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diff --git a/25963-h/25963-h.htm b/25963-h/25963-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..917c7ed --- /dev/null +++ b/25963-h/25963-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,22085 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of World's War Events, Vol. II, edited by Francis J. Reynolds and Allen L. Churchill. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1.25em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + img {border: 0;} + .tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + ins {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: justify;} + + .bbox {border: solid 2px; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .unindent {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + .right {text-align: right;} + .poem {margin-left: 30%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: left;} + .poem2 {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: left;} + .sig {margin-right: 10%; text-align: right;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .sidenote {width: 10%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: .5em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 0em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: 0; + text-align: center; border: solid 1px;} + .sidenote2 {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: .5em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 0em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: 0; + text-align: center; border: solid 1px;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align:baseline; + position: relative; + bottom: 0.33em; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + .hang1 {text-indent: -3em; margin-left: 3em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of World's War Events, Vol. II, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: World's War Events, Vol. II + +Author: Various + +Editor: Francis J. Reynolds + Allen L. Churchill + +Release Date: July 4, 2008 [EBook #25963] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORLD'S WAR EVENTS, VOL. II *** + + + + +Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 508px;"> +<img src="images/vol2-frontis.jpg" width="508" height="302" alt="PRESIDENT WILSON READING HIS WAR MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, APRIL 2, 1917" title="PRESIDENT WILSON READING HIS WAR MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, APRIL 2, 1917" /> +<span class="caption">PRESIDENT WILSON READING HIS WAR MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, APRIL 2, 1917</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h1>WORLD'S WAR<br /> +EVENTS</h1> + +<div class='center'> +RECORDED BY STATESMEN · COMMANDERS<br /> +HISTORIANS AND BY MEN WHO FOUGHT OR SAW<br /> +THE GREAT CAMPAIGNS<br /> +<br /> + + +<br /><span class="smcap">Compiled and Edited by</span></div> + +<h2>FRANCIS J. REYNOLDS</h2> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Former Reference Librarian · Library of Congress</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">and</span></div> + +<h2>ALLEN L. CHURCHILL</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<span class="smcap">Associate Editor "The Story of the Great War"<br /> +Associate Editor "The New International<br /> +Encyclopedia"</span><br /> +</div> + + + +<h3>VOLUME II</h3> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/emblem.png" width="75" height="78" alt="Emblem" title="Emblem" /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'> +P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY<br /> +<span class="smcap">NEW YORK</span><br /></div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> +<div class='center'> +<small>Copyright 1919</small><br /> + +<span class="smcap"><small>By P. F. Collier & Son Company</small></span></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> +<h2>WORLD'S WAR<br /> +EVENTS</h2> + +<h3>VOLUME II</h3> + +<h3> +BEGINNING WITH THE ATTACK AT VERDUN<br /> +EARLY IN 1916 THE STORY OF THE<br /> +WAR AND OF AMERICAN<br /> +AID IS CARRIED TO<br /> +THE CLOSE OF<br /> +1917<br /></h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><small>ARTICLE</small></td><td align='left'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Battle of Verdun</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Raoul Blanchard</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Battle of Jutland Bank</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Admiral Sir John Jellicoe's Official Despatch</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Taking the Col di Lana</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Lewis R. Freeman</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Battle of the Somme</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Sir Douglas Haig</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Russia's Refugees</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Gregory Mason</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Tragedy of Rumania</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Stanley Washburn</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sixteen Months a War Prisoner</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Private "Jack" Evans</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Under German Rule in France and Belgium</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>J. P. Whitaker</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Anglo-Russian Campaign in Turkey</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>James B. MacDonald</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Kitchener</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Lady St. Helier</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Why America Broke with Germany</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>President Woodrow Wilson</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How the War Came to America</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Official Account</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The War Message</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>President Woodrow Wilson</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">British Operations at Saloniki</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Official Report of General Milne</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">In Petrograd During the Seven Days</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Arno Dosch-Fleurot</i></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">America's First Shot</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>J.R. Keen</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">German Activities in the United States</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>House Committee on Foreign Affairs</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Preparing for War</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Capture of Jerusalem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>General E. H. H. Allenby</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">American Ships and German Submarines</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>From Official Reports</i></span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THE BATTLE OF VERDUN</h2> + +<h3>RAOUL BLANCHARD</h3> + + + +<div class="sidenote">Greatest +drama of +the war.</div> + +<p>The Battle of Verdun, which continued +through from February 21, 1916, to the +16th of December, ranks next to the Battle +of the Marne as the greatest drama of the world +war. Like the Marne, it represents the +checkmate of a supreme effort on the part of +the Germans to end the war swiftly by a +thunderstroke. It surpasses the Battle of the +Marne by the length of the struggle, the fury +with which it was carried on, the huge scale +of the operations. No complete analysis of it, +however, has yet been published—only fragmentary +accounts, dealing with the beginning +or with mere episodes. Neither in France nor +in Germany, up to the present moment, has the +whole story of the battle been told, describing +its vicissitudes, and following step by step +the development of the stirring drama. That +is the task I have set myself here.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +successes +in France.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Preparations +for a +great offensive.</div> + +<p>The year 1915 was rich in successes for the +Germans. In the West, thanks to an energetic +defensive, they had held firm against the Allies' +onslaughts in Artois and in Champagne. Their +offensive in the East was most fruitful. Galicia +had been almost completely recovered, the +kingdom of Poland occupied, Courland, Lithuania, +and Volhynia invaded. To the South +they had crushed Serbia's opposition, saved +Turkey, and won over Bulgaria. These triumphs, +however, had not brought them peace, +for the heart and soul of the Allies lay, after +all, in the West—in England and France.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +The submarine campaign was counted on to +keep England's hands tied; it remained, therefore, +to attack and annihilate the French army. +And so, in the autumn of 1915, preparations +were begun on a huge scale for delivering a +terrible blow in the West and dealing France +the <i>coup de grâce</i>.</p> + +<p>The determination with which the Germans +followed out this plan and the reckless way in +which they drew on their resources leave no +doubt as to the importance the operation held +for them. They staked everything on putting +their adversaries out of the running by breaking +through their lines, marching on Paris, and +shattering the confidence of the French people. +This much they themselves admitted. The German +press, at the beginning of the battle, +treated it as a matter of secondary import, +whose object was to open up free communications +between Metz and the troops in the Argonne; +but the proportions of the combat soon +gave the lie to such modest estimates, and in +the excitement of the first days official utterances +betrayed how great were the expectations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Troops +urged to +take Verdun.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Objects +of the +campaign.</div> + +<p>On March 4 the Crown Prince urged his +already over-taxed troops to make one supreme +effort to "capture Verdun, the heart of +France"; and General von Deimling announced +to the 15th Army Corps that this would be the +last battle of the war. At Berlin, travelers from +neutral countries leaving for Paris by way of +Switzerland were told that the Germans would +get there first. The Kaiser himself, replying +toward the end of February to the good wishes +of his faithful province of Brandenburg, congratulated +himself publicly on seeing his warriors +of the 3d Army Corps about to carry +"the most important stronghold of our principal +enemy." It is plain, then, that the object +was to take Verdun, win a decisive victory, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +start a tremendous onslaught which would +bring the war to a triumphant close.</p> + +<p>We should next examine the reasons prompting +the Germans to select Verdun as the vital +point, the nature of the scene of operations, +and the manner in which the preparation was +made.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Strategic +advantages +to be +gained.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Verdun +railways +dominated +by +Germans.</div> + +<p>Why did the Germans make their drive at +Verdun, a powerful fortress defended by a complete +system of detached outworks? Several +reasons may be found for this. First of all, +there were the strategic advantages of the +operation. Ever since the Battle of the Marne +and the German offensive against St. Mihiel, +Verdun had formed a salient in the French +front which was surrounded by the Germans on +three sides,—northwest, east, and south,—and +was consequently in greater peril than the rest +of the French lines. Besides, Verdun was not +far distant from Metz, the great German arsenal, +the fountain-head for arms, food, and munitions. +For the same reasons, the French defense +of Verdun was made much harder because +access to the city was commanded by the +enemy. Of the two main railroads linking +Verdun with France, the Lérouville line was +cut off by the enemy at St. Mihiel; the second +(leading through Châlons) was under ceaseless +fire from the German artillery. There remained +only a narrow-gauge road connecting Verdun +and Bar-le-Duc. The fortress, then, was almost +isolated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Iron +mines of +Lorraine.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extent +of Lotharingia.</div> + +<p>For another reason, Verdun was too near, +for the comfort of the Germans, to those immense +deposits of iron ore in Lorraine which +they have every intention of retaining after the +war. The moral factor involved in the fall of +Verdun was also immense. If the stronghold +were captured, the French, who look on it as +their chief bulwark in the East, would be greatly +disheartened, whereas it would delight the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +souls of the Germans, who had been counting +on its seizure since the beginning of the war. +They have not forgotten that the ancient +Lotharingia, created by a treaty signed eleven +centuries ago at Verdun, extended as far as +the Meuse. Finally, it is probable that the +German General Staff intended to profit by a +certain slackness on the part of the French, +who, placing too much confidence in the +strength of the position and the favorable +nature of the surrounding countryside, had +made little effort to augment their defensive +value.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Serious +obstacles +to an +offensive.</div> + +<p>This value, as a matter of fact, was great. +The theatre of operations at Verdun offers +far fewer inducements to an offensive than the +plains of Artois, Picardy, or Champagne. The +rolling ground, the vegetation, the distribution +of the population, all present serious obstacles.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +plateaus +of the +Meuse.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hills and +ravines.</div> + +<p>The relief-map of the region about Verdun +shows the sharply marked division of two +plateaus situated on either side of the river +Meuse. The plateau which rises on the left +bank, toward the Argonne, falls away on the +side toward the Meuse in a deeply indented +line of high but gently sloping bluffs, which +include the Butte de Montfaucon, Hill 304, and +the heights of Esnes and Montzéville. Fragments +of this plateau, separated from the main +mass by the action of watercourses, are scattered +in long ridges over the space included +between the line of bluffs and the Meuse: the +two hills of Le Mont Homme (295 metres), the +Côte de l'Oie, and, farther to the South, the +ridge of Bois Bourrus and Marre. To the east +of the river, the country is still more rugged. +The plateau on this bank rises abruptly, and +terminates at the plain of the Woëvre in the +cliffs of the Côtes-de-Meuse, which tower 100 +metres over the plain. The brooks which flow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +down to the Woëvre or to the Meuse have worn +the cliffs and the plateau into a great number +of hillocks called <i>côtes</i>: the Côte du Talon, Côte +du Poivre, Côte de Froideterre, and the rest. +The ravines separating these <i>côtes</i> are deep +and long: those of Vaux, Haudromont, and +Fleury cut into the very heart of the plateau, +leaving between them merely narrow ridges of +land, easily to be defended.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Stretches +of +forest.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Villages +well +placed for +defense.</div> + +<p>These natural defenses of the country are +strengthened by the nature of the vegetation. +On the rather sterile calcareous soil of the two +plateaus the woods are thick and numerous. +To the west, the approaches of Hill 304 are +covered by the forest of Avocourt. On the east, +long wooded stretches—the woods of Haumont, +Caures, Wavrille, Herbebois, la Vauche, +Haudromont, Hardaumont, la Caillette, and +others—cover the narrow ridges of land and +dominate the upper slopes of the ravines. The +villages, often perched on the highest points +of land, as their names ending in <i>mont</i> indicate, +are easily transformed into small fortresses; +such are Haumont, Beaumont, Louvemont, +Douaumont. Others follow the watercourses, +making it easier to defend them—Malancourt, +Béthincourt and Cumières, to the west of the +Meuse; Vaux to the east.</p> + +<p>These hills, then, as well as the ravines, the +woods, and the favorably placed villages, all +facilitated the defense of the countryside. On +the other hand, the assailants had one great +advantage: the French positions were cut in +two by the valley of the Meuse, one kilometre +wide and quite deep, which, owing to swampy +bottom-lands, could not be crossed except by +the bridges of Verdun. The French troops on +the right bank had therefore to fight with a +river at their backs, thus imperiling their retreat. +A grave danger, this, in the face of an +enemy determined to take full advantage of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +the circumstance by attacking with undreamed-of +violence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Troops +selected +in +October.</div> + +<p>The German preparation was, from the start, +formidable and painstaking. It was probably +under way by the end of October, 1915, for at +that time the troops selected to deliver the first +crushing attack were withdrawn from the front +and sent into training. Four months were thus +set aside for this purpose. To make the decisive +attack, the Germans made selection from +four of their crack army corps, the 18th active, +the 7th reserve, the 15th active (the Mühlhausen +corps), and the 3d active, composed of Brandenburgers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Artillery +and +munitions +made +ready.</div> + +<p>These troops were sent to the interior to +undergo special preparation. In addition to +these 80,000 or 100,000 men, who were appointed +to bear the brunt of the assault, the +operation was to be supported by the Crown +Prince's army on the right and by that of General +von Strautz on the left—300,000 men more. +Immense masses of artillery were gathered together +to blast open the way; fourteen lines +of railroad brought together from every direction +the streams of arms and munitions. Heavy +artillery was transported from the Russian and +Serbian fronts. No light pieces were used in +this operation—in the beginning, at any rate; +only guns of large calibre, exceeding 200 millimetres, +many of 370 and 420 millimetres.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Reliance +on heavy +artillery.</div> + +<p>The battle plans were based on the offensive +power of the heavy artillery. The new formula +was to run, "The artillery attacks, the infantry +takes possession." In other words, a terrible +bombardment was to play over every square +yard of the terrain to be captured; when it +was decided that the pulverization had been +sufficient, a scouting-party of infantry would +be sent out to look the situation over; behind +them would come the pioneers, and then the +first wave of the assault. In case the enemy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +still resisted, the infantry would retire and +leave the field once more to the artillery.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The point +selected +for attack.</div> + +<p>The point chosen for the attack was the +plateau on the right bank of the Meuse. The +Germans would thus avoid the obstacle of the +cliffs of Côtes de Meuse, and, by seizing the +ridges and passing around the ravines, they +could drive down on Douaumont, which dominates +the entire region, and from there fall on +Verdun and capture the bridges. At the same +time, the German right wing would assault the +French positions on the left bank of the Meuse; +the left wing would complete the encircling +movement, and the entire French army of Verdun, +driven back to the river and attacked from +the rear, would be captured or destroyed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A ten +months' +battle.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The formidable +German +attack.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Periods +of +fixation.</div> + +<p>The Battle of Verdun lasted no less than ten +months—from February 21 to December 16. +First of all, came the formidable <i>German attack</i>, +with its harvest of success during the +first few days of the frontal drive, which was +soon checked and forced to wear itself out in +fruitless flank attacks, kept up until April 9. +After this date the German programme became +more modest: they merely wished to hold at +Verdun sufficient French troops to forestall an +offensive at some other point. This was the +<i>period of German "fixation,"</i> lasting from +April to the middle of July. It then became +the object of the French to hold the German +forces and prevent transfer to the Somme. +<i>French "fixation,"</i> ended in the successes of +October and December.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lack of +foresight +on the +part of +French.</div> + +<p>The first German onslaught was the most +intense and critical moment of the battle. The +violent frontal attack on the plateau east of +the Meuse, magnificently executed, at first +carried all before it. The commanders at Verdun +had shown a lack of foresight. There were +too few trenches, too few cannon, too few +troops. The soldiers had had too little experience<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +in the field, and it was their task to face +the most terrific attack ever known.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +battle +begins.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">French +left driven +backwards.</div> + +<p>On the morning of February 21 the German +artillery opened up a fire of infernal intensity. +This artillery had been brought up in undreamed-of +quantities. French aviators who +flew over the enemy positions located so many +batteries that they gave up marking them on +their maps; the number was too great. The +forest of Grémilly, northeast of the point of +attack, was just a great cloud shot through +with lightning-flashes. A deluge of shells fell +on the French positions, annihilating the first +line, attacking the batteries and finding their +mark as far back as the city of Verdun. At +five o'clock in the afternoon the first waves of +infantry assaulted and carried the advanced +French positions in the woods of Haumont and +Caures. On the 22d the French left was driven +back about four kilometres.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fall of +Herbebois.</div> + +<p>The following day a terrible engagement took +place along the entire line of attack, resulting +toward evening in the retreat of both French +wings; on the left Samognieux was taken by +the Germans; on the right they occupied the +strong position of Herbebois.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +enter +Douaumont.</div> + +<p>The situation developed rapidly on the 24th. +The Germans enveloped the French centre, +which formed a salient; at two in the afternoon +they captured the important central position +of Beaumont, and by nightfall had reached +Louvemont and La Vauche forest, gathering in +many prisoners. On the morning of the 25th +the enemy stormed Bezonvaux, and entered the +fort of Douaumont, already evacuated.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/vol2-map15-2.png" width="600" height="366" alt="FIRST ATTACK ON VERDUN" title="FIRST ATTACK ON VERDUN" /> +<span class="caption">FIRST ATTACK ON VERDUN</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +advance +eight kilometres.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">General de +Castelnau +and +General +Pétain.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hand-to-hand +fighting.</div> + +<p>In less than five days the assaulting troops +sent forward over the plateau had penetrated +the French positions to a depth of eight kilometres, +and were masters of the most important +elements of the defense of the fortress. +Verdun and its bridges were only seven kilometres<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +distant. The commander of the fortified +region himself proposed to evacuate the +whole right bank of the Meuse; the troops established +in the Woëvre were already falling +back toward the bluffs of Côtes de Meuse. Most +luckily, on this same day there arrived at Verdun +some men of resource, together with substantial +reinforcements. General de Castelnau, +Chief of the General Staff, ordered the troops +on the right bank to hold out at all costs. And +on the evening of the 25th General Pétain took +over the command of the entire sector. The +Zouaves, on the left bank, were standing firm +as rocks on the Côtes du Poivre, which cuts +off access from the valley to Verdun. During +this time the Germans, pouring forward from +Douaumont, had already reached the Côte de +Froideterre, and the French artillerymen, out-flanked, +poured their fire into the gray masses +as though with rifles. It was at this moment +that the 39th division of the famous 20th French +Army Corps of Nancy met the enemy in the +open, and, after furious hand-to-hand fighting, +broke the backbone of the attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +frontal +drive +checked.</div> + +<p>That was the end of it. The German tidal +wave could go no farther. There were fierce +struggles for several days longer, but all in +vain. Starting on the 26th, five French counter-attacks +drove back the enemy to a point just +north of the fort of Douaumont, and recaptured +the village of the same name. For three days +the German attacking forces tried unsuccessfully +to force these positions; their losses were +terrible, and already they had to call in a division +of reinforcements. After two days of quiet +the contest began again at Douaumont, which +was attacked by an entire army corps; the 4th +of March found the village again in German +hands. The impetus of the great blow had been +broken, however, after five days of success, the +attack had fallen flat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +flank +attacks.</div> + +<p>Were the Germans then to renounce Verdun? +After such vast preparations, after such great +losses, after having roused such high hopes, this +seemed impossible to the leaders of the German +army. The frontal drive was to have been +followed up by the attack of the wings, and it +was now planned to carrying this out with the +assistance of the Crown Prince's army, which +was still intact. In this way the scheme so +judiciously arranged would be accomplished in +the appointed manner. Instead of adding the +finishing touch to the victory, however, these +wings now had the task of winning it completely—and +the difference is no small one.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Genius of +Pétain +and +Nivelle.</div> + +<p>These flank attacks were delivered for over +a month (March 6-April 9) on both sides of +the river simultaneously, with an intensity and +power which recalled the first days of the battle. +But the French were now on their guard. They +had received great reinforcements of artillery, +and the nimble "75's," thanks to their speed and +accuracy, barred off the positions under attack +by a terrible curtain of fire. Moreover, their +infantry contrived to pass through the enemy's +barrage-fire, wait calmly until the assaulting +infantry were within 30 metres of them, and +then let loose the rapid-fire guns. They were +also commanded by energetic and brilliant +chiefs: General Pétain, who offset the insufficient +railroad communications with the rear +by putting in motion a great stream of more +than 40,000 motor trucks, all traveling on strict +schedule time; and General Nivelle, who directed +operations on the right bank of the river, +before taking command of the Army of Verdun. +The German successes of the first days were +not duplicated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">On the +left of the +Meuse.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Le Mort +Homme.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hill 304.</div> + +<p>These new attacks began on the left of the +Meuse. The Germans tried to turn the first +line of the French defense by working down +along the river, and then capture the second<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +line. On March 6 two divisions stormed the +villages of Forges and Regnéville, and attacked +the woods of Corbeaux on the Côte de l'Oie, +which they captured on the 10th. After several +days of preparation, they fell suddenly upon +one of the important elements of the second +line, the hill of Le Mort Homme, but failed to +carry it (March 14-16). Repulsed on the right, +they tried the left. On March 20 a body of +picked troops just back from the Russian front—the +11th Bavarian Division—stormed the +French positions in the wood of Avocourt and +moved on to Hill 304, where they obtained foothold +for a short time before being driven back +with losses of from 50 to 60 per cent of their +effectives.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crown +Prince +brings up +reserves.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Village +and fort +of Vaux.</div> + +<p>At the same time the Germans were furiously +assaulting the positions of the French +right wing east of the Meuse. From the 8th +to the 10th of March the Crown Prince brought +forward again the troops which had survived +the ordeal of the first days, and added to them +the fresh forces of the 5th Reserve Corps. The +action developed along the Côte du Poivre, especially +east of Douaumont, where it was directed +against the village and fort of Vaux. +The results were negative, except for a slight +gain in the woods of Hardaumont. The 3d +Corps had lost 22,000 men since the 21st of +February—that is, almost its entire original +strength. The 5th Corps was simply massacred +on the slopes of Vaux, without <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'being being'">being</ins> able +to reach the fort. New attempts against this +position, on March 16 and 18, were no more +fruitful. The battle of the right wing, then, +was also lost.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fighting +on both +sides the +Meuse.</div> + +<p>The Germans hung on grimly. One last +effort remained to be made. After a lull of six +days (March 22-28) savage fighting started +again on both sides of the river. On the right +bank, from March 31 to April 2, the Germans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +got a foothold in the ravine of Vaux and along +its slopes; but the French dislodged them the +next day, inflicting great damage, and drove +them back to Douaumont.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Avocourt +retaken.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Le Mort +Homme +like a +volcano.</div> + +<p>Their greatest effort was made on the left +bank. Here the French took back the woods +of Avocourt; from March 30 to the 8th of +April, however, the Germans succeeded in +breaking into their adversaries' first line, and +on April 9, a sunny Sabbath-day, they delivered +an attack against the entire second line, along +a front of 11 kilometres, from Avocourt to the +Meuse. There was terrific fighting, the heaviest +that had taken place since February 26, and a +worthy sequel to the original frontal attack. +The artillery preparation was long and searching. +The hill of Le Mort Homme, said an eye-witness, +smoked like a volcano with innumerable +craters. The assault was launched at +noon, with five divisions, and in two hours it +had been shattered. New attacks followed, but +less orderly, less numerous, and more listless, +until sundown. The checkmate was complete. +"The 9th of April," said General Pétain to his +troops, "is a day full of glory for your arms. +The fierce assaults of the Crown Prince's +soldiers have everywhere been thrown back. Infantry, +artillery, sappers, and aviators of the +Second Army have vied with one another in +heroism. Courage, men: <i>on les aura</i>!"</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +plans +ruined.</div> + +<p>And, indeed, this great attack of April 9, +was the last general effort made by the German +troops to carry out the programme of February—to +capture Verdun and wipe out the French +army which defended it. They had to give in. +The French were on their guard now; they had +artillery, munitions, and men. The defenders +began to act as vigorously as the attackers; +they took the offensive, recaptured the woods +of La Caillette, and occupied the trenches before +Le Mort Homme. The German plans were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +ruined. Some other scheme had to be thought +out.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Verdun to +be kept a +battlefield.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">A +battle of +attrition.</div> + +<p>Instead of employing only eight divisions of +excellent troops, as originally planned, the +Germans had little by little cast into the +fiery furnace thirty divisions. This enormous +sacrifice could not be allowed to count for +nothing. The German High Command therefore +decided to assign a less pretentious object +to the abortive enterprise. The Crown Prince's +offensive had fallen flat; but, at all events, +it might succeed in preventing a French offensive. +For this reason it was necessary that +Verdun should remain a sore spot, a continually +menaced sector, where the French +would be obliged to send a steady stream of +men, material, and munitions. It was hinted +then in all the German papers that the struggle +at Verdun was a battle of attrition, +which would wear down the strength of the +French by slow degrees. There was no talk +now of thunderstrokes; it was all "the siege of +Verdun." This time they expressed the true +purpose of the German General Staff; the +struggle which followed the fight of April 9, +now took the character of a battle of fixation, +in which the Germans tried to hold their adversaries' +strongest units at Verdun and prevent +their being transferred elsewhere. This +state of affairs lasted from mid-April to well +into July, when the progress of the Somme +offensive showed the Germans that their efforts +had been unavailing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +still +formidable.</div> + +<p>It is true that during this new phase of the +battle the offensive vigor of the Germans and +their procedure in attacking were still formidable.</p> + +<p>Their artillery continued to perform prodigies. +The medium-calibre pieces had now +come into action, particularly the 150 mm. +guns, with their amazing mobility of fire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +which shelled the French first line, as well +as their communications and batteries, with +lightning speed. This storm of artillery continued +night and day; it was the relentless, +crushing continuity of the fire which exhausted +the adversary and made the Battle of Verdun +a hell on earth. There was one important +difference, however: the infantry attacks now +took place over restricted areas, which were +rarely more than two kilometres in extent. The +struggle was continual, but disconnected. Besides, +it was rarely in progress on both sides +of the river at once. Until the end of May the +Germans did their worst on the left; then the +French activities brought them back to the +right side, and there they attacked with fury +until mid-July.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A period +of recuperation.</div> + +<p>The end of April was a period of recuperation +for the Germans. They were still suffering +from the confusion caused by their set-backs +of March, and especially of April 9. Only two +attempts at an offensive were made—one on +the Côte du Poivre (April 18) and one on the +front south of Douaumont. Both were repulsed +with great losses. The French, in turn, +attacked on the 15th of April near Douaumont, +on the 28th north of Le Mort Homme. It was +not until May that the new German tactics +were revealed: vigorous, but partial, attacks, +directed now against one point, now against +another.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Artillery +directed +against +Hill 304.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cumières +and +Le Mort +Homme.</div> + +<p>On May 4 there began a terrible artillery +preparation, directed against Hill 304. This +was followed by attacks of infantry, which +surged up the shell-blasted slopes, first to the +northwest, then north, and finally northeast. +The attack of the 7th was made by three divisions +of fresh troops which had not previously +been in action before Verdun. No gains were +secured. Every foot of ground taken in the +first rush was recaptured by French counter-attacks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +During the night of the 18th a savage +onslaught was made against the woods of Avocourt, +without the least success. On the 20th +and 21st, three divisions were hurled against +Le Mort Homme, which they finally took; but +they could go no farther. The 23d and 24th +were terrible days. The Germans stormed the +village of Cumières; their advance guard penetrated +as far as Chattancourt. On the 26th, +however, the French were again in possession +of Cumières and the slopes of Le Mort Homme; +and if the Germans, by means of violent +counter-attacks, were able to get a fresh foothold +in the ruins of Cumières, they made no attempt +to progress farther. The battles of the +left river-bank were now over; on this side of +the Meuse there were to be only unimportant +local engagements and the usual artillery fire.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battles +on right +of Meuse.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Mangin's +division +attacks.</div> + +<p>This shift of the German offensive activity +from the left side of the Meuse to the right is +explained by the activity shown at the same +time in this sector by the French. The French +command was not deceived by the German tactics; +they intended to husband their strength +for the future Somme offensive. For them Verdun +was a sacrificial sector to which they sent, +from now on, few men, scant munitions, and +only artillery of the older type. Their object +was only to hold firm, at all costs. However, +the generals in charge of this thankless task, +Pétain and Nivelle, decided that the best defensive +plan consisted in attacking the enemy. To +carry this out, they selected a soldier bronzed +on the battlefields of Central Africa, the Soudan, +and Morocco, General Mangin, who commanded +the 5th Division and had already +played a distinguished part in the struggle for +Vaux, in March. On May 21 Mangin's division +attacked on the right bank of the Meuse and +occupied the quarries of Haudromont; on the +22d it stormed the German lines for a length<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +of two kilometres, and took the fort of Douaumont +with the exception of one salient.</p> + +<p>The Germans replied to this with the greatest +energy; for two days and nights the battle +raged round the ruins of the fort. Finally, on +the night of the 24th, two new Bavarian divisions +succeeded in getting a footing in this position, +to which the immediate approaches were +held by the French. This vigorous effort +alarmed the enemy, and from now on, until the +middle of July, all their strength was focused +on the right bank of the river.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The bloodiest +chapter of +the battle.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Intense +barrage-fire.</div> + +<p>This contest of the right bank began on May +31. It is, perhaps the bloodiest, the most +terrible, chapter of all the operations before +Verdun; for the Germans had determined to +capture methodically, one by one, all the +French positions, and get to the city. The first +stake of this game was the possession of the +fort of Vaux. Access to it was cut off from +the French by a barrage-fire of unprecedented +intensity; at the same time an assault was +made against the trenches flanking the fort, and +also against the defenses of the Fumin woods. +On June 4 the enemy reached the superstructure +of the fort and took possession, showering +down hand-grenades and asphyxiating gas on +the garrison, which was shut up in the casemates. +After a heroic resistance the defenders +succumbed to thirst and surrendered on June 7.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thiaumont +changes +hands repeatedly.</div> + +<p>Now that Vaux was captured, the German +activity was directed against the ruins of the +small fort of Thiaumont, which blocks the way +to the Côte de Froideterre, and against the +village of Fleury, dominating the mouth of a +ravine leading to the Meuse. From June 8 to +20, terrible fighting won for the Germans the +possession of Thiaumont; on the 23d, six divisions, +representing a total of at least 70,000 +men, were hurled against Fleury, which they +held from the 23d to the 26th. The French,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +undaunted, returned to the charge. On August +30 they reoccupied Thiaumont, lost it at half-past +three of the same day, recaptured it at +half-past four, and were again driven out two +days later. However, they remained close to +the redoubt and the village.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battles +in July.</div> + +<p>The Germans then turned south, against the +fortifications which dominated the ridges and +ravines. There, on a hillock, stands the fort +of Souville, at approximately the same elevation +as Douaumont. On July 3, they captured the +battery of Damloup, to the east; on the 12th, +after insignificant fighting, they sent forward +a huge mass of troops which got as far as the +fort and battery of L'Hôpital. A counterattack +drove them away again, but they dug +themselves in about 800 metres away.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +cannot +win +Verdun.</div> + +<p>After all, what had they accomplished? For +twelve days they had been confronted with the +uselessness of these bloody sacrifices. Verdun +was out of reach; the offensive of the Somme +was under way, and the French stood before +the gates of Péronne. Decidedly, the Battle of +Verdun was lost. Neither the onslaught of the +first period nor the battles of fixation had +brought about the desired end. It now became +impossible to squander on this field of death +the munitions and troops which the German +army needed desperately at Péronne and Bapaume. +The leaders of the German General +Staff accepted the situation. Verdun held no +further interest for them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">French +take the +initiative.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">General +Nivelle's +blows.</div> + +<p>Verdun, however, continued to be of great +interest to the French. In the first place, they +could not endure seeing the enemy intrenched +five kilometres away from the coveted city. +Moreover, it was most important for them to +prevent the Germans from weakening the Verdun +front and transferring their men and guns +to the Somme. The French troops, therefore, +were to take the initiative out of the hands of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +the Germans and inaugurate, in their turn, a +battle of fixation. This new situation presented +two phases: in July and August the French +were satisfied to worry the enemy with small +forces and to oblige them to fight; in October +and December General Nivelle, well supplied +with troops and material, was able to strike +two vigorous blows which took back from the +Germans the larger part of all the territory +they had won since February 21.</p> + +<p>From July 15 to September 15, furious fighting +was in progress on the slopes of the plateau +stretching from Thiaumont to Damloup. This +time, however, it was the French who attacked +savagely, who captured ground, and who took +prisoners. So impetuous were they that their +adversaries, who asked for nothing but quiet, +were obliged to be constantly on their guard +and deliver costly counter-attacks.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Contest +again +around +Thiaumont.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">French +colonials +take +Fleury.</div> + +<p>The contest raged most bitterly over the +ruins of Thiaumont and Fleury. On the 15th +of July the Zouaves broke into the southern +part of the village, only to be driven out again. +However, on the 19th and 20th the French +freed Souville, and drew near to Fleury; from +the 20th to the 26th they forged ahead step by +step, taking 800 prisoners. A general attack, +delivered on August 3, carried the fort of +Thiaumont and the village of Fleury, with 1500 +prisoners. The Germans reacted violently; the +4th of August they reoccupied Fleury, a part +of which was taken back by the French that +same evening. From the 5th to the 9th the +struggle went on ceaselessly, night and day, in +the ruins of the village. During this time the +adversaries took and retook Thiaumont, which +the Germans held after the 8th. But on the +10th the Colonial regiment from Morocco +reached Fleury, carefully prepared the assault, +delivered it on the 17th, and captured the +northern and southern portions of the village,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +encircling the central part, which they occupied +on the 18th. From this day Fleury remained +in French hands. The German counter-assaults +of the 18th, 19th, and 20th of August were +fruitless; the Moroccan Colonials held their +conquest firmly.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +French +advance.</div> + +<p>On the 24th the French began to advance east +of Fleury, in spite of incessant attacks which +grew more intense on the 28th. Three hundred +prisoners were taken between Fleury and +Thiaumont on September 3, and 300 more +fell into their hands in the woods of Vaux-Chapître. +On the 9th they took 300 more before +Fleury.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">French +programme +carried +out.</div> + +<p>It may be seen that the French troops had +thoroughly carried out the programme assigned +to them of attacking the enemy relentlessly, +obliging him to counter-attack, and <i>holding</i> +him at Verdun. But the High Command was +to surpass itself. By means of sharp attacks, +it proposed to carry the strong positions which +the Germans had dearly bought, from February +to July, at the price of five months of terrible +effort. This new plan was destined to be accomplished +on October 24 and December 15.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Four +hundred +millimeter +guns.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Excellent +troops.</div> + +<p>Verdun was no longer looked on by the +French as a "sacrificial sector." To this attack +of October 24, destined to establish once +for all the superiority of the soldier of France, +it was determined to consecrate all the time +and all the energy that were found necessary. +A force of artillery which General Nivelle himself +declared to be of exceptional strength was +brought into position—no old-fashioned ordnance +this time, but magnificent new pieces, +among them long-range guns of 400 millimetres +calibre. The Germans had fifteen divisions on +the Verdun front, but the French command +judged it sufficient to make the attack with +three divisions, which advanced along a front +of seven kilometres. These, however, were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +made up of excellent troops, withdrawn from +service in the first lines and trained for several +weeks, who knew every inch of the ground. +General Mangin was their commander.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">French offensive +in +October.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +evacuate +Ft. Vaux.</div> + +<p>The French artillery opened fire on October +21, by hammering away at the enemy's positions. +A feint attack forced the Germans to +reveal the location of their batteries, more +than 130 of which were discovered and silenced. +At 11.40 a.m., October 24, the assault started +in the fog. The troops advanced on the run, +preceded by a barrage-fire. On the left, the +objective points were reached at 2.45 p.m., +and the village of Douaumont captured. The +fort was stormed at 3 o'clock by the Moroccan +Colonials, and the few Germans who held out +there surrendered when night came on. On +the right, the woods surrounding Vaux were +rushed with lightning speed. The battery of +Damloup was taken by assault. Vaux alone resisted. +In order to reduce it, the artillery +preparation was renewed from October 28 to +November 2, and the Germans evacuated the +fort without fighting on the morning of the 2d. +As they retreated, the French occupied the +villages of Vaux and Damloup, at the foot of +the <i>côtes</i>.</p> + +<p>Thus the attack on Douaumont and Vaux resulted +in a real victory, attested to by the reoccupation +of all the ground lost since the 25th +of February, the capture of 15 cannon and more +than 6000 prisoners. This, too, despite the +orders found on German prisoners bidding +them to "hold out at all cost" (25th Division), +and to "make a desperate defense" (von +Lochow). The French command, encouraged +by this success, decided to do still better and +to push on farther to the northeast.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Operations +in +December.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roads +and railways +constructed.</div> + +<p>The operations of December 15 were more +difficult. They were directed against a zone +occupied by the enemy for more than nine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +months, during which time he had constructed +a great network of communication trenches, +field-railways, dug-outs built into the hillsides, +forts, and redoubts. Moreover, the French attacks +had to start from unfavorable ground, +where ceaseless fighting had been in progress +since the end of February, where the soil, +pounded by millions of projectiles, had been +reduced to a sort of volcanic ash, transformed +by the rain into a mass of sticky mud in which +men had been swallowed up bodily. Two whole +divisions were needed to construct twenty-five +kilometres of roads and ten kilometres of railway, +make dug-outs and trenches, and bring the +artillery up into position. All was ready in +five weeks; but the Germans, finding out what +was in preparation, had provided formidable +means of defense.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of +Verdun +ends in +victory +for the +French.</div> + +<p>The front to be attacked was held by five +German divisions. Four others were held in +reserve at the rear. On the French side, General +Mangin had four divisions, three of which +were composed of picked men, veterans of Verdun. +The artillery preparation, made chiefly +by pieces of 220, 274, and 370 mm., lasted for +three full days. The assault was let loose on +December 15, at 10 a.m.; on the left the French +objectives were reached by noon; the whole +spur of Hardaumont on the right was swiftly +captured, and only a part of the German centre +still resisted, east of Bezonvaux. This was reduced +the next day. The Côte du Poivre was +taken entire; Vacherauville, Louvemont, Bezonvaux +as well. The front was now three kilometres +from the fort of Douaumont. Over +11,000 prisoners were taken by the French, and +115 cannon. For a whole day their reconnoitring +parties were able to advance in front +of the new lines, destroying batteries and bringing +in prisoners, without encountering any +serious resistance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>The success was undeniable. As a reply to +the German peace proposals of December 12, +the Battle of Verdun ended as a real victory; +and this magnificent operation, in which the +French had shown such superiority in infantry +and artillery, seemed to be a pledge of future +triumphs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +plans and +their +outcome.</div> + +<p>The conclusion is easily reached. In February +and March Germany wished to end the +war by crushing the French army at Verdun. +She failed utterly. Then, from April to July, +she wished to exhaust French military resources +by a battle of fixation. Again she +failed. The Somme offensive was the offspring +of Verdun. Later on, from July to December, +she was not able to elude the grasp of the +French, and the last engagements, together +with the vain struggles of the Germans for six +months, showed to what extent General Nivelle's +men had won the upper hand.</p> + +<p>The Battle of Verdun, beginning as a brilliant +German offensive, ended as an offensive +victory for the French. And so this terrible +drama is an epitome of the whole great war: +a brief term of success for the Germans at the +start, due to a tremendous preparation which +took careless adversaries by surprise—terrible +and agonizing first moments, soon offset by +energy, heroism, and the spirit of sacrifice; and +finally, victory for the Soldiers of Right.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, Atlantic Monthly, June, 1917.</small></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>On May 31st, 1916, there was fought in the +North Sea off Jutland, the most important +naval battle of the Great War. While the +battle was undecisive in some of the results +attained, it was an English victory, in that the +Germans suffered greater losses and were +forced to flee. The narrative of this battle +which follows is by the Admiral of the British +Fleet.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND<br /> +BANK</h2> + +<h3>ADMIRAL SIR JOHN JELLICOE'S +OFFICIAL DISPATCH</h3> + + +<p>The German High Sea Fleet was brought +to action on 31st May, 1916, to the westward +of the Jutland Bank, off the coast of +Denmark.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Grand +Fleet +sweeping +the sea.</div> + +<p>The ships of the Grand Fleet, in pursuance +of the general policy of periodical sweeps +through the North Sea, had left its bases on +the previous day, in accordance with instructions +issued by me.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +British +scouting +force.</div> + +<p>In the early afternoon of Wednesday, 31st +May, the 1st and 2nd Battle-cruiser Squadrons, +1st, 2nd, and 3rd Light-cruiser Squadrons, and +destroyers from the 1st, 9th, 10th, and 13th +Flotillas, supported by the 5th Battle Squadron, +were, in accordance with my directions, +scouting to the southward of the Battle Fleet, +which was accompanied by the 3rd Battle-cruiser +Squadron, 1st and 2nd Cruiser Squadrons, +4th Light-cruiser Squadron, 4th, 11th, and +12th Flotillas.</p> + +<p>The junction of the Battle Fleet with the +scouting force after the enemy had been sighted +was delayed owing to the southerly course +steered by our advanced force during the first +hour after commencing their action with the +enemy battle-cruisers. This was, of course, unavoidable, +as had our battle-cruisers not followed +the enemy to the southward the main +fleets would never have been in contact.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Vice +Admiral +Beatty +commands +battle +cruisers.</div> + +<p>The Battle-cruiser Fleet, gallantly led by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, K.C.B., +M.V.O., D.S.O., and admirably supported +by the ships of the Fifth Battle Squadron under +Rear-Admiral Hugh Evan-Thomas, M.V.O., +fought an action under, at times, disadvantageous +conditions, especially in regard to light, +in a manner that was in keeping with the best +traditions of the service.</p> + +<p>The following extracts from the report of Sir +David Beatty give the course of events before +the Battle Fleet came upon the scene:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +ships +sighted.</div> + +<p>"At 2.20 p.m. reports were received from +<i>Galatea</i> (Commodore Edwyn S. Alexander-Sinclair, +M.V.O., A.D.C.), indicating the presence +of enemy vessels. The direction of advance +was immediately altered to SSE., the +course for Horn Reef, so as to place my force +between the enemy and his base.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The German +force.</div> + +<p>"At 2.35 p.m. a considerable amount of smoke +was sighted to the eastward. This made it +clear that the enemy was to the northward and +eastward, and that it would be impossible for +him to round the Horn Reef without being +brought to action. Course was accordingly +altered to the eastward and subsequently to +north-eastward, the enemy being sighted at 3.31 +p.m. Their force consisted of five battle-cruisers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle begins +at +long +range.</div> + +<p>"After the first report of the enemy, the 1st +and 3rd Light-cruiser Squadrons changed their +direction, and, without waiting for orders, +spread to the east, thereby forming a screen +in advance of the Battle-cruiser Squadrons and +5th Battle Squadron by the time we had hauled +up to the course of approach. They engaged +enemy light-cruisers at long range. In the +meantime the 2nd Light-cruiser Squadron had +come in at high speed, and was able to take +station ahead of the battle-cruisers by the time +we turned to ESE., the course on which we +first engaged the enemy. In this respect the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +work of the Light-cruiser Squadrons was excellent, +and of great value.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Scout +reports +enemy +force considerable.</div> + +<p>"From a report from <i>Galatea</i> at 2.25 p.m. +it was evident that the enemy force was considerable, +and not merely an isolated unit of +light-cruisers, so at 2.45 p.m. I ordered <i>Engadine</i> +to send up a seaplane and scout to NNE. +This order was carried out very quickly, and +by 3.8 p.m. a seaplane was well under way; +her first reports of the enemy were received in +<i>Engadine</i> about 3.30 p.m. Owing to clouds it +was necessary to fly very low, and in order to +identify four enemy light-cruisers the seaplane +had to fly at a height of 900 feet within 3,000 +yards of them, the light-cruisers opening fire on +her with every gun that would bear.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Line of +battle +formed.</div> + +<p>"At 3.30 p.m. I increased speed to 25 knots, +and formed line of battle, the 2nd Battle-cruiser +Squadron forming astern of the 1st Battle-cruiser +Squadron, with destroyers of the 13th +and 9th Flotillas taking station ahead. I turned +to ESE., slightly converging on the enemy, who +were now at a range of 23,000 yards, and +formed the ships on a line of bearing to clear +the smoke. The 5th Battle Squadron, who had +conformed to our movements, were now bearing +NNW., 10,000 yards. The visibility at this time +was good, the sun behind us and the wind SE. +Being between the enemy and his base, our +situation was both tactically and strategically +good.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Running +fight to +southward.</div> + +<p>"At 3.48 p.m. the action commenced at a +range of 18,500 yards, both forces opening fire +practically simultaneously. Course was altered +to the southward, and subsequently the mean +direction was SSE., the enemy steering a parallel +course distant about 18,000 to 14,500 yards.</p> + +<p>"At 4.8 p.m. the 5th Battle Squadron came +into action and opened fire at a range of 20,000 +yards. The enemy's fire now seemed to slacken. +The destroyer <i>Landrail</i>, of 9th Flotilla, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +was on our port beam, trying to take station +ahead, sighted the periscope of a submarine on +her port quarter. Though causing considerable +inconvenience from smoke, the presence of <i>Lydiard</i> +and <i>Landrail</i> undoubtedly preserved the +battle-cruisers from closer submarine attack. +<i>Nottingham</i> also reported a submarine on the +starboard beam.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Destroyers +in +action.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +torpedo attack +frustrated.</div> + +<p>"Eight destroyers of the 13th Flotilla, <i>Nestor</i>, +<i>Nomad</i>, <i>Nicator</i>, <i>Narborough</i>, <i>Pelican</i>, <i>Petard</i>, +<i>Obdurate</i>, <i>Nerissa</i>, <ins title="Transcriber's Note: This word italicized in original">with</ins> <i>Moorsom</i> and <i>Morris</i>, +of 10th Flotilla, <i>Turbulent</i> and <i>Termagant</i>, of +the 9th Flotilla, having been ordered to attack +the enemy with torpedoes when opportunity +offered, moved out at 4.15 p.m., simultaneously +with a similar movement on the part of the +enemy Destroyers. The attack was carried out +in the most gallant manner, and with great +determination. Before arriving at a favorable +position to fire torpedoes, they intercepted an +enemy force consisting of a light-cruiser and +fifteen destroyers. A fierce engagement ensued +at close quarters, with the result that the +enemy were forced to retire on their battle-cruisers, +having lost two destroyers sunk, and +having their torpedo attack frustrated. Our +destroyers sustained no loss in this engagement, +but their attack on the enemy battle-cruisers +was rendered less effective, owing to some of +the destroyers having dropped astern during +the fight. Their position was therefore unfavorable +for torpedo attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Destroyers +attack +battleships.</div> + +<p>"<i>Nestor</i>, <i>Nomad</i>, and <i>Nicator</i> pressed home +their attack on the battle-cruisers and fired two +torpedoes at them, being subjected to a heavy +fire from the enemy's secondary armament. +<i>Nomad</i> was badly hit, and apparently remained +stopped between the lines. Subsequently <i>Nestor</i> +and <i>Nicator</i> altered course to the SE., and in +a short time, the opposing battle-cruisers having +turned 16 points, found themselves within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +close range of a number of enemy battleships. +Nothing daunted, though under a terrific fire, +they stood on, and their position being favorable +for torpedo attack fired a torpedo at +the second ship of the enemy line at a range +of 3,000 yards. Before they could fire their +fourth torpedo, <i>Nestor</i> was badly hit and swung +to starboard, <i>Nicator</i> altering course inside her +to avoid collision, and thereby being prevented +from firing the last torpedo. <i>Nicator</i> made +good her escape. <i>Nestor</i> remained stopped, but +was afloat when last seen. <i>Moorsom</i> also +carried out an attack on the enemy's battle +fleet.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Officers of +destroyers +commended +for +gallantry.</div> + +<p>"<i>Petard</i>, <i>Nerissa</i>, <i>Turbulent</i>, and <i>Termagant</i> +also pressed home their attack on the enemy +battle cruisers, firing torpedoes after the engagement +with enemy destroyers. <i>Petard</i> reports +that all her torpedoes must have crossed +the enemy's line, while <i>Nerissa</i> states that one +torpedo appeared to strike the rear ship. These +destroyer attacks were indicative of the spirit +pervading His Majesty's Navy, and were worthy +of its highest traditions. I propose to bring to +your notice a recommendation of Commander +Bingham and other Officers for some recognition +of their conspicuous gallantry.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Visibility +reduced.</div> + +<p>"From 4.15 to 4.43 p.m. the conflict between +the opposing battle-cruisers was of a very fierce +and resolute character. The 5th Battle Squadron +was engaging the enemy's rear ships, unfortunately +at very long range. Our fire began +to tell, the accuracy and rapidity of that of the +enemy depreciating considerably. At 4.18 p.m. +the third enemy ship was seen to be on fire. +The visibility to the north-eastward had become +considerably reduced, and the outline of the +ships very indistinct.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Closing +with the +enemy's +Battle +Fleet.</div> + +<p>"At 4.38 p.m. <i>Southampton</i> reported the +enemy's Battle Fleet ahead. The destroyers +were recalled, and at 4.42 p.m. the enemy's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +Battle Fleet was sighted SE. Course was altered +16 points in succession to starboard, and +I proceeded on a northerly course to lead them +towards the Battle Fleet. The enemy battle-cruisers +altered course shortly afterwards, and +the action continued. <i>Southampton</i>, with the +2nd Light-cruiser Squadron, held on to the +southward to observe. They closed to within +13,000 yards of the enemy Battle Fleet, and +came under a very heavy but ineffective fire. +<i>Southampton's</i> reports were most valuable. +The 5th Battle Squadron were now closing on +an opposite course and engaging the enemy +battle-cruisers with all guns. The position of +the enemy Battle Fleet was communicated to +them, and I ordered them to alter course 16 +points. Led by Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas, in +<i>Barham</i>, this squadron supported us brilliantly +and effectively.</p> + +<p>"At 4.57 p.m. the 5th Battle Squadron turned +up astern of me and came under the fire of the +leading ships of the enemy Battle Fleet. <i>Fearless</i>, +with the destroyers of 1st Flotilla, joined +the battle-cruisers, and, when speed admitted, +took station ahead. <i>Champion</i>, with 13th Flotilla, +took station on the 5th Battle Squadron. +At 5 p.m. the 1st and 3rd Light-cruiser Squadrons, +which had been following me on the +southerly course, took station on my starboard +bow; the 2nd Light-cruiser Squadron took station +on my port quarter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Weather +conditions +unfavorable.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Following +a northerly +course.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">An enemy +ship on +fire.</div> + +<p>"The weather conditions now became unfavorable, +our ships being silhouetted against +a clear horizon to the westward, while the +enemy were for the most part obscured by mist, +only showing up clearly at intervals. These +conditions prevailed until we had turned their +van at about 6 p.m. Between 5 and 6 p.m. the +action continued on a northerly course, the +range being about 14,000 yards. During this +time the enemy received very severe punishment,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +and one of their battle-cruisers quitted +the line in a considerably damaged condition. +This came under my personal observation, and +was corroborated by <i>Princess Royal</i> and <i>Tiger</i>. +Other enemy ships also showed signs of increasing +injury. At 5.5 p.m. <i>Onslow</i> and +<i>Moresby</i>, who had been detached to assist <i>Engadine</i> +with the seaplane, rejoined the battle-cruiser +squadrons and took station on the starboard +(engaged) bow of <i>Lion</i>. At 5.10 p.m. +<i>Moresby</i>, being 2 points before the beam of the +leading enemy ship, fired a torpedo at a ship +in their line. Eight minutes later she observed +a hit with a torpedo on what was judged to be +the sixth ship in the line. <i>Moresby</i> then passed +between the lines to clear the range of smoke, +and rejoined <i>Champion</i>. In corroboration of +this, <i>Fearless</i> reports having seen an enemy +heavy ship heavily on fire at about 5.10 p.m., +and shortly afterwards a huge cloud of smoke +and steam.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Range of +14,000 +yards.</div> + +<p>"At 5.35 p.m. our course was NNE., and the +estimated position of the Battle Fleet was N. +16 W., so we gradually hauled to the north-eastward, +keeping the range of the enemy at 14,000 +yards. He was gradually hauling to the eastward, +receiving severe punishment at the head +of his line, and probably acting on information +received from his light-cruisers which had +sighted and were engaged with the Third +Battle-cruiser Squadron. Possibly Zeppelins +were present also.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +Battle +Fleet +sighted.</div> + +<p>"At 5.50 p.m. British cruisers were sighted +on the port bow, and at 5.56 p.m. the leading +battleships of the Battle Fleet, bearing north +5 miles. I thereupon altered course to east, +and proceeded at utmost speed. This brought +the range of the enemy down to 12,000 yards. I +made a report to you that the enemy battle-cruisers +bore south-east. At this time only +three of the enemy battle-cruisers were visible,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +closely followed by battleships of the <i>Koenig</i> +class.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Torpedo +attack on +enemy +Battle +Fleet.</div> + +<p>"At about 6.5 p.m. <i>Onslow</i>, being on the engaged +bow of <i>Lion</i>, sighted an enemy light-cruiser +at a distance of 6,000 yards from us, +apparently endeavoring to attack with torpedoes. +<i>Onslow</i> at once closed and engaged her, +firing 58 rounds at a range of from 4,000 to +2,000 yards, scoring a number of hits. <i>Onslow</i> +then closed the enemy battle-cruisers, and orders +were given for all torpedoes to be fired. +At this moment she was struck amidships by +a heavy shell, with the result that only one torpedo +was fired. Thinking that all his torpedoes +had gone, the Commanding Officer proceeded to +retire at slow speed. Being informed that he +still had three torpedoes, he closed with the +light-cruiser previously engaged and torpedoed +her. The enemy's Battle Fleet was then sighted, +and the remaining torpedoes were fired at them +and must have crossed the enemy's track. Damage +then caused <i>Onslow</i> to stop.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"At 7.15 p.m. <i>Defender</i>, whose speed had been +reduced to 10 knots, while on the disengaged +side of the battle-cruisers, by a shell which +damaged her foremost boiler, closed <i>Onslow</i> +and took her in tow. Shells were falling all +round them during this operation, which, however, +was successfully accomplished. During +the heavy weather of the ensuing night the tow +parted twice, but was re-secured. The two +struggled on together until 1 p.m., 1st June, +when <i>Onslow</i> was transferred to tugs."</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Course of +the British +Battle +Fleet.</div> + +<p>On receipt of the information that the enemy +had been sighted, the British Battle Fleet, with +its accompanying cruiser and destroyer force, +proceeded at full speed on a SE. by S. course +to close the Battle-cruiser Fleet. During the +two hours that elapsed before the arrival of +the Battle Fleet on the scene the steaming +qualities of the older battleships were severely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +tested. Great credit is due to the engine-room +departments for the manner in which they, as +always, responded to the call, the whole Fleet +maintaining a speed in excess of the trial speeds +of some of the older vessels.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Third +Battle-cruiser +Squadron.</div> + +<p>The Third Battle-cruiser Squadron, commanded +by Rear-Admiral the Hon. Horace +L.A. Hood, C.B., M.V.O., D.S.O., which was +in advance of the Battle Fleet, was ordered to +reinforce Sir David Beatty. At 5.30 p.m. this +squadron observed flashes of gunfire and heard +the sound of guns to the south-westward. Rear-Admiral +Hood sent the <i>Chester</i> to investigate, +and this ship engaged three or four enemy +light-cruisers at about 5.45 p.m. The engagement +lasted for about twenty minutes, during +which period Captain Lawson handled his vessel +with great skill against heavy odds, and, +although the ship suffered considerably in +casualties, her fighting and steaming qualities +were unimpaired, and at about 6.5 p.m. she rejoined +the Third Battle-cruiser Squadron.</p> + +<p>The Third Battle-cruiser Squadron had turned +to the north-westward, and at 6.10 p.m. sighted +our battle-cruisers, the squadron taking station +ahead of the <i>Lion</i> at 6.21 p.m. in accordance +with the orders of the Vice-Admiral Commanding +Battle-cruiser Fleet. He reports as follows:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hood's +squadron +takes +station +ahead.</div> + +<p>"I ordered them to take station ahead, which +was carried out magnificently, Rear-Admiral +Hood bringing his squadron into action ahead +in a most inspiring manner, worthy of his great +naval ancestors. At 6.25 p.m. I altered course +to the ESE. in support of the Third Battle-cruiser +Squadron, who were at this time only +8,000 yards from the enemy's leading ship. +They were pouring a hot fire into her and +caused her to turn to the westward of south. +At the same time I made a report to you of the +bearing and distance of the enemy battle-fleet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Low +visibility +hinders +both +fleets.</div> + +<p>"By 6.50 p.m. the battle-cruisers were clear +of our leading battle squadron then bearing +about NNW. 3 miles, and I ordered the Third +Battle-cruiser Squadron to prolong the line +astern and reduced to 18 knots. The visibility +at this time was very indifferent, not more than +4 miles, and the enemy ships were temporarily +lost sight of. It is interesting to note that +after 6 p.m., although the visibility became reduced, +it was undoubtedly more favorable to +us than to the enemy. At intervals their ships +showed up clearly, enabling us to punish them +very severely and establish a definite superiority +over them. From the report of other ships +and my own observation it was clear that the +enemy suffered considerable damage, battle-cruisers +and battleships alike. The head of +their line was crumpled up, leaving battleships +as targets for the majority of our battle-cruisers. +Before leaving us the Fifth Battle +Squadron was also engaging battleships. The +report of Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas shows +that excellent results were obtained, and it +can be safely said that his magnificent <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'squaddron'">squadron</ins> +wrought great execution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Light +cruisers +attack +heavy +enemy +ships.</div> + +<p>"From the report of Rear-Admiral T. D. W. +Napier, M.V.O., the Third Light-cruiser Squadron, +which had maintained its station on our +starboard bow well ahead of the enemy, at 6.25 +p.m. attacked with the torpedo. <i>Falmouth</i> and +<i>Yarmouth</i> both fired torpedoes at the leading +enemy battle-cruiser, and it is believed that one +torpedo hit, as a heavy underwater explosion +was observed. The Third Light-cruiser Squadron +then gallantly attacked the heavy ships +with gunfire, with impunity to themselves, +thereby demonstrating that the fighting efficiency +of the enemy had been seriously impaired. +Rear-Admiral Napier deserves great +credit for his determined and effective attack. +<i>Indomitable</i> reports that about this time one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +the <i>Derfflinger</i> class fell out of the enemy's +line."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ships +hard +to distinguish +in the +mist.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile, at 5.45 p.m., the report of guns +had become audible to me, and at 5.55 p.m. +flashes were visible from ahead round to the +starboard beam, although in the mist no ships +could be distinguished, and the position of the +enemy's battle fleet could not be determined. +The difference in estimated position by "reckoning" +between <i>Iron Duke</i> and <i>Lion</i>, which was +inevitable under the circumstances, added to +the uncertainty of the general situation.</p> + +<p>Shortly after 5.55 p.m. some of the cruisers +ahead, under Rear-Admirals Herbert L. Heath, +M.V.O., and Sir Robert Arbuthnot, Bt., M.V.O., +were seen to be in action, and reports received +show that <i>Defence</i>, flagship, and <i>Warrior</i>, of +the First Cruiser Squadron, engaged an enemy +light-cruiser at this time. She was subsequently +observed to sink.</p> + +<p>At 6 p.m. <i>Canterbury</i>, which ship was in company +with the Third Battle-cruiser Squadron, +had engaged enemy light-cruisers which were +firing heavily on the torpedo-boat destroyer +<i>Shark</i>, <i>Acasta</i>, and <i>Christopher</i>; as a result of +this engagement the <i>Shark</i> was sunk.</p> + +<p>At 6 p.m. vessels, afterwards seen to be our +battle-cruisers, were sighted by <i>Marlborough</i> +bearing before the starboard beam of the battle +fleet.</p> + +<p>At the same time the Vice-Admiral Commanding, +Battle-cruiser Fleet, reported to me +the position of the enemy battle-cruisers, and +at 6.14 p.m. reported the position of the enemy +battle fleet.</p> + +<p>At this period, when the battle fleet was meeting +the battle-cruisers and the Fifth Battle +Squadron, great care was necessary to ensure +that our own ships were not mistaken for +enemy vessels.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle Fleet in line of battle.</div> + +<p>I formed the battle fleet in line of battle on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +receipt of Sir David Beatty's report, and +during deployment the fleets became engaged. +Sir David Beatty had meanwhile formed the +battle-cruisers ahead of the battle-fleet.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Commanders of the divisions of the Battle Fleet.</div> + +<p>The divisions of the battle fleet were led by:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Commanders of the divisions"> +<tr><td align='left'>The Commander-in-Chief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vice-Admiral Sir Cecil Burney, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas Jerram, K.C.B.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vice-Admiral Sir Doveton Sturdee, Bt., K.C.B., C.V.O., C.M.G.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rear-Admiral Alexander L. Duff, C.B.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rear-Admiral Arthur C. Leveson, C.B.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rear-Admiral Ernest F. A. Gaunt, C.M.G.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>At 6.16 p.m. <i>Defence</i> and <i>Warrior</i> were observed +passing down between the British and +German Battle Fleets under a very heavy fire. +<i>Defence</i> disappeared, and <i>Warrior</i> passed to +rear disabled.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arbuthnot's ships disabled.</div> + +<p>It is probable that Sir Robert Arbuthnot, +during his engagement with the enemy's light-cruisers +and in his desire to complete their +destruction, was not aware of the approach of +the enemy's heavy ships, owing to the mist, +until he found himself in close proximity to the +main fleet, and before he could withdraw his +ships they were caught under a heavy fire and +disabled. It is not known when <i>Black Prince</i> +of the same squadron, was sunk, but a wireless +signal was received from her between 8 and +9 p.m.</p> + +<p>The First Battle Squadron became engaged +during deployment, the Vice-Admiral opening +fire at 6.17 p.m. on a battleship of the <i>Kaiser</i> +class. The other Battle Squadrons, which had +previously been firing at an enemy light cruiser, +opened fire at 6.30 p.m. on battleships of +the <i>Koenig</i> class.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Accident to the <i>Warspite</i>.</div> + +<p>At 6.6 p.m. the Rear-Admiral Commanding +Fifth Battle Squadron, then in company with +the battle-cruisers, had sighted the starboard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +wing-division of the battle-fleet on the port bow +of <i>Barham</i>, and the first intention of Rear-Admiral +Evan-Thomas was to form ahead of +the remainder of the battle-fleet, but on realizing +the direction of deployment he was compelled +to form astern, a manœuvre which was +well executed by the squadron under a heavy +fire from the enemy battle-fleet. An accident +to <i>Warspite's</i> steering gear caused her helm to +become jammed temporarily and took the ship +in the direction of the enemy's line, during +which time she was hit several times. Clever +handling enabled Captain Edward M. Phillpotts +to extricate his ship from a somewhat +awkward situation.</p> + +<p>Owing principally to the mist, but partly to +the smoke, it was possible to see only a few +ships at a time in the enemy's battle line. +Towards the van only some four or five ships +were ever visible at once. More could be seen +from the rear squadron, but never more than +eight to twelve.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Action at shorter ranges.</div> + +<p>The action between the battle-fleets lasted +intermittently from 6.17 p.m. to 8.20 p.m. at +ranges between 9,000 and 12,000 yards, during +which time the British Fleet made alterations +of course from SE. by E. by W. in the endeavour +to close. The enemy constantly turned +away and opened the range under cover of destroyer +attacks and smoke screens as the effect +of the British fire was felt, and the alterations +of course had the effect of bringing the British +Fleet (which commenced the action in a position +of advantage on the bow of the enemy) to +a quarterly bearing from the enemy battle line, +but at the same time placed us between the +enemy and his bases.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Wreck of the <i>Invincible</i>.</div> + +<p>At 6.55 p.m. <i>Iron Duke</i> passed the wreck of +<i>Invincible</i>, with Badger standing by.</p> + +<p>During the somewhat brief periods that the +ships of the High Sea Fleet were visible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +through the mist, the heavy and effective fire +kept up by the battleships and battle-cruisers +of the Grand Fleet caused me much satisfaction, +and the enemy vessels were seen to be +constantly hit, some being observed to haul out +of the line and at least one to sink. The +enemy's return fire at this period was not +effective, and the damage caused to our ships +was insignificant.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Course of the Battle Fleet.</div> + +<p>Regarding the battle-cruisers, Sir David +Beatty reports:—</p> + +<p>"At 7.6 p.m. I received a signal from you that +the course of the Fleet was south. Subsequently +signals were received up to 8.46 p.m. showing +that the course of the Battle Fleet was to +the southwestward.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Visibility improves.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy destroyers make smoke screen.</div> + +<p>"Between 7 and 7.12 p.m. we hauled round +gradually to SW. by S. to regain touch with the +enemy, and at 7.14 p.m. again sighted them +at a range of about 15,000 yards. The ships +sighted at this time were two battle-cruisers +and two battleships, apparently of the <i>Koenig</i> +class. No doubt more continued the line to +the northward, but that was all that could be +seen. The visibility having improved considerably +as the sun descended below the clouds, we +re-engaged at 7.17 p.m. and increased speed to +22 knots. At 7.32 p.m. my course was SW., +speed 18 knots, the leading enemy battleship +bearing NW. by W. Again, after a very short +time, the enemy showed signs of punishment, +one ship being on fire, while another appeared +to drop right astern. The destroyers at the +head of the enemy's line emitted volumes of +grey smoke, covering their capital ships +as with a pall, under cover of which they +turned away, and at 7.45 p.m. we lost sight of +them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy steams to westward.</div> + +<p>"At 7.58 p.m. I ordered the First and Third +Light-cruiser Squadrons to sweep to the westward +and locate the head of the enemy's line,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +and at 8.20 p.m. we altered course to west in +support. We soon located two battle-cruisers +and battleships, and were heavily engaged at a +short range of about 10,000 yards. The leading +ship was hit repeatedly by <i>Lion</i>, and turned +away eight points, emitting very high flames +and with a heavy list to port. <i>Princess Royal</i> +set fire to a three-funnelled battleship. <i>New +Zealand</i> and <i>Indomitable</i> report that the third +ship, which they both engaged, hauled out of +the line, heeling over and on fire. The mist +which now came down enveloped them, and +<i>Falmouth</i> reported they were last seen at 8.38 +p.m. steaming to the westward.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Shock felt.</div> + +<p>"At 8.40 p.m. all our battle-cruisers felt a +heavy shock as if struck by a mine or torpedo, +or possibly sunken wreckage. As however, +examination of the bottoms reveals no sign of +such an occurrence, it is assumed that it indicated +the blowing up of a great vessel.</p> + +<p>"I continued on a south-westerly course with +my light cruisers spread until 9.24 p.m. Nothing +further being sighted, I assumed that the +enemy were to the north-westward, and that we +had established ourselves well between him and +his base. <i>Minotaur</i> (Captain Arthur C. S. H. +D'Aeth) was at this time bearing north 5 +miles, and I asked her the position of the leading +battle squadron of the Battle Fleet. Her +reply was that it was in sight, but was last +seen bearing NNE. I kept you informed of +my position, course, and speed, also of the bearing +of the enemy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Expectation of locating enemy at daybreak.</div> + +<p>"In view of the gathering darkness, and the +fact that our strategical position was such as +to make it appear certain that we should locate +the enemy at daylight under most favorable +circumstances, I did not consider it desirable +or proper to close the enemy Battle Fleet during +the dark hours. I therefore concluded +that I should be carrying out your wishes by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +turning to the course of the Fleet, reporting to +you that I had done so."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German torpedo attacks ineffective.</div> + +<p>As was anticipated, the German Fleet appeared +to rely very much on torpedo attacks, +which were favored by the low visibility and +by the fact that we had arrived in the position +of a "following" or "chasing" fleet. A large +number of torpedoes were apparently fired, but +only one took effect (on <i>Marlborough</i>), and +even in this case the ship was able to remain +in the line and to continue the action. The +enemy's efforts to keep out of effective gun +range were aided by the weather conditions, +which were ideal for the purpose. Two separate +destroyer attacks were made by the +enemy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Marlborough</i> hit by a torpedo.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hits on enemy ships.</div> + +<p>The First Battle Squadron, under Vice-Admiral +Sir Cecil Burney, came into action at +6.17 p.m. with the enemy's Third Battle Squadron, +at a range of about 11,000 yards, and administered +severe punishment, both to the battleships +and to the battle-cruisers and light-cruisers, +which were also engaged. The fire of +<i>Marlborough</i> was particularly rapid and effective. +This ship commenced at 6.17 p.m. by +firing seven salvoes at a ship of the <i>Kaiser</i> +class, then engaged a cruiser, and again a battleship, +and at 6.54 she was hit by a torpedo +and took up a considerable list to starboard, +but we opened at 7.3 p.m. at a cruiser and at +7.12 p.m. fired fourteen rapid salvoes at a ship +of the <i>Koenig</i> class, hitting her frequently until +she turned out of the line. The manner in +which this effective fire was kept up in spite of +the disadvantages due to the injury caused by +the torpedo was most creditable to the ship +and a very fine example to the squadron.</p> + +<p>The range decreased during the course of the +action to 9,000 yards. The First Battle Squadron +received more of the enemy's return fire +than the remainder of the battle-fleet, with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +exception of the Fifth Battle Squadron. <i>Colossus</i> +was hit, but was not seriously damaged, +and other ships were straddled with fair frequency.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Range-taking difficult.