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+Project Gutenberg's Printing and the Renaissance, by John Rothwell Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Printing and the Renaissance
+       A paper read before the Fortnightly Club of Rochester, New York
+
+Author: John Rothwell Slater
+
+Release Date: July 11, 2008 [EBook #26029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Emmy and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet
+Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE: A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FORTNIGHTLY CLUB
+OF ROCHESTER NEW YORK BY JOHN ROTHWELL SLATER.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          NEW YORK
+          William Edwin Rudge
+          1921
+
+
+
+                   PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE:
+                      A PAPER READ BEFORE THE
+                        FORTNIGHTLY CLUB OF
+                             ROCHESTER
+                               N. Y.
+
+
+PRINTING did not make the Renaissance; the Renaissance made printing.
+Printing did not begin the publication and dissemination of books. There
+were libraries of vast extent in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Rome.
+There were universities centuries before Gutenberg where the few
+instructed the many in the learning treasured up in books, and where
+both scholars and professional scribes multiplied copies of books both
+old and new. At the outset of any examination of the influence of
+printing on the Renaissance it is necessary to remind ourselves that the
+intellectual life of the ancient and the mediaeval world was built upon
+the written word. There is a naive view in which ancient literature is
+conceived as existing chiefly in the autograph manuscripts and original
+documents of a few great centers to which all ambitious students must
+have resort. A very little inquiry into the multiplication of books
+before printing shows us how erroneous is this view.
+
+We must pass over entirely the history of publishing and book-selling in
+ancient times, a subject too vast for adequate summary in a preliminary
+survey of this sort. With the fall of Rome and the wholesale destruction
+that accompanied the barbarian invasions a new chapter begins in the
+history of the dissemination of literature. This chapter opens with the
+founding of the scriptorium, or monastic copying system, by Cassiodorus
+and Saint Benedict early in the sixth century. To these two men,
+Cassiodorus, the ex-chancellor of the Gothic king Theodoric, and
+Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine order, is due the gratitude of
+the modern world. It was through their foresight in setting the monks at
+work copying the scriptures and the secular literature of antiquity that
+we owe the preservation of most of the books that have survived the
+ruins of the ancient world. At the monastery of Monte Cassino, founded
+by Saint Benedict in the year 529, and at that of Viviers, founded by
+Cassiodorus in 531, the Benedictine rule required of every monk that a
+fixed portion of each day be spent in the scriptorium. There the more
+skilled scribes were entrusted with the copying of precious documents
+rescued from the chaos of the preceding century, while monks not yet
+sufficiently expert for this high duty were instructed by their
+superiors.
+
+The example thus nobly set was imitated throughout all the centuries
+that followed, not only in the Benedictine monasteries of Italy, France,
+Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, Iceland, but in religious houses of
+all orders. It is to the mediaeval Church, her conservatism in the true
+sense of the word, her industry, her patience, her disinterested
+guardianship alike of sacred and of pagan letters, that the world owes
+most of our knowledge of antiquity. Conceive how great would be our loss
+if to archaeology alone we could turn for the reconstruction of the
+civilization, the art, the philosophy, the public and private life of
+Greece and Rome. If the Church had done no more than this for
+civilization, it would still have earned some measure of tolerance from
+its most anti-clerical opponents. It is of course to the Eastern rather
+than to the Roman Church that we owe the preservation of classical Greek
+literature, copied during the dark ages in Greek monasteries and
+introduced into Italy after the fall of Constantinople.
+
+A second stage in the multiplication and publication of manuscript books
+begins with the founding of the great mediaeval universities of Bologna,
+Paris, Padua, Oxford, and other centers of higher education. Inasmuch as
+the study of those days was almost entirely book study, the maintenance
+of a university library with one or two copies of each book studied was
+inadequate. There grew up in each university city an organized system of
+supplying the students with textbooks. The authorized book-dealers of a
+mediaeval university were called =stationarii=, or stationers, a term
+apparently derived from the fixed post or station assigned in or near
+the university buildings to each scribe permitted to supply books to the
+students and professors. A stationer in England has always meant
+primarily a book-dealer or publisher, as for example in the term
+Stationers' Hall, the guild or corporation which until 1842 still
+exercised in London the functions of a copyright bureau. Incidentally a
+stationer also dealt in writing materials, whence our ordinary American
+use of the term. Another name for the university book-dealers was the
+classical Latin word =librarii=, which usually in mediaeval Latin meant
+not what we call a librarian but a vender of books, like the French
+=libraire=. These scribes were not allowed at first to sell their
+manuscripts, but rented them to the students at rates fixed by
+university statutes. A folded sheet of eight pages, sixteen columns of
+sixty-two lines each, was the unit on which the rental charges were
+based. Such a sheet at the beginning of the thirteenth century rented
+for about twenty cents a term; and since an ordinary textbook of
+philosophy or theology or canon law contained many sheets, these charges
+constituted no inconsiderable part of the cost of instruction. The books
+must be returned before the student left the university; sales were at
+first surreptitious and illegal, but became common early in the
+fourteenth century. Reasonable accuracy among the stationers was secured
+by a system of fines for errors, half of which went to the university,
+the other half being divided between the supervisor or head proof-reader
+and the informant who discovered the error.
+
+The original regulation which forbade the stationers to sell books was
+intended to prevent students of a profiteering turn of mind from buying
+books for resale to their fellow-students at a higher price, thus
+cornering the market and holding up the work of an entire class. In
+course of time, however, the book-dealers were permitted not only to
+sell textbooks, at prices still controlled by official action, but also
+to buy and sell manuscripts of other books, both those produced by local
+scribes and those imported from other cities and countries.
+
+This broadening of the activities of the university bookstores led
+naturally to the third and last stage which the publishing business
+underwent before the invention of printing. This stage was the
+establishment in Florence, Paris, and other intellectual centers, of
+bookshops selling manuscripts to the general public rather than to
+university students. These grew rapidly during the first half of the
+fifteenth century, receiving a marked impetus from the new interest in
+Greek studies. Some years before the fall of Constantinople in 1453
+Italian book-sellers were accustomed to send their buyers to the centers
+of Byzantine learning in the near East in quest of manuscripts to be
+disposed of at fancy prices to the rich collectors and patrons of
+literature. There is evidence of similar methods in France and Germany
+during the earlier decades of the Renaissance.
+
+This preliminary sketch of the book-publishing business before printing
+is intended to correct a rather common misapprehension. Manuscript books
+were indeed relatively costly, but they were not scarce. Any scholar who
+had not been through a university not only had access to public
+libraries of hundreds of volumes, but might also possess, at prices not
+beyond the reach of a moderate purse, his own five-foot shelf of the
+classics. The more elegant manuscripts, written by experts and adorned
+with rich illuminations and sumptuous bindings, were of course not for
+the humble student; but working copies, multiplied on a large scale by a
+roomful of scribes writing simultaneously from dictation, might always
+be had. Chaucer, writing of the poor clerk of Oxford at the end of the
+fourteenth century, tells us that
+
+          "Him was levere have at his beddes heed
+           Twenty bokes, clad in blak or reed,
+           Of Aristotle and his philosophye,
+           Than robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrye."
+
+We are not sure that he had the whole twenty books; that was his
+ambition, his academic dream of wealth; but we are assured that he
+spent on books all the money he could borrow from his friends, and that
+he showed his gratitude by busily praying for the souls of his
+creditors.
+
+When we consider the enormous number of manuscript books that must have
+existed in Europe in the middle ages, we may well wonder why they have
+become relatively rare in modern times. Several explanations account for
+this. In the first place, the practice of erasing old manuscripts and
+using the same vellum again for other works was extremely common.
+Secondly, vast numbers of manuscripts in the monasteries and other
+libraries of Europe were wantonly or accidentally destroyed by fire,
+especially in times of war and religious fanaticism. In the third place,
+the early binders, down through the sixteenth century and even later,
+used sheets of vellum from old manuscripts for the linings and the
+covers of printed books. Finally, after the invention of printing, as
+soon as a given work had been adequately and handsomely printed in a
+standard edition, all but the finest manuscripts of that book would
+naturally be looked upon as of little value, and would be subject to
+loss and decay if not to deliberate destruction. Owing to these and
+perhaps other causes it is almost entirely the religious manuscripts
+that have survived, except those preserved in royal libraries and
+museums from the finer collections of the middle ages.
+
+The invention of printing was not the work of any one man. Not only were
+printed pages of text with accompanying pictures produced from woodcut
+blocks in Holland a quarter of a century before Gutenberg began his work
+at Mainz, but it is pretty well established that movable types were
+employed by Laurence Koster, of Haarlem, as early as 1430. But Koster,
+who died about 1440, did not carry his invention beyond the experimental
+stages, and produced no really fine printing. Moreover, his work had no
+immediate successor in Holland. Whether it be true, as sometimes
+alleged, that Gutenberg first learned of the new art from one of
+Koster's workmen, we have no means of knowing. At any rate, Gutenberg's
+contemporaries as well as his successors gave to him the credit of the
+invention. That he was not the first to conceive the idea of multiplying
+impressions of type-forms by the use of a screw press is evident; but he
+was the first to develop the invention to a point where it became
+capable of indefinite extension. He seems to have worked in secret for
+some years on the problems involved in type-founding and printing before
+the year 1450, when he set up his shop in Mainz.
+
+The capital for the new business was furnished by a wealthy goldsmith
+named Johann Fust. Between 1450 and 1455 Gutenberg printed an edition of
+the Latin Bible, sometimes known as the Mazarin Bible, which is
+ordinarily regarded as the first printed book. It was a magnificently
+printed volume, exhibiting at the very foundation of the art a skill in
+presswork scarcely surpassed by any of Gutenberg's immediate successors.
+He was a great printer, but not a financially successful one. Fust sued
+his partner in 1455 for repayment of the loans advanced, and upon
+Gutenberg's failure to meet these obligations Fust foreclosed the
+mortgage and took over the printing plant. Although Gutenberg started
+another publishing house at Mainz, and continued it until his death in
+1468, the main development of printing after 1455 was in the original
+plant as carried on by Fust and his son-in-law, Peter Schoeffer. They
+printed in 1457 an edition of the Psalms in which for the first time
+two-color printing was employed, the large initial letters being printed
+in red and black. This innovation, designed to imitate the rubricated
+initials of the manuscripts, involved great technical difficulties in
+the presswork, and was not generally adopted. Most of the early printed
+books, even down to the end of the fifteenth century, left blanks for
+the large capitals at the beginnings of the chapters, to be filled in by
+hand by professional illuminators.
+
+From the establishments of Gutenberg and of Fust and Schoeffer in Mainz
+knowledge of the new art spread rapidly into many German cities. In 1462
+Mainz was captured and sacked by Adolph of Nassau in one of the local
+wars of the period, and printers from the Mainz shops made their way to
+other cities throughout the empire. Before 1470 there were printing
+establishments in almost every German city, and hundreds of works,
+mostly theological, had been issued from their presses.
+
+In all these early German books, printed of course in Latin, the type
+used was the black-letter. Gutenberg, in designing his first font,
+evidently tried to imitate as closely as possible the angular gothic
+alphabet employed by the scribes in the best manuscripts. Not only were
+the letters identical in form with the engrossing hand of the monks, but
+the innumerable abbreviated forms used in the Latin manuscripts were
+retained. Thus a stroke over a vowel indicated an omitted =m= or =n=, a
+=p= with a stroke across it indicated the Latin prefix =per=, a circle
+above the line stood for the termination =us=, an =r= with a cross
+meant--=rum=, and so forth. These abbreviations, which make printed
+books of the earliest period rather hard reading today, were retained
+not only to save space but to give the printed page as nearly as
+possible the appearance of a fine manuscript. It was not at first the
+ambition of the printers and type-founders to make their books more
+legible or less taxing on the eyes than manuscript; their readers were
+accustomed to manuscript and felt no need of such improvements. The
+mechanical advance in the art of writing brought about by printing was
+at first regarded as consisting in the greater rapidity and lower cost
+at which printed books could be produced.
+
+But the new invention was at first looked upon by some famous scholars
+and patrons of learning as a detriment rather than a help. The great
+Trithemius, abbot of Sponheim, wrote as late as 1494 in the following
+terms:
+
+          "A work written on parchment could be preserved
+          for a thousand years, while it is probable that no
+          volume printed on paper will last for more than
+          two centuries. Many important works have not been
+          printed, and the copies of these must be prepared
+          by scribes. The scribe who ceases his work because
+          of the invention of the printing-press can be no
+          true lover of books, in that, regarding only the
+          present, he gives no due thought to the
+          intellectual cultivation of his successors. The
+          printer has no care for the beauty and the
+          artistic form of books, while with the scribe this
+          is a labor of love."
+
+Contrasted with this low estimate of the importance of the new art by
+some scholars, we note the promptness with which the great churchmen of
+Italy and of France took measures to import German printers and set up
+presses of their own. In 1464 the abbot of Subiaco, a monastery near
+Rome, brought to Italy two German printers, Conrad Schweinheim and
+Arnold Pannartz, and set them at work printing liturgical books for the
+use of the monks. Soon afterward, under ecclesiastical patronage, they
+began to issue, first at Subiaco and then at Rome, a series of Latin
+classics. During five years this first printing establishment in Italy
+published the complete works of Cicero, Apuleius, Caesar, Virgil, Livy,
+Strabo, Lucan, Pliny, Suetonius, Quintilian, Ovid, as well as of such
+fathers of the Latin Church as Augustine, Jerome and Cyprian, and a
+complete Latin Bible. This printing establishment came to an end in 1472
+for lack of adequate capital, but was soon followed by others both in
+Rome and especially in Venice.
+
+Early Venetian printing forms one of the most distinguished chapters in
+the whole history of the subject. The most famous of the first
+generation was Nicolas Jenson, a Frenchman who had learned the art in
+Germany. Between 1470 and his death in 1480 he printed many fine books,
+and in most of them he employed what is now called roman type. He was
+not absolutely the first to use the roman alphabet, but his roman fonts
+were designed and cast with such artistic taste, such a fine sense of
+proportion and symmetry of form, that the Jenson roman became the model
+of later printers for many years after his death. Roman type, unlike the
+black-letter, had two distinct origins. The capitals were derived from
+the letters used by the ancient Roman architects for inscriptions on
+public buildings. The small letters were adapted from the rounded
+vertical style of writing used in many Italian texts, altogether
+different in form from the angular gothic alphabet used in
+ecclesiastical manuscripts. Jenson's roman letters were clear, sharp and
+easy to read, and constituted the greatest single addition to the art of
+printing since its beginning. Germany clung obstinately to the
+black-letter in its Latin books, as it has adhered down to very recent
+times to a similar heavy type for the printing of German text; but the
+rest of Europe within a few years came over to the clearer and more
+beautiful roman.
+
+There were many early printers at Venice between Jenson and his greater
+successor Aldus Manutius, who began business in 1494, but we shall pass
+over them all in order to devote more careful attention to the noble
+history of the Aldine press. I propose in the remainder of this paper to
+select five great printers of the Renaissance, and to examine their work
+both as a whole and as illustrated in typical examples. These five are:
+
+          ALDUS MANUTIUS, of Venice.
+
+          ROBERT ESTIENNE, of Paris, commonly known by the name of
+                =Stephanus=.
+
+          JOHANN FROBEN, of Basel.
+
+          ANTON KOBERGER, of Nuremberg.
+
+          WILLIAM CAXTON, of London.
+
+Each stands for a different aspect of the art of printing, both in the
+mechanical features of book-making and also in the selection of works to
+be published and the editorial methods employed in making them ready for
+the press. Taken together, the books issued from their presses at the
+end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century form a
+sort of composite picture of the Renaissance.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+First of all, in our consideration and in order of greatness, stands the
+name of Aldus Manutius. The books of the Aldine press, all with the
+well-known sign of the anchor and dolphin, are familiar to most students
+of the classics. Aldus was born in 1450, the very year of Gutenberg's
+invention. For the first forty years of his life he was a scholar,
+devoting himself to the Latin classics and to the mastery of the newly
+revived Greek language and literature. His intimate association with
+Pico della Mirandola and other Italian scholars, as well as with many
+of the learned Greeks who then frequented Italian courts and cities, led
+him to conceive the great plan upon which his later career was based.
+This was nothing less than to issue practically the whole body of
+classic literature, Greek as well as Latin, in editions distinguished
+from all that had preceded in two important respects. First, they were
+to be not reprints of received uncritical texts but new revisions made
+by competent scholars based upon a comparison of all the best available
+manuscripts. Secondly, they were to be printed not in ponderous and
+costly folios but in small octavos of convenient size, small but clear
+type, and low price. This was not primarily a commercial venture like
+the cheap texts of the classics issued in the nineteenth century by
+Teubner and other German publishers, but resembled rather in its broad
+humanistic spirit such a recent enterprise as the Loeb Classical
+Library. The purpose in each case was to revive and encourage the
+reading of the classics not alone by schoolboys but by men of all ages
+and all professions. But there is this important difference, that Mr.
