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diff --git a/26029.txt b/26029.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea281d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/26029.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1336 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Printing and the Renaissance, by John Rothwell Slater + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Printing and the Renaissance + A paper read before the Fortnightly Club of Rochester, New York + +Author: John Rothwell Slater + +Release Date: July 11, 2008 [EBook #26029] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE *** + + + + +Produced by Emmy and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from +images generously made available by The Internet +Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + + +PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE + +[Illustration] + + + + + +PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE: A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FORTNIGHTLY CLUB +OF ROCHESTER NEW YORK BY JOHN ROTHWELL SLATER. + +[Illustration] + + NEW YORK + William Edwin Rudge + 1921 + + + + PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE: + A PAPER READ BEFORE THE + FORTNIGHTLY CLUB OF + ROCHESTER + N. Y. + + +PRINTING did not make the Renaissance; the Renaissance made printing. +Printing did not begin the publication and dissemination of books. There +were libraries of vast extent in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Rome. +There were universities centuries before Gutenberg where the few +instructed the many in the learning treasured up in books, and where +both scholars and professional scribes multiplied copies of books both +old and new. At the outset of any examination of the influence of +printing on the Renaissance it is necessary to remind ourselves that the +intellectual life of the ancient and the mediaeval world was built upon +the written word. There is a naive view in which ancient literature is +conceived as existing chiefly in the autograph manuscripts and original +documents of a few great centers to which all ambitious students must +have resort. A very little inquiry into the multiplication of books +before printing shows us how erroneous is this view. + +We must pass over entirely the history of publishing and book-selling in +ancient times, a subject too vast for adequate summary in a preliminary +survey of this sort. With the fall of Rome and the wholesale destruction +that accompanied the barbarian invasions a new chapter begins in the +history of the dissemination of literature. This chapter opens with the +founding of the scriptorium, or monastic copying system, by Cassiodorus +and Saint Benedict early in the sixth century. To these two men, +Cassiodorus, the ex-chancellor of the Gothic king Theodoric, and +Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine order, is due the gratitude of +the modern world. It was through their foresight in setting the monks at +work copying the scriptures and the secular literature of antiquity that +we owe the preservation of most of the books that have survived the +ruins of the ancient world. At the monastery of Monte Cassino, founded +by Saint Benedict in the year 529, and at that of Viviers, founded by +Cassiodorus in 531, the Benedictine rule required of every monk that a +fixed portion of each day be spent in the scriptorium. There the more +skilled scribes were entrusted with the copying of precious documents +rescued from the chaos of the preceding century, while monks not yet +sufficiently expert for this high duty were instructed by their +superiors. + +The example thus nobly set was imitated throughout all the centuries +that followed, not only in the Benedictine monasteries of Italy, France, +Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, Iceland, but in religious houses of +all orders. It is to the mediaeval Church, her conservatism in the true +sense of the word, her industry, her patience, her disinterested +guardianship alike of sacred and of pagan letters, that the world owes +most of our knowledge of antiquity. Conceive how great would be our loss +if to archaeology alone we could turn for the reconstruction of the +civilization, the art, the philosophy, the public and private life of +Greece and Rome. If the Church had done no more than this for +civilization, it would still have earned some measure of tolerance from +its most anti-clerical opponents. It is of course to the Eastern rather +than to the Roman Church that we owe the preservation of classical Greek +literature, copied during the dark ages in Greek monasteries and +introduced into Italy after the fall of Constantinople. + +A second stage in the multiplication and publication of manuscript books +begins with the founding of the great mediaeval universities of Bologna, +Paris, Padua, Oxford, and other centers of higher education. Inasmuch as +the study of those days was almost entirely book study, the maintenance +of a university library with one or two copies of each book studied was +inadequate. There grew up in each university city an organized system of +supplying the students with textbooks. The authorized book-dealers of a +mediaeval university were called =stationarii=, or stationers, a term +apparently derived from the fixed post or station assigned in or near +the university buildings to each scribe permitted to supply books to the +students and professors. A stationer in England has always meant +primarily a book-dealer or publisher, as for example in the term +Stationers' Hall, the guild or corporation which until 1842 still +exercised in London the functions of a copyright bureau. Incidentally a +stationer also dealt in writing materials, whence our ordinary American +use of the term. Another name for the university book-dealers was the +classical Latin word =librarii=, which usually in mediaeval Latin meant +not what we call a librarian but a vender of books, like the French +=libraire=. These scribes were not allowed at first to sell their +manuscripts, but rented them to the students at rates fixed by +university statutes. A folded sheet of eight pages, sixteen columns of +sixty-two lines each, was the unit on which the rental charges were +based. Such a sheet at the beginning of the thirteenth century rented +for about twenty cents a term; and since an ordinary textbook of +philosophy or theology or canon law contained many sheets, these charges +constituted no inconsiderable part of the cost of instruction. The books +must be returned before the student left the university; sales were at +first surreptitious and illegal, but became common early in the +fourteenth century. Reasonable accuracy among the stationers was secured +by a system of fines for errors, half of which went to the university, +the other half being divided between the supervisor or head proof-reader +and the informant who discovered the error. + +The original