</div> + +<p>In the Fourth Battle Squadron—in which +squadron my flagship <i>Iron Duke</i> was placed—Vice-Admiral +Sir Doveton Sturdee leading one +of the divisions—the enemy engaged was the +squadron consisting of the <i>Koenig</i> and <i>Kaiser</i> +class and some of the battle-cruisers, as well +as disabled cruisers and light-cruisers. The +mist rendered range-taking a difficult matter, +but the fire of the squadron was effective. <i>Iron +Duke</i>, having previously fired at a light-cruiser +between the lines, opened fire at 6.30 p.m. on a +battleship of the <i>Koenig</i> class at a range of 12,000 +yards. The latter was very quickly straddled, +and hitting commenced at the second +salvo and only ceased when the target ship +turned away.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Firing at enemy battle cruisers.</div> + +<p>The fire of other ships of the squadron was +principally directed at enemy battle-cruisers +and cruisers as they appeared out of the mist. +Hits were observed to take effect on several +ships.</p> + +<p>The ships of the Second Battle Squadron, +under Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas Jerram, were +in action with vessels of the <i>Kaiser</i> or <i>Koenig</i> +classes between 6.30 and 7.20 p.m., and fired +also at an enemy battle-cruiser which had +dropped back apparently severely damaged.</p> + +<p>During the action between the battle fleets +the Second Cruiser Squadron, ably commanded +by Rear-Admiral Herbert L. Heath, M.V.O., +with the addition of <i>Duke of Edinburgh</i> of the +First Cruiser Squadron, occupied a position at +the van, and acted as a connecting link between +the battle fleet and the battle-cruiser +fleet. This squadron, although it carried out +useful work, did not have an opportunity of +coming into action.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> + +<p>The attached cruisers <i>Boadicea</i>, <i>Active</i>, +<i>Blanche</i> and <i>Bellona</i> carried out their duties +as repeating-ships with remarkable rapidity +and accuracy under difficult conditions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Light cruisers attack with torpedoes.</div> + +<p>The Fourth Light-cruiser Squadron, under +Commodore Charles E. Le Mesurier, occupied +a position in the van until ordered to attack +enemy destroyers at 7.20 p.m., and again at +8.18 p.m., when they supported the Eleventh +Flotilla, which had moved out under Commodore +James R. P. Hawksley, M.V.O., to attack. +On each occasion the Fourth Light-cruiser +Squadron was very well handled by Commodore +Le Mesurier, his captains giving him excellent +support, and their object was attained, +although with some loss in the second attack, +when the ships came under the heavy fire of the +enemy battle fleet at between 6,500 and 8,000 +yards. The <i>Calliope</i> was hit several times, but +did not sustain serious damage, although I regret +to say she had several casualties. The +light-cruisers attacked the enemy's battleships +with torpedoes at this time, and an explosion +on board a ship of the <i>Kaiser</i> class was seen +at 8.40 p.m.</p> + +<p>During these destroyer attacks four enemy +torpedo-boat destroyers were sunk by the gunfire +of battleships, light-cruisers, and destroyers.</p> + +<p>After the arrival of the British Battle Fleet +the enemy's tactics were of a nature generally +to avoid further action, in which they were favored +by the conditions of visibility.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy entirely out of sight.</div> + +<p>At 9 p.m. the enemy was entirely out of sight, +and the threat of torpedo-boat-destroyer attacks +during the rapidly approaching darkness +made it necessary for me to dispose the fleet +for the night, with a view to its safety from +such attacks, whilst providing for a renewal +of action at daylight. I accordingly manœuvred +to remain between the enemy and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +bases, placing our flotillas in a position in +which they would afford protection to the fleet +from destroyer attack, and at the same time be +favorably situated for attacking the enemy's +heavy ships.</p> + +<p>During the night the British heavy ships +were not attacked, but the Fourth, Eleventh, +and Twelfth Flotillas, under Commodore +Hawksley and Captains Charles J. Wintour +and Anselan J. B. Stirling, delivered a series +of very gallant and successful attacks on the +enemy, causing him heavy losses.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Severe losses in the Fourth Flotilla.</div> + +<p>It was during these attacks that severe losses +in the Fourth Flotilla occurred, including that +of <i>Tipperary</i>, with the gallant leader of the +Flotilla, Captain Wintour. He had brought +his flotilla to a high pitch of perfection, and although +suffering severely from the fire of the +enemy, a heavy toll of enemy vessels was taken, +and many gallant actions were performed by +the flotilla.</p> + +<p>Two torpedoes were seen to take effect on +enemy vessels as the result of the attacks of +the Fourth Flotilla, one being from <i>Spitfire</i>, +and the other from either <i>Ardent</i>, <i>Ambuscade</i>, +or <i>Garland</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">An enemy ship torpedoed.</div> + +<p>The attack carried out by the Twelfth Flotilla +was admirably executed. The squadron +attacked, which consisted of six large vessels, +besides light-cruisers, and comprised vessels of +the <i>Kaiser</i> class, was taken by surprise. A large +number of torpedoes was fired, including some +at the second and third ships in the line; those +fired at the third ship took effect, and she was +observed to blow up. A second attack, made +twenty minutes later by <i>Mænad</i> on the five +vessels still remaining, resulted in the fourth +ship in the line being also hit.</p> + +<p>The destroyers were under a heavy fire from +the light-cruisers on reaching the rear of the +line, but the <i>Onslaught</i> was the only vessel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +which received any material injuries. In the +<i>Onslaught</i> Sub-Lieutenant Harry W. A. Kemmis, +assisted by Midshipman Reginald G. +Arnot, R.N.R., the only executive officers not +disabled, brought the ship successfully out of +action and reached her home port.</p> + +<p>During the attack carried out by the +Eleventh Flotilla, <i>Castor</i> leading the flotilla, +engaged and sank an enemy torpedo-boat-destroyer +at point-blank range.</p> + +<p>Sir David Beatty reports:—</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Engaging enemy destroyers.</div> + +<p>"The Thirteenth Flotilla, under the command +of Captain James U. Farie, in <i>Champion</i>, +took station astern of the battle fleet for the +night. At 0.30 a.m. on Thursday, 1st June, a +large vessel crossed the rear of the flotilla at +high speed. She passed close to <i>Petard</i> and +<i>Turbulent</i>, switched on searchlights and +opened a heavy fire, which disabled <i>Turbulent</i>. +At 3.30 a.m. <i>Champion</i> was engaged for a few +minutes with four enemy destroyers. <i>Moresby</i> +reports four ships of <i>Deutschland</i> class sighted +at 2.35 a.m., at whom she fired one torpedo. +Two minutes later an explosion was felt by +<i>Moresby</i> and <i>Obdurate</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battleship +of the <i>Kaiser</i> class alone.</div> + +<p>"<i>Fearless</i> and the 1st Flotilla were very usefully +employed as a submarine screen during +the earlier part of the 31st May. At 6.10 p.m., +when joining the Battle Fleet, <i>Fearless</i> was unable +to follow the battle cruisers without fouling +the battleships, and therefore took station +at the rear of the line. She sighted during the +night a battleship of the <i>Kaiser</i> class steaming +fast and entirely alone. She was not able to +engage her, but believes she was attacked by +destroyers further astern. A heavy explosion +was observed astern not long after."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Deeds of the destroyers.</div> + +<p>There were many gallant deeds performed +by the destroyer flotillas; they surpassed the +very highest expectations that I had formed of +them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> + +<p>Apart from the proceedings of the flotillas, +the Second Light-cruiser Squadron in the rear +of the battle fleet was in close action for about +15 minutes at 10.20 p.m. with a squadron comprising +one enemy cruiser and four light-cruisers, +during which period <i>Southampton</i> +and <i>Dublin</i> suffered rather heavy casualties, +although their steaming and fighting qualities +were not impaired. The return fire of the +squadron appeared to be very effective.</p> + +<p><i>Abdiel</i>, ably commanded by Commander Berwick +Curtis, carried out her duties with the +success which has always characterized her +work.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Battle Fleet searches for enemy vessels.</div> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Marlborough</i> sent to a base.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The enemy had returned into port.</div> + +<p>At daylight, 1st June, the battle fleet, being +then to the southward and westward of the +Horn Reef, turned to the northward in search +of enemy vessels and for the purpose of collecting +our own cruisers and torpedo-boat destroyers. +At 2.30 a.m. Vice-Admiral Sir Cecil +Burney transferred his flag from <i>Marlborough</i> +to <i>Revenge</i>, as the former ship had some difficulty +in keeping up the speed of the squadron. +<i>Marlborough</i> was detached by my direction to +a base, successfully driving off an enemy submarine +attack en route. The visibility early +on 1st June (three to four miles) was less +than on 31st May, and the torpedo-boat destroyers, +being out of visual touch, did not rejoin +until 9 a.m. The British Fleet remained +in the proximity of the battle-field and near +the line of approach to German ports until 11 +a.m. on 1st June, in spite of the disadvantage +of long distances from fleet bases and the danger +incurred in waters adjacent to enemy +coasts from submarines and torpedo craft. +The enemy, however, made no sign, and I was +reluctantly compelled to the conclusion that +the High Sea Fleet had returned into port. +Subsequent events proved this assumption to +have been correct. Our position must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +been known to the enemy, as at 4 a.m. the Fleet +engaged a Zeppelin for about five minutes, +during which time she had ample opportunity +to note and subsequently report the position +and course of the British Fleet.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Large amount of wreckage.</div> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Warrior</i> evidently foundered.</div> + +<p>The waters from the latitude of the Horn +Reef to the scene of the action were thoroughly +searched, and some survivors from the destroyers +<i>Ardent</i>, <i>Fortune</i>, and <i>Tipperary</i> were +picked up, and the <i>Sparrowhawk</i>, which had +been in collision and was no longer seaworthy, +was sunk after her crew had been taken off. +A large amount of wreckage was seen, but no +enemy ships, and at 1.15 p.m., it being evident +that the German Fleet had succeeded in returning +to port, course was shaped for our +bases, which were reached without further incident +on Friday, 2nd June. A cruiser squadron +was detached to search for <i>Warrior</i>, which vessel +had been abandoned whilst in tow of +<i>Engadine</i> on her way to the base owing to bad +weather setting in and the vessel becoming unseaworthy, +but no trace of her was discovered, +and a further subsequent search by a light-cruiser +squadron having failed to locate her, +it is evident that she foundered.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Low visibility hinders accurate report of damage.</div> + +<p>The conditions of low visibility under which +the day action took place and the approach of +darkness enhance the difficulty of giving an +accurate report of the damage inflicted or the +names of the ships sunk by our forces, but +after a most careful examination of the evidence +of all officers, who testified to seeing +enemy vessels actually sink, and personal interviews +with a large number of these officers, +I am of opinion that the list shown in the enclosure +gives the minimum in regard to numbers, +though it is possibly not entirely accurate +as regards the particular class of vessel, especially +those which were sunk during the night +attacks. In addition to the vessels sunk, it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +unquestionable that many other ships were +very seriously damaged by gunfire and by torpedo +attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British ships lost in the battle.</div> + +<p>I deeply regret to report the loss of H.M. +ships:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="H. M. Ships lost"> +<tr><td align='left'>1. <i>Queen Mary</i>, Battle-cruiser, 27,000 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. <i>Indefatigable</i>, Battle-cruiser, 18,750 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. <i>Invincible</i>, Battle-cruiser, 17,250 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. <i>Defence</i>, Armored cruiser, 14,600 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. <i>Black Prince</i>, Armored cruiser, 13,550 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. <i>Warrior</i>, Armored cruiser, 13,550 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. <i>Tipperary</i>, Destroyer, 1,430 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. <i>Ardent</i>, Destroyer, 935 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. <i>Fortune</i>, Destroyer, 935 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. <i>Shark</i>, Destroyer, 935 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11. <i>Sparrowhawk</i>, Destroyer, 935 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12. <i>Nestor</i>, Destroyer, 1,000 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13. <i>Nomad</i>, Destroyer, 1,000 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14. <i>Turbulent</i>, Destroyer, 1,430 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Total, 113,300 tons;</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Distinguished officers who went down.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Gallantry of officers and men.</div> + +<div class='unindent'>and still more do I regret the resultant heavy +loss of life. The death of such gallant and +distinguished officers as Rear-Admiral Sir Robert +Arbuthnot, Bart., Rear-Admiral the Hon. +Horace Hood, Captain Charles F. Sowerby, +Captain Cecil I. Prowse, Captain Arthur L. +Cay, Captain Thomas P. Bonham, Captain +Charles J. Wintour, and Captain Stanley V. +Ellis, and those who perished with them, is a +serious loss to the navy and to the country. +They led officers and men who were equally +gallant, and whose death is mourned by their +comrades in the Grand Fleet. They fell doing +their duty nobly, a death which they would +have been the first to desire.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fighting qualities of the enemy.</div> + +<p>The enemy fought with the gallantry that +was expected of him. We particularly admired +the conduct of those on board a disabled +German light-cruiser which passed down the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +British line shortly after deployment, under a +heavy fire, which was returned by the only gun +left in action.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Heroism of the wounded.</div> + +<p>The conduct of officers and men throughout +the day and night actions was entirely beyond +praise. No words of mine could do them justice. +On all sides it is reported to me that the +glorious traditions of the past were most +worthily upheld—whether in heavy ships, +cruisers, light-cruisers, or destroyers—the +same admirable spirit prevailed. Officers and +men were cool and determined, with a cheeriness +that would have carried them through anything. +The heroism of the wounded was the +admiration of all.</p> + +<p>I cannot adequately express the pride with +which the spirit of the Fleet filled me.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Work of the engine room department.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">No failures in material.</div> + +<p>Details of the work of the various ships during +action have now been given. It must never +be forgotten, however, that the prelude to action +is the work of the engine-room department, +and that during action the officers and men of +that department perform their most important +duties without the incentive which a knowledge +of the course of the action gives to those on +deck. The qualities of discipline and endurance +are taxed to the utmost under these conditions, +and they were, as always, most fully +maintained throughout the operations under +review. Several ships attained speeds that had +never before been reached, thus showing very +clearly their high state of steaming efficiency. +Failures in material were conspicuous by their +absence, and several instances are reported of +magnificent work on the part of the engine-room +departments of injured ships.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Valuable work of artisans.</div> + +<p>The artisan ratings also carried out much +valuable work during and after the action; +they could not have done better.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Success of the medical officers.</div> + +<p>The work of the medical officers of the Fleet, +carried out very largely under the most difficult<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +conditions, was entirely admirable and invaluable. +Lacking in many cases all the essentials +for performing critical operations, and +with their staff seriously depleted by casualties, +they worked untiringly and with the greatest +success. To them we owe a deep debt of +gratitude.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ships that sustained hardest fighting.</div> + +<p>It will be seen that the hardest fighting fell +to the lot of the Battle-cruiser Fleet (the units +of which were less heavily armored than their +opponents), the Fifth Battle Squadron, the +First Cruiser Squadron, Fourth Light-cruiser +Squadron, and the Flotillas. This was inevitable +under the conditions and the squadrons +and Flotillas mentioned, as well as the individual +vessels composing them, were handled +with conspicuous ability, as were also the 1st, +2nd, and 4th Squadrons of the Battle Fleet and +the 2nd Cruiser Squadron.</p> + +<p>I desire to place on record my high appreciation +of the manner in which all the vessels +were handled. The conditions were such as +to call for great skill and ability, quick judgment +and decisions, and this was conspicuous +throughout the day.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The campaigns carried on by Italy against +Austria were, as had been noted in a former +chapter, among the most difficult of the war. +The Italian troops fighting with the greatest +gallantry in a mountainous and, in places, an +impassable country, continued to capture Austrian +fortified places, along the entire Isonzo +front. One of the most daring and most brilliant +of their exploits is told in the following +pages.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> +<h2>TAKING THE COL DI LANA</h2> + +<h3>LEWIS R. FREEMAN</h3> + + + + +<div class="sidenote">A hot +wind from +the Mediterranean.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Thaw +and avalanches +in the Alps.</div> + +<p>Once or twice in every winter a thick, +sticky, hot wind from somewhere on the +other side of the Mediterranean breathes +upon the snow and ice-locked Alpine valleys +the breath of a false springtime. The Swiss +guides, if I remember correctly, call it by a +name which is pronounced as we do the word +<i>fun</i>; but the incidence of such a wind means +to them anything but what that signifies in +English. To them—to all in the Alps, indeed—a +spell of <i>fun</i> weather means thaw, and thaw +means avalanches; avalanches, too, at a time +of the year when there is so much snow that the +slides are under constant temptation to abandon +their beaten tracks and gouge out new and +unexpected channels for themselves. It is only +the first-time visitor to the Alps who bridles +under the Judas kiss of the wind called <i>fun</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A hot +wind in +January.</div> + +<p>It was on an early January day of one of +these treacherous hot winds that I was motored +up from the plain of Venezia to a certain sector +of the Italian Alpine front, a sector almost +as important strategically as it is beautiful +scenically. What twelve hours previously had +been a flint-hard, ice-paved road had dissolved +to a river of soft slush, and one could sense +rather than see the ominous premonitory +twitchings in the lowering snow-banks as the +lapping of the hot moist air relaxed the brake +of the frost which had held them on the precipitous +mountain sides. Every stretch where +the road curved to the embrace of cliff or shelving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +valley wall was a possible ambush, and we +slipped by them with muffled engine and hushed +voices.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Skirting +a lake.</div> + +<p>Toward the middle of the short winter afternoon +the gorge we had been following opened +out into a narrow valley, and straight over +across the little lake which the road skirted, +reflected in the shimmering sheet of steaming +water that the thaw was throwing out across +the ice, was a vivid white triangle of towering +mountain. A true granite Alp among the +splintered Dolomites—a fortress among cathedrals—it +was the outstanding, the dominating +feature in a panorama which I knew from my +map was made up of the mountain chain along +which wriggled the interlocked lines of the +Austro-Italian battle front.</p> + +<p>"Plainly a peak with a personality," I said +to the officer at my side. "What is it called?"</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Col +di Lana an +important +position.</div> + +<p>"It's the Col di Lana," was the reply; "the +mountain Colonel 'Peppino' Garibaldi took in a +first attempt and Gelasio Caetani, the Italo-American +mining engineer, afterward blew up +and captured completely. It is one of the most +important positions on our whole front, for +whichever side holds it not only effectually +blocks the enemy's advance, but has also an invaluable +sally-port from which to launch his +own. We simply <i>had</i> to have it, and it was +taken in what was probably the only way +humanly possible. It's Colonel Garibaldi's +headquarters, by the way, where we put up to-night +and to-morrow; perhaps you can get him +to tell you the story." ...</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The story +of the Col +di Lana.</div> + +<p>By the light of a little spirit lamp and to +the accompaniment of a steady drip of eaves +and the rumble of distant avalanches of falling +snow, Colonel Garibaldi, that evening, told me +"the story:"</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Légion Italienne</i> withdrawn</div> + +<p>"The fighting that fell to the lot of the <i>Légion +Italienne</i> in January, 1915, reduced its numbers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +to such an extent that it had to be withdrawn +to rest and reform. Before it was in condition +to take the field again, our country had taken +the great decision and we were disbanded to +go home and fight for Italy. Here—principally +because it was thought best to incorporate the +men in the units to which they (by training or +residence) really belonged—it was found impracticable +to maintain the integrity of the +fourteen battalions—about 14,000 men in all—we +had formed in France, and, as a consequence, +the <i>Légion Italienne</i> ceased to exist except +as a glorious memory. We five surviving +Garibaldi were given commissions in a brigade +of Alpini that is a 'lineal descendant' of the +famous <i>Cacciatore</i> formed by my grandfather +in 1859, and led by him against the Austrians +in the war in which, with the aid of the French, +we redeemed Lombardy for Italy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Defensive and offensive advantages of the peak.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Bitter struggle for the Col di Lana.</div> + +<p>"In July I was given command of a battalion +occupying a position at the foot of the Col di +Lana. Perhaps you saw from the lake, as you +came up, the commanding position of this +mountain. If so, you will understand its supreme +importance to us, whether for defensive +or offensive purposes. Looking straight down +the Cordevole Valley toward the plains of Italy, +it not only furnished the Austrians an incomparable +observation post, but also stood as an +effectual barrier against any advance of our +own toward the Livinallongo Valley and the important +Pordoi Pass. We needed it imperatively +for the safety of any line we established +in this region; and just as imperatively would +we need it when we were ready to push the +Austrians back. Since it was just as important +for the Austrians to maintain possession of +this great natural fortress as it was for us to +take it away from them, you will understand +how it came about that the struggle for the Col +di Lana was perhaps the bitterest that has yet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +been waged for any one point on the Alpine +front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Alpini get a foothold.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Col. Garibaldi takes command.</div> + +<p>"Early in July, under cover of our guns to +the south and east, the Alpini streamed down +from the Cima di Falzarego and Sasso di Stria, +which they had occupied shortly before, and +secured what was at first but a precarious foothold +on the stony lower eastern slope of the +Col di Lana. Indeed, it was little more than a +toe-hold at first; but the never-resting Alpini +soon dug themselves in and became firmly established. +It was to the command of this +battalion of Alpini that I came on the 12th +of July, after being given to understand that +my work was to be the taking of the Col di +Lana regardless of cost.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Scientific man-saving needed.</div> + +<p>"This was the first time that I—or any other +Garibaldi, for that matter (my grandfather, +with his 'Thousand,' took Sicily from fifty times +that number of Bourbon soldiers) had ever had +enough, or even the promise of enough, men to +make that 'regardless of cost' formula much +more than a hollow mockery. But it is not in +a Garibaldi to sacrifice men for any object whatever +if there is any possible way of avoiding it. +The period of indiscriminate frontal attacks +had passed even before I left France, and ways +were already being devised—mostly mining and +better artillery protection—to make assaults +less costly. Scientific 'man-saving,' in which +my country has since made so much progress, +was then in its infancy on the Italian front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Out-gunned by the Austrians.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">First time +of gallery-barracks.</div> + +<p>"I found many difficulties in the way of putting +into practice on the Col di Lana the man-saving +theories I had seen in process of development +in the Argonne. At that time the +Austrians—who had appreciated the great importance +of that mountain from the outset—had +us heavily out-gunned while mining in the +hard rock was too slow to make it worth while +until some single position of crucial value hung<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +in the balance. So—well, I simply did the best +I could under the circumstances. The most I +could do was to give my men as complete protection +as possible while they were not fighting, +and this end was accomplished by establishing +them in galleries cut out of the solid rock. This +was, I believe, the first time the 'gallery-barracks'—now +quite the rule at all exposed points—were +used on the Italian front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Working +under +heavy fire.</div> + +<p>"There was no other way in the beginning +but to drive the enemy off the Col di Lana +trench by trench, and this was the task I set +myself to toward the end of July. What made +the task an almost prohibitive one was the fact +that the Austrian guns from Corte and Cherz—which +we were in no position to reduce to +silence—were able to rake us unmercifully. +Every move we made during the next nine +months was carried out under their fire, and +there is no use in denying that we suffered +heavily. I used no more men than <ins title="Transcriber's Note: This word not present in original text">I</ins> could possibly +help using, and the Higher Command was +very generous in the matter of reserves, and +even in increasing the strength of the force at +my disposal as we gradually got more room to +work in. By the end of October my original +command of a battalion had been increased +largely.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Austrians +hold one +side and +summit.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Austrian position seems impregnable.</div> + +<p>"The Austrians made a brave and skilful +defense, but the steady pressure we were bringing +to bear on them gradually forced them back +up the mountain. By the first week in November +we were in possession of three sides of +the mountain, while the Austrians held the +fourth side and—but most important of all—the +summit. The latter presented a sheer wall +of rock, more than 200 metres high, to us from +any direction we were able to approach it, and +on the crest of this cliff—the only point exposed +to our artillery fire—the enemy had a cunningly +concealed machine-gun post served by fourteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +men. Back and behind, under shelter in a +rock gallery, was a reserve of 200 men, who +were expected to remain safely under cover +during a bombardment and then sally forth to +any infantry attack that might follow it. The +handful in the machine-gun post, it was calculated, +would be sufficient, and more than +sufficient, to keep us from scaling the cliff before +their reserves came up to support them; +and so they would have been if there had been +<i>only</i> an infantry attack to reckon with. It +failed to allow sufficiently, however, for the +weight of the artillery we were bringing up, +and the skill of our gunners. The apparent +impregnability of the position was really its +undoing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Machine-gun post key position.</div> + +<p>"This cunningly conceived plan of defense I +had managed to get a pretty accurate idea of—no +matter how—and I laid my own plans accordingly. +All the guns I could get hold of I +had emplaced in positions most favorable for +concentrating on the real key to the summit—the +exposed machine-gun post on the crown of +the cliff—with the idea, if possible, of destroying +men and guns completely, or, failing in +that, at least to render it untenable for the reserves +who would try to rally to its defense.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Alpino thoroughly dependable.</div> + +<p>"We had the position ranged to an inch, and +so, fortunately, lost no time in 'feeling' for it. +This, with the surprise incident to it, was perhaps +the principal element in our success; for +the plan—at least so far as <i>taking</i> the summit +was concerned—worked out quite as perfectly +in action as upon paper. That is the great +satisfaction of working with the Alpino, by the +way: he is so sure, so dependable, that the +'human fallibility' element in a plan (always +the most uncertain quantity) is practically +eliminated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alpini +scale the +cliff.</div> + +<p>"It is almost certain that our sudden gust of +concentrated gunfire snuffed out the lives of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +the men in the machine-gun post before they +had time to send word of our developing infantry +attack to the reserves in the gallery below. +At any rate, these latter made no attempt +whatever to swarm up to the defense of +the crest, even after our artillery fire ceased. +The consequence was that the 120 Alpini I +sent to scale the cliff reached the top with only +three casualties, these probably caused by +rolling rocks or flying rock fragments. The +Austrians in their big 'funk-hole' were taken +completely by surprise, and 130 of them fell +prisoners to considerably less than that number +of Italians. The rest of the 200 escaped +or were killed in their flight.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Difficulties +of +holding +the +summit.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">An +Austrian +counter-attack.</div> + +<p>"So far it was so good; but, unfortunately, +taking the summit and holding it were two +entirely different matters. No sooner did the +Austrians discover what had happened than +they opened on the summit with all their available +artillery. We have since ascertained that +the fire of 120 guns was concentrated upon a +space of 100 by 150 metres which offered the +only approach to cover that the barren summit +afforded. Fifty of my men, finding shelter in +the lee of rocky ledges, remained right out on +the summit; the others crept over the edge of +the cliff and held on by their fingers and toes. +Not a man of them sought safety by flight, +though a retirement would have been quite +justified, considering what a hell the Austrians' +guns were making of the summit. The enemy +counter-attacked at nightfall, but despite superior +numbers and the almost complete exhaustion +of that little band of Alpini heroes, +they were able to retake only a half of the summit. +Here, at a ten-metres-high ridge which +roughly bisects the <i>cima</i>, the Alpini held the +Austrians, and here, in turn, the latter held +the reinforcements which I was finally able to +send to the Alpini's aid. There, exposed to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +fire of the guns of either side (and so comparatively +safe from both), a line was established +from which there seemed little probability +that one combatant could drive the other, +at least without a radical change from the +methods so far employed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Idea of +blowing up +positions.</div> + +<p>"The idea of blowing up positions that cannot +be taken otherwise is by no means a new +one. Probably it dates back almost as far as +the invention of gunpowder itself. Doubtless, +if we only knew of them, there have been attempts +to mine the Great Wall of China. It +was, therefore, only natural that, when the +Austrians had us held up before a position +it was vitally necessary we should have, we +should begin to consider the possibility of mining +it as the only alternative. The conception +of the plan did not necessarily originate in the +mind of any one individual, however many have +laid claim to it. It was the inevitable thing if +we were not going to abandon striving for our +objective.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Engineering +operation +of +great +magnitude.</div> + +<p>"But while there was nothing new in the +idea of the mine itself, in carrying out an engineering +operation of such magnitude at so +great an altitude and from a position constantly +exposed to intense artillery fire there were presented +many problems quite without precedent. +It was these problems which gave us pause; +but finally, despite the prospect of difficulties +which we fully realized might at any time become +prohibitive, it was decided to make the +attempt to blow up that portion of the summit +of the Col di Lana still held by the enemy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gelasio +Caetani +the +engineer.</div> + +<p>"The choice of the engineer for the work was +a singularly fortunate one. Gelasio Caetani—he +is a son of the Duke of Sermoneta—had +operated as a mining engineer in the American +West for a number of years previous to the +war, and the practical experience gained in +California and Alaska was invaluable preparation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +for the great task now set for him. His +ready resource and great personal courage were +also incalculable assets.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Miners +from +North +America.</div> + +<p>"Well, the tunnel was started about the +middle of January, 1916. Some of my men—Italians +who had hurried home to fight for +their country when the war started—had had +some previous experience with hand and machine +drills in the mines of Colorado and British +Columbia, but the most of our labor had to +gain its experience as the work progressed. +Considering this, as well as the difficulty of +bringing up material (to say nothing of food +and munitions), we made very good progress.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mining +under +constant +fire.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Thirty-eight +shells a +minute.</div> + +<p>"The worst thing about it all was the fact +that it had to be done under the incessant fire +of the Austrian artillery. I provided for the +men as best as I could by putting them in galleries, +where they were at least able to get +their rest. When the enemy finally found out +what we were up to they celebrated their discovery +by a steady bombardment which lasted +for fourteen days without interruption. During +a certain forty-two hours of that fortnight +there was, by actual count, an average of +thirty-eight shells a minute exploding on our +little position.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Silencing +an +Austrian +battery.</div> + +<p>"We were constantly confronted with new +and perplexing problems—things which no one +had ever been called upon to solve before—most +of them in connection with transportation. +How we contrived to surmount one of these I +shall never forget. The Austrians had performed +a brave and audacious feat in emplacing +one of their batteries at a certain point, the +fire from which threatened to make our position +absolutely untenable. The location of this battery +was so cunningly chosen that not one of +our guns could reach it; and yet we <i>had</i> to +silence it—and for good—if we were going to +go on with our work. The only point from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +which we could fire upon these destructive +guns was so exposed that any artillery we +might be able to mount there could only count +on the shortest shrift under the fire of the hundred +or more 'heavies' that the Austrians would +be able to concentrate upon it. And yet (I +figured), well employed, these few minutes +might prove enough to do the work in.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A young +giant endeavors +to +climb with +a gun.</div> + +<p>"And then there arose another difficulty. +The smallest gun that would stand a chance +of doing the job cut out for it weighed 120 +kilos—about 265 pounds; this just for the gun +alone, with all detachable parts removed. But +the point where the gun was to be mounted was +so exposed that there was no chance of rigging +up a cable-way, while the incline was so steep +and rough that it was out of the question to +try to drag it up with ropes. Just as we were +on the verge of giving up in despair, one of the +Alpini—a man of Herculean frame who had +made his living in peace-time by breaking +chains on his chest and performing other feats +of strength—came and suggested that he be +allowed to carry the gun up on his shoulders. +Grasping at a straw, I let him indulge in a few +'practice manœuvres'; but these only showed +that, while the young Samson could shoulder +and trot off with the gun without great effort, +the task of lifting himself and his burden from +foothold to foothold in the crumbling rock of +the seventy-degree slope was too much for him.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Men pull +man and +gun to +position.</div> + +<p>"But out of this failure there came a new +idea. Why not let my strong man simply support +the weight of the gun on his shoulder—acting +as a sort of ambulant gun-carriage, so +to speak—while a line of men pulled him along +with a rope?</p> + +<p>We rigged up a harness to equalize the pull +on the broad back, and, with the aid of sixteen +ordinary men, the feat was accomplished +without a hitch. I am sorry to say, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +that poor Samson was laid up for a spell with +racked muscles.</p> + +<p>"The gun—with the necessary parts and +munition—was taken up in the night, and at +daybreak it was set up and ready for action. +It fired just forty shots before the Austrian +'heavies' blew it—and all but one or two of its +brave crew—to pieces with a rain of high-explosive. +But the troublesome Austrian battery +was put so completely out of action that +the enemy never thought it worth while to re-emplace +it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Italians +mine and +Austrians +countermine.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The final +explosion.</div> + +<p>"That is just a sample of the fantastic things +we were doing all of the three months that we +drove the tunnel under the summit of the Col +di Lana. The last few weeks were further enlivened +by the knowledge that the Austrians +were countermining against us. Once they +drove so near that we could feel the jar of +their drills, but they exploded their mine just +a few metres short of where it would have upset +us for good and for all. All the time work +went on until, on the 17th of April, the mine +was finished, charged, and 'tamped.' That +night, while every gun we could bring to bear +rained shell upon the Austrian position, it +was exploded. A crater 150 feet in diameter +and sixty feet deep engulfed the ridge the +enemy had occupied, and this our waiting +Alpini rushed and firmly held. Austrian counterattacks +were easily repulsed, and the Col di +Lana was at last completely in Italian hands."</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, World's Work, June, 1917.</small></div> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>During the late spring and summer of 1916, +there was waged in France that great series of +battles participated in by both British and +French armies known as the battles of the +Somme. Next to the defense of Verdun, they +formed the most important military operations +on the western front during that year. These +battles are described in the narrative which +follows.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;"> +<img src="images/vol2-map66-2.png" width="413" height="570" alt="WESTERN BATTLE FRONT, AUGUST, 1916" title="WESTERN BATTLE FRONT, AUGUST, 1916" /> +<span class="caption">WESTERN BATTLE FRONT, AUGUST, 1916</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME</h2> + +<h3>SIR DOUGLAS HAIG</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">An +offensive +summer +campaign +planned.</div> + +<p>The principle of an offensive campaign +during the Summer of 1916 had already +been decided on by all the Allies. The +various possible alternatives on the western +front had been studied and discussed by General +Joffre and myself, and we were in complete +agreement as to the front to be attacked by the +combined French and British armies. Preparations +for our offensive had made considerable +progress; but as the date on which the attack +should begin was dependent on many doubtful +factors, a final decision on that point was +deferred until the general situation should become +clearer.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +armies and +supplies +increasing.</div> + +<p>Subject to the necessity of commencing operations +before the Summer was too far advanced, +and with due regard to the general +situation, I desired to postpone my attack as +long as possible. The British armies were +growing in numbers and the supply of munitions +was steadily increasing. Moreover, a +very large proportion of the officers and men +under my command were still far from being +fully trained, and the longer the attack could +be deferred the more efficient they would become. +On the other hand, the Germans were +continuing to press their attacks at Verdun, +and both there and on the Italian front, +where the Austrian offensive was gaining +ground, it was evident that the strain might +become too great to be borne unless timely +action were taken to relieve it. Accordingly, +while maintaining constant touch with General<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +Joffre in regard to all these considerations, +my preparations were pushed on, and I +agreed, with the consent of his Majesty's +Government, that my attack should be launched, +whenever the general situation required it, with +as great a force as I might then be able to make +available.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Pressure +on +Italian +front.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Heroic +French +defense at +Verdun.</div> + +<p>By the end of May, 1916, the pressure of the +enemy on the Italian front had assumed such +serious proportions that the Russian campaign +was opened early in June, and the brilliant +successes gained by our allies against the +Austrians at once caused a movement of German +troops from the western to the eastern +front. This, however, did not lessen the pressure +on Verdun. The heroic defense of our +French allies had already gained many weeks +of inestimable value and had caused the +enemy very heavy losses; but the strain continued +to increase. In view, therefore, of the +situation in the various theatres of war, it +was eventually agreed between General Joffre +and myself that the combined French and +British offensive should not be postponed beyond +the end of June.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Objects +of new +offensive.</div> + +<p>The object of that offensive was threefold:</p> + +<p>(i.) To relieve the pressure on Verdun.</p> + +<p>(ii.) To assist our allies in the other theatres +of war by stopping any further transfer of +German troops from the western front.</p> + +<p>(iii.) To wear down the strength of the +forces opposed to us.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +attempts +at interference.</div> + +<p>While my final preparations were in progress +the enemy made two unsuccessful attempts to +interfere with my arrangements. The first, +directed on May 21, 1916, against our positions +on the Vimy Ridge, south and southeast of +Souchez, resulted in a small enemy gain of +no strategic or tactical importance; and rather +than weaken my offensive by involving additional +troops in the task of recovering the lost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +ground, I decided to consolidate a position in +rear of our original line.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A position +lost and +retaken.</div> + +<p>The second enemy attack was delivered on +June 2, 1916, on a front of over one and a half +miles from Mount Sorrell to Hooge, and succeeded +in penetrating to a maximum depth of +700 yards. As the southern part of the lost +position commanded our trenches, I judged +it necessary to recover it, and by an attack +launched on June 13, 1916, carefully prepared +and well executed, this was successfully accomplished +by the troops on the spot.</p> + +<p>Neither of these enemy attacks succeeded in +delaying the preparations for the major operations +which I had in view.</p> + +<p>These preparations were necessarily very +elaborate and took considerable time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Vast +stores accumulated.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Shelter +and communication +facilities +prepared.</div> + +<p>Vast stocks of ammunition and stores of all +kinds had to be accumulated beforehand within +a convenient distance of our front. To deal +with these many miles of new railways—both +standard and narrow gauge—and trench tramways +were laid. All available roads were improved, +many others were made, and long causeways +were built over marshy valleys. Many +additional dugouts had to be provided as +shelter for the troops, for use as dressing +stations for the wounded, and as magazines for +storing ammunition, food, water, and engineering +material. Scores of miles of deep communication +trenches had to be dug, as well as +trenches for telephone wires, assembly and assault +trenches, and numerous gun emplacements +and observation posts.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mining +operations.</div> + +<p>Important mining operations were undertaken, +and charges were laid at various points +beneath the enemy's lines.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Water +supply +insured.</div> + +<p>Except in the river valleys, the existing supplies +of water were hopelessly insufficient to +meet the requirements of the numbers of men +and horses to be concentrated in this area as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +the preparations for our offensive proceeded. +To meet this difficulty many wells and borings +were sunk, and over one hundred pumping +plants were installed. More than one hundred +and twenty miles of water mains were laid, +and everything was got ready to insure an adequate +water supply as our troops advanced.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Spirit of +the +troops.</div> + +<p>Much of this preparatory work had to be +done under very trying conditions, and was +liable to constant interruption from the enemy's +fire. The weather, on the whole, was +bad, and the local accommodations totally insufficient +for housing the troops employed, who +consequently had to content themselves with +such rough shelter as could be provided in the +circumstances. All this labor, too, had to be +carried out in addition to fighting and to the +everyday work of maintaining existing defenses. +It threw a very heavy strain on the +troops, which was borne by them with a cheerfulness +beyond all praise.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Formidable +enemy +position on +the Somme +and the +Ancre.</div> + +<p>The enemy's position to be attacked was +of a very formidable character, situated on a +high, undulating tract of ground, which rises +to more than 500 feet above sea level, and +forms the watershed between the Somme on +the one side and the rivers of Southwestern +Belgium on the other. On the southern face +of this watershed, the general trend of which +is from east-southeast to west-northwest, the +ground falls in a series of long irregular spurs +and deep depressions to the valley of the +Somme. Well down the forward slopes of +this face the enemy's first system of defense, +starting from the Somme near Curlu, ran at +first northward for 3,000 yards, then westward +for 7,000 yards to near Fricourt, where +it turned nearly due north, forming a great +salient angle in the enemy's lines.</p> + +<p>Some 10,000 yards north of Fricourt the +trenches crossed the River Ancre, a tributary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +of the Somme, and, still running northward, +passed over the summit of the watershed, +about Hébuterne and Gommecourt, and then +down its northern spurs to Arras.</p> + +<p>On the 20,000-yard front between the Somme +and the Ancre the enemy had a strong second +system of defense, sited generally on or near +the southern crest of the highest part of the +watershed, at an average distance of from 3,000 +to 5,000 yards behind his first system of +trenches.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +methods +of making +position +impregnable.</div> + +<p>During nearly two years' preparation he had +spared no pains to render these defenses impregnable. +The first and second systems each +consisted of several lines of deep trenches, +well provided with bomb-proof shelters and +with numerous communication trenches connecting +them. The front of the trenches in +each system was protected by wire entanglements, +many of them in two belts forty yards +broad, built of iron stakes interlaced with +barbed wire, often almost as thick as a man's +finger.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Veritable +fortresses.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Machine-gun +emplacements.</div> + +<p>The numerous woods and villages in and +between these systems of defense had been +turned into veritable fortresses. The deep +cellars, usually to be found in the villages, +and the numerous pits and quarries common +to a chalk country were used to provide cover +for machine guns and trench mortars. The +existing cellars were supplemented by elaborate +dugouts, sometimes in two stories, and +these were connected up by passages as much +as thirty feet below the surface of the ground. +The salients in the enemy's lines, from which +he could bring enfilade fire across his front, +were made into self-contained forts, and often +protected by mine fields, while strong redoubts +and concrete machine-gun emplacements +had been constructed in positions from which +he could sweep his own trenches should these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +be taken. The ground lent itself to good artillery +observation on the enemy's part, and +he had skillfully arranged for cross-fire by +his guns.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A composite +system +of great +strength.</div> + +<p>These various systems of defense, with the +fortified localities and other supporting points +between them, were cunningly sited to afford +each other mutual assistance and to admit of +the utmost possible development of enfilade +and flanking fire by machine guns and artillery. +They formed, in short, not merely a series of +successive lines, but one composite system of +enormous depth and strength.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Many +lines prepared +in +the rear.</div> + +<p>Behind this second system of trenches, in +addition to woods, villages, and other strong +points prepared for defense, the enemy had +several other lines already completed; and we +had learned from aeroplane reconnoisance that +he was hard at work improving and strengthening +these and digging fresh ones between +them and still further back.</p> + +<p>In the area above described, between the +Somme and the Ancre, our front-line trenches +ran parallel and close to those of the enemy, +but below them. We had good direct observation +on his front system of trenches and on +the various defenses sited on the slopes above +us between his first and second systems; but +the second system itself, in many places, +could not be observed from the ground in +our possession, while, except from the air, +nothing could be seen of his more distant +defenses.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The lines +of the +Allies.</div> + +<p>North of the Ancre, where the opposing +trenches ran transversely across the main +ridge, the enemy's defenses were equally elaborate +and formidable. So far as command of +ground was concerned we were here practically +on level terms, but, partly as a result of this, +our direct observation over the ground held +by the enemy was not so good as it was further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +south. On portions of this front the opposing +first-line trenches were more widely separated +from each other, while in the valleys to the +north were many hidden gun positions from +which the enemy could develop flanking fire +on our troops as they advanced across the +open.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Period +of active +operations.</div> + +<p>The period of active operations dealt with +in this dispatch divides itself roughly into three +phases. The first phase opened with the attack +of July 1, 1916, the success of which evidently +came as a surprise to the enemy and caused +considerable confusion and disorganization in +his ranks.</p> + +<p>The advantages gained on that date and +developed during the first half of July may +be regarded as having been rounded off by +the operations of July 14, 1916, and three +following days, which gave us possession of the +southern crest of the main plateau between +Delville Wood and Bazentin-le-Petit.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +enemy's +efforts +to hold +the ridge.</div> + +<p>We then entered upon a contest lasting for +many weeks, during which the enemy, having +found his strongest defenses unavailing, and +now fully alive to his danger, put forth his +utmost efforts to keep his hold of the main +ridge. This stage of the battle constituted a +prolonged and severe struggle for mastery +between the contending armies, in which, although +progress was slow and difficult, the +confidence of our troops in their ability to +win was never shaken. Their tenacity and +determination proved more than equal to +their task, and by the first week in September +they had established a fighting superiority +that has left its mark on the enemy, of which +possession of the ridge was merely the visible +proof.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +plateau +gained.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Successes +of the +French +south of +the Somme</div> + +<p>The way was then opened for the third +phase, in which our advance was pushed down +the forward slopes of the ridge and further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +extended on both flanks until, from Morval to +Thiepval, the whole plateau and a good deal +of ground beyond were in our possession. +Meanwhile our gallant allies, in addition to +great successes south of the Somme, had +pushed their advance, against equally determined +opposition and under most difficult +tactical conditions, up the long slopes on +our immediate right, and were now preparing +to drive the enemy from the summit of +the narrow and difficult portion of the +main ridge which lies between the Combles +Valley and the River Tortille, a stream flowing +from the north into the Somme just below +Péronne.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Careful +artillery +preparation.</div> + +<p>Defenses of the nature described could only +be attacked with any prospect of success after +careful artillery preparation. It was accordingly +decided that our bombardment should +begin on June 24, 1916 and a large force of +artillery was brought into action for the +purpose.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gas discharges.</div> + +<p>Artillery bombardments were also carried +out daily at different points on the rest of our +front, and during the period from June 24 to +July 1, 1916, gas was discharged with good +effect at more than forty places along our line +upon a frontage which in total amounted to +over fifteen miles. Some seventy raids, too, +were undertaken by our infantry between +Gommecourt and our extreme left north of +Ypres during the week preceding the attack, +and these kept me well informed as to the +enemy's dispositions, besides serving other useful +purposes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attack by +the Royal +Flying +Corps.</div> + +<p>On June 25, 1916, the Royal Flying Corps +carried out a general attack on the enemy's +observation balloons, destroying nine of them, +and depriving the enemy for the time being of +this form of observation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +and +French co-operate +in +attack.</div> + +<p>On July 1, 1916, at 7.30 a. m., after a final<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +hour of exceptionally violent bombardment, +our infantry assault was launched. Simultaneously +the French attacked on both sides +of the Somme, co-operating closely with us.</p> + +<p>The British main front of attack extended +from Maricourt on our right, round the salient +at Fricourt, to the Ancre in front of St. Pierre +Divion. To assist this main attack by holding +the enemy's reserves and occupying his artillery, +the enemy's trenches north of the Ancre, +as far as Serre, inclusive, were to be assaulted +simultaneously, while further north a subsidiary +attack was to be made on both sides +of the salient at Gommecourt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rawlinson +and +Allenby.</div> + +<p>I had intrusted the attack on the front from +Maricourt to Serre to the Fourth Army, under +the command of General Sir Henry S. Rawlinson, +Bart., K. C. B., K. C. V. O., with five +army corps at his disposal. The subsidiary +attack at Gommecourt was carried out by +troops from the army commanded by General +Sir E. H. H. Allenby, K. C. B.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mines exploded +under +enemy +lines.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Advance +over open +ground.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Trenches +taken near +Fricourt.</div> + +<p>Just prior to the attack the mines which +had been prepared under the enemy's lines +were exploded, and smoke was discharged at +many places along our front. Through this +smoke our infantry advanced to the attack +with the utmost steadiness in spite of the +very heavy barrage of the enemy's guns. On +our right our troops met with immediate success, +and rapid progress was made. Before +midday Montauban had been carried, and +shortly afterward the Briqueterie, to the east, +and the whole of the ridge to the west of the +village were in our hands. Opposite Mametz +part of our assembly trenches had been practically +leveled by the enemy artillery, making +it necessary for our infantry to advance +to the attack across 400 yards of open ground. +None the less they forced their way into Mametz, +and reached their objective in the valley<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +beyond, first throwing out a defensive flank +toward Fricourt on their left. At the same +time the enemy's trenches were entered north +of Fricourt, so that the enemy's garrison in +that village was pressed on three sides. Further +north, though the village of La Boisselle +and Ovillers for the time being resisted our +attack, our troops drove deeply into the +German lines on the flanks of these strongholds, +and so paved the way for their capture +later.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fight +for the +Leipsic +Salient.</div> + +<p>On the spur running south from Thiepval +the work known as the Leipsic Salient was +stormed, and severe fighting took place for +the possession of the village and its defenses. +Here and north of the valley of the Ancre, +as far as Serre, on the left flank of our attack, +our initial successes were not sustained. +Striking progress was made at many points, +and parties of troops penetrated the enemy's +positions to the outer defenses of Grandcourt, +and also to Pendant Copse and Serre; but the +enemy's continued resistance at Thiepval and +Beaumont Hamel made it impossible to forward +reinforcements and ammunition, and in +spite of their gallant efforts our troops were +forced to withdraw during the night to their +own lines.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +attack +at Gommecourt.</div> + +<p>The subsidiary attack at Gommecourt also +forced its way into the enemy's positions, but +there met with such vigorous opposition that +as soon as it was considered that the attack +had fulfilled its object our troops were withdrawn.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Instructions +to +General +Gough.</div> + +<p>In view of the general situation at the end +of the first day's operations I decided that the +best course was to press forward on a front +extending from our junction with the French +to a point half way between La Boisselle +and Contalmaison, and to limit the offensive +on our left for the present to a slow and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +methodical advance. North of the Ancre such +preparations were to be made as would hold +the enemy to his positions and enable the +attack to be resumed there later if desirable. +In order that General Sir Henry Rawlinson +might be left free to concentrate his attention +on the portion of the front where the attack +was to be pushed home, I also decided to place +the operations against the front, La Boisselle to +Serre, under the command of General Sir Hubert +de la P. Gough, K. C. B., to whom I accordingly +allotted the two northern corps of +Sir Henry Rawlinson's army. My instructions +to Sir Hubert Gough were that his army +was to maintain a steady pressure on the front +from La Boisselle to the Serre road and to act +as a pivot on which our line could swing as +our attacks on his right made progress toward +the north.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fricourt +to Contalmaison.</div> + +<p>During the succeeding days the attack was +continued on these lines. In spite of strong +counter-attacks on the Briqueterie and Montauban, +by midday on July 2 our troops had captured +Fricourt, and in the afternoon and evening +stormed Fricourt Wood and the farm to +the north. During July 3 and 4 Bernajay and +Caterpillar woods were also captured, and our +troops pushed forward to the railway north +of Mametz. On these days the reduction +of La Boisselle was completed after hard fighting, +while the outskirts of Contalmaison were +reached on July 5. North of La Boisselle also +the enemy's forces opposite us were kept constantly +engaged, and our holding in the Leipsic +Salient was gradually increased.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Result of +five days' +fighting.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners +taken.</div> + +<p>To sum up the results of the fighting of +these five days, on a front of over six miles, +from the Briqueterie to La Boisselle, our troops +had swept over the whole of the enemy's first +and strongest system of defense, which he had +done his utmost to render impregnable. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +had driven him back over a distance of more +than a mile, and had carried four elaborately +fortified villages. The number of prisoners +passed back at the close of July 5, 1916, had +already reached the total of ninety-four officers +and 5,724 other ranks.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Readjustments +and +reliefs.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Contalmaison +and +Mametz +Wood.</div> + +<p>After the five days' heavy and continuous +fighting just described it was essential to carry +out certain readjustments and reliefs of the +forces engaged. In normal conditions of enemy +resistance the amount of progress that can +be made at any time without a pause in the general +advance is necessarily limited. Apart +from the physical exhaustion of the attacking +troops and the considerable distance separating +the enemy's successive main systems of defense, +special artillery preparation was required +before a successful assault could be delivered. +Meanwhile, however, local operations +were continued in spite of much unfavorable +weather. The attack on Contalmaison and +Mametz Wood was undertaken on July 7, 1916, +and after three days' obstinate fighting, in the +course of which the enemy delivered several +powerful counterattacks, the village and the +whole of the wood, except its northern border, +were finally secured. On July 7 also a footing +was gained in the other defenses of Ovillers, +while on July 9, 1916, on our extreme right, +Maltz Horn Farm—an important point on the +spur north of Hardecourt—was secured.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +troops in +Trones +Wood.</div> + +<p>A thousand yards north of this farm our +troops had succeeded at the second attempt +in establishing themselves on July 8, 1916, in +the southern end of Trones Wood. The enemy's +positions in the northern and eastern parts +of this wood were very strong, and no less than +eight powerful German counterattacks were +made here during the next five days. In the +course of this struggle portions of the wood +changed hands several times; but we were left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +eventually, on July 13, 1916, in possession of +the southern part of it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assault +on the +German +second +system of +defense.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile Mametz Wood had been entirely +cleared of the enemy, and with Trones Wood +also practically in our possession we were in +a position to undertake an assault upon the +enemy's second system of defense. Arrangements +were accordingly made for an attack to +be delivered at daybreak on the morning of +July 14, 1916, against a front extending from +Longueval to Bazentin-le-Petit Wood, both inclusive. +Contalmaison Villa, on a spur 1,000 +yards west of Bazentin-le-Petit Wood, had already +been captured to secure the left flank of +the attack, and advantage had been taken of the +progress made by our infantry to move our artillery +forward into new positions. The preliminary +bombardment had opened on July 11, +1916. The opportunities offered by the ground +for enfilading the enemy's lines were fully +utilized, and did much to secure the success of +our attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A night +operation +of magnitude.</div> + +<p>In the early hours of July 4, 1916, the attacking +troops moved out over the open for a +distance of from about 1,000 to 1,400 yards, +and lined up in the darkness just below the +crest and some 300 to 500 yards from the enemy's +trenches. Their advance was covered +by strong patrols, and their correct deployment +had been insured by careful previous +preparations. The whole movement was carried +out unobserved and without touch being +lost in any case. The decision to attempt a +night operation of this magnitude with an +army, the bulk of which had been raised since +the beginning of the war, was perhaps the highest +tribute that could be paid to the quality +of our troops. It would not have been possible +but for the most careful preparation and forethought, +as well as thorough reconnoissance +of the ground, which was, in many cases,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +made personally by divisional, brigade, and +battalion commanders and their staffs before +framing their detailed orders for the +advance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The assault +on +July 14.</div> + +<p>The actual assault was delivered at 3.25 a.m. +on July 14, 1916, when there was just sufficient +light to be able to distinguish friend +from foe at short ranges, and along the whole +front attacked our troops, preceded by a very +effective artillery barrage, swept over the enemy's +first trenches and on into the defenses +beyond.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Trones +Wood +cleared of +the enemy.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Longueval +occupied.</div> + +<p>On our right the enemy was driven from +his last foothold in Trones Wood, and by +8 a.m. we had cleared the whole of it, relieving +a body of 170 men who had maintained +themselves all night in the northern +corner of the wood, although completely surrounded +by the enemy. Our position in the +wood was finally consolidated, and strong +patrols were sent out from it in the direction +of Guillemont and Longueval. The southern +half of this latter village was already in +the hands of the troops who had advanced +west of Trones Wood. The northern half, with +the exception of two strong points, was captured +by 4 p.m. after a severe struggle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +enemy +counterattacks.</div> + +<p>In the centre of our attack Bazentin-le-Grand +village and wood were also gained, +and our troops pushing northward captured +Bazentin-le-Petit village and the cemetery to +the east. Here the enemy counterattacked +twice about midday without success, and again +in the afternoon, on the latter occasion momentarily +reoccupying the northern half of the +village as far as the church. Our troops immediately +returned to the attack and drove +him out again with heavy losses. To the left +of the village Bazentin-le-Petit Wood was +cleared, in spite of the considerable resistance +of the enemy along its western edge, where we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +successfully repulsed a counterattack. In the +afternoon further ground was gained to the +west of the wood, and posts were established +immediately south of Pozières.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +Rawlinson +employs +cavalry.</div> + +<p>The enemy's troops, who had been severely +handled in these attacks and counterattacks, +began to show signs of disorganization, and +it was reported early in the afternoon that it +was possible to advance to High Wood. +General Rawlinson, who had held a force of +cavalry in readiness for such an eventuality, +decided to employ a part of it. As the fight +progressed small bodies of this force had +pushed forward gradually, keeping in close +touch with the development of the action, +and prepared to seize quickly any opportunity +that might occur. A squadron now came up +on the flanks of our infantry, who entered High +Wood at about 8 p.m., and, after some hand-to-hand +fighting, cleared the whole of the wood +with the exception of the northern apex. +Acting mounted in co-operation with the infantry, +the cavalry came into action with good +effect, killing several of the enemy and capturing +some prisoners.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +withdrawn +from High +Wood.</div> + +<p>On July 15, 1916, the battle still continued, +though on a reduced scale. Arrow Head Copse, +between the southern edge of Trones Wood and +Guillemont, and Waterlot Farm on the Longueval-Guillemont +road, were seized, and Delville +Wood was captured and held against +several hostile counterattacks. In Longueval +fierce fighting continued until dusk for the +possession of the two strong points and the +orchards to the north of the village. The +situation in this area made the position of our +troops in High Wood somewhat precarious, and +they now began to suffer numerous casualties +from the enemy's heavy shelling. Accordingly +orders were given for their withdrawal, and +this was effected during the night of July 15-16,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +1916, without interference by the enemy. All +the wounded were brought in.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress +toward +Pozières.</div> + +<p>In spite of repeated enemy counterattacks +further progress was made on the night of +July 16, 1916, along the enemy's main second-line +trenches northwest of Bazentin-le-Petit +Wood to within 500 yards of the northeast +corner of the village of Pozières, which our +troops were already approaching from the +south.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ovillers +captured.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile the operations further north had +also made progress. Since the attack of July +7, 1916, the enemy in and about Ovillers had +been pressed relentlessly and gradually driven +back by incessant bombing attacks and local +assaults, in accordance with the general instructions +I had given to General Sir Hubert +Gough. On July 16, 1916, a large body of the +garrison of Ovillers surrendered, and that night +and during the following day, by a direct advance +from the west across No Man's Land, +our troops carried the remainder of the village +and pushed out along the spur to the north and +eastward toward Pozières.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A new line +definitely +established.</div> + +<p>The results of the operations of July 4, 1916, +and subsequent days were of considerable +importance. The enemy's second main system +of defense had been captured on a front +of over three miles. We had again forced +him back more than a mile, and had gained +possession of the southern crest of the main +ridge on a front of 6,000 yards. Four more +of his fortified villages and three woods had +been wrested from him by determined fighting, +and our advanced troops had penetrated +as far as his third line of defense. In spite +of a resolute resistance and many counterattacks, +in which the enemy had suffered +severely, our line was definitely established +from Maltz Horn Farm, where we met the +French left, northward along the eastern edge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +of Trones Wood to Longueval, then westward +past Bazentin-le-Grand to the northern corner +of Bazentin-le-Petit and Bazentin-le-Petit +Wood, and then westward again past the southern +face of Pozières to the north of Ovillers. +Posts were established at Arrow Head Copse +and Waterlot Farm, while we had troops +thrown forward in Delville Wood and toward +High Wood, though their position was not yet +secure.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sir Henry +Rawlinson +commended.</div> + +<p>I cannot speak too highly of the skill, daring +endurance, and determination by which +these results had been achieved. Great credit +is due to Sir Henry Rawlinson for the thoroughness +and care with which this difficult +undertaking was planned; while the advance +and deployment made by night without confusion, +and the complete success of the subsequent +attack, constitute a striking tribute to +the discipline and spirit of the troops engaged, +as well as to the powers of leadership and +organization of their commanders and staffs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Guns and +prisoners +taken.</div> + +<p>During these operations and their development +on the 15th a number of enemy guns +were taken, making a total capture since July +1, 1916, of eight heavy howitzers, four heavy +guns, forty-two field and light guns and field +howitzers, thirty trench mortars, and fifty-two +machine guns. Very considerable losses +had been inflicted on the enemy, and the +prisoners captured amounted to over 2,000, +bringing the total since July 1, 1916, to over +10,000.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +able to +bring up +fresh +troops.</div> + +<p>There was strong evidence that the enemy +forces engaged on the battle front had been +severely shaken by the repeated successes +gained by ourselves and our allies; but the +great strength and depth of his defenses had +secured for him sufficient time to bring up fresh +troops, and he had still many powerful fortifications, +both trenches, villages, and woods, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +which he could cling in our front and on our +flanks.</p> + +<p>We had, indeed, secured a footing on the +main ridge, but only on a front of 6,000 yards, +and desirous though I was to follow up quickly +the successes we had won, it was necessary +first to widen this front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Pozières +and +Thiepval +still to be +carried.</div> + +<p>West of Bazentin-le-Petit the villages of +Pozières and Thiepval, together with the whole +elaborate system of trenches around, between +and on the main ridge behind them, had still +to be carried. An advance further east would, +however, eventually turn these defenses, and +all that was for the present required on the left +flank of our attack was a steady, methodical, +step by step advance as already ordered.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Salient at +Delville, +Wood and +Longueval.</div> + +<p>On our right flank the situation called for +stronger measures. At Delville Wood and +Longueval our lines formed a sharp salient, +from which our front ran on the one side westward +to Pozières, and on the other southward +to Maltz Horn Farm. At Maltz Horn Farm +our lines joined the French, and the allied front +continued still southward to the village of Hem, +on the Somme.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy's +advantages.</div> + +<p>This pronounced salient invited counterattacks +by the enemy. He possessed direct observation +on it all around from Guillemont on +the southeast to High Wood on the northwest. +He could bring a concentric fire of artillery, +to bear not only on the wood and village, +but also on the confined space behind, through +which ran the French communications as well +as ours, where great numbers of guns, besides +ammunition and impediments of all sorts, had +necessarily to be crowded together. Having +been in occupation of this ground for nearly +two years, he knew every foot of it, and could +not fail to appreciate the possibilities of causing +us heavy loss there by indirect artillery +fire; while it was evident that, if he could drive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +in the salient in our line and so gain direct +observation on the ground behind, our position +in that area would become very uncomfortable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Confidence +in the +troops</div> + +<p>If there had not been good grounds for confidence +that the enemy was not capable of +driving from this position troops who had +shown themselves able to wrest it from him, +the situation would have been an anxious one. +In any case it was clear that the first requirement +at the moment was that our right flank, +and the French troops in extension of it, +should swing up into line with our centre. To +effect this, however, strong enemy positions had +to be captured both by ourselves and by our +allies.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Plateau +from Delville +Wood +to Morval</div> + +<div class="sidenote">New +enemy defenses.</div> + +<p>From Delville Wood the main plateau extends +for 4,000 yards east-northeast to Les +Boeufs and Morval, and for about the same +distance southeastward to Leuze and Bouleau +Woods, which stand above and about +1,000 yards to the west of Combles. To bring +my right up into line with the rest of my +front it was necessary to capture Guillemont, +Falfemont Farm, and Leuze Wood, and then +Ginchy and Bouleau Woods. These localities +were naturally very strong, and they had been +elaborately fortified. The enemy's main second-line +system of defense ran in front of them +from Waterlot Farm, which was already in +our hands, southeastward to Falfemont Farm, +and thence southward to the Somme. The +importance of holding us back in this area +could not escape the enemy's notice, and he had +dug and wired many new trenches, both in +front of and behind his original lines. He had +also brought up fresh troops, and there was no +possibility of taking him by surprise.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rain +and unfavorable +ground.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constant +haze.</div> + +<p>The task before us was, therefore, a very +difficult one and entailed a real trial of +strength between the opposing forces. At this +juncture its difficulties were increased by unfavorable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +weather. The nature of the ground +limited the possibility of direct observation of +our artillery fire, and we were consequently +much dependent on observation from the air. +As in that element we had attained almost complete +superiority, all that we required was a +clear atmosphere; but with this we were not +favored for several weeks. We had rather more +rain than is usual in July and August, and even +when no rain fell there was an almost constant +haze and frequent low clouds.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +and +French +must advance +together.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Positions +the +French +must +capture.</div> + +<p>In swinging up my own right it was very +important that the French line north of the +Somme should be advanced at the same time +in close combination with the movement of the +British troops. The line of demarkation agreed +on between the French commander and myself +ran from Maltz Horn Farm due eastward to +the Combles Valley and then northeastward up +that valley to a point midway between Sailly-Saillisel +and Morval. These two villages had +been fixed upon as objectives, respectively, of +the French left and of my right. In order to +advance in co-operation with my right, and +eventually to reach Sailly-Saillisel, our allies +had still to fight their way up that portion of +the main ridge which lies between the Combles +Valley on the west and the River Tortille on the +east. To do so they had to capture, in the first +place, the strongly fortified villages of Maurepas, +Le Forest, Rancourt, and <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Fregicort'">Frégicourt</ins>, besides +many woods and strong systems of +trenches. As the high ground on each side +of the Combles Valley commands the slopes of +the ridge on the opposite side, it was essential +that the advance of the two armies should be +simultaneous and made in the closest co-operation. +This was fully recognized by both armies, +and our plans were made accordingly.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A pause +necessary.</div> + +<p>To carry out the necessary preparations to +deal with the difficult situation outlined above<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +a short pause was necessary, to enable tired +troops to be relieved and guns to be moved +forward; while at the same time old communications +had to be improved and new ones made. +Intrenchments against probable counterattacks +could not be neglected, and fresh dispositions +of troops were required for the new attacks +to be directed eastward.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Pressure +on whole +front.</div> + +<p>It was also necessary to continue such pressure +on the rest of our front, not only on the +Ancre, but further south, as would make it +impossible for the enemy to devote himself +entirely to resisting the advance between Delville +Wood and the Somme. In addition, it was +desirable further to secure our hold on the +main ridge west of Delville Wood by gaining +more ground to our front in that direction. +Orders were therefore issued in accordance +with the general considerations explained +above, and, without relaxing pressure along +the enemy's front from Delville Wood to the +west, preparations for an attack on Guillemont +were pushed on.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +counterattack +on +Delville +Wood.</div> + +<p>During the afternoon of July 18, 1916, the +enemy developed his expected counterattack +against Delville Wood, after heavy preliminary +shelling. By sheer weight of numbers, and at +very heavy cost, he forced his way through the +northern and northeastern portion of the wood +and into the northern half of Longueval, which +our troops had cleared only that morning. In +the southeast corner of the wood he was held +up by a gallant defense, and further south +three attacks on our positions in Waterlot +Farm failed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress +bought +by hard +fighting.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +in great +strength.</div> + +<p>This enemy attack on Delville Wood marked +the commencement of the long, closely contested +struggle which was not finally decided +in our favor till the fall of Guillemont on +September 3, 1916, a decision which was confirmed +by the capture of Ginchy six days later.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +Considerable gains were indeed made during +this period, but progress was slow, and bought +only by hard fighting. A footing was established +in High Wood on July 20, 1916, and our +line linked up thence with Longueval. A subsequent +advance by the Fourth Army on July 23, +1916, on a wide front from Guillemont to +Pozières found the enemy in great strength +all along the line, with machine guns and forward +troops in shell holes and newly constructed +trenches well in front of his main +defenses. Although ground was won, the +strength of the resistance experienced showed +that the hostile troops had recovered from their +previous confusion sufficiently to necessitate +long and careful preparation before further +successes on any great scale could be secured.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Two +powerful +counterattacks.</div> + +<p>An assault delivered simultaneously on this +date by General Gough's army against Pozières +gained considerable results, and by the morning +of July 25, 1916, the whole of that village was +carried, including the cemetery, and important +progress was made along the enemy's trenches +to the northeast. That evening, after heavy artillery +preparation, the enemy launched two +more powerful counterattacks, the one directed +against our new position in and around High +Wood and the other delivered from the northwest +of Delville Wood. Both attacks were +completely broken up with very heavy losses to +the enemy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Delville +Wood +recovered.