+Loeb is a retired millionaire who employs scholars to do all the work
+and merely foots the bill, while Aldus was a poor man dependent upon
+such capital as he could borrow from his patrons, and had at the same
+time to perform for himself a large part of the editorial labors on his
+books. Mr. Loeb commands the latest and most complete resources of the
+modern art of printing; Aldus helped to make that art. Mr. Loeb's
+editors may employ when they choose the style of type known as italic;
+Aldus invented it. Mr. Loeb's publishers have at their command all the
+advertising and selling machinery of a great modern business concern,
+and yet they do not, and probably can not, make the classics pay for
+themselves, but must meet the deficits out of an endowment. Aldus had to
+organize his own selling system, his advertising had to be largely by
+private correspondence with scholars and book-sellers throughout Europe
+laboriously composed with his own hand; yet it was imperative that the
+business become as soon as possible self-supporting, or at least that
+losses in one quarter should be recouped by profits in another.
+
+It was in his edition of Virgil, 1501, that Aldus first employed the new
+cursive or sloping letter which later came to be known in English
+printing as italic type. According to tradition he copied it closely
+from the handwriting of the Italian poet Petrarch. The type was very
+compact, covering many more words on a page than the roman of that day,
+and was used as a body type, not as in our day for isolated words and
+phrases set apart for emphasis or other distinction from the rest of the
+text. Aldus also, though not the first to cast Greek type, gave his
+Greek fonts an elegance which was soon imitated, like the italic, by
+other printers. By the introduction of small types which were at the
+same time legible, and by adopting for his classical texts a small
+format suitable for pocket-size books, Aldus invented the modern small
+book. No longer was it necessary for a scholar to rest a heavy folio on
+a table in order to read; he might carry with him on a journey half a
+dozen of these beautiful little books in no more space than a single
+volume of the older printers. Furthermore, his prices were low. The
+pocket editions or small octavos sold for about two lire, or forty cents
+in the money of that day, the purchasing power of which in modern money
+is estimated at not above two dollars.
+
+This popularizing of literature and of classical learning did not meet
+with universal favor amongst his countrymen. We read of one Italian who
+warned Aldus that if he kept on spreading Italian scholarship beyond the
+Alps at nominal prices the outer barbarians would no longer come to
+Italy to study Greek, but would stay at home and read their Aldine
+editions without adding a penny to the income of Italian cities. Such a
+fear was not unfounded, for the poorer scholars of Germany and the
+Netherlands did actually find that they could stay at home and get for a
+few francs the ripest results of Italian and Greek scholarship. This
+gave Aldus no concern; if he could render international services to
+learning, if he could help to set up among the humbler scholars of other
+lands such a fine rivalry of competitive coöperation as already existed
+among such leaders as Erasmus and Sir Thomas More, he should be well
+content to live laborious days and to die poor. Both these he did; but
+he gathered around him such a company of friends and collaborators as
+few men have enjoyed; he must have breathed with a rare exhilaration,
+born of honest and richly productive toil, the very air of Athens in her
+glory; and he must have realized sometimes amid the dust and heat of the
+printing shop that it was given to him at much cost of life and grinding
+toil to stand upon the threshold of the golden age alike of typography
+and of the revival of learning. In 1514, the year before his death,
+Aldus wrote to a friend a letter of which I borrow a translation from
+George Haven Putnam's Books and Their Makers during the Middle Ages.
+This is the picture Aldus drew of his daily routine:
+
+          "I am hampered in my work by a thousand
+          interruptions. Nearly every hour comes a letter
+          from some scholar, and if I undertook to reply to
+          them all, I should be obliged to devote day and
+          night to scribbling. Then through the day come
+          calls from all kinds of visitors. Some desire
+          merely to give a word of greeting, others want to
+          know what there is new, while the greater number
+          come to my office because they happen to have
+          nothing else to do. 'Let us look in upon Aldus,'
+          they say to each other. Then they loaf in and sit
+          and chatter to no purpose. Even these people with
+          no business are not so bad as those who have a
+          poem to offer or something in prose (usually very
+          prosy indeed) which they wish to see printed with
+          the name of Aldus. These interruptions are now
+          becoming too serious for me, and I must take steps
+          to lessen them. Many letters I simply leave
+          unanswered, while to others I send very brief
+          replies; and as I do this not from pride or from
+          discourtesy, but simply in order to be able to go
+          on with my task of printing good books, it must
+          not be taken hardly. As a warning to the heedless
+          visitors who use up my office hours to no purpose,
+          I have now put up a big notice on the door of my
+          office to the following effect: Whoever thou art,
+          thou art earnestly requested by Aldus to state thy
+          business briefly and to take thy departure
+          promptly. In this way thou mayest be of service
+          even as was Hercules to the weary Atlas. For this
+          is a place of work for all who enter."
+
+What a picture that letter gives us of the half humorous, half pathetic
+spirit in which the great publisher endured the daily grind. Twenty
+years of it wore him out, but his dolphin-and-anchor trade-mark still
+after four centuries preaches patience and hope to all who undertake
+great burdens for the enlightenment of mankind.
+
+The Aldine press did not confine its efforts to the ancient classics,
+but printed editions of Dante and Petrarch and other Italian poets, and
+produced the first editions of some of the most important works of
+Erasmus. But all of its publications belonged in general to the movement
+known as humanism, the field of ancient and contemporary poetry, drama,
+philosophy, history, and art. Aldus left to others, especially to the
+great ecclesiastical printers of Venice and of Rome, the printing of the
+scriptures, the works of the church fathers, and the innumerable volumes
+of theological controversy with which the age abounded. In France, on
+the other hand, the great publishing house of the Estiennes, or
+Stephani, to whom we next direct our attention, divided its efforts
+between the secular and sacred literature. Inasmuch as the history of
+the Stephanus establishment is typical of the influence of printing upon
+the Renaissance, and of the Renaissance upon printing, which is the
+subject of this paper, we may well examine some aspects of its career.
+
+Printing had been introduced into France in 1469 by the ecclesiastics of
+the Sorbonne. Like that abbot of Subiaco who set up the first press in
+Italy five years before, these professors of scholastic philosophy and
+theology at Paris did not realize that the new art had in it the
+possibilities of anti-clerical and heretical use. For the first
+generation the French printers enjoyed a considerable freedom from
+censorship and burdensome restrictions. They published, like the
+Venetians, both the Greek and Latin classics and the works of
+contemporary writers. Both Louis XII. and Francis I. gave their
+patronage and encouragement to various eminent scholar-printers who
+flourished between the establishment of the first publishing-houses in
+Paris and the beginning of the sixteenth century. I pass over all these
+to select as the typical French printers of the Renaissance the family
+founded by Henri Estienne the elder. His first book, a Latin translation
+of Aristotle's Ethica, appeared in 1504. From that date for nearly a
+hundred years the house of Stephanus and his descendants led the
+publishing business in France. Both in the artistic advancement of the
+art of printing and in the intellectual advancement of French thought by
+their selection of the works to be issued they earned a right to the
+enduring gratitude of mankind.
+
+Henri Estienne, the founder of the house, who died in 1520, had
+published during these sixteen years at least one hundred separate
+works. Although they were mostly Latin, many of them revealed Estienne's
+knowledge of and devotion to the new Greek studies, and this tendency on
+his part was at once suspected as heretical by the orthodox doctors of
+the Sorbonne. The favor of King Francis was not at all times sufficient
+to protect him from persecution, and an increasing severity of
+censorship arose, the full force of which began to be evident in the
+time of his son Robert.
+
+After Henri's death his business was for a time carried on by his
+widow's second husband, Simon Colines, a scholar and humanist of
+brilliant attainments. Both while at the head of the house of Stephanus
+and later when he had withdrawn from that in favor of Robert Estienne
+his stepson and set up a separate publishing business, Colines added
+much to the prestige of French printing. He caused Greek fonts to be
+cast, not inferior to those of the Venetian printers, and began to
+publish the Greek classics in beautiful editions. It was Colines, rather
+than either the elder or the younger Estienne, who elevated the artistic
+side of French printing by engaging the services of such famous
+typographical experts as Geofroy Tory, and adding to his books
+illustrations of the highest excellence, as well as decorative initials
+and borders. Indeed it may be said that after the death of Aldus
+supremacy in the fine art of book-making gradually passed from Venice to
+Paris.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+The greatest of the Estiennes was Robert, son of Henri Estienne and
+stepson of Colines, who was in control of the house from 1524 to his
+death in 1559. The very first book he published was an edition of the
+Latin Testament. Although following in the main the Vulgate or official
+Bible of the Roman Church, he introduced certain corrections based on
+his knowledge of the Greek text. This marked the beginning of a long
+controversy between Estienne and the orthodox divines of the Sorbonne,
+which lasted almost throughout his life. In following years he published
+many editions of the Latin scriptures, each time with additional
+corrections, and eventually with his own notes and comments, in some
+cases attacking the received doctrines of the Church. A Hebrew Old
+Testament, in 1546, was followed in 1550 by the Greek New Testament. The
+next year he published a new edition of the Testament in which for the
+first time it was divided into verses, a precedent followed in Bible
+printing ever since. It was not merely the fact of his printing the
+scriptures at all that angered the heresy-hunters, but much more
+Estienne's notes and comments, in which, like Luther in Germany and
+Tyndale in England, he sided with the views of the Reformers.
+
+What distinguishes Robert Estienne from the ordinary Protestant scholars
+and publishers of his time is the fact that he was not only a Reformer
+but a humanist of broad and tolerant culture. In all the illustrious
+group of that age there is scarcely another like him in this union of
+religious zeal and of scholarly culture. Luther and Calvin and Tyndale
+had the one; Erasmus is the most eminent example of the other, with such
+great publishers as Aldus and Froben his worthy supporters. But Robert
+Estienne, alongside of his controversial works and Biblical texts,
+labored at such great enterprises as his monumental edition of Terence,
+in which he corrected by the soundest methods of textual criticism no
+less than six thousand errors in the received text, and especially his
+magnificent lexicons of the Latin and Greek languages, which set the
+standard for all other lexicographers for generations to come.
+
+The middle of the sixteenth century in France is thus marked by a
+curious blend of those two distinct movements in human history which we
+call the Renaissance and the Reformation, and the blend is nowhere more
+picturesque than in the life of Robert Estienne. At one moment we find
+him attacking the abuses of the church, at another we find him
+consulting with Claude Garamond upon the design of a new Greek type, or
+reading the final proofs of an edition of Horace or Catullus or Juvenal,
+or discussing with some wealthy and noble book-collector like the famous
+Grolier the latest styles in elegant bindings and gold-stamped
+decoration. For beauty and for truth he had an equal passion. All that
+romance of the imagination which touches with a golden glamour the
+recovered treasures of pagan antiquity he loved as intensely as if it
+were not alien and hostile, as the many thought, to that glow of
+spiritual piety, that zeal of martyrdom, that white, consuming splendor
+which for the mystical imagination surrounds the holy cross. Humanism at
+its best is ordinarily thought to be embodied in the many-sided figure
+of Erasmus, with his sanity, his balance, his power to see both sides,
+that of Luther and of the Church, his delicate satire, his saving humor,
+his avoidance of the zealot's extremes. Perhaps a not less striking
+figure is that of this much less known French printer, striving in the
+midst of petty cares and unlovely sectarian strife to maintain the
+stoical serenity of a Marcus Aurelius side by side with the spiritual
+exaltation of a Saint Paul. There are two types of great men equally
+worthy of admiration: those of unmixed and lifelong devotion to a single
+aim springing from a single source, such as Aldus Manutius, and those in
+whom that balance of diverse and almost contradictory elements of
+character which commonly leads to weakness makes instead for strength
+and for richness, for duty and delight. Such was Robert Estienne.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FROBEN]
+
+
+The third printer whom I have selected as typical of the Renaissance is
+Johann Froben, of Basel. His chief distinction is that he was the
+closest friend and associate of Erasmus, the principal publisher of
+Erasmus's works, and the representative in the book trade of the
+Erasmian attitude toward the Reformation. Although he did print the
+Greek Testament, years before Estienne published his edition in Paris,
+he accompanied it with no distinctively Protestant comments. Although at
+one time he issued some of the earlier works of Luther, he desisted
+when it became evident that Erasmus opposed any open schism in the
+Church. It was Froben who gave to the world those three famous works of
+Erasmus, the Encomium Moriae or Praise of Folly, the Adagia or Proverbs,
+and the Colloquia or Conversations, which did quite as much as the
+writings of Luther to arouse independent thinking within the Church, and
+to bring to an end the last vestiges of the middle ages in church and
+state. And in this relation of Froben to Erasmus there was not the mere
+commercial attitude of a shrewd publisher toward a successful author
+whose works became highly lucrative, but the support by one enlightened
+scholar who happened to be in a profitable business of another who
+happened to be out of it. The earlier life of Erasmus exhibits a rather
+depressing illustration of the humiliations to which professional
+scholars were exposed in trying to get a living from the pensions and
+benefactions of the idle rich. Literary patronage, as it existed from
+the days of Horace and Maecenas down to the death-blow which Dr. Johnson
+gave it in his famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, has never helped the
+independence or the self-respect of scholars and poets. It was Froben's
+peculiar good fortune to be able to employ, on a business basis with a
+regular salary, the greatest scholar of the age as one of his editors
+and literary advisers, and at the same time enable him to preserve his
+independence of thought and of action. Aldus and the French publishers
+had gathered about them professional scholars and experts for the
+execution of specific tasks at the market price, supplemented often by
+generous private hospitality. That was good; but far better was Froben's
+relation with his friend, his intellectual master, and his profitable
+client Erasmus. In an age when no copyright laws existed for the
+author's benefit the works of Erasmus were shamelessly pirated in
+editions, published in Germany and France, from which the author
+received not a penny. Yet Froben went right on paying to Erasmus not
+only the fixed annual salary as a member of his consulting staff but
+also a generous share of the profits upon his books. In a greedy,
+unscrupulous, and rapacious age this wise and just, not to say generous,
+policy stands out as prophetic of a better time.
+
+As a printer Froben was distinguished by the singular beauty of his
+roman type, the perfection of his presswork, and the artistic decoration
+of his books. In this last respect he was much indebted to the genius of
+Hans Holbein, whom he discovered as a young wood-engraver seeking work
+as Basel. With that keen eye for unrecognized genius which marked his
+career he employed Holbein to design borders and initials for his books.
+Later, with an equally sagacious and generous spirit, perceiving that
+the young artist was too great a man to spend his days in a printing
+office, he procured for him through Sir Thomas More an introduction to
+the court of Henry VIII, where he won fame and fortune as a portrait
+painter. I narrate the incident because it illustrates a very attractive
+and amiable aspect of some of these men of the Renaissance, an
+uncalculating and generous desire to help gifted men to find their true
+place in the world where they might do their largest work. This, in an
+age when competition and jealous rivalry in public and in private life
+was as common as it is now, may give pause to the cynic and joy to the
+lover of human kindness.
+
+
+
+
+ANTON KOBERGER
+
+(=No printer's mark known=)
+
+
+We are in a different world when we turn to the fourth of our five
+representative printers, Anton Koberger, of Nuremberg. During the forty
+years of his career as a publisher, between 1473 and 1513, he issued 236
+separate works, most of them in several volumes, and of the whole lot
+none show any taint of reforming zeal. Koberger was a loyal Catholic,
+and his published books were largely theological and all strictly
+orthodox in nature. He is distinguished in two respects from the other
+German printers of his time, the time between the death of Gutenberg and
+the rise of Martin Luther. In the first place his work showed great
+typographical excellence, with many fonts of handsome Gothic type and a
+lavish use of woodcut illustrations. In the second place, his publishing
+business was far better organized, far more extensive in its selling and
+distributing machinery, than that of any other printer in Europe. We
+learn that he had agents not only in every German city, but in the very
+headquarters of his greatest competitors at Paris, Venice, and Rome, and
+in such more distant places as Vienna, Buda-Pesth, and Warsaw. The
+twenty-four presses in his own Nuremberg establishment were not
+sufficient for his enormous business, and he let out printing jobs on
+contract or commission to printers at Strasburg, Basel, and elsewhere.
+The true German spirit of discipline appears in a contemporary account
+of his printing plant at Nuremberg. He had more than a hundred workmen
+there, including not only compositors, pressmen, and proof-readers, but
+binders, engravers, and illuminators. All these were fed by their
+employer in a common dining-hall apart from the works, and we are told
+that they marched between the two buildings three times a day with
+military precision.
