></i>, Chapter XXXVIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> Napoleon was never content with his achievements or his
+glory. On the day of his coronation, December, 1806, he complained to
+his minister Decr&egrave;s that he had been born too late, that there was
+nothing great to be done any more. On his minister's remonstrating he
+added: "I admit that my career has been brilliant and that I have made a
+good record. But what a difference is there if we compare ours with
+ancient times. Take Alexander the Great, for example. After announcing
+himself the son of Jupiter, the whole East, except his mother,
+Aristotle, and a few Athenian pedants, believed this to be true. But
+now, should I nowadays declare myself the son of the Eternal Father,
+there isn't a fishwife who would not hiss me. No, the nations are too
+sophisticated, there is nothing great any longer possible."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> "It depends upon you alone," he said to the Spanish in
+his proclamation of December 7, "whether this moderate constitution that
+I offer you shall henceforth be your law. Should all my efforts prove
+vain, and should you refuse to justify my confidence, then nothing
+remains for me but to treat you as a conquered province and find a new
+throne for my brother. In that case I shall myself assume the crown of
+Spain and teach the ill-disposed to respect that crown, for God has
+given me power and will to overcome all obstacles."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era</i>, pp.
+193&ndash;201. Louis Bonaparte, the father of Napoleon III, and the most
+conscientious of the Bonaparte family, had been so harassed by his
+imperial brother that he had abdicated as king of Holland.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon</i>, Vol. II, Chapter
+XXXII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> This decree may be found in <i>Translations and Reprints</i>,
+Vol. II, No. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> Reference, Rose, <i>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era</i>, pp.
+335&ndash;361.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> The son of Louis XVI had been imprisoned and maltreated
+by the terrorists. He died while still a boy in 1795, but nevertheless
+takes his place in the line of French kings as Louis XVII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> Compare the accompanying map with that below, pp.
+<a href="#Page_666">666&ndash;667</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> This document may be found in <i>Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. I, No. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> Reference, Andrews, <i>Modern Europe</i>, Vol. I, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> Observe the boundary of the German Confederation as
+indicated on the map, pp. 626&ndash;627, above. Important portions of the
+German constitution of 1815 are given in <i>Translations and Reprints</i>,
+Vol. I, No. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> For the Carlsbad Resolutions, see <i>Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. I, No. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> Reference, Andrews, <i>Modern Europe</i>, Vol. I, pp.
+229&ndash;257.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> The island of Sardinia had, in 1720, been given to the
+duke of Savoy, who was also ruler of Piedmont. The duke thereupon
+assumed the title of king of Sardinia, but Piedmont, with Turin as its
+capital, remained, nevertheless, the most important part of the kingdom
+of Sardinia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> Reference, Andrews, <i>Modern Europe</i>, Vol. I, pp.
+205&ndash;212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> Reference, Fyffe, <i>History of Modern Europe</i> (Popular
+Edition, 1896), Chapter XV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_600">600</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> See map, p. <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> The Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> Reference, Andrews, <i>Modern Europe</i>, Vol. II, Chapter
+III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> He ruled until 1861 as regent for his brother, Frederick
+William IV, who was incapacitated by disease.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> Reference, Fyffe, <i>Modern Europe</i>, pp. 954&ndash;957.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> Andrews, <i>Modern Europe</i>, Vol. 2, pp. 173&ndash;180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> In 1869 Spain was without a king, and the crown was
+tendered to Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of William
+I of Prussia. This greatly excited the people of Paris, for it seemed to
+them only an indirect way of bringing Spain under the influence of
+Prussia. The French minister of foreign affairs declared that the
+candidacy was an attempt to "re&euml;stablish the empire of Charles V." In
+view of this opposition, Leopold withdrew his acceptance of the Spanish
+crown early in July, 1870, and Europe believed the incident to be at an
+end. The French ministry, however, was not satisfied with this, and
+demanded that the king of Prussia should pledge himself that the
+candidacy should never be renewed. This William refused to do. The
+account of the demand and refusal was given in such a way in the German
+newspapers that it appeared as if the French ambassador had insulted
+King William. The Parisians, on the other hand, thought that their
+ambassador had received an affront, and demanded an immediate
+declaration of war.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> Reference, Fyffe, <i>Modern Europe</i>, pp. 988&ndash;1002.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> Alsace had, with certain reservations,&mdash;especially as
+regarded Strasburg and the other free towns,&mdash;been ceded to the French
+king by the treaty of Westphalia (see above, p. 473). Louis XIV
+disregarded the reservations and seized Strasburg and the other towns
+(1681) and so annexed the whole region to France. The duchy of Lorraine
+had upon the death of its last duke fallen to France in 1766. It had
+previously been regarded as a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871
+less than a third of the original duchy of Lorraine, together with the
+fortified city of Metz, was ceded back to Germany.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> The monarchical party naturally fell into two groups.