</div> + +<p>On July 27, 1916, the remainder of Delville +Wood was recovered, and two days later the +northern portion of Longueval and the orchards +were cleared of the enemy, after severe fighting, +in which our own and the enemy's artillery +were very active.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fighting +at +Guillemont.</div> + +<p>On July 30, 1916, the village of Guillemont +and Falfemont Farm to the southeast were +attacked, in conjunction with a French attack +north of the Somme. A battalion entered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +Guillemont, and part of it passed through to +the far side; but as the battalions on either +flank did not reach their objectives, it was +obliged to fall back, after holding out for some +hours on the western edge of the village. In +a subsequent local attack on August 7, 1916, +our troops again entered Guillemont, but were +again compelled to fall back owing to the failure +of a simultaneous effort against the enemy's +trenches on the flanks of the village.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dominating +enemy +positions.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Series +of French +and +British +attacks.</div> + +<p>The ground to the south of Guillemont was +dominated by the enemy's positions in and +about that village. It was therefore hoped +that these positions might be captured first, +before an advance to the south of them in the +direction of Falfemont Farm was pushed further +forward. It had now become evident, +however, that Guillemont could not be captured +as an isolated enterprise without very +heavy loss, and, accordingly, arrangements +were made with the French Army on our immediate +right for a series of combined attacks, +to be delivered in progressive stages, +which should embrace Maurepas, Falfemont +Farm, Guillemont, Leuze Wood, and Ginchy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attacks +and +counterattacks.</div> + +<p>An attempt on August 16, 1916, to carry out +the first stage of the prearranged scheme met +with only partial success, and two days +later, after a preliminary bombardment lasting +thirty-six hours, a larger combined attack was +undertaken. In spite of a number of enemy +counterattacks the most violent of which +leveled at the point of junction of the British +with the French, succeeded in forcing our allies +and ourselves back from a part of the ground +won—very valuable progress was made, and +our troops established themselves in the outskirts +of Guillemont village and occupied +Guillemont Station. A violent counterattack +on Guillemont Station was repulsed on August +23, 1916, and next day further important progress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +was made on a wide front north and east +of Delville Wood.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Advance +by bombing +and +sapping.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress +near +Thiepval.</div> + +<p>Apart from the operations already described, +others of a minor character, yet involving +much fierce and obstinate fighting, continued +during this period on the fronts of both the +British armies. Our lines were pushed forward +wherever possible by means of local attacks and +by bombing and sapping, and the enemy was +driven out of various forward positions from +which he might hamper our progress. By these +means many gains were made which, though +small in themselves, in the aggregate represented +very considerable advances. In this way +our line was brought to the crest of the ridge +above Martinpuich, and Pozières Windmill and +the high ground north of the village were +secured, and with them observation over Martinpuich +and Courcelette and the enemy's gun +positions in their neighborhood and around +Le Sars. At a later date our troops reached +the defenses of Mouquet Farm, northwest of +Pozières, and made progress in the enemy's +trenches south of Thiepval. The enemy's counter-attacks +were incessant and frequently of +great violence, but they were made in vain and +at heavy cost to him. The fierceness of the +fighting can be gathered from the fact that one +regiment of the German Guards Reserve Corps +which had been in the Thiepval salient opposite +Mouquet Farm is known to have lost 1,400 men +in fifteen days.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A general +attack.</div> + +<p>The first two days of September, 1916, on +both army fronts were spent in preparation +for a more general attack, which the gradual +progress made during the preceding month +had placed us in a position to undertake. Our +assault was delivered at 12 noon on September +3, 1916, on a front extending from our extreme +right to the third enemy trenches on +the right bank of the Ancre, north of Hamel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +Our allies attacked simultaneously on our +right.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Guillemont +stormed.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Counterattacks +on Guillemont.</div> + +<p>Guillemont was stormed and at once consolidated, +and our troops pushed on unchecked +to Ginchy and the line of the road running +south to Wedge Wood. Ginchy was also seized, +but here, in the afternoon, we were very +strongly counterattacked. For three days the +tide of attack and counterattack swayed +backward and forward among the ruined +houses of the village, till, in the end, for three +days more the greater part of it remained in +the enemy's possession. Three counterattacks +made on the evening of September 3, 1916, +against our troops in Guillemont all failed, +with considerable loss to the enemy. We +also gained ground north of Delville Wood +and in High Wood, though here an enemy +counterattack recovered part of the ground +won.</p> + +<p>On the front of General Gough's army, +though the enemy suffered heavy losses in personnel, +our gain in ground was slight.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +assault on +Falfemont +Farm.</div> + +<p>In order to keep touch with the French who +were attacking on our right the assault on +Falfemont Farm on September 3, 1916, was delivered +three hours before the opening of the +main assault. In the impetus of their first rush +our troops reached the farm, but could not +hold it. Nevertheless, they pushed on to the +north of it, and on September 4, 1916, delivered +a series of fresh assaults upon it from the west +and north.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Leuze +Wood +cleared.</div> + +<p>Ultimately this strongly fortified position +was occupied piece by piece, and by the morning +of September 5, 1916, the whole of it was in +our possession. Meanwhile further progress +had been made to the northeast of the farm, +where considerable initiative was shown by the +local commanders. By the evening of the same +day our troops were established strongly in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +Leuze Wood, which on the following day was +finally cleared of the enemy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Advance +on the +right.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy's +barrier +broken.</div> + +<p>In spite of the fact that most of Ginchy and +of High Wood remained in the enemy's hands, +very noteworthy progress had been made in the +course of these four days' operations, exceeding +anything that had been achieved since July 14, +1916. Our right was advanced on a front of +nearly two miles to an average depth of nearly +one mile, penetrating the enemy's original second +line of defense on this front, and capturing +strongly fortified positions at Falfemont +Farm, Leuze Wood, Guillemont, and southeast +of Delville Wood, where reached the western +outskirts of Ginchy. More important than this +gain in territory was the fact that the barrier +which for seven weeks the enemy had maintained +against our further advance had at last +been broken. Over 1,000 prisoners were taken +and many machine guns captured or destroyed +in the course of the fighting.</p> + +<p>Preparations for a further attack upon +Ginchy continued without intermission, and at +4.45 p.m. on September 9, 1916, the attack was +reopened on the whole of the Fourth Army +front. At Ginchy and to the north of Leuze +Wood it met with almost immediate success. +On the right the enemy's line was seized over a +front of more than 1,000 yards from the southwest +corner of Bouleau Woods, in a northwesterly +direction, to a point just south of the +Guillemont-Morval tramway. Our troops again +forced their way into Ginchy, and passing beyond +it carried the line of enemy trenches to +the east. Further progress was made east of +Delville Wood and south and east of High +Wood.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +prisoners +taken.</div> + +<p>Over 500 prisoners were taken in the operations +of September 9, 1916, and following +days, making the total since July 1, 1916, over +17,000.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">French +progress.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile the French had made great progress +on our right, bringing their line forward +to Louage Wood (just south of Combles)—Le +Forest-Clery-sur-Somme, all three inclusive. +The weak salient in the allied line had therefore +disappeared and we had gained the front +required for further operations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ability +of new +armies.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Depth of +enemy +fortifications.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Failure of +counterattacks.</div> + +<p>Still more importance, however, lay in the +proof afforded by the results described of the +ability of our new armies, not only to rush the +enemy's strongest defenses, as had been accomplished +on July 1 and 14, 1916, but also to wear +down and break his power of resistance by a +steady, relentless pressure, as they had done +during the weeks of this fierce and protracted +struggle. As has already been recounted, the +preparations made for our assault on July 1, +1916, had been long and elaborate; but though +the enemy knew that an attack was coming, it +would seem that he considered the troops already +on the spot, secure in their apparently +impregnable defenses, would suffice to deal +with it. The success of that assault, combined +with the vigor and determination with which +our troops pressed their advantage, and followed +by the successful night attack of July +14, 1916, all served to awaken him to a fuller +realization of his danger. The great depth +of his system of fortification, to which reference +has been made, gave him time to reorganize +his defeated troops, and to hurry up +numerous fresh divisions and more guns. Yet in +spite of this, he was still pushed back, steadily +and continuously. Trench after trench and +strong point after strong point were wrested +from him. The great majority of his frequent +counterattacks failed completely, with heavy +loss; while the few that achieved temporary +local success purchased it dearly, and were soon +thrown back from the ground they had for the +moment regained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> + +<p>The enemy had, it is true, delayed our advance +considerably, but the effort had cost +him dear; and the comparative collapse of +his resistance during the last few days of the +struggle justified the belief that in the long +run decisive victory would lie with our troops, +who had displayed such fine fighting qualities +and such indomitable endurance and resolution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mouquet +Farm in +hands of +British.</div> + +<p>Practically the whole of the forward crest of +the main ridge on a front of some 9,000 yards, +from Delville Wood to the road above Mouquet +Farm, was now in our hands, and with it the +advantage of observation over the slopes beyond. +East of Delville Wood, for a further +3,000 yards to Leuze Wood, we were firmly +established on the main ridge, while further +east, across the Combles Valley, the French +were advancing victoriously on our right. But +though the centre of our line was well placed, +on our flanks there was still difficult ground to +be won.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">High +ground +from +Ginchy to +Morval.</div> + +<p>From Ginchy the crest of the high ground +runs northward for 2,000 yards, and then eastward, +in a long spur, for nearly 4,000 yards. +Near the eastern extremity of this spur stands +the village of Morval commanding a wide field +of view and fire in every direction. At Leuze +Wood my right was still 2,000 yards from its +objective at this village, and between lay a +broad and deep branch of the main Combles +Valley, completely commanded by the Morval +spur, and flanked, not only from its head northeast +of Ginchy, but also from the high ground +east of the Combles Valley, which looks directly +into it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +French +near +Combles.</div> + +<p>Up this high ground beyond the Combles +Valley the French were working their way +toward their objective at Sailly-Saillisel, situated +due east of Morval, and standing at the +same level. Between these two villages the +ground falls away to the head of the Combles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +Valley, which runs thence in a southwesterly +direction. In the bottom of this valley lies +the small town of Combles, then well fortified +and strongly held, though dominated by my +right at Leuze Wood and by the French left +on the opposite heights. It had been agreed +between the French and myself that an assault +on Combles would not be necessary, as +the place could be rendered untenable by +pressing forward along the ridges above it on +either side.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Difficulties +in +way of +French +advance.</div> + +<p>The capture of Morval from the south presented +a very difficult problem, while the capture +of Sailly-Saillisel, at that time some 3,000 +yards to the north of the French left, was in +some respects even more difficult. The line of +the French advance was narrowed almost to +a defile by the extensive and strongly fortified +Wood of St. Pierre Vaast on the one side, and +on the other by the Combles Valley, which, with +the branches running out from it and the slopes +each side, is completely commanded, as has +been pointed out, by the heights bounding the +valley on the east and west.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Close cooperation +necessary +on right.</div> + +<p>On my right flank, therefore, the progress of +the French and British forces was still interdependent, +and the closest cooperation continued +to be necessary in order to gain the +further ground required to enable my centre to +advance on a sufficiently wide front. To cope +with such a situation unity of command is +usually essential, but in this case the cordial +good feeling between the allied armies, and the +earnest desire of each to assist the other, +proved equally effective, and removed all difficulties.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +defense +on main +ridge over +Thiepval.</div> + +<p>On my left flank the front of General Gough's +army bent back from the main ridge near +Mouquet Farm down a spur descending southwestward, +and then crossed a broad valley to +the Wonderwork, a strong point situated in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +the enemy's front-line system near the southern +end of the spur on the higher slopes of which +Thiepval stands. Opposite this part of our line +we had still to carry the enemy's original defenses +on the main ridge above Thiepval, and +in the village itself, defenses which may fairly +be described as being as nearly impregnable +as nature, art, and the unstinted labor of nearly +two years could make them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +advance on +Thiepval +defenses.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Positions +might be +rushed.</div> + +<p>Our advance on Thiepval and on the defenses +above it had been carried out up to this date, +in accordance with my instructions given on +July 3, 1916, by a slow and methodical progression, +in which great skill and much +patience and endurance had been displayed +with entirely satisfactory results. General +Gough's army had, in fact, acted most successfully +in the required manner as a pivot to the +remainder of the attack. The Thiepval defenses +were known to be exceptionally strong, +and as immediate possession of them was not +necessary to the development of my plans after +July 1, 1916, there had been no need to incur +the heavy casualties to be expected in an attempt +to rush them. The time was now approaching, +although it had not yet arrived, +when their capture would become necessary; +but from the positions we had now reached and +those which we expected shortly to obtain, I +had no doubt that they could be rushed when +required without undue loss. An important +part of the remaining positions required for +my assault on them was now won by a highly +successful enterprise carried out on the evening +of September 14, 1916, by which the Wonderwork +was stormed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Plan of +combined +attack.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Main effort +against +Rancourt +and Frégicourt.</div> + +<p>The general plan of the combined allied attack +which was opened on September 15 was +to pivot on the high ground south of the Ancre +and north of the Albert-Bapaume road, while +the Fourth Army devoted its whole effort to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +the rearmost of the enemy's original systems +of defense between Morval and Le Sars. Should +our success in this direction warrant it I made +arrangements to enable me to extend the left +of the attack to embrace the villages of Martinpuich +and Courcelette. As soon as our advance +on this front had reached the Morval +line, the time would have arrived to bring forward +my left across the Thiepval Ridge. Meanwhile +on my right our allies arranged to continue +the line of advance in close co-operation +with me from the Somme to the slopes above +Combles, but directing their main effort northward +against the villages of Rancourt and +Frégicourt, so as to complete the isolation of +Combles and open the way for their attack +upon Sailly-Saillisel.</p> + +<p>A methodical bombardment was commenced +at 6 a.m. on September 12, 1916, and was continued +steadily and uninterruptedly till the +moment of attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bombardment +and +infantry +assault.</div> + +<p>At 6.20 a.m. on September 15, 1916 the infantry +assault commenced, and at the same +moment the bombardment became intense. +Our new heavily armored cars, known as +"tanks," now brought into action for the first +time, successfully co-operated with the infantry, +and, coming as a surprise to the enemy rank +and file, gave valuable help in breaking down +their resistance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Tanks +enter +Flers.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">High +Wood +carried.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Capture +of the +Quadrilateral.</div> + +<p>The advance met with immediate success on +almost the whole of the front attacked. At +8.40 a.m. "tanks" were seen to be entering +Flers, followed by large numbers of troops. +Fighting continued in Flers for some time, +but by 10 a.m. our troops had reached the +north side of the village, and by midday had +occupied the enemy's trenches for some distance +beyond. On our right our line was advanced +to within assaulting distance of the +strong line of defense running before Morval,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +Les Boeufs, and Gueudecourt, and on our left +High Wood was at last carried after many +hours of very severe fighting, reflecting great +credit on the attacking battalions. Our success +made it possible to carry out during the +afternoon that part of the plan which provided +for the capture of Martinpuich and Courcelette, +and by the end of the day both these +villages were in our hands. On September 18, +1916, the work of this day was completed by +the capture of the Quadrilateral, an enemy +stronghold which had hitherto blocked the +progress of our right toward Morval. Further +progress was also made between Flers and +Martinpuich.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Results +of four +days' +fighting.</div> + +<p>The result of the fighting of September 15, +1916, and following days was a gain more considerable +than any which had attended our +arms in the course of a single operation since +the commencement of the offensive. In the +course of one day's fighting we had broken +through two of the enemy's main defensive systems +and had advanced on a front of over six +miles to an average depth of a mile. In the +course of this advance we had taken three large +villages, each powerfully organized for prolonged +resistance. Two of these villages had +been carried by assault with short preparation +in the course of a few hours' fighting. All this +had been accomplished with a small number of +casualties in comparison with the troops employed, +and in spite of the fact that, as was +afterward discovered, the attack did not come +as a complete surprise to the enemy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners +taken.</div> + +<p>The total number of prisoners taken by us +in these operations since their commencement +on the evening of September 14, 1916, amounted +at this date to over 4,000, including 127 officers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +attack +launched.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Objectives +taken.</div> + +<p>Preparations for our further advance were +again hindered by bad weather, but at 12.35 +p.m. on September 25, 1916, after a bombardment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +commenced early in the morning of the +24th, a general attack by the Allies was +launched on the whole front between the Somme +and Martinpuich. The objectives on the British +front included the villages of Morval, Les +Boeufs, and Gueudecourt, and a belt of country +about 1,000 yards deep curving round the +north of Flers to a point midway between that +village and Martinpuich. By nightfall the +whole of these objectives were in our hands, +with the exception of the village of Gueudecourt, +before which our troops met with very +serious resistance from a party of the enemy +in a section of his fourth main system of defense.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">French +take +Rancourt.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Combles +occupied.</div> + +<p>On our right our allies carried the village +of Rancourt, and advanced their line to the +outskirts of Frégicourt, capturing that village +also during the night and early morning. +Combles was therefore nearly surrounded by +the allied forces, and in the early morning of +September 26, 1916, the village was occupied +simultaneously by the allied forces, the British +to the north and the French to the south of the +railway. The capture of Combles in this inexpensive +fashion represented a not inconsiderable +tactical success. Though lying in a hollow, +the village was very strongly fortified, and +possessed, in addition to the works which the +enemy had constructed, exceptionally large +cellars and galleries, at a great depth under +ground, sufficient to give effectual shelter to +troops and material under the heaviest bombardment. +Great quantities of stores and ammunition +of all sorts were found in these cellars +when the village was taken.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gueudecourt +carried.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Few +casualties.</div> + +<p>On the same day Gueudecourt was carried, +after the protecting trench to the west had +been captured in a somewhat interesting fashion. +In the early morning a "tank" started +down the portion of the trench held by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +enemy from the northwest, firing its machine +guns and followed by bombers. The enemy +could not escape, as we held the trench at +the southern end. At the same time an aeroplane +flew down the length of the trench, also +firing a machine gun at the enemy holding it. +These then waved white handkerchiefs in token +of surrender, and when this was reported by +the aeroplane the infantry accepted the surrender +of the garrison. By 8.30 a.m. the whole +trench had been cleared, great numbers of the +enemy had been killed, and 8 officers and 362 +of the ranks made prisoners. Our total casualties +amounted to five.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Tactical +value of +the main +ridge.</div> + +<p>The success of the Fourth Army had now +brought our advance to the stage at which I +judged it advisable that Thiepval should be +taken, in order to bring our left flank into line +and establish it on the main ridge above that +village, the possession of which would be of +considerable tactical value in future operations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">New +attack on +Thiepval.</div> + +<p>Accordingly at 12.25 p.m. on September 26, +1916, before the enemy had been given time to +recover from the blow struck by the Fourth +Army, a general attack was launched against +Thiepval and the Thiepval Ridge. The objective +consisted of the whole of the high +ground still remaining in enemy hands extending +over a front of some 3,000 yards north and +east of Thiepval, and including, in addition to +that fortress, the Zollern Redoubt, the Stuff +Redoubt, and the Schwaben Redoubt, with the +connecting lines of trenches.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Strong +enemy resistance.</div> + +<p>The attack was a brilliant success. On the +right our troops reached the system of enemy +trenches which formed their objectives without +great difficulty. In Thiepval and the +strong works to the north of it the enemy's +resistance was more desperate. Three waves +of our attacking troops carried the outer defenses +of Mouquet Farm, and, pushing on,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +entered Zollern Redoubt, which they stormed +and consolidated. In the strong point formed +by the buildings of the farm itself, the enemy +garrison, securely posted in deep cellars, held +out until 6 p.m., when their last defenses were +forced by a working party of a pioneer battalion +acting on its own initiative.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thiepval +taken.</div> + +<p>On the left of the attack fierce fighting, in +which "tanks" again gave valuable assistance +to our troops, continued in Thiepval during +that day and the following night, but by 8.30 +a.m. on September 27, 1916 the whole of the +village of Thiepval was in our hands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners.</div> + +<p>Some 2,300 prisoners were taken in the +course of the fighting on the Thiepval Ridge +on these and the subsequent days, bringing +the total number of prisoners taken in the +battle area in the operations of September 14-30, +1916, to nearly 10,000. In the same period +we had captured 27 guns, over 200 machine +guns, and some 40 trench mortars.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Stuff and +Schwaben +Redoubts.</div> + +<p>On the same date the south and west sides +of Stuff Redoubt were carried by our troops, +together with the length of trench connecting +that strong point with Schwaben Redoubt to +the west and also the greater part of the +enemy's defensive line eastward along the +northern slopes of the ridge. Schwaben Redoubt +was assaulted during the afternoon, and +in spite of counterattacks, delivered by strong +enemy reenforcements, we captured the whole +of the southern face of the redoubt and pushed +out patrols to the northern face and toward +St. Pierre Divion.</p> + +<p>Our line was also advanced north of Courcelette, +while on the Fourth Army front a further +portion of the enemy's fourth-system of +defense northwest of Gueudecourt was carried +on a front of a mile. Between these two points +the enemy fell back upon his defenses running +in front of Eaucourt l'Abbaye and Le Sars,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +and on the afternoon and evening of September +27, 1916, our troops were able to make a +very considerable advance in this area without +encountering serious opposition until within +a few hundred yards of this line. The ground +thus occupied extended to a depth of from 500 +to 600 yards on a front of nearly two miles +between the Bazentin-le-Petit, Lingy, Thilloy, +and Albert-Bapaume roads.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Destremont +Farm +carried.</div> + +<p>Destremont Farm, southwest of Le Sars, +was carried by a single company on September +29, 1916, and on the afternoon of October 1, +1916, a successful attack was launched against +Eaucourt l'Abbaye and the enemy defenses to +the east and west of it, comprising a total +front of about 3,000 yards. Our artillery barrage +was extremely accurate, and contributed +greatly to the success of the attack. Bomb +fighting continued among the buildings during +the next two days, but by the evening of October +3 the whole of Eaucourt l'Abbaye was +in our hands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fourth +Army +attacks.</div> + +<p>At the end of September, 1916, I had handed +over Morval to the French, in order to facilitate +their attacks on Sailly-Saillisel, and on +October 7, 1916, after a postponement rendered +necessary by three days' continuous rain, our +allies made a considerable advance in the direction +of the latter village. On the same day +the Fourth Army attacked along the whole +front from Les Boeufs to Destremont Farm +in support of the operations of our allies.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy's +trenches +east of +Gueudecourt +taken.</div> + +<p>The village of Le Sars was captured, together +with the quarry to the northwest, while considerable +progress was made at other points +along the front attacked. In particular, to the +east of Gueudecourt, the enemy's trenches were +carried on a breadth of some 2,000 yards, and +a footing gained on the crest of the long spur +which screens the defenses of Le Transloy from +the southwest. Nearly 1,000 prisoners were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +secured by the Fourth Army in the course of +these operations.</p> + +<p>With the exception of his positions in the +neighborhood of Sailly-Saillisel, and his scanty +foothold on the northern crest of the high +ground above Thiepval, the enemy had now +been driven from the whole of the ridge lying +between the Tortille and the Ancre.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +make repeated +counterattacks.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British +situation +satisfactory.</div> + +<p>Possession of the northwestern portion of +the ridge north of the latter village carried +with it observation over the valley of the Ancre +between Miraumont and Hamel and the spurs +and valleys held by the enemy on the right bank +of the river. The Germans, therefore, made +desperate efforts to cling to their last remaining +trenches in this area, and in the course of +the three weeks following our advance made repeated +counterattacks at heavy cost in the vain +hope of recovering the ground they had lost. +During this period our gains in the neighborhood +of Stuff and Schwaben Redoubts were +gradually increased and secured in readiness +for future operations; and I was quite confident +of the ability of our troops, not only +to repulse the enemy's attacks, but to clear +him entirely from his last positions on the ridge +whenever it should suit my plans to do so. +I was, therefore, well content with the situation +on this flank.</p> + +<p>Along the centre of our line from Gueudecourt +to the west of Le Sars similar considerations +applied. As we were already well +down the forward slopes of the ridge on his +front, it was for the time being inadvisable +to make any serious advance. Pending developments +elsewhere all that was necessary +or indeed desirable was to carry on local operations +to improve our positions and to keep the +enemy fully employed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Strong +enemy +positions +in eastern +flank.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +resistance +weakens.</div> + +<p>On our eastern flank, on the other hand, it +was important to gain ground. Here the enemy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +still possessed a strong system of trenches +covering the villages of Le Transloy and Beaulencourt +and the town of Bapaume; but, although +he was digging with feverish haste, he +had not yet been able to create any very formidable +defenses behind this line. In this direction, +in fact, we had at last reached a stage +at which a successful attack might reasonably +be expected to yield much greater results than +anything we had yet attained. The resistance +of the troops opposed to us had seriously weakened +in the course of our recent operations, and +there was no reason to suppose that the effort +required would not be within our powers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Necessity +to gain +spur and +heights.</div> + +<p>The last completed system of defense, before +Le Transloy, was flanked to the south by +the enemy's positions at Sailly-Saillisel, and +screened to the west by the spur lying between +Le Transloy and Les Boeufs. A necessary +preliminary, therefore, to an assault upon it +was to secure the spur and the Sailly-Saillisel +heights. Possession of the high ground at this +latter village would at once give a far better +command over the ground to the north and +northwest, secure the flank of our operations +toward Le Transloy, and deprive the enemy of +observation over the allied communications in +the Combles Valley. In view of the enemy's +efforts to construct new systems of defense behind +the Le Transloy spur, was extended and +secured time in dealing with the situation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rain and +fog a +hindrance.</div> + +<p>Unfortunately, at this juncture, very unfavorable +weather set in and continued with +scarcely a break during the remainder of October +and the early part of November. Poor +visibility seriously interfered with the work +of our artillery, and constant rain turned the +mass of hastily dug trenches for which we +were fighting into channels of deep mud. The +country roads, broken by countless shell craters, +that cross the deep stretch of ground we had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +lately won, rapidly became almost impassable, +making the supply of food, stores, and ammunition +a serious problem. These conditions +multiplied the difficulties of attack to such an +extent that it was found impossible to exploit +the situation with the rapidity necessary to +enable us to reap the full benefits of the advantages +we had gained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +has time +to reorganize.</div> + +<p>None the less, my right flank continued to +assist the operations of our allies against +Saillisel, and attacks were made to this end, +whenever a slight improvement in the weather +made the co-operation of artillery and infantry +at all possible. The delay in our advance, however, +though unavoidable, had given the enemy +time to reorganize and rally his troops. His +resistance again became stubborn and he seized +every favorable opportunity for counterattacks. +Trenches changed hands with great frequency, +the conditions of ground making it difficult to +renew exhausted supplies of bombs and ammunition, +or to consolidate the ground won, +and so rendering it an easier matter to take +a battered trench than to hold it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">French +take +Sailly-Saillisel.</div> + +<p>On September 12 and 18, 1916, further gains +were made to the east of the Les Boeufs-Gueudecourt +line and east of Le Sars, and some +hundreds of prisoners were taken. On these +dates, despite all the difficulties of ground, +the French first reached and then captured +the villages of Sailly-Saillisel, but the moment +for decisive action was rapidly passing away, +while the weather showed no signs of improvement. +By this time, too, the ground had already +become so bad that nothing less than a +prolonged period of drying weather, which at +that season of the year was most unlikely to +occur, would suit our purpose.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">New +line established.</div> + +<p>In these circumstances, while continuing to +do all that was possible to improve my position +on my right flank, I determined to press<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +on with preparations for the exploitation of +the favorable local situation on my left flank. +At midday on October 21, 1916, during a short +spell of fine, cold weather, the line of Regina +Trench and Stuff Trench, from the west +Courcelette-Pys road westward to Schwaben Redoubt, +was attacked with complete success. +Assisted by an excellent artillery preparation +and barrage, our infantry carried the whole +of their objectives very quickly and with +remarkably little loss, and our new line was +firmly established in spite of the enemy's shell +fire. Over one thousand prisoners were taken +in the course of the day's fighting, a figure only +slightly exceeded by our casualties.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Part of +Regina +trench +carried.</div> + +<p>On October 23, 1916, and again on November +5, 1916, while awaiting better weather for further +operations on the Ancre, our attacks on +the enemy's positions to the east of Les Boeufs +and Gueudecourt were renewed, in conjunction +with French operations against the Sailly-Saillisel +heights and St. Pierre Vaast Wood. +Considerable further progress was achieved. +Our footing at the crest of Le Transloy Spur +was extended and secured, and the much-contested +tangle of trenches at our junction with +the French left at last passed definitely into +our possession. Many smaller gains were made +in this neighborhood by local assaults during +these days, in spite of the difficult conditions +of the ground. In particular, on November 10, +1916, after a day of improved weather, the portion +of Regina Trench lying to the east of the +Courcelette-Pys road was carried on a front of +about one thousand yards.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +losses.</div> + +<p>Throughout these operations the enemy's +counterattacks were very numerous and determined, +succeeding indeed in the evening of October +23, 1916, in regaining a portion of the +ground east of Le Sars taken from him by our +attack on that day. On all other occasions his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +attacks were broken by our artillery or infantry +and the losses incurred by him in these attempts, +made frequently with considerable effectives, +were undoubtedly very severe.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Preparations +for +attack on +the Ancre.</div> + +<p>On November 9, 1916, the long-continued bad +weather took a turn for the better, and thereafter +remained dry and cold, with frosty nights +and misty mornings, for some days. Final +preparations were therefore pushed on for the +attack on the Ancre, though, as the ground +was still very bad in places, it was necessary +to limit the operations to what it would be reasonably +possible to consolidate and hold under +the existing conditions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Permanent +line +of enemy +fortifications.</div> + +<p>The enemy's defenses in this area were already +extremely formidable when they resisted +our assault on July 1, 1916, and the succeeding +period of four months had been spent in improving +and adding to them in the light of the +experience he had gained in the course of our +attacks further south. The hamlet of St. Pierre +Divion and the villages of Beaucourt-sur-Ancre +and Beaumont Hamel, like the rest of the +villages forming part of the enemy's original +front in this district, were evidently intended +by him to form a permanent line of fortifications, +while he developed his offensive elsewhere. +Realizing that his position in them had +become a dangerous one, the enemy had multiplied +the number of his guns covering this part +of his line, and at the end of October introduced +an additional division on his front between +Grandcourt and Hébuterne.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Barrage +to cover +infantry.</div> + +<p>At 5 o'clock on the morning of November 11, +1916, the special bombardment preliminary to +the attack was commenced. It continued with +bursts of great intensity until 5.45 o'clock on +the morning of November 13, 1916, when it +developed into a very effective barrage covering +the assaulting infantry.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">St. Pierre +Divion +taken.</div> + +<p>At that hour our troops advanced on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +enemy's position through dense fog, and rapidly +entered his first-line trenches on almost the +whole front attacked, from east of Schwaben +Redoubt to the north of Serre. South of the +Ancre, where our assault was directed northward +against the enemy's trenches on the northern +slopes of the Thiepval Ridge, it met with a +success altogether remarkable for rapidity of +execution and lightness of cost. By 7.20 a.m. +our objectives east of St. Pierre Divion had been +captured, and the Germans in and about that +hamlet were hemmed in between our troops +and the river. Many of the enemy were driven +into their dugouts and surrendered, and at 9 +a.m. the number of prisoners was actually +greater than the attacking force. St. Pierre +Divion soon fell, and in this area nearly 1,400 +prisoners were taken by a single division at +the expense of less than 600 casualties. The +rest of our forces operating south of the Ancre +attained their objectives with equal completeness +and success.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Objectives +reached +on right +bank of +Ancre.</div> + +<p>North of the river the struggle was more +severe, but very satisfactory results were +achieved. Though parties of the enemy held +out for some hours during the day in strong +points at various places along his first line +and in Beaumont Hamel, the main attack +pushed on. The troops attacking close to the +right bank of the Ancre reached their second +objectives to the west and northwest of Beaucourt +during the morning, and held on there +for the remainder of the day and night, though +practically isolated from the rest of our attacking +troops. Their tenacity was of the utmost +value, and contributed very largely to the +success of the operations. At nightfall our +troops were established on the western outskirts +of Beaucourt, in touch with our forces +south of the river, and held a line along the +station road from the Ancre toward Beaumont<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +Hamel, where we occupied the village. Further +north the enemy's first-line system for a +distance of about half a mile beyond Beaumont +Hamel was also in our hands. Still further +north—opposite Serre—the ground was so +heavy that it became necessary to abandon the +attack at an early stage, although, despite all +difficulties, our troops had in places reached the +enemy's trenches in the course of their assault.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Beaumont +carried.</div> + +<p>Next morning, at an early hour, the attack +was renewed between Beaucourt and the top +of the spur just north of Beaumont Hamel. The +whole of Beaumont was carried, and our line +extended to the northwest along the Beaucourt +road across the southern end of the Beaumont +Hamel spur. The number of our prisoners +steadily rose, and during this and the succeeding +days our front was carried forward eastward +and northward up the slopes of the Beaumont +Hamel spur.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Allies +command +Ancre +Valley.</div> + +<p>The results of this attack were very satisfactory, +especially as before its completion bad +weather had set in again. We had secured the +command of the Ancre Valley on both banks +of the river at the point where it entered the +enemy's lines, and, without great cost to ourselves, +losses had been inflicted on the enemy +which he himself admitted to be considerable. +Our final total of prisoners taken in these operations, +and their development during the subsequent +days, exceeded 7,200, including 149 +officers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +kept on +alert.</div> + +<p>Throughout the period dealt with in this +dispatch the rôle of the other armies holding +our defensive line from the northern limits of +the battle front to beyond Ypres was necessarily +a secondary one, but their task was +neither light nor unimportant. While required +to give precedence in all respects to the needs +of the Somme battle, they were responsible for +the security of the line held by them and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +keeping the enemy on their front constantly on +the alert. Their rôle was a very trying one, +entailing heavy work on the troops and constant +vigilance on the part of commanders and +staffs. It was carried out to my entire satisfaction, +and in an unfailing spirit of unselfish +and broad-minded devotion to the general good, +which is deserving of the highest commendation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Great +number +of raids.</div> + +<p>Some idea of the thoroughness with which +their duties were performed can be gathered +from the fact that in the period of four and +a half months from July 1, 1916, some 360 raids +were carried out, in the course of which the +enemy suffered many casualties and some hundreds +of prisoners were taken by us. The largest +of these operations was undertaken on July +19, 1916, in the neighborhood of Armentières. +Our troops penetrated deeply into the enemy's +defenses, doing much damage to his works and +inflicting severe losses upon him.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Main +objects of +offensive +achieved.</div> + +<p>The three main objects with which we had +commenced our offensive in July had already +been achieved at the date when this account +closes, in spite of the fact that the heavy +Autumn rains had prevented full advantage +from being taken of the favorable situation +created by our advance, at a time when we had +good grounds for hoping to achieve yet more +important successes.</p> + +<p>Verdun had been relieved, the main German +forces had been held on the western front, and +the enemy's strength had been very considerably +worn down.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ample +compensation +for +sacrifices.</div> + +<p>Any one of these three results is in itself +sufficient to justify the Somme battle. The +attainment of all three of them affords ample +compensation for the splendid efforts of our +troops and for the sacrifices made by ourselves +and our allies. They have brought us a long +step forward toward the final victory of the +allied cause.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +failure at +Verdun.</div> + +<p>The desperate struggle for the possession of +Verdun had invested that place with a moral +and political importance out of all proportion +to its military value. Its fall would undoubtedly +have been proclaimed as a great victory +for our enemies, and would have shaken the +faith of many in our ultimate success. The +failure of the enemy to capture it, despite great +efforts and very heavy losses, was a severe blow +to his prestige, especially in view of the confidence +he had openly expressed as to the results +of the struggle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Eastward +movement +of German +troops +checked.</div> + +<p>Information obtained both during the progress +of the Somme battle and since the suspension +of active operations has fully established +the effect of our offensive in keeping the +enemy's main forces tied to the western front. +A movement of German troops eastward, which +had commenced in June as a result of the Russian +successes, continued for a short time only +after the opening of the allied attack. Thereafter +the enemy forces that moved east consisted, +with one exception, of divisions that +had been exhausted in the Somme battle, and +these troops were already replaced on the western +front by fresh divisions. In November the +strength of the enemy in the western theatre +of war was greater than in July, notwithstanding +the abandonment of his offensive at Verdun.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Somme +offensive +relieved +Verdun.</div> + +<p>It is possible that if Verdun had fallen +large forces might still have been employed in +an endeavor further to exploit that success. +It is, however, far more probable, in view of developments +in the eastern theatre, that a considerable +transfer of troops in that direction +would have followed. It is therefore justifiable +to conclude that the Somme offensive not only +relieved Verdun but held large forces which +would otherwise have been employed against +our allies in the east.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<p>The third great object of the allied operations +on the Somme was the wearing down of +the enemy's powers of resistance. Any statement +of the extent to which this has been attained +must depend in some degree on estimates.</p> + +<p>There is, nevertheless, sufficient evidence to +place it beyond doubt that the enemy's losses +in men and material have been very considerably +higher than those of the Allies, while +morally the balance of advantage on our side +is still greater.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +resistance +feebler.</div> + +<p>During the period under review a steady +deterioration took place in the morale of large +numbers of the enemy's troops. Many of them, +it is true, fought with the greatest determination, +even in the latest encounters, but the +resistance of still larger numbers became latterly +decidedly feebler than it had been in the +earlier stages of the battle. Aided by the great +depth of his defenses and by the frequent reliefs +which his resources in men enabled him +to effect, discipline and training held the machine +together sufficiently to enable the enemy +to rally and reorganize his troops after each +fresh defeat. As our advance progressed, four-fifths +of the total number of divisions engaged +on the western front were thrown one after +another into the Somme battle, some of them +twice, and some three times; and toward the +end of the operations, when the weather unfortunately +broke, there can be no doubt that +his power of resistance had been very seriously +diminished.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners +and guns +taken.</div> + +<p>The number of prisoners taken by us in the +Somme battle between July 1 and November +18, 1916, is just over 38,000, including over 800 +officers. During the same period we captured +29 heavy guns, 96 field guns and field howitzers, +136 trench mortars, and 514 machine +guns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The war fell with special severity upon the +people of the poorer classes in Russia, many +of whom, upon the advance of the German and +Austrian armies, were compelled to flee from +their homes in a practically destitute condition. +A graphic description of the pitiable +plight of these unfortunate people is given in +the following pages.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> +<h2>RUSSIA'S REFUGEES</h2> + +<h3>GREGORY MASON</h3> + + + +<div class="sidenote">A Russian +freight +train with +passengers.</div> + +<p>Near Moscow, on a siding of the railway +that runs from Moscow to Warsaw +through Smolensk, was a string of +thirteen freight cars, the short, chunky Russian +kind—barely half as long as the American—looking +as flimsy, top-heavy, and unwieldy +as houseboats on wheels. No locomotive was +tied to the string, and from the windward side, +where the cars were whitewashed by the biting +blizzard that had already stopped all traffic +with its drifted barricades, they had the +desolate look of stranded empties. But the leeward +door of each car was open a few inches, +permitting the egress of odors that told any +one who chanced to pass that the big rolling +boxes were loaded with human freight, closely +packed and long on the journey.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Old women +at work.</div> + +<p>I pushed the door of one car back and looked +in. At first in the semi-gloom nothing was +visible, but gradually, against a crack in the +opposite car wall that let through a streak +of gray light with a ribbon of snow that rustled +as it fell on the straw-covered floor, there grew +the dull silhouette of two old women, who sat +facing each other in the straw, laboriously +pounding corn into flour in a big earthen bowl +between them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Emaciated +children +and dead +babies.</div> + +<p>The young Pole who was with me climbed +into the car and probed its recesses with a +spear of light from a pocket flash-lamp. The +old women stopped pounding to lift toward us +wrinkled faces that expressed fear and hate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +when the tiny searchlight was turned on their +dim, blinking eyes. Another pair of hags in +a far corner, propped against a bale of hay and +bound together like Siamese twins in a brown +horse-blanket, moved their eyes feebly, but +nothing more. They were paralyzed. A score +of children that had been huddled here and +there in the straw in twos and threes for +warmth's sake came slowly to life and crowded +around us, lifting a ring of wan, emaciated +little faces. Three, too feeble to stand, sat up +and stared at the strange light. The bodies of +four small babies moved not at all—were, in +fact, lifeless.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Refugees +from +Poland.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Herded +like cattle +by +soldiers.</div> + +<p>These people were refugees from a rural part +of Poland, made homeless by the Russian military +decree which ordered the destruction of +all buildings and the removal of all civilians +from the rearward path of the Muscovite army +as it fell back before the battering attacks +of the Germans from Warsaw to Dwinsk. For +ten days these four old women and twenty-seven +children had been in that car, with no +fire, few warm clothes, and only a little dried +meat, corn flour, and water to sustain life in +them. This the meager fare had failed to do +in the case of the four youngest. Since they +had been herded into that cold box like cattle +by soldiers at the station to which they had +driven or walked from their blazing homes, +they had been moved eastward daily in the +joggling car, which traveled slowly and by fits +and starts, unvisited by any one, not knowing +their destination, and now too low in mind +and body to care.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Children +forget +their +families.</div> + +<p>The two old creatures who were paralyzed +when they had been dumped into the car were +now apparently dying; several of the children +swayed with weakness as they stood, clutching +at the biscuits and sweet chocolate which we +drew from our pockets. Five of them were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +grandchildren of one of the paralytics, three +designated one of the wrinkled flour-makers +by the Polish equivalent of "granny," but none +of the others knew where their parents were, +and six of them had forgotten their own family +names or had never known them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Moscow +and Petrograd +overcrowded.</div> + +<p>The other twelve cars were like this one except +that all of them had at least two or three—and +usually six or seven—feeble, crackly-voiced +old men with their complement of women and +children, and one contained three young fellows +of twenty who had probably smuggled themselves +into the car and who cringed when my +Polish interpreter lunged on them with his +rapier of light and retreated into a corner +where two cows stood with necks crossed in +affection. These youths knew they had no +business in that car, for even in the chaos of +retreat the word had been passed among the +civilian refugees: "Women, children, and old +men first in the cars; young men can walk." +But there have not been enough cars even for +the weak, the very young, and the very aged, +and thousands, perhaps tens of thousands, have +found their graves along the slushy, muddy +roads they were following toward Petrograd +and Moscow from the occupied provinces of +Poland and the Baltic. These people in the +freight cars at least had had transportation +and a crude kind of shelter. But of the two +million refugees who are overcrowding Moscow +and Petrograd, to the great detriment of the +health average of the two Russian capitals, +many thousands came there several hundred +weary miles on foot. And others, less determined +or weaker, are still straggling in or +are lingering by the way, some of the latter +dying and some finding shelter in small towns +between the twin big cities and the front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Millions +of +refugees.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">People of +all ranks +and +stations.</div> + +<p>Some estimates place the number of Russian +refugees at from ten to fifteen million; thirteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +million is the estimate of the Tatiana Committee, +one of the most influential relief organizations +in Russia, named after the second +daughter of the Czar, who is its honorary head. +By race the refugees are principally Poles, +Jews, Letts, and Lithuanians, but they come +from all ranks and stations of life, rich and +poor alike, now all poor, thrown from their +homes with nothing but the clothes on their +bodies by the grim chances of war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thousands +must +starve +and +freeze.</div> + +<p>In times of peace and prosperity the sudden +impoverishment of such a large mass of people +would tax the relief and charity of Russia to +the limit; but now, when all food prices are +from one hundred to three hundred per cent +higher than before the war—when even the +well-to-do have difficulty to get enough bread, +sugar, and coal—it is inevitable that thousands +of these homeless ones should starve and freeze +to death. Thousands have already suffered +this fate, but hundreds of thousands, perhaps +a million or more, will die this way before +spring unless relief comes quickly and bountifully +from abroad, for Russia cannot cope with +the emergency alone. Unless Russia's allies or +neutrals begin at once to pour into Russia a +stream of food to fill the stomachs of these +hungry, homeless ones, this will be the bitterest +winter in Russian history, a winter whose horrors +will far transcend the terrible winter of +1812, when Napoleon ravaged Poland and +sacked Moscow.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Great +Britain +must +bolster +weaker +allies.</div> + +<p>Great Britain, who is holding up some of +her weaker allies in many ways, sweeping +mines from the White Sea for Russia, and with +France bolstering the remnant of the Belgian +army in Flanders, is doing much to alleviate +the suffering of Russia's refugees by unofficial +action. The Great Britain to Poland Fund, +organized and supported by such prominent +Britons as Lady Byron, Viscount Bryce, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +Duke of Newcastle, the Earl of Rosebery, and +the Lord Mayor of London, at the instance of +Princess Bariatinsky, who is better known as +the famous Russian actress, Madame Yavorska, +is feeding between 4,000 and 7,000 refugees +daily at Petrograd, Moscow, Minsk, and at several +small towns close to the front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Petrograd +"Feeding +Point."</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sheds for +shelter.</div> + +<p>The Petrograd "Feeding Point" is a long, +hastily built shed of unfinished lumber a +stone's-throw from the Warsaw station. This +site was well selected, for the long stone railway +station, open at both ends like an aviation +hangar, is the center of refugee population in +the Czar's city. Not only were several hundred +homeless men, women, and children sleeping +on the cold stone floors of the draughty station, +but other hundreds were lying about in odd +corners here and there, in empty trucks and +freight cars, lying within a few feet of where +the crowded refugee train had left them, with +no hope or ambition to make them move on. +Still other hundreds, more fortunate than +these, were sheltered in three sheds, similar to +the "Refugees' Restaurant" in their unfinished +board construction, which had been built by +the Government. Each of these sheds, about +thirty by sixty feet in dimensions, housed between +two and three hundred persons. This +crowding was made possible by the presence +of platforms built one above another in triple +or quadruple deck "nests" about the room, +where people of both sexes and of all ages +slept, cooked and ate such food as they could +beg, and lay all day long with expressionless, +bulging eyes, half stupefied in the stifling +stench of the place.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lines before +the +feeding +stations.</div> + +<p>Twice a day a line formed before the door +of the feeding station of such persons as were +known to have no private food supply, and +when the door opened they surged in, getting +brass tickets at the threshold which each one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +exchanged in the far end of the room for a large +square piece of Russian <i>chorny khleb</i>—black +bread—and a steaming bowl of good old English +porridge served to them by the bustling +ladies of the British Colony. Only enough +were admitted at a time to fill the double row +of board tables, yet every day from 1,000 to +1,400 were fed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +gayety of +hungry +youth.</div> + +<p>It was interesting to stand at the elbow of +the buxom, indefatigably good-natured English +lady who wielded the porridge spoon and watch +the long, hungry file which melted away toward +the tables when it reached the tall, bottomless +urn that held the fragrant, steaming cereal. +First came a dozen boys and girls who had +lost their parents but not the irresistible +gayety of hungry youth in the presence of +food.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A one-time +rich +man.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Bitterness +toward +the Government.</div> + +<p>They took their bread and porridge without +even a mumbled "<i>Spassiba</i>"—thanks—and +shouldered each other for seats at the tables. +Then came a blind old man led by his two +grandsons. His thanks were pathetically profuse. +Next another graybeard, carrying an +ivory cane and wearing a handsome fur coat, +the only indications of his recent high station +in provincial society except the unmistakable +reserve and dignity of gentility. After him was +a handsome Lett, who had been a station agent +in Courland till his station was dynamited in +the Russian retreat. None of the children gave +any thanks for the food; in fact, hardly any +one did except the very old. The attitude of +the others seemed to be that of people who were +getting only a small part of their just due. +Perhaps that was because they may not have +realized that they were being fed by England, +not by Russia, and toward Russia all of them +were bitter even those who lived in the shelters +the Government had built. This bitterness was +indicated by the refusal of most of them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +accept work proffered them by provincial or +municipal officials.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No wish +to begin +over.</div> + +<p>Their attitude is that, inasmuch as the +Government has deliberately wiped out their +homes and destroyed their means of livelihood, +it is the Government's duty to support them +in comfortable idleness. They seem to feel that +it is adding insult to injury to ask them to +begin over again in a new environment and +work for their living. I asked a young Lettish +railway man, living in one of the board barracks +near the Warsaw station, why he had refused +an offer of employment in the railway +yards hard by.</p> + +<p>"Why should I work for Russia?" he asked, +bitterly. "Russia has taken from me my pretty +home, my good job, and my wife and two children, +who died on the road in that awful blizzard +recently. Why should I work for Russia?"</p> + +<p>"But you will starve if you do not," I suggested.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gloomy +resignation.</div> + +<p>"<i>Nichevo!</i>"—it doesn't matter—he muttered, +in gloomy resignation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A great +mistake.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Everything +destroyed.</div> + +<p>The majority of the refugees feel the way +this man does. I do not refer to the refugees +who left their homes voluntarily through fear +of the advancing Germans, but to that greater +number who were forced to leave by the compulsion +of their own Government, which deliberately +destroyed their homes as a military +measure. Every Russian, even the military +officers who were responsible for this policy +of destruction, now realize that the adoption +of that policy was one of the greatest mistakes +Russia has made during the war. For +it has cost her the support of a large and +important body of Letts, Poles, Jews, and +Lithuanians. The theory was that to leave +large masses of civilians behind the forward-pushing +German lines would provide Germany +with a large number of spies, as well as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +with sustenance for its armies. To some +extent, too, it was believed that buildings left +standing in the Russian retreat might serve +as protection and cover for German artillery. +So everything was destroyed—farm-houses, +barns, churches, schools, orchards, even haystacks. +Whenever the Russian lines retracted +before the unbearable pounding of the terrible +German guns, they left only a desert for +the Kaiser's men to cross.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Loss too +great to +be compensated +by gain.</div> + +<p>War is not a parlor game. A great deal of +destruction is inevitable in the nature of war, +and sometimes in wars of the past commanders +have deliberately laid waste large sections of +beautiful country to handicap the enemy, and +the results have justified this destruction. A +ten per cent social and economic loss is gladly +borne by a nation at war for a ninety per cent +military gain. Perhaps a commander is even +justified in inflicting a forty-nine per cent social +and economic loss on his country for a fifty-one +per cent military gain. But the deliberate +ravaging of Poland and the Baltic provinces +was a ninety per cent social and economic loss +for a ten per cent military gain—something +that is never justifiable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Relief +should +meet +refugees.</div> + +<p>It is very difficult for a general to remember +that there are other factors in war besides the +military factors, and we must not be too severe +in our criticism of the Russian General Staff +because it saw only the ten per cent military +gain and overlooked the ninety per cent political +and economic loss. The order which made +a desert of thousands of square miles of the +best territory in Russia was countermanded, +anyway, but not until the harm had been done. +But now the only concern of Russia and of the +friends of Russia should be to confine the damage +to the irremediable minimum. To that end +it is necessary to handle the great streams of +refugees intelligently. The influx into Petrograd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +and Moscow should be stopped. Relief +organization should go out from these cities +toward the front, stop the refugees where they +meet them, and there make provision for them +to spend the winter. To this purpose hundreds +and thousands of sleeping barracks and soup +kitchens like those in Petrograd must be built +along the provincial highways. Thousands of +these people will never again see the familiar +environment where they have lived all their +lives, even if Russia regains her lost provinces. +But more of them will be able to return eventually, +and there will be less suffering among +them this winter, if they are stopped where +they are and are not allowed to flow into the +two Russian capitals, so terribly overcrowded +already, and into the colder country north and +east of Petrograd and Moscow.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Russia +unable to +handle +situation.</div> + +<p>I understand that this policy has been +adopted by the Tatiana Committee. But +Russia alone cannot handle the situation; she +must have generous aid from outside.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America a +synonym +for +service.</div> + +<p>A young American, Mr. Thomas Whittemore, +who was in Sofia when Bulgaria went to war, +left there declining an invitation of the Queen +of Bulgaria to head a branch of the Red Cross, +because his sympathies were with the Allies, +and is now in Russia working out a programme +for the relief of Russia's refugees under the +auspices of the Tatiana Committee. He is out +on the roads in an automobile constantly, meeting +the incoming human flotsam and jetsam of +war, and his recommendations will have the +weight of authority. America has become a +synonym for service in France, Belgium, and +Servia, but thus far America has done next to +nothing for Russia. Shall America, who responded +so splendidly to the appeal of Belgium +and Servia, ignore the needs of the stricken +people of Poland and the Baltic provinces, +whose sufferings are greater than the sufferings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +of the Belgians, certainly as great as the sufferings +of the Servians?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War's +most +moving +sight.</div> + +<p>There are many pathetic things in war—soldiers +wasted with disease, blasted in arm +and leg with explosive shell, withered in eye +and lung by the terrible gas; but none of these +things is so moving as the sight of little children, +homeless, parentless, and with clothing +worn and torn by travel, sleeping in empty +freight cars, cold railway stations, or on the +very blizzard-swept sidewalks of Russian cities, +and slowly dying because they have no food.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, Outlook, January 19, 1916.</small></div> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Rumania hesitated long before entering the +war. The sympathies of her people were +strongly with the Allies, for military and +economic reasons connected with German +domination of her resources made her actual +military participation with the Allied Armies +difficult and dangerous. The decision, however, +was made in the late summer of 1916, and an +attack was made by the Rumanian army +against Austrian forces. This was followed by +successes which continued until Bulgaria began +hostilities against the Rumanian army. +Shortly after, a German army under General +Mackensen against Rumania was started which +ended in the capture of Bucharest in December, +1916.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE TRAGEDY OF RUMANIA</h2> + +<h3>STANLEY WASHBURN</h3> + + + +<div class="sidenote">What it +meant for +Rumania +to fight.</div> + +<p>More than a year has now elapsed since +Rumania entered the war. What is +meant for this little country to abandon +neutrality is not generally realized. Here in +America we know that so long as the British +fleet dominated the seas we were safe, and that +we should have ample opportunity to prepare +ourselves for the vicissitudes of war and to +make the preparations that are now being undertaken +and carried out by the administration +of President Wilson. Canada and Australia +likewise knew that they were in no danger of +attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War's +terrible +cost.</div> + +<p>But the case of Rumania was far different. +She knew with a terrible certainty that the +moment she entered the war she would be the +target for attack on a frontier over twelve +hundred kilometres long. The world criticized +her for remaining neutral, and yet one wonders +how many countries would have staked +their national future as Rumania did when she +entered the war. In a short fourteen months +she has seen more than one half of her army +destroyed, her fertile plains pass into the +hands of her enemies, and her great oil industry +almost wiped out. To-day her army, supported +by Russians, is holding with difficulty +hardly twenty per cent of what, before the war, +was one of the most fertile and prosperous +small kingdoms of Europe.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Why +nations +went to +war.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">America's +reasons.</div> + +<p>When America entered the war she assumed, +in a large measure, the obligations to which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +the Allies were already committed. It seems +of paramount importance under these circumstances +that the case and the cause of Rumania +be more thoroughly understood in this +country. Other countries entered the war +through necessities of various sorts. America +committed herself to the conflict for a cause +which even the cynical German propaganda, +hard as it has tried, has been unable to distort +into a selfish or commercial one. We are preparing +to share in every way the sacrifices, +both in blood and wealth, which our allies have +been making these past three years. And as +our reward we ask for no selfish or commercial +rights, nor do we seek to acquire extension of +territory or acquisition of privilege in any part +of the world. We have entered the war solely, +because of wrongs committed in the past, and +with the just determination that similar wrongs +shall never again be perpetrated. No country +and no people on this globe are more responsive +to an obligation, and more determined to fulfill +such an obligation when recognized, than +are the American people.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +author in +Rumania.</div> + +<p>For nearly two years prior to the entrance +of Rumania into the war I had been attached +to the Russian Imperial Staff in the field, as +special correspondent of the London "Times." +I went to Rumania in September, 1916, directly +from the staff of the then Tsar, with a +request from the highest authority in Russia +to the highest command in Rumania that +every opportunity for studying the situation +be given me. These letters gave me instant +access to the King and Queen of Rumania, to +the Rumanian General Staff, and to other +persons of importance in the Rumanian administration. +I remained in that country +until late in the autumn, motoring more than +five thousand kilometres, and touching the +Rumanian front at many places. My opinion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +then, of the Rumanian cause is based on +first-hand evidence obtained at the time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">An interview +with +the King.</div> + +<p>When I arrived in Rumania, in September, +the army was still at the high tide of its advance +in Transylvania and the world was lauding +without stint the bravery and efficiency of +Rumanian troops. Two days after my arrival +I lunched with the King, and had the first of +a series of interviews with him on the status +of the case of Rumania. Inasmuch as without +the consent of its sovereign the entrance of +Rumania into the war would have been impossible, +I should first present the King's view of +her case as His Majesty, after several conversations, +authorized me to present it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +King of +Rumania +decides +for war.</div> + +<p>The King himself, as all the world knows, is +a Hohenzollern. His personal feelings must, +therefore, in a measure, be affected by the fact +that most of his relatives and friends are fighting +on the German side. There is, however, +not the slightest evidence to indicate that he +has ever allowed the fact of his German blood +to weigh against the true interests of Rumania. +A conversation which illustrates the attitude +of the King at this time is one which +the Princess ——, one of the most clever and +best-informed women in Rumania, related to +me in Bucharest. The day before the declaration +of war the most pro-German of the Rumanian +ministers, who had the name of being +the leader of the pro-German party in the +capital, spent several hours putting forth +every effort to prevent the declaration of war +by the King. The minister, making no headway, +finally said, "The Germans are sure to +win. Your Majesty must realize that it is impossible +to beat a Hohenzollern." The King replied, +"I think it can be done, nevertheless." +To this the defender of the German cause answered, +"Can you show me a single case where +a Hohenzollern has been beaten?" The King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +replied, "I can. I am a Hohenzollern, and I +have beaten my own blood instincts for the +sake of Rumania."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Personality +of +the King +of +Rumania.</div> + +<p>One beautiful autumn afternoon, at the +royal shooting-box outside of Bucharest, the +King talked freely about his motives and the +cause of his people. We had finished luncheon +and he had dismissed his suite. He and the +Crown Prince and myself were left in the unpretentious +study. Here, over a map-strewn +table, it was the custom of the King to study +the problems of the campaign. A tired, +harassed-looking man of about sixty, clad in +the blue uniform of the Hussars of his Guard, +he paced the floor, and with deep emotion emphasized +the case of his country and the motives +which had induced Rumania to enter +the war.</p> + +<p>This earnest presentation of his opinion I +placed in writing at that time, and the sentences +quoted here were a part of the statement +published in the London "Times." So far as I +know, this is the only occasion on which the +King outlined in a definite way his personal +view of the Rumania case.</p> + +<p>His Majesty began by laying stress on the +necessity for interpreting Rumania truthfully +to the world, now that her enemies were doing +their utmost to misrepresent her; the necessity +for understanding the genius of the people +and the sacrifices and dangers which the +country faced. He urged that Rumania had +not been moved by mere policy or expediency, +but that her action was based on the highest +principles of nationality and national +ideals.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The nation +moved by +ties of +race and +blood.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Bulgar a +menace.</div> + +<p>"In Rumania as in Russia," said the King, +"the tie of race and blood underlies all other +considerations, and the appeal of our purest +Rumanian blood which lies beyond the Transylvanian +Alps has ever been the strongest influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +in the public opinion of all Rumania, +from the throne to the lowest peasant. Inasmuch +as Hungary was the master that held +millions of our blood in perpetual bondage, +Hungary has been our traditional enemy. The +Bulgar, with his efficient and unquestionably +courageous army, on a frontier difficult to defend, +has logically become our southern menace, +and as a latent threat has been accepted secondarily +as a potential enemy."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +friendship +an asset.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rumania's +long +frontier.</div> + +<p>After stating that, although at the beginning +of the war Rumanian sympathy had leaped instantly +to France and England, the Rumanians +had realized that, economically, the friendship +of Germany was an asset in the development of +Rumanian industries, the King added that, +nevertheless, as the Great War progressed, +there had developed in Rumania a moral issue +in regard to the war. The frightfulness and +lawlessness practiced by the Central Powers +had a profound effect upon the Rumanian people, +and the country began to feel the subtle +force of enemy intrigue endeavoring to force +her into war against her own real interests. +Let us remember, when we would criticize Rumania +for her early inactivity, that she was, in +the words of her King, "a small power with a +small army surrounded by giants"; that she +had a western frontier 1,000 kilometres long—greater +than the English and French fronts +combined—and a Bulgarian frontier, almost +undefended and near her capital, stretching for +other hundreds of kilometres on the south. +With Russia in retreat, Rumania would have +been instantly annihilated if she had acted. +She had to wait till she could be reasonably +sure of protecting herself and of being supported +by her allies. She waited not a moment +longer.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners +and noncombatants +well-treated.</div> + +<p>After pointing out the great risks which Rumania +had run, as a small country, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +deterring effect of the fate of Serbia and Belgium, +the King continued, "Notwithstanding +the savagery with which the enemy is attacking +us and the cruelty with which our defenseless +women and children are being massacred, +this government will endeavor to prevent bitterness +from dominating its actions in the way +of reprisals on prisoners or defenseless noncombatants; +and to this end orders have been +issued to our troops that, regardless of previous +provocation, those who fall into our +hands shall be treated with kindness; for it is +not the common soldiers or the innocent people +who must be held responsible for the policy +adopted by the enemy governments."</p> + +<p>The interview ended with the King's assurance +that Rumanians would not falter in their +allegiance to England the just, to France, their +brother in Latin blood, and to Russia, their +immediate neighbor.</p> + +<p>"With confidence in the justice of our cause, +with faith in our allies, and with the knowledge +that our people are capable of every fortitude, +heroism, sacrifice, which may be demanded +of them, we look forward soberly and +seriously to the problems that confront us, but +with the certainty that our sacrifices will not +be in vain, and that ultimate victory must and +will be the inevitable outcome. In the achievement +of this result the people of Rumania, +from the throne to the lowliest peasant, are +willing to pay the price."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rumanians +realized +their +danger.</div> + +<p>When it is realized that these conversations +took place in September and the first days of +October, it must be clear, I think, that neither +the King nor the Queen had ever felt that Rumania +entered the war in absolute security, +but that they always realized the danger of +their situation and moved only because their +faith in the Allies was such as to lead them to +believe that they had at least a fair chance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +cooperate with them without the certainty of +destruction.</p> + +<p>To emphasize further the fact that both realized +this danger even before the war started, +I would mention one occasion some weeks later, +when the fear of the German invasion of Rumania +was becoming a tangible one. During +a conversation with the King and the Queen +together, in regard to this menace, the Queen +turned impulsively to the King and said, "This +is exactly what we have feared. We, at least, +never imagined that Rumania was going to +have an easy victory, and we have always felt +the danger of our coming into the war."</p> + +<p>The King looked very tired and nervous, +having spent all that day with the General +Staff weighing news from the front which was +increasingly adverse. "Yes," he said, as he +pulled his beard, "we were never misled as to +what might happen."</p> + +<p>So much then for the psychology of the sovereigns +of Rumania as I received it from their +own lips.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Russian +efforts +to aid +Rumania.</div> + +<p>Ever since the loss of Bucharest the world +has been asking why Rumania entered the war. +It seems to be the general opinion that her action +at that time was unwarranted and that +she had been betrayed. There has even been a +widely circulated report that Germany, through +the King, has intrigued to bring about this disaster. +Again, I have heard that the Russian +High Command had purposely sacrificed Rumania. +At this time, when much of the evidence +is still unattainable, it is impossible for +me to make absolutely authoritative statements, +but immediately after leaving Rumania I spent +three hours with General Brussiloff discussing +the situation. A few days later I had the privilege +of meeting the former Tsar at Kieff (to +whom the Queen had given me a letter), and +I know from his own lips his feelings in regard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +to Rumania. Subsequently, I was at the +headquarters of the Russian High Command +and there learned at first hand the extraordinary +efforts that Alexieff was making to support +Rumania. The British efforts to cooperate +with Rumania and prevent disaster I knew +thoroughly at that time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lack of +vision and +foresight.</div> + +<p>I never saw the slightest evidence that either +Russia or her allies had any intention whatever +of disregarding their duties or their responsibilities +to this little country. That there was +lack of vision and foresight on all sides is quite +apparent. But that there was bad faith on the +part of any of the contracting parties I do not +believe. It is probably true that the reactionary +government in Petrograd was glad to see +the Rumanian disaster, but it must be realized +that this was a military situation primarily, +and that ninety per cent of it in the first three +months was in the hands, not of the Petrograd +politicians but of the military authorities at +the front. Brussiloff and Alexieff are men incapable +of intrigue or bad faith. The Emperor, +with whom I talked at Kieff, and the Grand +Duchess Maria Pavlowna nearly wept at the +misfortune of Rumania, and I am certain that +the former Tsar was in no way a party to any +breach of faith with this little ally.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Military +conditions +prior to +Rumania's +venture.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Failure +of Germans +at +Verdun.</div> + +<p>I have said that there was not bad faith +toward Rumania on the part of the Allies when +they induced her to enter the war, and that +there was not lack of intelligence on the part +of Rumania when she followed their advice. +In order to understand the point of view of +the Allies it is necessary to have clearly in +mind the military conditions existing in the +whole theatre of operations during the six +months prior to Rumania's fatal venture. In +February the Germans had assembled a large +portion of their mobile reserves for their effort +against Verdun. The constant wastage of German<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +human material continued almost without +intermission into May, with spasmodic recurrences +up to the present time. Hundreds of +thousands of Germans were drawn from the +visible supply of enemy manhood by these offensives. +By early May the failure of the +Verdun venture had probably become manifest +to the German High Command, and there +is evidence that they were commencing to conserve +their troops for other purposes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +Brussiloff's +offensive.</div> + +<p>On the 5th of June there began in Galicia +and Volhynia the great offensive of General +Brussiloff which lasted, almost without intermission, +on one or another part of his front, +until October. By the middle of June this drive +of the Russians began to divert German troops +for the defense of Kovel. In July started the +British-French offensive in the West.