regulation which forbade the stationers to sell books was +intended to prevent students of a profiteering turn of mind from buying +books for resale to their fellow-students at a higher price, thus +cornering the market and holding up the work of an entire class. In +course of time, however, the book-dealers were permitted not only to +sell textbooks, at prices still controlled by official action, but also +to buy and sell manuscripts of other books, both those produced by local +scribes and those imported from other cities and countries. + +This broadening of the activities of the university bookstores led +naturally to the third and last stage which the publishing business +underwent before the invention of printing. This stage was the +establishment in Florence, Paris, and other intellectual centers, of +bookshops selling manuscripts to the general public rather than to +university students. These grew rapidly during the first half of the +fifteenth century, receiving a marked impetus from the new interest in +Greek studies. Some years before the fall of Constantinople in 1453 +Italian book-sellers were accustomed to send their buyers to the centers +of Byzantine learning in the near East in quest of manuscripts to be +disposed of at fancy prices to the rich collectors and patrons of +literature. There is evidence of similar methods in France and Germany +during the earlier decades of the Renaissance. + +This preliminary sketch of the book-publishing business before printing +is intended to correct a rather common misapprehension. Manuscript books +were indeed relatively costly, but they were not scarce. Any scholar who +had not been through a university not only had access to public +libraries of hundreds of volumes, but might also possess, at prices not +beyond the reach of a moderate purse, his own five-foot shelf of the +classics. The more elegant manuscripts, written by experts and adorned +with rich illuminations and sumptuous bindings, were of course not for +the humble student; but working copies, multiplied on a large scale by a +roomful of scribes writing simultaneously from dictation, might always +be had. Chaucer, writing of the poor clerk of Oxford at the end of the +fourteenth century, tells us that + + "Him was levere have at his beddes heed + Twenty bokes, clad in blak or reed, + Of Aristotle and his philosophye, + Than robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrye." + +We are not sure that he had the whole twenty books; that was his +ambition, his academic dream of wealth; but we are assured that he +spent on books all the money he could borrow from his friends, and that +he showed his gratitude by busily praying for the souls of his +creditors. + +When we consider the enormous number of manuscript books that must have +existed in Europe in the middle ages, we may well wonder why they have +become relatively rare in modern times. Several explanations account for +this. In the first place, the practice of erasing old manuscripts and +using the same vellum again for other works was extremely common. +Secondly, vast numbers of manuscripts in the monasteries and other +libraries of Europe were wantonly or accidentally destroyed by fire, +especially in times of war and religious fanaticism. In the third place, +the early binders, down through the sixteenth century and even later, +used sheets of vellum from old manuscripts for the linings and the +covers of printed books. Finally, after the invention of printing, as +soon as a given work had been adequately and handsomely printed in a +standard edition, all but the finest manuscripts of that book would +naturally be looked upon as of little value, and would be subject to +loss and decay if not to deliberate destruction. Owing to these and +perhaps other causes it is almost entirely the religious manuscripts +that have survived, except those preserved in royal libraries and +museums from the finer collections of the middle ages. + +The invention of printing was not the work of any one man. Not only were +printed pages of text with accompanying pictures produced from woodcut +blocks in Holland a quarter of a century before Gutenberg began his work +at Mainz, but it is pretty well established that movable types were +employed by Laurence Koster, of Haarlem, as early as 1430. But Koster, +who died about 1440, did not carry his invention beyond the experimental +stages, and produced no really fine printing. Moreover, his work had no +immediate successor in Holland. Whether it be true, as sometimes +alleged, that Gutenberg first learned of the new art from one of +Koster's workmen, we have no means of knowing. At any rate, Gutenberg's +contemporaries as well as his successors gave to him the credit of the +invention. That he was not the first to conceive the idea of multiplying +impressions of type-forms by the use of a screw press is evident; but he +was the first to develop the invention to a point where it became +capable of indefinite extension. He seems to have worked in secret for +some years on the problems involved in type-founding and printing before +the year 1450, when he set up his shop in Mainz. + +The capital for the new business was furnished by a wealthy goldsmith +named Johann Fust. Between 1450 and 1455 Gutenberg printed an edition of +the Latin Bible, sometimes known as the Mazarin Bible, which is +ordinarily regarded as the first printed book. It was a magnificently +printed volume, exhibiting at the very foundation of the art a skill in +presswork scarcely surpassed by any of Gutenberg's immediate successors. +He was a great printer, but not a financially successful one. Fust sued +his partner in 1455 for repayment of the loans advanced, and upon +Gutenberg's failure to meet these obligations Fust foreclosed the +mortgage and took over the printing plant. Although Gutenberg started +another publishing house at Mainz, and continued it until his death in +1468, the main development of printing after 1455 was in the original +plant as carried on by Fust and his son-in-law, Peter Schoeffer. They +printed in 1457 an edition of the Psalms in which for the first time +two-color printing was employed, the large initial letters being printed +in red and black. This innovation, designed to imitate the rubricated +initials of the manuscripts, involved great technical difficulties in +the presswork, and was not generally adopted. Most of the early printed +books, even down to the end of the fifteenth century, left blanks for +the large capitals at the beginnings of the chapters, to be filled in by +hand by professional illuminators. + +From the establishments of Gutenberg and of Fust and Schoeffer in Mainz +knowledge of the new art spread rapidly into many German cities. In 1462 +Mainz was captured and sacked by Adolph of Nassau in one of the local +wars of the period, and printers from the Mainz shops made their way to +other cities throughout the empire. Before 1470 there were printing +establishments in almost