+One, the so-called <i>legitimists</i>, believed that the elder Bourbon line,
+to which Louis XVI and Charles X had belonged, should be restored in the
+person of the count of Chambord, a grandson of Charles X. The
+<i>Orleanists</i>, on the other hand, wished the grandson of Louis Philippe,
+the count of Paris, to be king. In 1873 the Orleanists agreed to help
+the count of Chambord to the throne as Henry V, but that prince
+frustrated the plan by refusing to accept the national colors,&mdash;red,
+white, and blue,&mdash;which had become so endeared to the nation that it
+appeared dangerous to exchange them for the white of the Bourbons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517&ndash;518</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> Herzegovina is a small province lying between Bosnia and
+the Adriatic. Both Bosnia and Herzegovina appear on the map as a part of
+Austria, to which they now belong, to all intents and purposes. See map,
+p. 649, above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> In 1885 South Bulgaria (formerly known as Eastern
+Roumelia) proclaimed itself annexed to Bulgaria. The Sultan, under the
+influence of the western powers, permitted the prince of Bulgaria to
+extend his power over South Bulgaria.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> See above, pp. <a href="#Page_351">351&ndash;352</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> See <i>The Progress of the Century</i>, Harper Bros., pp.
+181&ndash;188, 232&ndash;242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> Reference, for the development of the inventions,
+Cheyney, <i>Industrial History of England</i>, pp. 199&ndash;216.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> Reference, Cheyney, <i>Industrial History of England</i>, pp.
+224&ndash;239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> For factory legislation in England, see Cheyney,
+<i>Industrial History</i>, pp. 244&ndash;262.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> Reference, Cheyney, <i>Industrial History</i>, pp. 277&ndash;293.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> England, like the continental countries, has gradually,
+during the nineteenth century, conceded the right to vote to almost all
+adult males. Before 1832 a great part of the members of the House of
+Commons were chosen, not by the voters at large but by a few
+individuals, who controlled the so-called "rotten boroughs." These
+boroughs had once been important enough to be asked by the king to send
+representatives to Parliament, but had sunk into insignificance, or even
+disappeared altogether. Meanwhile great manufacturing cities like
+Birmingham, Manchester, and Sheffield had grown up, and as there had
+been no redistribution of representatives after the time of Charles II,
+these large cities were unrepresented in Parliament. This evil was
+partially remedied by the famous <i>Reform Act</i> of 1832. At the same time
+the amount of property which one must hold in order to be permitted to
+vote was reduced. In 1867 almost all of the workingmen of the cities
+were granted the franchise by permitting those to vote who rented a
+lodging costing at least fifty dollars a year. This doubled the number
+of voters. In 1885 the same privilege was granted to the country
+people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> See Sir Charles Dilke on "War," in <i>The Progress of the
+Century</i>, 333 <i>sqq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> The works here enumerated are those referred to in the
+notes throughout the volume. They would form a valuable and inexpensive
+collection for use in a high school. The prices given are in most
+instances subject to a discount, often as high as twenty-five per cent.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>ANNOUNCEMENTS<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></h2>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>AN INTRODUCTION TO THE<br /> HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE</h2>
+
+<p class="center">By JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON<br />
+
+<small>Professor of History in Columbia University</small></p>
+
+<p class="poems">
+IN ONE VOLUME<br />
+<br />
+<small>12mo, cloth, 714 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.60<br /></small>
+<br />
+IN TWO VOLUMES<br />
+<br />
+<small><span class="smcap">Volume I</span>. 12mo, cloth, 368 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.00<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Volume II</span>. 12mo, cloth, 364 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.00</small><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>The excellence of Robinson's "History of Western Europe" has been
+attested by the immediate and widespread adoption of the book in many of
+the best schools and colleges of the country. It is an epoch-making
+text-book on the subject, in that it solves in an entirely satisfactory
+manner the problem of proportion.</p>
+
+<p>The book differs from its predecessors in omitting all isolated,
+uncorrelated facts, which only obscure the great issues upon which the
+pupil's attention should be fixed. In this way the writer has gained the
+space necessary to give a clear and interesting account of the
+all-important movements, customs, institutions, and achievements of
+western Europe since the German barbarians conquered the Roman Empire.
+Such matters of first-rate importance as feudalism, the medi&aelig;val Church,
+the French Revolution, and the development of the modern European states
+have received much fuller treatment than has been customary in histories
+of this compass.</p>
+
+<p>The work is thoroughly scholarly and trustworthy, since the writer has
+relied either upon the most recent treatises of the best European
+authorities of the day or upon a personal study of the primary sources
+themselves. Carefully selected illustrations and an abundance of maps
+accompany the text.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big>GINN &amp; COMPANY <span class="smcap">Publishers</span></big></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>READINGS IN EUROPEAN<br /> HISTORY</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><small>By <span class="smcap">James Harvey Robinson</span>, Professor of History in Columbia<br /> University.