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +troops +diverted to +Eastern +front.</div> + +<p>With their reservoirs of men already greatly +reduced by the Verdun attacks, the Germans, +by the middle of July, were compelled to find +supports to meet the continuous offensives on +both the Eastern and Western fronts. I cannot +estimate the number of troops required by +them against the French and British, but I do +know that between the 5th of June and the +30th of August a total of thirty divisions of +enemy troops were diverted from other fronts +against Brussiloff alone. This heavy diversion +was the only thing that prevented the Russians +from taking Kovel in July and forcing +the entire German line in the East. So continuous +and pressing were the Russian attacks +that more than two months elapsed before the +enemy could bring this offensive to a final stop +on the Kovel sector. Enemy formations arriving +were ground up in detail as fast as they +came, and by the middle of July it was clear to +us, who were on the fighting line in Volhynia, +that the Germans were having extraordinary +difficulties in filling their losses from day to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +day. In June their first supports came by +army corps; in July they were coming by divisions; +and early in August we checked the arrival +of single regiments, while the Austrians +were often so hard pressed that they sent +isolated battalions to fill the holes in their +lines.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Teuton +losses.</div> + +<p>In the meantime the Russians had cleared +the Bukovina of the enemy. It was believed +that Rumania could put in the field twenty-two +divisions of excellent troops. The enemy +losses in prisoners alone, up to the first of September, +from Brussiloff's offensive, were above +four hundred thousand and over four hundred +guns. It seemed then that these extra twenty-two +divisions thrown in by Rumania could +meet but little resistance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Allied +plan of +operation.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Munitions +to come +daily from +Russia.</div> + +<p>In order that the Rumanian attempt to cooperate +might be safeguarded in the highest +degree, a coordinated plan of operations on +the part of the Allies was agreed upon with +Rumania. The allied force in Saloniki under +General Sarrail was to commence a heavy offensive +intended to pin down the Bulgarian +and Turkish forces to the southern line, thus +protecting the Rumanian line of the Danube. +Brussiloff's left flank in Galicia was to start +a drive through the Bukovina toward the Hungarian +plain, thus relieving the Rumanians +from any pressure on the south. A Russian +force of fifty thousand men in the Dobrudja +was to protect the Rumanian left. This, in +view of the apparent shortage of enemy reserves, +seemed to protect the army of Rumania +on both flanks in its advance into Transylvania. +In addition Rumania was to receive certain +shipments of munitions of war daily from +Russia. It was the opinion of the military advisers +in Rumania that under no circumstances +could the Germans divert against her within +three months more than sixteen divisions, while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +some of the experts advising her placed the +number as low as ten.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bulgar +and +Austrian +attack.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rumanians +on defensive.</div> + +<p>Now let us see what happened. For some +reason, which I do not know, the offensive on +the south was delayed, and when it did start it +attained no important results nor did it detain +sufficient enemy troops in that vicinity to relieve +Rumania. On the contrary, heavy forces +of Bulgars and Austrians immediately attacked +the line of the Danube, taking the Rumanian +stronghold of Turtekaia, with the bulk of the +Rumanian heavy guns. In order to safeguard +Bucharest, then threatened, the Rumanians +were obliged to withdraw troops from their +Transylvania advance, which up to this time +had been highly successful. These withdrawals +represented the difference between an offensive +and a defensive, and the Transylvania campaign +potentially failed when Bucharest was threatened +from the south.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Defense +in +Dobrudja +falls.</div> + +<p>The Russian expedition in the Dobrudja, +which was supported by a Rumanian division +and a mixed division of Serbs and Slavs, +partially recruited from prisoners captured by +the Russians, failed to work in harmony, and +the protection of the Rumanian left became, +after the capture of Turtekaia, a negligible factor +which ultimately collapsed entirely. Thus +we see in the beginning that through no bad +faith the southern assets on which Rumania +depended proved to be of little or no value to +her.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The case +with Brussiloff's +army.</div> + +<p>There still remained the Russian agreement +to cooperate in Galicia and the Bukovina. I +can speak of this situation with authority because +I had been on the southwestern front +almost without intermission since June, and +know that there was every intent on the part +of Brussiloff to carry out to the limit of his +capacity his end of the programme. The success +of this, however, was impaired by a situation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +over which he had no control, which developed +in Galicia in September. It must not +be forgotten that all the Russian troops on the +southwestern front had been fighting constantly +for nearly three months. When I came +through Galicia on my way to Rumania I found +Brussiloff's four southern armies engaged in a +tremendous action. Early in September they +had made substantial advances in the direction +of Lemberg, and were in sight of Halicz on the +Dniester when they began to encounter terrific +and sustained counter-attacks.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Efforts +to coöperate +with Rumania.</div> + +<p>That the force of this may be understood +I would mention the case of the army attacking +Halicz. When I first went to the southwestern +front in June, there were facing this +army three Austrian divisions, three Austrian +cavalry divisions, and one German division. In +September, at the very moment when Brussiloff +was supposed to be heavily supporting Rumania, +there were sent against this same army—on +a slightly extended front—three Austrian +divisions, two Austrian cavalry divisions, two +Turkish divisions, and nine German divisions. +The army on the extreme Russian left, whose +duty it was to participate in the offensive in +the Bukovina, had made important advances +toward Lemberg from the south, and just at the +time that Rumania entered the war it also was +subjected to tremendous enemy counter-attacks. +For several weeks it held its position only with +the greatest difficulty and by diverting to itself +most of the available reserves. Something more +than one army corps did endeavor to coöperate +with Rumania, but the situation I have described +in Galicia made it impossible for sufficient +supports to reach the Bukovina offensive +to enable it to fulfill its mission.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Reasons +for delay +in munitions.</div> + +<p>Thus we see that after the first month of the +campaign the coöperative factors which alone +had justified Rumania's entering into the war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +had proved to be failures. The arrival of material +from Russia was delayed because, after +Turtekaia was taken, a new Russian corps was +sent to the Dobrudja to stiffen up that front. +The railroad communications were bad and immediately +became congested by the movements +of troops, thus interfering with the shipping of +badly needed material. I have since heard the +Russian reactionary government charged with +purposely holding up these shipments; but I +am inclined to believe that my explanation of +the cause of the delays in the arrival of material +is the correct one.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Allies +underestimated +German +force.</div> + +<p>The greatest mistake on the part of the Allies +was their estimate of the number of troops that +the Germans could send to Rumania during +the fall of 1916. As I have said, experts placed +this number at from ten to sixteen divisions, +but, to the best of my judgment, they sent, between +the 1st of September and the 1st of January, +not less than thirty. The German commitments +to the Rumanian front came by express, +and the Russian supports, because of the +paucity of lines of communication, came by +freight. The moment that it became evident +what the Germans could do in the way of sending +troops, Rumania was doomed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Russians +too late +to save +Bucharest.</div> + +<p>The move of Alexieff and the Russian High +Command in the middle of October, which is +one of tangible record and not of opinion, +should absolutely eliminate the charges of bad +faith on the part of Russia, for he immediately +appropriated for the support of Rumania between +eight and ten army corps, which were +instantly placed in motion, regardless of the +adverse condition their absence caused on his +own front. It is quite true that these troops +arrived too late to save Bucharest; but that +they came as quickly as possible, I can assert +without reservation, for I was on the various +lines of communication for nearly a month and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +found them blocked with these corps, which represented +the cream of the Russian army, to +make good the moral obligations of Russia to +Rumania. In November I had a talk with +Brussiloff, who authorized me to quote him as +follows on the Rumanian situation:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rumania +feels bitterness +of +defeat.</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><div class='right'> +H.Q.—S.W.F.—Nov. 7. +</div> + +<p>Rumania is now feeling for the first time the +pressure of war and the bitterness of defeat; +but Rumania must realize that her defeats are +but incidents in the greater campaign; for behind +her stands great Russia, who will see to it +that her brave little ally, who has come into +the war for a just cause, does not ultimately +suffer for daring to espouse this cause for which +we are all fighting. I can speak with authority +when I state that, from the Emperor down to +the common soldier, there is a united sentiment +in Russia that Rumania shall be protected, +helped, and supported in every way possible. +Rumanians must feel faith in Russia and the +Russian people, and must also know that in the +efforts we are making to save them sentiment +is the dominant factor, and we are not doing it +merely as a question of protecting our own selfish +interest and our left flank.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">No wanton +breach +of faith.</div> + +<p>It seems to me that the evidence I have submitted +above clears the Allies, including Russia, +of any wanton breach of faith toward +Rumania, though the failure of their intention +to relieve her certainly does not diminish their +responsibility toward her in the future.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +on defensive +in the +north.</div> + +<p>In the final analysis the determining factor +in the ruin of Rumania was the failure of the +Allies to foresee the number of troops the Germans +could send against them. Their reasoning +up to a certain point was accurate. In +July, August, and for part of September it was, +I believe, almost impossible for the Germans to +send troops to Transylvania, which accounts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +for the rapidity of the Rumanian advance at +the beginning of their operations. The fallacy +in the Allied reasoning seems to me to have +been that every one overlooked certain vital +factors in the German situation. First, that +she would ultimately support any threat +against Hungary to the limit of her capacity, +even if she had to evacuate Belgium to get +troops for this purpose. For with Hungary out +of the war it is a mate in five moves for the +Central Empires. Second: the Allies failed to +analyze correctly the troop situation on the +eastern front, apparently failing to grasp one +vital point. An army can defend itself in winter, +with the heavy cold and snows of Russia +sweeping the barren spaces, with perhaps sixty +per cent of the number of troops required to +hold those identical lines in summer. It should +have been obvious that, when the cold weather +set in in the north, the Germans would take +advantage of this situation, and by going on +the defensive in the north release the margin +representing the difference in men required to +hold their lines in summer and in winter. Possibly +the same condition applies to the west, +though I cannot speak with any authority on +that subject. Apparently this obvious action +of the Germans is exactly what happened. +When their northern front had been combed, +we find forces subtracted piecemeal from the +north, reaching an aggregate of thirty divisions, +or at least nearly fifteen divisions more +than had been anticipated. The doom of Rumania +was sealed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Retreating +armies +must +reach defenses.</div> + +<p>What happened in the Russian effort to support +Rumania is exactly what has occurred in +nearly all the drives that I have been in during +this war. An army once started in retreat in +the face of superior forces can hold only when +supported <i>en bloc</i> or when it reaches a fortified +line. The Germans with all their cleverness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +and efficiency were not able to stop the +Russian offensive of 1916 until they had fallen +back on the fortified lines of the Stokhod in +front of Kovel. In the Galician drive against +the Russians in 1915, the armies of the Tsar +were not able to hold until they reached the +San River, on which they fought a series of +rear-guard actions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Russian +corps on +Sereth +line.</div> + +<p>So it was in Rumania. The Russian corps +arriving on the installment plan were swept +away by the momentum of the advancing +enemy, who could not be halted until the fortified +line of the Sereth was reached.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rumanians +played the +game.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Russia +in chaos.</div> + +<p>Whether one blames the Allies for lack of +vision or not, I think one must at least acquit +Rumania of any responsibility for her own undoing. +Her case as represented by the King +seems a just and sufficient reason for her having +entered the war. Her action during the +war has been straightforward and direct, and +I have never heard of any reason to believe +that the King or the Rumanian High Command +has ever looked back in the furrow since they +made the decision to fight on the side of the +Allies. They followed the advice given them +as to their participation in the war. They have +played the game to the limit of their resources +and to-day stand in a position almost unparalleled +in its pathos and acuteness. In front of +them, as they struggle with courage and desperation +for the small fragment of their kingdom +that remains, are the formations of the +Turks, Bulgars, Austrians, Hungarians, and +Germans, with Mackensen striving to give them +a death-blow. Behind them is Russia in chaos. +German agitators and irresponsible revolutionists +have striven in vain to destroy the morale +of their army and shake their faith in their +government and their sovereign. It is estimated +that three million Rumanian refugees +have taken shelter behind their lines. Their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +civil population, or that portion of it which +remains, will this winter be destitute of almost +every necessity of life.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Obligation +of Allies +to +Rumania.</div> + +<p>This, then, is the case of Rumania, and if we +and the other Allies have not a moral obligation +to the King and Queen and the government +of that little country, to support them in every +way possible, then surely we have no obligation +to any one.</p> + +<p>Sentiment, however, is not the only factor in +the Rumanian case. There is also the problem +of sound policy. In spite of all her distress +and her discouragements Rumania has been +able to save from the wreckage, and to reconstruct, +an army which it is said can muster +between three and four hundred thousand +men.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rumanian +army well +drilled.</div> + +<p>These soldiers are well drilled by French officers, +filled with enthusiasm and fighting daily, +and are even now diverting enemy troops +toward Rumania which would otherwise be +available for fighting British, French, and +American troops in the west.</p> + +<p>The Rumanians are the matrix of the Russian +left flank, and if, through lack of support +and the necessities of life, they go out of the +war, the solidity of the Russian left is destroyed +and the capture of Odessa probably +foreordained.</p> + +<p>A few hundred million dollars would probably +keep Rumania fighting for another year. +It is a conservative estimate to state that it +will take ten times that amount, and at least +six months' delay, to place the equivalent +number of trained American troops on any +fighting front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Every assistance +should be +given.</div> + +<p>It is, I think, obvious that from the point of +view of sound military policy, as well as moral +and ethical obligation, every American whose +heart is in this war should be behind the President +of the United States without reserve, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +any effort he may make or recommend, in extending +assistance to Rumania in this the hour +of her greatest peril.</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, Atlantic Monthly, December, 1917.</small></div> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany's +treatment +of prisoners +of war.</div> + +<p>Prisoners taken by the Germans were overworked +and disciplined with much insolence +and cruelty. For infractions of their iron rules +the Germans inflicted the severest penalties. +The food supplied was insufficient and of very +poor quality, so that men might actually have +starved had it not been for boxes sent from +home through the Red Cross. In the following +chapter, a Canadian soldier, who finally escaped +after three unsuccessful attempts, describes the +life of prisoners and other workers in the +Westphalian coal mines.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> +<h2>SIXTEEN MONTHS A WAR<br /> +PRISONER</h2> + +<h3>PRIVATE "JACK" EVANS</h3> + + +<p>I was in Germany as prisoner of war from +June, 1916, to September, 1917.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Captured +at third +battle +of Ypres.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">A giant +shell +blows up +the +dugout.</div> + +<p>My story starts with my capture at the +third battle of Ypres. The Fourth Canadian +Mounted Rifles were in the front line at Zillebeke. +We had been terribly pounded by German +artillery, in fact, almost annihilated. +After a hideous night, morning, June 2, 1916, +dawned beautiful and clear. At 5.30 I turned +in for a little sleep with four other fellows who +made up the machine-gun crew with me. Lance +Corporal Wedgewood, in charge of the gun, remained +awake to clean it. I had just got into +a sound sleep when it seemed as if the whole +crust of the earth were torn asunder in one +mammoth explosion, and I found myself buried +beneath sandbags and loose earth. I escaped +death only by a miracle and managed to dig +my way out. A giant shell had blown up our +dugout. Two of the boys were killed.</p> + +<p>"We're in for it," said Wedgewood. "They'll +keep this up for a while and they'll come over. +We must get the gun out."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +barrage +almost +wipes +out the +Fourth.</div> + +<p>The gun had been buried by the explosion, +but we managed to get it out and were cleaning +it up again when another trench mortar +shell came over. It destroyed all but 300 +rounds of ammunition. Then the bombardment +started in earnest. Shells rained on us +like hailstones. The German artillery started +a barrage behind us that looked almost like a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +wall of flame; so we knew that there was no +hope whatever of help reaching us.</p> + +<p>Our men dropped off one by one. The walls +of our trench were battered to greasy sand +heaps. The dead lay everywhere. Soon only +Wedgewood, another chap, and myself were +left.</p> + +<p>"They've cleaned us out now. The whole +battalion's gone," he said.</p> + +<p>As far as we could see along the line there +was nothing left, not even trenches—just +churned-up earth and mutilated bodies. The +gallant Fourth had stood its ground in the +face of probably the worst hell that had yet +visited the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Candian'">Canadian</ins> lines and had been wiped +out!</p> + +<p>It was not long before the other fellow was +finished by a piece of shrapnel. I was +wounded in the back with a splinter from a +shell which broke overhead and then another +got me in the knee. I bled freely, but luckily +neither wound was serious. About 1.30 we +saw a star shell go up over the German +lines.</p> + +<p>"They're coming!" cried Wedgewood, and we +jumped to the gun.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The two +men remaining +fire the +machine +gun.</div> + +<p>The Germans were about seventy-five yards +off when we got the gun trained on them. We +gave them our 300 rounds and did great damage; +the oncoming troops wavered and the +front line crumpled up, but the rest came on.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Captured +by +Germans.</div> + +<p>What followed does not remain very clearly +in my mind. We tried to retreat. Every move +was agony for me. We did not go far, however. +Some of the Germans had got around +us and we ran right into four of them. We +doubled back and found ourselves completely +surrounded. A ring of steel and fierce, pitiless +eyes! I expected they would butcher us there +and then. The worst we got, however, was a +series of kicks as we were marching through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +the lines in the German communication +trenches.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +night in +a stable +at Menin.</div> + +<p>We were given quick treatment at a dressing +station and escorted with other prisoners +back to Menin by Uhlans. The wounded were +made to get along as best they could. We +passed through several small towns where the +Belgian people tried to give us food. The +Uhlans rode along and thrust them back with +their lances in the most cold-blooded way. +We reached Menin about 10 o'clock that night +and were given black bread and coffee—or +something that passed by that name. The +night was spent in a horse stable with guards +all around us with fixed bayonets. The next +day we were lined up before a group of German +officers, who asked us questions about the +numbers and disposition of the British forces, +and we lied extravagantly. They knew we +were lying, and finally gave it up.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">In cattle +trucks to +Dülmen +camp.</div> + +<p>During the next day and a half, traveling in +cattle trucks, we had one meal, a bowl of +soup. It was weak and nauseating. We took +it gratefully, however, for we were nearly +starved.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Food +bad and +insufficient.</div> + +<p>Finally we arrived at Dülmen camp, where +I was kept two months. The food was bad, +and very, very scanty. For breakfast we had +black bread and coffee; for dinner, soup (I +still shudder at the thought of turnip soup), +and sometimes a bit of dog meat for supper, +a gritty, tasteless porridge, which we called +"sand storm." We used to sit around with +our bowls of this concoction and extract a +grim comfort from the hope that some day +Kaiser Bill would be in captivity and we +might be allowed to feed him on "sand storm."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +American +Ambassador's +visit.</div> + +<p>While I was at Dülmen we had quite a number +of visitors. One day Mr. Gerard, the +American Ambassador, appeared. He looked +us over with great concern and asked us a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +number of questions. "Is there anything I +can do for you?" he asked as he was leaving.</p> + +<p>"See if you can get them to give us more +food," one of us begged.</p> + +<p>"I shall speak to the camp commander about +it," promised Mr. Gerard.</p> + +<p>I do not doubt that he did so—but there +was no change in the menu and no increase in +the quantities served.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrival +at the +coal +mine.</div> + +<p>After two months at Dülmen prison camp +we got word that we were to be sent to work +on a farm. We conjured up visions of open +fields and fresh air and clean straw to sleep +in and perhaps even real food to eat. They +loaded fifty of us into one car and sent us +off, and when we reached our farm we found +it was a coal mine!</p> + +<p>As we tumbled off the train, stiff, weary, and +disappointed, we were regarded curiously by +a small group of people who worked in the +mines. They were a heavy looking lot—oldish +men with beards, and dull, stolid women. They +regarded us with sullen hostility, but there +was no fire in their antagonism. Some of the +men spat and muttered "Schweinhunds!" +That was all.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +prison +camp.</div> + +<p>We were marched off to the "Black Hole." +It was a large camp with large frame buildings, +which had been erected especially for the +purpose. There was one building for the +French prisoners, one for the Russians, and +one for the British and Canadian contingent. +Barbed wire entanglements surrounded the +camp and there were sentries with drawn bayonets +everywhere.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Heavy +work +and +slender +rations.</div> + +<p>We were greeted with considerable interest +by the other prisoners. There were about two +hundred of our men there and all of them +seemed in bad shape. They had been subjected +to the heaviest kind of work on the slenderest +rations and were pretty well worn out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">A +strike +for safeguards.</div> + +<p>Some of us were selected for the mine and +some were told off for coke making, which, as +we soon learned, was sheer unadulterated hell. +I was selected for the coke mine and put in +three days at it—three days of smarting eyes +and burning lungs, of aching and weary muscles. +Then my chum, Billy Flanagan, was +buried under an avalanche of falling coal and +killed. There were no safeguards in the mine +and the same accident might occur again at any +time. So we struck.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kept at +"attention" +thirty-six +hours.</div> + +<p>The officers took it as a matter of course. +We were lined up and ordered to stand rigidly +at "attention." No food was served, not even a +glass of water was allowed us. We stood there +for thirty-six hours. Man after man fainted +from sheer exhaustion. When one of us +dropped he was dragged out of the ranks to a +corner, where a bucket of water was thrown +over him, and, as soon as consciousness returned, +he was yanked to his feet and forced +to return to the line. All this time sentries +marched up and down and if one of us moved +he got a jab with the butt end of the gun. +Every half hour an officer would come along +and bark out at us:</p> + +<p>"Are you for work ready now?"</p> + +<p>Finally, when some of our fellows were on +the verge of insanity, we gave in in a body.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Awakened +at 4 a. m.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Turnip +soup the +chief +article +of diet.</div> + +<p>After that things settled down into a steady +and dull routine. We were routed out at 4 +o'clock in the morning. The sentries would +come in and beat the butts of their rifles on the +wooden floor and roar "Raus!" at the top of +their voices. If any sleep-sodden prisoners +lingered a second, they were roughly hauled out +and kicked into active obedience. Then a cup +of black coffee was served out to us and at 5 +o'clock we were marched to the mines. There +was a dressing room at the mine where we +stripped off our prisoners' garb and donned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +working clothes. We stayed in the mines until +3.30 in the afternoon and the "staggers"—our +pet name for the foremen—saw to it that we +had a busy time of it. Then we changed back +into our prison clothes and marched to barracks, +where a bowl of turnip soup was given +us and a half pound of bread. We were supposed +to save some of the bread to eat with our +coffee in the morning. Our hunger was so +great, however, that there was rarely any of the +bread left in the morning. At 7 o'clock we +received another bowl of turnip soup and were +then supposed to go to bed.</p> + +<p>If it had not been for the parcels of food that +we received from friends at home and from the +Red Cross we would certainly have starved. +We were able to eke out our prison fare by carefully +husbanding the food that came from the +outside.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Citizen +miners +also +complain +about +food.</div> + +<p>The citizens working in the mines when I +first arrived were mostly middle-aged. Many +were quite venerable in appearance and of +little actual use. They were willing enough to +work and work hard; but they complained continually +about the lack of food.</p> + +<p>That was the burden of their conversation, +always, food—bread, butter, potatoes, schinken +(ham)! They were living on meager rations +and the situation grew steadily worse. The +people that I worked with were in almost as bad +a plight as we prisoners of war. In the course +of a few months I could detect sad changes in +them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +miners +also +severely +disciplined.</div> + +<p>The German miners were quite as much at +the mercy of the officers as we were. Discipline +was rigid and they were "strafed" for any infraction +of rules; that is, they were subjected +to cuts in pay. Lateness, laziness, or insubordination +were punished by the deduction of +so many marks from their weekly earnings, and +all on the say-so of the "stagger" in charge of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +the squad. At a certain hour each day an +official would come around and hand each +civilian a slip of paper. I asked one of my companions +what it was all about.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No bread +tickets +for those +who do +not work.</div> + +<p>"Bread tickets," he explained. "If they don't +turn up for work, they don't get their bread +tickets and have to go hungry."</p> + +<p>The same rule applied to the women who +worked around the head of the mine, pushing +carts and loading the coal. If they came to +work, they received their bread tickets; if they +failed to turn up, the little mouths at home +would go unfed for a day.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +women +at the +mines.</div> + +<p>I often used to stop for a moment or so on +my way to or from the pit head and watch these +poor women at work. Some of them went barefoot, +but the most of them wore wooden shoes. +They appeared to be pretty much of one class, +uneducated, dull, and just about as ruggedly +built as their men. They seemed quite capable +of handling the heavy work given them. There +were exceptions, however. Here and there +among the gray-clad groups I could pick out +women of a slenderer mold. These were +women of refinement and good education +who had been compelled to turn to any class +of work to feed their children. Their husbands +and sons were at the front or already +killed.</p> + +<p>The food restrictions caused bitterness +among all the mine workers. There were angry +discussions whenever a group of them got together. +For several days this became very +marked.</p> + +<p>"There's going to be trouble here," my friend, +the English Tommy, told me. "These people +say their families are starving. They will +strike one of these days."</p> + +<p>The very next day, as we marched up to +work in the dull gray of the early morning, we +found noisy crowds of men and women around<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +the buildings at the mine. A ring of sentries +had been placed all around.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bread +strike of +the +citizen +miners.</div> + +<p>"Strike's on! There's a bread strike all +through the mining country!" was the whispered +news that ran down the line of prisoners. +We were delighted, because it meant that +we would have a holiday. The authorities did +not dare let us go into the mines with the +civilians out; they were afraid we might wreck +it. So we were marched back to camp and +stayed there until the strike was over.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +strikers +win and +new +rules are +formulated.</div> + +<p>The strike ended finally and the people came +back to work, jubilant. The authorities had +given in for two reasons, as far as we could +judge. The first was the dire need of coal, +which made any interruption of work at the +mines a calamity. The second was the fact +that food riots were occurring in many parts +and it was deemed wise to placate the people.</p> + +<p>But the triumph of the workers was not complete. +The very next day we noticed signs +plastered up in conspicuous places with the +familiar word "Verboten" in bold type at the +top. One of our fellows who could read German +edged up close enough to see one of the placards.</p> + +<p>"There won't be any more strikes," he informed +us. "The authorities have made it +illegal for more than four civilians to stand together +at any time or talk together. Any infringement +of the rule will be jail for them. +That means no more meetings."</p> + +<p>There was much muttering in the mine that +day, but it was done in groups of four or less. +I learned afterward, when I became sufficiently +familiar with the language and with the miners +themselves to talk with them, that they bitterly +resented this order.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Strike +leaders +disappear +from the +mine.</div> + +<p>I found that the active leaders in the strike +shortly afterward disappeared from the mine. +Those who could possibly be passed for military<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +service were drafted into the army. This +was intended as an intimation to the rest that +they must "be good" in future. The fear of +being drafted for the army hung over them all +like a thunder cloud. They knew what it meant +and they feared it above everything.</p> + +<p>When I first arrived at the mine there were +quite a few able-bodied men and boys around +sixteen and seventeen years of age at work +there. Gradually they were weeded out for +the army. When I left none were there +but the oldest men and those who could +not possibly qualify for any branch of the +service.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Talks +with the +German +miner.</div> + +<p>In the latter stages of my experience at the +mine I was able to talk more or less freely with +my fellow workers. A few of the Germans had +picked up a little English. There was one fellow +who had a son in the United States and +who knew about as much English as I knew +German, and we were able to converse. If I +did not know the "Deutsch" for what I wanted +to say, he generally could understand it in +English. He was continually making terrific +indictments of the German Government, yet he +hated England to such a degree that he would +splutter and get purple in the face whenever +he mentioned the word. However, he could +find it in his heart to be decent to isolated +specimens of Englishmen.</p> + +<p>I first got talking with Fritz one day when +the papers had announced the repulse of a British +attack on the western front.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fritz's +view of +British +attacks.</div> + +<p>"It's always the same. They are always +attacking us," he cursed. "Of course, it's true +that we repulse them. They are but English +and they can't break the German army. But +how are we to win the war if it is always the +English who attack?"</p> + +<p>"Do you still think Germany can win?" I +asked.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p> + +<p>"No!" He fairly spat at me. "We can't beat +you now. But you can't beat us! This war +will go on until your pig-headed Lloyd George +gives in."</p> + +<p>"Or," I suggested gently, "until your pig-headed +Junker Government gives in."</p> + +<p>"They never will!" he said, a little proudly, +but sadly too. "Every man will be killed in the +army—my two sons, all—and we will starve +before it is all over!"</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Germans +no longer +hope for +a big +victory.</div> + +<p>The German citizens, in that section at least, +had given up hope of being able to score the big +victory that was in every mind when the war +started. What the outcome would be did not +seem to be clear to them. All they knew was +that the work meant misery for them, and that, +as far as they could see, this misery would continue +on and on indefinitely. They had lost +confidence in the newspapers. It was plain to +be seen that the stereotyped rubber-stamped +kind of official news that got into the papers did +not satisfy them. Many's the time I heard bitter +curses heaped upon the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Hobenzollerns'">Hohenzollerns</ins> by lips +that were flabby and colorless from starvation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">News of +unrestricted +submarine +warfare.</div> + +<p>There was much excitement among them +when, early in 1917, the news spread that unrestricted +submarine warfare was to be resumed. +Old Fritz came over to me with a newspaper +in his hand and his eyes fairly popping +with excitement.</p> + +<p>"This will end it!" he declared. "We are +going to starve you out, you English."</p> + +<p>"You'll bring America in," I told him.</p> + +<p>"No, no!" he said, quite confidently. "The +Yankees won't come in. They are making too +much money as it is. They won't fight. See, +here it is in the paper. It is stated clearly +here that the United States will not fight. It +doesn't dare to fight!"</p> + +<p>But when the news came that the United +States had actually declared war they were a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +sad lot. I took the first opportunity to pump +old Fritz about the views of his companions.</p> + +<p>"It's bad, bad," he said, shaking his head +dolefully.</p> + +<p>"Then you are afraid of the Americans, after +all?" I said.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Why Fritz +was sorry +to have +America +in the war.</div> + +<p>Fritz laughed, with a short, contemptuous +note. "No, it is not that," he said. "England +will be starved out before the Americans can +come in and then it will all be over. But—just +between us, you and me—most of us here +were intending to go to America, after the +war, where we would be free from all this. +But—now the United States won't let us in +after the war!"</p> + +<p>I shall never forget the day that the papers +announced the refusal of the English labor +delegates to go to Stockholm. One excited +miner struck me across the face with the open +newspaper in his hand.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hatred +of the +English.</div> + +<p>"Always, always the same!" he almost +screamed. "The English block everything. +They will not join and what good can come +now of the conference? They will not be content +and the war must go on!"</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Shortage +in necessities +of life.</div> + +<p>The food shortage reached a crisis about the +time that I managed, after three futile attempts, +to escape. Frequently, when the people +took their bread tickets to the stores they +found that supplies had been exhausted and +that there was nothing to be obtained. Prices +had gone sky-high. Bacon, for instance, $2.50 +and more a pound. A cake of soap cost 85 +cents. Cleanliness became a luxury. These +prices are indicative of the whole range and +it is not hard to see the struggle these poor +mine people were having to keep alive at all.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners +receive +food from +England.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +wonder at +food of +starving +England.</div> + +<p>At this time our parcels from England were +coming along fairly regularly and we were better +off for food than the Germans themselves. +Owing to the long shift we were compelled to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +do in the mines we fell into the habit of "hoarding" +our food parcels and carrying a small +lunch to the mines each day. These lunches +had to be carefully secreted or the Germans +would steal them. They could not understand +how it was that starving England could send +food abroad to us. The sight of these lunches +helped to undermine their faith in the truth +of the official information they read in the +newspapers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Wages +spent for +soap.</div> + +<p>Our lot at the mines was almost unendurable. +We were supposed to receive four and a half +marks (90 cents) a week for our labor, but +there was continual "strafing" to reduce the +amount. If we looked sideways at a "stagger," +we were likely to receive a welt with a pick +handle and a strafe of several marks. Sometimes +we only received a mark or two for a +week's work. Most of this we spent for soap. +It was impossible to work in the mine and not +become indescribably dirty, and soap became +an absolute necessity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Uncomfortable +quarters.</div> + +<p>We lived under conditions of great discomfort +in the camp, 250 of us in 30 x 30 quarters. +There were two stoves in the building in which +coke was burned, but the place was terribly +cold. The walls at all seasons were so damp +that pictures tacked up on them mildewed in +a short time. Our bunks contained straw +which was never replenished and we all became +infested with fleas. Some nights it was impossible +to sleep on account of the activity of these +pests. On account of the dampness and cold +we always slept in our clothes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cruelty +of discipline.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seven plan +to escape.</div> + +<p>Discipline was rigorous and cruel. We were +knocked around and given terms of solitary +confinement and made to stand at attention +for hours at the least provocation. Many of +the prisoners were killed—murdered by the +cruelty. It became more than flesh and blood +could stand. One day seven of us got together<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +and made a solemn compact to escape. We +would keep at it, we decided, no matter what +happened, until we got away. Six of us are +now safely at home. The seventh, my chum, +J. W. Nicholson, is still a prisoner.</p> + +<p>I made four attempts to escape before I +finally succeeded. The first time a group of us +made a tunnel out under the barricade, starting +beneath the flooring of the barracks. We +crawled out at night and had put fifteen miles +between us and the camp before we were +finally caught. I got seven days' "black" that +time, solitary confinement in a narrow stone +cell, without a ray of light, on black bread and +water.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Two attempts +to +escape fail +and are +punished.</div> + +<p>The second attempt was again by means of +a tunnel. A chum of mine, William Raesides, +who had come over with the 8th C. M. R.'s, +was my companion that time. We were caught +by bloodhounds after twenty miles and they +gave us ten days' "black."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The third +attempt.</div> + +<p>The third attempt was made in company +with my chum Nicholson, and we planned it +out very carefully. Friends in England sent +through suits of civilian clothes to us.</p> + +<p>The next day we dressed up for the attempt +by putting on our "civies" first and then drawing +our prisoner's uniform over them. When +we got to the mine we took off the uniform +and slipped the mining clothes on over the +others. We worked all day. Coming up from +work in the late afternoon, Nick and I held +back until everyone else had gone. We went +up alone in the hoist and tore off our mining +clothes as we ascended, dropping each piece +back into the pit as we discarded it.</p> + +<p>It was fairly dark when we got out of the +hoist and the guards did not pay much attention +to us. There was a small building at the +mine head where we prisoners washed and +dressed after work and a separate exit for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +civilians. Nick and I took the civilian exit +and walked out into the street without any +interference.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Near the +Dutch +border.</div> + +<p>We could both speak enough German to pass, +so we boldly struck out for the Dutch border, +which was about 85 miles away, traveling only +during the night. We had a map that a miner +had sold to us for a cake of soap and we guided +our course by that. We got to the border line +without any trouble whatever, but were caught +through overconfidence, due to a mistake in +the map. Close to the line was a milepost indicating +that a certain Dutch town was two +miles west. The map indicated that this town +was four miles within the Dutch border.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Captured +and +punished +again.</div> + +<p>"We're over!" we shouted when we saw that +welcome milepost. Throwing caution aside, we +marched boldly forward, right into a couple of +sentries with fixed bayonets!</p> + +<p>It was two weeks' "black" they meted out to +us that time. The Kommandant's eyes snapped +as he passed sentence. I knew he would have +been much more strict on me as the three-time +offender had it not been that the need for coal +was so dire that labor, even the labor of a recalcitrant +prisoner, was valuable.</p> + +<p>"No prisoner has yet escaped from this Kommando!" +he shouted, "and none shall. Any +further attempts will be punished with the +utmost severity."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A new +method of +getaway +planned.</div> + +<p>Nevertheless they took the precaution to +break up my partnership with Nicholson, putting +him on the night shift. I immediately +went into partnership with Private W. M. Masters, +of Toronto, and we planned to make our +getaway by an entirely new method.</p> + +<p>The building at the mine where we changed +clothes before and after work was equipped +with a bathroom in one corner, with a window +with one iron bar intersecting. Outside the +window was a bush and beyond that open country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +A sentry was always posted outside the +building, but he had three sides to watch and +we knew that, if we could only move that bar, +we could manage to elude the sentry. So we +started to work on the bar.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Four +months' +steady +work.</div> + +<p>I had found a bit of wire which I kept +secreted about me and every night, after washing +up, we would dig for a few minutes at the +brickwork around the bar. It was slow, tedious +and disappointing work. Gradually, however, +we scooped the brick out around the bar and +after nearly four months' application we had +it so loosened that a tug would pull it out.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Night in a +bog.</div> + +<p>The next day Masters and I were the last in +the bathroom, and when the sentry's round +had taken him to the other side of the building, +we wrenched out the bar, raised the window +and wriggled through head first, breaking our +fall in the bush outside. We got through without +attracting attention and ran across the +country into a swamp, where we soon lost our +way and wallowed around all night up to our +knees in the bog, suffering severely from the +cold and damp. Early in our flight the report +of a gun from the camp warned us that our +absence had been discovered. Our adventure +in the swamp saved us from capture, for the +roads were patrolled by cavalry that night.</p> + +<p>We found our way out of the swamp near +morning, emerging on the western side. By +the sale of more soap to miners we had acquired +another map and a compass, so we had little +difficulty in determining our whereabouts and +settling our course for the border. For food we +had each brought along ten biscuits, the result +of several weeks' hoarding.</p> + +<p>That day we stayed on the edge of the +swamp, never stirring for a moment from the +shelter of a clump of bushes. One slept while +the other watched. No one came near us and +we heard no signs of our pursuers. Night came<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +on most mercifully dark and we struck out +along the roads at a smart clip.</p> + +<p>We traveled all night, making probably +twenty-five miles. It was necessary, we knew, +to make the most of our strength in the earlier +stages of the dash. As our food gave out we +would be less capable of covering the ground. +So we spurred ourselves on to renewed effort +and ate the miles up in a sort of frenzy.</p> + +<p>This kept up for four days and nights. We +kept going as hard as our waning strength +would permit and we were cautious in the extreme. +Even at that we had many narrow +escapes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crossing +the Lippe +River.</div> + +<p>Our greatest difficulty was when we struck +the Lippe River. Our first plan was to swim +across, but we found that we had not the +strength left for this feat. We lost a day as a +result. The second night we found a scow tied +up along the bank and got across that way.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rapid +progress, +though +starving.</div> + +<p>By this time we were slowly starving on our +feet, we were wet through continuously, and +such sleep as we got was broken and fitful. +Before we had been four days out we were reduced +to gaunt, tattered, dirty scarecrows. We +staggered as we walked and sometimes one of +us would drop on the road through sheer weakness. +Through it all we kept up our frenzy for +speed and it was surprising how much ground +we forced ourselves to cover in a night. And, +no matter how much the pangs of hunger +gnawed at us, we conserved our fast dwindling +supply of biscuit. Less than two biscuits a day +was our limit!</p> + +<p>Finally we reached a point that I recognized +from my previous attempt to escape. It was +about four miles from the border. We had two +biscuits left between us. The next day we +feasted royally and extravagantly on those two +biscuits. No longer did we need to hoard our +supplies, for the next night would tell the tale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Safe past +the +German +sentries.</div> + +<p>By the greatest good fortune night came on +dark and cloudy. Not a star showed in the +sky. We crawled cautiously and painfully toward +the border. At every sound we stopped +and flattened out. Twice we saw sentries close +at hand, but both times we got by safely. +Finally we reached what we judged must be +the last line of sentries. We had crawled +across a ploughed field and reached a road +lined on both sides with trees where sentries +were passing up and down.</p> + +<p>"It's the border!" we whispered.</p> + +<p>When the nearest sentry had reached the far +end of his beat we doubled up like jack-knives +and dashed across that road, plunging through +the trees on the other side. Not a sound came +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'frome'">from</ins> the sentries. We struck across fields +with delirious speed, we reeled along like +drunken men, laughing and gasping and sometimes +reaching out for a mutual handshake.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Across the +border in +Holland.</div> + +<p>Then we got a final scare. Marching up the +road toward us was what looked like a white +sheet. Our nerves were badly shattered, and +that moving thing froze my blood, but it was a +scare of brief duration. The sheet soon resolved +itself into two girls in white dresses, +walking up the road with a man. We scurried +to the side of the road as soon as we made them +out. Then I decided to test the matter of our +whereabouts and stepped out to accost them.</p> + +<p>"Have you a match?" I asked in German.</p> + +<p>The man did not understand me!</p> + +<p>We were in Holland—<i>and free</i>!</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, Forum, May 1918.</small></div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Little was heard from the Belgians themselves +of the hardships and suffering endured +by them under the rule of the Germans. Occasionally, +however, an eye-witness from the +outside was able to present some aspects of +the terrible picture. The narrative of such an +eye-witness is given in the following pages.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> +<h2>UNDER GERMAN RULE IN<br /> +FRANCE AND BELGIUM</h2> + +<h3>J. P. WHITAKER</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +iron heel +on Roubaix.</div> + +<p>Toward the end of March, 1915, a distinct +change became noticeable in the +policy of the German military authorities, +and for the first time the people of Roubaix +began to feel the iron heel. The allied Governments +had formally declared their intention +of blockading Germany and the German Army +had been given a sharp lesson at Neuve +Chapelle. Whether these two events had anything +to do with the change, or whether it was +merely a coincidence, I do not know; the fact +remains that our German governors who had +hitherto treated us with tolerable leniency +chose about this time to initiate a régime of +stringent regulation and repression.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Identification +papers.</div> + +<p>The first sign of the new policy was the issue +of posters calling on all men, women, and children +over the age of 14 to go to the Town +Hall and take out identification papers, while +all men between 17 and 50 were required also +to obtain a control card.</p> + +<p>Up to this time I had escaped any interference +from the Germans, perhaps because I +scarcely ventured into the streets for the first +two months of the German occupation, and +possibly also because, from a previous long +residence in Roubaix, I spoke French fluently. +Strangely enough, though I went to the Town +Hall with the rest and supplied true particulars +of my age and nationality, papers were +issued to me as a matter of course, and never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +during the whole two years and more of my +presence in their midst did the enemy molest +me in any way.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Control +cards for +men of +military +age.</div> + +<p>The only incident which throws any light on +this curious immunity occurred about the +middle of 1915. Like all other men of military +age, I was required to present myself once a +month at a public hall, in order to have my +control card, which was divided into squares +for the months of the year, marked in the +proper space with an official stamp "Kontrol, +July," or "August," or whatever the month +might be. We were summoned for this process +by groups, first those from 17 to 25, then those +from 25 to 35, and so on. Hundreds of young +fellows would gather in a room, and one by +one, as their names were called, would take +their cards to be stamped by a noncommissioned +officer sitting at a table on the far side +of the room. On the occasion I have in mind, +the noncommissioned officer said to me, "You +are French, aren't you?" I answered, "No." +"Are you Belgian?" "No," again. "You are +Dutch, then?" A third time I replied +"No."</p> + +<p>At this stage an officer who had been sauntering +up and down the room smoking a cigarette +came to the table, took up my card, and turning +to the man behind the table, remarked, +"It's all right. He's an American." I did not +trouble to enlighten him. That is probably +why I enjoyed comparative liberty.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +policy of +enslavement.</div> + +<p>Enslavement is part of the deliberate policy +of the Germans in France. It began by the +taking of hostages at the very outset of their +possession of Roubaix. A number of the leading +men in the civic and business life of the +town were marked out and compelled to attend +by turns at the Town Hall, to be shot on the +spot at the least sign of revolt among the +townspeople.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Treatment +of girl +mill operatives +who +refuse +to work.</div> + + +<p>Not a few of the mill owners were ordered +to weave cloth for the invaders, and on their +refusal were sent to Germany and held to +ransom. Many of the mill operatives, quite +young girls, were directed to sew sandbags for +the German trenches. They, too, refused, but +the Germans had their own ways of dealing +with what they regarded as juvenile obstinacy. +They dragged the girls to a disused cinema +hall, and kept them there without food or +water until their will was broken.</p> + +<p>Barbarity reached its climax in the so-called +"deportations." They were just slave raids, +brutal and undisguised.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The deportations +or slave +raids.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Taken +to an +unknown +fate.</div> + +<p>The procedure was this: The town was +divided into districts. At 3 o'clock in the +morning a cordon of troops would be drawn +round a district—the Prussian Guard and especially, +I believe, the Sixty-ninth Regiment, +played a great part in this diabolical crime—and +officers and noncommissioned officers +would knock at every door until the household +was roused. A handbill, about octavo size, was +handed in, and the officer passed on to the next +house. The handbill contained printed orders +that every member of the household must rise +and dress immediately, pack up a couple of blankets, +a change of linen, a pair of stout boots, +a spoon and fork, and a few other small articles, +and be ready for the second visit in half +an hour. When the officer returned, the family +were marshaled before him, and he picked out +those whom he wanted with a curt "You will +come," "And you," "And you." Without even +time for leave-taking, the selected victims were +paraded in the street and marched to a mill on +the outskirts of the town. There they were +imprisoned for three days, without any means +of communication with friends or relatives, +all herded together indiscriminately and given +but the barest modicum of food. Then, like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +so many cattle, they were sent away to an +unknown fate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Girls put +to farm +labor.</div> + +<p>Months afterward some of them came back, +emaciated and utterly worn out, ragged and +verminous, broken in all but spirit. I spoke +with numbers of the men. They had been told +by the Germans, they said, that they were going +to work on the land. They found that only the +women and girls were put to farm labor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Men do +construction +work +in Ardennes.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Very little +food.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">No complaints +permitted.</div> + +<p>The men were taken to the French Ardennes +and compelled to mend roads, man sawmills +and forges, build masonry, and toil at other +manual tasks. Rough hutments formed their +barracks. They were under constant guard +both there and at their work, and they were +marched under escort from the huts to work +and from work to the huts. For food each +man was given a two-pound loaf of German +bread every five days, a little boiled rice, +and a pint of coffee a day. At 8 o'clock in the +morning, after a breakfast consisting of a +slice of bread and a cup of coffee, they went +to work. At 4 o'clock in the afternoon they returned +for the night and took their second +meal—dinner, tea, and supper all in one. Often +they were buffeted and generally ill-used by +their taskmasters. If they fell ill, cold water, +internally or externally, was the invariable +remedy. Once a commission came to see them +at work, but they had been warned beforehand +that any man who complained of his treatment +would suffer for it. One of them was bold +enough to protest to the visitors against a +particularly flagrant case of ill-usage. That +man disappeared a few days later.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Belgian +frontier +is closed.</div> + +<p>Long before this the food problem had become +acute in Roubaix. Simultaneously with +the establishment of the system of personal +control over the inhabitants the Germans +closed the frontier between France and Belgium +and forbade us to approach within half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +a mile of the border line. The immediate effect +of this isolation was to reduce to an insignificant +trickle the copious stream of foodstuffs +which until then poured in from Belgium—not +the starving Belgium of fiction, but the well +supplied Belgium of fact.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fabulous +prices +for meat.</div> + +<p>Butchers and bakers and provision dealers +had to shut their shops, and the town became +almost wholly dependent on supplies brought +in by the American Relief Commission. Fresh +meat was soon unobtainable, except by those +few people who could afford to pay fabulous +prices for joints smuggled across the frontier. +Months ago meat cost 32 francs a kilogram +(about 13 shillings a pound) and an egg cost +1 franc 25 (a shilling). Obviously such things +were beyond the reach of the bulk of the people, +and had it not been for the efforts of the Relief +Commission we should all have starved.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Foodstuffs +supplied +by the +Relief +Commission.</div> + +<p>The commission opened a food depot, a local +committee issued tickets for the various articles, +and rich and poor alike had to wait +their turn at the depot to procure the allotted +rations. The chief foodstuffs supplied were: +Rice, flaked maize, bacon, lard, coffee, bread, +condensed milk (occasionally), haricot beans, +lentils, and a very small allowance of +sugar. Potatoes could not be bought at any +price.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Germans +intercept +mine food.</div> + +<p>Unfortunately, though I regret that I should +have to record it, there is evidence that by +some means or other the German Army contrived +to intercept for itself a part of the +food sent by the American Commission. One +who had good reason to know told me that +more than once trainloads which, according to +a notification sent to him, had left Brussels +for Roubaix failed to arrive. I know also that +analysis of the bread showed that in some +cases German rye flour, including 30 per cent +of sawdust, had been substituted for the white<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +American flour, producing an indigestible putty-like +substance which brought illness and +death to many. Indeed, the mortality from this +cause was so heavy at one period that all the +grave diggers in the town could not keep pace +with it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +eager to +buy food.</div> + +<p>One could easily understand how great must +have been the temptation to the Germans to +tap for themselves the food which friends +abroad had sent for their victims. It is a +significant fact that soldiers in Roubaix were +eager to buy rice from those who had obtained +it at the depot at four francs (3s 4d) the pound +in order, as they said, "to send it home." I +shall describe later how utterly different were +the conditions in Belgium as I saw them.</p> + +<p>Meagre as were the food supplies for the +civilians in Roubaix, those issued to the German +soldiers toward the end of my stay were +little better.</p> + +<p>At first the householders, on whom the soldiers +were billeted, were required to feed them +and to recover the cost from the municipal +authorities.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Change of +demeanor +of soldiery.</div> + +<p>Of all the things I saw and heard in Roubaix +and Lille none impressed me more than the +wonderful change which came over the outlook +and demeanor of the German soldiery between +October, 1914, and October, 1915.</p> + +<p>I had many opportunities of mingling with +them, more, in fact, than I cared to have, for +now and again during this period two or three +of them were actually billeted on the good +folk with whom I lodged.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Already +tired of +war.</div> + +<p>I knew just sufficient of the German language +to be able to chat with them, and they made +no attempt to conceal from me their real feelings. +I am merely repeating the statement +made to me over and over again by many German +soldiers when I say that the men in the +ranks are thoroughly tired of the war, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +they have abandoned all thought of conquest, +and that they fight on only because they believe +that their homes and families are at +stake.</p> + +<p>On that Autumn morning when the first German +troops came into Roubaix they came +flushed with victory, full of confidence in their +strength, marching with their eyes fixed on +Paris and London. They sang aloud as they +swung through our streets. They sing no +more. Instead, as I saw with my own eyes, +many of them show in their faces the abject +misery which is in their hearts.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Expect +end of war +in November, +1916.</div> + +<p>Last year scores of them told me, quite independently, +that the war would come to an +end on November 17, 1916. How that date came +to be fixed by the prophets nobody knew, but +the belief in the prophecy was universal among +the soldiers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Soldiers +more +courteous +than +officers.</div> + +<p>As a rule, the soldiers did not maltreat the +civilians in Roubaix, except when they were +acting under the orders of their officers; when, +for example, they were tearing people from +their homes to work as slaves. They had, however, +the right of traveling without payment +on the tramcars, and they frequently exercised +this right to such an extent as to preclude the +townsfolk from the use of the cars.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Officers +requisition +supplies.</div> + +<p>Apart from that annoyance, there was little +ground for complaint of the general behavior +of the soldiers. The conduct of the officers was +very different. For a long time they made a +habit of requisitioning from shopkeepers and +others supplies of food for which they had no +intention of paying. One day an officer drove +up in a trap to a shop kept by an acquaintance +of mine and "bought" sardines, chocolate, bread, +and fancy cakes to the value of about 200 +francs (about $40). He produced a piece of +paper and borrowed a pair of scissors with +which to cut off a slip. On this slip he wrote<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +a few words in German, and then, handing it +to the shopkeeper, he went off with his purchases. +The shopkeeper, on presenting the +paper at the Kommandantur, was informed that +the inscription ran, "For the loan of scissors, +200 francs," and that the signature was unknown. +Payment was therefore refused. This +case, I believe, was by no means an isolated +one.</p> + +<p>When an officer was billeted on a house, he +would insist on turning the family out of the +dining room and drawing room and sleeping +in the best bedroom; sometimes he would eject +people entirely from their home.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A docile +private +soldier.</div> + +<p>By contrast the docile private soldier was +almost a welcome guest. I remember well one +quite friendly fellow who was lodged for some +time in the same house as myself and some +English over military age in the suburb of +Croix. He came to me in great glee one day +with a letter from his wife in which she warned +him to beware of "the English cutthroats." She +went on to give him a long series of instructions +for his safety. He was to barricade his +bedroom door every night, to sleep always with +his knife under his pillow, and never to take +anything we offered him to eat or drink.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Few +civilian +offenses.</div> + +<p>Despite the temptations to crime and insubordination +which naturally attend an idle +manufacturing population of some 125,000 +people, there were very few civilian offenses +against the law, German or French, among the +inhabitants of Roubaix.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Time +hangs +heavily.</div> + +<p>Time hung heavily on our hands. Cut off +from the outer world except by the occasional +arrival of smuggled French and English newspapers, +we spent our time reading and playing +cards, and at the last I hoped I might never be +reduced to this form of amusement again. In +the two and a half years cut out of my life +and completely wasted I played as many games<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +of cards as will satisfy me for the rest of my +existence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The gendarmerie +called +"Green +devils."</div> + +<p>But even if the inhabitants, in their enforced +idleness, had any temptation to be insubordinate, +they had a far greater inducement to +keep the law in the bridled savagery of the +German gendarmerie. These creatures, who +from the color of their uniform and the brutality +of their conduct were known as the +"green devils," seemed to revel in sheer cruelty. +They scour the towns on bicycles and the outlying +districts on horseback, always accompanied +by a dog as savage as his master, and +at the slightest provocation or without even +the slenderest pretext they fall upon civilians +with brutish violence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Women +badly +treated.</div> + +<p>It was not uncommon for one of these men +to chase a woman on his bicycle, and when he +had caught her, batter her head and body with +the machine. Many times they would strike +women with the flat of their sabres. One of +them was seen to unleash his dog against an +old woman, and laugh when the savage beast +tore open the woman's flesh from thigh to knee.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="sidenote">Crossing +Belgium.</div> + +<p>In January Mr. Whitaker crossed the line +into Belgium with the aid of smuggler friends, +traversed that country, chiefly on foot, and +two months later escaped into Holland and so +to England. In Belgium he was astonished to +find what looked like prosperity when compared +with conditions in the occupied provinces +of France. After expressing gratitude to Belgian +friends and a desire to tell only what is +truth, he proceeds:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No sign of +privations.</div> + +<p>The first fact I have to declare is that nowhere +in my wanderings did I see any sign of +starvation. Nowhere did I notice such privation +of food as I had known in Northern France. +Near the French frontier, it is true, the meals +I took in inns and private cottages were far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +from sumptuous, but as I drew nearer to the +Dutch frontier the amount and variety of the +food to be obtained changed in an ascending +scale, until at Antwerp one could almost forget, +so far as the table was concerned, that the +world was at war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The diet at +Roubaix, +France.</div> + +<p>Let me give a few comparisons. At Roubaix, +in France, at the time when I left in the first +week of this year, my daily diet was as follows: +Breakfast—coffee, bread and butter (butter was +a luxury beyond the reach of the working +people, who had to be content with lard); midday +meal—vegetable soup, bread, boiled rice, +and at rare intervals an egg or a tiny piece of +fresh meat; supper—boiled rice and bread. +Just over the border, in Belgium, the food conditions +were a little better. The ticket system +prevailed, and the villagers were dependent on +the depots of the American Relief Commission, +supplemented by local produce.</p> + +<p>A little further, and one passed the line of +demarkation between the étape—the part of +Belgium which is governed by General von +Denk, formerly commanding the troops at +Valenciennes—and the governement général, +under the command of General von Bissing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The first +fresh +meat in +weeks.</div> + +<p>Here a distinct change was noticeable. My +first meal in this area included fillet of beef, +the first fresh meat I had tasted for weeks. +Tickets were still needed to buy bread and +other things supplied by the Relief Commission, +but other foodstuffs could be bought without +restriction.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A dinner +at +Brussels.</div> + +<p>At Brussels the food supply seems to be +nearly normal. My Sunday dinner there consisted +of excellent soup, a generous helping of +roast leg of mutton, potatoes, haricot beans, +white bread, cheese, and jam, and wine or beer, +as preferred; while for supper I had cold meat, +fried potatoes, and bread.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Food conditions +at +Antwerp.</div> + +<p>At Antwerp, with two French friends who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +accompanied me on my journey through Belgium, +I walked into a middle-class café at midday. +I ordered a steak with fried potatoes and +my friends ordered pork chops. Without any +question about tickets we were served. We +added bread, cheese, and butter to complete +the meal and washed it down with draft light +beer. Later in the day we took supper in the +same café—an egg omelette, fried potatoes, +bread, cheese, and butter. And the cost of +both meals together was less than the cost of +the steak alone in Roubaix.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Appearance +of +Brussels.</div> + +<p>The policy of the Germans appears to be +to interfere as little as possible with the everyday +life of the country. The fruits of this +policy are seen in a remarkable degree in Brussels. +All day long the main streets of the city +are full of bustle and all the outward manifestations +of prosperity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Business +going on.</div> + +<p>Women in short, fashionable skirts, with +high-topped fancy boots, stroll completely at +their ease along the pavement, studying the +smart things with which the drapers' shop windows +are dressed. Jewelers' shops, provision +stores, tobacconists, and the rest show every +sign of "business as usual." I bought at quite +a reasonable price a packet of Egyptian cigarettes, +bearing the name of a well-known brand +of English manufacture, and I recalled how, +not many miles away in harassed France, I +had seen rhubarb leaves hanging from upper +windows to dry, so that the French smoker +might use them instead of the tobacco which +he could not buy. Even the sweetstuff shops +had well-stocked windows.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Theaters +and +cinema +palaces +open.</div> + +<p>The theaters, music halls, cinema palaces, +and cafés of Brussels were open and crowded. +On the second night of my visit I went with +my two French companions to the Théâtre +Molière and heard a Belgian company in Paul +Hervieu's play, "La Course du Flambeau." The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +whole building was packed with Belgians, +thoroughly enjoying the performance. So far +as I could tell, the only reminder that we were +in the fallen capital of an occupied country +was the presence in the front row of the stalls +of two German soldiers, whose business, so I +learned, was to see that nothing disrespectful +to Germany and her armies was allowed to +creep into the play.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">An +ordinary +cinema +performance.</div> + +<p>At another theater, according to the posters, +"Véronique" was produced, and a third bill +announced "The Merry Widow." At the +Théâtre de la Monnaie, which has been taken +over by the Germans, operas and plays are +given for the benefit of the soldiers and German +civilians. One afternoon I spent a couple +of hours in a cinema hall. A continuous performance +was provided, and people came and +went as they chose, but throughout the program +the place was well filled. The films +shown had no relation to the war. They were +of the ordinary dramatic or comic types, and +I fancy they were of pre-war manufacture. +Nothing of topical interest was exhibited.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Scenes in +Antwerp +like +those in Brussels.</div> + +<p>All the scenes which I have described in +Brussels were reproduced in Antwerp. There +was a slightly closer supervision over the comings +and goings of the inhabitants, but there +was the same unreal atmosphere of contentment +and real appearance of plenty. Though +a good number of officers were in evidence, the +military arm of Germany was not sufficiently +displayed to produce any intimidation. Perhaps +the most obvious mark, here and in the capital, +that all was not normal was the complete absence +of private motor cars and cabs from the +streets.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Belgium +still has +cattle.</div> + +<p>In the country districts two things struck +me as unfamiliar after my long months in +France. About Roubaix not a single head of +cattle was to be seen; in Belgium every farm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +had its cows. In Belgium the mounted gendarmerie—the +"green devils" whose infamous +conduct in the Roubaix district I have described—were +unknown. Their place was filled by +military police, who, by comparison with the +gendarmes, were gentleness itself.</p> + +<p>I do not profess to know the state of affairs +in parts of Belgium which I did not visit, but +I do know that my narrative of the conditions +of life that came under my personal inspection +has come as a great surprise to many people +who imagine the whole of Belgium is starving.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Belgium +better fed +than +occupied +France.</div> + +<p>We in hungry Roubaix looked out on Belgium +as the land of promise. The Flemish +workers who came into the town from time to +time from Belgium were well fed and prosperous +looking, a great contrast to the French of +Roubaix and Lille. The Belgian children that +I saw were healthy and of good appearance, +quite unlike the wasted little ones of France, +with hollow blue rings round their eyes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +desires a +state in +Belgium.</div> + +<p>The people of Roubaix, knowing these facts, +are convinced that the Germans are endeavoring +to lay the foundations of a vassal State in +Belgium. Foiled in their attempts to capture +Calais, the Germans believe that Zeebrugge and +Ostend are capable of development as harbors +for aggressive action against England. The +French do not doubt that the enemy will make +a desperate struggle before giving up Antwerp.</p> + +<p>The picture I have presented of Belgium as +I saw it is, of course, vastly different from the +outraged Belgium of the first stage of the war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +people not +to be +seduced.</div> + +<p>Lest there should arise any misunderstanding, +I complete the picture by stating my conviction, +based on intimate talks with Belgian +men and women, that the population as a whole +are keeping a firm upper lip, and that attempts +by the Germans to seduce them from their allegiance +by blandishment and bribery will fail +as surely as the efforts of frightfulness.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. Whitaker's account of his escape into +Holland closes thus:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Nearing +Holland.</div> + +<p>When we drew near to the wires, just before +midnight, we lay on the ground and wriggled +along until we were within fifty yards of Holland. +There we lay for what seemed to be an +interminable time. We saw patrols passing. +An officer came along and inspected the sentries. +Everything was oppressively quiet.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Through +the electrified +barbed +wire.</div> + +<p>Each sentry moved to and fro over a distance +of a couple of hundred yards. Opposite the +place where we lay two of them met. Choosing +his opportunity, one of my comrades, who had +provided himself with rubber gloves some weeks +before for this critical moment, rushed forward +to the spot where the two sentries had just +met. Scrambling through barbed wire and +over an unelectrified wire, he grasped the electrified +wires and wriggled between them. We +came close on his heels. He held the deadly +electrified wires apart with lengths of thick +plate glass with which he had come provided +while first my other companions and then I +crawled through. Before the sentries returned +we had run some hundreds of yards into No +Man's Land between the electrified wires and +the real Dutch frontier.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrival +at Rotterdam.</div> + +<p>Only one danger remained. We had no certainty +that the Dutch frontier guards would +not hand us back to the Germans. We took +no risks, though it meant wading through a +stream waist deep. Our troubles were now +practically over. By rapid stages we proceeded +to Rotterdam.</p> + +<p>I was without money. My watch I had +given to the Belgian villager in whose cottage +I had found refuge. My clothes were shabby +from frequent soakings and hard wear. I had +shaved only once in Belgium, and a stubby +growth of beard did not improve my general +appearance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sent on to +London.</div> + +<p>At Rotterdam I reported myself to the British +Consul. I was treated with the utmost +kindness. My expenses during the next four +or five days, while I waited for a boat, were paid +and I was given my fare to Hull. There I was +searched by two military police and questioned +closely by an examining board. My papers were +taken and I was told to go to London and apply +for them at the Home Office. As I was +again practically without means I was given +permission to go to my home in Bradford before +proceeding to London.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>In cooperation with the British forces, a Russian +army took part in movements against +Bagdad and Turkish cities in Armenia and +Persia. These military movements were +marked by varying success on the part of the +Russian and Turkish forces. Certain phases of +this campaign are described in the following +chapter.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN<br /> +IN TURKEY</h2> + +<h3>JAMES B. MACDONALD</h3> + + + +<div class="sidenote">Mesopotamia +important +to Great Britain.</div> + +<p>It is perhaps not generally realized how +important the future of Mesopotamia is +to the British, or why they originally sent +an expedition there which has since developed +into a more ambitious campaign. Ever since +the Napoleonic period British influence and +interests have been supreme from Bagdad to +the Persian Gulf, and this was the one quarter +of the globe where they successfully held off the +German trader with his political backing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Great +Britain's +war with +Persia.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British +steamer +on the +Tigris.</div> + +<p>It will be recalled that early in Queen +Victoria's reign Great Britain engaged in a +war with Persia, and landed troops at Bushire +in assertion of their rights. Ever since they +have policed the Persian Gulf, put down piracy, +slave and gun-running, and lighted the places +dangerous to navigation. These interests having +been entrusted to the Government of India, +news affecting them seldom finds its way into +Western papers. Previous to the war a line of +British steamers plied regularly up the River +Tigris to Bagdad, the center of the caravan +trade with Persia. The foreign trade of this +town alone in 1912 amounted to $19,000,000, +and it was nearly all in the hands of merchants +in Great Britain or India. Germany exported +$500,000 worth of goods there annually. Basra, +farther down the river, exports annually about +75,000 tons of dates, valued at $2,900,000. It +also does a large export trade in wheat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">An irrigation +scheme.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Persian +oil fields +controlled +by Great +Britain.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Native +tribes subsidized.</div> + +<p>A large irrigation scheme was partly completed +before the war, near the ancient town +of Babylon, under the direction of a famous +Anglo-Indian engineer, Sir William Willcocks. +When finished it was to cost $105,000,000, and +was expected to reclaim some 2,800,000 acres of +land of great productibility. It will, therefore, +be seen that Britain had some considerable +stake in the country. In addition to this, the +British Government, shortly before the war, invested +$10,000,000 in acquiring control of the +Anglo-Persian oil fields, which is the principal +source of supply for oil fuel for their navy. +By this means they avoided the risk of great +American corporations cornering the supply of +oil fuel and holding up their navy. John Bull +upon occasion shows some gleamings of shrewdness. +This deal is on a par with their purchase +of sufficient shares to control the Suez +Canal. The Anglo-Persian oil fields are +situated across the border in Persia, and the +oil is led in pipes down the Karam River valley, +a tributary of the combined Tigris and Euphrates +rivers. The native tribes in the neighborhood +were subsidized to protect the pipe-line, +or, rather, to leave it alone.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Russia and +Great +Britain in +Persia.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">German +railways +must end +at +Bagdad.</div> + +<p>During recent years Persia has fallen into +decay. Politically she is more sick than "the +sick man of the East." The people have a religion +of their own and worship the sun, although +quite a number of Moslems have settled +in their midst. Being cognizant of German +designs to create a great Eastern empire in +Mesopotamia and Persia, which would threaten +India, Egypt, and the Russian East, Britain +and Russia came together and formed a kind +of Monroe Doctrine of their own. They said, +in effect, northern Persia shall be Russia's +sphere of influence, and southern Persia shall +be Britain's sphere of influence. They both +recognized that a great military power, like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +Germany, permanently established at Bagdad, +with aggressive tendencies, would imperil their +Eastern dominions, and both were prepared to +make it a <i>casus belli</i>—Britain, further, a few +years ago informed Germany that the area +from Bagdad to the head of the Gulf was her +"Garden of Eden," and any attempt to carry +German railways south of Bagdad would bring +on war. The Emperor William apparently did +not mind this opposition by Britain and Russia +to his Oriental ambition, provided he could +find a passage through the Balkans.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Persian +gendarmes +officered +by Swedes.