every German city, and hundreds of works, +mostly theological, had been issued from their presses. + +In all these early German books, printed of course in Latin, the type +used was the black-letter. Gutenberg, in designing his first font, +evidently tried to imitate as closely as possible the angular gothic +alphabet employed by the scribes in the best manuscripts. Not only were +the letters identical in form with the engrossing hand of the monks, but +the innumerable abbreviated forms used in the Latin manuscripts were +retained. Thus a stroke over a vowel indicated an omitted =m= or =n=, a +=p= with a stroke across it indicated the Latin prefix =per=, a circle +above the line stood for the termination =us=, an =r= with a cross +meant--=rum=, and so forth. These abbreviations, which make printed +books of the earliest period rather hard reading today, were retained +not only to save space but to give the printed page as nearly as +possible the appearance of a fine manuscript. It was not at first the +ambition of the printers and type-founders to make their books more +legible or less taxing on the eyes than manuscript; their readers were +accustomed to manuscript and felt no need of such improvements. The +mechanical advance in the art of writing brought about by printing was +at first regarded as consisting in the greater rapidity and lower cost +at which printed books could be produced. + +But the new invention was at first looked upon by some famous scholars +and patrons of learning as a detriment rather than a help. The great +Trithemius, abbot of Sponheim, wrote as late as 1494 in the following +terms: + + "A work written on parchment could be preserved + for a thousand years, while it is probable that no + volume printed on paper will last for more than + two centuries. Many important works have not been + printed, and the copies of these must be prepared + by scribes. The scribe who ceases his work because + of the invention of the printing-press can be no + true lover of books, in that, regarding only the + present, he gives no due thought to the + intellectual cultivation of his successors. The + printer has no care for the beauty and the + artistic form of books, while with the scribe this + is a labor of love." + +Contrasted with this low estimate of the importance of the new art by +some scholars, we note the promptness with which the great churchmen of +Italy and of France took measures to import German printers and set up +presses of their own. In 1464 the abbot of Subiaco, a monastery near +Rome, brought to Italy two German printers, Conrad Schweinheim and +Arnold Pannartz, and set them at work printing liturgical books for the +use of the monks. Soon afterward, under ecclesiastical patronage, they +began to issue, first at Subiaco and then at Rome, a series of Latin +classics. During five years this first printing establishment in Italy +published the complete works of Cicero, Apuleius, Caesar, Virgil, Livy, +Strabo, Lucan, Pliny, Suetonius, Quintilian, Ovid, as well as of such +fathers of the Latin Church as Augustine, Jerome and Cyprian, and a +complete Latin Bible. This printing establishment came to an end in 1472 +for lack of adequate capital, but was soon followed by others both in +Rome and especially in Venice. + +Early Venetian printing forms one of the most distinguished chapters in +the whole history of the subject. The most famous of the first +generation was Nicolas Jenson, a Frenchman who had learned the art in +Germany. Between 1470 and his death in 1480 he printed many fine books, +and in most of them he employed what is now called roman type. He was +not absolutely the first to use the roman alphabet, but his roman fonts +were designed and cast with such artistic taste, such a fine sense of +proportion and symmetry of form, that the Jenson roman became the model +of later printers for many years after his death. Roman type, unlike the +black-letter, had two distinct origins. The capitals were derived from +the letters used by the ancient Roman architects for inscriptions on +public buildings. The small letters were adapted from the rounded +vertical style of writing used in many Italian texts, altogether +different in form from the angular gothic alphabet used in +ecclesiastical manuscripts. Jenson's roman letters were clear, sharp and +easy to read, and constituted the greatest single addition to the art of +printing since its beginning. Germany clung obstinately to the +black-letter in its Latin books, as it has adhered down to very recent +times to a similar heavy type for the printing of German text; but the +rest of Europe within a few years came over to the clearer and more +beautiful roman. + +There were many early printers at Venice between Jenson and his greater +successor Aldus Manutius, who began business in 1494, but we shall pass +over them all in order to devote more careful attention to the noble +history of the Aldine press. I propose in the remainder of this paper to +select five great printers of the Renaissance, and to examine their work +both as a whole and as illustrated in typical examples. These five are: + + ALDUS MANUTIUS, of Venice. + + ROBERT ESTIENNE, of Paris, commonly known by the name of + =Stephanus=. + + JOHANN FROBEN, of Basel. + + ANTON KOBERGER, of Nuremberg. + + WILLIAM CAXTON, of London. + +Each stands for a different aspect of the art of printing, both in the +mechanical features of book-making and also in the selection of works to +be published and the editorial methods employed in making them ready for +the press. Taken together, the books issued from their presses at the +end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century form a +sort of composite picture of the Renaissance. + + + + +[Illustration] + + +First of all, in our consideration and in order of greatness, stands the +name of Aldus Manutius. The books of the Aldine press, all with the +well-known sign of the anchor and dolphin, are familiar to most students +of the classics. Aldus was born in 1450, the very year of Gutenberg's +invention. For the first forty years of his life he was a scholar, +devoting himself to the Latin classics and to the mastery of the newly +revived Greek language and literature. His intimate association with +Pico della Mirandola and other Italian scholars, as well as with many +of the learned Greeks who then frequented Italian courts and cities, led +him to conceive the great plan upon which his later career was based. +This was nothing less than to issue practically the whole body of +classic literature, Greek as well as Latin, in editions distinguished +from all that had preceded in two important respects. First, they were +to be not reprints of received uncritical texts but new revisions made +by competent scholars based upon a comparison of all the best available +manuscripts. Secondly, they were to be printed not in ponderous and +costly folios but in small octavos of convenient size, small but clear +type, and low