+
+Koberger employed for a time the services of Albrecht Dürer, the famous
+engraver, not only for the illustration of books but also for expert
+oversight of the typographical form. Typography in its golden age was
+rightly regarded not as a mere mechanical trade but as an art of design,
+a design in black upon white, in which the just proportion of columns
+and margins and titles and initials was quite as important as the
+illustrations. Perhaps Koberger found Dürer too independent or too
+expensive for his taste, for we find him in his later illustrated works
+employing engravers more prolific than expert. Such were Michael
+Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, who drew and engraved the two
+thousand illustrations in the famous Nuremberg Chronicle published by
+Koberger in 1493. This remarkable work was compiled by Doctor Hartman
+Schedel, of Nuremberg. It is a history of the world from the creation
+down to 1493, with a supplement containing a full illustrated account of
+the end of the world, the Millennium, and the last judgment. This is by
+no means all. There is combined with this outline of history, not less
+ambitious though perhaps not more eccentric than H. G. Wells's latest
+book, a gazetteer of the world in general and of Europe in particular, a
+portrait gallery of all distinguished men from Adam and Methuselah down
+to the reigning emperor, kings, and pope of 1493, with many intimate
+studies of the devil, and a large variety of rather substantial and
+Teutonic angels. Every city in Europe is shown in a front elevation in
+which the perspective reminds one of Japanese art, and the castle-towers
+and bridges and river-boats all bear a strong family resemblance. The
+book is full of curious material, quite apart from the quaint
+illustrations. In the midst of grave affairs of state we run across a
+plague of locusts, an eclipse of the sun, or a pair of lovers who died
+for love. Scandalous anecdotes of kings and priests jostle the fiercest
+denunciations of heretics and reformers. A page is devoted to the
+heresies of Wyclif and Huss. Anti-Semitism runs rampant through its
+pages. Various detailed accounts are given of the torture and murder of
+Christian boys by Jews, followed by the capture and burning alive of the
+conspirators. Superstition and intolerance stand side by side with a
+naive mystical piety and engaging stories of the saints and martyrs. Of
+all the vast transformation in human thought that was then taking form
+in Italy, of all the forward-looking signs of the times, there is little
+trace. From 1493 to the last dim ages of the expiring world, the
+downfall of Antichrist and the setting up of the final kingdom of heaven
+upon earth, seemed but a little way to Hartman Schedel, when he wrote
+with much complacence the colophon to this strange volume. He left three
+blank leaves between 1493 and the Day of Judgment whereon the reader
+might record what remained of human history. It is indeed rather the
+last voice of the middle ages than the first voice of the Renaissance
+that speaks to us out of these clear, black, handsome pages that were
+pulled damp from the press four hundred and twenty-eight years ago on
+the fourth of last June. At first reading one is moved to mirth, then to
+wonder, then perhaps to disgust, but last of all to the haunting
+melancholy of Omar the tent-maker when he sings
+
+          "When you and I behind the veil are past,
+           Oh, but the long, long while the world shall last."
+
+As to worthy Hartman Schedel, God rest his soul, one wonders whether he
+has yet learned that Columbus discovered America. He had not yet heard
+of it when he finished his book, though Columbus had returned to Spain
+three months before. O most lame and impotent conclusion! But the
+fifteenth century, though it had an infinite childlike curiosity, had no
+nose for news. Nuremberg nodded peacefully on while a new world loomed
+up beyond the seas, and studied Michael Wolgemut's picture of Noah
+building the ark while Columbus was fitting out the Santa Maria for a
+second voyage. Such is mankind, blind and deaf to the greatest things.
+We know not the great hour when it strikes. We are indeed most
+enthralled by the echoing chimes of the romantic past when the future
+sounds its faint far-off reveille upon our unheeding ears. The multitude
+understands noon and night; only the wise man understands the morning.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+And now finally, what of William Caxton? The father of English printing
+had been for many years an English merchant residing in Bruges when his
+increasing attention to literature led him to acquire the new art of
+printing. He had already translated from the French the Histories of
+Troy, and was preparing to undertake other editorial labors when he
+became associated with Colard Mansion, a Bruges printer. From Mansion he
+learned the art and presumably purchased his first press and type. Six
+books bearing Caxton's imprint were published at Bruges between 1474 and
+1476, though it is possible that the actual printing was done by Mansion
+rather than by Caxton himself. In 1476 Caxton set up the first printing
+shop in England, in a house within the precincts of Westminster Abbey.
+Between that date and his death in 1491 he printed ninety-three separate
+works, some of these in several editions. His industry and scholarly
+zeal as a publisher somewhat exceeded his technical skill as a printer.
+Caxton's books, which are now much rarer than those of many continental
+printers of the same period, are not so finely and beautifully done as
+the best of theirs. But the peculiar interest of his work lies in the
+striking variety of the works he chose for publication, the
+conscientious zeal with which he conceived and performed his task, and
+the quiet humor of his prefaces and notes. Let me illustrate briefly
+these three points. First, his variety. We have observed that Aldus and
+Froben published chiefly the Latin and Greek classics, Koberger the
+Latin scriptures and theological works, and Stephanus a combination of
+classics and theology. Caxton published few of the classics and very
+little theology. His books consist largely of the works of the early
+English poets, Chaucer, Gower, and others, of mediaeval romances derived
+from English, French, and Italian sources, and of chronicles and
+histories. The two most famous works that came from his press were the
+first printed editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Malory's Morte
+d'Arthur. His own English translation of the Golden Legend, a mediaeval
+Latin collection of lives of the saints, is scarcely less in importance.
+Among many other titles the following may serve to show how unusual and
+unconventional were his selections:
+
+          The History of Reynard the Fox.
+          The History of Godfrey of Boloyne, or the Conquest of Jerusalem.
+          The Fables of Aesop.
+          The Book of Good Maners.
+          The Faytes of Armes and of Chyvalrye.
+          The Governayle of Helthe.
+          The Arte and Crafte to Know Well to Dye.
+
+This is indeed humanism, but humanism in a different sense from that of
+Aldus and Erasmus. Human life from the cradle to the grave, human life
+in war and peace, human life in its gayer and its graver lights and
+shadows, human life as embodied equally in famous writers and in
+anonymous popular legends, was Caxton's field. He accounted nothing
+human alien to his mind or to his great enterprise.
+
+Again, Caxton was conscientious. He set great store by accuracy, not
+only typographical accuracy in matters of detail, but also the general
+accuracy of the texts or sources from which his own translations and his
+editions of other works were made. For example, in the second edition of
+the Canterbury Tales he explains how the first edition was printed from
+the best manuscript that he could find in 1478, but how after the
+appearance of that there came to him a scholar who complained of many
+errors, and spoke of another and more authentic manuscript in his
+father's possession. Caxton at once agreed to get out a new edition
+"whereas before by ignorance I erred in hurting and defaming his book in
+divers places, in setting in some things that he never said nor made and
+leaving out many things that are made which are requisite to be set in."
+A great many other examples of such disinterested carefulness are to be
+found in the history of those busy fifteen years at Westminster. In view
+of the fact that he was not only editor, printer, and publisher, but
+also translated twenty-three books totaling more than forty-five hundred
+printed pages, this scholarly desire for accuracy deserves the highest
+praise. Unlike Aldus and Froben, who were likewise editors as well as
+publishers, he was not surrounded by a capable corps of expert scholars,
+but worked almost alone. His faithful foreman, Wynkyn de Worde,
+doubtless took over gradually a large share of the purely mechanical
+side of the business, but Caxton remained till the end of his life the
+active head as well as the brains of the concern.
+
+As for his humor, it comes out even in his very selections of books to
+be printed, but chiefly in little touches all through his prefaces. For
+example, in his preface to the Morte d'Arthur he answers with a certain
+whimsical gravity the allegations of those who maintain that there was
+no such person as King Arthur, and that "all such books as been made of
+him be but feigned and fables." He recounts with assumed sincerity the
+evidence of the chronicles, the existence of Arthur's seal in red wax at
+Westminster Abbey, of Sir Gawain's skull at Dover Castle, of the Round
+Table itself at Winchester, and so on. But he goes on to say, in his own
+quaint way, which there is not space to quote at large, that in his own
+opinion the stories are worth while for the intrinsic interest and the
+moral values in them, whether they are literally true or not. He closes
+thus:
+
+          "Herein may be seen noble chivalry, courtesy,
+          humanity, friendliness, hardiness, love,
+          friendship, cowardice, murder, hate virtue and
+          sin. Do after the good and leave the evil, and it
+          shall bring you to good fame and renommee. And for
+          to pass the time this book shall be pleasant to
+          read in, but for to give faith and belief that all
+          is true that is contained herein, ye be at your
+          liberty."
+
+This wise, sane, gentle apostle of literature in England wrought well in
+his day, and is justly honored alike by scholars and by printers, who
+regard him, in England and America, as the father of their craft. Indeed
+to this day in the printing trade a shop organization is sometimes
+called a chapel, because according to ancient tradition Caxton's workmen
+held their meetings in one of the chapels adjoining the abbey of
+Westminster.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This survey of printing in its relations to the Renaissance is now not
+finished but concluded. I have shown that the invention and improvement
+of printing was not the cause but rather the effect of the revival of
+learning, while on the other hand the wide dissemination of literature
+made possible by typography of course accelerated enormously the process
+of popular enlightenment. I have selected five typical printers of that
+age:
+
+          Aldus, with his Homer.
+          Stephanus, with his Greek Testament.
+          Froben, with his Plato.
+          Koberger, with his Nuremberg Chronicle.
+          Caxton, with his Morte d'Arthur.
+
+Here we find represented in the Aldus Homer the revival of Greek
+learning, in the Stephanus Testament the application of this to the free
+criticism of the scriptures, in the Froben Plato the substitution of
+Platonic idealism for the scholastic philosophy based on Aristotle, in
+the Nuremberg book the epitome of mediaeval superstition, credulity, and
+curiosity on the verge of the new era, and in Morte d'Arthur the fond
+return of the modern mind, facing an unknown future, upon the naive and
+beautiful legends of Arthurian romance. An age full of contradictions
+and strange delusions, but an age of great vitality, great eagerness,
+great industry, patience, foresight, imagination. And in such an age it
+was the good fortune of these wise craftsmen who handled so deftly their
+paper and type to be the instruments of more evangels than angels ever
+sang, more revolutions than gunpowder ever achieved, more victories than
+ever won the applause of men or the approval of heaven. In the beginning
+the creative word was =Fiat lux=--let there be light. In the new
+creation of the human mind it was =Imprimatur=--let it be printed. If
+printing had never been invented, it is easy to conceive that the
+enormous learning and intellectual power of a few men in each generation
+might have gone on increasing so that the world might to-day possess
+most of the knowledge that we now enjoy; but it is certain that the
+masses could never have been enlightened, and that therefore the gulf
+between the wise few and the ignorant many would have exceeded anything
+known to the ancient world, and inconceivably dangerous in its appalling
+social menace. Whoever first printed a page of type is responsible for
+many crimes committed in the name of literature during the past four
+centuries; but one great book in a generation or a century, like a grain
+of radium in a ton of pitchblende, is worth all it has cost; for like
+the radium it is infinitely powerful to the wise man, deadly to the
+fool, and its strange, invisible virtue so far as we know may last
+forever.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+DESIGNED BY BRUCE ROGERS AND PRINTED FROM MONOTYPE CASLON TYPE BY
+WILLIAM EDWIN RUDGE AT MOUNT VERNON NEW YORK IN DECEMBER 1921.
+
+OF THIS EDITION ONE HUNDRED COPIES ARE ON FRENCH HAND-MADE PAPER AND
+FIVE HUNDRED ON ANTIQUE WOVE PAPER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Note: This text uses both today and to-day.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Printing and the Renaissance, by 
+John Rothwell Slater
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Printing and the Renaissance, by John Rothwell Slater.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Printing and the Renaissance, by John Rothwell Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Printing and the Renaissance
+       A paper read before the Fortnightly Club of Rochester, New York
+
+Author: John Rothwell Slater
+
+Release Date: July 11, 2008 [EBook #26029]
+
+Language: English
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+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE ***
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+
+
+<h1>PRINTING AND THE<br />
+RENAISSANCE</h1>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 32px;">
+<img src="images/i001.jpg" width="32" height="28" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1><img src="images/i001.jpg" width="32" height="28" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE:
+A PAPER READ BEFORE
+THE FORTNIGHTLY CLUB OF
+ROCHESTER NEW YORK BY
+JOHN ROTHWELL SLATER.</h1>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/i003.jpg" width="100" height="300" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+NEW YORK<br />
+William Edwin Rudge<br />
+1921<br /></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>
+PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE:<br />
+A PAPER READ BEFORE THE<br />
+FORTNIGHTLY CLUB OF<br />
+ROCHESTER<br />
+N. Y.<br />
+</h2>
+
+
+<div class='cap'>PRINTING did not make the Renaissance; the
+Renaissance made printing. Printing did not begin
+the publication and dissemination of books.
+There were libraries of vast extent in ancient
+Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Rome. There were universities
+centuries before Gutenberg where the few instructed the
+many in the learning treasured up in books, and where
+both scholars and professional scribes multiplied copies
+of books both old and new. At the outset of any examination
+of the influence of printing on the Renaissance it
+is necessary to remind ourselves that the intellectual life
+of the ancient and the mediaeval world was built upon
+the written word. There is a naive view in which ancient
+literature is conceived as existing chiefly in the autograph
+manuscripts and original documents of a few great centers
+to which all ambitious students must have resort. A
+very little inquiry into the multiplication of books before
+printing shows us how erroneous is this view.</div>
+
+<p>We must pass over entirely the history of publishing
+and book-selling in ancient times, a subject too vast for
+adequate summary in a preliminary survey of this sort.
+With the fall of Rome and the wholesale destruction
+that accompanied the barbarian invasions a new chapter
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>begins in the history of the dissemination of literature.
+This chapter opens with the founding of the scriptorium,
+or monastic copying system, by Cassiodorus and
+Saint Benedict early in the sixth century. To these two
+men, Cassiodorus, the ex-chancellor of the Gothic king
+Theodoric, and Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine
+order, is due the gratitude of the modern world. It
+was through their foresight in setting the monks at
+work copying the scriptures and the secular literature
+of antiquity that we owe the preservation of most of the
+books that have survived the ruins of the ancient world.
+At the monastery of Monte Cassino, founded by Saint
+Benedict in the year 529, and at that of Viviers, founded
+by Cassiodorus in 531, the Benedictine rule required of
+every monk that a fixed portion of each day be spent in
+the scriptorium. There the more skilled scribes were entrusted
+with the copying of precious documents rescued
+from the chaos of the preceding century, while monks
+not yet sufficiently expert for this high duty were instructed
+by their superiors.</p>
+
+<p>The example thus nobly set was imitated throughout
+all the centuries that followed, not only in the Benedictine
+monasteries of Italy, France, Germany, England,
+Scotland, Ireland, Iceland, but in religious houses of all
+orders. It is to the mediaeval Church, her conservatism
+in the true sense of the word, her industry, her patience,
+her disinterested guardianship alike of sacred and of
+pagan letters, that the world owes most of our knowledge
+of antiquity. Conceive how great would be our loss if to
+archaeology alone we could turn for the reconstruction
+of the civilization, the art, the philosophy, the public
+and private life of Greece and Rome. If the Church had
+done no more than this for civilization, it would still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+have earned some measure of tolerance from its most
+anti-clerical opponents. It is of course to the Eastern
+rather than to the Roman Church that we owe the preservation
+of classical Greek literature, copied during the
+dark ages in Greek monasteries and introduced into
+Italy after the fall of Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p>A second stage in the multiplication and publication
+of manuscript books begins with the founding of the
+great mediaeval universities of Bologna, Paris, Padua,
+Oxford, and other centers of higher education. Inasmuch
+as the study of those days was almost entirely
+book study, the maintenance of a university library
+with one or two copies of each book studied was inadequate.
+There grew up in each university city an organized
+system of supplying the students with textbooks.
+The authorized book-dealers of a mediaeval university
+were called <i>stationarii</i>, or stationers, a term apparently
+derived from the fixed post or station assigned in or near
+the university buildings to each scribe permitted to
+supply books to the students and professors. A stationer
+in England has always meant primarily a book-dealer
+or publisher, as for example in the term Stationers' Hall,
+the guild or corporation which until 1842 still exercised
+in London the functions of a copyright bureau. Incidentally
+a stationer also dealt in writing materials,
+whence our ordinary American use of the term. Another
+name for the university book-dealers was the classical
+Latin word <i>librarii</i>, which usually in mediaeval Latin
+meant not what we call a librarian but a vender of
+books, like the French <i>libraire</i>. These scribes were not
+allowed at first to sell their manuscripts, but rented
+them to the students at rates fixed by university statutes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+A folded sheet of eight pages, sixteen columns of sixty-two
+lines each, was the unit on which the rental charges
+were based. Such a sheet at the beginning of the thirteenth
+century rented for about twenty cents a term;
+and since an ordinary textbook of philosophy or theology
+or canon law contained many sheets, these charges
+constituted no inconsiderable part of the cost of instruction.
+The books must be returned before the student left
+the university; sales were at first surreptitious and illegal,
+but became common early in the fourteenth century.
+Reasonable accuracy among the stationers was secured
+by a system of fines for errors, half of which went to the
+university, the other half being divided between the
+supervisor or head proof-reader and the informant who
+discovered the error.</p>
+
+<p>The original regulation which forbade the stationers
+to sell books was intended to prevent students of a
+profiteering turn of mind from buying books for resale
+to their fellow-students at a higher price, thus cornering
+the market and holding up the work of an entire class.
+In course of time, however, the book-dealers were permitted
+not only to sell textbooks, at prices still controlled
+by official action, but also to buy and sell manuscripts
+of other books, both those produced by local scribes
+and those imported from other cities and countries.</p>
+
+<p>This broadening of the activities of the university
+bookstores led naturally to the third and last stage
+which the publishing business underwent before the
+invention of printing. This stage was the establishment
+in Florence, Paris, and other intellectual centers, of
+bookshops selling manuscripts to the general public
+rather than to university students. These grew rapidly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+during the first half of the fifteenth century, receiving a
+marked impetus from the new interest in Greek studies.