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fairy-tales +of +Turkish +conquest.</div> + +<p>At the time Britain and Russia came to an +agreement regarding Persia they were not on +so good a footing with each other as they are +to-day. In order that neither should get an +advantage over the other, it was decided that +the Persian gendarmes—about 6,000 in number—should +be officered by neutrals, and, unfortunately +as it turned out for the Allies, they mutually +chose Swedes. On the outbreak of war +neither Britain nor Russia desired that Persia +should be brought into it. The German ambassador +in Persia, however, had other views, +and suborned Swedish officers in command of +the Persian gendarmes. Partly by this means, +and partly by Turkish agents, a rebellion was +brought about within the Russian sphere. +Religion had nothing to do with the trouble +in Persia. Turkish forces entered Persian +Kurdistan and announced that they were on +their way to conquer India and the Russian +East, while their compatriots would overrun +Egypt. These were the fairy-tales with which +the Germans had originally enticed the +Turks into the war. The Turks were willing +to believe them, and apparently did believe +them. The responsible Germans had no such +illusions, but hoped to attain their ends +by causing internal disturbances within India +and Egypt. These German canards, put about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +in war time, have been adopted by some writers +in this country as the foundation from which +to write contemporary history. It may interest +them to know that India possesses the strongest +natural frontiers in the world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Strategy +depends +on +geography.</div> + +<p>Strategy nowadays is very largely a matter +of geography. Modern armies are circumscribed +in their movements by the available +means of transportation, whether these be by +railroad, river, or roadway, and this means +geography applied in giving direction to troop +movements.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Geographies +of +the war +area.</div> + +<p>Before entering into a review of the combined +Anglo-Russian campaign a preliminary +survey of the strategical geography of the war +area will make the position more clear.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantinople +once +the world +clearing-house.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Still the +easiest +route.</div> + +<p>In ancient times the only practical way by +road and ferry from Europe to Asia or Africa +was by way of the Balkan valleys and across +the Bosphorus or Dardanelles. Hence arose +the importance of the ferryhouse—Constantinople. +That city in those days was the center +of the known world and the clearing-house +for the merchandise of Asia, Africa, and +Europe. From Scutari, on the opposite shore, +the overland route meandered across Asia +Minor to Aleppo in Syria. Here the sign-post +to India pointed down the Euphrates Valley, +by way of Bagdad, while that to Egypt and +Arabia followed the Levant or eastern shore +of the Mediterranean. Between each fork lay +the Syrian desert. A glance at the map shows +the reason why in those days this was the only +practical route, as to-day it is the easiest. The +wall of the Ural Mountains, the Caspian Sea, +the Caucasian Mountains, and the Black Sea +shut out direct communication from Europe +to Asia, or <i>vice versa</i>, except by the Constantinople +ferry or a sea voyage.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Another +practical +route.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The road +for invasion +of +Egypt or +India.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Taurus +range is +the +natural +frontier +of Egypt.</div> + +<p>In Asia Minor progress was further barred +by the watershed of the Euphrates and Tigris<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +rivers to the south, and the Caucasian Mountains +to the east. A practical way was found +at the lower elevations of the Taurus and +Amanus mountains—two parallel spurs which +strike the sea at the Gulf of Alexandretta. This +narrow neck of the bottle, as it were, is of +enormous military importance alike to the +Turks and to the British. Through it must +pass any army of invasion by land from Europe +or Asia Minor to Egypt or India; and, conversely, +through it must pass any invading +army from Mesopotamia into Asia Minor. If +the British should conquer Mesopotamia and +should intend to hold it—as they undoubtedly +would—they will have no strategical frontiers +until they secure the watershed of the Tigris +and Euphrates rivers and the Taurus passage. +If they secure the latter, Syria, Palestine, and +Arabia will fall to them like apples off a tree. +It would then be no longer necessary to defend +the Suez Canal. The natural frontier of +Egypt is the Taurus mountain range. Asia +Minor is the real Turkey; the other portions +of the empire—M<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Meopotamia'">Mesopotamia</ins>, Syria, Palestine, +Arabia, and Turkey in Europe—are only +appendages. The eastern door into Asia +Minor is Erzerum, and the southern door is +the Taurus passage. Turkey can only part +with these at the cost of her life. Russia has +already captured Erzerum, and the British +possess the Island of Cyprus, which commands +the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta—twenty +miles from the Taurus passage. That is, +broadly, the situation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Aleppo is +the starting +point +of caravan +routes.</div> + +<p>Near the crossing of the Taurus and Amanus +mountains lies the city of Aleppo, the starting-point +for the overland caravan routes to Bagdad +and India, and also to Damascus, Mecca, +and Egypt. Just as surely as pioneer travelers +always chose the easiest route, so the railways +of to-day follow in their footsteps. The physical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +features of nature constrained both modern +as well as ancient armies to travel the same +way. Hence a railway map of the Balkans and +of Asiatic Turkey is a first consideration in +appreciating the strategical bearings of the +Anglo-Russian campaign in Turkey-in-Asia, or +the alleged rival Germanic-Turkish schemes +for the invasion of Egypt, Persia, and India. +Of no less importance is a knowledge of the +available sea routes and inland rivers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bulgaria +and +Turkey +depend on +aid from +Germany.</div> + +<p>The ability of Bulgaria and Turkey to carry +on the war depends on aid from Germany in +men, munitions, and money. These allies are +the weakest members of the Central Group, and +may be the first to give in if circumstances are +adverse to their adventure.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The importance +of the +Balkan +railway.</div> + +<p>Their sole communication with the Central +Powers is by the Balkan railway from the +Danube to Constantinople by way of Sofia. If +this line is severed, then these nations are out +of the game. The Allies have all winter been +organizing the defenses of Salonica as a <i>pied-à-terre</i> +for such an attack. Should Rumania +join the Allies in the spring, then a further +attack may be expected from the north, in +which Russian troops would join. Turkey is +now too preoccupied with her own troubles to +be able to assist Bulgaria.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Asia +Minor's +only important +line.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Railway +planned +from +Aleppo to +Bagdad.</div> + +<p>In Asia Minor the only railway of importance +is the trunk line from Scutari, on the +Bosphorus, to the Taurus Tunnel, in course of +completion near Adana. One branch runs west +to Smyrna, and another east to Angora. Beyond +the Taurus Tunnel is another in course +of completion through the Amanus Mountains. +Every person and everything destined for the +Bagdad front or for the invasion of Egypt has +to be transported over these mountains. So +also have rails for the completion of the Aleppo-to-Bagdad +railway. These tunnels are expected +to be finished this year—when it will be too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +late. From Aleppo the Syrian railway runs +south through Damascus to Medina and Mecca +in Arabia. Branches reach the Levant seaports +of Tripoli, Beirut, and Haifa. Another railway +was started from Aleppo to Bagdad +shortly before the war, and construction begun +at both ends. We have no reliable information +as to how far it has progressed, but the +presumption is that there is a large gap between +Ras-el-ain and Mosul and between the +latter place and Samara.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The city +of Aleppo +key of +railways +as once of +caravan +routes.</div> + +<p>It is at once apparent how important the +city of Aleppo is as the junction for the three +main railways of Asiatic Turkey. Napoleon +considered that it was the key to India, because +it commanded the caravan routes. To-day it +would be more correct to say that Aleppo is +the key to the outer <i>approaches</i> to India and +Egypt, the inner defenses of which are impregnable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Reasons +for a +British +army in +Egypt.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Vantage +points held +by Great +Britain.</div> + +<p>The British maintain a large army in Egypt +not so much because it is required there as because +it is a most convenient central camp +within striking distance of all the battle-fronts +in the East. This permits of throwing a large +army secretly and unexpectedly where it can +be most effective. Similar camps are available +at Malta and Cyprus. Any attack on Egypt +on a formidable scale would be a veritable trap +for the invaders. It will be recalled that when +Britain held up the Russian advance on Constantinople, +in 1878, she entered into a treaty +with Turkey guaranteeing the latter in the +possession of Asia Minor (only) against all +enemies. The consideration was the lease of +the Island of Cyprus, which dominates the +Taurus passage. In other words, Britain holds +the cork with which she can close the Syrian +tube and put the closure on any invasion of +India or Egypt from this side. This treaty +was abrogated some eighteen months ago, when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +Turkey declared war on the British Empire. +Britain, in consequence, annexed Egypt and +Cyprus.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of the war the Indian +Government, apparently off their own bat, despatched +a small force to the Persian oil fields +to seize and hold the pipe-line, which had been +tampered with and the supply cut off for a +time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Turks +threaten +Basra.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British +advance +up the +Tigris to +Kut-el-Amara.</div> + +<p>It became necessary to hold in force three +triangular points—Basra, Muhammereh, and +Awaz. A strong Turkish force, with headquarters +at Amara, was equidistant about 100 +miles from both Basra and Awaz, and could +elect to strike the divided British forces either +by coming down the Tigris River to Basra, or +by going overland to Awaz. Reinforcements +were sent from India, and Amara occupied. +The oil fields seemed secure. Then the unexpected +happened. A Turkish army came down +the Shat-el-Hai—an ancient canal or waterway +connecting the Tigris River at Kut-el-Amara +with the Euphrates at Nasiriyeh (or +Nasdi)—about 100 miles to the west of Basra—and +threatened the latter place. (Shat-el-Hai +means the river which flows by the village +of Hai. Kut-el-Amara means the fort of Amara +and is not to be confused with the town of +Amara lower down the Tigris River.) This led +to the British driving the Turks out of +Nasiriyeh and also advancing up the Tigris +River from Amara to occupy Kut-el-Amara, +where a battle was fought. The Turks were +strongly entrenched and expected to hold up +the Anglo-Indian troops here, but a turning +movement made them retire on Bagdad—about +100 miles to the northwest. It was known that +large Turkish reinforcements were on the way +to Bagdad and an attempt was made to anticipate +them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +Townshend's +attempt +to +take +Bagdad.</div> + +<p>General Townshend advanced on Bagdad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +with less than a division of mixed Anglo-Indian +troops—some 16,000 to 20,000 strong. At +Ctesiphon he found a Turkish army of four +divisions, with two others in reserve, awaiting +him. After a two days' indecisive battle, +Townshend, recognizing he had insufficient +forces, retired on his forward base at Kut-el-Amara. +The Arabs in the neighborhood +awaited the issue of the battle, ready to take +sides, for the time being, with the winner.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Turks +much +stronger +in +numbers.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Secret of +European +success +in Asia.</div> + +<p>It says much for the stamina of this composite +division that, although opposed throughout +by five or six times their number of Turks +and Turkish irregulars, the latter were unable +to overwhelm them. To the Western mind, +unacquainted with the mentality and moral +weakness of the Moslem under certain circumstances, +this may appear a most foolhardy adventure. +To the Anglo-Indian the most obvious +thing to do when in a tight corner is to go for +the enemy no matter what their numbers. All +Europeans in India develop an extraordinary +pride in race, and an inherent contempt for +numbers. It is the secret of their success there. +Most Moslems fight well when posted behind +strong natural defenses. In open country, +such as Mesopotamia, they do not show to so +much advantage. Another trait is that when +their line of retreat is threatened they are +more timorous than European troops. This +weakness will have important bearings on +the future of the campaign on the Tigris +Valley, because the communications of the +Turks are threatened by the Russians far in +their rear and in more than one place.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kut-el-Amara +of +great +strategical +importance.</div> + +<p>Townshend's camp at Kut-el-Amara is well +supplied with stores and munitions, and will +soon be relieved. When his retreat was cut +off at the bend of the Tigris River he could still +have retired safely by following the Shat-el-Hai +to Nasiriyeh. There was no thought, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +of retreat, Kut-el-Amara is geographically +of great strategical importance, and the +British garrison there has served the useful +purpose of detaining large forces of the enemy +where it was desired they should remain while +important Allied developments were taking +place in their flank and rear. Most of these +Turkish reinforcements were withdrawn from +Armenia when the depth of winter appeared +to make it impossible for the Russians to break +through the lofty hills of Caucasia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Turks +deceived +by rumor +about +Grand +Duke +Nicholas.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Grand +Duke's +strategy.</div> + +<p>The rumor, so diligently put about, that the +Grand Duke Nicholas had been retired in disgrace, +after so ably extricating the Russian +armies in Poland, and that he had been sent to +Caucasia, served its purpose. The Turks were +deceived by it, and sent part of their forces +from Armenia to oppose the Anglo-Indian advance +on Bagdad and arrived in time to turn +the scale after the battle of Ctesiphon. When +the Grand Duke fell on the unwary Turks their +defeat was complete. Flying from Erzerum, +one army made for Trebizond, another for the +Lake Van district, and the rest went due west +towards Sivas. The Grand Duke's right wing, +center, and left are following in the same directions. +He has two flying wings further +south—one in the Lake Urumia district and +the other advancing along the main caravan +route from Kermanshah to Bagdad, while the +British are furthest south at Kut-el-Amara. +It will be observed that the whole of the Allied +armies from the Black Sea to Kut-el-Amara +are in perfect echelon formation, and it would +be a strange coincidence if this just happened—say, +by accident. Like the Syrian and Arabian +littoral, Mesopotamia is another tube confined +within the Syrian desert on the one side +and the mountains of Armenia and Persia on +the ether. All egress is stopped by the Allies' +echelon formation, except by Aleppo.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Possible +to cut +Turkish +Empire +in two.</div> + +<p>Petrograd advices at the time of writing +(March 9th) state that the Grand Duke's +main army is making for the Gulf of Alexandretta +with intent to cut the Turkish Empire +in two. This is not only possible, but +highly probable, and the echelon formation of +the Allies, together with the configuration of +the country, lends itself to such an operation. +The British army in Egypt and the British +fleet could in such an eventuality coöperate to +advantage.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Russians +must take +Trebizond.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Turks will +endeavor +to hold +Armenian +Taurus.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The road +that +Xenophon +traveled.</div> + +<p>As a preliminary the Russians must clear +their right wing by capturing Trebizond and +utilizing it as a sea base. Asia Minor is a +high tableland, in shape like the sole of a boot +turned upside down, with the highlands of +Armenia representing the heel. The Turks, +having lost their only base and headquarters +at Erzerum, have now to rush troops, guns, +and stores from Constantinople to the railhead +at Angora and endeavor to rally their +defeated forces to the east of Sivas. In the +meantime, the Russians will have overrun some +250 miles of Turkish territory before they are +held up even temporarily. The Turkish army +in Syria will be rushed to Diarbekr to rally +their defeated right wing and endeavor to +hold the Armenian Taurus Mountains against +the Grand Duke's left wing. If the Russians +break through here, then all is lost to the +Turks in the south. They, however, have a +most difficult task before them, because the +hills here reach their highest. There is a road +of sorts, because we know that Xenophon in +ancient times traveled it with his 10,000 +Greeks, and the Turks did the same recently, +when they sent reinforcements to Bagdad. +Both must have traveled light, and the Russians +will have to do the same. This means +that the Turks on the south will be better supplied +with guns than their opponents, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +will have to rely once more on their bayonets.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +forces in +the south +ample.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Tigris and +other +available +routes.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Plans +of the +British +army.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Russian +and +British +forces +would join.</div> + +<p>In the extreme south the British have ample +force now to carry out their part of the contract. +We know that some 80,000 veteran +Indian troops have arrived from France, as +well as other large reinforcements from India. +It is unlikely that these will all proceed up the +Tigris River, because sufficient troops are already +there who are restricted to a narrow +front, owing to the salt marshes between the +bend of the river and the Persian mountains. +Two other routes are available, the Shat-el-Hai +from Nasiriyeh to relieve the garrison at Kut-el-Amara +from the south, and the Euphrates +River, to attack Bagdad from the southwest, +while the Russian flying wing at Kermanshah +threatens it from the northeast. The Turkish +report of heavy fighting at Nasiriyeh would +indicate that one or both of these routes were +being taken. Athens reports that Bagdad is +about to fall. As it falls, a British flotilla will +ascend the Euphrates and make direct for +Aleppo. The British army from Kut-el-Amara +and the Russians from Kermanshah will, after +the fall of Bagdad—which is a foregone conclusion—ascend +the Tigris River to Mosul, +where they may be expected to get in touch +with the other Russian flying wing from the +Lake Urumia district. The combined force will +then be in a position to force a junction with +the Grand Duke's left wing, and then continue +their advance on Aleppo.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Turkish +army +might retire +to defend +the +Taurus +passage.</div> + +<p>Should the main army of the Grand Duke, +as reported, converge on the Gulf of Alexandretta +with intent to destroy the Turkish +southern army, then the latter would be in a +very dangerous position, because their northern +army being, as yet, without a base or organization, +is not in a position to take the offensive +to assist them. If, on the other hand, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +Turkish army of the south declines battle at +Aleppo and retires to defend the Taurus passage, +after abandoning half their Empire to the +Allies, the latter will, if they have not previously +anticipated it, have a difficult problem +to solve as to how they are going to get their +large forces in the south over the Taurus range +to assist the Grand Duke in the final struggle. +The forcing of the Taurus passage will mean +fighting on a narrow front and will take time.</p> + +<p>So far this campaign had been conducted +as one of India's little wars, which come as +regularly as intermittent fever.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Russians +enter +Armenia +and later +withdraw.</div> + +<p>When Turkey entered the war she reckoned +that Russia was so busy on the German and +Austrian frontiers as to be unable to meet +an attack in her rear. Turkey thereupon concentrated +her main armies at Erzerum and invaded +Caucasia. The Russians beat them back +and entered Armenia, where the inhabitants +assisted them. The same cause which led to +the retirement from Poland—shortage of ammunition—compelled +the Russians also to withdraw +from Armenia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Britain's +reverse at +Gallipoli.</div> + +<p>Contemporary with these events, Britain met +with a severe reverse on the Gallipoli peninsula, +which likewise injured her prestige in the East.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">An Anglo-Russian +campaign +from +Kurna to +the Black +Sea.</div> + +<p>It became a matter of first importance with +both Britain and Russia that they should not +only reinstate their prestige in the East in +striking fashion, but that they should end once +and for all time German intrigue and Turkish +weakness in the East. These considerations +were contributing factors in bringing about a +joint war council and an Allied Grand Staff. +The latter immediately took hold of the military +situation in Asiatic Turkey, and the isolated +operations of Britain and Russia in these parts +now changed into a great Anglo-Russian campaign +stretching from the junction of the Euphrates +and Tigris rivers to the Black Sea.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> + +<p>The drama unfolding before us promises to +be one of the most sensational in the great +world war. The end of the Ottoman Empire +appears in sight. Its heirs and successors may +be the other great Moslem powers—Britain, +Russia, France, and Italy. The last two have +yet to be heard from on the western shores of +Asia Minor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +possible +future.</div> + +<p>The future may see the British in possession +of Turkey's first capital, Mosul; the French +in possession of their second capital, Konia; +the Russians in possession of their third and +last capital, Constantinople, and the Italians +occupying Smyrna. Each of these powers is a +Mohammedan empire in itself; and the greatest +Moslem country in the world is the British +Empire.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Britain +may be +stronger +than ever +in the +East.</div> + +<p>The Moslems in India not only approve of +the idea of removing the Sheik-Ul-Islam, head +of the Mohammedan creed, from Constantinople +to Delhi or Cairo, under British protection, +but the head of their church in India volunteered +as a private soldier to fight in France, +and is now with the Anglo-Indian army in +Mesopotamia. It would seem as if Britain +and Russia, at the end of this war, would find +themselves stronger than ever in the East.</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, American Review of Reviews, April, 1916.</small></div> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Great Britain suffered one of her greatest +losses during the war on June 7, 1916, +when the cruiser <i>Hampshire</i>, on board of which +was Earl Kitchener on his way to Russia, was +sunk by a German mine or torpedo. Over 300 +lives were lost in this disaster. Earl Kitchener +had been throughout the war the chief +force in raising and training the British +army, and to his ability and zeal was due +largely the great feats of landing large numbers +of British troops in France within a time +which in the period of peace would have been +considered impossible.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p> +<h2>KITCHENER</h2> + +<h3>LADY ST. HELIER</h3> + + + +<div class="sidenote">Lord +Kitchener +a mystery +to the +outside +world.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fond +of old +friends.</div> + +<p>To the outside world Lord Kitchener was +something of a mystery; they knew little +of him personally, he shunned publicity, he +was not a seeker after popularity. Though he +had few personal friends, he was endeared to +that chosen few in a way unique and rare. He +was shy and reserved about the deep things of +life, but a charming companion in ordinary +ways—very amusing and agreeable. He had a +great sense of humor, and his rapid intuition +gave him a wonderful insight into character, +and he soon arrived at a just estimate of people, +and of the motives of those with whom he came +into contact. He did not make many new +friends, and the people who knew him well, +and with whom his holidays or hours of relaxation +were passed, were confined to those +he had known for many years. He always impressed +one with a deep sense of decency in +conversation and conduct; one felt in talking +to him how impossible it would be to drift into +the easy-going discussion of questions and +problems of our modern life, and it seemed impossible +to imagine his taking a silent acquiescence +in the jokes and insinuations which are +not considered now extraordinary or unpleasant.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Economy +in expenditure +in +Egypt.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Kitchener's +unsparing +activity +in South +Africa.</div> + +<p>Lord Kitchener's strength lay in the fact that +his views broadened as he went on in life. As +long as he was confined to Egypt and had to +carry out his task with the minimum of force +and expenditure, he was careful even to penuriousness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +and his subordinates groaned under +his exacting economy; but he was justified in +his care by the wonderful development of the +country devolving from his unsparing activity. +When he went to South Africa with a great +staff and unlimited funds, he took a new departure. +He worked himself unceasingly, and +exacted the same from those around him, but +he recognized inevitable limitations and was +most considerate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Medical +aid for +Egyptian +women +organized.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Trained +English +nurses +sent to +Egypt.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Lives of +babies +saved.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expected +to return +to Egypt.</div> + +<p>Ceaseless activity characterized his work in +Egypt, when he went there after failing to be +appointed Viceroy of India, which most of his +friends anticipated, and which he would have +accepted. Perhaps Egypt was a disappointment +after the wider sphere India presented, +but nothing ever prevented him from doing +what came to him to do and giving his best +to it. When he returned there, the question +of infant mortality and the unhygienic condition +of Egyptian women during child-bearing, +from the neglect and ignorance of the most +elementary measures, came under his observation, +and he was deeply interested in devising +means of providing medical treatment for +them, and of training native women in midwifery +and all that would conduce to improving +the conditions under which they lived. He +enlisted the sympathy and interest of the wives +of officials, and of Englishwomen in Egypt, and +carried out a scheme which in itself was a wonderful +example of what his interest and driving +power could accomplish. These women whose +help he enlisted could tell endless stories of +the task he set them to do and his tacit refusal +to listen to any difficulties that arose in carrying +it out. A number of trained English nurses +were despatched to Egypt and sent to different +localities, where they gave training to a large +number of native women in midwifery and +kindred subjects. The scheme was a great success,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +and the benefit it has been to thousands +of native women is indescribable, as regards +both their general treatment and the care of +themselves and their children at birth. Little +was known about the subject in England, and +much less about all that was done to mitigate +the evil; but it was a wonderful piece of administration, +though perhaps not one that appealed +specially to him; and when some one, +knowing what had been achieved, congratulated +him on his success and the boon it was to the +women in Egypt, his characteristic reply was: +"I am told I have saved the lives of ten thousand +babies. I suppose that is something to +have done." At that time, only a fortnight before +the prospect of war seemed possible, he +was talking with the keenest interest of his return +to Egypt and of what he had still to do +there.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The dinner +at Lord +French's.</div> + +<p>There are incidents in life which leave lasting +impressions, and one of a large dinner at +Lord French's about the same time, at which +Lord K., Lord Haldane, and others were present, +comes to my mind; probably no one there +but those three men had an idea of the threatening +cloud which broke in so short a time +over England, and the important part two of +them would take in it. Lord K., as the world +knows, was on the point of returning to Egypt; +in fact, he had started when he was recalled, +almost on board the steamer at Dover.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The country +expects Lord +Kitchener +to head +the War +Office.</div> + +<p>The two questions which moved the soul of +the English people to its deepest depth were, +undoubtedly, what part the country was going +to take when it was realized that war was inevitable, +and, after that, who was to preside +at the War Office. There might have been +hesitation on the one point; on the other there +was none, and the silent, deep determination +with which the people waited to be told that +Lord Kitchener was to be Secretary of State<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +for War can only be realized by those who +went through those anxious days. There was +never a doubt or hesitation in the mind of the +country that Lord K. was the only person who +could satisfy its requirements, and the acclamation +with which the news flashed through the +country when he was appointed Secretary of +State for War was overwhelming, while those +who were thrown into contact with him give a +marvelous account of the cool, rapid, and +soldier-like way in which he accepted the great +position. He quickly installed himself at the +War Office, even to sleeping there, so that he +was ever at the call of his office, and lived there +till Lady Wantage placed her house in Carlton +Gardens, close by, at his disposal. Later on +the King offered him St. James's Palace, and +those neighbors who rose early enough saw +him daily start off on his morning walk to his +office, where he remained all day.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lord +Kitchener's +arduous +two years.</div> + +<p>The last two crowded years of Lord Kitchener's +life, full of their anxieties and responsibilities, +had not changed him; but though he +had aged, and the constant strain had told on +him, he had altered outwardly but little. The +office life was irksome, and the want of exercise +to a man of his active habits very trying, +for he hardly ever left London except for an +occasional week-end at Broome. His intended +visit to Russia was not known, and, like so +many of his visits to France and the army at +the front, were only made public after his return. +Those who saw him that last week and +knew of his going, tell how he longed for the +change and how eagerly he looked forward to +his holiday.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +great task +completed.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The farewell +visit +to the +King and +to the +Grand +Fleet.</div> + +<p>The last few months, with the controversies +over conscription, had harassed him. He was +not a keen believer in the conscript principle; +he was more than justified in his preference +for a voluntary army by the response he had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +received on his appeal to the manhood of England. +There was a wonderful completion of +the task he had undertaken in those last few +days. He had raised his millions, and the +country had accepted the inevitable imposition +of compulsion, and with it that chapter of his +life was finished. He had met the House of +Commons, and, uncertain as the result of that +conference was, like all he did, it was one of +his greatest successes. He had no indecision +when it was proposed to him that he should +meet the Commons, and, as was always the +case, the result was never in doubt. What +passed has never been divulged, but he left an +impression on the two hundred members who +were present which was perhaps one of the +best tributes ever paid him. After his farewell +to the King, his last visit to Broome and to +Sir John Jellicoe and the Grand Fleet, he set +sail for the shore he never reached, and the end +had come. It was perhaps the most perfect end +of such a life—a life full of high endeavor and +completion. The service he had rendered his +country by raising her armies and foreseeing +the probable duration of the war could not +have been performed by any other living man. +If, as his critics say, he depended too much +on his own individual endeavors, he was not to +be blamed when we read day by day of the +glorious deeds of the armies he had created.</p> + +<p>The country staggered under the blow of his +death, and one can never forget the silent grief +and dismay of that dreadful day with its horrible +tragedy. The grief was universal and +personal, and the tributes to his work and +memory were spoken from the heart by the +great leaders of both parties. No more touching +and pathetic tribute was ever said than the +speech made by Lord Derby in the House of +Lords on the resolution in reference to his +death. There is not one word to be altered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +from beginning to end, but the concluding +words must go to every heart and find an +echo:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The whole +machinery +of the +new +armies in +running +order.</div> + +<p>Lord Kitchener said good-by to the nation at +a moment when he left the whole of the machinery +of the great armies that he had created +in running order, and when it only required +skilled engineers to keep going his work. It +was really as if Providence in its wisdom had +given him the rest he never would have given +to himself.</p> + +<p>With the memory of a great naval battle +fresh in our minds we must all realize how +rich a harvest of death the sea has reaped. +We in these islands from time immemorial had +paid a heavy toll to the sea for our insular +security, but, speaking as the friend of a +friend, I can say that the sea never executed +a heavier toll than when Lord Kitchener, coffined +in a British man-of-war, passed to the +Great Beyond.</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, Harper's Magazine, October, 1916.</small></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>How and why America joined with the +Allies against Germany in April, 1917, is told +in the three articles following. The summaries +contained therein are official, and the war +message of President Wilson condenses the reasons +which impelled the United States, after +long delay, to throw the force of its strength +and resources against the German Empire.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> +<h2>WHY AMERICA BROKE WITH<br /> +GERMANY</h2> + +<h3>PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +proclaims +ruthless +submarine +warfare.</div> + +<p>The Imperial German Government on the +31st day of January announced to this +Government and to the Governments of +the other neutral nations that on and after +the 1st day of February, the present month, it +would adopt a policy with regard to the use +of submarines against all shipping seeking to +pass through certain designated areas of the +high seas, to which it is clearly my duty to +call your attention.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +<i>Sussex</i> +case.</div> + +<p>Let me remind the Congress that on the 18th +of April last, in view of the sinking on the +24th of March of the cross-channel steamship +<i>Sussex</i> by a German submarine without summons +or warning, and the consequent loss of +lives of several citizens of the United States +who were passengers aboard her, this Government +addressed a note to the Imperial German +Government, in which it made the following +statement:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The note +to the +Imperial +German +Government.</div> + +<p>"If it is still the purpose of the Imperial +German Government to prosecute relentless +and indiscriminate warfare against vessels of +commerce by the use of submarines without regard +to what the Government of the United +States must consider the sacred and indisputable +rules of international law and the universally +recognized dictates of humanity, the +Government of the United States is at last +forced to the conclusion that there is but one +course it can pursue. Unless the Imperial Government<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +should now immediately declare and +effect an abandonment of its present methods +of submarine warfare against passenger and +freight carrying vessels, the Government of the +United States can have no choice but to sever +diplomatic relations with the German Empire +altogether."</p> + +<p>In reply to this declaration the Imperial +German Government gave this Government the +following assurance:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany's +assurances +to the +United +States.</div> + +<p>"The German Government is prepared to +do its utmost to confine the operations of war +for the rest of its duration to the fighting +forces of the belligerents, thereby also insuring +the freedom of the seas, a principle upon which +the German Government believes now, as before, +to be in agreement with the Government +of the United States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Promises +that +merchant +vessels +shall not +be sunk +without +warning.</div> + +<p>"The German Government, guided by this +idea, notifies the Government of the United +States that the German naval forces have received +the following orders: In accordance +with the general principles of visit and search +and destruction of merchant vessels recognized +by international law, such vessels, both within +and without the area declared a naval war +zone, shall not be sunk without warning and +without saving human lives, unless these ships +attempt to escape or offer resistance.</p> + +<p>"But," it added, "neutrals cannot expect that +Germany, forced to fight for her existence, +shall, for the sake of neutral interest, restrict +the use of an effective weapon if her enemy is +permitted to continue to apply at will methods +of warfare violating the rules of international +law. Such a demand would be incompatible +with the character of neutrality, and the German +Government is convinced that the Government +of the United States does not think +of making such a demand, knowing that the +Government of the United States has repeatedly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +declared that it is determined to restore +the principle of the freedom of the seas, from +whatever quarter it has been violated."</p> + +<p>To this the Government of the United States +replied on the 8th of May, accepting, of course, +the assurance given, but adding:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The reply +of the +United +States.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rights of +American +citizens +do not +depend on +conduct of +another +government.</div> + +<p>"The Government of the United States feels +it necessary to state that it takes it for granted +that the Imperial German Government does +not intend to imply that the maintenance of +its newly announced policy is in any way contingent +upon the course or result of diplomatic +negotiations between the Government of the +United States and any other belligerent Government, +notwithstanding the fact that certain +passages in the Imperial Government's note of +the 4th inst. might appear to be susceptible of +that construction. In order, however, to avoid +any misunderstanding, the Government of the +United States notifies the Imperial Government +that it cannot for a moment entertain, much +less discuss, a suggestion that respect by German +naval authorities for the rights of citizens +of the United States upon the high seas should +in any way or in the slightest degree be made +contingent upon the conduct of any other Government, +affecting the rights of neutrals and +noncombatants. Responsibility in such matters +is single, not joint, absolute, not relative."</p> + +<p>To this note of the 8th of May the Imperial +German Government made no reply.</p> + +<p>On the 31st of January, the Wednesday of +the present week, the German Ambassador +handed to the Secretary of State, along with +a formal note, a memorandum which contained +the following statement:</p> + +<p>"The Imperial Government therefore does not +doubt that the Government of the United States +will understand the situation thus forced upon +Germany by the Entente Allies' brutal methods +of war and by their determination to destroy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +the Central Powers, and that the Government +of the United States will further realize that +the now openly disclosed intention of the Entente +Allies gives back to Germany the freedom +of action which she reserved in her note addressed +to the Government of the United States +on May 4, 1916.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +will sink +all ships +within +zone proclaimed.</div> + +<p>"Under these circumstances, Germany will +meet the illegal measures of her enemies by +forcibly preventing, after February 1, 1917, in +a zone around Great Britain, France, Italy, +and in the Eastern Mediterranean, all navigation, +that of neutrals included, from and to +England and from and to France, &c. All ships +met within the zone will be sunk."</p> + +<p>I think that you will agree with me that, +in view of this declaration, which suddenly +and without prior intimation of any kind deliberately +withdraws the solemn assurance +given in the Imperial Government's note of the +4th of May, 1916, this Government has no +alternative consistent with the dignity and +honor of the United States but to take the +course which, in its note of the 18th of April, +1916, it announced that it would take in the +event that the German Government did not declare +and effect an abandonment of the +methods of submarine warfare which it was +then employing and to which it now purposes +again to resort.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Diplomatic +relations +with Germany +are +severed.</div> + +<p>I have therefore directed the Secretary of +State to announce to his Excellency the German +Ambassador that all diplomatic relations +between the United States and the German +Empire are severed and that the American +Ambassador to Berlin will immediately be +withdrawn; and, in accordance with this decision, +to hand to his Excellency his passports.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hard to +believe +Germany +will carry +out +threats.</div> + +<p>Notwithstanding this unexpected action of +the German Government, this sudden and deplorable +renunciation of its assurances, given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +this Government at one of the most critical +moments of tension in the relations of the +two Governments, I refuse to believe that it +is the intention of the German authorities to +do in fact what they have warned us they will +feel at liberty to do. I cannot bring myself +to believe that they will indeed pay no regard +to the ancient friendship between their people +and our own or to the solemn obligations +which have been exchanged between them, and +destroy American ships and take the lives of +American citizens in the willful prosecution +of the ruthless naval program they have announced +their intention to adopt. Only actual +overt acts on their part can make me believe +it even now.</p> + +<p>If this inveterate confidence on my part in +the sobriety and prudent foresight of their +purpose should unhappily prove unfounded; if +American ships and American lives should in +fact be sacrificed by their naval commanders +in heedless contravention on the just and reasonable +understandings of international law +and the obvious dictates of humanity, I shall +take the liberty of coming again before the +Congress to ask that authority be given me to +use any means that may be necessary for the +protection of our seamen and our people in +the prosecution of their peaceful and legitimate +errands on the high seas. I can do nothing +less. I take it for granted that all neutral Governments +will take the same course.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America +does not +desire war +with +Germany.</div> + +<p>We do not desire any hostile conflict with +the Imperial German Government. We are +the sincere friends of the German people, and +earnestly desire to remain at peace with the +Government which speaks for them. We shall +not believe that they are hostile to us unless +and until we are obliged to believe it; and we +purpose nothing more than the reasonable defense +of the undoubted rights of our people.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +We wish to serve no selfish ends. We seek +merely to stand true alike in thought and in +action to the immemorial principles of our +people, which I have sought to express in my +address to the Senate only two weeks ago—seek +merely to vindicate our rights to liberty +and justice and an unmolested life. These are +the bases of peace, not war. God grant that +we may not be challenged to defend them by +acts of willful injustice on the part of the Government +of Germany!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Reasons +for addressing +Congress.</div> + +<p>I have again asked the privilege of addressing +you because we are moving through critical +times during which it seems to me to be +my duty to keep in close touch with the houses +of Congress, so that neither counsel nor action +shall run at cross-purposes between us.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd of February I officially informed +you of the sudden and unexpected action of +the Imperial German Government in declaring +its intention to disregard the promises it +had made to this Government in April last +and undertake immediate submarine operations +against all commerce, whether of belligerents +or of neutrals, that should seek to +approach Great Britain and Ireland, the Atlantic +coasts of Europe, or the harbors of the +Eastern Mediterranean and to conduct those +operations without regard to the established +restrictions of international practice, without +regard to any considerations of humanity even +which might interfere with their object.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +ruthless +policy in +practice.</div> + +<p>That policy was forthwith put into practice. +It has now been in active exhibition for nearly +four weeks. Its practical results are not fully +disclosed. The commerce of other neutral nations +is suffering severely, but not, perhaps, +very much more severely than it was already +suffering before the 1st of February, when the +new policy of the Imperial Government was +put into operation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +commerce +suffers.</div> + +<p>We have asked the cooperation of the other +neutral Governments to prevent these depredations, +but I fear none of them has thought +it wise to join us in any common course of +action. Our own commerce has suffered, is +suffering, rather in apprehension than in fact, +rather because so many of our ships are +timidly keeping to their home ports than because +American ships have been sunk.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +vessels +sunk.</div> + +<p>Two American vessels have been sunk, the +<i>Housatonic</i> and the <i>Lyman M. Law</i>. The case +of the <i>Housatonic</i>, which was carrying foodstuffs +consigned to a London firm, was essentially +like the case of the <i>Frye</i>, in which, +it will be recalled, the German Government +admitted its liability for damages, and the +lives of the crew, as in the case of the <i>Frye</i>, +were safeguarded with reasonable care.</p> + +<p>The case of the <i>Law</i>, which was carrying +lemon-box staves to Palermo, discloses a ruthlessness +of method which deserves grave condemnation, +but was accompanied by no circumstances +which might not have been expected +at any time in connection with the use +of the submarine against merchantmen as the +German Government has used it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Congestion +of +shipping +in American +ports.</div> + +<p>In sum, therefore, the situation we find ourselves +in with regard to the actual conduct +of the German submarine warfare against commerce +and its effects upon our own ships and +people is substantially the same that it was +when I addressed you on the 3rd of February, +except for the tying up of our shipping in our +own ports because of the unwillingness of our +ship owners to risk their vessels at sea without +insurance or adequate protection, and the +very serious congestion of our commerce which +has resulted—a congestion which is growing +rapidly more and more serious every day.</p> + +<p>This, in itself, might presently accomplish, +in effect, what the new German submarine orders<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +were meant to accomplish, so far as we +are concerned. We can only say, therefore, that +the overt act which I have ventured to hope +the German commanders would in fact avoid +has not occurred.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Indications +that +German +ruthlessness +will +continue.</div> + +<p>But while this is happily true, it must be +admitted that there have been certain additional +indications and expressions of purpose +on the part of the German press and the German +authorities which have increased rather +than lessened the impression that, if our ships +and our people are spared, it will be because +of fortunate circumstances or because the commanders +of the German submarines which they +may happen to encounter exercise an unexpected +discretion and restraint, rather than because +of the instructions under which those +commanders are acting.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation +full of +danger.</div> + +<p>It would be foolish to deny that the situation +is fraught with the gravest possibilities and +dangers. No thoughtful man can fail to see +that the necessity for definite action may come +at any time if we are, in fact and not in word +merely, to defend our elementary rights as a +neutral nation. It would be most imprudent +to be unprepared.</p> + +<p>I cannot in such circumstances be unmindful +of the fact that the expiration of the term +of the present Congress is immediately at hand +by constitutional limitation and that it would +in all likelihood require an unusual length of +time to assemble and organize the Congress +which is to succeed it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +President +asks for +authority.</div> + +<p>I feel that I ought, in view of that fact, to +obtain from you full and immediate assurance +of the authority which I may need at +any moment to exercise. No doubt I already +possess that authority without special warrant +of law, by the plain implication of my +constitutional duties and powers; but I prefer +in the present circumstances not to act upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +general implication. I wish to feel that the +authority and the power of the Congress are +behind me in whatever it may become necessary +for me to do. We are jointly the servants +of the people and must act together and +in their spirit, so far as we can divine and +interpret it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Necessary +to defend +commerce +and lives.</div> + +<p>No one doubts what it is our duty to do. +We must defend our commerce and the lives +of our people in the midst of the present trying +circumstances with discretion but with +clear and steadfast purpose. Only the method +and the extent remain to be chosen, upon the +occasion, if occasion should indeed arise.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Diplomatic +means +fail.</div> + +<p>Since it has unhappily proved impossible to +safeguard our neutral rights by diplomatic +means against the unwarranted infringements +they are suffering at the hands of Germany, +there may be no recourse but to armed neutrality, +which we shall know how to maintain +and for which there is abundant American +precedent.</p> + +<p>It is devoutly to be hoped that it will not +be necessary to put armed forces anywhere +into action. The American people do not desire +it, and our desire is not different from +theirs. I am sure that they will understand +the spirit in which I am now acting, the purpose +I hold nearest my heart and would wish +to exhibit in everything I do.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Wilson +the friend +of peace.</div> + +<p>I am anxious that the people of the nations +at war also should understand and not mistrust +us. I hope that I need give no further +proofs and assurances than I have already +given throughout nearly three years of anxious +patience that I am the friend of peace and +mean to preserve it for America so long as I +am able. I am not now proposing or contemplating +war or any steps that need lead to it. +I merely request that you will accord me by +your own vote and definite bestowal the means<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +and the authority to safeguard in practice the +right of a great people, who are at peace and +who are desirous of exercising none but the +rights of peace, to follow the pursuit of peace +in quietness and good-will—rights recognized +time out of mind by all the civilized nations of +the world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America +not seeking +war.</div> + +<p>No course of my choosing or of theirs will +lead to war. War can come only by the willful +acts and aggressions of others.</p> + +<p>You will understand why I can make no +definite proposals or forecasts of action now +and must ask for your supporting authority +in the most general terms. The form in which +action may become necessary cannot yet be +foreseen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Merchant +ships +should be +supplied +with defensive +arms.</div> + +<p>I believe that the people will be willing to +trust me to act with restraint, with prudence, +and in the true spirit of amity and good faith +that they have themselves displayed throughout +these trying months; and it is in that +belief that I request that you will authorize +me to supply our merchant ships with defensive +arms should that become necessary, and +with the means of using them, and to employ +any other instrumentalities or methods that +may be necessary and adequate to protect our +ships and our people in their legitimate and +peaceful pursuits on the seas. I request also +that you will grant me at the same time, along +with the powers I ask, a sufficient credit to +enable me to provide adequate means of protection +where they are lacking, including adequate +insurance against the present war risks.</p> + +<p>I have spoken of our commerce and of the +legitimate errands of our people on the seas, +but you will not be misled as to my main +thought—the thought that lies beneath these +phrases and gives them dignity and weight. +It is not of material interest merely that we +are thinking. It is, rather, of fundamental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +human rights, chief of all the rights of life +itself.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">To protect +the lives +of noncombatants.</div> + +<p>I am thinking not only of the right of Americans +to go and come about their proper business +by way of the sea, but also of something +much deeper, much more fundamental than +that. I am thinking of those rights of humanity +without which there is no civilization. My +theme is of those great principles of compassion +and of protection which mankind has +sought to throw about human lives, the lives +of noncombatants, the lives of men who are +peacefully at work keeping the industrial processes +of the world quick and vital, the lives +of women and children and of those who supply +the labor which ministers to their sustenance. +We are speaking of no selfish material rights, +but of rights which our hearts support and +whose foundation is that righteous passion for +justice upon which all law, all structures alike +of family, of State, and of mankind must rest, +as upon the ultimate base of our existence and +our liberty.</p> + +<p>I cannot imagine any man with American +principles at his heart hesitating to defend +these things.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> +<h2>HOW THE WAR CAME TO<br /> +AMERICA</h2> + +<h3>OFFICIAL ACCOUNT</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">The +Monroe +Doctrine +a warning +to the +old world.</div> + +<p>In the years when the Republic was still +struggling for existence, in the face of +threatened encroachments by hostile monarchies +over the sea, in order to make the New +World safe for democracy our forefathers established +here the policy that soon came to be +known as the Monroe Doctrine. Warning the +Old World not to interfere in the political life +of the New, our Government pledged itself in +return to abstain from interference in the political +conflicts of Europe; and history has vindicated +the wisdom of this course. We were +then too weak to influence the destinies of +Europe, and it was vital to mankind that this +first great experiment in government of and +by the people should not be disturbed by foreign +attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Our +isolation +fast becoming +imaginary.</div> + +<p>Reenforced by the experience of our expanding +national life, this doctrine has been ever +since the dominating element in the growth +of our foreign policy. Whether or not we +could have maintained it in case of concerted +attack from abroad, it has seemed of such importance +to us that we were at all times ready +to go to war in its defense. And though since +it was first enunciated our strength has grown +by leaps and bounds, although in that time the +vast increase in our foreign trade and of travel +abroad, modern transport, modern mails, the +cables, and the wireless have brought us close +to Europe and have made our isolation more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +and more imaginary, there has been until the +outbreak of the present conflict small desire +on our part to abrogate, or even amend, the old +familiar tradition which has for so long given +us peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +statement +in the +minutes of +The +Hague.</div> + +<p>In both conferences at The Hague, in 1899 +and 1907, we reaffirmed this policy. As our +delegates signed the First Convention in regard +to arbitration, they read into the minutes this +statement:</p> + +<p>"Nothing contained in this convention shall +be so construed as to require the United States +of America to depart from its traditional policy +of not intruding upon, interfering with, or entangling +itself in the political questions or policy +or internal administration of any foreign +State; nor shall anything contained in the said +convention be construed to imply a relinquishment +by the United States of America of its +traditional attitude toward purely American +questions."</p> + +<p>On the eve of the war our position toward +other nations might have been summarized under +three heads:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Monroe +Doctrine.</div> + +<p>I. The Monroe Doctrine.—We had pledged +ourselves to defend the New World from European +aggression, and we had by word and +deed made it clear that we would not intervene +in any European dispute.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Freedom +of +the Seas.</div> + +<p>II. The Freedom of the Seas.—In every +naval conference our influence had been given +in support of the principle that sea law to be +just and worthy of general respect must be +based on the consent of the governed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Settlement +of disputes +by arbitration.</div> + +<p>III. Arbitration.—As we had secured peace +at home by referring interstate disputes to a +Federal tribunal, we urged a similar settlement +of international controversies. Our ideal was +a permanent world court. We had already +signed arbitration treaties not only with great +powers which might conceivably attack us, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +even more freely with weaker neighbors in +order to show our good faith in recognizing the +equality of all nations both great and small. +We had made plain to the nations our purpose +to forestall by every means in our power the +recurrence of wars in the world.</p> + +<p>The outbreak of war in 1914 caught this +nation by surprise. The peoples of Europe +had had at least some warnings of the coming +storm, but to us such a blind, savage onslaught +on the ideals of civilization had appeared impossible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The war +incomprehensible.</div> + +<p>The war was incomprehensible. Either side +was championed here by millions living among +us who were of European birth. Their contradictory +accusations threw our thought into +disarray, and in the first chaotic days we could +see no clear issue that affected our national +policy. There was not direct assault on our +rights. It seemed at first to most of us a +purely European dispute, and our minds were +not prepared to take sides in such a conflict. +The President's proclamation of neutrality was +received by us as natural and inevitable. It +was quickly followed by his appeal to "the +citizens of the Republic."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +neutrality +natural.</div> + +<p>"Every man who really loves America will +act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality," +he said, "which is the spirit of impartiality and +fairness and friendliness to all concerned. +* * * It will be easy to excite passion and +difficult to allay it." He expressed the fear +that our nation might become divided in camps +of hostile opinion. "Such divisions among us +* * * might seriously stand in the way of the +proper performance of our duty as the one +great nation at peace, the one people holding +itself ready to play a part of impartial mediation +and speak counsels of peace and accommodation, +not as a partisan, but as a +friend."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">The United +States +must be +the +mediator.</div> + +<p>This purpose—the preservation of a strict +neutrality in order that later we might be of +use in the great task of mediation—dominated +all the President's early speeches.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Invasion +of Belgium +stirs +American +opinion.</div> + +<p>The spirit of neutrality was not easy to +maintain. Public opinion was deeply stirred +by the German invasion of Belgium and by reports +of atrocities there. The Royal Belgian +Commission, which came in September, 1914, +to lay their country's cause for complaint before +our National Government, was received +with sympathy and respect. The President in +his reply reserved our decision in the affair. +It was the only course he could take without +an abrupt departure from our most treasured +traditions of non-interference in Old World +disputes. But the sympathy of America went +out to the Belgians in the heroic tragedy, and +from every section of our land money contributions +and supplies of food and clothing +poured over to the Commission for Relief in +Belgium, which was under the able management +of our fellow-countrymen abroad.</p> + +<p>Still, the thought of taking an active part in +this European war was very far from most of +our minds. The nation shared with the President +the belief that by maintaining a strict +neutrality we could best serve Europe at the +end as impartial mediators.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Complication +on +the seas +imperils +American +neutrality.</div> + +<p>But in the very first days of the war our +Government foresaw that complications on the +seas might put us in grave risk of being drawn +into the conflict. No neutral nation could foretell +what violations of its vital interests at +sea might be attempted by the belligerents. +And so, on August 6, 1914, our Secretary of +State dispatched an identical note to all the +powers then at war, calling attention to the +risk of serious trouble arising out of this uncertainty +of neutrals as to their maritime +rights, and proposing that the Declaration of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +London be accepted by all nations for the duration +of the war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +Government +stirs +opinion +hostile to +United +States.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">American +policy not +inconsistent +with +American +traditions.</div> + +<p>In the first year of the war the Government +of Germany stirred up among its people a feeling +of resentment against the United States on +account of our insistence upon our right as a +neutral nation to trade in munitions with the +belligerent powers. Our legal right in the +matter was not seriously questioned by Germany. +She could not have done so consistently, +for as recently as the Balkan wars of 1912 and +1913 both Germany and Austria sold munitions +to the belligerents. Their appeals to us in the +present war were not to observe international +law, but to revise it in their interest. And +these appeals they tried to make on moral and +humanitarian grounds. But upon "the moral +issue" involved, the stand taken by the United +States was consistent with its traditional +policy and with obvious common sense.</p> + +<p>For, if, with all other neutrals, we refused +to sell munitions to belligerents, we could +never in time of a war of our own obtain munitions +from neutrals, and the nation which had +accumulated the largest reserves of war supplies +in time of peace would be assured of +victory.</p> + +<p>The militarist State that invested its money +in arsenals would be at a fatal advantage over +the free people who invested their wealth in +schools. To write into international law that +neutrals should not trade in munitions would +be to hand over the world to the rule of the +nation with the largest armament factories. +Such a policy the United States of America +could not accept.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Controversy +about +German +submarine +war zone.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The sinking +of the +<i>Lusitania</i>.</div> + +<p>But our principal controversy with the German +Government, and the one which rendered +the situation at once acute, rose out of their +announcement of a sea zone where their submarines +would operate in violation of all accepted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +principles of international law. Our +indignation at such a threat was soon rendered +passionate by the sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i>. +This attack upon our rights was not only +grossly illegal; it defied the fundamental concepts +of humanity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Murder of +noncombatants +not to be +settled by +litigation.</div> + +<p>Aggravating restraints on our trade were +grievances which could be settled by litigation +after the war, but the wanton murder of peaceable +men and of innocent women and children, +citizens of a nation with which Germany +was at peace, was a crime against the civilized +world which could never be settled in any +court.</p> + +<p>Our Government, however, inspired still by a +desire to preserve peace if possible, used every +resource of diplomacy to force the German +Government to abandon such attacks. This +diplomatic correspondence, which has already +been published, proves beyond doubt that our +Government sought by every honorable means +to preserve faith in that mutual sincerity between +nations which is the only basis of sound +diplomatic interchange.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bad faith +of the +Imperial +German +Government.</div> + +<p>But evidence of the bad faith of the Imperial +German Government soon piled up on every +hand. Honest efforts on our part to establish +a firm basis of good neighborliness with the +German people were met by their Government +with quibbles, misrepresentations, and counter-accusations +against their enemies abroad.</p> + +<p>And meanwhile in this country official agents +of the Central Powers—protected from criminal +prosecution by diplomatic immunity—conspired +against our internal peace and +placed spies and agents provocateurs throughout +the length and breadth of our land, and +even in high positions of trust in departments +of our Government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +agents in +Latin +America, +in Japan +and the +West +Indies.</div> + +<p>While expressing a cordial friendship for the +people of the United States, the Government of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +Germany had its agents at work both in Latin +America and Japan. They bought or subsidized +papers and supported speakers there to +rouse feelings of bitterness and distrust against +us in those friendly nations, in order to embroil +us in war. They were inciting to insurrection +in Cuba, in Haiti, and in Santo Domingo; +their hostile hand was stretched out to +take the Danish Islands; and everywhere in +South America they were abroad sowing the +seeds of dissension, trying to stir up one nation +against another and all against the United +States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assaults +on the +Monroe +Doctrine.</div> + +<p>In their sum these various operations +amounted to direct assault upon the Monroe +Doctrine. And even if we had given up our +right to travel on the sea, even if we had surrendered +to German threats and abandoned our +legitimate trade in munitions, the German offensive +in the New World, in our own land and +among our neighbors, was becoming too serious +to be ignored.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Recall of +the Austro-Hungarian +Ambassador.</div> + +<p>So long as it was possible, the Government of +the United States tried to believe that such activities, +the evidence of which was already in +a large measure at hand, were the work of irresponsible +and misguided individuals. It was +only reluctantly, in the face of overwhelming +proof, that the recall of the Austro-Hungarian +Ambassador and of the German Military and +Naval Attachés was demanded.</p> + +<p>Proof of their criminal violations of our +hospitality was presented to their Governments. +But these Governments in reply offered no +apologies nor did they issue reprimands. It +became clear that such intrigue was their +settled policy.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the attacks of the German +submarines upon the lives and property of +American citizens had gone on; the protests of +our Government were now sharp and ominous,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +and this nation was rapidly being drawn into +a state of war.</p> + +<p>The break would have come sooner if our +Government had not been restrained by the +vain hope that saner counsels might still prevail +in Germany. For it was well known +to us that the German people had to a very +large extent been kept in ignorance of many +of the secret crimes of their Government +against us.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Tension +relieved +by <i>Sussex</i> +agreement.</div> + +<p>And the presence of a faction of German +public opinion less hostile to this country was +shown when their Government acquiesced to +some degree in our demands at the time of the +<i>Sussex</i> outrage, and for nearly a year maintained +at least a pretense of observing the +pledge they had made to us. The tension was +abated.</p> + +<p>While the war spirit was growing in some +sections of our nation, there was still no widespread +desire to take part in the conflict +abroad; for the tradition of non-interference in +Europe's political affairs was too deeply +rooted in our national life to be easily overthrown.</p> + +<p>Moreover, two other considerations strengthened +our Government in its efforts to remain +neutral in this war. The first was our traditional +sense of responsibility toward all the +republics of the New World. Throughout the +crisis our Government was in constant communication +with the countries of Central and +South America.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Opinion +in Central +and South +America.</div> + +<p>They, too, preferred the ways of peace. And +there was a very obvious obligation upon us to +safeguard their interests with our own.</p> + +<p>The second consideration, which had been so +often developed in the President's speeches, was +the hope that by keeping aloof from the bitter +passions abroad, by preserving untroubled here +the holy ideals of civilized intercourse between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +nations, we might be free at the end of this war +to bind up the wounds of the conflict, to be the +restorers and rebuilders of the wrecked structure +of the world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +compliance +not +in good +faith.</div> + +<p>All these motives held us back, but it was +not long until we were beset by further complications. +We soon had reason to believe that +the recent compliance of the German Government +had not been made to us in good faith, +and was only temporary, and by the end of +1916 it was plain that our neutral status had +again been made unsafe through the ever-increasing +aggressiveness of the German autocracy. +There was a general agreement here +with the statement of our President on October +26, 1916, that this conflict was the last great +war involving the world in which we would +remain neutral.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Peace +move on +behalf of +the +Central +powers.</div> + +<p>It was in this frame of mind, fearing we +might be drawn into the war if it did not soon +come to an end, that the President began the +preparation of his note, asking the belligerent +powers to define their war aims. But before +he had completed it the world was surprised +by the peace move of the German Government—an +identical note on behalf of the German +Empire, Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, +sent through neutral powers on December +12, 1916, to the Governments of the Allies proposing +negotiations for peace.</p> + +<p>While expressing the wish to end this war—"a +catastrophe which thousands of years of +common civilization was unable to prevent and +which injures the most precious achievements +of humanity"—the greater portion of the note +was couched in terms that gave small hope of +a lasting peace.</p> + +<p>Boasting of German conquests, "the glorious +deeds of our armies," the note implanted in +neutral minds the belief that it was the purpose +of the Imperial German Government to insist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +upon such conditions as would leave all +Central Europe under German dominance and +so build up an empire which would menace the +whole liberal world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A veiled +threat to +neutral +nations.</div> + +<p>Moreover, the German proposal was accompanied +by a thinly veiled threat to all neutral +nations; and from a thousand sources, official +and unofficial, the word came to Washington +that unless the neutrals use their influence +to bring the war to an end on terms dictated +from Berlin, Germany and her allies would +consider themselves henceforth free from any +obligations to respect the rights of neutrals.</p> + +<p>The Kaiser ordered the neutrals to exert +pressure on the Entente to bring the war to an +abrupt end, or to beware of the consequences. +Clear warnings were brought to our Government +that if the German peace move should +not be successful, the submarines would be unleashed +for a more intense and ruthless war +upon all commerce.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The President's +note +to the belligerents.</div> + +<p>On the 18th of December the President dispatched +his note to all the belligerent powers, +asking them to define their war aims. There +was still hope in our minds that the mutual +suspicions between the warring powers might +be decreased, and the menace of future German +aggression and dominance be removed, by finding +a guaranty of good faith in a league of +nations.</p> + +<p>There was a chance that by the creation of +such a league as part of the peace negotiations +the war could now be brought to an end before +our nation was involved. Two statements issued +to the press by our Secretary of State, +upon the day the note was dispatched, threw a +clear light on the seriousness with which our +Government viewed the crisis.</p> + +<p>From this point events moved rapidly. The +powers of the Entente replied to the German +peace note. Neutral nations took action on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +note of the President, and from both belligerents +replies to this note were soon in our +hands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The German +reply +evasive.</div> + +<p>The German reply was evasive—in accord +with their traditional preference for diplomacy +behind closed doors. Refusing to state to the +world their terms, Germany and her allies +merely proposed a conference. They adjourned +all discussion of any plan for a league of peace +until after hostilities should end.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Our concern +the lasting +restoration +of peace.</div> + +<p>The response of the Entente Powers was +frank and in harmony with our principal purpose. +Many questions raised in the statement +of their aims were so purely European in +character as to have small interest for us; but +our great concern in Europe was the lasting +restoration of peace, and it was clear that this +was also the chief interest of the Entente +nations.</p> + +<p>As to the wisdom of some of the measures +they proposed toward this end, we might differ +in opinion, but the trend of their proposals +was the establishment of just frontiers based +on the rights of all nations, the small as well +as the great, to decide their own destinies.</p> + +<p>The aims of the belligerents were now becoming +clear. From the outbreak of hostilities +the German Government had claimed that it +was fighting a war of defense. But the tone of +its recent proposals had been that of a conqueror. +It sought a peace based on victory.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Central +Empires +desire +domination +over +other +races.</div> + +<p>The Central Empires aspired to extend their +domination over other races. They were willing +to make liberal terms to any one of their +enemies, in a separate peace which would free +their hands to crush other opponents. But +they were not willing to accept any peace which +did not, all fronts considered, leave them victors +and the dominating imperial power of +Europe.</p> + +<p>The war aims of the Entente showed a determination<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +to thwart this ambition of the +Imperial German Government. Against the +German peace to further German growth and +aggression the Entente Powers offered a plan +for a European peace that should make the +whole Continent secure.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The kind +of peace +America +desires.</div> + +<p>At this juncture the President read his address +to the Senate, on January 22, 1917, in +which he outlined the kind of peace the United +States of America could join in guaranteeing. +His words were addressed not only to the +Senate and this nation, but to people of all +countries:</p> + +<p>"May I not add that I hope and believe that +I am in effect speaking for liberals and friends +of humanity in every nation and of every program +of liberty? I would fain believe that I +am speaking for the silent mass of mankind +everywhere who have as yet had no place or +opportunity to speak their real hearts out concerning +the death and ruin they see to have +come already upon the persons and the homes +they hold most dear."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The peace +of the +people.</div> + +<p>The address was a rebuke to those who still +cherished dreams of a world dominated by one +nation. For the peace he outlined was not that +of a victorious Emperor, it was not the peace +of Cæsar. It was in behalf of all the world, +and it was a peace of the people:</p> + +<p>"No peace can last, or ought to last, which +does not recognize and accept the principle that +Governments derive all their just powers from +the consent of the governed, and that no right +anywhere exists to hand people about from +sovereignty to sovereignty as if they were property.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Each +people +should +determine +its own +polity.</div> + +<p>"I am proposing, as it were, that the nations +should with one accord adopt the doctrine of +President Monroe as the doctrine of the world; +that no nation should seek to extend its policy +over any other nation or people, but that every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +people should be left free to determine its own +polity, its own way of development, unhindered, +unthreatened, unafraid, the little along +with the great and powerful.</p> + +<p>"I am proposing that all nations henceforth +avoid entangling alliances which would draw +them into competitions of power, catch them +in a net of intrigue and selfish rivalry and disturb +their own affairs with influences intruded +from without. There is no entangling alliance +in a concert of power. When all unite to act +in the same sense and with the same purpose, +all act in the common interest and are free to +live their own lives under a common protection.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Seas +must be +free.</div> + +<p>"I am proposing government by the consent +of the governed; that freedom of the seas which +in international conference after conference +representatives of the United States have urged +with the eloquence of those who are convinced +disciples of liberty, and that moderation of +armaments which makes of armies and navies +a power for order merely, not an instrument of +aggression or of selfish violence.</p> + +<p>"And the paths of the sea must, alike in law +and in fact, be free. The freedom of the seas +is the sine qua non of peace, equality, and co-operation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Question +of limiting +armaments.</div> + +<p>"It is a problem closely connected with the +limitation of naval armament and the co-operation +of the navies of the world in keeping the +seas at once free and safe. And the question +of limiting naval armaments opens the wider +and perhaps more difficult question of the limitation +of armies and of all programs of military +preparation. * * * There can be no sense +of safety and equality among the nations if +great preponderating armaments are henceforth +to continue here and there to be built up and +maintained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">How peace +must be +made +secure.</div> + +<p>"Mere agreements may not make peace secure. +It will be absolutely necessary that a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +force be created as a guarantor of the permanency +of the settlement so much greater than +the force of any nation now engaged or any +alliance hitherto formed or projected that no +nation, no probable combination of nations, +could face or withstand it. If the peace presently +to be made is to endure, it must be a +peace made secure by the organized major force +of mankind."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Entente +peoples +welcome +President +Wilson's +views.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +note to +Mexico.</div> + +<p>If there were any doubt in our minds as to +which of the great alliances was the more in +sympathy with these ideals, it was removed by +the popular response abroad to this address of +the President. For, while exception was taken +to some parts of it in Britain and France, it +was plain that so far as the peoples of the +Entente were concerned the President had been +amply justified in stating that he spoke for +all forward-looking, liberal-minded men and +women. It was not so in Germany. The people +there who could be reached, and whose +hearts were stirred by this enunciation of the +principles of a people's peace, were too few or +too oppressed to make their voices heard in the +councils of their nation. Already, on January +16, 1917, unknown to the people of Germany, +Herr Zimmermann, their Secretary of +Foreign Affairs, had secretly dispatched a note +to their Minister in Mexico, informing him of +the German intention to repudiate the <i>Sussex</i> +pledge and instructing him to offer to the Mexican +Government New Mexico and Arizona if +Mexico would join with Japan in attacking the +United States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sinister +German +intrigues +in the +New +World.</div> + +<p>In the new year of 1917, as through our acceptance +of world responsibilities so plainly indicated +in the President's utterances in regard +to a league of nations we felt ourselves now +drawing nearer to a full accord with the +Powers of the Entente; and, as on the other +hand, we found ourselves more and more outraged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +at the German Government's methods of +conducting warfare and their brutal treatment +of people in their conquered lands; as we more +and more uncovered their hostile intrigues +against the peace of the New World; and, +above all, as the sinister and anti-democratic +ideals of their ruling class became manifest in +their manoeuvres for a peace of conquest—the +Imperial German Government abruptly threw +aside the mask.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The new +submarine +war zone +proclaimed.