price. This was not primarily a commercial venture like +the cheap texts of the classics issued in the nineteenth century by +Teubner and other German publishers, but resembled rather in its broad +humanistic spirit such a recent enterprise as the Loeb Classical +Library. The purpose in each case was to revive and encourage the +reading of the classics not alone by schoolboys but by men of all ages +and all professions. But there is this important difference, that Mr. +Loeb is a retired millionaire who employs scholars to do all the work +and merely foots the bill, while Aldus was a poor man dependent upon +such capital as he could borrow from his patrons, and had at the same +time to perform for himself a large part of the editorial labors on his +books. Mr. Loeb commands the latest and most complete resources of the +modern art of printing; Aldus helped to make that art. Mr. Loeb's +editors may employ when they choose the style of type known as italic; +Aldus invented it. Mr. Loeb's publishers have at their command all the +advertising and selling machinery of a great modern business concern, +and yet they do not, and probably can not, make the classics pay for +themselves, but must meet the deficits out of an endowment. Aldus had to +organize his own selling system, his advertising had to be largely by +private correspondence with scholars and book-sellers throughout Europe +laboriously composed with his own hand; yet it was imperative that the +business become as soon as possible self-supporting, or at least that +losses in one quarter should be recouped by profits in another. + +It was in his edition of Virgil, 1501, that Aldus first employed the new +cursive or sloping letter which later came to be known in English +printing as italic type. According to tradition he copied it closely +from the handwriting of the Italian poet Petrarch. The type was very +compact, covering many more words on a page than the roman of that day, +and was used as a body type, not as in our day for isolated words and +phrases set apart for emphasis or other distinction from the rest of the +text. Aldus also, though not the first to cast Greek type, gave his +Greek fonts an elegance which was soon imitated, like the italic, by +other printers. By the introduction of small types which were at the +same time legible, and by adopting for his classical texts a small +format suitable for pocket-size books, Aldus invented the modern small +book. No longer was it necessary for a scholar to rest a heavy folio on +a table in order to read; he might carry with him on a journey half a +dozen of these beautiful little books in no more space than a single +volume of the older printers. Furthermore, his prices were low. The +pocket editions or small octavos sold for about two lire, or forty cents +in the money of that day, the purchasing power of which in modern money +is estimated at not above two dollars. + +This popularizing of literature and of classical learning did not meet +with universal favor amongst his countrymen. We read of one Italian who +warned Aldus that if he kept on spreading Italian scholarship beyond the +Alps at nominal prices the outer barbarians would no longer come to +Italy to study Greek, but would stay at home and read their Aldine +editions without adding a penny to the income of Italian cities. Such a +fear was not unfounded, for the poorer scholars of Germany and the +Netherlands did actually find that they could stay at home and get for a +few francs the ripest results of Italian and Greek scholarship. This +gave Aldus no concern; if he could render international services to +learning, if he could help to set up among the humbler scholars of other +lands such a fine rivalry of competitive cooperation as already existed +among such leaders as Erasmus and Sir Thomas More, he should be well +content to live laborious days and to die poor. Both these he did; but +he gathered around him such a company of friends and collaborators as +few men have enjoyed; he must have breathed with a rare exhilaration, +born of honest and richly productive toil, the very air of Athens in her +glory; and he must have realized sometimes amid the dust and heat of the +printing shop that it was given to him at much cost of life and grinding +toil to stand upon the threshold of the golden age alike of typography +and of the revival of learning. In 1514, the year before his death, +Aldus wrote to a friend a letter of which I borrow a translation from +George Haven Putnam's Books and Their Makers during the Middle Ages. +This is the picture Aldus drew of his daily routine: + + "I am hampered in my work by a thousand + interruptions. Nearly every hour comes a letter + from some scholar, and if I undertook to reply to + them all, I should be obliged to devote day and + night to scribbling. Then through the day come + calls from all kinds of visitors. Some desire + merely to give a word of greeting, others want to + know what there is new, while the greater number + come to my office because they happen to have + nothing else to do. 'Let us look in upon Aldus,' + they say to each other. Then they loaf in and sit + and chatter to no purpose. Even these people with + no business are not so bad as those who have a + poem to offer or something in prose (usually very + prosy indeed) which they wish to see printed with + the name of Aldus. These interruptions are now + becoming too serious for me, and I must take steps + to lessen them. Many letters I simply leave + unanswered, while to others I send very brief + replies; and as I do this not from pride or from + discourtesy, but simply in order to be able to go + on with my task of printing good books, it must + not be taken hardly. As a warning to the heedless + visitors who use up my office hours to no purpose, + I have now put up a big notice on the door of my + office to the following effect: Whoever thou art, + thou art earnestly requested by Aldus to state thy + business briefly and to take thy departure + promptly. In this way thou mayest be of service + even as was Hercules to the weary Atlas. For this + is a place of work for all who enter." + +What a picture that letter gives us of the half humorous, half pathetic +spirit in which the great publisher endured the daily grind. Twenty +years of it wore him out, but his dolphin-and-anchor trade-mark still +after four centuries preaches patience and hope to all who undertake +great burdens for the enlightenment of mankind. + +The Aldine press did not confine its efforts to the ancient classics, +but printed editions of Dante and Petrarch and other Italian poets, and +produced the first editions of some of the most important works of +Erasmus. But all of its publications belonged in general to the movement +known as humanism, the field of ancient and contemporary poetry, drama, +philosophy, history, and art. Aldus left to others, especially to the +great ecclesiastical printers of Venice and of Rome, the printing of the +scriptures, the works of the church fathers, and the innumerable volumes +of theological controversy with which the age abounded. In France, on +the other hand, the great publishing house of the Estiennes, or +Stephani, to whom we next direct our attention, divided its efforts +between the secular and sacred literature. Inasmuch as the history of +the Stephanus establishment is typical of the influence of printing upon +the Renaissance, and of the Renaissance upon printing, which is the +subject of this paper, we may well examine some aspects of its career. + +Printing had been introduced into France in 1469 by the ecclesiastics of +the Sorbonne. Like that abbot of Subiaco who set up the first press in +Italy five years before, these professors of scholastic philosophy and +theology at Paris did not realize that the new art had in it the +possibilities of anti-clerical and heretical use. For the first +generation the French printers enjoyed a considerable freedom from +censorship and burdensome restrictions. They published, like the +Venetians, both the Greek and Latin classics and the works of +contemporary writers. Both Louis XII. and Francis I. gave their +patronage and encouragement to various eminent scholar-printers who +flourished between the establishment of the first publishing-houses in +Paris and the beginning of the sixteenth century. I pass over all these +to select as the typical French printers of the Renaissance the family +founded by Henri Estienne the elder. His first book, a Latin translation +of Aristotle's Ethica, appeared in 1504. From that date for nearly a +hundred years the house of Stephanus and his descendants led the +publishing business in France. Both in the artistic advancement of the +art of printing and in the intellectual advancement of French thought by +their selection of the works to be issued they earned a right to the +enduring gratitude of mankind. + +Henri Estienne, the founder of the house, who died in 1520, had +published during these sixteen years at least one hundred separate +works. Although they were mostly Latin, many of them revealed Estienne's +knowledge of and devotion to the new Greek studies, and this tendency on +his part was at once suspected as heretical by the orthodox doctors of +the Sorbonne. The favor of King Francis was not at all times sufficient +to protect him from persecution, and an increasing severity of +censorship arose, the full force of which began to be evident in the +time of his son Robert. + +After Henri's death his business was for a time carried on by his +widow's second husband, Simon Colines, a scholar and humanist of +brilliant attainments. Both while at the head of the house of Stephanus +and later when he had withdrawn from that in favor of Robert Estienne +his stepson and set up a separate publishing business, Colines added +much to the prestige of French printing. He caused Greek fonts to be +cast, not inferior to those of the Venetian printers, and began to +publish the Greek classics in beautiful editions. It was Colines, rather +than either the elder or the younger Estienne, who elevated the artistic +side of French printing by engaging the services of such famous +typographical experts as Geofroy Tory, and adding to his books +illustrations of the highest excellence, as well as decorative initials +and borders. Indeed it may be said that after the death of Aldus +supremacy in the fine art of book-making gradually passed from Venice to +Paris. + + + + +[Illustration] + + +The greatest of the Estiennes was Robert, son of Henri Estienne and +stepson of Colines, who was in control of the house from 1524 to his +death in 1559. The very first book he published was an edition of the +Latin Testament. Although following in the main the Vulgate or official +Bible of the Roman Church, he introduced certain corrections based on +his knowledge of the Greek text. This marked the beginning of a long +controversy between Estienne and the orthodox divines of the Sorbonne, +which lasted almost throughout his life. In following years he published +many editions of the Latin scriptures, each time with additional +corrections, and eventually with his own notes and comments, in some +cases attacking the received doctrines of the Church. A Hebrew Old +Testament, in 1546, was followed in 1550 by the Greek New Testament. The +next year he published a new edition of the Testament in which for the +first time it was divided into verses, a precedent followed in Bible +printing ever since. It was not merely the fact of his printing the +scriptures at all that angered the heresy-hunters, but much more +Estienne's notes and comments, in which, like Luther in Germany and +Tyndale in England, he sided with the views of the Reformers. + +What distinguishes Robert Estienne from the ordinary Protestant scholars +and publishers of his time is the fact that he was not only a Reformer +but a humanist of broad and tolerant culture. In all the illustrious +group of that age there is scarcely another like him in this union of +religious zeal and of scholarly culture. Luther and Calvin and Tyndale +had the one; Erasmus is the most eminent example of the other, with such +great publishers as Aldus and Froben his worthy supporters. But Robert +Estienne, alongside of his controversial works and Biblical texts, +labored at such great enterprises as his monumental edition of Terence, +in which he corrected by the soundest methods of textual criticism no +less than six thousand errors in the received text, and especially his +magnificent lexicons of the Latin and Greek languages, which set the +standard for all other lexicographers for generations to come. + +The middle of the sixteenth century in France is thus marked by a +curious blend of those two distinct movements in human history which we +call the Renaissance and the Reformation, and the blend is nowhere more +picturesque than in the life of Robert Estienne. At one moment we find +him attacking the abuses of the church, at another we find him +consulting with Claude Garamond upon the design of a new Greek type, or +reading the final proofs of an edition of Horace or Catullus or Juvenal, +or discussing with some wealthy and noble book-collector like the famous +Grolier the latest styles in elegant bindings and gold-stamped +decoration. For beauty and for truth he had an equal passion. All that +romance of the imagination which touches with a golden glamour the +recovered treasures of pagan antiquity he loved as intensely as if it +were not alien and hostile, as the many thought, to that glow of +spiritual piety, that zeal of martyrdom, that white, consuming splendor +which for the mystical imagination surrounds the holy cross. Humanism at +its best is ordinarily thought to be embodied in the many-sided figure +of Erasmus, with his sanity, his balance, his power to see both sides, +that of Luther and of the Church, his delicate satire, his saving humor, +his avoidance of the zealot's extremes. Perhaps