+Some years before the fall of Constantinople in 1453
+Italian book-sellers were accustomed to send their buyers
+to the centers of Byzantine learning in the near East in
+quest of manuscripts to be disposed of at fancy prices
+to the rich collectors and patrons of literature. There is
+evidence of similar methods in France and Germany
+during the earlier decades of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>This preliminary sketch of the book-publishing business
+before printing is intended to correct a rather
+common misapprehension. Manuscript books were indeed
+relatively costly, but they were not scarce. Any
+scholar who had not been through a university not only
+had access to public libraries of hundreds of volumes,
+but might also possess, at prices not beyond the reach
+of a moderate purse, his own five-foot shelf of the classics.
+The more elegant manuscripts, written by experts
+and adorned with rich illuminations and sumptuous
+bindings, were of course not for the humble student;
+but working copies, multiplied on a large scale by a
+roomful of scribes writing simultaneously from dictation,
+might always be had. Chaucer, writing of the poor
+clerk of Oxford at the end of the fourteenth century,
+tells us that</p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+"Him was levere have at his beddes heed<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Twenty bokes, clad in blak or reed,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Of Aristotle and his philosophye,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Than robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrye."</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>We are not sure that he had the whole twenty books;
+that was his ambition, his academic dream of wealth;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+but we are assured that he spent on books all the money
+he could borrow from his friends, and that he showed his
+gratitude by busily praying for the souls of his creditors.</p>
+
+<p>When we consider the enormous number of manuscript
+books that must have existed in Europe in the
+middle ages, we may well wonder why they have become
+relatively rare in modern times. Several explanations
+account for this. In the first place, the practice of
+erasing old manuscripts and using the same vellum
+again for other works was extremely common. Secondly,
+vast numbers of manuscripts in the monasteries and
+other libraries of Europe were wantonly or accidentally
+destroyed by fire, especially in times of war and religious
+fanaticism. In the third place, the early binders,
+down through the sixteenth century and even later,
+used sheets of vellum from old manuscripts for the
+linings and the covers of printed books. Finally, after
+the invention of printing, as soon as a given work had
+been adequately and handsomely printed in a standard
+edition, all but the finest manuscripts of that book
+would naturally be looked upon as of little value, and
+would be subject to loss and decay if not to deliberate
+destruction. Owing to these and perhaps other causes
+it is almost entirely the religious manuscripts that have
+survived, except those preserved in royal libraries and
+museums from the finer collections of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of printing was not the work of any one
+man. Not only were printed pages of text with accompanying
+pictures produced from woodcut blocks in Holland
+a quarter of a century before Gutenberg began his
+work at Mainz, but it is pretty well established that
+movable types were employed by Laurence Koster, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+Haarlem, as early as 1430. But Koster, who died about
+1440, did not carry his invention beyond the experimental
+stages, and produced no really fine printing. Moreover,
+his work had no immediate successor in Holland.
+Whether it be true, as sometimes alleged, that Gutenberg
+first learned of the new art from one of Koster's
+workmen, we have no means of knowing. At any rate,
+Gutenberg's contemporaries as well as his successors
+gave to him the credit of the invention. That he was
+not the first to conceive the idea of multiplying impressions
+of type-forms by the use of a screw press is evident;
+but he was the first to develop the invention to a point
+where it became capable of indefinite extension. He
+seems to have worked in secret for some years on the
+problems involved in type-founding and printing before
+the year 1450, when he set up his shop in Mainz.</p>
+
+<p>The capital for the new business was furnished by a
+wealthy goldsmith named Johann Fust. Between 1450
+and 1455 Gutenberg printed an edition of the Latin
+Bible, sometimes known as the Mazarin Bible, which is
+ordinarily regarded as the first printed book. It was a
+magnificently printed volume, exhibiting at the very
+foundation of the art a skill in presswork scarcely surpassed
+by any of Gutenberg's immediate successors.
+He was a great printer, but not a financially successful
+one. Fust sued his partner in 1455 for repayment of
+the loans advanced, and upon Gutenberg's failure to
+meet these obligations Fust foreclosed the mortgage
+and took over the printing plant. Although Gutenberg
+started another publishing house at Mainz, and continued
+it until his death in 1468, the main development of
+printing after 1455 was in the original plant as carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+on by Fust and his son-in-law, Peter Schoeffer. They
+printed in 1457 an edition of the Psalms in which for the
+first time two-color printing was employed, the large
+initial letters being printed in red and black. This innovation,
+designed to imitate the rubricated initials of the
+manuscripts, involved great technical difficulties in the
+presswork, and was not generally adopted. Most of the
+early printed books, even down to the end of the fifteenth
+century, left blanks for the large capitals at the beginnings
+of the chapters, to be filled in by hand by professional
+illuminators.</p>
+
+<p>From the establishments of Gutenberg and of Fust
+and Schoeffer in Mainz knowledge of the new art spread
+rapidly into many German cities. In 1462 Mainz was
+captured and sacked by Adolph of Nassau in one of the
+local wars of the period, and printers from the Mainz
+shops made their way to other cities throughout the
+empire. Before 1470 there were printing establishments
+in almost every German city, and hundreds of works,
+mostly theological, had been issued from their presses.</p>
+
+<p>In all these early German books, printed of course in
+Latin, the type used was the black-letter. Gutenberg,
+in designing his first font, evidently tried to imitate as
+closely as possible the angular gothic alphabet employed
+by the scribes in the best manuscripts. Not only were
+the letters identical in form with the engrossing hand of
+the monks, but the innumerable abbreviated forms used
+in the Latin manuscripts were retained. Thus a stroke
+over a vowel indicated an omitted <i>m</i> or <i>n</i>, a <i>p</i> with a
+stroke across it indicated the Latin prefix <i>per</i>, a circle
+above the line stood for the termination <i>us</i>, an <i>r</i> with a
+cross meant&mdash;<i>rum</i>, and so forth. These abbreviations,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+which make printed books of the earliest period rather
+hard reading today, were retained not only to save space
+but to give the printed page as nearly as possible the
+appearance of a fine manuscript. It was not at first the
+ambition of the printers and type-founders to make their
+books more legible or less taxing on the eyes than manuscript;
+their readers were accustomed to manuscript and
+felt no need of such improvements. The mechanical
+advance in the art of writing brought about by printing
+was at first regarded as consisting in the greater rapidity
+and lower cost at which printed books could be produced.</p>
+
+<p>But the new invention was at first looked upon by
+some famous scholars and patrons of learning as a detriment
+rather than a help. The great Trithemius, abbot of
+Sponheim, wrote as late as 1494 in the following terms:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A work written on parchment could be preserved for a thousand
+years, while it is probable that no volume printed on paper
+will last for more than two centuries. Many important works
+have not been printed, and the copies of these must be prepared
+by scribes. The scribe who ceases his work because of the invention
+of the printing-press can be no true lover of books, in that,
+regarding only the present, he gives no due thought to the intellectual
+cultivation of his successors. The printer has no care for
+the beauty and the artistic form of books, while with the scribe
+this is a labor of love."</p></div>
+
+<p>Contrasted with this low estimate of the importance
+of the new art by some scholars, we note the promptness
+with which the great churchmen of Italy and of France
+took measures to import German printers and set up
+presses of their own. In 1464 the abbot of Subiaco, a
+monastery near Rome, brought to Italy two German
+printers, Conrad Schweinheim and Arnold Pannartz,
+and set them at work printing liturgical books for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+use of the monks. Soon afterward, under ecclesiastical
+patronage, they began to issue, first at Subiaco and then
+at Rome, a series of Latin classics. During five years
+this first printing establishment in Italy published the
+complete works of Cicero, Apuleius, Caesar, Virgil,
+Livy, Strabo, Lucan, Pliny, Suetonius, Quintilian, Ovid,
+as well as of such fathers of the Latin Church as Augustine,
+Jerome and Cyprian, and a complete Latin Bible.
+This printing establishment came to an end in 1472 for
+lack of adequate capital, but was soon followed by
+others both in Rome and especially in Venice.</p>
+
+<p>Early Venetian printing forms one of the most distinguished
+chapters in the whole history of the subject.
+The most famous of the first generation was Nicolas
+Jenson, a Frenchman who had learned the art in Germany.
+Between 1470 and his death in 1480 he printed
+many fine books, and in most of them he employed what
+is now called roman type. He was not absolutely the
+first to use the roman alphabet, but his roman fonts
+were designed and cast with such artistic taste, such a
+fine sense of proportion and symmetry of form, that
+the Jenson roman became the model of later printers
+for many years after his death. Roman type, unlike the
+black-letter, had two distinct origins. The capitals were
+derived from the letters used by the ancient Roman
+architects for inscriptions on public buildings. The small
+letters were adapted from the rounded vertical style of
+writing used in many Italian texts, altogether different
+in form from the angular gothic alphabet used in ecclesiastical
+manuscripts. Jenson's roman letters were clear,
+sharp and easy to read, and constituted the greatest
+single addition to the art of printing since its beginning.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+Germany clung obstinately to the black-letter in its
+Latin books, as it has adhered down to very recent
+times to a similar heavy type for the printing of German
+text; but the rest of Europe within a few years came over
+to the clearer and more beautiful roman.</p>
+
+<p>There were many early printers at Venice between
+Jenson and his greater successor Aldus Manutius, who
+began business in 1494, but we shall pass over them all
+in order to devote more careful attention to the noble
+history of the Aldine press. I propose in the remainder
+of this paper to select five great printers of the Renaissance,
+and to examine their work both as a whole and
+as illustrated in typical examples. These five are:</p>
+
+<div class='poem2'>
+ALDUS MANUTIUS, of Venice.<br />
+<br />
+ROBERT ESTIENNE, of Paris, commonly known by the name of <i>Stephanus</i>.<br />
+<br />
+JOHANN FROBEN, of Basel.<br />
+<br />
+ANTON KOBERGER, of Nuremberg.<br />
+<br />
+WILLIAM CAXTON, of London.<br /></div>
+
+<p>Each stands for a different aspect of the art of printing,
+both in the mechanical features of book-making and also
+in the selection of works to be published and the editorial
+methods employed in making them ready for the press.
+Taken together, the books issued from their presses at
+the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth
+century form a sort of composite picture of the
+Renaissance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<img src="images/i016.png" width="284" height="400" alt="Aldus Mantius&#39;  printer&#39;s mark" title="Aldus Mantius&#39;  printer&#39;s mark" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>First of all, in our consideration and in order of greatness,
+stands the name of Aldus Manutius. The books of the
+Aldine press, all with the well-known sign of the anchor
+and dolphin, are familiar to most students of the classics.
+Aldus was born in 1450, the very year of Gutenberg's
+invention. For the first forty years of his life he was a
+scholar, devoting himself to the Latin classics and to the
+mastery of the newly revived Greek language and literature.
+His intimate association with Pico della Mirandola<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+and other Italian scholars, as well as with many of the
+learned Greeks who then frequented Italian courts and
+cities, led him to conceive the great plan upon which his
+later career was based. This was nothing less than to issue
+practically the whole body of classic literature, Greek as
+well as Latin, in editions distinguished from all that had
+preceded in two important respects. First, they were to
+be not reprints of received uncritical texts but new revisions
+made by competent scholars based upon a comparison
+of all the best available manuscripts. Secondly, they
+were to be printed not in ponderous and costly folios but
+in small octavos of convenient size, small but clear type,
+and low price. This was not primarily a commercial venture
+like the cheap texts of the classics issued in the nineteenth
+century by Teubner and other German publishers,
+but resembled rather in its broad humanistic spirit
+such a recent enterprise as the Loeb Classical Library.
+The purpose in each case was to revive and encourage
+the reading of the classics not alone by schoolboys but
+by men of all ages and all professions. But there is this
+important difference, that Mr. Loeb is a retired millionaire
+who employs scholars to do all the work and merely
+foots the bill, while Aldus was a poor man dependent
+upon such capital as he could borrow from his patrons,
+and had at the same time to perform for himself a large
+part of the editorial labors on his books. Mr. Loeb
+commands the latest and most complete resources of
+the modern art of printing; Aldus helped to make that
+art. Mr. Loeb's editors may employ when they choose
+the style of type known as italic; Aldus invented it.
+Mr. Loeb's publishers have at their command all the
+advertising and selling machinery of a great modern business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+concern, and yet they do not, and probably can not,
+make the classics pay for themselves, but must meet the
+deficits out of an endowment. Aldus had to organize his
+own selling system, his advertising had to be largely by
+private correspondence with scholars and book-sellers
+throughout Europe laboriously composed with his own
+hand; yet it was imperative that the business become as
+soon as possible self-supporting, or at least that losses in
+one quarter should be recouped by profits in another.</div>
+
+<p>It was in his edition of Virgil, 1501, that Aldus first employed
+the new cursive or sloping letter which later came
+to be known in English printing as italic type. According
+to tradition he copied it closely from the handwriting of
+the Italian poet Petrarch. The type was very compact,
+covering many more words on a page than the roman of
+that day, and was used as a body type, not as in our day
+for isolated words and phrases set apart for emphasis or
+other distinction from the rest of the text. Aldus also,
+though not the first to cast Greek type, gave his Greek
+fonts an elegance which was soon imitated, like the italic,
+by other printers. By the introduction of small types
+which were at the same time legible, and by adopting for
+his classical texts a small format suitable for pocket-size
+books, Aldus invented the modern small book. No longer
+was it necessary for a scholar to rest a heavy folio on a
+table in order to read; he might carry with him on a journey
+half a dozen of these beautiful little books in no more
+space than a single volume of the older printers. Furthermore,
+his prices were low. The pocket editions or small
+octavos sold for about two lire, or forty cents in the money
+of that day, the purchasing power of which in modern
+money is estimated at not above two dollars.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This popularizing of literature and of classical learning
+did not meet with universal favor amongst his
+countrymen. We read of one Italian who warned Aldus
+that if he kept on spreading Italian scholarship beyond
+the Alps at nominal prices the outer barbarians would
+no longer come to Italy to study Greek, but would stay
+at home and read their Aldine editions without adding
+a penny to the income of Italian cities. Such a fear
+was not unfounded, for the poorer scholars of Germany
+and the Netherlands did actually find that they could
+stay at home and get for a few francs the ripest results
+of Italian and Greek scholarship. This gave Aldus no
+concern; if he could render international services to
+learning, if he could help to set up among the humbler
+scholars of other lands such a fine rivalry of competitive
+co&ouml;peration as already existed among such leaders as
+Erasmus and Sir Thomas More, he should be well content
+to live laborious days and to die poor. Both these
+he did; but he gathered around him such a company of
+friends and collaborators as few men have enjoyed; he
+must have breathed with a rare exhilaration, born of
+honest and richly productive toil, the very air of Athens
+in her glory; and he must have realized sometimes amid
+the dust and heat of the printing shop that it was given
+to him at much cost of life and grinding toil to stand
+upon the threshold of the golden age alike of typography
+and of the revival of learning. In 1514, the year before
+his death, Aldus wrote to a friend a letter of which I borrow
+a translation from George Haven Putnam's Books
+and Their Makers during the Middle Ages. This is the
+picture Aldus drew of his daily routine:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I am hampered in my work by a thousand interruptions.
+Nearly every hour comes a letter from some scholar, and if I
+undertook to reply to them all, I should be obliged to devote day
+and night to scribbling. Then through the day come calls from
+all kinds of visitors. Some desire merely to give a word of greeting,
+others want to know what there is new, while the greater
+number come to my office because they happen to have nothing
+else to do. 'Let us look in upon Aldus,' they say to each other.
+Then they loaf in and sit and chatter to no purpose. Even these
+people with no business are not so bad as those who have a poem
+to offer or something in prose (usually very prosy indeed) which
+they wish to see printed with the name of Aldus. These interruptions
+are now becoming too serious for me, and I must take steps
+to lessen them. Many letters I simply leave unanswered, while
+to others I send very brief replies; and as I do this not from pride
+or from discourtesy, but simply in order to be able to go on with
+my task of printing good books, it must not be taken hardly. As
+a warning to the heedless visitors who use up my office hours to
+no purpose, I have now put up a big notice on the door of my
+office to the following effect: Whoever thou art, thou art earnestly
+requested by Aldus to state thy business briefly and to take
+thy departure promptly. In this way thou mayest be of service
+even as was Hercules to the weary Atlas. For this is a place of
+work for all who enter."</p></div>
+
+<p>What a picture that letter gives us of the half humorous,
+half pathetic spirit in which the great publisher endured
+the daily grind. Twenty years of it wore him out,
+but his dolphin-and-anchor trade-mark still after four
+centuries preaches patience and hope to all who undertake
+great burdens for the enlightenment of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The Aldine press did not confine its efforts to the
+ancient classics, but printed editions of Dante and
+Petrarch and other Italian poets, and produced the first
+editions of some of the most important works of Erasmus.
+But all of its publications belonged in general to
+the movement known as humanism, the field of ancient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+and contemporary poetry, drama, philosophy, history,
+and art. Aldus left to others, especially to the great
+ecclesiastical printers of Venice and of Rome, the printing
+of the scriptures, the works of the church fathers,
+and the innumerable volumes of theological controversy
+with which the age abounded. In France, on the other
+hand, the great publishing house of the Estiennes, or
+Stephani, to whom we next direct our attention, divided
+its efforts between the secular and sacred literature.