+Designed to supplement his "Introduction<br /> to the History of Western
+Europe"</small></p>
+
+<p class="poems">
+<span class="smcap">Volume I</span>. <small>12mo, cloth, 551 pages, $1.50</small><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Volume II</span>. <small>12mo, cloth, xxxii + 629 pages, $1.50</small><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Abridged Edition</span>. <small>12mo, cloth, xxxiv +<br />
+573 pages, $1.50</small><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>It is now generally recognized among teachers of history that the
+text-book should be supplemented by collateral reading. Professor
+Robinson's "Readings" will supply a need that has long been felt by
+those dealing with the general history of Europe. For each chapter of
+his text he furnishes from twenty to thirty pages of extracts, mainly
+from vivid, first-hand accounts of the persons, events, and institutions
+discussed in his manual. In this way the statements in the text-book may
+be amplified and given added interest and vividness. He has drawn upon
+the greatest variety of material, much of which has never before found
+its way into English.</p>
+
+<p>The extensive and carefully classified bibliographies which accompany
+each chapter embody the results of careful criticism and selection. They
+are carefully arranged to meet the needs of students of all grades, from
+the high-school pupil to one engaged in advanced graduate work.</p>
+
+<p>Volume I corresponds to Chapters I-XXII of the author's "History of
+Western Europe," and closes with an account of the Italian cities during
+the Renaissance. Volume II begins with Europe at the opening of the
+sixteenth century. The Abridged Edition is intended especially for high
+schools.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big>GINN &amp; COMPANY <span class="smcap">Publishers</span></big></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>READINGS IN MODERN<br /> EUROPEAN HISTORY</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><small><i>A collection of extracts from sources chosen with the purpose of
+illustrating<br /> some of the chief phases of the development of Europe<br />
+during the last two hundred years</i></small></p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>By <span class="smcap">James Harvey Robinson</span>, Professor of History, and <span class="smcap">Charles A. Beard</span>,<br />
+Adjunct Professor of Politics, in Columbia University</small></p>
+
+<p class="poems">
+Volume I. The Eighteenth Century: The French Revolution<br />
+and the Napoleonic Period. 12mo, cloth, illustrated,<br />
+410 pages, $1.40<br />
+<br />
+Volume II. Europe since the Congress of Vienna. 12mo,<br />
+cloth, illustrated, 448 pages, $1.50<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>"READINGS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY" aims to stimulate the student to
+real thought and interest in his work by bringing him right to the
+sources of historical knowledge and enabling him to see the very words
+of those who, writing when the past was present, can carry him back to
+themselves and make their times his own. In this way the book offers the
+proper background and atmosphere for "The Development of Modern Europe,"
+by the same authors, which it accompanies chapter by chapter and section
+by section.</p>
+
+<p>Bibliographies provided in the Appendix start the student on the path to
+a really thorough study of the field.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A goodly number of the readings in this volume are of the
+constitutional kind which merit and richly reward careful study. A
+still larger number are of the interesting and lively kind which
+charm and entertain, and which are valuable because they give the
+flavor of the olden times. The bibliography is no mere list of
+unappreciated titles, but an excellent critical classification
+which guides the student quickly on to the fundamental
+works.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sidney B. Fay</span>, <i>Assistant Professor of History, Dartmouth
+College</i>, in <i>The American Historical Review</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p class="center"><big>GINN AND COMPANY <span class="smcap">Publishers</span></big></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>TRENHOLME'S SYLLABI</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><small>By NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME<br /> Professor of History and the Teaching of
+History in the University of Missouri</small></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>A SYLLABUS FOR THE HISTORY OF<br /> WESTERN EUROPE</big></p>
+
+<p class="poems">
+Part I. The Middle Ages <small>12mo, cloth, vii + 80 pages, 40 cents</small><br />
+<br />
+Part II. The Modern Age <small>12mo, cloth, vii + 94 pages, 40 cents</small><br />
+<br />
+In One Volume <small>60 cents</small><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>This topical outline is arranged to accompany Robinson's "History of
+Western Europe" or to correlate with "Readings in European History" by
+the same author. It is not a lecture syllabus, but is meant as an aid in
+studying the text-books and Readings.</p>
+
+<p>Review questions occur from time to time throughout the text, and a
+brief list of the most serviceable reference books, with the publisher
+and price, has been prefixed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><big>AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH HISTORY</big></p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>12mo, cloth, xii + 122 pages, 50 cents</small></p>
+
+<p>Especially arranged for use with Cheyney's "Short History of England" as
+a text-book and the "Readings in English History" as collateral
+reference. It is built upon the same lines as the author's "Syllabus for
+the History of Western Europe," described above, and is arranged in
+sections and subdivisions, there being ninety topics in all.</p>
+
+<p>The book is admirably adapted for either short or long courses in
+English history, and, with its clear analysis of leading movements and
+suggestive review questions, should be a welcome aid in the teaching of
+the subject.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big>GINN AND COMPANY <span class="smcap">Publishers</span></big></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Introduction to the History of
+Western Europe, by James Harvey Robinson
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 02:19:55 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 02:19:55 -0700
commit	112a1a3b8b91b62a1cd24ba1b70e6731df078542 (patch)
tree	095467005d6c79caf90eebf584071c9db56f2a66 /26042-h