a not less striking +figure is that of this much less known French printer, striving in the +midst of petty cares and unlovely sectarian strife to maintain the +stoical serenity of a Marcus Aurelius side by side with the spiritual +exaltation of a Saint Paul. There are two types of great men equally +worthy of admiration: those of unmixed and lifelong devotion to a single +aim springing from a single source, such as Aldus Manutius, and those in +whom that balance of diverse and almost contradictory elements of +character which commonly leads to weakness makes instead for strength +and for richness, for duty and delight. Such was Robert Estienne. + +[Illustration] + + + + +[Illustration: FROBEN] + + +The third printer whom I have selected as typical of the Renaissance is +Johann Froben, of Basel. His chief distinction is that he was the +closest friend and associate of Erasmus, the principal publisher of +Erasmus's works, and the representative in the book trade of the +Erasmian attitude toward the Reformation. Although he did print the +Greek Testament, years before Estienne published his edition in Paris, +he accompanied it with no distinctively Protestant comments. Although at +one time he issued some of the earlier works of Luther, he desisted +when it became evident that Erasmus opposed any open schism in the +Church. It was Froben who gave to the world those three famous works of +Erasmus, the Encomium Moriae or Praise of Folly, the Adagia or Proverbs, +and the Colloquia or Conversations, which did quite as much as the +writings of Luther to arouse independent thinking within the Church, and +to bring to an end the last vestiges of the middle ages in church and +state. And in this relation of Froben to Erasmus there was not the mere +commercial attitude of a shrewd publisher toward a successful author +whose works became highly lucrative, but the support by one enlightened +scholar who happened to be in a profitable business of another who +happened to be out of it. The earlier life of Erasmus exhibits a rather +depressing illustration of the humiliations to which professional +scholars were exposed in trying to get a living from the pensions and +benefactions of the idle rich. Literary patronage, as it existed from +the days of Horace and Maecenas down to the death-blow which Dr. Johnson +gave it in his famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, has never helped the +independence or the self-respect of scholars and poets. It was Froben's +peculiar good fortune to be able to employ, on a business basis with a +regular salary, the greatest scholar of the age as one of his editors +and literary advisers, and at the same time enable him to preserve his +independence of thought and of action. Aldus and the French publishers +had gathered about them professional scholars and experts for the +execution of specific tasks at the market price, supplemented often by +generous private hospitality. That was good; but far better was Froben's +relation with his friend, his intellectual master, and his profitable +client Erasmus. In an age when no copyright laws existed for the +author's benefit the works of Erasmus were shamelessly pirated in +editions, published in Germany and France, from which the author +received not a penny. Yet Froben went right on paying to Erasmus not +only the fixed annual salary as a member of his consulting staff but +also a generous share of the profits upon his books. In a greedy, +unscrupulous, and rapacious age this wise and just, not to say generous, +policy stands out as prophetic of a better time. + +As a printer Froben was distinguished by the singular beauty of his +roman type, the perfection of his presswork, and the artistic decoration +of his books. In this last respect he was much indebted to the genius of +Hans Holbein, whom he discovered as a young wood-engraver seeking work +as Basel. With that keen eye for unrecognized genius which marked his +career he employed Holbein to design borders and initials for his books. +Later, with an equally sagacious and generous spirit, perceiving that +the young artist was too great a man to spend his days in a printing +office, he procured for him through Sir Thomas More an introduction to +the court of Henry VIII, where he won fame and fortune as a portrait +painter. I narrate the incident because it illustrates a very attractive +and amiable aspect of some of these men of the Renaissance, an +uncalculating and generous desire to help gifted men to find their true +place in the world where they might do their largest work. This, in an +age when competition and jealous rivalry in public and in private life +was as common as it is now, may give pause to the cynic and joy to the +lover of human kindness. + + + + +ANTON KOBERGER + +(=No printer's mark known=) + + +We are in a different world when we turn to the fourth of our five +representative printers, Anton Koberger, of Nuremberg. During the forty +years of his career as a publisher, between 1473 and 1513, he issued 236 +separate works, most of them in several volumes, and of the whole lot +none show any taint of reforming zeal. Koberger was a loyal Catholic, +and his published books were largely theological and all strictly +orthodox in nature. He is distinguished in two respects from the other +German printers of his time, the time between the death of Gutenberg and +the rise of Martin Luther. In the first place his work showed great +typographical excellence, with many fonts of handsome Gothic type and a +lavish use of woodcut illustrations. In the second place, his publishing +business was far better organized, far more extensive in its selling and +distributing machinery, than that of any other printer in Europe. We +learn that he had agents not only in every German city, but in the very +headquarters of his greatest competitors at Paris, Venice, and Rome, and +in such more distant places as Vienna, Buda-Pesth, and Warsaw. The +twenty-four presses in his own Nuremberg establishment were not +sufficient for his enormous business, and he let out printing jobs on +contract or commission to printers at Strasburg, Basel, and elsewhere. +The true German spirit of discipline appears in a contemporary account +of his printing plant at Nuremberg. He had more than a hundred workmen +there, including not only compositors, pressmen, and proof-readers, but +binders, engravers, and illuminators. All these were fed by their +employer in a common dining-hall apart from the works, and we are told +that they marched between the two buildings three times a day with +military precision. + +Koberger employed for a time the services of Albrecht Duerer, the famous +engraver, not only for the illustration of books but also for expert +oversight of the typographical form. Typography in its golden age was +rightly regarded not as a mere mechanical trade but as an art of design, +a design in black upon white, in which the just proportion of columns +and margins and titles and