+Inasmuch as the history of the Stephanus establishment
+is typical of the influence of printing upon the Renaissance,
+and of the Renaissance upon printing, which is
+the subject of this paper, we may well examine some
+aspects of its career.</p>
+
+<p>Printing had been introduced into France in 1469 by
+the ecclesiastics of the Sorbonne. Like that abbot of
+Subiaco who set up the first press in Italy five years
+before, these professors of scholastic philosophy and
+theology at Paris did not realize that the new art had
+in it the possibilities of anti-clerical and heretical use.
+For the first generation the French printers enjoyed a
+considerable freedom from censorship and burdensome
+restrictions. They published, like the Venetians, both the
+Greek and Latin classics and the works of contemporary
+writers. Both Louis XII. and Francis I. gave their patronage
+and encouragement to various eminent scholar-printers
+who flourished between the establishment of
+the first publishing-houses in Paris and the beginning
+of the sixteenth century. I pass over all these to select
+as the typical French printers of the Renaissance the
+family founded by Henri Estienne the elder. His first
+book, a Latin translation of Aristotle's Ethica, appeared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+in 1504. From that date for nearly a hundred years the
+house of Stephanus and his descendants led the publishing
+business in France. Both in the artistic advancement
+of the art of printing and in the intellectual advancement
+of French thought by their selection of the
+works to be issued they earned a right to the enduring
+gratitude of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Henri Estienne, the founder of the house, who died
+in 1520, had published during these sixteen years at
+least one hundred separate works. Although they were
+mostly Latin, many of them revealed Estienne's knowledge
+of and devotion to the new Greek studies, and this
+tendency on his part was at once suspected as heretical
+by the orthodox doctors of the Sorbonne. The favor of
+King Francis was not at all times sufficient to protect
+him from persecution, and an increasing severity of censorship
+arose, the full force of which began to be evident
+in the time of his son Robert.</p>
+
+<p>After Henri's death his business was for a time carried
+on by his widow's second husband, Simon Colines, a
+scholar and humanist of brilliant attainments. Both
+while at the head of the house of Stephanus and later
+when he had withdrawn from that in favor of Robert
+Estienne his stepson and set up a separate publishing
+business, Colines added much to the prestige of French
+printing. He caused Greek fonts to be cast, not inferior
+to those of the Venetian printers, and began to publish
+the Greek classics in beautiful editions. It was Colines,
+rather than either the elder or the younger Estienne, who
+elevated the artistic side of French printing by engaging
+the services of such famous typographical experts as
+Geofroy Tory, and adding to his books illustrations of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+the highest excellence, as well as decorative initials and
+borders. Indeed it may be said that after the death of
+Aldus supremacy in the fine art of book-making gradually
+passed from Venice to Paris.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/i023.png" width="220" height="300" alt="Robert Etienne&#39;s  printer&#39;s mark" title=" Robert Etienne&#39;s printer&#39;s mark" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>The greatest of the Estiennes was Robert, son of Henri
+Estienne and stepson of Colines, who was in control of
+the house from 1524 to his death in 1559. The very first
+book he published was an edition of the Latin Testament.
+Although following in the main the Vulgate or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+official Bible of the Roman Church, he introduced certain
+corrections based on his knowledge of the Greek
+text. This marked the beginning of a long controversy
+between Estienne and the orthodox divines of the Sorbonne,
+which lasted almost throughout his life. In following
+years he published many editions of the Latin
+scriptures, each time with additional corrections, and
+eventually with his own notes and comments, in some
+cases attacking the received doctrines of the Church. A
+Hebrew Old Testament, in 1546, was followed in 1550
+by the Greek New Testament. The next year he published
+a new edition of the Testament in which for the first
+time it was divided into verses, a precedent followed in
+Bible printing ever since. It was not merely the fact of
+his printing the scriptures at all that angered the heresy-hunters,
+but much more Estienne's notes and comments,
+in which, like Luther in Germany and Tyndale in England,
+he sided with the views of the Reformers.</div>
+
+<p>What distinguishes Robert Estienne from the ordinary
+Protestant scholars and publishers of his time is the
+fact that he was not only a Reformer but a humanist of
+broad and tolerant culture. In all the illustrious group
+of that age there is scarcely another like him in this union
+of religious zeal and of scholarly culture. Luther and
+Calvin and Tyndale had the one; Erasmus is the most
+eminent example of the other, with such great publishers
+as Aldus and Froben his worthy supporters. But Robert
+Estienne, alongside of his controversial works and Biblical
+texts, labored at such great enterprises as his monumental
+edition of Terence, in which he corrected by the
+soundest methods of textual criticism no less than six
+thousand errors in the received text, and especially his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+magnificent lexicons of the Latin and Greek languages,
+which set the standard for all other lexicographers for
+generations to come.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of the sixteenth century in France is thus
+marked by a curious blend of those two distinct movements
+in human history which we call the Renaissance
+and the Reformation, and the blend is nowhere more
+picturesque than in the life of Robert Estienne. At one
+moment we find him attacking the abuses of the church,
+at another we find him consulting with Claude Garamond
+upon the design of a new Greek type, or reading
+the final proofs of an edition of Horace or Catullus or
+Juvenal, or discussing with some wealthy and noble
+book-collector like the famous Grolier the latest styles
+in elegant bindings and gold-stamped decoration. For
+beauty and for truth he had an equal passion. All that
+romance of the imagination which touches with a golden
+glamour the recovered treasures of pagan antiquity he
+loved as intensely as if it were not alien and hostile, as
+the many thought, to that glow of spiritual piety, that
+zeal of martyrdom, that white, consuming splendor which
+for the mystical imagination surrounds the holy cross.
+Humanism at its best is ordinarily thought to be embodied
+in the many-sided figure of Erasmus, with his sanity,
+his balance, his power to see both sides, that of Luther
+and of the Church, his delicate satire, his saving humor,
+his avoidance of the zealot's extremes. Perhaps a not
+less striking figure is that of this much less known French
+printer, striving in the midst of petty cares and unlovely
+sectarian strife to maintain the stoical serenity of
+a Marcus Aurelius side by side with the spiritual exaltation
+of a Saint Paul. There are two types of great men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+equally worthy of admiration: those of unmixed and lifelong
+devotion to a single aim springing from a single
+source, such as Aldus Manutius, and those in whom that
+balance of diverse and almost contradictory elements of
+character which commonly leads to weakness makes instead
+for strength and for richness, for duty and delight.
+Such was Robert Estienne.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 81px;">
+<img src="images/i026.png" width="81" height="250" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;">
+<img src="images/i027.png" width="214" height="400" alt="Froben&#39;s  printer&#39;s mark" title="Froben&#39;s  printer&#39;s mark" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>The third printer whom I have selected as typical of the
+Renaissance is Johann Froben, of Basel. His chief distinction
+is that he was the closest friend and associate
+of Erasmus, the principal publisher of Erasmus's works,
+and the representative in the book trade of the Erasmian
+attitude toward the Reformation. Although he did
+print the Greek Testament, years before Estienne published
+his edition in Paris, he accompanied it with no distinctively
+Protestant comments. Although at one time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+he issued some of the earlier works of Luther, he desisted
+when it became evident that Erasmus opposed any open
+schism in the Church. It was Froben who gave to the
+world those three famous works of Erasmus, the Encomium
+Moriae or Praise of Folly, the Adagia or Proverbs,
+and the Colloquia or Conversations, which did quite as
+much as the writings of Luther to arouse independent
+thinking within the Church, and to bring to an end the
+last vestiges of the middle ages in church and state.
+And in this relation of Froben to Erasmus there was not
+the mere commercial attitude of a shrewd publisher toward
+a successful author whose works became highly
+lucrative, but the support by one enlightened scholar
+who happened to be in a profitable business of another
+who happened to be out of it. The earlier life of Erasmus
+exhibits a rather depressing illustration of the humiliations
+to which professional scholars were exposed in trying
+to get a living from the pensions and benefactions of
+the idle rich. Literary patronage, as it existed from the
+days of Horace and Maecenas down to the death-blow
+which Dr. Johnson gave it in his famous letter to Lord
+Chesterfield, has never helped the independence or the
+self-respect of scholars and poets. It was Froben's peculiar
+good fortune to be able to employ, on a business basis
+with a regular salary, the greatest scholar of the age as
+one of his editors and literary advisers, and at the
+same time enable him to preserve his independence of
+thought and of action. Aldus and the French publishers
+had gathered about them professional scholars and experts
+for the execution of specific tasks at the market
+price, supplemented often by generous private hospitality.
+That was good; but far better was Froben's relation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+with his friend, his intellectual master, and his profitable
+client Erasmus. In an age when no copyright laws existed
+for the author's benefit the works of Erasmus were
+shamelessly pirated in editions, published in Germany
+and France, from which the author received not a penny.
+Yet Froben went right on paying to Erasmus not only
+the fixed annual salary as a member of his consulting
+staff but also a generous share of the profits upon his
+books. In a greedy, unscrupulous, and rapacious age this
+wise and just, not to say generous, policy stands out as
+prophetic of a better time.</div>
+
+<p>As a printer Froben was distinguished by the singular
+beauty of his roman type, the perfection of his presswork,
+and the artistic decoration of his books. In this
+last respect he was much indebted to the genius of Hans
+Holbein, whom he discovered as a young wood-engraver
+seeking work as Basel. With that keen eye for unrecognized
+genius which marked his career he employed
+Holbein to design borders and initials for his books.
+Later, with an equally sagacious and generous spirit, perceiving
+that the young artist was too great a man to
+spend his days in a printing office, he procured for him
+through Sir Thomas More an introduction to the court
+of Henry VIII, where he won fame and fortune as a portrait
+painter. I narrate the incident because it illustrates
+a very attractive and amiable aspect of some of these
+men of the Renaissance, an uncalculating and generous
+desire to help gifted men to find their true place in the
+world where they might do their largest work. This, in an
+age when competition and jealous rivalry in public and in
+private life was as common as it is now, may give pause
+to the cynic and joy to the lover of human kindness.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>ANTON KOBERGER</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>(<i>No printer's mark known</i>)</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>We are in a different world when we turn to the fourth
+of our five representative printers, Anton Koberger, of
+Nuremberg. During the forty years of his career as a
+publisher, between 1473 and 1513, he issued 236 separate
+works, most of them in several volumes, and of the
+whole lot none show any taint of reforming zeal. Koberger
+was a loyal Catholic, and his published books were
+largely theological and all strictly orthodox in nature.
+He is distinguished in two respects from the other German
+printers of his time, the time between the death of
+Gutenberg and the rise of Martin Luther. In the first
+place his work showed great typographical excellence,
+with many fonts of handsome Gothic type and a lavish
+use of woodcut illustrations. In the second place, his
+publishing business was far better organized, far more
+extensive in its selling and distributing machinery,
+than that of any other printer in Europe. We learn that
+he had agents not only in every German city, but in the
+very headquarters of his greatest competitors at Paris,
+Venice, and Rome, and in such more distant places as
+Vienna, Buda-Pesth, and Warsaw. The twenty-four
+presses in his own Nuremberg establishment were not
+sufficient for his enormous business, and he let out printing
+jobs on contract or commission to printers at Strasburg,
+Basel, and elsewhere. The true German spirit of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+discipline appears in a contemporary account of his printing
+plant at Nuremberg. He had more than a hundred
+workmen there, including not only compositors, pressmen,
+and proof-readers, but binders, engravers, and
+illuminators. All these were fed by their employer in a
+common dining-hall apart from the works, and we are
+told that they marched between the two buildings three
+times a day with military precision.</div>
+
+<p>Koberger employed for a time the services of Albrecht
+D&uuml;rer, the famous engraver, not only for the illustration
+of books but also for expert oversight of the typographical
+form. Typography in its golden age was rightly regarded
+not as a mere mechanical trade but as an art of
+design, a design in black upon white, in which the just
+proportion of columns and margins and titles and initials
+was quite as important as the illustrations. Perhaps
+Koberger found D&uuml;rer too independent or too expensive
+for his taste, for we find him in his later illustrated works
+employing engravers more prolific than expert. Such
+were Michael Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleydenwurff,
+who drew and engraved the two thousand illustrations in
+the famous Nuremberg Chronicle published by Koberger
+in 1493. This remarkable work was compiled by Doctor
+Hartman Schedel, of Nuremberg. It is a history of the
+world from the creation down to 1493, with a supplement
+containing a full illustrated account of the end of
+the world, the Millennium, and the last judgment. This
+is by no means all. There is combined with this outline
+of history, not less ambitious though perhaps not
+more eccentric than H. G. Wells's latest book, a gazetteer
+of the world in general and of Europe in particular,
+a portrait gallery of all distinguished men from Adam<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+and Methuselah down to the reigning emperor, kings,
+and pope of 1493, with many intimate studies of the
+devil, and a large variety of rather substantial and Teutonic
+angels. Every city in Europe is shown in a front
+elevation in which the perspective reminds one of Japanese
+art, and the castle-towers and bridges and river-boats
+all bear a strong family resemblance. The book
+is full of curious material, quite apart from the quaint
+illustrations. In the midst of grave affairs of state we
+run across a plague of locusts, an eclipse of the sun, or a
+pair of lovers who died for love. Scandalous anecdotes
+of kings and priests jostle the fiercest denunciations of
+heretics and reformers. A page is devoted to the heresies
+of Wyclif and Huss. Anti-Semitism runs rampant
+through its pages. Various detailed accounts are given
+of the torture and murder of Christian boys by Jews,
+followed by the capture and burning alive of the conspirators.
+Superstition and intolerance stand side by
+side with a naive mystical piety and engaging stories of
+the saints and martyrs. Of all the vast transformation in
+human thought that was then taking form in Italy, of
+all the forward-looking signs of the times, there is little
+trace. From 1493 to the last dim ages of the expiring
+world, the downfall of Antichrist and the setting up of
+the final kingdom of heaven upon earth, seemed but a
+little way to Hartman Schedel, when he wrote with
+much complacence the colophon to this strange volume.
+He left three blank leaves between 1493 and the Day
+of Judgment whereon the reader might record what
+remained of human history. It is indeed rather the
+last voice of the middle ages than the first voice of the
+Renaissance that speaks to us out of these clear, black,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+handsome pages that were pulled damp from the press
+four hundred and twenty-eight years ago on the fourth
+of last June. At first reading one is moved to mirth, then
+to wonder, then perhaps to disgust, but last of all to
+the haunting melancholy of Omar the tent-maker when
+he sings</p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+"When you and I behind the veil are past,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Oh, but the long, long while the world shall last."</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>As to worthy Hartman Schedel, God rest his soul, one
+wonders whether he has yet learned that Columbus discovered
+America. He had not yet heard of it when he
+finished his book, though Columbus had returned to
+Spain three months before. O most lame and impotent
+conclusion! But the fifteenth century, though it had an
+infinite childlike curiosity, had no nose for news. Nuremberg
+nodded peacefully on while a new world loomed up
+beyond the seas, and studied Michael Wolgemut's picture
+of Noah building the ark while Columbus was fitting
+out the Santa Maria for a second voyage. Such is
+mankind, blind and deaf to the greatest things. We know
+not the great hour when it strikes. We are indeed most
+enthralled by the echoing chimes of the romantic past
+when the future sounds its faint far-off reveille upon our
+unheeding ears. The multitude understands noon and
+night; only the wise man understands the morning.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;">
+<img src="images/i034.png" width="327" height="400" alt="Caxton&#39;s  printer&#39;s mark" title="Caxton&#39;s  printer&#39;s mark" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>And now finally, what of William Caxton? The father of
+English printing had been for many years an English
+merchant residing in Bruges when his increasing attention
+to literature led him to acquire the new art of printing.
+He had already translated from the French the
+Histories of Troy, and was preparing to undertake other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+editorial labors when he became associated with Colard
+Mansion, a Bruges printer. From Mansion he learned
+the art and presumably purchased his first press and
+type. Six books bearing Caxton's imprint were published
+at Bruges between 1474 and 1476, though it is possible
+that the actual printing was done by Mansion rather
+than by Caxton himself. In 1476 Caxton set up the
+first printing shop in England, in a house within the precincts
+of Westminster Abbey. Between that date and
+his death in 1491 he printed ninety-three separate works,
+some of these in several editions. His industry and scholarly
+zeal as a publisher somewhat exceeded his technical
+skill as a printer. Caxton's books, which are now much
+rarer than those of many continental printers of the
+same period, are not so finely and beautifully done as
+the best of theirs. But the peculiar interest of his work
+lies in the striking variety of the works he chose for publication,
+the conscientious zeal with which he conceived
+and performed his task, and the quiet humor of his prefaces
+and notes. Let me illustrate briefly these three
+points. First, his variety. We have observed that Aldus
+and Froben published chiefly the Latin and Greek classics,
+Koberger the Latin scriptures and theological works,
+and Stephanus a combination of classics and theology.
+Caxton published few of the classics and very little theology.