</div> + +<p>On the last day of January, 1917, Count +Bernstorff handed to Mr. Lansing a note, in +which his Government announced its purpose +to intensify and render more ruthless the +operations of their submarines at sea, in a +manner against which our Government had protested +from the beginning. The German Chancellor +also stated before the Imperial Diet that +the reason this ruthless policy had not been +earlier employed was simply because the Imperial +Government had not then been ready to +act. In brief, under the guise of friendship +and the cloak of false promises, it had been +preparing this attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Count +Bernstorff +receives +his +passports.</div> + +<p>This was the direct challenge. There was +no possible answer except to hand their Ambassador +his passports and so have done with +a diplomatic correspondence which had been +vitiated from the start by the often proved bad +faith of the Imperial Government.</p> + +<p>On the same day, February 3, 1917, the President +addressed both houses of our Congress +and announced the complete severance of our +relations with Germany. The reluctance with +which he took this step was evident in every +word. But diplomacy had failed, and it would +have been the hollowest pretense to maintain +relations. At the same time, however, he made +it plain that he did not regard this act as tantamount +to a declaration of war. Here for the +first time the President made his sharp distinction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +between government and people in undemocratic +lands:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +attitude +toward the +German +people.</div> + +<p>"We are the sincere friends of the German +people," he said, "and earnestly desire to remain +at peace with the Government which +speaks for them. * * * God grant we may +not be challenged by acts of willful injustice +on the part of the Government of Germany."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Submarine +order +must be +withdrawn.</div> + +<p>In this address of the President, and in its +indorsement by the Senate, there was a solemn +warning; for we still had hope that the German +Government might hesitate to drive us to +war. But it was soon evident that our warning +had fallen on deaf ears. The tortuous ways +and means of German official diplomacy were +clearly shown in the negotiations opened by +them through the Swiss Legation on the 10th +of February. In no word of their proposals did +the German Government meet the real issue between +us. And our State Department replied +that no minor negotiations could be entertained +until the main issue had been met by the withdrawal +of the submarine order.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">President +Wilson +advises +armed +neutrality.</div> + +<p>By the 1st of March it had become plain that +the Imperial Government, unrestrained by the +warning in the President's address to Congress +on February 3, was determined to make good +its threat. The President then again appeared +before Congress to report the development of +the crisis and to ask the approval of the representatives +of the nation for the course of armed +neutrality upon which, under his constitutional +authority, he had now determined. More than +500 of the 531 members of the two houses of +Congress showed themselves ready and anxious +to act; and the armed neutrality declaration +would have been accepted if it had not been for +the legal death of the Sixty-fourth Congress on +March 4.</p> + +<p>No "overt" act, however, was ordered by our +Government until Count Bernstorff had reached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +Berlin and Mr. Gerard was in Washington. +For the German Ambassador on his departure +had begged that no irrevocable decision should +be taken until he had had the chance to make +one final plea for peace to his sovereign. We +do not know the nature of his report to the +Kaiser; we know only that, even if he kept his +pledge and urged an eleventh-hour revocation +of the submarine order, he was unable to sway +the policy of the Imperial Government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Armed +guards on +American +merchant +ships.</div> + +<p>And so, having exhausted every resource of +patience, our Government on the 12th of March +finally issued orders to place armed guards on +our merchant ships.</p> + +<p>With the definite break in diplomatic relations +there vanished the last vestige of cordiality +toward the Government of Germany. Our +attitude was now to change. So long as we +had maintained a strict neutrality in the war, +for the reason that circumstances might arise +in which Europe would have need of an impartial +mediator, for us to have given official heed +to the accusations of either party would have +been to prejudge the case before all the evidence +was in.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +is forcing +the United +States +into war.</div> + +<p>But now at last, with the breaking of friendly +relations with the German Government, we +were relieved of the oppressive duty of endeavoring +to maintain a judicial detachment +from the rights and wrongs involved in the +war. We were no longer the outside observers +striving to hold an even balance of judgment +between disputants. One party by direct attack +upon our rights and liberties was forcing +us into the conflict. And, much as we had +hoped to keep out of the fray, it was no little +relief to be free at last from that reserve which +is expected of a judge.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Perfidy of +the German +Government.</div> + +<p>Much evidence had been presented to us of +things so abhorrent to our ideas of humanity +that they had seemed incredible, things we had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +been loath to believe, and with heavy hearts +we had sought to reserve our judgment. But +with the breaking of relations with the Government +of Germany that duty at last was ended. +The perfidy of that Government in its dealings +with this nation relieved us of the necessity of +striving to give them the benefit of the doubt +in regard to their crimes abroad. The Government +which under cover of profuse professions +of friendship had tried to embroil us in war +with Mexico and Japan could not expect us to +believe in its good faith in other matters. The +men whose paid agents dynamited our factories +here were capable of the infamies reported +against them over the sea. Their Government's +protestations, that their purpose was self-defense +and the freeing of small nations, fell like +a house of cards before the revelation of their +"peace terms."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The German +record.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrogant +intolerance +of the +Prussians.</div> + +<p>And judging the German Government now +in the light of our own experience through +the long and patient years of our honest attempt +to keep the peace, we could see the great +autocracy and read her record through the war. +And we found that record damnable. Beginning +long before the war in Prussian opposition +to every effort that was made by other +nations and our own to do away with warfare, +the story of the autocracy has been one of +vast preparations for war combined with an +attitude of arrogant intolerance toward all +other points of view, all other systems of +governments, all other hopes and dreams of +men.</p> + +<p>With a fanatical faith in the destiny of German +Kultur as the system that must rule the +world, the Imperial Government's actions have +through years of boasting, double dealing, and +deceit tended toward aggression upon the +rights of others. And, if there still be any +doubt as to which nation began this war, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +can be no uncertainty as to which one was +most prepared, most exultant at the chance, +and ready instantly to march upon other nations—even +those who had given no offense.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Atrocities +in Belgium +and Servia.</div> + +<p>The wholesale depredations and hideous +atrocities in Belgium and in Serbia were doubtless +part and parcel with the Imperial Government's +purpose to terrorize small nations into +abject submission for generations to come. +But in this the autocracy has been blind. For +its record in those countries, and in Poland +and in Northern France, has given not only +to the Allies but to liberal peoples throughout +the world the conviction that this menace to +human liberties everywhere must be utterly +shorn of its power for harm.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +defiance +of law and +humanity.</div> + +<p>For the evil it has effected has ranged far +out of Europe—out upon the open seas, where +its submarines, in defiance of law and the concepts +of humanity, have blown up neutral vessels +and covered the waves with the dead and +the dying, men and women and children alike. +Its agents have conspired against the peace of +neutral nations everywhere, sowing the seeds +of dissension, ceaselessly endeavoring by tortuous +methods of deceit, of bribery, false promises, +and intimidation to stir up brother nations +one against the other, in order that the +liberal world might not be able to unite, in +order that the autocracy might emerge triumphant +from the war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The rulers +of Germany +must go.</div> + +<p>All this we know from our own experience +with the Imperial Government. As they have +dealt with Europe, so they have dealt with us +and with all mankind. And so out of these +years the conviction has grown that until the +German Nation is divested of such rulers democracy +cannot be safe.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +relation +with the +Russian +autocracy.</div> + +<p>There remained but one element to confuse +the issue. One other great autocracy, the Government +of the Russian Czar, had long been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +hostile to free institutions; it had been a +stronghold of tyrannies reaching far back into +the past, and its presence among the Allies +had seemed to be in disaccord with the +great liberal principles they were upholding +in this war. Russia had been a source of +doubt. Repeatedly during the conflict liberal +Europe had been startled by the news of +secret accord between the Kaiser and the +Czar.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The people +of Russia +overthrow +the Czar's +Government.</div> + +<p>But now at this crucial time for our nation, +on the eve of our entrance into the war, the +free men of all the world were thrilled and +heartened by the news that the people of Russia +had risen to throw off their Government +and found a new democracy; and the torch of +freedom in Russia lit up the last dark phases +of the situation abroad. Here, indeed, was a +fit partner for the League of Honor. The conviction +was finally crystallized in American +minds and hearts that this war across the sea +was no mere conflict between dynasties, but a +stupendous civil war of all the world; a new +campaign in the age-old war, the prize of which +is liberty. Here, at last, was a struggle in +which all who love freedom have a stake. Further +neutrality on our part would have been a +crime against our ancestors, who had given +their lives that we might be free.</p> + +<p>"The world must be made safe for democracy."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The President's +message to +Congress.</div> + +<p>On the 2d of April, 1917, the President read +to the new Congress his message, in which he +asked the Representatives of the nation to declare +the existence of a state of war, and +in the early hours of the 6th of April the +House by an overwhelming vote accepted the +joint resolution which had already passed the +Senate.</p> + +<p>"<i>Whereas</i>, The Imperial German Government +has committed repeated acts of war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +against the Government and the people of the +United States of America: Therefore be it</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The declaration +of +the existence +of a +state of +war.</div> + +<p>"<i>Resolved</i> by the Senate and House of Representatives +of the United States of America +in Congress assembled, That the state of war +between the United States and the Imperial +German Government which has thus been +thrust upon the United States is hereby formally +declared; and that the President be, +and he is hereby, authorized and directed to +employ the entire naval and military forces of +the United States and the resources of the +Government to carry on the war against the +Imperial German Government, and to bring +the conflict to a successful termination all the +resources of the country are hereby pledged by +the Congress of the United States."</p> + +<p>Neutrality was a thing of the past. The +time had come when the President's proud +prophecy was fulfilled:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America +guided by +moral +force.</div> + +<p>"There will come that day when the world +will say, 'This America that we thought was +full of a multitude of contrary counsels now +speaks with the great volume of the heart's accord, +and that great heart of America has behind +it the supreme moral force of righteousness +and hope and the liberty of mankind.'"</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE WAR MESSAGE</h2> + +<h3>PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Why Congress +was +called in +extraordinary +session.</div> + +<p>I have called the Congress into extraordinary +session because there are serious, +very serious, choices of policy to be made, +and made immediately, which it was neither +right nor constitutionally permissible that I +should assume the responsibility of making.</p> + +<p>On the 3d of February last I officially laid +before you the extraordinary announcement of +the Imperial German Government that on and +after the first day of February it was its purpose +to put aside all restraints of law or of humanity +and use its submarines to sink every +vessel that sought to approach either the ports +of Great Britain and Ireland or the western +coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled +by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The question +of +submarine +warfare.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">A cruel +and unmanly +business.</div> + +<p>That had seemed to be the object of the +German submarine warfare earlier in the war, +but since April of last year the Imperial Government +had somewhat restrained the commanders +of its undersea craft, in conformity +with its promise, then given to us, that passenger +boats should not be sunk and that due +warning would be given to all other vessels +which its submarines might seek to destroy, +when no resistance was offered or escape attempted, +and care taken that their crews were +given at least a fair chance to save their lives +in their open boats. The precautions taken +were meagre and haphazard enough, as was +proved in distressing instance after instance in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +the progress of the cruel and unmanly business, +but a certain degree of restraint was +observed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +sweeps all +restriction +away.</div> + +<p>The new policy has swept every restriction +aside. Vessels of every kind, whatever their +flag, their character, their cargo, their destination, +their errand, have been ruthlessly sent +to the bottom without warning and without +thought of help or mercy for those on board, +the vessels of friendly neutrals along with +those of belligerents. Even hospital ships and +ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved and +stricken people of Belgium, though the latter +were provided with safe conduct through the +proscribed areas by the German Government +itself and were distinguished by unmistakable +marks of identity, have been sunk with the same +reckless lack of compassion or of principle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">International +law on +the seas.</div> + +<p>I was for a little while unable to believe +that such things would in fact be done by any +Government that had hitherto subscribed to +humane practices of civilized nations. International +law had its origin in the attempt to +set up some law which would be respected and +observed upon the seas, where no nation had +right of dominion and where lay the free highways +of the world. By painful stage after +stage has that law been built up, with meagre +enough results, indeed, after all was accomplished +that could be accomplished, but always +with a clear view, at least, of what the heart +and conscience of mankind demanded.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +shows no +scruples of +humanity.</div> + +<p>This minimum of right the German Government +has swept aside, under the plea of retaliation +and necessity and because it had no +weapons which it could use at sea except these, +which it is impossible to employ, as it is employing +them, without throwing to the wind +all scruples of humanity or of respect for the +understandings that were supposed to underlie +the intercourse of the world.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lives +cannot be +paid for.</div> + +<p>I am not now thinking of the loss of property +involved, immense and serious as that is, +but only of the wanton and wholesale destruction +of the lives of noncombatants, men, +women, and children, engaged in pursuits +which have always, even in the darkest periods +of modern history, been deemed innocent and +legitimate. Property can be paid for; the +lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot +be. The present German submarine warfare +against commerce is a warfare against mankind.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +lives +taken at +at sea.</div> + +<p>It is a war against all nations. American +ships have been sunk, American lives taken, in +ways which it has stirred us very deeply to +learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral +and friendly nations have been sunk and +overwhelmed in the waters in the same way. +There has been no discrimination.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Our +motive +vindication +of +human +right.</div> + +<p>The challenge is to all mankind. Each nation +must decide for itself how it will meet it. +The choice we make for ourselves must be made +with a moderation of counsel and a temperateness +of judgment befitting our character and +our motives as a nation. We must put excited +feeling away. Our motive will not be revenge +or the victorious assertion of the physical +might of the nation, but only the vindication of +right, of human right, of which we are only a +single champion.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Submarines +are +in effect +outlaws.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Must be +dealt with +on sight.</div> + +<p>When I addressed the Congress on the 26th +of February last I thought that it would suffice +to assert our neutral rights with arms, our +right to use the seas against unlawful interference, +our right to keep our people safe +against unlawful violence. But armed neutrality, +it now appears, is impracticable. Because +submarines are in effect outlaws, when +used as the German submarines have been +used against merchant shipping, it is impossible +to defend ships against their attacks, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +the law of nations has assumed that merchantmen +would defend themselves against privateers +or cruisers, visible craft giving chase +upon the open sea. It is common prudence in +such circumstances, grim necessity indeed, to +endeavor to destroy them before they have +shown their own intention. They must be dealt +with upon sight, if dealt with at all.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Armed +neutrality +ineffectual</div> + +<p>The German Government denies the right of +neutrals to use arms at all within the areas of +the sea which it has proscribed, even in the +defense of rights which no modern publicist +has ever before questioned their right to defend. +The intimation is conveyed that the +armed guards which we have placed on our +merchant ships will be treated as beyond the +pale of law and subject to be dealt with as +pirates would be. Armed neutrality is ineffectual +enough at best; in such circumstances +and in the face of such pretensions it is worse +than ineffectual; it is likely only to produce +what it was meant to prevent; it is practically +certain to draw us into the war without either +the rights or the effectiveness of belligerents. +There is one choice we cannot make, we are +incapable of making; we will not choose the +path of submission and suffer the most sacred +rights of our nation and our people to be ignored +or violated. The wrongs against which +we now array ourselves are no common +wrongs; they cut to the very roots of human +life.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Course of +Germany +actually +war on the +United +States.</div> + +<p>With a profound sense of the solemn and +even tragical character of the step I am taking +and of the grave responsibilities which it +involves, but in unhesitating obedience to what +I deem my constitutional duty, I advise that +the Congress declare the recent course of the +Imperial German Government to be in fact +nothing less than war against the Government +and people of the United States; that it formally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +accept the status of belligerent which +has thus been thrust upon it; and that it take +immediate steps not only to put the country +in a more thorough state of defense, but also +to exert all its power and employ all its resources +to bring the Government of the German +Empire to terms and end the war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Necessary +to co-operate +with +Ententes.</div> + +<p>What this will involve is clear. It will involve +the utmost practicable co-operation in +counsel and action with the Governments now +at war with Germany, and, as incident to that, +the extension to those Governments of the most +liberal financial credits, in order that our resources +may so far as possible be added to +theirs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Resources +must be +organized.</div> + +<p>It will involve the organization and mobilization +of all the material resources of the +country to supply the materials of war and +serve the incidental needs of the nation in the +most abundant and yet the most economical +and efficient way possible.</p> + +<p>It will involve the immediate full equipment +of the navy in all respects, but particularly in +supplying it with the best means of dealing +with the enemy's submarines.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A great +army must +be raised.</div> + +<p>It will involve the immediate addition to the +armed forces of the United States, already +provided for by law in case of war, of at least +500,000 men, who should, in my opinion, be +chosen upon the principle of universal liability +to service, and also the authorization of subsequent +additional increments of equal force so +soon as they may be needed and can be handled +in training.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Government +will need +adequate +credits.</div> + +<p>It will involve also, of course, the granting +of adequate credits to the Government, sustained, +I hope, so far as they can equitably be +sustained by the present generation, by well-conceived +taxation.</p> + +<p>I say sustained so far as may be equitable +by taxation, because it seems to me that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +would be most unwise to base the credits, which +will now be necessary, entirely on money borrowed. +It is our duty, I most respectfully +urge, to protect our people, so far as we may, +against the very serious hardships and evils +which would be likely to arise out of the inflation +which would be produced by vast loans.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Nations +must +obtain +supplies +from us.</div> + +<p>In carrying out the measures by which these +things are to be accomplished we should keep +constantly in mind the wisdom of interfering +as little as possible in our own preparation +and in the equipment of our own military +forces with the duty—for it will be a very practical +duty—of supplying the nations already at +war with Germany with the materials which +they can obtain only from us or by our assistance. +They are in the field, and we should +help them in every way to be effective there.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Measure +suggested +to accomplish +nation's +ends.</div> + +<p>I shall take the liberty of suggesting, +through the several executive departments of +the Government, for the consideration of your +committees, measures for the accomplishment +of the several objects I have mentioned. I +hope that it will be your pleasure to deal with +them as having been framed after very careful +thought by the branch of the Government upon +whom the responsibility of conducting the war +and safeguarding the nation will most directly +fall.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Concert +of purpose +and action +among +free +peoples.</div> + +<p>While we do these things, these deeply momentous +things, let us be very clear, and make +very clear to all the world, what our motives +and our objects are. My own thought has not +been driven from its habitual and normal +course by the unhappy events of the last two +months, and I do not believe that the thought +of the nation has been altered or clouded by +them. I have exactly the same things in +mind now that I had in mind when I addressed +the Senate on the 22d of January last; the +same that I had in mind when I addressed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +Congress on the 3d of February and on the +26th of February. Our object now, as then, is +to vindicate the principles of peace and justice +in the life of the world as against selfish and +autocratic power, and to set up among the +really free and self-governed peoples of the +world such a concert of purpose and of action +as will henceforth insure the observance of +those principles.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Standards +of conduct +for +nations.</div> + +<p>Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable +where the peace of the world is involved and +the freedom of its peoples, and the menace to +that peace and freedom lies in the existence of +autocratic Governments, backed by organized +force which is controlled wholly by their will, +not by the will of their people. We have seen +the last of neutrality in such circumstances. +We are at the beginning of an age in which it +will be insisted that the same standards of +conduct and of responsibility for wrong done +shall be observed among nations and their +Governments that are observed among the individual +citizens of civilized States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A war determined +upon by +rulers.</div> + +<p>We have no quarrel with the German people. +We have no feeling toward them but one of +sympathy and friendship. It was not upon +their impulse that their Government acted in +entering this war. It was not with their previous +knowledge or approval. It was a war determined +upon as wars used to be determined +upon in the old, unhappy days, when peoples +were nowhere consulted by their rulers and +wars were provoked and waged in the interest +of dynasties or of little groups of ambitious +men who were accustomed to use their fellow-men +as pawns and tools.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Such aggression +impossible +where +people +rule.</div> + +<p>Self-governed nations do not fill their neighbor +States with spies or set the course of intrigue +to bring about some critical posture of +affairs which will give them an opportunity to +strike and make conquest. Such designs can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +be successfully worked out only under cover +and where no one has the right to ask questions. +Cunningly contrived plans of deception +or aggression, carried, it may be, from +generation to generation, can be worked out +and kept from the light only within the privacy +of courts or behind the carefully guarded +confidences of a narrow and privileged class. +They are happily impossible where public +opinion commands and insists upon full information +concerning all of the nation's +affairs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Only a +partnership +of +democratic +nations +can maintain +peace.</div> + +<p>A steadfast concert for peace can never be +maintained except by a partnership of democratic +nations. No autocratic Government +could be trusted to keep faith within it or +observe its covenants. It must be a league of +honor, a partnership of opinion. Intrigue +would eat its vitals away; the plottings of +inner circles who could plan what they would +and render account to no one would be a corruption +seated at its very heart. Only free +peoples can hold their purpose and their honor +steady to a common end and prefer the interests +of mankind to any narrow interest of +their own.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">What is +happening +in +Russia.</div> + +<p>Does not every American feel that assurance +has been added to our hope for the future +peace of the world by the wonderful and heartening +things that have been happening within +the last few weeks in Russia? Russia was +known by those who knew her best to have been +always in fact democratic at heart in all the +vital habits of her thought, in all the intimate +relationships of her people that spoke their +natural instinct, their habitual attitude toward +life. The autocracy that crowned the summit +of her political structure, long as it had stood +and terrible as was the reality of its power, +was not in fact Russian in origin, character, +or purpose; and now it has been shaken off<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +and the great, generous Russian people have +been added, in all their naive majesty and +might, to the forces that are fighting for +freedom in the world, for justice, and for +peace. Here is a fit partner for a League of +Honor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prussia +has filled +America +with spies.</div> + +<p>One of the things that have served to convince +us that the Prussian autocracy was not +and could never be our friend is that from the +very outset of the present war it has filled our +unsuspecting communities, and even our offices +of government, with spies and set criminal intrigues +everywhere afoot against our national +unity of counsel, our peace within and without, +our industries and our commerce. Indeed, it +is now evident that its spies were here even +before the war began; and it is unhappily not +a matter of conjecture, but a fact proved in +our courts of justice, that the intrigues which +have more than once come perilously near to +disturbing the peace and dislocating the industries +of the country, have been carried on +at the instigation, with the support, and even +under the personal direction of official agents +of the Imperial Government accredited to the +Government of the United States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +United +States has +been +generous.</div> + +<p>Even in checking these things and trying to +extirpate them we have sought to put the most +generous interpretation possible upon them because +we knew that their source lay, not in +any hostile feeling or purpose of the German +people toward us, (who were, no doubt, as ignorant +of them as we ourselves were,) but only +in the selfish designs of a Government that did +what it pleased and told its people nothing. +But they have played their part in serving to +convince us at last that that Government entertains +no real friendship for us, and means +to act against our peace and security at its +convenience. That it means to stir up enemies +against us at our very doors the intercepted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +note to the German Minister at Mexico City +is eloquent evidence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Why we accept the challenge.</div> + +<p>We are accepting this challenge of hostile +purpose because we know that in such a Government, +following such methods, we can never +have a friend; and that in the presence of its +organized power, always lying in wait to accomplish +we know not what purpose, there can +be no assured security for the democratic Governments +of the world. We are now about to +accept the gage of battle with this natural foe +to liberty and shall, if necessary, spend the +whole force of the nation to check and nullify +its pretensions and its power. We are glad, +now that we see the facts with no veil of false +pretense about them, to fight thus for the ultimate +peace of the world and for the liberation +of its peoples, the German peoples included; +for the rights of nations, great and small, and +the privilege of men everywhere to choose their +way of life and of obedience.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America has no selfish ends to serve.</div> + +<p>The world must be made safe for democracy. +Its peace must be planted upon the tested +foundations of political liberty. We have no +selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, +no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, +no material compensation for the sacrifices +we shall freely make. We are but one of +the champions of the rights of mankind. We +shall be satisfied when those rights have been +made as secure as the faith and the freedom +of nations can make them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America will observe principles of right.</div> + +<p>Just because we fight without rancor and +without selfish object, seeking nothing for ourselves +but what we shall wish to share with all +free peoples, we shall, I feel confident, conduct +our operations as belligerents without passion +and ourselves observe with proud punctilio the +principles of right and of fair play we profess +to be fighting for.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany only has actually made war on America.</div> + +<p>I have said nothing of the Governments allied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +with the Imperial Government of Germany because +they have not made war upon us or challenged +us to defend our right and our honor. +The Austro-Hungarian Government has, indeed, +avowed its unqualified indorsement and +acceptance of the reckless and lawless submarine +warfare, adopted now without disguise by +the Imperial German Government, and it has +therefore not been possible for this Government +to receive Count Tarnowski, the Ambassador +recently accredited to this Government +by the Imperial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary; +but that Government has not +actually engaged in warfare against citizens +of the United States on the seas, and I take +the liberty, for the present at least, of postponing +a discussion of our relations with the +authorities at Vienna. We enter this war only +where we are clearly forced into it because +there are no other means of defending our +rights.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America fights the irresponsible Government +of Germany.</div> + +<p>It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves +as belligerents in a high spirit of right +and fairness because we act without animus, +not with enmity toward a people or with the +desire to bring any injury or disadvantage upon +them, but only in armed opposition to an irresponsible +Government which has thrown aside +all considerations of humanity and of right and +is running amuck.</p> + +<p>We are, let me say again, the sincere friends +of the German people, and shall desire nothing +so much as the early re-establishment of intimate +relations of mutual advantage between us, +however hard it may be for them for the time +being to believe that this is spoken from our +hearts. We have borne with their present Government +through all these bitter months because +of that friendship, exercising a patience +and forbearance which would otherwise have +been impossible.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Most Americans of German birth are +loyal to the United States.</div> + +<p>We shall happily still have an opportunity to +prove that friendship in our daily attitude and +actions toward the millions of men and women +of German birth and native sympathy who live +among us and share our life, and we shall be +proud to prove it toward all who are in fact +loyal to their neighbors and to the Government +in the hour of test. They are most of them as +true and loyal Americans as if they had never +known any other fealty or allegiance. They +will be prompt to stand with us in rebuking +and restraining the few who may be of a different +mind and purpose. If there should be +disloyalty, it will be dealt with with a firm +hand of stern repression; but, if it lifts its head +at all, it will lift it only here and there and +without countenance except from a lawless and +malignant few.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Trial and sacrifice ahead.</div> + +<p>It is a distressing and oppressive duty, gentlemen +of the Congress, which I have performed +in thus addressing you. There are, it may be, +many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead +of us. It is a fearful thing to lead this great, +peaceful people into war, into the most terrible +and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself +seeming to be in the balance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America will fight for democracy.</div> + +<p>But the right is more precious than peace, +and we shall fight for the things which we have +always carried nearest our hearts—for democracy, +for the right of those who submit to authority +to have a voice in their own Governments, +for the rights and liberties of small +nations, for a universal dominion of right by +such a concert of free peoples as shall bring +peace and safety to all nations and make the +world itself at last free.</p> + +<p>To such a task we can dedicate our lives +and our fortunes, everything that we are and +everything that we have, with the pride of +those who know that the day has come when +America is privileged to spend her blood and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +her might for the principles that gave her birth +and happiness and the peace which she has +treasured.</p> + +<p>God helping her, she can do no other.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br />DECLARATION OF WAR</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany has made war on the United States.</div> + +<p><i><ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Wheras'">Whereas</ins></i>, The Imperial German Government +has committed repeated acts of war against the +Government and the people of the United +States of America; therefore, be it</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War is formally declared.</div> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, by the Senate and House of Representatives +of the United States of America in +Congress assembled. That the state of war between +the United States and the Imperial German +Government, which has thus been thrust +upon the United States, is hereby formally declared; +and</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The President is given full authority.</div> + +<p>That the President be, and he is hereby, authorized +and directed to employ the entire +naval and military forces of the United States +and the resources of the Government to carry +on war against the Imperial German Government; +and to bring the conflict to a successful +termination all the resources of the country are +hereby pledged by the Congress of the United +States.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br />PROCLAMATION TO THE AMERICAN +PEOPLE</div> + +<div class='center'><small>BY PRESIDENT WILSON</small></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Congress has declared war.</div> + +<p><i>Whereas</i>, The Congress of the United States, +in the exercise of the constitutional authority +vested in them, have resolved by joint resolution +of the Senate and House of Representatives, +bearing date this day, "that a state of +war between the United States and the Imperial +German Government which has been thrust +upon the United States is hereby formally declared";<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Whereas</i>, It is provided by Section 4,067 of +the Revised Statutes as follows:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Proclamation regarding alien enemies.</div> + +<p>"Whenever there is declared a war between +the United States and any foreign nation or +Government or any invasion or predatory incursion +is perpetrated, attempted, or threatened +against the territory of the United States +by any foreign nation or Government, and the +President makes public proclamation of the +event, all native citizens, denizens, or subjects +of a hostile nation or Government being male +of the age of 14 years and upward, who shall +be within the United States and not actually +naturalized, shall be liable to be apprehended, +restrained, secured, and removed as alien enemies. +The President is authorized in any such +event by his proclamation thereof, or other +public acts, to direct the conduct to be observed +on the part of the United States toward +the aliens who become so liable; the manner +and degree of the restraint to which they shall +be subject and in what cases and upon what +security their residence shall be permitted, and +to provide for the removal of those who, not +being permitted to reside within the United +States, refuse or neglect to depart therefrom; +and to establish any such regulations which +are found necessary in the premises and for +the public safety."</p> + +<p><i>Whereas</i>, By Sections 4,068, 4,069, and 4,070 +of the Revised Statutes, further provision is +made relative to alien enemies;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">All officers of the United States are +warned to be vigilant.</div> + +<p><i>Now, therefore</i>, I, Woodrow Wilson, President +of the United States of America, do hereby +proclaim, to all whom it may concern, that a +state of war exists between the United States +and the Imperial German Government, and I +do specially direct all officers, civil or military, +of the United States that they exercise vigilance +and zeal in the discharge of the duties +incident to such a state of war, and I do, moreover,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +earnestly appeal to all American citizens +that they, in loyal devotion to their country, +dedicated from its foundation to the principles +of liberty and justice, uphold the laws of the +land, and give undivided and willing support +to those measures which may be adopted by the +constitutional authorities in prosecuting the +war to a successful issue and in obtaining a +secure and just peace;</p> + +<p>And, acting under and by virtue of the authority +vested in me by the Constitution of the +United States and the said sections of the Revised +Statutes,</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conduct to be observed toward +alien enemies.</div> + +<p>I do hereby further proclaim and direct that +the conduct to be observed on the part of the +United States toward all natives, citizens, denizens, +or subjects of Germany, being male of the +age of 14 years and upward, who shall be +within the United States and not actually naturalized, +who for the purpose of this proclamation +and under such sections of the Revised +Statutes are termed alien enemies, shall be as +follows:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alien enemies must preserve the peace.</div> + +<p>All alien enemies are enjoined to preserve +the peace toward the United States and to refrain +from crime against the public safety and +from violating the laws of the United States +and of the States and Territories thereof, and +to refrain from actual hostility or giving information, +aid, or comfort to the enemies of +the United States and to comply strictly with +the regulations which are hereby, or which may +be from time to time promulgated by the President, +and so long as they shall conduct themselves +in accordance with law they shall be +undisturbed in the peaceful pursuit of their +lives and occupations, and be accorded the consideration +due to all peaceful and law-abiding +persons, except so far as restrictions may be +necessary for their own protection and for the +safety of the United States, and toward such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +alien enemies as conduct themselves in accordance +with law all citizens of the United States +are enjoined to preserve the peace and to treat +them with all such friendliness as may be compatible +with loyalty and allegiance to the +United States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Penalties added to those prescribed +by law.</div> + +<p>And all alien enemies who fail to conduct +themselves as so enjoined, in addition to all +other penalties prescribed by law, shall be liable +to restraint or to give security or to remove +and depart from the United States, in the manner +prescribed by Sections 4,069 and 4,070 +of the Revised Statutes and as prescribed in +the regulations duly promulgated by the President.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The necessary regulations.</div> + +<p>And pursuant to the authority vested in me, +I hereby declare and establish the following +regulations, which I find necessary in the premises +and for the public safety:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cannot possess weapons.</div> + +<p>1. An alien enemy shall not have in his possession +at any time or place any firearms, +weapons, or implements of war, or component +parts thereof, ammunition, Maxim or other silencer, +arms, or explosives or material used in +the manufacture of explosives;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No signaling devices or cipher codes.</div> + +<p>2. An alien enemy shall not have in his possession +at any time or place, or use or operate, +any aircraft or wireless apparatus, or any form +of signaling device or any form of cipher code +or any paper, document, or book written or +printed in cipher or in which there may be invisible +writing;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Property may be seized.</div> + +<p>3. All property found in the possession of an +alien enemy in violation of the foregoing regulations +shall be subject to seizure by the United +States;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Must not approach forts or munition works.</div> + +<p>4. An alien enemy shall not approach or be +found within one-half of a mile of any Federal +or State fort, camp, arsenal, aircraft station, +Government or naval vessel, navy yard, factory, +or workshop for the manufacture of munitions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +of war or of any products for the use of the +army or navy;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Must not +speak or +write +against +the United States.</div> + +<p>5. An alien enemy shall not write, print, or +publish any attack or threat against the Government +or Congress of the United States, or +either branch thereof, or against the measures +or policy of the United States, or against the +persons or property of any person in the military, +naval, or civil service of the United States, +or of the States or Territories, or of the District +of Columbia, or of the municipal governments +therein;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Must not +commit +any hostile +act.</div> + +<p>6. An alien enemy shall not commit or abet +any hostile acts against the United States +or give information, aid, or comfort to its +enemies;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Must not +enter +prohibited +areas.</div> + +<p>7. An alien enemy shall not reside in or continue +to reside in, to remain in, or enter any +locality which the President may from time to +time designate by an Executive order as a prohibitive +area, in which residence by an alien +enemy shall be found by him to constitute a +danger to the public peace and safety of the +United States, except by permit from the President +and except under such limitations or restrictions +as the President may prescribe;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">May be +made to +remove by +executive +order.</div> + +<p>8. An alien enemy whom the President shall +have reasonable cause to believe to be aiding +or about to aid the enemy or to be at large to +the danger of the public peace or safety of the +United States, or to have violated or to be +about to violate any of these regulations, shall +remove to any location designated by the President +by Executive order, and shall not remove +therefrom without permit, or shall depart from +the United States if so required by the President;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cannot +leave +country +without +permission.</div> + +<p>9. No alien enemy shall depart from the +United States until he shall have received such +permit as the President shall prescribe, or except +under order of a court, Judge, or Justice,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +under Sections 4,069 and 4,070 of the Revised +Statutes;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Entering +United +States +regulated.</div> + +<p>10. No alien enemy shall land in or enter the +United States except under such restrictions +and at such places as the President may +prescribe;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">May be +obliged to +register.</div> + +<p>11. If necessary to prevent violation of the +regulations, all alien enemies will be obliged +to register;</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alien +enemies +who +violate +rules to be +arrested.</div> + +<p>12. An alien enemy whom there may be reasonable +cause to believe to be aiding or about +to aid the enemy, or who may be at large to +the danger of the public peace or safety, or who +violates or who attempts to violate or of whom +there is reasonable grounds to believe that he +is about to violate, any regulation to be promulgated +by the President or any criminal law +of the United States, or of the States or Territories +thereof, will be subject to summary arrest +by the United States Marshal, or his +Deputy, or such other officers as the President +shall designate, and to confinement in such +penitentiary, prison, jail, military camp, or +other place of detention as may be directed by +the President.</p> + +<p>This proclamation and the regulations herein +contained shall extend and apply to all land +and water, continental or insular, in any way +within the jurisdiction of the United States.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Saloniki was one of the mysteries of the +war. News from that city was brief and unsatisfying +in the main. Great things, however, +were done there, and none greater than +those accomplished by the British. Some of +these accomplishments are told in the pages +that follow.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> +<h2>BRITISH OPERATIONS AT<br /> +SALONIKI</h2> + +<h3>OFFICIAL REPORT OF GENERAL MILNE</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Reinforcements +needed +north of +Saloniki.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Italy to +send +300,000.</div> + +<p>Since the conference at Rome the situation +in Macedonia has been radically changed. +The weakness of General Sarrail's position +lay in the fact that neither England nor +France felt free to send from the critical +western front the large reinforcements of men +which the situation north of Saloniki called +for. Italy had the men, but was unwilling to +send them and to incur the heavy additional +expense of maintaining them in Macedonia. +The conference at Rome, in which Premier +Lloyd George was the dominant figure, overcame +that reluctance, probably promising Italy +parts of the Turkish Empire that had been +earlier assigned tentatively to Greece and +guaranteeing the cost of the new expedition. +The result has been immediate and of the highest +importance. Rome dispatches indicate that +Italy has sent, or is sending, a force of not less +than 300,000 men; that these troops, to avoid +the danger of submarines, are being dispatched, +not to Saloniki, but to Avlona, which +is within forty miles of the Italian coast; and, +finally, these Italian forces have not only built +an excellent highway through the Albanian +mountains but have already joined forces with +General Sarrail's right wing at Monastir. All +these facts indicate early activity in the Macedonian +sector.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +G. F. +Milne's +report.</div> + +<p>This glimpse of present conditions will serve +to introduce the following report of General +G. F. Milne, commanding the British Saloniki<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +Army in Macedonia, on last Summer's operations +in that sector. His report, submitted to +the British War Office early in December, 1916, +covered the army's operations from May 9, +1916, to October 8, 1916. The official text of +the report is here reproduced, with a few minor +omissions:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Found army concentrated near Saloniki.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British forces responsible for front on east and northeast.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Construction of defenses.</div> + +<p>"On May 9, 1916, the greater part of the army +was concentrated within the fortified lines +of Saloniki, extending from Stavros on the +east to near the Galiko River on the west; +a mixed force, consisting of a mounted brigade +and a division, had been pushed forward +to the north of Kukush in order to support +the French Army which had advanced and was +watching the right bank of the Struma River +and the northern frontier of Greece. Further +moves in this direction were contemplated, +but, in order to keep the army concentrated, +I entered into an agreement with General +Sarrail by which the British forces should become +responsible for that portion of the allied +front which covered Saloniki from the east and +northeast. By this arrangement a definite and +independent area was allotted to the army +under my command. On June 8, 1916, the +troops commenced to occupy advanced positions +along the right bank of the River Struma +and its tributary, the River Butkova, from +Lake Tachinos to Lozista village. By the end +of July, on the demobilization of the Greek +Army, this occupation had extended to the sea +at Chai Aghizi. Along the whole front the +construction of a line of resistance was begun; +work on trenches, entanglements, bridgeheads, +and supporting points was commenced; for administrative +purposes the reconstruction of the +Saloniki-Seres road was undertaken and the +cutting of wagon tracks through the mountainous +country was pushed forward.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +take over +line near +Doiran.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Capture +of Horseshoe +Hill.</div> + +<p>"On July 20, 1916, in accordance with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +policy laid down in my instructions, and in +order to release French troops for employment +elsewhere, I began to take over the line south +and west of Lake Doiran, and commenced +preparations for a joint offensive on this front. +This move was completed by August 2, 1916, +and on the 10th of that month an offensive +was commenced against the Bulgarian defenses +south of the line Doiran-Hill 535. The +French captured Hills 227 and La Tortue, +while the British occupied in succession those +features of the main 535 ridge now known as +Kidney Hill and Horseshoe Hill, and, pushing +forward, established a series of advanced posts +on the line Doldzeli-Reselli. The capture of +Horseshoe Hill was successfully carried out +on the night of August 17-18, 1916, by the +Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry +at the point of the bayonet in the face +of stubborn opposition. The enemy's counterattacks +were repulsed with heavy loss.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Bulgarian +advance.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British +and +French +attack.</div> + +<p>"On August 17, 1916, the Bulgarians, who, +at the end of May, had entered Greek territory +by the Struma Valley and moved down as far +as Demir Hissar, continued their advance into +Greek Macedonia. Columns of all arms advanced +from seven different points, between +Sarisaban, on the Mesta, and Demir Hissar. +The four eastern columns converged on the +country about Drama and Kavala, while the +remainder moved southward on to the line +of the Struma from Demir Hissar toward +Orfano. On August 19, 1916, a mounted brigade +with one battery carried out a strong +reconnoissance, and found the enemy in some +force on the line Prosenik-Barakli Djuma; on +the following day, after being reinforced by a +battalion, this brigade again advanced in conjunction +with the French detachment. These +attacking troops, after encountering the enemy +in force on the line Kalendra-Prosenik-Haznatar,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +withdrew after dark to the right bank +of the Struma. The French detachment was +subsequently placed under the orders of the +General Officer Commanding British troops on +this front, and received instructions to cooperate +in the defense of the river line.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bridges +over +Angista +River +destroyed.</div> + +<p>"On August 21, 1916, the railway bridge near +Angista Station was demolished by a detachment +from the Neohori garrison, and three +days later two road bridges over the Angista +River were destroyed. Both these operations +were well carried out by yeomanry, engineers, +and cyclists in the face of hostile opposition.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bulgarians +in +Eastern +Macedonia.</div> + +<p>"The Bulgarians continued their advance +into Eastern Macedonia unopposed by the +Greek garrison, and it was estimated that by +the end of August the enemy's forces, extending +from Demir Hissar southward in the Seres +sector of the Struma front, comprised the complete +Seventh Bulgarian Division, with two or +three regiments of the Eleventh Macedonian +Division, which had moved eastward from their +positions on the Beles Mountain to act as a +reserve to the Seventh Division, and at the +same time to occupy the defenses from Vetrina-Pujovo +northward. Opposite the Lower Struma +was a brigade of the Second Division, with a +brigade of the Tenth Division, in occupation of +the coast and the zone of country between Orfano +and the Drama-Kavala road. This brigade +of the Tenth Division was supported by another +brigade in the Drama Kavala area. As +a result of this advance and of a similar move +in the west General Sarrail decided to intrust +to the British Army the task of maintaining +the greater portion of the right and center +of the allied line.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Northumberland +Fusiliers +capture +Nevolien.</div> + +<p>"On September 10, 1916, detachments crossed +the river above Lake Tachinos at five places +between Bajraktar Mah and Dragos, while a +sixth detachment crossed lower down at Neohori.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +The villages of Oraoman and Kato +Gudeli were occupied, and Northumberland +Fusiliers gallantly captured Nevolien, taking +thirty prisoners and driving the enemy out of +the village. The latter lost heavily during +their retirement and in their subsequent counterattack. +They also suffered severely from +our artillery fire in attempting to follow our +prearranged movements to regain the right +bank of the river.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise in +the +Struma +River +hinders +operations.</div> + +<p>"On the 15th similar operations were undertaken, +six small columns crossing the river +between Lake Tachinos and Orljak bridge. +The villages of Kato Gudeli, Dzami Mah, +Agomah, and Komarjan were burned and +twenty-seven prisoners were taken. The enemy's +counterattacks completely broke down +under the accurate fire of our guns on the +right bank of the river. On the 23d a similar +scheme was put into action, but a sudden rise +of three feet in the Struma interfered with +the bridging operations. Nevertheless, the +enemy's trenches at Yenimah were captured, +fourteen prisoners taken, and three other villages +raided. Considerable help was given +on each occasion by the French detachment +under Colonel Bescoins, and much information +was obtained which proved to be of considerable +value during subsequent operations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +attack +Matzikovo +salient.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Heavy +artillery +fire from +the +enemy.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British +carry out +bombing +raids.</div> + +<p>"On the Doiran-River Vardar front there remained +as before the whole of the Bulgarian +Ninth Division, less one regiment; a brigade +of the Second Division and at least two-thirds +of the German 101st Division, which +had intrenched the salient north of Matzikovo +on the usual German system. To assist +the general offensive by the Allies I ordered +this salient to be attacked at the same time +as the allied operations in the Florina area +commenced. With this object in view the +whole of the enemy's intrenched position was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +subjected to a heavy bombardment from Septem. +11 to 13, 1916, the southwest corner of the +salient known as the Piton des Mitrailleuses +being specially selected for destruction. The +enemy's position was occupied during the +night 13th-14th, after a skillfully planned and +gallant assault, in which the King's Liverpool +Regiment and Lancashire Fusiliers specially +distinguished themselves. Over 200 Germans +were killed in the work, chiefly by bombing, +and seventy-one prisoners were brought in. +During the 14th the enemy concentrated from +three directions a very heavy artillery fire, +and delivered several counterattacks, which +were for the most part broken up under the +fire of our guns. Some of the enemy, however, +succeeded in forcing an entrance into +the work, and severe fighting followed. As +hostile reinforcements were increasing in +numbers, and as the rocky nature of the +ground rendered rapid consolidation difficult, +the troops were withdrawn in the evening to +their original line, the object of the attack +having been accomplished. This withdrawal +was conducted with little loss, thanks to the +very effective fire of the artillery. During +the bombardment and subsequent counterattack +the enemy's losses must have been +considerable. On the same front on the night +of the 20th-21st, after bombarding the hostile +positions on the Crête des Tentes, a strong +detachment raided and bombed the trenches +and dugouts, retiring quickly with little loss. +A similar raid was carried out northeast of +Doldzeli.</p> + +<p>"In addition to these operations and raids, +constant combats took place between patrols, +many prisoners being captured, and several +bombing raids were carried out by the Royal +Flying Corps.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Operations +on a +more extensive +scale.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Bridging +the +Struma +River.</div> + +<p>"In order further to assist the progress of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +our allies toward Monastir by maintaining +such a continuous offensive as would insure +no transference of Bulgarian troops from the +Struma front to the west, I now issued instructions +for operations on a more extensive +scale than those already reported. In accordance +with these the General Officer Commanding +on that front commenced operations +by seizing and holding certain villages on the +left bank of the river with a view to enlarging +the bridgehead opposite Orljak, whence he +would be in a position to threaten a further +movement either on Seres or on Demir Hissar. +The high ground on the right bank of the river +enabled full use to be made of our superiority +in artillery, which contributed greatly to the +success of these operations. The river itself +formed a potential danger, owing to the +rapidity with which its waters rise after heavy +rain in the mountains, but on the night of +September 29, 1916, sufficient bridges had been +constructed by the Royal Engineers for the +passage of all arms. During the night of +September 29-30 the attacking infantry crossed +below Orljak bridge and formed up on the +left bank.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Scotch +troops +take +several +villages.</div> + +<p>"At dawn on the following morning the +Gloucesters and the Cameron Highlanders advanced +under cover of an artillery bombardment, +and by 8 a.m. had seized the village of +Karadjakoi Bala. Shortly after the occupation +of the village the enemy opened a heavy and +accurate artillery fire, but the remaining two +battalions of the brigade, the Royal Scots +and Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, +though suffering severely from enfilade fire, +pushed on against Karadjakoi Zir. By 5.30 +p. m. that village also was occupied, in spite +of the stubborn resistance of the enemy. Attempts +to bring forward hostile reinforcements +were frustrated during the day by our artillery,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +but during the night the Bulgarians +launched several strong counterattacks, which +were repulsed with heavy loss.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Capture of +Yenikoi.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +counterattacks.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">British +consolidate +new +line.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +casualties +heavy.</div> + +<p>"During the following night determined +counterattacks of the enemy were again repulsed, +and by the evening of October 2, 1916, +the position had been fully consolidated. Preparations +were at once made to extend the +position by the capture of Yenikoi, an important +village on the main Seres road. This +operation was successfully carried out by an +infantry brigade, composed of the Royal Munster +and Royal Dublin Fusiliers, on the morning +of October 3, 1916, after bombardment by +our artillery. By 7 a. m. the village was in +our hands. During the day the enemy +launched three heavy counterattacks. The first +two were stopped by artillery fire, which caused +severe loss. At 4 p. m. the village, the ground +in the rear, and the bridges were subjected to +an unexpectedly heavy bombardment from +several heavy batteries which had hitherto not +disclosed their positions. Following on the +bombardment was the heaviest counterattack +of the day, six or seven battalions advancing +from the direction of Homondos, Kalendra, and +Topalova with a view to enveloping our positions. +This attack was carried forward with +great determination, and some detachments +succeeded in entering the northern portion of +Yenikoi, where hard fighting continued all +night, until fresh reinforcements succeeded in +clearing out such enemy as survived. During +the following day the consolidation of our new +line was continued under artillery fire. On the +5th, after a bombardment, the village of Nevolien +was occupied, the Bulgarian garrison retiring +on the approach of our infantry. By the +following evening the front extended from +Komarjan on the right via Yenikoi to Elisan +on the left. On the 7th a strong reconnoissance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +by mounted troops located the enemy +on the Demir Hissar-Seres railway, with advanced +posts approximately on the line of +the Belica stream and a strong garrison in +Barakli Djuma. On October 8, 1916, our +troops had reached the line Agomah-Homondos-Elisan-Ormanli, +with the mounted troops on +the line Kispeki-Kalendra. The enemy's casualties +during these few days were heavy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assistance +of the +Royal +Flying +Corps.</div> + +<p>"I consider that the success of these operations +was due to the skill and decision with +which they were conducted by Lieutenant +General C. J. Briggs, C. B., and to the excellent +cooperation of all arms, which was greatly assisted +by the exceptional facilities for observation +of artillery fire. The Royal Flying +Corps, in spite of the difficulties which they +had to overcome and the great strain on their +resources, rendered valuable assistance. Armored +motor cars were used with effect. * * *</p> + +<p>"On the enforcement of martial law the management +of the three lines of railway radiating +from Saloniki had to be undertaken by +the Allies; one line, the Junction-Saloniki-Constantinople, +is now entirely administered +by the British Army; this, together with the +additional railway traffic involved by the arrival +of the Serbian Army, as well as the +Russian and Italian troops, has thrown a considerable +strain on the railway directorate."</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Russia, after three years of warfare against +Austria and Germany, during which millions +of her soldiers were killed and wounded, +startled the world suddenly, in February, 1917, +by casting out the Czar and establishing a +provisional government, which purported to be +a government by the people and not by the +bureaucracy. The dramatic events of the first +days of the revolution are described in the +following chapter.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> +<h2>IN PETROGRAD DURING THE<br /> +SEVEN DAYS</h2> + +<h3>ARNO DOSCH-FLEUROT</h3> + + + +<div class="sidenote">Cossacks +trotting +through +the +Nevsky in +Petrograd.</div> + +<p>A crowd of ordinary citizens were passing +in front of the Singer Building on the +Nevsky in Petrograd at noon February +25th, Russian time (March 10th), stopping occasionally +to watch a company of Cossacks +amiably roughing some students with a miscellaneous +following who insisted on assembling +across the street before the wide, sweeping +colonnades of Kasan Cathedral. As the Cossacks +trotted through, hands empty, rifles slung +on shoulders, the crowds cheered, the Cossacks +laughed.</p> + +<p>A few trolley cars had stopped, though not +stalled, and groups of curious on-lookers had +crowded in for a grandstand view. The only +people who did not seem interested in the +spectacle were hundreds of women with shawls +over their heads who had been standing in line +for many hours before the bread-shops along the +Catherine Canal.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Some Cossacks +and +infantry +in side +streets.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">People +charged +by police.</div> + +<p>People were going about their affairs up and +down the Nevsky without being stopped, and +sleighs were passing constantly. Cossacks and +a few companies of infantrymen were beginning +to appear on the side streets in considerable +numbers, but, as a demonstration over the +lack of bread in the Russian capital had been +going on at intervals for two days with very +little violence, people were beginning to get +used to it. I arrived from the direction of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +Moika Canal just as the cannon boomed midday +and I felt sufficiently unhurried to correct +my watch. Then I hailed a British general in +uniform who had arrived, also unimpeded, from +the opposite direction, and we had just stopped +to comment on the unusual attitude of populace +and Cossacks, when there was a sudden rush +of people around the corner from the Catherine +Canal and before we could even reach the +doubtful protection of a doorway a company of +mounted police charged around the corner and +started up the Nevsky on the sidewalk. We +were obviously harmless onlookers, fur-clad +bourgeois, but the police plunged through at +a hard trot, bare sabres flashing in the cold +sunshine. The British general and I were +knocked down together and escaped trampling +only because the police were splendidly +mounted, and a well-bred horse will not step on +a man if he can help it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Display of +stupid +physical +force.</div> + +<p>This was a display of that well-known stupid +physical force which used to be the basis of +strength of the Russian Empire. Its ruthlessness, +its carelessness of life, however innocent, +terrorized, and, we used to think, won respect. +We know better now, especially those of us who +were eye-witnesses of the Russian revolution, +and saw how the police provoked a quarrel +they could not handle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crowds +begin to +be dangerously +large.</div> + +<p>I watched the growth of the revolt with +wonder. Knowing something of the dissatisfaction +in the country, I marveled at the stupidity +of the Government in permitting the police +to handle its inception as they did. Any hundred +New York or London policemen, or any +hundred Petrograd policemen, could have prevented +the demonstrations by the simple process +of closing the streets. But they let people +crowd in from the side streets to see what was +going on even when the crowds were beginning +to be dangerously large, and, having permitted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +them to come, charged among them at random +as if expressly making them angry.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ease with +which +Czar was +overthrown.</div> + +<p>I look back now at the time before the Revolution. +The life of Petrograd is much as it +was to outward appearances except that the +new republican soldiers are now policing the +streets, occasional citizens are wearing brassarts +showing they are deputies of some sort +or members of law-and-order committees, and +there is a certain joyous freedom in the walk +of every one. Here, in one corner of this vast +empire, a revolt lacking all signs of terrorism, +growing out of nothing into a sudden burst of +indignation, knocked over the most absolute of +autocracies. Just to look, it is hard to believe +it true. As a Socialist said to me to-day: "The +empire was rotten ready. One kick of a +soldier's boot, and the throne with all its panoplies +disappeared, leaving nothing but dust."</p> + +<p>I asked President Rodzianko of the Duma +the other day:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolution +inevitable +after +Duma was +dissolved.</div> + +<p>"From what date was the revolution inevitable?"</p> + +<p>I expected him to name one of the days immediately +before the revolt, but he replied:</p> + +<p>"When the Duma was dissolved in December +without being granted a responsible ministry."</p> + +<p>"How late might the Emperor have saved +his throne?"</p> + +<p>"New Year's. If he had granted a responsible +ministry then, it would not have been too +late."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Government +brought +Cossacks +to Petrograd.</div> + +<p>The Government was either blind or too arrogant +to take precautions. It had fears of +an uprising at the reconvening of the Duma +and brought 13,000 Cossacks to Petrograd to +put fear into the hearts of the people, but it +permitted a shortage of flour which had been +noticeable for several weeks to become really +serious just at this moment. There were large +districts of working people practically without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +bread from the time the Duma reconvened up +to the moment of the revolution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation +needed a +great +ruler.</div> + +<p>In the palace at Tsarskoe-Selo the seriousness +of the situation was not ignored, but the preventive +measures were lamentable. The Emperor, +also, went to the front. If he had been +a big enough man to be an emperor he would +certainly never have done so. That left the +neurasthenic Empress and the crafty, small-minded +Protopopoff to handle a problem that +needed a real man as great as Emperor Peter +or Alexander III.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +author on +the point +of leaving +Russia.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The appearance +of Cossacks.</div> + +<p>When the Duma reconvened without disorders +it never occurred to me that the Government +would be foolish enough to let the flour +situation get worse. I was so used by this +time to see the Duma keep a calm front in the +face of imperial rebuffs that I thought Russia +was going to continue to muddle on to the end +of the war and, though I thought I was rather +well-posted, I confess I was on the point of +leaving Russia to return to the western front, +where the spring campaign was about to begin +with vigor. As late as the Wednesday before +the revolution I was preparing to leave. That +day I learned that several small strikes which +had occurred in scattered factories could not +be settled and that several other factories were +forced to close because workmen, having no +bread, refused to report. Still I remember I +was not too preoccupied by these reports to +discuss the possibility of a German offensive +against Italy with our military attaché, Lieutenant +Francis B. Riggs, as we strolled down +the Nevsky in the middle of the afternoon. We +had reached the Fontanka Canal when we +passed three Cossacks riding abreast at a walk +up the street. They were the first Cossacks to +make a public appearance, and they brought +to the mind of every Petrograd citizen the +recollection of the barbarities of the revolution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +of 1905. Their appearance was a challenge to +the people of Petrograd. They seemed to say, +"Yes, we are here." If any one had said to +me that afternoon, "These Cossacks are going +to start a revolution which will set Russia free +within a week," I should have regarded him +as a lunatic with an original twist.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Petrograd +life +normal.</div> + +<p>The life of Petrograd was still normal as late +as Thursday morning February 23d, Russian +style (March 8th). The bread lines were very +long, but Russians are patient and would have +submitted to standing four or five hours in the +cold if in the end they had always been rewarded, +but shops were being closed with long +lines still before them, and the disappointed +were turning away with bitter remarks.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +historic +spot for +protests.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cossacks +merely +keep the +crowd on +sidewalks.</div> + +<p>The open ground before Kasan Cathedral is +the historic spot for protests and, true to +tradition, the first demonstration against the +bread shortage began there Thursday morning +toward noon. There were not more than a +dozen men speaking to groups of passing citizens. +Each gathered a constantly changing +audience, like an orator in Union Square, New +York. But the Nevsky is always a busy street +and it does not take much to give the appearance +of a crowd. Examining that crowd, I +could see it had not more than a hundred or +two intent listeners. A company of Cossacks +appeared to disperse it, but they confined themselves +to riding up and down the curbs keeping +the people on the sidewalks. The wide street +was, as usual, full of passing sleighs and automobiles. +Even then, at the beginning, it must +have occurred to the military commander, General +Khabaloff, that the Cossacks were taking +it easy, or perhaps the police acted on their own +initiative; at any rate the scene did not become +exciting until mounted police arrived, riding +on the sidewalk and scattering the curious onlookers +pell-mell. By one o'clock the Nevsky<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +was calm again, and the street cars, which had +been blocked for an hour, started once more.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Duma discusses +food +situation.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The first +snarl of +the mob.</div> + +<p>That afternoon I went to the Duma, where +the mismanagement of the food situation +throughout Russia was being discussed. I had +a glass of tea with a member of the liberal +Cadet Party, and he seemed more concerned +with the victualing of the country than with +the particular situation in Petrograd. Toward +evening I drove back along the Nevsky and my +'ishvoshik was blocked for a few minutes while +a wave of working people, in unusual numbers +for that part of town, passed. They were being +urged on by Cossacks, but they were mostly +smiling, women were hanging to their husbands' +arms, and they were decidedly unhurried. +It was not a crowd that could be in any +sense called a mob, and was perfectly orderly, +but it did not go fast enough to suit the police +and a dozen of them came trotting up. Their +appearance wiped the smile away, and when +they began really roughing I heard the first +murmurings of the snarl which only an infuriated +mob can produce. I wondered what +the police were up to. They were obviously +provoking trouble. I felt then we might be in +for serious difficulties—and the attitude of the +police gave me the fear.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Watching +for the +Cossacks +to act.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">A red +flag.</div> + +<p>Friday morning only a few street cars were +running, but the city was quiet enough until +after ten in the morning. Then the agitators, +their small following, and the onlookers, sure +now of having a spectacle, began gathering in +considerable numbers. I was still expecting +the rough work to commence with the Cossacks, +but after watching them from the colonnades +of the cathedral for half an hour I walked out +through the crowd and, shifted but slightly +out of my route by the sway of the crowd as +Cossacks trotted up and down the street, +crossed the thick of it. Green student caps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +were conspicuous, and one of the students told +me the universities had gone on strike in sympathy +with the bread demonstration. As a +company of Cossacks swung by, lances in rest, +rifles slung on their shoulders, I scanned their +faces without finding anything ferocious there. +Some one waved a red flag, the first I had seen, +before them, but they passed, unnoticing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crowd +not yet +dangerous.</div> + +<p>This time the crowd did not break up but +began to bunch here and there as far as the +Fontanka Canal. All afternoon the Cossacks +kept them stirring, and occasionally the police +gave them a real roughing. Each time the +police appeared, I heard that menacing murmur, +but by Friday evening, when the day's +crowd disappeared, the increase in discontent +and anger had not developed sufficiently in +twenty-four hours to be really dangerous. I +felt the Government still had plenty of time +to remove the discontent, and an announcement +pasted up conspicuously everywhere saying +there would be no lack of bread seemed like an +assurance that the Government would somehow +overnight provide all bakers with sufficient +flour. That was the one obvious thing +to do.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A tour +of the +Wiborg +factory +district.</div> + +<p>During the afternoon I made a long tour +through the Wiborg factory district, which +was thickly policed by infantrymen. Occasional +street cars were still running, but +otherwise the district was ominously silent. +The bread-lines were very long here, and on the +corners were groups of workmen. Their silent +gravity struck me as being something to +reckon with. Still the lack of real trouble on +the Nevsky as I came back in a measure reassured +me.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crowd +friendly +with +Cossacks.</div> + +<p>Saturday morning the crowd on the Nevsky +gathered at the early Petrograd hour of ten, +but they seemed to be there to encourage the +Cossacks. Wherever the Cossacks passed, individuals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +called out to them cheerfully and, +even though they crowded in so close to the +trotting horsemen as to be occasionally knocked +about, they took it good-humoredly and went +on cheering. I went away for an hour or so +and when I returned the fraternizing of the +crowd and the Cossacks was increasingly evident. +By this time all sorts of ordinary citizens, +catching the sense of events, were joining +in the general acclamation. I was just beginning +to get a glimmering of the meaning of all +this when I was bowled over by the mounted +police in front of the Singer Building.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crowd beginning +to +challenge +police.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Soldiers +fire but +wound +few.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Police +inviting +quarrel.</div> + +<p>The more timorous average citizens began +to lose interest, but the workmen and students +who were in the Nevsky now in considerable +numbers, and arriving hourly, accepted the +challenge of the police. They began throwing +bottles, the police charged afresh, and by the +early part of Saturday afternoon there was +really a mob on the Nevsky. Liberally mixed +through the whole, though, were the ordinary +onlookers, many of them young girls. The +Nevsky widens for a space before the Gastenidwor +(the Russian adaptation of the oriental +bazaar), and infantrymen were now detailed +to hold the people back at the point of the +bayonet. Meanwhile, all the side streets were +wide open and the appearance of a large, angry +mob was kept up by constant arrivals. The +crowd becoming unwieldy, the soldiers fired +into it several times, but they did not wound +many, indicating that they were extracting +many bullets before they fired. The shooting +only augmented the crowd, as Russians do not +frighten very easily, and though at a few points +it was necessary to turn the corner, I found +no difficulty in going back and forth all afternoon +between Kasan Cathedral and the Nicola +Station—the main stretch of the Nevsky. +There was general roughing along this mile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +and a half of street which could have been +stopped at any time in fifteen minutes by closing +the streets. Instead, the police charged +with increasing violence without doing anything +to prevent the people coming from other +parts of town. The idea was now unescapable +that the police were inviting the people to a +quarrel.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rioting +at the +Nicola +Station.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Evident +Cossacks +are with +people.</div> + +<p>The Cossacks were sometimes riding pretty +fast themselves, but never with the violence of +the police, and the cheering was continuous. +At any point I could tell by the quality of the +howl that went up from the mob whether it +was being stirred by Cossacks or police. At +the Nicola Station the rioting was the roughest, +the police freely using their sabres. The +crowd, though unarmed, stood its ground and +howled back, and when possible caught an +isolated mounted policeman and disarmed +him. In one case the mob had already disarmed +and was unseating a policeman, and +other sections of the mob were rushing up to +have a turn at manhandling him, when a single +Cossack, with nothing in his hands, forced his +way through and rescued the policeman, amid +the cheers of the same people who were harassing +him. It was quite evident that the people +and the Cossacks were on the same side, and +only the unbelievable stupid old Russian Government +could have ignored it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Machine +guns +installed.