initials was quite as important as the +illustrations. Perhaps Koberger found Duerer too independent or too +expensive for his taste, for we find him in his later illustrated works +employing engravers more prolific than expert. Such were Michael +Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, who drew and engraved the two +thousand illustrations in the famous Nuremberg Chronicle published by +Koberger in 1493. This remarkable work was compiled by Doctor Hartman +Schedel, of Nuremberg. It is a history of the world from the creation +down to 1493, with a supplement containing a full illustrated account of +the end of the world, the Millennium, and the last judgment. This is by +no means all. There is combined with this outline of history, not less +ambitious though perhaps not more eccentric than H. G. Wells's latest +book, a gazetteer of the world in general and of Europe in particular, a +portrait gallery of all distinguished men from Adam and Methuselah down +to the reigning emperor, kings, and pope of 1493, with many intimate +studies of the devil, and a large variety of rather substantial and +Teutonic angels. Every city in Europe is shown in a front elevation in +which the perspective reminds one of Japanese art, and the castle-towers +and bridges and river-boats all bear a strong family resemblance. The +book is full of curious material, quite apart from the quaint +illustrations. In the midst of grave affairs of state we run across a +plague of locusts, an eclipse of the sun, or a pair of lovers who died +for love. Scandalous anecdotes of kings and priests jostle the fiercest +denunciations of heretics and reformers. A page is devoted to the +heresies of Wyclif and Huss. Anti-Semitism runs rampant through its +pages. Various detailed accounts are given of the torture and murder of +Christian boys by Jews, followed by the capture and burning alive of the +conspirators. Superstition and intolerance stand side by side with a +naive mystical piety and engaging stories of the saints and martyrs. Of +all the vast transformation in human thought that was then taking form +in Italy, of all the forward-looking signs of the times, there is little +trace. From 1493 to the last dim ages of the expiring world, the +downfall of Antichrist and the setting up of the final kingdom of heaven +upon earth, seemed but a little way to Hartman Schedel, when he wrote +with much complacence the colophon to this strange volume. He left three +blank leaves between 1493 and the Day of Judgment whereon the reader +might record what remained of human history. It is indeed rather the +last voice of the middle ages than the first voice of the Renaissance +that speaks to us out of these clear, black, handsome pages that were +pulled damp from the press four hundred and twenty-eight years ago on +the fourth of last June. At first reading one is moved to mirth, then to +wonder, then perhaps to disgust, but last of all to the haunting +melancholy of Omar the tent-maker when he sings + + "When you and I behind the veil are past, + Oh, but the long, long while the world shall last." + +As to worthy Hartman Schedel, God rest his soul, one wonders whether he +has yet learned that Columbus discovered America. He had not yet heard +of it when he finished his book, though Columbus had returned to Spain +three months before. O most lame and impotent conclusion! But the +fifteenth century, though it had an infinite childlike curiosity, had no +nose for news. Nuremberg nodded peacefully on while a new world loomed +up beyond the seas, and studied Michael Wolgemut's picture of Noah +building the ark while Columbus was fitting out the Santa Maria for a +second voyage. Such is mankind, blind and deaf to the greatest things. +We know not the great hour when it strikes. We are indeed most +enthralled by the echoing chimes of the romantic past when the future +sounds its faint far-off reveille upon our unheeding ears. The multitude +understands noon and night; only the wise man understands the morning. + + + + +[Illustration] + + +And now finally, what of William Caxton? The father of English printing +had been for many years an English merchant residing in Bruges when his +increasing attention to literature led him to acquire the new art of +printing. He had already translated from the French the Histories of +Troy, and was preparing to undertake other editorial labors when he +became associated with Colard Mansion, a Bruges printer. From Mansion he +learned the art and presumably purchased his first press and type. Six +books bearing Caxton's imprint were published at Bruges between 1474 and +1476, though it is possible that the actual printing was done by Mansion +rather than by Caxton himself. In 1476 Caxton set up the first printing +shop in England, in a house within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. +Between that date and his death in 1491 he printed ninety-three separate +works, some of these in several editions. His industry and scholarly +zeal as a publisher somewhat exceeded his technical skill as a printer. +Caxton's books, which are now much rarer than those of many continental +printers of the same period, are not so finely and beautifully done as +the best of theirs. But the peculiar interest of his work lies in the +striking variety of the works he chose for publication, the +conscientious zeal with which he conceived and performed his task, and +the quiet humor of his prefaces and notes. Let me illustrate briefly +these three points. First, his variety. We have observed that Aldus and +Froben published chiefly the Latin and Greek classics, Koberger the +Latin scriptures and theological works, and Stephanus a combination of +classics and theology. Caxton published few of the classics and very +little theology. His books consist largely of the works of the early +English poets, Chaucer, Gower, and others, of mediaeval romances derived +from English, French, and Italian sources, and of chronicles and +histories. The two most famous works that came from his press were the +first printed editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Malory's Morte +d'Arthur. His own English translation of the Golden Legend, a mediaeval +Latin collection of lives of the saints, is scarcely less in importance. +Among many other titles the following may serve to show how unusual and +unconventional were his selections: + + The History of Reynard the Fox. + The History of Godfrey of Boloyne, or the Conquest of Jerusalem. + The Fables of Aesop. + The Book of Good Maners. + The Faytes of Armes and of Chyvalrye. + The Governayle of Helthe. + The Arte and Crafte to Know Well to Dye. + +This is indeed humanism, but humanism in a different sense from that of +Aldus and Erasmus. Human life from the cradle to the grave, human life +in war and peace, human life in its gayer and its graver lights and +shadows, human life as embodied equally in famous writers and in +anonymous popular legends, was Caxton's field. He