+His books consist largely of the works of the early
+English poets, Chaucer, Gower, and others, of mediaeval
+romances derived from English, French, and Italian
+sources, and of chronicles and histories. The two most
+famous works that came from his press were the first
+printed editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and
+Malory's Morte d'Arthur. His own English translation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+of the Golden Legend, a mediaeval Latin collection of
+lives of the saints, is scarcely less in importance. Among
+many other titles the following may serve to show how
+unusual and unconventional were his selections:</div>
+
+<div class='poem2'>
+The History of Reynard the Fox.<br />
+The History of Godfrey of Boloyne, or the Conquest of Jerusalem.<br />
+The Fables of Aesop.<br />
+The Book of Good Maners.<br />
+The Faytes of Armes and of Chyvalrye.<br />
+The Governayle of Helthe.<br />
+The Arte and Crafte to Know Well to Dye.<br /></div>
+
+<p>This is indeed humanism, but humanism in a different
+sense from that of Aldus and Erasmus. Human life from
+the cradle to the grave, human life in war and peace,
+human life in its gayer and its graver lights and shadows,
+human life as embodied equally in famous writers and
+in anonymous popular legends, was Caxton's field. He
+accounted nothing human alien to his mind or to his
+great enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Again, Caxton was conscientious. He set great store
+by accuracy, not only typographical accuracy in matters
+of detail, but also the general accuracy of the texts
+or sources from which his own translations and his editions
+of other works were made. For example, in the
+second edition of the Canterbury Tales he explains how
+the first edition was printed from the best manuscript
+that he could find in 1478, but how after the appearance
+of that there came to him a scholar who complained
+of many errors, and spoke of another and more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+authentic manuscript in his father's possession. Caxton
+at once agreed to get out a new edition "whereas before
+by ignorance I erred in hurting and defaming his book
+in divers places, in setting in some things that he never
+said nor made and leaving out many things that are
+made which are requisite to be set in." A great many
+other examples of such disinterested carefulness are to
+be found in the history of those busy fifteen years at
+Westminster. In view of the fact that he was not only
+editor, printer, and publisher, but also translated twenty-three
+books totaling more than forty-five hundred printed
+pages, this scholarly desire for accuracy deserves the highest
+praise. Unlike Aldus and Froben, who were likewise
+editors as well as publishers, he was not surrounded
+by a capable corps of expert scholars, but worked almost
+alone. His faithful foreman, Wynkyn de Worde, doubtless
+took over gradually a large share of the purely
+mechanical side of the business, but Caxton remained
+till the end of his life the active head as well as the
+brains of the concern.</p>
+
+<p>As for his humor, it comes out even in his very selections
+of books to be printed, but chiefly in little touches
+all through his prefaces. For example, in his preface to
+the Morte d'Arthur he answers with a certain whimsical
+gravity the allegations of those who maintain that there
+was no such person as King Arthur, and that "all such
+books as been made of him be but feigned and fables."
+He recounts with assumed sincerity the evidence of the
+chronicles, the existence of Arthur's seal in red wax at
+Westminster Abbey, of Sir Gawain's skull at Dover
+Castle, of the Round Table itself at Winchester, and so
+on. But he goes on to say, in his own quaint way, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+there is not space to quote at large, that in his own
+opinion the stories are worth while for the intrinsic interest
+and the moral values in them, whether they are literally
+true or not. He closes thus:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Herein may be seen noble chivalry, courtesy, humanity,
+friendliness, hardiness, love, friendship, cowardice, murder, hate
+virtue and sin. Do after the good and leave the evil, and it shall
+bring you to good fame and renommee. And for to pass the time
+this book shall be pleasant to read in, but for to give faith and
+belief that all is true that is contained herein, ye be at your
+liberty."</p></div>
+
+<p>This wise, sane, gentle apostle of literature in England
+wrought well in his day, and is justly honored alike by
+scholars and by printers, who regard him, in England and
+America, as the father of their craft. Indeed to this day
+in the printing trade a shop organization is sometimes
+called a chapel, because according to ancient tradition
+Caxton's workmen held their meetings in one of the
+chapels adjoining the abbey of Westminster.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/i038.png" width="50" height="29" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This survey of printing in its relations to the Renaissance
+is now not finished but concluded. I have shown
+that the invention and improvement of printing was not
+the cause but rather the effect of the revival of learning,
+while on the other hand the wide dissemination of literature
+made possible by typography of course accelerated
+enormously the process of popular enlightenment. I have
+selected five typical printers of that age:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+Aldus, with his Homer.<br />
+Stephanus, with his Greek Testament.<br />
+Froben, with his Plato.<br />
+Koberger, with his Nuremberg Chronicle.<br />
+Caxton, with his Morte d'Arthur.<br /></div>
+
+<p>Here we find represented in the Aldus Homer the revival
+of Greek learning, in the Stephanus Testament the
+application of this to the free criticism of the scriptures,
+in the Froben Plato the substitution of Platonic idealism
+for the scholastic philosophy based on Aristotle, in
+the Nuremberg book the epitome of mediaeval superstition,
+credulity, and curiosity on the verge of the new
+era, and in Morte d'Arthur the fond return of the modern
+mind, facing an unknown future, upon the naive and
+beautiful legends of Arthurian romance. An age full of
+contradictions and strange delusions, but an age of
+great vitality, great eagerness, great industry, patience,
+foresight, imagination. And in such an age it was the
+good fortune of these wise craftsmen who handled so
+deftly their paper and type to be the instruments of
+more evangels than angels ever sang, more revolutions
+than gunpowder ever achieved, more victories than ever
+won the applause of men or the approval of heaven. In
+the beginning the creative word was <i>Fiat lux</i>&mdash;let there
+be light. In the new creation of the human mind it was
+<i>Imprimatur</i>&mdash;let it be printed. If printing had never
+been invented, it is easy to conceive that the enormous
+learning and intellectual power of a few men in each
+generation might have gone on increasing so that the
+world might to-day possess most of the knowledge that
+we now enjoy; but it is certain that the masses could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+never have been enlightened, and that therefore the gulf
+between the wise few and the ignorant many would have
+exceeded anything known to the ancient world, and
+inconceivably dangerous in its appalling social menace.
+Whoever first printed a page of type is responsible for
+many crimes committed in the name of literature during
+the past four centuries; but one great book in a generation
+or a century, like a grain of radium in a ton of pitchblende,
+is worth all it has cost; for like the radium it is
+infinitely powerful to the wise man, deadly to the fool,
+and its strange, invisible virtue so far as we know may
+last forever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/i038.png" width="50" height="29" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class='hang1'>DESIGNED BY BRUCE ROGERS AND PRINTED
+FROM MONOTYPE CASLON TYPE BY WILLIAM
+EDWIN RUDGE AT MOUNT VERNON NEW YORK
+IN DECEMBER 1921.<br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'>OF THIS EDITION ONE HUNDRED COPIES ARE
+ON FRENCH HAND-MADE PAPER AND FIVE
+HUNDRED ON ANTIQUE WOVE PAPER.</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+
+<div class='tnote'>Transcriber's Note: This text uses both today and to-day.</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Printing and the Renaissance, by 
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,1336 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Printing and the Renaissance, by John Rothwell Slater
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Printing and the Renaissance
+       A paper read before the Fortnightly Club of Rochester, New York
+
+Author: John Rothwell Slater
+
+Release Date: July 11, 2008 [EBook #26029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Emmy and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet
+Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE: A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FORTNIGHTLY CLUB
+OF ROCHESTER NEW YORK BY JOHN ROTHWELL SLATER.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          NEW YORK
+          William Edwin Rudge
+          1921
+
+
+
+                   PRINTING AND THE RENAISSANCE:
+                      A PAPER READ BEFORE THE
+                        FORTNIGHTLY CLUB OF
+                             ROCHESTER
+                               N. Y.
+
+
+PRINTING did not make the Renaissance; the Renaissance made printing.
+Printing did not begin the publication and dissemination of books. There
+were libraries of vast extent in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Rome.
+There were universities centuries before Gutenberg where the few
+instructed the many in the learning treasured up in books, and where
+both scholars and professional scribes multiplied copies of books both
+old and new. At the outset of any examination of the influence of
+printing on the Renaissance it is necessary to remind ourselves that the
+intellectual life of the ancient and the mediaeval world was built upon
+the written word. There is a naive view in which ancient literature is
+conceived as existing chiefly in the autograph manuscripts and original
+documents of a few great centers to which all ambitious students must
+have resort. A very little inquiry into the multiplication of books
+before printing shows us how erroneous is this view.
+
+We must pass over entirely the history of publishing and book-selling in
+ancient times, a subject too vast for adequate summary in a preliminary
+survey of this sort. With the fall of Rome and the wholesale destruction
+that accompanied the barbarian invasions a new chapter begins in the
+history of the dissemination of literature. This chapter opens with the
+founding of the scriptorium, or monastic copying system, by Cassiodorus
+and Saint Benedict early in the sixth century. To these two men,
+Cassiodorus, the ex-chancellor of the Gothic king Theodoric, and
+Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine order, is due the gratitude of
+the modern world. It was through their foresight in setting the monks at
+work copying the scriptures and the secular literature of antiquity that
+we owe the preservation of most of the books that have survived the
+ruins of the ancient world. At the monastery of Monte Cassino, founded
+by Saint Benedict in the year 529, and at that of Viviers, founded by
+Cassiodorus in 531, the Benedictine rule required of every monk that a
+fixed portion of each day be spent in the scriptorium. There the more
+skilled scribes were entrusted with the copying of precious documents
+rescued from the chaos of the preceding century, while monks not yet
+sufficiently expert for this high duty were instructed by their
+superiors.
+
+The example thus nobly set was imitated throughout all the centuries
+that followed, not only in the Benedictine monasteries of Italy, France,
+Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, Iceland, but in religious houses of
+all orders. It is to the mediaeval Church, her conservatism in the true
+sense of the word, her industry, her patience, her disinterested
+guardianship alike of sacred and of pagan letters, that the world owes
+most of our knowledge of antiquity. Conceive how great would be our loss
+if to archaeology alone we could turn for the reconstruction of the
+civilization, the art, the philosophy, the public and private life of
+Greece and Rome. If the Church had done no more than this for
+civilization, it would still have earned some measure of tolerance from
+its most anti-clerical opponents. It is of course to the Eastern rather
+than to the Roman Church that we owe the preservation of classical Greek
+literature, copied during the dark ages in Greek monasteries and
+introduced into Italy after the fall of Constantinople.
+
+A second stage in the multiplication and publication of manuscript books
+begins with the founding of the great mediaeval universities of Bologna,
+Paris, Padua, Oxford, and other centers of higher education. Inasmuch as
+the study of those days was almost entirely book study, the maintenance
+of a university library with one or two copies of each book studied was
+inadequate. There grew up in each university city an organized system of
+supplying the students with textbooks. The authorized book-dealers of a
+mediaeval university were called =stationarii=, or stationers, a term
+apparently derived from the fixed post or station assigned in or near
+the university buildings to each scribe permitted to supply books to the
+students and professors. A stationer in England has always meant
+primarily a book-dealer or publisher, as for example in the term
+Stationers' Hall, the guild or corporation which until 1842 still
+exercised in London the functions of a copyright bureau. Incidentally a
+stationer also dealt in writing materials, whence our ordinary American
+use of the term. Another name for the university book-dealers was the
+classical Latin word =librarii=, which usually in mediaeval Latin meant
+not what we call a librarian but a vender of books, like the French
+=libraire=. These scribes were not allowed at first to sell their
+manuscripts, but rented them to the students at rates fixed by
+university statutes. A folded sheet of eight pages, sixteen columns of
+sixty-two lines each, was the unit on which the rental charges were
+based. Such a sheet at the beginning of the thirteenth century rented
+for about twenty cents a term; and since an ordinary textbook of
+philosophy or theology or canon law contained many sheets, these charges
+constituted no inconsiderable part of the cost of instruction. The books
+must be returned before the student left the university; sales were at
+first surreptitious and illegal, but became common early in the
+fourteenth century. Reasonable accuracy among the stationers was secured
+by a system of fines for errors, half of which went to the university,
+the other half being divided between the supervisor or head proof-reader
+and the informant who discovered the error.
+
+The original regulation which forbade the stationers to sell books was
+intended to prevent students of a profiteering turn of mind from buying
+books for resale to their fellow-students at a higher price, thus
+cornering the market and holding up the work of an entire class. In
+course of time, however, the book-dealers were permitted not only to
+sell textbooks, at prices still controlled by official action, but also
+to buy and sell manuscripts of other books, both those produced by local
+scribes and those imported from other cities and countries.
+
+This broadening of the activities of the university bookstores led
+naturally to the third and last stage which the publishing business
+underwent before the invention of printing. This stage was the
+establishment in Florence, Paris, and other intellectual centers, of
+bookshops selling manuscripts to the general public rather than to
+university students. These grew rapidly during the first half of the
+fifteenth century, receiving a marked impetus from the new interest in
+Greek studies. Some years before the fall of Constantinople in 1453
+Italian book-sellers were accustomed to send their buyers to the centers
+of Byzantine learning in the near East in quest of manuscripts to be
+disposed of at fancy prices to the rich collectors and patrons of
+literature. There is evidence of similar methods in France and Germany
+during the earlier decades of the Renaissance.
+
+This preliminary sketch of the book-publishing business before printing
+is intended to correct a rather common misapprehension. Manuscript books
+were indeed relatively costly, but they were not scarce. Any scholar who
+had not been through a university not only had access to public
+libraries of hundreds of volumes, but might also possess, at prices not
+beyond the reach of a moderate purse, his own five-foot shelf of the
+classics. The more elegant manuscripts, written by experts and adorned
+with rich illuminations and sumptuous bindings, were of course not for
+the humble student; but working copies, multiplied on a large scale by a
+roomful of scribes writing simultaneously from dictation, might always
+be had. Chaucer, writing of the poor clerk of Oxford at the end of the
+fourteenth century, tells us that
+
+          "Him was levere have at his beddes heed
+           Twenty bokes, clad in blak or reed,
+           Of Aristotle and his philosophye,
+           Than robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrye."
+
+We are not sure that he had the whole twenty books; that was his
+ambition, his academic dream of wealth; but we are assured that he
+spent on books all the money he could borrow from his friends, and that
+he showed his gratitude by busily praying for the souls of his
+creditors.
+
+When we consider the enormous number of manuscript books that must have
+existed in Europe in the middle ages, we may well wonder why they have
+become relatively rare in modern times. Several explanations account for
+this. In the first place, the practice of erasing old manuscripts and
+using the same vellum again for other works was extremely common.
+Secondly, vast numbers of manuscripts in the monasteries and other
+libraries of Europe were wantonly or accidentally destroyed by fire,
+especially in times of war and religious fanaticism. In the third place,
+the early binders, down through the sixteenth century and even later,
+used sheets of vellum from old manuscripts for the linings and the
+covers of printed books. Finally, after the invention of printing, as
+soon as a given work had been adequately and handsomely printed in a
+standard edition, all but the finest manuscripts of that book would
+naturally be looked upon as of little value, and would be subject to
+loss and decay if not to deliberate destruction. Owing to these and
+perhaps other causes it is almost entirely the religious manuscripts
+that have survived, except those preserved in royal libraries and
+museums from the finer collections of the middle ages.
+
+The invention of printing was not the work of any one man. Not only were
+printed pages of text with accompanying pictures produced from woodcut
+blocks in Holland a quarter of a century before Gutenberg began his work
+at Mainz, but it is pretty well established that movable types were
+employed by Laurence Koster, of Haarlem, as early as 1430. But Koster,
+who died about 1440, did not carry his invention beyond the experimental
+stages, and produced no really fine printing. Moreover, his work had no
+immediate successor in Holland. Whether it be true, as sometimes
+alleged, that Gutenberg first learned of the new art from one of
+Koster's workmen, we have no means of knowing. At any rate, Gutenberg's
+contemporaries as well as his successors gave to him the credit of the
+invention. That he was not the first to conceive the idea of multiplying
+impressions of type-forms by the use of a screw press is evident; but he
+was the first to develop the invention to a point where it became
+capable of indefinite extension. He seems to have worked in secret for
+some years on the problems involved in type-founding and printing before
+the year 1450, when he set up his shop in Mainz.
+
+The capital for the new business was furnished by a wealthy goldsmith
+named Johann Fust. Between 1450 and 1455 Gutenberg printed an edition of
+the Latin Bible, sometimes known as the Mazarin Bible, which is
+ordinarily regarded as the first printed book. It was a magnificently
+printed volume, exhibiting at the very foundation of the art a skill in
+presswork scarcely surpassed by any of Gutenberg's immediate successors.
+He was a great printer, but not a financially successful one. Fust sued
+his partner in 1455 for repayment of the loans advanced, and upon
+Gutenberg's failure to meet these obligations Fust foreclosed the
+mortgage and took over the printing plant. Although Gutenberg started
+another publishing house at Mainz, and continued it until his death in
+1468, the main development of printing after 1455 was in the original
+plant as carried on by Fust and his son-in-law, Peter Schoeffer. They
+printed in 1457 an edition of the Psalms in which for the first time
+two-color printing was employed, the large initial letters being printed
+in red and black. This innovation, designed to imitate the rubricated
+initials of the manuscripts, involved great technical difficulties in
+the presswork, and was not generally adopted. Most of the early printed
+books, even down to the end of the fifteenth century, left blanks for
+the large capitals at the beginnings of the chapters, to be filled in by
+hand by professional illuminators.