</div> + +<p>At nightfall the crowd had had its fill of +roughing, but Sunday was evidently to be the +real day. There would have been, of course, +nothing on the Nevsky, if properly policed, and +I have been unable to understand how the old +Government, unless overconfident of its autocratic +power and disdainful of the people, could +have let things go on. But though half the +regiments in Petrograd were on the point of +revolt and their sympathy with the people was +evident even to a foreigner, Sunday was mismanaged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +like the days before. It was even +worse. The powers that were had, as early +as Friday, been so silly as to send armored +motor cars screeching up and down the Nevsky. +Now they began installing machine guns where +they could play on the crowd. Up to this time +I had been a neutral, if disgusted, spectator, +but now I hoped the police and the whole imperial +régime would pay bitterly for their insolence +and stupidity. The few corpses I encountered +during the day on the Nevsky could +not even add to the feeling. They were the +mere casualties of a movement that was beginning +to attain large proportions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Many +soldiers +firing +blanks.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">At the +French +theatre.</div> + +<p>The late afternoon and evening of Sunday +were bloody. The Nevsky was finally closed +except for cross traffic, and at the corner of +the Sadovia and the Nevsky by the national +library there was a machine gun going steadily. +But it was in the hands of soldiers and they +were firing blanks. The soldiers everywhere +seemed to be firing blanks, but there was carnage +enough. The way the crowds persisted +showed their capacity for revolution. The talk +was for the first time seriously revolutionary, +and the red flags remained flying by the hour. +That evening the air was for the first time +electric with danger, but the possibilities of +the next morning were not sufficiently evident +to prevent me from going to the French theatre. +There were a sufficient number of other people, +of the same mind, including many officers, to +fill half the seats.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Imperial +box +saluted +for the +last time.</div> + +<p>As usual, between the acts, the officers stood +up, facing the imperial box, which neither the +Emperor nor any one else ever occupied. This +act of empty homage, which always grated +on my democratic nerves in a Russian theatre, +was being performed by these officers—though +they did not even seem to suspect it—for the +last time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lively +rifle fire +Sunday +night.</div> + +<p>On my way home at midnight I picked up +from wayfarers rumors of soldiers attacking +the police, soldiers fighting among themselves +and rioting in barracks. But outwardly there +was calm until three in the morning, when I +heard in my room on the Moika Canal side of +the Hotel de France some very lively rifle fire +from the direction of the Catherine Canal. +This sounded more like the real thing than anything +so far, so I dressed and tried to get near +enough to learn what was going on. But for +the first time the streets were really closed. +The firing kept up steadily until four. Farther +on in the great barracks along the Neva +beyond the Litenie it kept up until the revolting +soldiers had command.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolt +spreads +like a +prairie +fire.</div> + +<p>I regret not having seen the revolt getting +under way in that quarter. I regret missing +the small incidents, the moments when the +revolt hung in the balance, when it was the +question of whether a certain company would +join, for when I reached there it was still in +its inception and the most interesting thing +about it was to watch it spread like a prairie +fire.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Duma +dissolved.</div> + +<p>Still not realizing, like most people in Petrograd, +that we were within a few hours of a +sweeping revolt, I wasted some precious hours +that morning trying to learn what could be +done with the censor. But toward noon I +heard the Duma had been dissolved, and, as +there had not been since Sunday any street +cars, 'ishvoshiks, or other means of conveyance, +I started out afoot with Roger Lewis of the +Associated Press to walk the three miles to the +Duma.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A silence +like that +of +Louvain.</div> + +<p>The hush of impending events hung over the +entire city. I remember nothing like that +silence since the day the Germans entered +Louvain. On every street were the bread lines +longer than ever. All along the Catherine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +Canal, the snow was pounded by many feet and +spotted with blood. But there were no soldiers +and few police. We hurried along the Nevsky, +gathering rumors of the fight that was actually +going on down by the arsenal on the Litenie. +But many shops were open and there was a +semblance of business. All was so quiet we +could not make out the meaning of a company +of infantry drawn up in a hollow square commanding +the four points at the junction of the +Litenie and Nevsky, ordinarily one of the busiest +corners in the world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cavalry +commands +arrive.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +barricade +on the +Litenie.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Haphazard +rifle-fire.</div> + +<p>But as soon as we turned down the Litenie +we could hear shots farther down, and the +pedestrians were mostly knotted in doorways. +Scattered cavalry commands were arriving +from the side streets, and the Litenie began +looking a little too hot. So we chose a parallel +street for several blocks until we were within +three blocks of the Neva, where we had to cross +the Litenie in front of a company drawn up +across the street ready to fire toward the arsenal, +where there was sporadic rifle fire. Here +there were bigger knots of curious citizens projecting +themselves farther and farther toward +the middle of the street, hoping for a better +view, until a nearer shot frightened them +closer to the walls. The barricade on the +Litenie by the arsenal, the one barricade the +revolution produced, was just beginning to be +built two hundred feet away as Lewis and I +reached the shelter of the Fourshtatzkaya, on +the same street as the American Embassy. By +crossing the Litenie we had entered the zone of +the revolutionists. We did not realize this, +however, and were puzzled by the sight of a +soldier carrying simply a bayonet, and another +with a bare officer's sword. A fourteen-year-old +boy stood in the middle of the street with +a rifle in his hand, trifling with it. It exploded +in his hand, and when he saw the ruin of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +breech block he unfixed the bayonet, threw +down the gun, and ran around the corner. A +student came up the street examining the mechanism +of a revolver. There seemed to be rifle-fire +in every direction, even in the same street, +but haphazard.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">An officer +recruiting +for the +revolution.</div> + +<p>If we had not been living in a troubled atmosphere +these small indications would have +impressed us deeply, but neither of us gathered +immediately the significance of events. Before +we reached the next corner we passed troops +who evidently did not know yet whether or not +they were still on the side of the Government. +An automobile appeared full of soldiers, an +officer standing on the seat. He waved toward +him all the soldiers in sight and began haranguing +them. There was no red flag in sight, +and, until we caught his words, we thought he +was urging them to remain loyal. He was +really recruiting for the revolution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Automobiles +and motor +trucks.</div> + +<p>As we kept on toward the Duma we encountered +other automobiles, many of them, +and motor trucks, literally bristling with guns +and sabres. Half the men were civilians and +the number of young boys with revolvers who +looked me over made me feel it was a very +easy time in which to be killed. I was wearing +an English trench coat and a fur cap, so to +prevent any mistake of identity I stopped and +presented a full view to each passing motor. +Still I knew my continued existence depended +on the sanity of any one of thirty or forty very +excited men and boys on each truck, and when +I reached the protection of the enormous crowd +that was storming the entrance to the Duma I +felt more comfortable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Duma +waits, but +finally +takes +command.</div> + +<p>The Duma had just been dismissed by imperial +decree, an ironical circumstance in view +of the thousands of soldiers and civilians +massed before its doors under the red flag. +Their leaders were within, asking the Duma to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +form a provisional government. The Duma +was not yet convinced, and the mental confusion +within was more bewildering than the +revolution without. This was early in the +afternoon, and the Duma held off for hours. +Even when it was known that the Preobarzhenski +regiment, which began its career with +Peter the Great, had turned revolutionary, the +Duma insisted on waiting. But at nine o'clock +in the evening, when every police station, every +court, was on fire and the revolutionists completely +controlled the city, President Rodzianko +decided that the Duma must take command.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Automobiles +dart boldly +everywhere.</div> + +<p>It is interesting to watch a revolution grow, +and even at this time, early Monday afternoon, +the revolutionists controlled only a corner of +Petrograd. They were working up excitement, +and, as often before in the war, the motor +trucks played an important part. They thundered +back and forth through doubtful streets, +students, soldiers, and workmen standing tight +and bristling with bayonets like porcupines. +They carried conviction of force, and, as each +foray met with less resistance, it was not long +before they were dashing boldly everywhere. +That accounts for the rapid control of the city. +It could not have been done afoot.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The revolutionists +take the +arsenal.</div> + +<p>All day, from the time the arsenal fell into +their hands, the revolutionists felt their +strength growing, and from noon on no attack +was led against them. At first the soldiers +simply gave up their guns and mixed in the +crowd, but they grew bolder, too, when they +saw the workmen forming into regiments and +marching up the Fourshtatzkaya, still fumbling +with the triggers of their rifles to see how they +met the enemy at the next corner. The coolness +of these revolutionists, their willingness to +die for their cause, won the respect of a small +group of us who were standing before the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +American Embassy. The group was composed +chiefly of Embassy attachés who wanted to go +over to the old Austrian Embassy, used by us as +the headquarters for the relief of German and +Austrian prisoners in Russia; but though it +was only a five minutes' walk, the hottest +corner in the revolution lay between.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Soldiers +ground +arms and +become +revolutionists.</div> + +<p>When we left the Embassy, Captain McCulley, +the American Naval Attaché, said he +knew a way to get out of the revolutionary +quarter without passing a line of fire. So he +edged us off toward the distant Nevsky along +several blood-blotched streets in which there +were occasional groups of soldiers who did not +know which way to turn. Then, as the Bycenie, +beyond, suddenly filled with revolutionists +coming from some other quarter, we turned to +cross the Litenie. Twenty minutes earlier +Captain McCulley had passed there and the +Government troops controlled for another +quarter mile. Now we passed a machine-gun +company commanding the street, which dared +not fire because there was a line of soldiers between +it and a vast crowd pouring through the +street toward us. The crowd had already overwhelmed +and made revolutionists out of hundreds +of soldiers, and the situation for a moment +was <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'dramtically'">dramatically</ins> tense.</p> + +<p>Down the bisecting Litenie another crowd +was advancing, filling the wide street. Before +it there was also a company of soldiers, and it +did not know whether to face the Bycenie or +the river. Three immense mobs were overwhelming +it, though it knew of but two. Suddenly, +just at the moment when we expected a +shower of bullets, and flattened ourselves +against a doorway, the company grounded arms +and in three seconds was in the arms of the +revolution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Company +after +company +joins.</div> + +<p>As we retreated to the Nevsky ahead of the +victorious crowd we could see company after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +company turn, as if suddenly deciding not to +shoot, and join.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thunder +of motor +trucks.</div> + +<p>I walked rapidly back to the Morskaya and +down to the cable office, which I found closed, +not encountering on the whole two miles a +single soldier or policeman until I reached +St. Isaac's Cathedral, where a regiment of +marines turned up the Morskaya toward the +Nevsky, swinging along behind a band. Five +minutes later I followed them up the Morskaya, +but before I reached the Gorokawaya, half the +distance, I could hear the thunder of the revolutionary +motor trucks and the glad howls of +the revolutionists. They had run the length of +the Nevsky, and the city, except this little +corner, was theirs. The shooting began at +once, and for the next three hours on both the +Morskaya and the Moika there was steady firing. +This was still going on when, at nine in +the evening, I passed around the edge of the +fight, crossed Winter Palace Square, deserted +except for a company of Cossacks dimly outlined +against the Winter Palace across the +square. By passing under the arch into the +head of Morskaya again I was once more with +the revolutionists.</p> + +<p>I have since asked Mr. Milukoff, now Minister +of Foreign Affairs, at that moment a +member of the Duma's Committee of Safety, +how much of an organization there was behind +the events of that day.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The organization +a spontaneous +growth.</div> + +<p>"There was some incipient organization certainly," +he replied, "though even now I could +not be more definite. But for the most part it +was spontaneous growth. The Duma was not +revolutionary, and we held off until it became +necessary for us to take hold. We were the +only government left."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Duma is +forced to +adopt +democratic +programme.</div> + +<p>The rapid work was done by the Socialists, +who quickly formed the Council of Workmen +and Soldiers' Deputies and formulated the programme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +which has come to be the Russian Declaration +of Independence. They consented to +support the Duma if it adopted their democratic +programme. There was nothing else for +the Duma to do, and the main issues of the +new Government were worked out before Tuesday +morning, within twenty-four hours of the +beginning of the revolution. Since then I have +been repeatedly impressed with the organizing +ability of the men in control, and their ability +to take matters rapidly in hand.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +crowd +feels its +power.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Not +much terrorism.</div> + +<p>Monday night the city was in the hands of +the mob. Anybody could have a gun. Public +safety lay in the released spirits of the Russian +workmen who saw the vision of liberty +before them. Tuesday was the most dangerous +day, as the crowd was beginning to feel its +power, and the amount of shooting going on +everywhere must have been out of all proportion +to the sniping on the part of cornered +police. But the searching of apartments for +arms was carried on with some semblance of +order, and usually there was a student in command. +The individual stories of officers who +refused to surrender and fought to the end in +their apartments are endless, but these individual +fights were lost in the victorious sweep +of the day. Tuesday evening the real business +of burning police stations and prisons and +destroying records went on throughout the +city, but the actual burnings, while picturesque, +lacked the terrorism one might expect. Still I +felt that the large number of irresponsible +civilians carrying arms might do what they +pleased.</p> + +<p>The same idea evidently occurred to the +Committee of Safety, as it began at once disarming +the irresponsible, and its work was so +quick and effective that there were very few +civilians not registered as responsible police +who still had fire-arms on Wednesday morning.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Regiments +sent to +Petrograd +join revolutionists.</div> + +<p>As late as Wednesday there was a possibility +of troops being sent against Petrograd, but all +the regiments for miles around joined the revolution +before they entered the city. There was +obviously no one who wanted to uphold the old +monarchy, and it fell without even dramatic +incident to mark its end. To us in Petrograd +the abdication of the Emperor had just one +significance. It brought the army over at a +stroke. The country, long saturated with +democratic principles, accepted the new Government +as naturally as if it had been chosen +by a national vote.</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, World's Work, July, 1917.</small></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The credit of the first shot fired on the +American side in the Great War fell to the +crew of the American ship, <i>Mongolia</i>. A narrative +of this dramatic event is given in the +chapter following.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p> +<h2>AMERICA'S FIRST SHOT</h2> + +<h3>J. R. KEEN</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Gunners +of the +<i>Mongolia</i> +hit a submarine.</div> + +<p>April 19 has long been celebrated in Massachusetts +because of the battle of Lexington, +but henceforth the Bay State can +keep with added pride a day which has acquired +national interest in this war, for on +that date the S. S. <i>Mongolia</i>, bound from New +York to London, under command of Captain +Emery Rice, while proceeding up the English +Channel, fired on an attacking submarine at +5.24 in the morning, smashing its periscope and +causing the U-boat to disappear.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Officers +from +Massachusetts.</div> + +<p>The gun crew who made this clean hit at +1,000 yards were under command of Lieutenant +Bruce R. Ware, United States Navy, and the +fact of special interest in Massachusetts is that +both Rice and Ware were born in that State, +the Captain receiving his training for the sea +in the Massachusetts Nautical School and the +Lieutenant being a graduate of Annapolis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dangerous +voyages +and +cargoes.</div> + +<p>The <i>Mongolia</i>, a merchantman of 13,638 tons, +had been carrying munitions to Great Britain +since January, 1916, when she reached New +York Harbor from San Francisco, coming by +way of Cape Horn, and she had already made +nine voyages to England. In those voyages her +officers and men had faced many of the greatest +perils of the war. Her cargoes had consisted +of TNT, of ammunition, of powder, of fuses, +and of shells. At one time while carrying this +dangerous freight Captain Rice saw, as he +stood on the bridge during a storm, a lightning +bolt strike the ship forward just where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +a great quantity of powder was stored, and +held his breath as he waited to see "whether he +was going up or going down."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Warnings +of +U-boats.</div> + +<p>Captain Rice has since died, and among his +papers now in my possession are many of the +warnings of the presence of U-boats sent to his +ship by the British Admiralty during 1916, +when every vessel approaching the British +coast was in danger from those assassins of the +sea.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mongolia</i> +sails in +spite of +German +edict.</div> + +<p>After February 1, 1917, when the Huns made +their "war zone" declaration, the question with +us at home whether the <i>Mongolia</i> would continue +to sail in defiance of that edict of ruthless +warfare became a matter of acute anxiety. +The ship completed her eighth voyage on +February 7, when she reached New York and +found the whole country discussing the burning +question, "Would the United States allow +the Imperial German Government to dictate +how and where our ships should go?" There +was never but one answer in the mind of Captain +Rice. At home he simply said, "I shall +sail on schedule, armed or unarmed. Does any +one suppose I would let those damned Prussians +drive me off the ocean?"</p> + +<p>In the office of the International Mercantile +Marine he expressed himself more politely, but +with equal determination, to the President of +the company, P. A. S. Franklin, to whom he +said, "I am prepared, so are my officers, to sail +with or without arms, but of course I would +rather have arms."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arms +slow to +get.</div> + +<p>But the arms were slow to get, and the +<i>Mongolia</i>, loaded with her super-dangerous +cargo, cleared from New York on February 20, +the first one of our boats to reach England +after the "war zone" declaration, I believe. +Captain Rice arrived in London about the time +when Captain Tucker of the S. S. <i>Orleans</i> +reached Bordeaux, the latter being the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +American to reach France in safety after the +same declaration.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Spies try +to learn +sailing +dates.</div> + +<p>Early in February of 1917 we became aware +that German spies were making a persistent +attempt to get into our home to find out when +the <i>Mongolia</i> was sailing, and if the ship was +to be armed. The first spy came up the back +stairs in the guise of an employe engaged in +delivering household supplies. He accomplished +nothing, and the incident was dismissed +from our minds, but the second spy came up +the front stairs and effected an entrance, and +this event roused us to the dangers around +Captain Rice even in his own country and +showed the intense determination of the Germans +to prevent, if they could, any more big +cargoes of munitions reaching England on the +<i>Mongolia</i>. Our second visitor was a man who +had been an officer in the German Army years +before. After leaving Germany he came to the +United States and became a citizen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A German-American +turns +German +spy.</div> + +<p>In August, 1914, when the Huns invaded +Belgium, he became all German again and returned +to Europe to serve with the German +Army on the French front, from which region +he was ordered by the German Government +back to the United States, where his command +of English and knowledge of the country made +him valuable to the propaganda and spy groups +here. All this and much more I found out +shortly after his visit, but the afternoon he +called I (I was alone at the time) received him +without suspicion, since he said he came to pay +his respects to Captain Rice, whom he had +known in China.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Deceiving +the spy.</div> + +<p>It was not until his apparently casual questions +about the time of the <i>Mongolia's</i> sailing +and whether she was to be armed became annoying +that "I woke up," and looking attentively +at this over-curious visitor, I encountered a +look of such cold hostility that with a shock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +I realized I was dealing with a spy, one who +was probably armed, and who appeared determined +to get the information he sought. In +a few seconds of swift thinking I decided the +best thing to do was to make him believe that +Captain Rice himself did not know whether +his ship was going out again, and that no +one could tell what course of action the ship +owners would take. After forty minutes of +probing for information he departed, convinced +there was no information to be had +from me.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">How signals +could +be sent by +German +agents.</div> + +<p>It was ascertained that his New York home +was in an apartment house on the highest point +of land in Manhattan. In this same house +there lived another German, who received many +young men, all Teutons, as visitors, some of +whom spent much time with him on the roof. +The possibility of their signaling out to sea +from this elevation is too obvious to be dwelt +on, and it is beyond doubt that some of the +submarines' most effective work at this time +and later was due to the activities of these +German agents allowed at large by our too-trustful +laws of citizenship. So exact and +timely was much of the information these spies +secured that the <i>Mongolia</i> on one of her voyages +to England picked up a wireless message sent +in the <i>Mongolia's</i> own secret code, saying that +the <i>Montana</i> was sinking, giving her position, +and asking the <i>Mongolia</i> to come to her rescue, +but it had happened that when the <i>Mongolia</i> +left New York Harbor at the beginning of this +very voyage one of her officers had noticed the +<i>Montana</i> lying in the harbor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mongolia</i> +is armed +with three +6-inch +guns.</div> + +<p>When the <i>Mongolia</i> returned on March 30, +1917, from this unarmed voyage she was given +three six-inch guns, two forward and one aft, +and a gun crew from the U. S. S. <i>Texas</i>, under +Lieutenant Bruce R. Ware, who had already +made his mark in gunnery.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>Mongolia</i> left New York on her tenth +voyage April 7 with the following officers:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +officers on +the +voyage.</div> + +<p>Commander, Emery Rice; in command of +armed guard, Lieutenant Bruce R. Ware; Chief +officer, Thomas Blau; First Officer, W. E. Wollaston; +Second Officer, Charles W. Krieg; Third +Officer, Joseph C. Lutz; Fourth Officer, Carroll +D. Riley; Cadets, Fred Earl Wilcox and Theodore +Forsell; Doctor, Charles Rendell; Assistant +Purser, J. T. Wylie; Chief Steward, W. T. +Heath; Chief Engineer, James W. Condon; +First Assistant Engineer, Clarence Irwin; +Second Assistant Engineer, William Hodgkiss; +Third Assistant Engineer, L. R. Tinto. Six +junior engineers—William Hasenfus, E. Larkin, +Perry McComb, Sidney Murray, J. R. Fletcher, +Lawrence Paterson, Refrigerator Engineer, H. +Johnson, Electrician, E. Powers; Dock Engineer, +V. Hansen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Entries +from the +ship's log.</div> + +<p>The log of the ship for that voyage contains +these entries:</p> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Log entries"> +<tr><td align='left'>Sailed from New York April 7, 1917.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arrived Falmouth, England, April 18, 1917.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Left Falmouth, England, April 18, 1917, p. m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>On April 19, 5.24 a. m., fired on submarine.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arrived Tilbury, London, April 21.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Left Tilbury, London, May 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arrived New York, May 13.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The Captain's report to the London office +of the International Mercantile Marine is dated +April 21, 1917, and says:</p> + +<p>"I beg to report that the S. S. <i>Mongolia</i> under +my command, while proceeding up Channel +on April 19 at 5.24 a. m. encountered a submarine, +presumably German, in Latitude 50·30 +degrees North, Longitude 32 degrees West; 9 +miles South 37 degrees East true from the Overs +Light vessel.</p> + +<p>"The weather at the time: calm to light airs, +sea smooth, hazy with visibility about 3 miles;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +speed of the ship fifteen knots, course North +74 degrees East true, to pass close to the Royal +Sovereign Light vessel.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A periscope sighted.</div> + +<p>"The periscope was first sighted broad on the +port bow, distant about one-half mile, by Chief +Officer Blau in charge of the bridge watch at +the time. His shout of 'submarine on the port +bow' brought Lieutenant Ware and myself +quickly out of the chart room on to the bridge, +where we immediately saw the swirling wake +left by the submarine as it submerged.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lieutenant Ware gives the range.</div> + +<p>"The armed guard under Lieutenant Ware, +United States Navy, were standing by all guns +at the time, which were fully loaded, and while +Lieutenant Ware gave the range to the guns +I ordered the helm put hard-a-starboard with +the object of lessening the broadside angle of +the ship to an approaching torpedo.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The shot goes home.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Efficiency of the gunners.</div> + +<p>"Lieutenant Ware's order of 'train on the +starboard quarter and report when you bear +on a submarine's periscope' was answered almost +immediately by the after gun's crew, who +were then ordered to commence firing. One +shot was fired from the after gun which struck +in the centre of the swirl created by the submarine, +causing a quantity of light blue smoke +to hang over the spot where the submarine disappeared +for some time. This was the only +shot fired, and the submarine was not seen +again, and after zigzagging until the weather +became very thick the ship was again put on +her course. Passed through the Gateway off +Folkestone at 10.45 a. m. and anchored at 11.01 +a. m., as I considered the weather too thick to +proceed. I feel that the <i>Mongolia's</i> safe arrival +at London is due to a large extent to the +zeal and ability in the execution of his duties +displayed by Lieutenant B. R. Ware, United +States Navy, who has been untiring in his efforts +to bring the men under his command to +a high state of efficiency, and who has kept a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +continuous watch for the past five days. His +co-operation with the ship's officers has been +of the closest, and his men and guns were always +ready. Also to Mr. Blau, the chief officer, +a large measure of credit is due, for had he not +seen the periscope at the exact moment of its +appearance it is possible that all our precautions +would have been useless.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Signed. <span class="smcap">Emery Rice</span>,<br /> +"Commander S. S. <i>Mongolia</i>."<br /> +<br /></div> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mongolia's</i> +officers +marked +men.</div> + +<p>The fame of the first engagement made the +<i>Mongolia's</i> officers marked men. When Captain +Rice returned home he reported that Consul +General Skinner in London had told him +that the Germans had set a price of 50,000 +marks on his head, and letters expressing +hatred and revenge reached us in New York +from points as far away as Kansas City. On +the other hand, the pride felt in the great ship's +exploit brought scores of letters from officers +and men who applied for service on her.</p> +<div class='center'><br /><br /><small>Copyright, New York Times, April 27, 1919.</small></div> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>German agents were industrious throughout +the United States, long before the American +Government broke with Germany. Her activities +were carried on in the form of propaganda +and by more violent deeds. A complete +account of these activities as revealed in a +congressional investigation follows.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p> +<h2>GERMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE<br /> +UNITED STATES</h2> + +<h3>FROM REPORT OF HOUSE COMMITTEE +ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Momentous +results +must +follow.</div> + +<p>It is with the deepest sense of responsibility +of the momentous results which will follow +the passage of this resolution that your +committee reports it to the House, with the +recommendation that it be passed.</p> + +<p>The conduct of the Imperial German Government +toward this Government, its citizens, +and its interests has been so discourteous, unjust, +cruel, barbarous, and so lacking in honesty +and fair dealing that it has constituted a violation +of the course of conduct which should +obtain between friendly nations.</p> + +<p>In addition to this, the German Government +is actually making war upon the people and +the commerce of this country, and leaves no +course open to this Government but to accept +its gage of battle, declare that a state of war +exists, and wage that war vigorously.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The announcement +of +the submarine +war zone.</div> + +<p>On the 31st day of January, 1917, notice was +given by the Imperial German Government to +this Government that after the following day—"Germany +will meet the illegal measures of +her enemies by forcibly preventing, in a zone +around Great Britain, France, Italy, and in the +Eastern Mediterranean, all navigation, that of +neutrals included, from and to England and +from and to France, &c. All ships met within +that zone will be sunk."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +ships +sunk.</div> + +<p>Since that day seven American ships flying +the American flag have been sunk and between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +twenty-five and thirty American lives have been +lost as a result of the prosecution of the submarine +warfare in accordance with the above +declaration. This is war. War waged by the +Imperial German Government upon this country +and its people.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Review of Germany's hostile acts.</div> + +<p>A brief review of some of the hostile and +illegal acts of the German Government toward +this Government and its officers and its people +is herewith given.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German note of February, 1915.</div> + +<p>In the memorial of the Imperial German +Government accompanying its proclamation of +February 4, 1915, in regard to submarine warfare, +that Government declared: "The German +Navy has received instructions to abstain from +all violence against neutral vessels recognizable +as such." In the note of the German Government +dated February 16, 1915, in reply to the +American note of February 10, it was declared +that "It is very far indeed from the intention +of the German Government * * * ever to +destroy neutral lives and neutral property. +* * * The commanders of German submarines +have been instructed, as was already +stated in the note of the 4th instant, to abstain +from violence to American merchant ships when +they are recognizable as such."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American lives lost on many torpedoed ships.</div> + +<p>Nevertheless, the German Government proceeded +to carry out its plans of submarine warfare +and torpedoed the British passenger +steamer <i>Falaba</i> on March 27, 1915, when one +American life was lost, attacked the American +steamer <i>Cushing</i> April 28 by airship, and made +submarine attacks upon the American tank +steamer <i>Gulflight</i> May 1, the British passenger +steamer <i>Lusitania</i> May 7, when 114 American +lives were lost, and the American steamer +<i>Nebraskan</i> on May 25, in all of which over 125 +citizens of the United States lost their lives, +not to mention hundreds of noncombatants +who were lost and hundreds of Americans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +and noncombatants whose lives were put in +jeopardy.</p> + +<p>The British mule boat <i>Armenian</i> was torpedoed +on June 28, as a result of which twenty +Americans are reported missing.</p> + +<p>On July 8, 1915, in a note to Ambassador +Gerard, arguing in defense of its method of +warfare and particularly of its submarine commander +in the <i>Lusitania</i> case, it is stated:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German defense of German submarine +warfare.</div> + +<p>"The Imperial Government therefore repeats +the assurances that American ships will not +be hindered in the prosecution of legitimate +shipping and the lives of American citizens +on neutral vessels shall not be placed in +jeopardy.</p> + +<p>"In order to exclude any unforeseen dangers +to American passenger steamers * * * the +German submarines will be instructed to permit +the free and safe passage of such passenger +steamers when made recognizable by special +markings and notified a reasonable time in +advance."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American ships attacked later.</div> + +<p>Subsequently the following vessels carrying +American citizens were attacked by submarines: +British liner <i>Orduna</i>, July 9; Russian +steamer <i>Leo</i>, July 9; American steamer <i>Leelanaw</i>, +July 25; British passenger liner <i>Arabic</i>, +August 19; British mule ship <i>Nicosian</i>, August +19; British steamer <i>Hesperian</i>, September 4. +In these attacks twenty-three Americans lost +their lives, not to mention the large number +whose lives were placed in jeopardy.</p> + +<p>Following these events, conspicuous by their +wantonness and violation of every rule of humanity +and maritime warfare, the German +Ambassador, by instructions from his Government, +on September 1 gave the following assurances +to the Government of the United +States:</p> + +<p>"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines +without warning and without safety of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +lives of noncombatants, provided that the liners +do not try to escape or offer resistance."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany gives assurance of regard for lives of noncombatants.</div> + +<p>On September 9, in a reply as to the submarine +attack on the <i>Orduna</i>, the German Government +renewed these assurances in the following +language:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The <i>Orduna</i> case.</div> + +<p>"The first attack on the <i>Orduna</i> by a torpedo +was not in accordance with the existing instructions, +which provide that large passenger +steamers are to be torpedoed only after +previous warning and after the rescuing of +passengers and crew. The failure to observe +the instructions was based on an error which +is at any rate comprehensible and the repetition +of which appears to be out of the question, +in view of the more explicit instructions +issued in the meantime. Moreover, the commanders +of the submarines have been reminded +that it is their duty to exercise greater care +and to observe carefully the orders issued."</p> + +<p>The German Government could not more +clearly have stated that liners or large passenger +steamers would not be torpedoed except +upon previous warning and after the passengers +and crew had been put in places of safety.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Statement about the <i>William P. Frye</i>.</div> + +<p>On November 29 the German Government +states, in connection with the case of the +American vessel <i>William P. Frye</i>:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany promises to protect passengers.</div> + +<p>"The German naval forces will sink only such +American vessels as are loaded with absolute +contraband, when the preconditions provided +by the Declaration of London are present. In +this the German Government quite shares the +view of the American Government that all +possible care must be taken for the security of +the crew and passengers of a vessel to be sunk. +Consequently the persons found on board of a +vessel may not be ordered into her lifeboats +except when the general conditions—that is +to say, the weather, the condition of the sea, +and the neighborhood of the coasts—afford absolute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +certainty that the boats will reach the +nearest port."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">An American Consul drowned.</div> + +<p>Following this accumulative series of assurances, +however, there seems to have been no +abatement in the rigor of submarine warfare, +for attacks were made in the Mediterranean +upon the American steamer <i>Communipaw</i> on +December 3, the American steamer <i>Petrolite</i> +December 5, the Japanese liner <i>Yasaka Maru</i> +December 21, and the passenger liner <i>Persia</i> +December 30. In the sinking of the <i>Persia</i> out +of a total of some 500 passengers and crew +only 165 were saved. Among those lost was +an American Consul traveling to his post.</p> + +<p>On January 7, eight days after the sinking +of the <i>Persia</i>, the German Government notified +the Government of the United States through +its Ambassador in Washington as follows:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Submarines in Mediterranean ordered +to respect international law.</div> + +<p>"1. German submarines in the Mediterranean +had, from the beginning, orders to conduct +cruiser warfare against enemy merchant vessels +only in accordance with the general principles +of international law, and in particular +measures of reprisal, as applied in the war +zone around the British Isles, were to be excluded.</p> + +<p>"2. German submarines are therefore permitted +to destroy enemy merchant vessels in +the Mediterranean, <i>i. e.</i>, passenger as well as +freight ships as far as they do not try to escape +or offer resistance—only after passengers +and crews have been accorded safety."</p> + +<p>Clearly the assurances of the German Government +that neutral and enemy merchant vessels, +passenger as well as freight ships, should +not be destroyed except upon the passengers +and crew being accorded safety stood as the +official position of the Imperial German Government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +offers indemnity +for Americans +lost +on +<i>Lusitania</i>.</div> + +<p>On February 16, 1916, the German Ambassador +communicated to the Department of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +State an expression of regret for the loss of +American lives on the <i>Lusitania</i>, and proposed +to pay a suitable indemnity. In the course of +this note he said:</p> + +<p>"Germany has * * * limited her submarine +warfare because of her long-standing +friendship with the United States and because +by the sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i>, which +caused the death of citizens of the United +States, the German retaliation affected neutrals, +which was not the intention, as retaliation +should be confined to enemy subjects."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">French +unarmed +<i>Patria</i> +attacked.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +<i>Sussex</i> +torpedoed +without +warning.</div> + +<p>On March 1, 1916, the unarmed French passenger +steamer <i>Patria</i>, carrying a number of +American citizens, was attacked without warning. +On March 9 the Norwegian bark <i>Silius</i>, +riding at anchor in Havre Roads, was torpedoed +by an unseen submarine and one of the +seven Americans on board was injured. On +March 16 the Dutch passenger steamer <i>Tubantia</i> +was sunk in the North Sea by a torpedo. +On March 16 the British steamer <i>Berwindale</i> +was torpedoed without warning off Bantry +Island with four Americans on board. On +March 24 the British unarmed steamer <i>Englishman</i> +was, after a chase, torpedoed and sunk by +the submarine <i>U-19</i>, as a result of which one +American on board perished. On March 24 the +unarmed French cross-Channel steamer <i>Sussex</i> +was torpedoed without warning, several of the +twenty-four American passengers being injured. +On March 27 the unarmed British liner +<i>Manchester Engineer</i> was sunk by an explosion +without prior warning, with Americans on +board, and on March 28 the British steamer +<i>Eagle Point</i>, carrying a Hotchkiss gun, which +she did not use, was chased, overtaken, and +sunk by a torpedo after the persons on board +had taken to the boats.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">America +will hold +Germany +responsible.</div> + +<p>The American note of February 10, 1915, +stated that should German vessels of war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +"destroy on the high seas an American vessel +or the lives of American citizens it would be +difficult for the Government of the United +States to view the act in any other light than +an indefensible violation of neutral rights +which it would be very hard, indeed, to reconcile +with the friendly relations so happily subsisting +between the two Governments," and that +if such a deplorable situation should arise, +"the Government of the United States would be +constrained to hold the Imperial Government +to a strict accountability for such acts of their +naval authorities."</p> + +<p>In the American note of May 13, 1915, the +Government stated:</p> + +<p>"The imperial Government will not expect +the Government of the United States to omit +any word or act necessary to the performance +of its sacred duty of maintaining the rights +of the United States and its citizens and in +safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."</p> + +<p>In the note of July 21, 1915, the United +States Government said that—</p> + +<p>"Repetition by the commanders of German +naval vessels of acts in contravention of +those rights must be regarded by the Government +of the United States, when they affect +American citizens, as deliberately unfriendly."</p> + +<p>In a communication of April 18, 1916, the +American Government said:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +United +States insists +on +regard for +international +law.</div> + +<p>"If it is still the purpose of the Imperial +Government to prosecute relentless and indiscriminate +warfare against vessels of commerce +by the use of submarines without regard +to what the Government of the United +States must consider the sacred and indisputable +rules of international law and the +universally recognized dictates of humanity, +the Government of the United States is at +last forced to the conclusion that there is but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +one course it can pursue. Unless the Imperial +Government should not immediately declare +and effect an abandonment of its present +methods of submarine warfare against passenger +and freight carrying vessels the Government +of the United States can have no +choice but to sever diplomatic relations with +the German Empire altogether."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germany +gives definite +assurances.</div> + +<p>The German Government replied to this +communication on May 4, 1916, giving definite +assurances that new orders had been issued to +the German naval forces "in accordance with +the general principles of visit and search and +the destruction of merchant vessels recognized +by international law." And this agreement +was substantially complied with for many +months, but finally, on January 31, 1917, notice +was given that after the following day—</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The notice +of January +31, +1917.</div> + +<p>"Germany will meet the illegal measures of +her enemies by forcibly preventing in a zone +around Great Britain, France, Italy, and in +the Eastern Mediterranean all navigation, that +of neutrals included, from and to England and +from and to France, &c. All ships met within +that zone will be sunk."</p> + +<p>In view of this Government's warning of +April 18, 1916, and the Imperial German Government's +pledge of May 4 of the same year, the +Government of the United States, on February +3, 1917, stated to the Imperial German Government +that—</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The course +of the +United +States.</div> + +<p>"In view of this declaration, which withdraws +suddenly and without prior intimation +the solemn assurance given in the Imperial +Government's note of May 4, 1916, this Government +has no alternative consistent with the +dignity and honor of the United States but +to take the course which it explicitly announced +in its note of April 18, 1916, it would +take in the event that the Imperial Government +did not declare and effect an abandonment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +of the methods of submarine warfare then +employed and to which the Imperial Government +now purposes again to resort.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Diplomatic +relations +with +Germany +severed.</div> + +<p>"The President has, therefore, directed me to +announce to your Excellency that all diplomatic +relation between the United States and +the German Empire are severed, and that the +American Ambassador at Berlin will be immediately +withdrawn, and, in accordance with +such announcement, to deliver to your Excellency +your passports."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +ships +torpedoed.</div> + +<p>On February 3 one American ship was sunk, +and since that date six American ships flying +the American flag have been torpedoed, with +a loss of about thirteen American citizens. In +addition, fifty or more foreign vessels of both +belligerent and neutral nationality with Americans +on board have been torpedoed, in most +cases without warning, with a consequent loss +of several American citizens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">German +officials +violate +laws of +United +States.</div> + +<p>Since the beginning of the war German officials +in the United States have engaged in +many improper activities in violation of the +laws of the United States and of their obligations +as officials in a neutral country. Count +von Bernstorff, the German Ambassador, Captain +von Papen, Military Attaché of the embassy, +Captain Boy-Ed, Naval Attaché, as well +as various Consular officers and other officials, +were involved in these activities, which were +very widespread.</p> + +<p>The following instances are chosen at random +from the cases which have come to the +knowledge of the Government:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +Embassy +furnishes +funds to +be used +illegally.</div> + +<p>I. By direct instruction received from the +Foreign Office in Berlin the German Embassy +in this country furnished funds and issued +orders to the Indian Independence Committee +of the Indian Nationalist Party in the United +States. These instructions were usually conveyed +to the committee by the military information<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +bureau in New York (von Igel), or +by the German Consulates in New York and +San Francisco.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Indian +revolutionary +propaganda.</div> + +<p>Dr. Chakrabarty, recently arrested in New +York City, received, all in all, according to +his own admission, some $60,000 from von Igel. +He claims that the greater portion of this +money was used for defraying the expenses of +the Indian revolutionary propaganda in this +country and, as he says, for educational purposes. +While this is in itself true, it is not +all that was done by the revolutionists. They +have sent representatives to the Far East to +stir up trouble in India, and they have attempted +to ship arms and ammunition to +India. These expeditions have failed. The +German Embassy also employed Ernest T. +Euphrat to carry instructions and information +between Berlin and Washington under an +American passport.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Germans +on parole +escaped.</div> + +<p>II. Officers of interned German warships +have violated their word of honor and escaped. +In one instance the German Consul at Richmond +furnished the money to purchase a boat +to enable six warrant officers of the steamer +Kronprinz Wilhelm to escape after breaking +their parole.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fraudulent +passports +secured.</div> + +<p>III. Under the supervision of Captain von +Papen and Wolf von Igel, Hans von Wedell +and, subsequently, Carl Ruroede maintained a +regular office for the procurement of fraudulent +passports for German reservists. These +operations were directed and financed in part +by Captain von Papen and Wolf von Igel. Indictments +were returned, Carl Ruroede sentenced +to the penitentiary, and a number of +German officers fined. Von Wedell escaped +and has apparently been drowned at sea. Von +Wedell's operations were also known to high +officials in Germany. When von Wedell became +suspicious that forgeries committed by him on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +a passport application had become known, he +conferred with Captain von Papen and obtained +money from him wherewith to make his +escape.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +passport +covers unneutral +activities.</div> + +<p>IV. James J. F. Archibald, under cover of +an American passport and in the pay of the +German Government through Ambassador +Bernstorff, carried dispatches for Ambassador +Dumba and otherwise engaged in unneutral +activities.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Spies +sent to +England.</div> + +<p>V. Albert O. Sander, Charles Wunnenberg, +and others, German agents in this country, +were engaged, among other activities, in sending +spies to England, equipped with American +passports, for the purpose of securing military +information. Several such men have been sent. +Sander and Wunnenberg have pleaded guilty +to indictments brought against them in New +York City, as has George Voux Bacon, one of +the men sent abroad by them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +passports +counterfeited.</div> + +<p>VI. American passports have been counterfeited +and counterfeits found on German +agents. Baron von Cupenberg, a German agent, +when arrested abroad, bore a counterfeit of +an American passport issued to Gustav C. +Roeder; Irving Guy Ries received an American +passport, went to Germany, where the police retained +his passports for twenty-four hours. +Later a German spy named Carl Paul Julius +Hensel was arrested in London with a counterfeit +of the Ries passport in his possession.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Coaling +German +warships.</div> + +<p>VII. Prominent officials of the Hamburg-American +Line, who, under the direction of +Captain Boy-Ed, endeavored to provide German +warships at sea with coal and other supplies +in violation of the statutes of the United +States, have been tried and convicted and sentenced +to the penitentiary. Some twelve or +more vessels were involved in this plan.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Indictments +returned.</div> + +<p>VIII. Under the direction of Captain Boy-Ed +and the German Consulate at San Francisco,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +and in violation of our law, the steamships +<i>Sacramento</i> and <i>Mazatlan</i> carried supplies +from San Francisco to German war vessels. +The <i>Olsen</i> and <i>Mahoney</i>, which were engaged +in a similar enterprise, were detained. +The money for these ventures was furnished +by Captain Boy-Ed. Indictments have been returned +in connection with these matters against +a large number of persons.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The case +of Werner +Horn.</div> + +<p>IX. Werner Horn, a Lieutenant in the German +reserve, was furnished funds by Captain +Franz von Papen and sent, with dynamite, +under orders to blow up the International +Bridge at Vanceboro, Maine. He was partially +successful. He is now under indictment for +the unlawful transportation of dynamite on +passenger trains and is in jail awaiting trial +following the dismissal of his appeal by the +Supreme Court.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Plot to +blow up +factory.</div> + +<p>X. Captain von Papen furnished funds to +Albert Kaltschmidt of Detroit, who is involved +in a plot to blow up a factory at Walkerville, +Canada, and the armory at Windsor, +Canada.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bombs +on ships.</div> + +<p>XI. Robert Fay, Walter Scholtz, and Paul +Doeche have been convicted and sentenced to +the penitentiary and three others are under +indictment for conspiracy to prepare bombs +and attach them to allied ships leaving New +York Harbor. Fay, who was the principal in +this scheme, was a German soldier. He testified +that he received finances from a German +secret agent in Brussels, and told Von Papen +of his plans, who advised him that his device +was not practicable, but that he should go +ahead with it, and if he could make it work he +would consider it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Incendiary +bombs on +allied vessels.</div> + +<p>XII. Under the direction of Captain von +Papen and Wolf von Igel, Dr. Walter T. +Scheele, Captain von Kleist, Captain Wolpert +of the Atlas Steamship Company, and Captain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +Rode of the Hamburg-American Line manufactured +incendiary bombs and placed them on +board allied vessels. The shells in which the +chemicals were placed were made on board the +steamship <i>Friedrich der Grosse</i>. Scheele was +furnished $1,000 by von Igel wherewith to become +a fugitive from justice.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rintelen's +plots.</div> + +<p>XIII. Captain Franz Rintelen, a reserve officer +in the German Navy, came to this country +secretly for the purpose of preventing the exportation +of munitions of war to the Allies and +of getting to Germany needed supplies. He +organized and financed Labor's National Peace +Council in an effort to bring about an embargo +on the shipment of munitions of war, tried to +bring about strikes, &c.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conspiracy +to wreck +vessels +and blow +up railroad +tunnels.</div> + +<p>XIV. Consul General Bopp, at San Francisco, +Vice Consul General von Schaick, Baron +George Wilhelm von Brincken (an employe of +the consulate), Charles C. Crowley, and Mrs. +Margaret W. Cornell (secret agents of the German +Consulate at San Francisco) have been +convicted of conspiracy to send agents into +Canada to blow up railroad tunnels and +bridges, and to wreck vessels sailing from +Pacific Coast ports with war material for Russia +and Japan.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Spies sent +to Canada.</div> + +<p>XV. Paul Koenig, head of the secret service +work of the Hamburg-American Line, by direction +of his superior officers, largely augmented +his organization and under the direction +of von Papen, Boy-Ed, and Albert carried +on secret work for the German Government. +He secured and sent spies to Canada to gather +information concerning the Welland Canal, the +movements of Canadian troops to England, +bribed an employe of a bank for information +concerning shipments to the Allies, sent spies +to Europe on American passports to secure +military information, and was involved with +Captain von Papen in plans to place bombs on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +ships of the Allies leaving New York Harbor, +&c. Von Papen, Boy-Ed, and Albert had frequent +conferences with Koenig in his office, at +theirs, and at outside places. Koenig and certain +of his associates are under indictment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attempt +on +Welland +Canal.</div> + +<p>XVI. Captain von Papen, Captain Hans +Tauscher, Wolf von Igel, and a number of German +reservists organized an expedition to go +into Canada, destroy the Welland Canal, and +endeavor to terrorize Canadians in order to +delay the sending of troops from Canada to +Europe. Indictments have been returned +against these persons. Wolf von Igel furnished +Fritzen, one of the conspirators in this case, +money on which to flee from New York City, +Fritzen is now in jail in New York City.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolt in +India +plotted.</div> + +<p>XVII. With money furnished by official German +representatives in this country, a cargo +of arms and ammunition was purchased and +shipped on board the schooner <i>Annie Larsen</i>. +Through the activities of German official representatives +in this country and other Germans +a number of Indians were procured to form +an expedition to go on the steamship <i>Maverick</i>, +meet the <i>Annie Larsen</i>, take over her cargo, +and endeavor to bring about a revolution in +India. This plan involved the sending of a +German officer to drill Indian recruits and the +entire plan was managed and directed by Captain +von Papen, Captain Hans Tauscher, and +other official German representatives in this +country.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">False +affidavit +about the +<i>Lusitania</i>.</div> + +<p>XVIII. Gustav Stahl, a German reservist, +made an affidavit which he admitted was false, +regarding the armament of the <i>Lusitania</i>, +which affidavit was forwarded to the State Department +by Ambassador von Bernstorff. He +plead guilty to an indictment charging perjury, +and was sentenced to the penitentiary. +Koenig, herein mentioned, was active in securing +this affidavit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Interference +with +manufacturers.</div> + +<p>XIX. The German Embassy organized, directed, +and financed the Hans Libau Employment +Agency, through which extended efforts +were made to induce employes of manufacturers +engaged in supplying various kinds of +material to the Allies to give up their positions +in an effort to interfere with the output of +such manufacturers. Von Papen indorsed this +organization as a military measure, and it was +hoped through its propaganda to cripple munition +factories.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Newspapers +financed.</div> + +<p>XX. The German Government has assisted +financially a number of newspapers in this +country in return for pro-German propaganda.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mexican +difficulties +increased.</div> + +<p>XXI. Many facts have been secured indicating +that Germans have aided and encouraged +financially and otherwise the activities of one +or the other faction in Mexico, the purpose +being to keep the United States occupied along +its borders and to prevent the exportation of +munitions of war to the Allies; see, in this +connection, the activities of Rintelen, Stallforth, +Kopf, the German Consul at Chihuahua; +Krum-Hellen, Felix Somerfeld (Villa's representative +at New York), Carl Heynen, Gustav +Steinberg, and many others.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Relief +ships +plainly +marked.</div> + +<p>When the Commission for Relief in Belgium +began its work in October, 1914, it received +from the German authorities, through the various +Governments concerned, definite written +assurances that ships engaged in carrying cargoes +for the relief of the civil population of +Belgium and Northern France should be immune +from attack. In order that there may be +no room for attacks upon these ships through +misunderstanding, each ship is given a safe conduct +by the German diplomatic representative +in the country from which it sails, and, in addition, +bears conspicuously upon its sides markings +which have been agreed upon with the German +authorities; furthermore, similar markings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +are painted upon the decks of the ships in order +that they may be readily recognized by airplanes.</p> + +<p>Upon the rupture of relations with Germany +the commission was definitely assured by the +German Government that its ships would be +immune from attack by following certain prescribed +courses and conforming to the arrangements +previously made.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Unwarranted +attacks.</div> + +<p>Despite these solemn assurances there have +been several unwarranted attacks upon ships +under charter to the commission.</p> + +<p>On March 7 or 8 the Norwegian ship <i>Storstad</i>, +carrying 10,000 tons of corn from Buenos +Aires to Rotterdam for the commission was +sunk in broad daylight by a German submarine +despite the conspicuous markings of the commission +which the submarine could not help +observing. The <i>Storstad</i> was repeatedly shelled +without warning and finally torpedoed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Men +killed on +torpedoed +relief +ships.</div> + +<p>On March 19 the steamships <i>Tunisie</i> and +<i>Haelen</i>, under charter to the commission, proceeding +to the United States under safe conducts +and guarantees from the German Minister +at The Hague and bearing conspicuous +marking of the commission, were attacked +without warning by a German submarine outside +the danger zone (56 degrees 15 minutes +north, 5 degrees 32 minutes east). The ships +were not sunk, but on the <i>Haelen</i> seven men +were killed, including the first and third officers; +a port boat was sunk; a hole was made +in the port bunker above the water line; and +the ships sustained sundry damages to decks +and engines.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Consular +officers +suffer indignities.</div> + +<p>Various Consular officers have suffered indignities +and humiliation at the hands of German +frontier authorities. The following are +illustrations:</p> + +<p>Mr. Pike, Consul at St. Gall, Switzerland, +on proceeding to his post with a passport duly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +indorsed by German officials in New York and +Copenhagen, was on November 26, 1916, subjected +to great indignities at Warnemünde on +the German frontier. Mr. Pike refused to +submit to search of his person, the removal of +his clothing, or the seizure of his official reports +and papers of a private and confidential +nature. He was therefore obliged to return +to Copenhagen.</p> + +<p>Mr. Murphy, the Consul General at Sofia, +and his wife, provided with passports from the +German legations at The Hague and Copenhagen, +were on two occasions stripped and +searched and subjected to great humiliation at +the same frontier station. No consideration +was given them because of their official +position.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Outrageous +behavior +of German +officials.</div> + +<p>Such has been the behavior on the part of +German officials notwithstanding that Consular +officials hold positions of dignity and responsibility +under their Government and that during +the present war Germany has been placed +under deep obligation to American <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Consulor'">Consular</ins> +officers by their efforts in the protection of +German interests.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Neutrals +on the +<i>Yarrowdale</i> +held +as prisoners.</div> + +<p>On January 19, Mr. Gerard telegraphed that +the evening papers contained a report that +the English steamer <i>Yarrowdale</i> had been +brought to Swinemünde as prize with 469 prisoners +on board taken from ships captured by +German auxiliary cruisers; that among these +prisoners were 103 neutrals.</p> + +<p>After repeated inquiries Mr. Gerard learned +that there were among the <i>Yarrowdale</i> prisoners +seventy-two men claiming American +citizenship.</p> + +<p>On February 4 Mr. Gerard was informed by +Count Montgelas of the Foreign Office that the +Americans taken on the <i>Yarrowdale</i> would be +released immediately on the ground that they +could not have known at the time of sailing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +that it was Germany's intention to treat armed +merchantmen as ships of war.</p> + +<p>Despite this assurance, the prisoners were +not released, but some time prior to February +17 the German Minister for Foreign Affairs +told the Spanish Ambassador that the American +prisoners from the <i>Yarrowdale</i> would be +liberated "in a very short time."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A formal +demand +for release +of <i>Yarrowdale</i> +prisoners.</div> + +<p>Upon receipt of this information a formal +demand was made through the Spanish Ambassador +at Berlin for the immediate release +of these men. The message sent the Spanish +Ambassador was as follows:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +prisoners +must be +released.</div> + +<p>"If <i>Yarrowdale</i> prisoners have not been released, +please make formal demand in the name +of the United States for their immediate release. +If they are not promptly released and +allowed to cross the frontier without further +delay, please state to the Foreign Minister that +this policy of the Imperial Government, if continued, +apparently without the slightest justification, +will oblige the Government of the +United States to consider what measures it +may be necessary to take in order to obtain +satisfaction for the continued detention of +these innocent American citizens."</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Yarrowdale</i> +men +reach +Switzerland.</div> + +<p>On February 25 the American Ambassador +at Madrid was informed by the Spanish +Foreign Office that the <i>Yarrowdale</i> prisoners +had been released on the 16th inst. The foregoing +statement appears to have been based +on erroneous information. The men finally +reached Zurich, Switzerland, on the afternoon +of March 11.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Treatment +cruel and +heartless.</div> + +<p>Official reports now in the possession of the +Department of State indicate that these American +sailors were from the moment of their +arrival in Germany, on January 3, subjected to +the most cruel and heartless treatment. Although +the weather was very cold, they were +given no suitable clothes, and many of them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +stood about for hours barefoot in the snow. +The food supplied them was utterly inadequate. +After one cup of coffee in the morning +almost the only article of food given them +was boiled frosted cabbage, with mush once a +week and beans once a week. One member of +the crew states that, without provocation, he +was severely kicked in the abdomen by a German +officer. He appears still to be suffering +severely from this assault. Another sailor is +still suffering from a wound caused by shrapnel +fired by the Germans at an open boat in which +he and his companions had taken refuge after +the sinking of the <i>Georgic</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Drowning +preferred +to German +prison.</div> + +<p>All of the men stated that their treatment +had been so inhuman that should a submarine +be sighted in the course of their voyage home +they would prefer to be drowned rather than +have any further experience in German prison +camps.</p> + +<p>It is significant that the inhuman treatment +accorded these American sailors occurred a +month before the break in relations and while +Germany was on every occasion professing the +most cordial friendship for the United States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Gerard +is deprived +of means +of communication.</div> + +<p>After the suspension of diplomatic relations +the German authorities cut off the telephone +at the embassy at Berlin and suppressed Mr. +Gerard's communication by telegraph and post. +Mr. Gerard was not even permitted to send to +American Consular officers in Germany the +instructions he had received for them from the +Department of State. Neither was he allowed +to receive his mail. Just before he left Berlin +the telephonic communication at the embassy +was restored and some telegrams and letters +were delivered. No apologies were offered, +however.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +German +note to +Mexico.</div> + +<p>The Government of the United States is in +possession of instructions addressed by the +German Minister for Foreign Affairs to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +German Minister to Mexico concerning a proposed +alliance of Germany, Japan, and Mexico +to make war on the United States. The text +of this document is as follows:</p> + +<div class='right'> +"<span class="smcap">Berlin</span>, January 19, 1917.<br /> +</div> + +<p>"On the 1st of February we intend to begin +submarine warfare unrestricted. In spite of +this it is our intention to endeavor to keep +neutral the United States of America.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Basis of +alliance +proposed +to Mexico.</div> + +<p>"If this attempt is not successful, we propose +an alliance on the following basis with Mexico: +That we shall make war together and together +make peace. We shall give general financial +support, and it is understood that Mexico is to +reconquer the lost territory in New Mexico, +Texas, and Arizona. The details are left to you +for settlement.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Japan +to be +included.</div> + +<p>"You are instructed to inform the President +of Mexico of the above in the greatest confidence +as soon as it is certain there will be an +outbreak of war with the United States, and +suggest that the President of Mexico on his +own initiative should communicate with Japan +suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at +the same time offer to mediate between Germany +and Japan.</p> + +<p>"Please call to the attention of the President +of Mexico that the employment of ruthless submarine +warfare now promises to compel England +to make peace in a few months.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +"(Signed) <span class="smcap">Zimmermann</span>."<br /> +</div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The United States was, to a large extent, +unprepared for war on the outbreak of hostilities +with Germany. But when the step finally +was taken, all the industrial, economic, and +military resources, of the country, were mobilized. +An account of how this was accomplished +and the results of these efforts are described +in the pages following.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREPARING FOR WAR</h2> + +<h3>NEWTON D. BAKER</h3> + +<div class='center'>SECRETARY OF WAR</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">State +of war +formally +declared.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Neutrality +had delayed +military +preparations.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Great +armies +necessary.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Organization +of +finance, +agriculture +and +industry.</div> + +<p>On the 6th day of April Congress declared +"That the state of war between the +United States and the Imperial German +Government which had been thrust upon the +United States is hereby formally declared." By +this declaration and the proclamation of the +President pursuant thereto, the United States +entered the great conflict which had raged in +Europe from August, 1914, as a belligerent +power, and began immediately to prepare to +defend the rights of the Nation, which for +months had been endangered and denied by +high-handed and inhuman acts of the German +Government both on land and sea. The peaceful +ambitions of our people had long postponed +our entrance into the conflict; and adherence +to a strict neutrality through long +months of delicate situations delayed the beginning +of active military preparation. At +once, however, upon a declaration of a state +of war, Congress began the consideration of +the measures necessary for the enlargement +of the military forces and the coordination of +the industrial strength of the Nation. It was +understood at the outset that war under modern +conditions involved not only larger armies +than the United States had ever assembled, but +also more far-reaching modifications of our +ordinary industrial processes and wider departures +from the peace-time activities of the +people. The task of the United States was not +only immediately to increase its naval and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> +military forces, not only to order the agricultural +and industrial life of the Nation to support +these enlarged military establishments, +but also to bear an increasing financial, industrial, +and agricultural burden for the support +of those nations which, since 1914, have +been in arms against the Imperial German +Government and have borne not only the full +force of the attack of its great military machine, +but also the continuing drain upon +their economic resources and their capacity for +production which so titanic and long-continued +a struggle necessarily entail.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The whole +people +wish to +help.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Benevolent +and +philanthropic +societies.</div> + +<p>The first response from the country to the +act of Congress in declaring a state of war +came in the form of offers of services from +the people, and for weeks there poured into +the War Department an almost bewildering +stream of letters and visitors offering service +of every kind. Without distinction of age, sex, +or occupation, without distinction of geographical +location or sectional difference, the people +arose with but one thought in their mind, that +of tendering themselves, their talents, and +their substance for the best use the country +could make of them in the emergency. Organizations +and associations sprang up over +night in thousands of places, inspired by the +hope that collective offers and aggregations of +strength and facilities might be more readily +assimilated by the Government; and benevolent +and philanthropic societies began to form for +the purpose of taking up as far as might be +the vicarious griefs which follow in the train +of military operations. There was at the +outset some inevitable crossing of purposes +and duplication of effort, and perhaps there +may have been some disappointment that a +more instantaneous use could not be made of +all this wealth of willingness and patriotic +spirit; but it was a superb and inspiring spectacle.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +Out of the body of a nation devoted to +productive and peaceful pursuits, and evidencing +its collective spirit only upon occasions for +the settlement of domestic and institutional +questions, there arose the figure of a national +spirit which had lain dormant until summoned +by a national emergency; but which, +when it emerged, was seen to embody loyalty +to our institutions, unity of purpose, and willingness +to sacrifice on the part of our entire +people as their underlying and dominant character.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Great +national +strength +in a free +people.</div> + +<p>Those who believed that the obvious and +daily exhibition of power which takes place in +an autocracy is necessary for national strength, +discovered that a finer, and freer, and greater +national strength subsists in a free people, and +that the silent processes of democracy, with +their normal accent on the freedom of individuals, +nevertheless afford springs of collective +action and inspiration for self-sacrifice as +wide and effective as they are spontaneous. The +several Government departments, the Council +of National Defense, and other agencies of a +more or less formal character subdivided the +work of organization. Congress rapidly perfected +its legislative program, and in a few +weeks very definite direction began to appear +in the work of preparation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Act to +increase +Military +Establishment.</div> + +<p>The act of May 18, 1917, entitled "An act to +authorize the President to increase temporarily +the Military Establishment of the United +States," looked to three sources for the Army +which it created:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Regular +Army to +be increased.</div> + +<p>1. The regular Army, of which the actual +strength on June 30, 1917, was 250,157 men +and officers. The provisions of the act, however, +contemplated an increase of the Regular +Army to 18,033 officers and 470,185 enlisted +men, the increase being effected by the immediate +call of the increments provided in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +National Defense Act of 1916, and the raising +of all branches of the service to war strength.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">National +Guard to +be reorganized.</div> + +<p>2. The National Guard, reorganized under +the National Defense Act, and containing on +the 30th of June, 1917, approximately 3,803 +officers and 107,320 enlisted men. The National +Guard, however, by recruiting of its +numbers and the raising of all arms to war +strength, contemplated a total of 13,377 officers +and 456,800 enlisted men.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">National +Army to be +raised by +Selective +Draft.</div> + +<p>3. In addition to this, the act provided for +a National Army, raised by the process of selective +conscription or draft, of which the President +was empowered to summon two units of +500,000 men each at such time as he should +determine wise.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">National +Guard +training +camps.</div> + +<p>On the 3d day of July, 1917, the President by +proclamation called into the Federal service +and drafted the National Guard of the several +States and the District of Columbia. And 16 +divisional camps were established for their +mobilization and training, as follows:</p> + +<p>Charlotte, N. C.; Spartanburg, S. C.; Augusta, +Ga.; Anniston, Ala.; Greenville, S. C.; +Macon, Ga.; Waco, Tex.; Houston, Tex.; Deming, +N. Mex.; Fort Sill, Okla.; Forth Worth, +Tex.; Montgomery, Ala.; Hattiesburg, Miss.; +Alexandria, La.; Buena Vista, Cal.; Palo Alto, +Cal.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Voluntary +enlistment +in the +Regular +Army and +National +Guard.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">A spirit +of cooperation.</div> + +<p>The principle of voluntary enlistment to fill +up the ranks of the Regular Army and the +National Guard, and to raise them to war +strength was preserved in the act of May 18, +1917, the maximum age for enlistment in both +services being fixed at 40 years. Even before +the passage of the act, however, very great +recruiting activity was shown throughout the +country, the total number of enlistments in +the Regular Army for the fiscal year 1917 being +160,084. The record of National Guard enlistments +has not yet been completely compiled,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +but the act authorizing a temporary increase +in the military establishment provided that +any deficiency remaining in either the Regular +Army or the National Guard should be +made up by selective conscription. The introduction +of this new method of enlistment so +far affected the whole question of selection for +military service that any deductions, either +favorable or unfavorable, from the number of +voluntary enlistments, would be unwarranted. +It is entirely just to say that the States generally +showed a most sympathetic spirit of +cooperation with the National Government, +and the National Guard responded with zeal +and enthusiasm to the President's call.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No exact +precedent +to follow.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">England +finally +resorted +to draft.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Organized +industry +back of +armies.</div> + +<p>In the preparation of the act providing for +the temporary increase in the Military Establishment, +very earnest consideration was given +by the committees of the two Houses of Congress +and by the Department to the principles +which would be followed in creating a military +establishment under modern conditions +adequate for the tremendous emergency facing +the Nation. Our own history and experience +with the volunteer system afforded little precedent +because of the new conditions, and the +experience of European nations was neither +uniform nor wholly adequate. Our adversary, +the German Empire, had for many years followed +the practice of universal compulsory +military training and service, so that it was +a nation of trained soldiers. In France the +same situation had existed. In England, on +the other hand, the volunteer system had continued, +and the British army was relatively a +small body. The urgency, however, of the +British need at the outbreak of the war, and +the unbroken traditions of England, were +against even the delay necessary to consider +the principle upon which action might best be +taken, so that England's first effort was reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +to that volunteer system, and her subsequent +resort to the draft was made after a +long experience in raising vast numbers of men +by volunteer enlistment as a result of campaigns +of agitation and patriotic appeal. The +war in Europe, however, had lasted long enough +to make quite clear the character of the contest. +It was obviously no such war as had +ever before occurred, both in the vast numbers +of men necessary to be engaged in strictly +military occupations and in the elaborate and +far-reaching organization of industrial and +civil society of the Nation back of the Army.</p> + +<p>Our military legislation was drafted after +very earnest consideration, to accomplish the +following objects:</p> + +<p>1. To provide in successive bodies adequate +numbers of men to be trained and used as combatant +forces.</p> + +<p>2. To select for these armies men of suitable +age and strength.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Universal +obligation +to service.</div> + +<p>3. To distribute the burden of the military +defense of the Nation in the most equitable and +democratic manner, and to that end to recognize +the universality of the obligation of service.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Necessary +men to be +kept in +industry.</div> + +<p>4. To reserve to the public authorities power +so to control the selection of soldiers as to prevent +the absorption of men indispensable to +agriculture and industry, and to prevent the +loss of national strength involved by the acceptance +into military service of men whose +greatest usefulness is in scientific pursuits or +in production.</p> + +<p>5. To select, so far as may be, those men for +military service whose families and domestic +obligations could best bear their separation +from home and dependents, and thus to cause +the least possible distress among the families +of the Nation which are dependent upon the +daily earnings of husbands and fathers for +their support.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> + +<p>These considerations, shortly stated, amount +to a policy which, recognizing the life of the +nation as a whole, and assuming both the obligation +and the willingness of the citizen to +give the maximum of service, institutes a national +process for the expression of our military, +industrial, and financial strength, all at +their highest, and with the least waste, loss, +and distress.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Regular +Army and +National +Guard +increased.</div> + +<p>The act of Congress authorizing the President +to increase temporarily the Military Establishment +of the United States, approved +May 18, 1917, provided for the raising and +maintaining by selective draft of increments +(in addition to the Regular Army and National +Guard) of 500,000 men each, together +with recruit training units for the maintenance +of such increments at the maximum +strength, and the raising, organizing, and +maintaining of additional auxiliary forces, and +also for raising and maintaining at their maximum +strength, by selective draft when necessary, +the Regular Army and the National +Guard drafted into the service of the United +States.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Male +citizens +between +21 and 30 +years +liable to +military +service.</div> + +<p>It also provided that such draft "shall be +based upon liability to military service of all +male citizens, or male persons not alien +enemies, who have declared their intention +to become citizens, between the ages of 21 and +30 years, both inclusive"; that the several +States, Territories, and the District of Columbia +should furnish their proportionate +shares or quotas of the citizen soldiery determined +in proportion to the population thereof, +with certain credits allowed for volunteer enlistments +in branches of the service then organized +and existing.