accounted nothing +human alien to his mind or to his great enterprise. + +Again, Caxton was conscientious. He set great store by accuracy, not +only typographical accuracy in matters of detail, but also the general +accuracy of the texts or sources from which his own translations and his +editions of other works were made. For example, in the second edition of +the Canterbury Tales he explains how the first edition was printed from +the best manuscript that he could find in 1478, but how after the +appearance of that there came to him a scholar who complained of many +errors, and spoke of another and more authentic manuscript in his +father's possession. Caxton at once agreed to get out a new edition +"whereas before by ignorance I erred in hurting and defaming his book in +divers places, in setting in some things that he never said nor made and +leaving out many things that are made which are requisite to be set in." +A great many other examples of such disinterested carefulness are to be +found in the history of those busy fifteen years at Westminster. In view +of the fact that he was not only editor, printer, and publisher, but +also translated twenty-three books totaling more than forty-five hundred +printed pages, this scholarly desire for accuracy deserves the highest +praise. Unlike Aldus and Froben, who were likewise editors as well as +publishers, he was not surrounded by a capable corps of expert scholars, +but worked almost alone. His faithful foreman, Wynkyn de Worde, +doubtless took over gradually a large share of the purely mechanical +side of the business, but Caxton remained till the end of his life the +active head as well as the brains of the concern. + +As for his humor, it comes out even in his very selections of books to +be printed, but chiefly in little touches all through his prefaces. For +example, in his preface to the Morte d'Arthur he answers with a certain +whimsical gravity the allegations of those who maintain that there was +no such person as King Arthur, and that "all such books as been made of +him be but feigned and fables." He recounts with assumed sincerity the +evidence of the chronicles, the existence of Arthur's seal in red wax at +Westminster Abbey, of Sir Gawain's skull at Dover Castle, of the Round +Table itself at Winchester, and so on. But he goes on to say, in his own +quaint way, which there is not space to quote at large, that in his own +opinion the stories are worth while for the intrinsic interest and the +moral values in them, whether they are literally true or not. He closes +thus: + + "Herein may be seen noble chivalry, courtesy, + humanity, friendliness, hardiness, love, + friendship, cowardice, murder, hate virtue and + sin. Do after the good and leave the evil, and it + shall bring you to good fame and renommee. And for + to pass the time this book shall be pleasant to + read in, but for to give faith and belief that all + is true that is contained herein, ye be at your + liberty." + +This wise, sane, gentle apostle of literature in England wrought well in +his day, and is justly honored alike by scholars and by printers, who +regard him, in England and America, as the father of their craft. Indeed +to this day in the printing trade a shop organization is sometimes +called a chapel, because according to ancient tradition Caxton's workmen +held their meetings in one of the chapels adjoining the abbey of +Westminster. + + * * * * * + +This survey of printing in its relations to the Renaissance is now not +finished but concluded. I have shown that the invention and improvement +of printing was not the cause but rather the effect of the revival of +learning, while on the other hand the wide dissemination of literature +made possible by typography of course accelerated enormously the process +of popular enlightenment. I have selected five typical printers of that +age: + + Aldus, with his Homer. + Stephanus, with his Greek Testament. + Froben, with his Plato. + Koberger, with his Nuremberg Chronicle. + Caxton, with his Morte d'Arthur. + +Here we find represented in the Aldus Homer the revival of Greek +learning, in the Stephanus Testament the application of this to the free +criticism of the scriptures, in the Froben Plato the substitution of +Platonic idealism for the scholastic philosophy based on Aristotle, in +the Nuremberg book the epitome of mediaeval superstition, credulity, and +curiosity on the verge of the new era, and in Morte d'Arthur the fond +return of the modern mind, facing an unknown future, upon the naive and +beautiful legends of Arthurian romance. An age full of contradictions +and strange delusions, but an age of great vitality, great eagerness, +great industry, patience, foresight, imagination. And in such an age it +was the good fortune of these wise craftsmen who handled so deftly their +paper and type to be the instruments of more evangels than angels ever +sang, more revolutions than gunpowder ever achieved, more victories than +ever won the applause of men or the approval of heaven. In the beginning +the creative word was =Fiat lux=--let there be light. In the new +creation of the human mind it was =Imprimatur=--let it be printed. If +printing had never been invented, it is easy to conceive that the +enormous learning and intellectual power of a few men in each generation +might have gone on increasing so that the world might to-day possess +most of the knowledge that we now enjoy; but it is certain that the +masses could never have been enlightened, and that therefore the gulf +between the wise few and the ignorant many would have exceeded anything +known to the ancient world, and inconceivably dangerous in its appalling +social menace. Whoever first printed a page of type is responsible for +many crimes committed in the name of literature during the past four +centuries; but one great book in a generation or a century, like a grain +of radium in a ton of pitchblende, is worth all it has cost; for like +the radium it is infinitely powerful to the wise man, deadly to the +fool, and its strange, invisible virtue so far as we know may last +forever. + +[Illustration] + +DESIGNED BY BRUCE ROGERS AND PRINTED FROM MONOTYPE CASLON TYPE BY +WILLIAM EDWIN RUDGE AT MOUNT VERNON NEW YORK IN DECEMBER 1921. + +OF THIS EDITION ONE HUNDRED COPIES ARE ON FRENCH HAND-MADE PAPER AND +FIVE HUNDRED ON ANTIQUE WOVE PAPER. + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Note: This text uses both today and to-day. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Printing and the Renaissance, by +John Rothwell Slater + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE *** + +***** This file should be named 26029.txt or 26029.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/0/2/26029/ + +Produced by Emmy and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from +images generously made available by The Internet +Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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