+
+From the establishments of Gutenberg and of Fust and Schoeffer in Mainz
+knowledge of the new art spread rapidly into many German cities. In 1462
+Mainz was captured and sacked by Adolph of Nassau in one of the local
+wars of the period, and printers from the Mainz shops made their way to
+other cities throughout the empire. Before 1470 there were printing
+establishments in almost every German city, and hundreds of works,
+mostly theological, had been issued from their presses.
+
+In all these early German books, printed of course in Latin, the type
+used was the black-letter. Gutenberg, in designing his first font,
+evidently tried to imitate as closely as possible the angular gothic
+alphabet employed by the scribes in the best manuscripts. Not only were
+the letters identical in form with the engrossing hand of the monks, but
+the innumerable abbreviated forms used in the Latin manuscripts were
+retained. Thus a stroke over a vowel indicated an omitted =m= or =n=, a
+=p= with a stroke across it indicated the Latin prefix =per=, a circle
+above the line stood for the termination =us=, an =r= with a cross
+meant--=rum=, and so forth. These abbreviations, which make printed
+books of the earliest period rather hard reading today, were retained
+not only to save space but to give the printed page as nearly as
+possible the appearance of a fine manuscript. It was not at first the
+ambition of the printers and type-founders to make their books more
+legible or less taxing on the eyes than manuscript; their readers were
+accustomed to manuscript and felt no need of such improvements. The
+mechanical advance in the art of writing brought about by printing was
+at first regarded as consisting in the greater rapidity and lower cost
+at which printed books could be produced.
+
+But the new invention was at first looked upon by some famous scholars
+and patrons of learning as a detriment rather than a help. The great
+Trithemius, abbot of Sponheim, wrote as late as 1494 in the following
+terms:
+
+          "A work written on parchment could be preserved
+          for a thousand years, while it is probable that no
+          volume printed on paper will last for more than
+          two centuries. Many important works have not been
+          printed, and the copies of these must be prepared
+          by scribes. The scribe who ceases his work because
+          of the invention of the printing-press can be no
+          true lover of books, in that, regarding only the
+          present, he gives no due thought to the
+          intellectual cultivation of his successors. The
+          printer has no care for the beauty and the
+          artistic form of books, while with the scribe this
+          is a labor of love."
+
+Contrasted with this low estimate of the importance of the new art by
+some scholars, we note the promptness with which the great churchmen of
+Italy and of France took measures to import German printers and set up
+presses of their own. In 1464 the abbot of Subiaco, a monastery near
+Rome, brought to Italy two German printers, Conrad Schweinheim and
+Arnold Pannartz, and set them at work printing liturgical books for the
+use of the monks. Soon afterward, under ecclesiastical patronage, they
+began to issue, first at Subiaco and then at Rome, a series of Latin
+classics. During five years this first printing establishment in Italy
+published the complete works of Cicero, Apuleius, Caesar, Virgil, Livy,
+Strabo, Lucan, Pliny, Suetonius, Quintilian, Ovid, as well as of such
+fathers of the Latin Church as Augustine, Jerome and Cyprian, and a
+complete Latin Bible. This printing establishment came to an end in 1472
+for lack of adequate capital, but was soon followed by others both in
+Rome and especially in Venice.
+
+Early Venetian printing forms one of the most distinguished chapters in
+the whole history of the subject. The most famous of the first
+generation was Nicolas Jenson, a Frenchman who had learned the art in
+Germany. Between 1470 and his death in 1480 he printed many fine books,
+and in most of them he employed what is now called roman type. He was
+not absolutely the first to use the roman alphabet, but his roman fonts
+were designed and cast with such artistic taste, such a fine sense of
+proportion and symmetry of form, that the Jenson roman became the model
+of later printers for many years after his death. Roman type, unlike the
+black-letter, had two distinct origins. The capitals were derived from
+the letters used by the ancient Roman architects for inscriptions on
+public buildings. The small letters were adapted from the rounded
+vertical style of writing used in many Italian texts, altogether
+different in form from the angular gothic alphabet used in
+ecclesiastical manuscripts. Jenson's roman letters were clear, sharp and
+easy to read, and constituted the greatest single addition to the art of
+printing since its beginning. Germany clung obstinately to the
+black-letter in its Latin books, as it has adhered down to very recent
+times to a similar heavy type for the printing of German text; but the
+rest of Europe within a few years came over to the clearer and more
+beautiful roman.
+
+There were many early printers at Venice between Jenson and his greater
+successor Aldus Manutius, who began business in 1494, but we shall pass
+over them all in order to devote more careful attention to the noble
+history of the Aldine press. I propose in the remainder of this paper to
+select five great printers of the Renaissance, and to examine their work
+both as a whole and as illustrated in typical examples. These five are:
+
+          ALDUS MANUTIUS, of Venice.
+
+          ROBERT ESTIENNE, of Paris, commonly known by the name of
+                =Stephanus=.
+
+          JOHANN FROBEN, of Basel.
+
+          ANTON KOBERGER, of Nuremberg.
+
+          WILLIAM CAXTON, of London.
+
+Each stands for a different aspect of the art of printing, both in the
+mechanical features of book-making and also in the selection of works to
+be published and the editorial methods employed in making them ready for
+the press. Taken together, the books issued from their presses at the
+end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century form a
+sort of composite picture of the Renaissance.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+First of all, in our consideration and in order of greatness, stands the
+name of Aldus Manutius. The books of the Aldine press, all with the
+well-known sign of the anchor and dolphin, are familiar to most students
+of the classics. Aldus was born in 1450, the very year of Gutenberg's
+invention. For the first forty years of his life he was a scholar,
+devoting himself to the Latin classics and to the mastery of the newly
+revived Greek language and literature. His intimate association with
+Pico della Mirandola and other Italian scholars, as well as with many
+of the learned Greeks who then frequented Italian courts and cities, led
+him to conceive the great plan upon which his later career was based.
+This was nothing less than to issue practically the whole body of
+classic literature, Greek as well as Latin, in editions distinguished
+from all that had preceded in two important respects. First, they were
+to be not reprints of received uncritical texts but new revisions made
+by competent scholars based upon a comparison of all the best available
+manuscripts. Secondly, they were to be printed not in ponderous and
+costly folios but in small octavos of convenient size, small but clear
+type, and low price. This was not primarily a commercial venture like
+the cheap texts of the classics issued in the nineteenth century by
+Teubner and other German publishers, but resembled rather in its broad
+humanistic spirit such a recent enterprise as the Loeb Classical
+Library. The purpose in each case was to revive and encourage the
+reading of the classics not alone by schoolboys but by men of all ages
+and all professions. But there is this important difference, that Mr.
+Loeb is a retired millionaire who employs scholars to do all the work
+and merely foots the bill, while Aldus was a poor man dependent upon
+such capital as he could borrow from his patrons, and had at the same
+time to perform for himself a large part of the editorial labors on his
+books. Mr. Loeb commands the latest and most complete resources of the
+modern art of printing; Aldus helped to make that art. Mr. Loeb's
+editors may employ when they choose the style of type known as italic;
+Aldus invented it. Mr. Loeb's publishers have at their command all the
+advertising and selling machinery of a great modern business concern,
+and yet they do not, and probably can not, make the classics pay for
+themselves, but must meet the deficits out of an endowment. Aldus had to
+organize his own selling system, his advertising had to be largely by
+private correspondence with scholars and book-sellers throughout Europe
+laboriously composed with his own hand; yet it was imperative that the
+business become as soon as possible self-supporting, or at least that
+losses in one quarter should be recouped by profits in another.
+
+It was in his edition of Virgil, 1501, that Aldus first employed the new
+cursive or sloping letter which later came to be known in English
+printing as italic type. According to tradition he copied it closely
+from the handwriting of the Italian poet Petrarch. The type was very
+compact, covering many more words on a page than the roman of that day,
+and was used as a body type, not as in our day for isolated words and
+phrases set apart for emphasis or other distinction from the rest of the
+text. Aldus also, though not the first to cast Greek type, gave his
+Greek fonts an elegance which was soon imitated, like the italic, by
+other printers. By the introduction of small types which were at the
+same time legible, and by adopting for his classical texts a small
+format suitable for pocket-size books, Aldus invented the modern small
+book. No longer was it necessary for a scholar to rest a heavy folio on
+a table in order to read; he might carry with him on a journey half a
+dozen of these beautiful little books in no more space than a single
+volume of the older printers. Furthermore, his prices were low. The
+pocket editions or small octavos sold for about two lire, or forty cents
+in the money of that day, the purchasing power of which in modern money
+is estimated at not above two dollars.
+
+This popularizing of literature and of classical learning did not meet
+with universal favor amongst his countrymen. We read of one Italian who
+warned Aldus that if he kept on spreading Italian scholarship beyond the
+Alps at nominal prices the outer barbarians would no longer come to
+Italy to study Greek, but would stay at home and read their Aldine
+editions without adding a penny to the income of Italian cities. Such a
+fear was not unfounded, for the poorer scholars of Germany and the
+Netherlands did actually find that they could stay at home and get for a
+few francs the ripest results of Italian and Greek scholarship. This
+gave Aldus no concern; if he could render international services to
+learning, if he could help to set up among the humbler scholars of other
+lands such a fine rivalry of competitive cooperation as already existed
+among such leaders as Erasmus and Sir Thomas More, he should be well
+content to live laborious days and to die poor. Both these he did; but
+he gathered around him such a company of friends and collaborators as
+few men have enjoyed; he must have breathed with a rare exhilaration,
+born of honest and richly productive toil, the very air of Athens in her
+glory; and he must have realized sometimes amid the dust and heat of the
+printing shop that it was given to him at much cost of life and grinding
+toil to stand upon the threshold of the golden age alike of typography
+and of the revival of learning. In 1514, the year before his death,
+Aldus wrote to a friend a letter of which I borrow a translation from
+George Haven Putnam's Books and Their Makers during the Middle Ages.
+This is the picture Aldus drew of his daily routine:
+
+          "I am hampered in my work by a thousand
+          interruptions. Nearly every hour comes a letter
+          from some scholar, and if I undertook to reply to
+          them all, I should be obliged to devote day and
+          night to scribbling. Then through the day come
+          calls from all kinds of visitors. Some desire
+          merely to give a word of greeting, others want to
+          know what there is new, while the greater number
+          come to my office because they happen to have
+          nothing else to do. 'Let us look in upon Aldus,'
+          they say to each other. Then they loaf in and sit
+          and chatter to no purpose. Even these people with
+          no business are not so bad as those who have a
+          poem to offer or something in prose (usually very
+          prosy indeed) which they wish to see printed with
+          the name of Aldus. These interruptions are now
+          becoming too serious for me, and I must take steps
+          to lessen them. Many letters I simply leave
+          unanswered, while to others I send very brief
+          replies; and as I do this not from pride or from
+          discourtesy, but simply in order to be able to go
+          on with my task of printing good books, it must
+          not be taken hardly. As a warning to the heedless
+          visitors who use up my office hours to no purpose,
+          I have now put up a big notice on the door of my
+          office to the following effect: Whoever thou art,
+          thou art earnestly requested by Aldus to state thy
+          business briefly and to take thy departure
+          promptly. In this way thou mayest be of service
+          even as was Hercules to the weary Atlas. For this
+          is a place of work for all who enter."
+
+What a picture that letter gives us of the half humorous, half pathetic
+spirit in which the great publisher endured the daily grind. Twenty
+years of it wore him out, but his dolphin-and-anchor trade-mark still
+after four centuries preaches patience and hope to all who undertake
+great burdens for the enlightenment of mankind.
+
+The Aldine press did not confine its efforts to the ancient classics,
+but printed editions of Dante and Petrarch and other Italian poets, and
+produced the first editions of some of the most important works of
+Erasmus. But all of its publications belonged in general to the movement
+known as humanism, the field of ancient and contemporary poetry, drama,
+philosophy, history, and art. Aldus left to others, especially to the
+great ecclesiastical printers of Venice and of Rome, the printing of the
+scriptures, the works of the church fathers, and the innumerable volumes
+of theological controversy with which the age abounded. In France, on
+the other hand, the great publishing house of the Estiennes, or
+Stephani, to whom we next direct our attention, divided its efforts
+between the secular and sacred literature. Inasmuch as the history of
+the Stephanus establishment is typical of the influence of printing upon
+the Renaissance, and of the Renaissance upon printing, which is the
+subject of this paper, we may well examine some aspects of its career.
+
+Printing had been introduced into France in 1469 by the ecclesiastics of
+the Sorbonne. Like that abbot of Subiaco who set up the first press in
+Italy five years before, these professors of scholastic philosophy and
+theology at Paris did not realize that the new art had in it the
+possibilities of anti-clerical and heretical use. For the first
+generation the French printers enjoyed a considerable freedom from
+censorship and burdensome restrictions. They published, like the
+Venetians, both the Greek and Latin classics and the works of
+contemporary writers. Both Louis XII. and Francis I. gave their
+patronage and encouragement to various eminent scholar-printers who
+flourished between the establishment of the first publishing-houses in
+Paris and the beginning of the sixteenth century. I pass over all these
+to select as the typical French printers of the Renaissance the family
+founded by Henri Estienne the elder. His first book, a Latin translation
+of Aristotle's Ethica, appeared in 1504. From that date for nearly a
+hundred years the house of Stephanus and his descendants led the
+publishing business in France. Both in the artistic advancement of the
+art of printing and in the intellectual advancement of French thought by
+their selection of the works to be issued they earned a right to the
+enduring gratitude of mankind.
+
+Henri Estienne, the founder of the house, who died in 1520, had
+published during these sixteen years at least one hundred separate
+works. Although they were mostly Latin, many of them revealed Estienne's
+knowledge of and devotion to the new Greek studies, and this tendency on
+his part was at once suspected as heretical by the orthodox doctors of
+the Sorbonne. The favor of King Francis was not at all times sufficient
+to protect him from persecution, and an increasing severity of
+censorship arose, the full force of which began to be evident in the
+time of his son Robert.
+
+After Henri's death his business was for a time carried on by his
+widow's second husband, Simon Colines, a scholar and humanist of
+brilliant attainments. Both while at the head of the house of Stephanus
+and later when he had withdrawn from that in favor of Robert Estienne
+his stepson and set up a separate publishing business, Colines added
+much to the prestige of French printing. He caused Greek fonts to be
+cast, not inferior to those of the Venetian printers, and began to
+publish the Greek classics in beautiful editions. It was Colines, rather
+than either the elder or the younger Estienne, who elevated the artistic
+side of French printing by engaging the services of such famous
+typographical experts as Geofroy Tory, and adding to his books
+illustrations of the highest excellence, as well as decorative initials
+and borders. Indeed it may be said that after the death of Aldus
+supremacy in the fine art of book-making gradually passed from Venice to
+Paris.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+The greatest of the Estiennes was Robert, son of Henri Estienne and
+stepson of Colines, who was in control of the house from 1524 to his
+death in 1559. The very first book he published was an edition of the
+Latin Testament. Although following in the main the Vulgate or official
+Bible of the Roman Church, he introduced certain corrections based on
+his knowledge of the Greek text. This marked the beginning of a long
+controversy between Estienne and the orthodox divines of the Sorbonne,
+which lasted almost throughout his life. In following years he published
+many editions of the Latin scriptures, each time with additional
+corrections, and eventually with his own notes and comments, in some
+cases attacking the received doctrines of the Church. A Hebrew Old
+Testament, in 1546, was followed in 1550 by the Greek New Testament. The
+next year he published a new edition of the Testament in which for the
+first time it was divided into verses, a precedent followed in Bible
+printing ever since. It was not merely the fact of his printing the
+scriptures at all that angered the heresy-hunters, but much more
+Estienne's notes and comments, in which, like Luther in Germany and
+Tyndale in England, he sided with the views of the Reformers.
+
+What distinguishes Robert Estienne from the ordinary Protestant scholars
+and publishers of his time is the fact that he was not only a Reformer
+but a humanist of broad and tolerant culture. In all the illustrious
+group of that age there is scarcely another like him in this union of
+religious zeal and of scholarly culture. Luther and Calvin and Tyndale
+had the one; Erasmus is the most eminent example of the other, with such
+great publishers as Aldus and Froben his worthy supporters. But Robert
+Estienne, alongside of his controversial works and Biblical texts,
+labored at such great enterprises as his monumental edition of Terence,
+in which he corrected by the soundest methods of textual criticism no
+less than six thousand errors in the received text, and especially his
+magnificent lexicons of the Latin and Greek languages, which set the
+standard for all other lexicographers for generations to come.
+
+The middle of the sixteenth century in France is thus marked by a
+curious blend of those two distinct movements in human history which we
+call the Renaissance and the Reformation, and the blend is nowhere more
+picturesque than in the life of Robert Estienne. At one moment we find
+him attacking the abuses of the church, at another we find him
+consulting with Claude Garamond upon the design of a new Greek type, or
+reading the final proofs of an edition of Horace or Catullus or Juvenal,
+or discussing with some wealthy and noble book-collector like the famous
+Grolier the latest styles in elegant bindings and gold-stamped
+decoration. For beauty and for truth he had an equal passion. All that
+romance of the imagination which touches with a golden glamour the
+recovered treasures of pagan antiquity he loved as intensely as if it
+were not alien and hostile, as the many thought, to that glow of
+spiritual piety, that zeal of martyrdom, that white, consuming splendor
+which for the mystical imagination surrounds the holy cross. Humanism at
+its best is ordinarily thought to be embodied in the many-sided figure
+of Erasmus, with his sanity, his balance, his power to see both sides,
+that of Luther and of the Church, his delicate satire, his saving humor,
+his avoidance of the zealot's extremes. Perhaps a not less striking
+figure is that of this much less known French printer, striving in the
+midst of petty cares and unlovely sectarian strife to maintain the
+stoical serenity of a Marcus Aurelius side by side with the spiritual
+exaltation of a Saint Paul. There are two types of great men equally
+worthy of admiration: those of unmixed and lifelong devotion to a single
+aim springing from a single source, such as Aldus Manutius, and those in
+whom that balance of diverse and almost contradictory elements of
+character which commonly leads to weakness makes instead for strength
+and for richness, for duty and delight. Such was Robert Estienne.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FROBEN]
+
+
+The third printer whom I have selected as typical of the Renaissance is
+Johann Froben, of Basel. His chief distinction is that he was the
+closest friend and associate of Erasmus, the principal publisher of
+Erasmus's works, and the representative in the book trade of the
+Erasmian attitude toward the Reformation. Although he did print the
+Greek Testament, years before Estienne published his edition in Paris,
+he accompanied it with no distinctively Protestant comments. Although at
+one time he issued some of the earlier works of Luther, he desisted
+when it became evident that Erasmus opposed any open schism in the
+Church. It was Froben who gave to the world those three famous works of
+Erasmus, the Encomium Moriae or Praise of Folly, the Adagia or Proverbs,
+and the Colloquia or Conversations, which did quite as much as the
+writings of Luther to arouse independent thinking within the Church, and
+to bring to an end the last vestiges of the middle ages in church and
+state. And in this relation of Froben to Erasmus there was not the mere
+commercial attitude of a shrewd publisher toward a successful author
+whose works became highly lucrative, but the support by one enlightened
+scholar who happened to be in a profitable business of another who
+happened to be out of it. The earlier life of Erasmus exhibits a rather
+depressing illustration of the humiliations to which professional
+scholars were exposed in trying to get a living from the pensions and
+benefactions of the idle rich. Literary patronage, as it existed from
+the days of Horace and Maecenas down to the death-blow which Dr. Johnson
+gave it in his famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, has never helped the
+independence or the self-respect of scholars and poets. It was Froben's
+peculiar good fortune to be able to employ, on a business basis with a
+regular salary, the greatest scholar of the age as one of his editors
+and literary advisers, and at the same time enable him to preserve his
+independence of thought and of action. Aldus and the French publishers
+had gathered about them professional scholars and experts for the
+execution of specific tasks at the market price, supplemented often by
+generous private hospitality. That was good; but far better was Froben's
+relation with his friend, his intellectual master, and his profitable
+client Erasmus. In an age when no copyright laws existed for the
+author's benefit the works of Erasmus were shamelessly pirated in
+editions, published in Germany and France, from which the author
+received not a penny. Yet Froben went right on paying to Erasmus not
+only the fixed annual salary as a member of his consulting staff but
+also a generous share of the profits upon his books. In a greedy,
+unscrupulous, and rapacious age this wise and just, not to say generous,
+policy stands out as prophetic of a better time.
+
+As a printer Froben was distinguished by the singular beauty of his
+roman type, the perfection of his presswork, and the artistic decoration
+of his books. In this last respect he was much indebted to the genius of
+Hans Holbein, whom he discovered as a young wood-engraver seeking work
+as Basel. With that keen eye for unrecognized genius which marked his
+career he employed Holbein to design borders and initials for his books.
+Later, with an equally sagacious and generous spirit, perceiving that
+the young artist was too great a man to spend his days in a printing
+office, he procured for him through Sir Thomas More an introduction to
+the court of Henry VIII, where he won fame and fortune as a portrait
+painter. I narrate the incident because it illustrates a very attractive
+and amiable aspect of some of these men of the Renaissance, an
+uncalculating and generous desire to help gifted men to find their true
+place in the world where they might do their largest work. This, in an
+age when competition and jealous rivalry in public and in private life
+was as common as it is now, may give pause to the cynic and joy to the
+lover of human kindness.
+
+
+
+
+ANTON KOBERGER
+
+(=No printer's mark known=)
+
+
+We are in a different world when we turn to the fourth of our five
+representative printers, Anton Koberger, of Nuremberg. During the forty
+years of his career as a publisher, between 1473 and 1513, he issued 236
+separate works, most of them in several volumes, and of the whole lot
+none show any taint of reforming zeal. Koberger was a loyal Catholic,
+and his published books were largely theological and all strictly
+orthodox in nature. He is distinguished in two respects from the other
+German printers of his time, the time between the death of Gutenberg and
+the rise of Martin Luther. In the first place his work showed great
+typographical excellence, with many fonts of handsome Gothic type and a
+lavish use of woodcut illustrations. In the second place, his publishing
+business was far better organized, far more extensive in its selling and
+distributing machinery, than that of any other printer in Europe. We
+learn that he had agents not only in every German city, but in the very
+headquarters of his greatest competitors at Paris, Venice, and Rome, and
+in such more distant places as Vienna, Buda-Pesth, and Warsaw. The
+twenty-four presses in his own Nuremberg establishment were not
+sufficient for his enormous business, and he let out printing jobs on
+contract or commission to printers at Strasburg, Basel, and elsewhere.
+The true German spirit of discipline appears in a contemporary account
+of his printing plant at Nuremberg. He had more than a hundred workmen
+there, including not only compositors, pressmen, and proof-readers, but
+binders, engravers, and illuminators. All these were fed by their
+employer in a common dining-hall apart from the works, and we are told
+that they marched between the two buildings three times a day with
+military precision.
+
+Koberger employed for a time the services of Albrecht Duerer, the famous
+engraver, not only for the illustration of books but also for expert
+oversight of the typographical form. Typography in its golden age was
+rightly regarded not as a mere mechanical trade but as an art of design,
+a design in black upon white, in which the just proportion of columns
+and margins and titles and initials was quite as important as the
+illustrations. Perhaps Koberger found Duerer too independent or too
+expensive for his taste, for we find him in his later illustrated works
+employing engravers more prolific than expert. Such were Michael
+Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, who drew and engraved the two
+thousand illustrations in the famous Nuremberg Chronicle published by
+Koberger in 1493. This remarkable work was compiled by Doctor Hartman
+Schedel, of Nuremberg. It is a history of the world from the creation
+down to 1493, with a supplement containing a full illustrated account of
+the end of the world, the Millennium, and the last judgment. This is by
+no means all. There is combined with this outline of history, not less
+ambitious though perhaps not more eccentric than H. G. Wells's latest
+book, a gazetteer of the world in general and of Europe in particular, a
+portrait gallery of all distinguished men from Adam and Methuselah down
+to the reigning emperor, kings, and pope of 1493, with many intimate
+studies of the devil, and a large variety of rather substantial and
+Teutonic angels. Every city in Europe is shown in a front elevation in
+which the perspective reminds one of Japanese art, and the castle-towers
+and bridges and river-boats all bear a strong family resemblance. The
+book is full of curious material, quite apart from the quaint
+illustrations. In the midst of grave affairs of state we run across a
+plague of locusts, an eclipse of the sun, or a pair of lovers who died
+for love. Scandalous anecdotes of kings and priests jostle the fiercest
+denunciations of heretics and reformers. A page is devoted to the
+heresies of Wyclif and Huss. Anti-Semitism runs rampant through its
+pages. Various detailed accounts are given of the torture and murder of
+Christian boys by Jews, followed by the capture and burning alive of the
+conspirators. Superstition and intolerance stand side by side with a
+naive mystical piety and engaging stories of the saints and martyrs. Of
+all the vast transformation in human thought that was then taking form
+in Italy, of all the forward-looking signs of the times, there is little
+trace. From 1493 to the last dim ages of the expiring world, the
+downfall of Antichrist and the setting up of the final kingdom of heaven
+upon earth, seemed but a little way to Hartman Schedel, when he wrote
+with much complacence the colophon to this strange volume. He left three
+blank leaves between 1493 and the Day of Judgment whereon the reader
+might record what remained of human history. It is indeed rather the
+last voice of the middle ages than the first voice of the Renaissance
+that speaks to us out of these clear, black, handsome pages that were
+pulled damp from the press four hundred and twenty-eight years ago on
+the fourth of last June. At first reading one is moved to mirth, then to
+wonder, then perhaps to disgust, but last of all to the haunting
+melancholy of Omar the tent-maker when he sings
+
+          "When you and I behind the veil are past,
+           Oh, but the long, long while the world shall last."
+
+As to worthy Hartman Schedel, God rest his soul, one wonders whether he
+has yet learned that Columbus discovered America. He had not yet heard
+of it when he finished his book, though Columbus had returned to Spain
+three months before. O most lame and impotent conclusion! But the
+fifteenth century, though it had an infinite childlike curiosity, had no
+nose for news. Nuremberg nodded peacefully on while a new world loomed
+up beyond the seas, and studied Michael Wolgemut's picture of Noah
+building the ark while Columbus was fitting out the Santa Maria for a
+second voyage. Such is mankind, blind and deaf to the greatest things.
+We know not the great hour when it strikes. We are indeed most
+enthralled by the echoing chimes of the romantic past when the future
+sounds its faint far-off reveille upon our unheeding ears. The multitude
+understands noon and night; only the wise man understands the morning.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+And now finally, what of William Caxton? The father of English printing
+had been for many years an English merchant residing in Bruges when his
+increasing attention to literature led him to acquire the new art of
+printing. He had already translated from the French the Histories of
+Troy, and was preparing to undertake other editorial labors when he
+became associated with Colard Mansion, a Bruges printer. From Mansion he
+learned the art and presumably purchased his first press and type. Six
+books bearing Caxton's imprint were published at Bruges between 1474 and
+1476, though it is possible that the actual printing was done by Mansion
+rather than by Caxton himself. In 1476 Caxton set up the first printing
+shop in England, in a house within the precincts of Westminster Abbey.
+Between that date and his death in 1491 he printed ninety-three separate
+works, some of these in several editions. His industry and scholarly
+zeal as a publisher somewhat exceeded his technical skill as a printer.
+Caxton's books, which are now much rarer than those of many continental
+printers of the same period, are not so finely and beautifully done as
+the best of theirs. But the peculiar interest of his work lies in the
+striking variety of the works he chose for publication, the
+conscientious zeal with which he conceived and performed his task, and
+the quiet humor of his prefaces and notes. Let me illustrate briefly
+these three points. First, his variety. We have observed that Aldus and
+Froben published chiefly the Latin and Greek classics, Koberger the
+Latin scriptures and theological works, and Stephanus a combination of
+classics and theology. Caxton published few of the classics and very
+little theology. His books consist largely of the works of the early
+English poets, Chaucer, Gower, and others, of mediaeval romances derived
+from English, French, and Italian sources, and of chronicles and
+histories. The two most famous works that came from his press were the
+first printed editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Malory's Morte
+d'Arthur. His own English translation of the Golden Legend, a mediaeval
+Latin collection of lives of the saints, is scarcely less in importance.
+Among many other titles the following may serve to show how unusual and
+unconventional were his selections:
+
+          The History of Reynard the Fox.
+          The History of Godfrey of Boloyne, or the Conquest of Jerusalem.
+          The Fables of Aesop.
+          The Book of Good Maners.
+          The Faytes of Armes and of Chyvalrye.
+          The Governayle of Helthe.
+          The Arte and Crafte to Know Well to Dye.
+
+This is indeed humanism, but humanism in a different sense from that of
+Aldus and Erasmus. Human life from the cradle to the grave, human life
+in war and peace, human life in its gayer and its graver lights and
+shadows, human life as embodied equally in famous writers and in
+anonymous popular legends, was Caxton's field. He accounted nothing
+human alien to his mind or to his great enterprise.
+
+Again, Caxton was conscientious. He set great store by accuracy, not
+only typographical accuracy in matters of detail, but also the general
+accuracy of the texts or sources from which his own translations and his
+editions of other works were made. For example, in the second edition of
+the Canterbury Tales he explains how the first edition was printed from
+the best manuscript that he could find in 1478, but how after the
+appearance of that there came to him a scholar who complained of many
+errors, and spoke of another and more authentic manuscript in his
+father's possession. Caxton at once agreed to get out a new edition
+"whereas before by ignorance I erred in hurting and defaming his book in
+divers places, in setting in some things that he never said nor made and
+leaving out many things that are made which are requisite to be set in."
+A great many other examples of such disinterested carefulness are to be
+found in the history of those busy fifteen years at Westminster. In view
+of the fact that he was not only editor, printer, and publisher, but
+also translated twenty-three books totaling more than forty-five hundred
+printed pages, this scholarly desire for accuracy deserves the highest
+praise. Unlike Aldus and Froben, who were likewise editors as well as
+publishers, he was not surrounded by a capable corps of expert scholars,
+but worked almost alone. His faithful foreman, Wynkyn de Worde,
+doubtless took over gradually a large share of the purely mechanical
+side of the business, but Caxton remained till the end of his life the
+active head as well as the brains of the concern.
+
+As for his humor, it comes out even in his very selections of books to
+be printed, but chiefly in little touches all through his prefaces. For
+example, in his preface to the Morte d'Arthur he answers with a certain
+whimsical gravity the allegations of those who maintain that there was
+no such person as King Arthur, and that "all such books as been made of
+him be but feigned and fables." He recounts with assumed sincerity the
+evidence of the chronicles, the existence of Arthur's seal in red wax at
+Westminster Abbey, of Sir Gawain's skull at Dover Castle, of the Round
+Table itself at Winchester, and so on. But he goes on to say, in his own
+quaint way, which there is not space to quote at large, that in his own
+opinion the stories are worth while for the intrinsic interest and the
+moral values in them, whether they are literally true or not. He closes
+thus:
+
+          "Herein may be seen noble chivalry, courtesy,
+          humanity, friendliness, hardiness, love,
+          friendship, cowardice, murder, hate virtue and
+          sin. Do after the good and leave the evil, and it
+          shall bring you to good fame and renommee. And for
+          to pass the time this book shall be pleasant to
+          read in, but for to give faith and belief that all
+          is true that is contained herein, ye be at your
+          liberty."
+
+This wise, sane, gentle apostle of literature in England wrought well in
+his day, and is justly honored alike by scholars and by printers, who
+regard him, in England and America, as the father of their craft. Indeed
+to this day in the printing trade a shop organization is sometimes
+called a chapel, because according to ancient tradition Caxton's workmen
+held their meetings in one of the chapels adjoining the abbey of
+Westminster.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This survey of printing in its relations to the Renaissance is now not
+finished but concluded. I have shown that the invention and improvement
+of printing was not the cause but rather the effect of the revival of
+learning, while on the other hand the wide dissemination of literature
+made possible by typography of course accelerated enormously the process
+of popular enlightenment. I have selected five typical printers of that
+age:
+
+          Aldus, with his Homer.
+          Stephanus, with his Greek Testament.
+          Froben, with his Plato.
+          Koberger, with his Nuremberg Chronicle.
+          Caxton, with his Morte d'Arthur.
+
+Here we find represented in the Aldus Homer the revival of Greek
+learning, in the Stephanus Testament the application of this to the free
+criticism of the scriptures, in the Froben Plato the substitution of
+Platonic idealism for the scholastic philosophy based on Aristotle, in
+the Nuremberg book the epitome of mediaeval superstition, credulity, and
+curiosity on the verge of the new era, and in Morte d'Arthur the fond
+return of the modern mind, facing an unknown future, upon the naive and
+beautiful legends of Arthurian romance. An age full of contradictions
+and strange delusions, but an age of great vitality, great eagerness,
+great industry, patience, foresight, imagination. And in such an age it
+was the good fortune of these wise craftsmen who handled so deftly their
+paper and type to be the instruments of more evangels than angels ever
+sang, more revolutions than gunpowder ever achieved, more victories than
+ever won the applause of men or the approval of heaven. In the beginning
+the creative word was =Fiat lux=--let there be light. In the new
+creation of the human mind it was =Imprimatur=--let it be printed. If
+printing had never been invented, it is easy to conceive that the
+enormous learning and intellectual power of a few men in each generation
+might have gone on increasing so that the world might to-day possess
+most of the knowledge that we now enjoy; but it is certain that the
+masses could never have been enlightened, and that therefore the gulf
+between the wise few and the ignorant many would have exceeded anything
+known to the ancient world, and inconceivably dangerous in its appalling
+social menace. Whoever first printed a page of type is responsible for
+many crimes committed in the name of literature during the past four
+centuries; but one great book in a generation or a century, like a grain
+of radium in a ton of pitchblende, is worth all it has cost; for like
+the radium it is infinitely powerful to the wise man, deadly to the
+fool, and its strange, invisible virtue so far as we know may last
+forever.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+DESIGNED BY BRUCE ROGERS AND PRINTED FROM MONOTYPE CASLON TYPE BY
+WILLIAM EDWIN RUDGE AT MOUNT VERNON NEW YORK IN DECEMBER 1921.
+
+OF THIS EDITION ONE HUNDRED COPIES ARE ON FRENCH HAND-MADE PAPER AND
+FIVE HUNDRED ON ANTIQUE WOVE PAPER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Note: This text uses both today and to-day.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Printing and the Renaissance, by
+John Rothwell Slater
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