</p> + +<p>The Nation was confronted with the task +of constructing, without delay, an organization +by which the selection might be made for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +entire country by means of a uniform and regulated +system.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Provost +Marshal +General +begins +registration.</div> + +<p>A suggestion of administration, incomplete +because of entirely different conditions, arose +from the precedent of the Civil War draft; +and on May 22, 1917, the Judge Advocate General +was detailed as "Provost Marshal General" +and charged with the execution, under the +Secretary of War, of so much of the act of +May 18 "as relates to the registration and the +selective draft." Plans had already been formulated +for the operation of the selective draft, +and with the formal designation of the Provost +Marshal General the work of organization +began.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">State +organization +utilized.</div> + +<p>It was obvious that to build up a new Federal +organization would require a greater +period of time than was afforded by the military +necessity. The existing governmental organizations +of the several States presented an +available substitute, and the statute authorized +their use. This expedient was unprecedented, +but its practice has abundantly justified +its adoption.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">State +registration +boards.</div> + +<p>The immediate need was for a comprehensive +registration of every male of draft age. To +effect this registration each State was divided +into districts containing a population of approximately +30,000, in each of which a registration +board was appointed by the governor. +Usually this board consisted of the sheriff, the +county health officer, and the county clerk; and +where the county's population, exclusive of +cities of more than 30,000 inhabitants, exceeded +that number, additional registration boards +were appointed. Cities of over 30,000 were +treated as separate units. The election district +was established as the actual unit for registration +in order that the normal election machinery +might be utilized, and a registrar for +every 800 of population in each voting or election<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> +precinct was appointed by the registration +board. In cities approximating 30,000 of +population, the registration board was made +up of city officials, and where the population +exceeded the unit number additional registration +boards of three members were appointed, +one a licensed physician.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +scheme +of organization.</div> + +<p>Governors and mayors were given considerable +latitude in making geographical divisions +of the States and cities for the purpose of +defining registration jurisdictions; the only +limitation being that approximately 30,000 inhabitants +should be included within the confines +of a district. The general scheme was +that the board of three should exercise supervision +over the precinct registrars, the governors +supervising the work of the registration +boards, while the mayors of cities containing +30,000 or more inhabitants acted as intermediaries +between governors and registration +boards. Each State was constituted a separate +unit and each governor was charged with the +execution of the law in his State.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ten +million +young men +register.</div> + +<p>By proclamation of the President, dated +May 18, 1917, Tuesday, June 5, 1917, was designated +as registration day throughout the +United States, with the exception of Alaska, +Hawaii, and Porto Rico; and, due to the fact +that registration organization of the States +had been so quickly and thoroughly completed, +about 10,000,000 male citizens of the designated +ages were registered on the day set, and +the first step in the operation of the selective +service law was accomplished.</p> + +<p>Registration consisted in entering on a card +essential facts necessary to a complete identification +of the registrant and a preliminary +survey of his domestic and economic circumstances.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Citizens +carry out +registration.</div> + +<p>It is noteworthy that this registration +throughout the entire country was carried out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +in the main by the voluntary and energetic +efforts of citizens, and the Government was +thereby saved a very great expense through the +efficient organization which had been constructed +and furnished with all necessary materials +during the short period of sixteen +days.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Examination, +selection, +and mobilization.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Representative +citizens +of each +community +employed.</div> + +<p>With registration completed there followed +the operation of examination, selection, and +mobilization. The unit jurisdiction of approximately +30,000 of population was maintained as +far as possible, and for each district or division +a local board of three members was appointed +by the President upon the recommendation of +the governor. The board members were residents +of the districts they served, and the personnel +comprised representative and responsible +citizens of the community, including +usually a licensed physician. In many cases +registration boards were reappointed local +boards. Such boards exercised original jurisdiction +in all cases except claims for discharge +on account of engagement in industry +or agriculture.</p> + +<p>In every Federal judicial district one or +more district boards were organized, consisting +usually of five but in some cases of a larger +number of members, comprising leading citizens +of the community and appointed by the +President upon the recommendation of the +governor. District boards exercised appellate +jurisdiction over local boards and original +jurisdiction in industrial and agricultural +claims.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The order +of liability +of registrants.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Numbered +cards.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The drawing in +Washington on +July 20, +1917.</div> + +<p>The initial step in the process of examination +and selection was to establish the order of +liability of each of the 10,000,000 registrants +to be called for service. The cards within the +jurisdiction of each local board, taken as a +unit, had been serially numbered when completed +and filed; and duplicates of the cards so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +numbered were deposited with the governor and +with the district boards. The average number +of registrants within the jurisdiction of a +local board was about 2,500, the highest being +10,319. In order to establish the order of +liability of each registrant in relation to the +other registrants within the jurisdiction of +the same local board, a drawing was held July +20, 1917, in the Public Hearing Room of the +Senate Office Building in Washington, as a +result of which every registrant was given an +order number and his liability to be called for +examination and selection determined by the +order number.</p> + +<p>The official lists of the numbers drawn by +lot were furnished to every local board and +from these lists the boards made up the availability +order list of all registrants within their +respective jurisdictions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Physical +examination +and +elimination.</div> + +<p>The determination of the order of availability +left only the process of physical examination +and elimination. The War Department, through +the Provost Marshal General's Office, had +already determined and given notice of the +number of men to be furnished by each State, +and at the date of the drawing practically +every State had ascertained and notified its +local boards of the number required to complete +their respective quotas for the first draft. +The calculations of the War Department and +of the States for the quotas were based upon +section 2 of the act of May 18.</p> + +<p>Immediately upon the completion of the +order of call lists, the local boards began to +summon for physical examination, beginning +with the man who was No. 1 on the list, and +continuing in numerical sequence, a sufficient +number of registrants to fill their quotas. The +average number summoned for the first examination +was about twice the number required—i. e., +if a board's quota was 105, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +first 210 registrants of that jurisdiction were +called for physical examination.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Certain +officials +and classes +exempted.</div> + +<p>The Selective Service Law required certain +persons to be exempted from military service, +including Federal and State legislative, executive, +and judicial officers, ministers of religion, +students of divinity, persons in the military or +naval service of the United States, and certain +aliens. The law further authorized the discharge +from draft, under such regulations as +the President might prescribe, of county and +municipal officers, customhouse clerks and +other persons employed by the United States +in certain classes of work, pilots and mariners, +and, within prescribed limitations, registrants +in a status with respect to persons dependent +upon them for support, and persons found +physically or morally unfit. Exemption from +combatant service only was authorized in the +case of persons found to be members of any +well-recognized religious sect or organization +whose existing creed or principles forbid its +members to participate in war in any form, +and whose religious convictions are against +war or participation therein.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rules +governing +discharges.</div> + +<p>On June 30, 1917, the President promulgated +rules and regulations as authorized by +the law prescribing the reasons for and manner +of granting discharges, and the procedure +of local and district boards.</p> + +<p>The selective service system required the +4,557 local boards to conduct the physical examination +of registrants within their jurisdictions, +and to determine and dispose of claims +of exemption and discharge in the first instance, +excepting industrial and agricultural +claims.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The power +of the +district +boards.</div> + +<p>The 156 district boards which were established +as above stated, proved to be the fulcrum +of balance between the local boards and +the registrants. In practically every instance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> +their members have been chosen from among +the most able and conspicuous representatives +of the legal and medical professions, and +from the fields of industry, commerce, and +labor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Appeal +agents +appointed.</div> + +<p>By regulation the case of every person discharged +from the operation of the selective +service law by a local board on the ground of +dependency was automatically taken to the +district board for review, the appeal being +noted by Government appeal agents appointed +by the Provost Marshal General.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dependency +cases the +most +difficult.</div> + +<p>Registrants whose claims were disallowed by +local boards appealed in large numbers to district +boards. Thus was obtained a high degree +of uniformity of decisions in dependency cases, +which were by far the most difficult of determination +and disposition, as well as the most +numerous, of the classes of cases throughout +the first draft.</p> + +<p>Cases involving claims for discharge on +agricultural and industrial grounds, of which +district boards have original jurisdiction, are +appealable to the President, and to date approximately +20,000 of these have been received +and indexed, of which about 80 per cent are +claims for discharge based on agricultural +grounds and 20 per cent on industrial grounds. +Of cases already disposed of on appeal from +the district boards less than 7 per cent have +been reversed. The pending of an appeal to +the President does not operate as a stay of +induction into military service except where +the district board has expressly so directed, +and the number of such stays is negligible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The total +cost of +the draft.</div> + +<p>The total cost of the draft can not be estimated +accurately at this time, but, based upon +the data at hand, the total registration and +selection of the first 687,000 men has amounted +to an approximate expenditure of $5,600,000, +or about $8.11 unit cost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Universal +willingness +to +serve.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">High +quality +of men +obtained.</div> + +<p>The unprecedented character of this undertaking +is a matter of common knowledge. Congress, +in the consideration of the act which +authorized it, entertained grave doubts as to +whether a plan could be devised which would +apply so new a principle of selection for national +service without much misunderstanding +and unhappiness. But the results have been of a +most inspiring kind and have demonstrated the +universal willingness of our people to serve in +the defense of our liberties and to commit the +selection of the Nation's defenders to the Nation +itself. The men selected have reported to +the camps and are in course of training. They +constitute as fine a body of raw material as +were ever trained in military science. They +are already acquiring the smartness and soldierly +bearing characteristic of American +troops, and those who once thought that the +volunteer spirit was necessary to insure contentment +and zeal in soldiers now freely admit +that the men selected under this act have these +qualities in high degree and that it proceeds +out of a patriotic willingness on the part of +the men to bear their part of the national +burden and to do their duty at the Nation's +call.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ability of +Provost +Marshal +General.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">This +mode of +selection +made +necessary +by conditions +of +modern +war.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The democratic +fairness +of the +plan.</div> + +<p>The success of this great undertaking is, of +course, primarily due to the painstaking forethought +and the statesmanlike breadth of view +with which the Provost Marshal General and +his associates organized the machinery for its +execution. But other elements have contributed +to its success, and first among these was +the determination to rely upon the cooperation +of the governors of States and State agencies +in the assembling of the registration and exemption +boards. By reason of this association +of State and local agencies with the National +Government the law came as no outside mandate +enforced by soldiers, but as a working of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> +the home institutions in the hands of neighbors +and acquaintances pursuing a clear process +of selection, and resulting in a gift by the +States to the Nation of a body of men to be +trained. The press of the country cooperated +in a most helpful way, drawing the obvious distinctions +between this mode of selection and +those punitive drafts which have sometimes +been resorted to after the failure of volunteering, +and pointing out the young men of +the country that the changed conditions of warfare +made necessary a mode of selection which +would preserve the industrial life of the Nation +as a foundation for successful military +operations. Indeed, the country seemed generally +to have caught enough of the lessons of +the European war to have realized the necessity +of this procedure, and from the very beginning +criticism was silenced and doubt answered by +the obvious wisdom of the law. Moreover, the +unquestioned fairness of the arrangements, the +absence of all power of substitution, the fact +that the processes of the law were worked out +publicly, all cooperated to surround the draft +with assurances of fairness and equality, so +that throughout the whole country the attitude +of the people toward the law was one of approval +and confidence, and I feel very sure that +those who at the beginning had any doubts +would now with one accord agree that the selective +service act provides not only a necessary +mode of selecting the great armies needed +under modern conditions, but that it provides +a better and more democratic and a fairer +method of distributing the burden of national +defense than any other system as yet suggested.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fundamental +questions +settled.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Unity of +spirit of +American +people.</div> + +<p>This does not mean, of course, that the law is +perfect either in its language or in its execution, +nor does it mean that improvements may +not be made as our experience grows and as +the need for more intense national efforts increases;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> +but such amendments as may hereafter +be required will proceed with the fundamental +questions settled and we have now only +to consider changes which may be required to a +better ordering of our military strength and a +more efficient maintenance of our industrial +and agricultural life during the stress of war. +The passage and execution of this law may be +regarded as a milestone in our progress toward +self-consciousness and national strength. Its +acceptance shows the unity of spirit of our +people, and its operation shows that a democracy +has in its institutions the concentrated +energy necessary to great national +activities however much they may be scattered +and dispersed, in the interest of the preservation +of individual liberty, in time of peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Officer's +Reserve +Corps.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Physicians +commissioned +in the +Medical +Department.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Men from +the Plattsburg +training +camps.</div> + +<p>The problem presented involved not merely +the selection of forces to be trained into armies +but officers to do the training. By the provisions +of the national defense act of June 3, +1916, Officers' Reserve Corps had been authorized. +Rules and regulations for their organization +were promulgated in July, 1916, +and amended in March, 1917. Immediately +upon the passage of the act, the building up of +lists of reserve officers in the various sections +of the Military Establishment was undertaken, +with the result that at the end of the fiscal year +some of the branches of the service had substantial +lists of men available for duty in the +event of call. The largest number of commissions +were issued in the technical services, for +which professional nonmilitary training was +the principal requisite. The largest reserve +corps was that in the Medical Department, in +which more than 12,000 physicians were commissioned. +The expansion of these technical +services proceeded easily upon the basis of the +reserve corps beginning, but the number of applicants +for commissions in the strictly military<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> +or combatant branches of the service was +relatively small. They consisted of men who +had had military experience either in the Regular +Army or the National Guard, and men +who were graduates of schools and colleges +affording military training, and of the training +camps which for several years had been +maintained at Plattsburg and throughout the +country. Their number, however, was wholly +inadequate, and their experience, while it had +afforded the elements of military discipline, +had not been such as was plainly required to +train men for participation in the European +war with its changed methods and conditions. +The virtue of the law authorizing the Officers' +Reserve Corps, however, became instantly apparent +upon the declaration of war, as it enabled +the department to establish officers' training +camps for the rapid production of officers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A series of +officers +training +camps.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Officers +commissioned.</div> + +<p>Accepting the Plattsburg experiment as the +basis and using funds appropriated by Congress +for an enlargement of the Plattsburg +system of training, the department established +a series of training camps, sixteen in number, +which were opened on the 15th of May, 1917. +The camps were scattered throughout the +United States so as to afford the opportunity +of entrance and training with the least inconvenience +and expense of travel to prepare +throughout the entire country. Officers previously +commissioned in the reserve corps were +required to attend the camps, and, in addition, +approximately 30,000 selected candidates were +accepted from among the much greater number +who applied for admission. These camps were +organized and conducted under the supervision +of department commanders; applicants were +required to state their qualifications and a +rough apportionment was attempted among +the candidates to the several States. At the +conclusion of the camp, 27,341 officers were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> +commissioned and directed to report at the +places selected for the training of the new +army. By this process, we supplied not only +the officers needed for the National Army but +filled the roster of the Regular Army, to which +substantial additions were necessary by reason +of the addition of the full number of increments +provided by the National Defense Act of +1916.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The second +series of +officers' +training +camps.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Officers +needed +also for +staff +duties.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constant +experimentation +necessary.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Victory +rests on +science as +much as on +soldiers.</div> + +<p>The results of the first series of camps were +most satisfactory and, anticipating the calling +of further increments of the National Army, a +second series of camps was authorized, to begin +August 27, 1917, under rules for the selection +of candidates and their apportionment +throughout the country which were much more +searching and embodied those improvements +which are always possible in the light of experience. +Approximately 20,000 candidates are +now attending this second series of camps, and +those found qualified will shortly be commissioned +and absorbed into the Army for the performance +of the expanding volume of duties +which the progress of preparation daily brings +about. It is to be remembered that the need +for officers exists not only in connection with +the actual training of troops in camp and the +leadership of troops in the field, but a vast number +of officers must constantly be employed in +staff duties, and great numbers must as constantly +be engaged in military research and in +specialized forms of training associated with +the use of newly developed arms and appliances. +In other words, we must maintain not +merely the special-service schools which are +required to perfect the training of officers in +the special arms of the service, but we must +constantly experiment with new devices and +reduce to practical use the discoveries of +science and the new applications of mechanical +and scientific arts, both for offensive and defensive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> +purposes. It would be out of place +here to enumerate or describe in any detail the +service of science in this war, but when the +history of the struggle comes to be written it +will be found that the masters of the chemical +and physical sciences have thrown their talents +and their ingenuity into the service, that their +researches have been at the very basis of military +progress, and that the victory rests as +much upon a nation's supremacy in the researches +and adaptations of science as it does +upon the number and valor of its soldiers. +Indeed, this is but one of the many evidences +of the fact that modern war engages all of the +resources of nations and that that nation will +emerge victorious which has most completely +used and coordinated all the intellectual, moral, +and physical forces of its people.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fundamentals +of +military +discipline +do not +change.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Professional +soldiers +still +needed.</div> + +<p>It would be a national loss for me to +fail to record in this place a just estimate +of the value to the Nation of these training +camps for officers. They disclosed an unsuspected +source of military strength. Nobody +will suppose that, with the growing +intricacy of military science and the industrial +arts related to it, a country can dispense +with trained professional soldiers. The fundamentals +of military discipline remain substantially +unchanged and, in order that we may +assemble rapidly and effectively adequate military +forces, there must always be in the country +a body of men to whom the life of a soldier +is a career and who have acquired from their +youth those qualities which have, from the +beginning, distinguished the graduates of the +Military Academy at West Point: the disciplined +honor, the unfaltering courage, the +comprehension of sacrifice, and that knowing +obedience which proceeds from constant demonstrations +of the fact that effective cooperation +in war requires instant compliance with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> +the command of authority, the sort of obedience +which knows that a battle field is no place for +a parliament. Added to these mental and +moral qualities, the body of professional soldiers +must devote themselves unremittingly to +the development of the arts of war, and when +the emergency arises must be familiar with the +uses of science and the applications of industry +in military enterprise. But these training +camps have taught us that, given this relatively +small body of professional soldiers, the Nation +has at hand an apparently inexhaustible +body of splendid material which can be rapidly +made to supplement the professional +soldier.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Athletes +from the +colleges.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Adaptability +of +American +youth.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Atmosphere +of +industrial +and commercial +democracy.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Many +officers assigned +to +training +of troops +from their +homes.</div> + +<p>When the first camp was opened, the colleges, +military schools, and high schools of the country +poured out a stream of young men whose +minds had been trained in the classroom and +whose bodies had been made supple and virile +on the athletic field. They came with intelligence, +energy, and enthusiasm and, under a +course of intensive training, rapidly took on +the added discipline and capacities necessary +to equip them for the duties of officers. They +have taken their places in the training camps +and are daily demonstrating the value of their +education and the adaptability of the spirit of +American youth. A more salutary result +would be impossible to imagine. The trained +professional soldiers of the Army received this +great body of youthful enthusiasm and capacity +with hospitality and quickly impressed upon +it a soldierly character. The young men +brought to their training habits which they +had formed for success as civilians, but which +their patriotic enthusiasm rendered easily +available in new lines of endeavor for the service +of the country. They brought, too, another +element of great value. They were assembled +from all parts of the country; they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> +were accustomed to the democracy of the college +and high school; they recognized themselves +as new and temporary adventurers in a +military life; and they, therefore, reflected +into our military preparation the fresh and +invigorating atmosphere of our industrial and +commercial democracy. This has undoubtedly +contributed to the establishment of a happy +spirit which prevails throughout the Army and +has made it easy for the young men chosen +under the selective service act to fall in with +the training and mode of life which the military +training camp requires. An effort was +made by the department as far as possible to +assign these young officers to the training of +troops assembled from their own homes. By +this means, a preexisting sympathy was used, +and admiration and respect between officer +and man was transferred from the home to the +camp.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The three +divisions +of the +Army.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enlistments +may +be for the +period of +the war.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Men +anxious to +get to +France +soon.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Traditions +of military +organizations +preserved.</div> + +<p>The three divisions of the Army, namely, the +Regular Army, the National Guard, and the +National Army, were very different organizations +as we contemplated them at the time of +the passage of the act for the temporary increase +of the Military Establishment. The Regular +Army was a veteran establishment of +professional soldiers; the National Guard a +volunteer organization of local origin maintained +primarily for the preservation of domestic +order in the several States, with an emergency +duty toward the national defense; the +National Army an unknown quantity, made up +of men to be selected arbitrarily by tests and +rules as yet to be formulated, unorganized, untrained, +existing only in theory and, therefore, +problematical as to its spirit and the length of +time necessary to fit it for use. Congress, +however, most wisely provided as far as possible +for an elimination of these differences. +Enlistments in the Regular Army and National<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> +Guard were authorized to be made for the +period of the war rather than for fixed terms; +the maximum and minimum ages of enlistment +in the Regular Army and National Guard were +assimilated; the rights and privileges of members +of the three forces were made largely identical. +Indeed, the act created but one army, +selected by three processes. The wisdom of +Congress in this course became instantly apparent. +Spirited young men throughout the +country began at once to enlist in the Regular +Army and National Guard who might have been +deterred from such enlistment had their obligation +been for a fixed period rather than for the +duration of the war. Many men asked themselves +but one question: "By which avenue of +service will I earliest get to France?" The +men in the National Army soon caught this +spirit and, while the department is endeavoring +to preserve as far as possible in the National +Guard and the National Army those intimacies +which belong to men who come from the same +city or town, and to preserve the honorable +traditions of military organizations which have +histories of service to the country in other +wars, the fact still remains that the army is +rapidly becoming the army of the United +States, with the sense of origin from a particular +State, or association with a particular +neighborhood, more and more submerged by the +rising sense of national service and national +identity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sites +selected +for cantonments.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sixteen +divisional +cantonments.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Emergency +construction +division +established.</div> + +<p>I have described above the process of the execution +of the selective service law. The preparation +of places for the training of the recruits +thus brought into the service was a task +of unparalleled magnitude. On the 7th of May, +1917, the commanding generals of the several +departments were directed to select sites for the +construction of cantonments for the training of +the mobilized National Guard and the National<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +Army. The original intention was the construction +of 32 cantonments. The appropriations +made by Congress for this purpose +were soon seen to be insufficient, and further +study of the problem seemed to show that it +would be unwise so seriously to engage the resources +of the country, particularly in view of +the fact that the National Guard was ready to +be mobilized, that its training by reason of +service on the Mexican border was substantial, +and that its early use abroad in conjunction +with the Regular Army would render permanent +camps less important. The number was, +therefore, cut to 16 divisional cantonments, and +the National Guard was mobilized in camps for +the most part under canvas, with only certain +divisional storehouses and quarters for special +uses constructed of wood. Because of the open +weather during the winter months, the National +Guard camps were located in the southern +States. The National Army cantonments +were located within the lines of the military +division. A special division of the Quartermaster +General's Department was established, +known as the emergency construction division, +and to it was given the task of erecting +the cantonment buildings and such buildings +as should be necessary for the National +Guard.</p> + +<p>On May 17, 1917, Col. I. W. Littell, of the +Regular Army, was detailed to assemble and +direct an organization to be known as the +cantonment division of the Quartermaster +Corps, whose duties were to consist of providing +quarters and camps for the training and +housing of the New National Army, which +was to be selected by conscription as provided +in the act of Congress dated May 18, 1917.</p> + +<p>Able assistance was rendered by the following +members of the committee on emergency +construction and contracts, a subcommittee of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> +the Munitions Board of the Council of National +Defense:</p> + +<p>Major W. A. Starrett, chairman; Major +William Kelly; C. M. Lundoff; M. C. Tuttle; +F. L. Olmsted; J. B. Talmadge, secretary.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Specialists +in purchasing +and constructing +secured.</div> + +<p>Inquiries were immediately made and all +available means used by telegraph, correspondence, +and consultation to get in touch with +the ablest constructors, engineers, draftsmen, +purchasing agents, and other specialists of +broad experience in their respective vocations +from which an efficient and experienced organization +could be selected.</p> + +<p>All of those selected who became attached to +the organization in an official capacity gave up +responsible and remunerative positions to give +the Government the benefit of their services. +They all being over the draft-age limit and representative +technical men of repute and standing +in their community, a splendid precedent +of patriotism was established.</p> + +<p>The assembling of an organization and the +planning and execution of the work was undertaken +with a view of accomplishing all that +human ingenuity, engineering, and constructing +skill could devise in the brief time available.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +plans formulated.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Magnitude +of the +task.</div> + +<p>Plans were formulated by engineers, architects, +and town planners who had given much +thought to the particular problems involved. +Camp sites comprising from 2,000 to 11,000 +acres each were selected by a board of Army +officers under the direction of the department +commanders. Names of responsible contracting +firms were secured and every effort made +to perfect an organization competent to carry +out the work of completing the camps at the +earliest possible moment. The magnitude of +assembling an organization for carrying on the +work and securing the labor and materials +therefor can in some measure be realized by +reference to the following table, showing quantities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> +of the principal materials estimated to be +used in the construction of the National Army +cantonments.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Approximate +quantities +of materials.</div> + +<p>The approximate quantities of principal materials +used in the construction of the various +National Army camps are shown in the following +tables. This does not include National +Guard, embarkation, or training camps.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Principal materials used in construction of Army camps"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Quantity.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lumber (feet b. m.)</td><td align='right'>450,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Roofing paper (square feet)</td><td align='right'>76,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Doors</td><td align='right'>140,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Window sash</td><td align='right'>700,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wall board (square feet)</td><td align='right'>29,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shower heads</td><td align='right'>40,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water-closet bowls</td><td align='right'>54,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tank heaters and tanks</td><td align='right'>11,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Heating boilers</td><td align='right'>1,800</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Radiation (square feet)</td><td align='right'>4,200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cannon stoves</td><td align='right'>20,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Room heaters</td><td align='right'>20,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kitchen stoves and ranges</td><td align='right'>10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wood pipe for water supply (feet) </td><td align='right'>1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cast-iron supply pipe (feet)</td><td align='right'>470,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wire, all kinds and sizes (miles)</td><td align='right'>5,500</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wood tanks (aggregate capacity)</td><td align='right'>8,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hose carts</td><td align='right'>600</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire engines</td><td align='right'>90</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire extinguishers</td><td align='right'>4,700</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire hose (feet)</td><td align='right'>392,500</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire hydrants</td><td align='right'>3,600</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hand-pump tanks</td><td align='right'>12,700</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire pails</td><td align='right'>163,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cots</td><td align='right'>721,000</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Sixteen National Army camps were constructed +in various parts of the United States +at points selected by the War Department. +The camps were carefully laid out by experienced +town planners and engineers to give best +results considering all viewpoints.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Extent of +a typical +National Army cantonment.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roads constructed +and +improvements installed.</div> + +<p>A typical cantonment city will house 40,000 +men. Each barrack building will house 150 men +and provide 500 cubic feet of air space per man. +Such a cantonment complete contains between +1,000 and 1,200 buildings and covers about 2,000 +acres. In addition, each cantonment has a +rifle range, drill, parade, and maneuver grounds +of about 2,000 acres. In many cases all or a +large part of the entire site had to be cleared of +woods and stumps. The various military units +were located on principal or primary roads—a +regiment being treated as a primary unit. +About 25 miles of roads were constructed at +each cantonment, and sewers, water supply, +lighting facilities, and other improvements +installed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +special +buildings +required.</div> + +<p>An infantry regiment requires 22 barrack +buildings, 6 for officers' quarters, 2 storehouses, +1 infirmary building, 28 lavatories, with hot +and cold shower baths, or a total of 59 buildings. +In addition to the buildings necessary +for the regimental units, each cantonment has +buildings for divisional headquarters, quartermaster +depots, laundry receiving and distributing +stations, base hospitals having 1,000 +beds, post exchanges, and other buildings for +general use.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Remount +stations.</div> + +<p>At several of the cantonments remount stations +have been provided, some of them having +a capacity to maintain 12,000 horses.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Other +necessary +camps.</div> + +<p>In addition to the National Army camps, +plans were made for the construction of 16 +National Guard, two embarkation and one +quartermaster training camp, but the construction +of these items did not involve so large an +expenditure as the National Army camps, as +provision was made for fewer units and only +tentage quarters for the men in the National +Guard camps was provided. Modern storehouses, +kitchens, mess shelters, lavatories, +shower baths, base hospitals, and remount depots<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> +were built, and water, sewerage, heating, +and light systems installed at an expenditure +of about $1,900,000 for each camp.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +demand +for construction +and +supplies.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Savings +effected +by standardization.</div> + +<p>With the advent of the United States into +the war, there has appeared not only one of +the world's greatest builders, but the world's +greatest customer for supplies and human +necessaries. We have not only to equip, house, +and supply our own army, but meet the demands +arising from the drainage of the resources +of the entente allies. Small shopping +and bargaining are out of the question. +Enormous savings were, however, effected, due +to the fact that materials were purchased in +large quantities and consequently at a much +reduced price. Standardization of sizes saved +from $5 to $6 per thousand feet b. m. on lumber, +and a further saving of from $3 to $11 over +prevailing prices was effected by the lumber +subcommittee of the Council of National Defense. +The Raw Materials Committee effected +similar savings in prepared roofing, nails, and +other construction materials. The lead subcommittee +procured 500 tons of lead for caulking +pipe at 3 cents less than market price. +When it is considered that this construction +work is, next to the Panama Canal, the largest +ever undertaken by the United States, the country +is to be congratulated on having available +the men and materials to accomplish the feat +of providing for the maintenance of the newly +organized army in so short a period.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Extensive +construction +work for +National +Army.</div> + +<p>I have described at length the work of building +necessary for the National Army camps, +but at the same time extensive building was +necessary at the 16 sites selected for the mobilization +and training of the National Guard. +While the National Guard troops were themselves +quartered under canvas, many wooden +buildings and storehouses had to be constructed +for their use and, of course, the important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> +problems of water supply, sewage, and +hospital accommodations required substantially +as much provision upon these subjects +as upon those selected for the National +Army.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Labor assembled +from great +distances.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The assistance +rendered +by Mr. +Gompers.</div> + +<p>At the very outset of this hurried and vast +program, it became apparent that labor would +have to be assembled from great distances, and +in wholly unaccustomed numbers, that the +laboring men would be required to separate +themselves from home and family and to live +under unusual and less comfortable circumstances +than was their habit. It was also clear +that no interruption or stoppage of the work +could be permitted. I therefore took up with +Mr. Samuel Gompers, President of the American +Federation of Labor, the question of a +general agreement which would cover all trades +to be employed in assuring continuity of work, +provide just conditions of pay, recognize the inequalities +which exist throughout the country, +and yet avoid controversy as between the contractor +and his employees, which, wherever the +justice of the dispute might lie, could have +only a prejudicial effect upon the interests of +the Government, by delaying the progress +necessary to be made. Mr. Gompers and those +associated with him in the building trades +promptly and loyally entered into a consideration +of the whole subject, with the result that +the following agreement was made:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Commission +for +labor +adjustment.</div> + +<div class='right'> +"<span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, June 19, 1917.<br /> +</div> + +<p>"For the adjustment and control of wages, +hours, and conditions of labor in the construction +of cantonments, there shall be created an +adjustment commission of three persons, appointed +by the Secretary of War; one to represent +the Army, one the public, and one labor; +the last to be nominated by Samuel Gompers, +member of the Advisory Commission of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +Council of National Defense, and President of +the American Federation of Labor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Consideration +given to +scales in +locality.</div> + +<p>"As basic standards with reference to each +cantonment, such commission shall use the +main scales of wages, hours, and conditions in +force on June 1, 1917, in the locality where +such cantonment is situated. Consideration +shall be given to special circumstances, if any +arising after said date which may require +particular advances in wages or changes in +other standards. Adjustments of wages, hours, +or conditions made by such board are to be +treated as binding by all parties."</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="sidenote">Labor difficulties +easily +adjusted.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Early completion +of cantonments.</div> + +<p>The contractors throughout the country were +notified of the existence of this agreement and +of the determination of the Government to +carry it out faithfully. The scope of the agreement +was subsequently enlarged so as to include +other emergency construction done by the +War Department, and a board of adjustment +was appointed which, at the beginning, consisted +of General E. A. Garlington, formerly +General Inspector of the Army, Mr. Walter +Lippmann, and Mr. John R. Alpine, to whom all +complaints were referred, and by whom all investigations +and determinations in enforcement +of the agreement were made. The personnel of +this board was subsequently changed, and its +activities associated with a similar board appointed +by the concurrent action of the Secretary +of the Navy and Mr. Gompers, but I need +here refer only to the fact that, by the device +of this agreement, and through the instrumentality +of this board, labor difficulties and +disputes were easily adjusted, and the program +of building has gone rapidly forward, with +here and there incidental delays due sometimes +to delay in material, sometimes to difficulties +of the site, and doubtless to other +incidental failures of coordination, but in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +main, the work has been thoroughly successful. +When its magnitude is appreciated, the draft it +made upon the labor market of the country, the +speed with which it was accomplished, and +the necessity of assembling not only materials +but men from practically all over the country, +it seems not too much to say that the work is +out of all proportion larger than any similar +work ever undertaken in the country, and that +its completion substantially on time, is an +evidence of efficiency both on the part of those +officers of the Government charged with responsibility +for the task and the contractors +and men of the trades and crafts employed to +carry on the work.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Camps for +training +military +engineers.</div> + +<p>This great division of the War Department +in times of peace devotes the major part of its +energy to works of internal improvements and +to the supervision of, improvement, and maintenance +of navigable waters; but in time of +war it immediately becomes a fundamental +part of the Military Establishment. It was, +therefore, called upon not only to render assistance +of an engineering kind in the establishment +of training camps, but had to establish +camps for the rapid training in military +engineering of large additions to its own personnel, +and to undertake the rapid mobilization +and training of additional engineer troops, +of which at the beginning of the war there were +but two regiments.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Importance +of railroad +transportation +in war.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Regiments +of engineers +sent to +France.</div> + +<p>One of the earliest opportunities for actual +assistance to the countries associated with us +in this war was presented to this department. +In the war against Germany transportation, +and particularly railroad transportation, is of +the utmost importance. It was easily foreseen +that our own army in France would require +large railroad facilities both in the operation +of permanent railroads for the handling of our +equipment and supplies and in the construction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> +and operation of temporary roads behind +our Army. In the meantime regiments of engineer +troops, if speedily organized and dispatched +to Europe, could both render valuable +assistance to the British and French Armies +and acquire the training and experience which +would make them valuable at a later stage to +us. Accordingly nine such regiments were organized +and have for some months been rendering +active and important service along the +actual battle front. In addition to these, a +tenth regiment, composed of men skilled in +forestry and lumbering, was organized and +sent abroad, and is now operating in a foreign +forest cutting out lumber supplies for the use +of our associates and ourselves.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrangements +to +operate +our own +railways +in France.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Creation +of entire +transportation +system.</div> + +<p>Concurrently with the formation of these +special engineer troops the department undertook +the collection of material for the establishment +and operation of our own lines of +supply abroad. The railways of France have +been maintained in a state of high efficiency +by the French people, and they are performing +the tremendous transportation task imposed +upon them by the French and English military +operations with complete success; but in +order not to impose a burden which they were +not designed to meet, by asking them to expand +to the accommodation of our services, it +has been found necessary for us ourselves to +undertake the accumulation of railroad material +for our own use in the theater of +war. This work is on a large and comprehensive +scale. Any detailed description of it +would be inappropriate at this time, but it involves +the creation of entire transportation +systems and the actual construction and operation +of railroads with the elaborate terminal +facilities needed for the rapid unloading and +dispatch of supplies, equipment, and troops.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Quartermaster +General's +problem.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Vast +equipment +needed.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Intensive +production +of food and +clothing.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Associated +nations +must be +supplied.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Emergency +appropriation.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Great +extent of +purchases.</div> + +<p>The problem facing the Quartermaster General<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> +has been serious. For the small Regular +Army of the United States a well-defined and +adequate supply system had been created. It +was large enough and flexible enough to permit +us to make gradual accumulations of reserve +as Congress from time to time provided +the necessary money; but when the mobilization +of the National Guard on the Mexican +frontier took place, such reserves as we had +were rapidly consumed, and the maintenance +of the military establishment on the border +required an increase which quite equaled the +entire capacity of those industries ordinarily +devoting themselves to the production of military +supplies. When the present enlarged military +establishment was authorized it involved +an enlarged Regular Army, an enlarged National +Guard and the new National Army, +thus bringing upon us the problem of immediate +supply with adequate reserves for an +Army of 2,000,000 men; and these men were +not to be stationed about in Army posts, but +mobilized into great camps under conditions +which necessarily increased the wear and tear +upon clothing and equipment, and correspondingly +increased the reserves needed to keep +up the supply. In addition to this these troops +were assembled for overseas use, and it therefore +became necessary to accumulate in France +vast stores of clothing and equipment in order +to have the Army free from dependence, by too +narrow a margin, upon ocean transportation +with its inevitable delays. As a consequence the +supply needs of the department were vastly +greater than the capacity of the industrial organization +and facilities normally devoted to +their production, and the problem presented was +to divert workshops and factories from their +peace-time output into the intensive production +of clothing and equipment for the Army. +Due consideration had to be given to the maintenance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> +of the industrial balance of the country. +Industries already devoted to the manufacture +of supplies for the nations associated +with us in the war had to be conserved to that +useful purpose. Perhaps some aid to the imagination +can be gotten from the fact that +2,000,000 men constitute about one-fiftieth of +the entire population of the United States. +Supply departments were, therefore, called +upon to provide clothing, equipment, and maintenance +for about one-fiftieth of our entire +people, and this in articles of uniform and of +standardized kinds. The great appropriations +made by Congress tell the story from the +financial point of view. In 1917 the normal +appropriation for the Quartermaster Department +was $186,305,000. The emergency appropriation +for this department for the year +1918 was $3,000,000,000; a sum greater than +the normal annual appropriation for the entire +expenses of the Federal Government on all accounts. +Another illustration can be drawn +from the mere numbers of some familiar +articles. Thus of shoes more than 20,000,000 +pairs have already been purchased and are +in process of delivery; of blankets, 17,000,000; +of flannel shirting, more than 33,000,000 yards; +of melton cloth, more than 50,000,000 yards; +of various kinds of duck for shelter tents and +other necessary uses, more than 125,000,000 +yards; and other staple and useful articles of +Army equipment have been needed in proportion.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Resources, +industry and transportation +mobilized.</div> + +<p>To all of this it has been necessary to add +supplies not usual in our Army which, in +many cases, had to be devised to meet needs +growing out of the nature of the present warfare. +It was necessary, therefore, to mobilize +the resources and industry, first to produce +with the greatest rapidity the initial equipment, +and to follow that with a steady stream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> +of production for replacement and reserve; +second, to organize adequate transportation +and storage for these great accumulations, and +their distribution throughout the country, and +then to establish ports of embarkation for men +and supplies, assemble there in orderly fashion +for prompt ship-loading the tonnage for overseas; +and to set up in France facilities necessary +to receive and distribute these efficiently.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Civilian +agencies +cooperate +with government.</div> + +<p>The Quartermaster General's Department +was called upon to set up rapidly a business +greater than that carried on by the most thoroughly +organized and efficiently managed industrial +organization in the country. It had +to consider the supply of raw materials, the +diversion of industry, and speed of production, +and with its problem pressing for instant solution +it had to expand the slender peace-time +organization of the Quartermaster Department +by the rapid addition of personnel and by the +employment and coordination of great civilian +agencies which could be helpful.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Council of +National +Defense +is aided +by men +of great +ability.</div> + +<p>The Council of National Defense, through +the supply committees organized by it, afforded +the immediate contact necessary with the +world of commerce and industry, while men of +various branches of business and production +engineers brought their services freely to the +assistance of the Department. The dollar-a-year +man has been a powerful aid, and when +this struggle is over, and the country undertakes +to take stock of the assets which it found +ready to be used in the mobilization of its +powers, a large place will justly be given to +these men who, without the distinction of title +or rank, and with no thought of compensation, +brought experience, knowledge, and trained +ability to Washington in order that they might +serve with patriotic fervor in an inconspicuous +and self-sacrificing, but indispensably helpful +way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sound beginnings +made.</div> + +<p>The problems of supply are not yet solved; +but they are in the course of solution. Sound +beginnings have been made, and as the military +effort of the country grows the arrangements +perfected and organizations created will expand +to meet it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +American +Railway +Association's +special +committee.</div> + +<p>In this general connection it seems appropriate +to refer to the effective cooperation between +the department and the transportation +agencies of the country. For a number of +years the Quartermaster General's Department +has maintained close relations with the executives +of the great railway systems of the +country. In February, 1917, a special committee +of the American Railway Association +was appointed to deal with questions of national +defense, and the cooperation between +this committee and the department has been +most cordial and effective, and but for some +such arrangement the great transportation +problem would have been insoluble. I am +happy, therefore, to join the Quartermaster +General in pointing out the extraordinary service +rendered by the transportation agencies +of the country, and I concur also in his statement +that "of those who are now serving the +Nation in this time of stress, there are none +who are doing so more whole-heartedly, unselfishly, +and efficiently than the railroad +officials who are engaged in this patriotic +work."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Codes established +for the +garment +industry.</div> + +<p>One other aspect of the work of the Quartermaster +General's Office has engaged my particular +attention, and seems to me to have been +fruitful of most excellent results. The garment +working trades of the United States are +largely composed of women and children, and +of men of foreign extraction. More than any +other industry in the United States it has been +menaced by the sweatshop system. The States +have enacted codes and established inspection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> +agencies to enforce sanitary conditions for +these workers, and to relieve the evils which +seem everywhere to spring up about them. To +some extent the factory system operated under +rigid inspection has replaced home work, and +has improved conditions; but garment making +is an industry midway in its course of being +removed from the home to the factory, and +under pressure of intensive production, home +work in congested tenements has been difficult +to eradicate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dangers +in home +work +system.</div> + +<p>The vice of this system is not merely the +invasion of the home of the worker, and the +consequent enfeeblement of the family and +family life. Work done under such circumstances +escapes the inspector, and the crowded +workers in the tenement are helpless in their +struggle for subsistence under conditions +which are unrelieved by an assertion of the +Government's interest in the condition under +which these workers live. Moreover, wide distribution +of garments made under such conditions +tends to spread disease, and adds another +menace from the public point of view.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Standards +inserted in +contracts.</div> + +<p>The department determined, therefore, to establish +minimum standards as to wages, inspection, +hours, and sanitation. These standards +were inserted in the contracts made for +garment production, and a board was appointed +to enforce an observance of these standards. +The effect of this has been that it is now +possible to say that no uniform worn by an +American soldier is the product of sweatshop +toil, and that so far as the Government is concerned +in its purchases of garments it is a +model employer.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +worker +feels a +national +interest.</div> + +<p>This action has not delayed the accumulation +of necessary supplies, and it has added to +our national self-respect. It has distributed +national interest between the soldier who +wears and the worker who makes the garment,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> +regarding them each as assets, each as elements +in our aggregated national strength.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Ordnance +Department.</div> + +<p>On the 1st day of July, 1916, there was a +total of 96 officers in the Ordnance Department. +The commissioned strength of this department +increased substantially 2,700 per +cent, and is still expanding. The appropriations +for ordnance in 1917 were $89,697,000; +for 1918, in view of the war emergency, the appropriations +for that department aggregate +$3,209,000,000.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Most +difficult +problems +of the +war.</div> + +<p>This division of the War Department has +had, in some respects, the most difficult of the +problems presented by the transition from +peace to war. Like the Department of the +Quartermaster General, the Ordnance Department +has had to deal with various increases +of supply, increases far exceeding the organization +and available capacity of the country +for production. The products needed take +longer to produce; for the most part they involved +intricate machinery, and highly refined +processes of manufacture. In addition to this +the industrial agencies of the country have +been devoting a large part of their capacity to +foreign production which, in the new set of +circumstances, it is unwise to interrupt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Organization +of +the +Council of +National +Defense.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">An +advisory +body.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Advisory +function +should +not be +impaired.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The council +supplements +the +Cabinet.</div> + +<p>Legislation enacted on August 29, 1916, as +a part of the National Defense Act provided +for the creation of a Council of National +Defense. Shortly thereafter the council was +organized, its advisory commission appointed, +a director chosen, and its activities planned. +It appropriately directed its first attention to +the industrial situation of the country and, by +the creation of committees representative of +the principal industries, brought together a +great store of information both as to our +capacity for manufacture and as to the re-adaptations +possible in an emergency for rapid +production of supplies of military value.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +Under the law of its creation, the Council of +National Defense is not an executive body, its +principal function being to supervise and direct +investigations and make recommendations to +the President and the heads of the executive +departments with regard to a large variety of +subjects. The advisory commission is thus +advisory to a body which is itself advisory, +and the subordinate bodies authorized to be +created are collectors of data upon which advice +can be formulated. There was no intention +on the part of Congress to subdivide the +executive function, but rather to strengthen it +by equipping it with carefully matured recommendations +based upon adequate surveys of +conditions. The extent of the council's powers +has been sometimes misunderstood, with the +result that it has been deemed an inapt instrument, +and from time to time suggestions +have been made looking to the donation to it +of power to execute its conclusions. Whatever +determination Congress may hereafter reach +with regard to the bestowal of additional executive +power and the creation of agencies for +its exercise, the advisory function of the Council +of National Defense ought not to be impaired, +nor ought its usefulness to be left unrecognized. +In the first place, the council +brings together the heads of the departments +ordinarily concerned in the industrial and commercial +problems which affect the national defense +and undoubtedly prevents duplications of +work and overlappings of jurisdiction. It also +makes available for the special problems of individual +departments the results attained in +other departments which have been called upon +to examine the same problem from other points +of view. In the second place, the council supplements +the activities of the Cabinet under +the direction of the President by bringing together +in a committee, as it were, members of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +the Cabinet for the consideration of problems +which, when maturely studied, can be presented +for the President's judgment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +council +directs the +aroused +spirit +of the +nation.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +General +Munitions +Board.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Field of +priorities +in transportation +and +supplies.</div> + +<p>With the declaration of a state of war, however, +the usefulness of the Council of National +Defense became instantly more obvious. The +peace-time activities and interests of our +people throughout the country surged toward +Washington in an effort to assimilate themselves +into the new scheme of things which, +it was recognized, would call for widespread +changes of occupation and interest. The Council +of National Defense was the only national +agency at all equipped to receive and direct +this aroused spirit seeking appropriate modes +of action, and it was admirably adapted to the +task because among the members of the council +were those Cabinet officers whose normal +activities brought them into constant contact +with all the varied peace-time activities of the +people and who were, therefore, best qualified +to judge the most useful opportunities in the +new state of things for men and interests of +which they respectively knew the normal relations. +For the more specialized problems of +the national defense, notably those dealing +with the production of war materials, the council +authorized the organization of subordinate +bodies of experts, and the General Munitions +Board grew naturally out of the necessities of +the War and Navy Departments, which required +not only the maximum production of +existing munition-making industries in the +country, but the creation of new capacity for +production and its correlation with similar +needs on the part of the foreign governments. +The work done by the General Munitions Board +was highly effective, but it was soon seen that +its problem carried over into the field of transportation, +that it was bound up with the question +of priorities, and that it was itself divisible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> +into the great and separate fields of raw material +supply and the production of finished +goods. With the growth of its necessary interests +and the constant discovery of new relations +it became necessary so to reorganize +the General Munitions Board as both to enlarge +its view and more definitely recognize its +widespread relations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The War +Industries +Board.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Knowledge +of war +needs +of the +United +States and +Allies.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Council of +National +Defense a +natural center.</div> + +<p>Upon the advice of the Council of National +Defense, the General Munitions Board was replaced +by the War Industries Board, which +consists of a chairman, a representative of the +Army, a representative of the Navy, a representative +of labor and the three members of +the Allied Purchasing Commission through +whom, under arrangements made with foreign +Governments by the Secretary of the Treasury, +the purchasing of allied goods in the +United States is effected. This purchasing +commission consists of three chairmen—one of +priorities, one of raw materials, and one of +finished products. By the presence of Army +and Navy representatives, the needs of our +own Government are brought to the common +council table of the War Industries Board. +The board is thus enabled to know all the war +needs of our Government and the nations associated +with us in war, to measure their effect +upon the industry of the country, to assign +relative priorities in the order of serviceableness +to the common cause, and to forecast both +the supply of raw material and our capacity +for completing its manufacture in such a way +as to coordinate our entire industrial capacity, +both with a view to its maximum efficiency and +to its permanent effect upon the industrial condition +of the country. Under legislation enacted +by Congress, the President has committed +certain definite problems to special agencies. +The food administration, the fuel administration, +and the shipping problem being each in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> +the hands of experts specially selected under +appropriate enactments. In large part, these +activities are separable from the general questions +considered by the Council of National +Defense and the War Industries Board, but +there are necessary relations between them +which it has been found quite simple to arrange +by conference and consultation, and the Council +of National Defense, with the Secretary of +the Treasury added as an important councilor, +has seemed the natural center around which +to group these agencies so far as any common +activity among them is desirable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The War +Department +indebted +to +the +council.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Unremunerated +service +of able +citizens.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Business +confidence +in the +Government.</div> + +<p>In the meantime the Advisory Commission of +the Council of National Defense and the council +itself have continued to perform the original +advisory functions committed to them by the +National Defense Act. The War Department +is glad to acknowledge its debt to the council +and the commission. I refrain from specific +enumeration of the services which the department +has received through these agencies only +because their number is infinite and their +value obvious. The various supply committees +created by the Supply Commission, the scientific +resources placed at the disposal of the +department, the organization of the medical +profession, the cooperation of the transportation +interests of the country, the splendid harmony +which has been established in the field +of labor, are all fruits of the actions of these +bodies and notably of the Advisory Commission. +It has been especially in connection with +the activities of the council and the commission +that we have been helped by the unremunerated +service of citizens who bore no official +relation to the Government but had expert +knowledge of and experience with the industries +of the country which it was necessary +rapidly to summon into new uses. Through +their influence, the trade rivalries and commercial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> +competitions, stimulating and helpful +in times of peace, have been subordinated to +the paramount purpose of national service and +the common good. They have not only created +helpful relations for the present emergency but +have established a new confidence in the Government +on the part of business and perhaps +have led to clearer judgments on the part of +the Government in its dealings with the great +organizations, both of labor and of capital, +which form the industrial and commercial +fabric of our society. The large temporary gain +thus manifest is supplemented by permanent +good; and in the reorganizations which take +place when the war is over there will doubtless +be a more conscious national purpose in +business and a more conscious helpfulness toward +business on the part of the Government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +Pershing +goes to +France.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Navy +transports +troops +without +any loss.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Terminal +facilities +organized.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cooperation +of +the +Shipping +Board.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Reserve +equipment +and food.</div> + +<p>As a result of the exchanges of views which +took place between the military missions to +the United States and our own Government, it +was determined to begin at once the dispatch +of an expeditionary force of the American +Army to France. This has been done. General +John J. Pershing was selected as commander +in chief and with his staff departed for France, +to be followed shortly by the full division, consisting +entirely of Regular Army troops. Immediately +thereafter there was formed the so-called +Rainbow Division, made up of National +Guard units of many States scattered widely +throughout the country. The purpose of its +organization was to distribute the honor of +early participation in the war over a wide area +and thus to satisfy in some part the eagerness +of these State forces to be permitted to serve +in Europe. The Marines, with their fine traditions +and honorable history, were likewise recognized, +and regiments of Marines were added +to the first forces dispatched. It would, of +course, be unwise to attempt any enumeration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +of the forces at this time overseas, but the +Army and the country would not have me do +less than express their admiration and appreciation +of the splendid cooperation of the +Navy, by means of which these expeditionary +forces have been safely transported and have +been enabled to traverse without loss the so-called +danger zone infested by the stealthy and +destructive submarine navy of the enemy. The +organization and dispatch of the expeditionary +force required the preparation of an elaborate +transport system, involving not only the procurement +of ships and their refitting for service +as troop and cargo transports, but also extensive +organizations of terminal facilities both in +this country and France; and in order to surround +the expeditionary force with every safeguard, +a large surplus of supplies of every kind +were immediately placed at their disposal in +France. This placed an added burden upon the +supply divisions of the department and explains +in part some of the shortages, notably +those of clothing, which have temporarily embarrassed +mobilization of troops at home, embarrassments +now happily passed. In the organization +of this transport the constant and +helpful cooperation of the Shipping Board, the +railroads, and those in control of warehousing, +wharfing, lighterage, and other terminal facilities +has been invaluable. Our activities in this +regard have resulted in the transporting of an +army to France fully equipped, with adequate +reserves of equipment and subsistence, and +with those large quantities of transportation +appliances, motor vehicles, railroad construction +supplies, and animals, all of which are +necessary for the maintenance and effective +operations of the force.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Technical +troops cooperate +with +British +and +French.</div> + +<p>The act authorizing the temporary increase +of the military establishment empowered the +department to create special organizations of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> +technical troops. Under this provision railroad +and stevedore regiments have been formed +and special organizations of repair men and +mechanics, some of which have proceeded to +France and rendered service back of the British +and French line in anticipation of and +training for their later service with the American +Army. No complete descriptions of these +activities can be permitted at this time, but +the purpose of the department has been to +provide from the first for the maintenance of +our own military operations without adding +to the burdens already borne by the British +and French, and to render, incidentally, such +assistance to the British and French Armies as +could be rendered by technical troops in training +in the theater of operations. By this means +the United States has already rendered service +of great value to the common cause, these +technical troops having actually carried on +operations for which they are designed in effective +cooperation with the British and French +Armies behind hotly contested battle fronts.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Red Cross +organizes +base +hospital +units.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Doctors +and nurses +aid British +and +French +armies.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The +medical +profession +rallies +around the +service.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Convalescent +and reconstruction +hospitals.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Physical +fitness +necessary +for +military +service.</div> + +<p>Working in close association with the medical +committee of the Council of National Defense +and the Red Cross and in constant and +helpful contact with the medical activities of +the British, French, and other belligerents, the +Surgeon General has built up the personnel of +his department and taken over from the Red +Cross completely organized base-hospital units +and ambulance units, supplemented them by +fresh organizations, procured great quantities +of medical supplies and prepared on a generous +scale to meet any demands of our Army in +action. Incidentally and in the course of this +preparation, great numbers of base hospital +organizations, ambulance units, and additional +doctors and nurses have been placed at the disposal +of the British and French armies, and +are now in the field of actual war, ministering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +to the needs of our Allies. Indeed, the honor +of first participation by Americans in this war +belongs to the Medical Department. In addition +to all this preparation and activity, the +Surgeon General's department has been charged +with the responsibility for the study of defense +against gas attack and the preparation of such +gas masks and other appliances as can be devised +to minimize its effects. The medical profession +of the country has rallied around this +service. The special laboratories of the great +medical institutions have devoted themselves +to the study of problems of military medicine. +New, effective, and expeditious surgical and +medical procedures have been devised and the +latest defensive and curative discoveries of +medical science have been made available for +the protection and restoration of our soldiers. +Far-reaching activities have been conducted by +the Medical Department here in America, involving +the supervision of plans for great base +hospitals in the camps and cantonments, the +planning of convalescent and reconstruction +hospitals for invalided soldiers and anticipatory +organization wherever possible to supply +relief to distress and sickness as it may arise. +Moreover, the task of the Medical Department +in connection with the new Army has been exacting. +Rigid examinations have been conducted, +in the first instance by the physicians +connected with the exemption boards, but later +at the camps, in order to eliminate from the +ranks men whose physical condition did not +justify their retention in the military service. +Many of the rejections by the Medical Department +have caused grief to high-spirited young +men not conscious of physical weakness or defect, +and perhaps having no weakness or defect +which embarrassed their usefulness in +civilian occupation; but both the strength of +the Army and justice to the men involved require<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +that the test of fitness for military service +should be the sole guide, and the judgments of +the most expert physicians have been relied +upon to give us an army composed of men of the +highest possible physical efficiency.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The capture of Jerusalem by the British +under Allenby on December 8th, 1917, sent a +thrill throughout the civilized world. The +deliverance of the Holy City from the Turks +marked another great epoch in its history, +which includes possession by Assyrians, Babylonians, +Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks. +The entrance of the British troops into +Jerusalem is described in the following narrative.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM</h2> + +<h3>GENERAL E. H. H. ALLENBY</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">General +Allenby's +instructions.</div> + +<p>When I took over the command of the +Egyptian Expeditionary Force at the +end of June, 1917, I had received instructions +to report on the conditions in which +offensive operations against the Turkish Army +on the Palestine front might be undertaken in +the autumn or winter of 1917.</p> + +<p>After visiting the front and consulting with +the Commander of the Eastern Force, I submitted +my appreciation and proposals in a +telegram dispatched in the second week of +July.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation +on the +Palestine +front.</div> + +<p>The main features of the situation on the +Palestine front were then as follows:</p> + +<p>The Turkish Army in Southern Palestine +held a strong position extending from the sea +at Gaza, roughly along the main Gaza-Beersheba +Road to Beersheba. Gaza had been made +into a strong modern fortress, heavily entrenched +and wired, offering every facility for +protracted defence. The remainder of the enemy's +line consisted of a series of strong localities, +viz.: the Sihan group of works, the +Atawineh group, the Baha group, the Abu +Hareira-Arab el Teeaha trench system, and, +finally, the works covering Beersheba. These +groups of works were generally from 1,500 to +2,000 yards apart, except that the distance from +the Hareira group to Beersheba was about 4 1/2 +miles.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Turks +have good +communications.</div> + +<p>The enemy's force was on a wide front, the +distance from Gaza to Beersheba being about +30 miles; but his lateral communications were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> +good, and any threatened point of the line could +be very quickly reinforced.</p> + +<p>My force was extended on a front of 22 miles, +from the sea, opposite Gaza, to Gamli.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lack of +water on +the +British +front.</div> + +<p>Owing to lack of water I was unable, without +preparations which would require some considerable +time, to approach within striking distance +of the enemy, except in the small sector +near the sea coast opposite Gaza.</p> + +<p>My proposals received the approval of the +War Cabinet, and preparations were undertaken +to enable the plan I had formed to be put +into execution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">To strike +on Turk's +left flank.</div> + +<p>I had decided to strike the main blow against +the left flank of the main Turkish position, +Hareira and Sheria. The capture of Beersheba +was a necessary preliminary to this operation, +in order to secure the water supplies at that +place and to give room for the deployment of +the attacking force on the high ground to the +north and north-west of Beersheba, from which +direction I intended to attack the Hareira-Sheria +line.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Necessary +to take +Beersheba.</div> + +<p>This front of attack was chosen for the following +reasons. The enemy's works in this +sector were less formidable than elsewhere, and +they were easier of approach than other parts +of the enemy's defences. When Beersheba was +in our hands we should have an open flank +against which to operate, and I could make full +use of our superiority in mounted troops, and a +success here offered prospects of pursuing our +advantage and forcing the enemy to abandon +the rest of his fortified positions, which no +other line of attack would afford.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attacked +Gaza to +deceive +enemy.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Assurance +of naval +cooperation at +Gaza.</div> + +<p>It was important, in order to keep the enemy +in doubt up to the last moment as to the real +point of attack, that an attack should also be +made on the enemy's right at Gaza in conjunction +with the main operations. One of my Commanders +was therefore ordered to prepare a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> +scheme for operations against Gaza on as large +a scale as the force at his disposal would permit. +I also asked the Senior Naval Officer of +Egypt, Rear-Admiral T. Jackson, C.B., M.V.O., +to afford me naval cooperation by bombarding +the Gaza defences and the enemy's railway stations +and <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'depots'">depôts</ins> north of Gaza. Rear-Admiral +Jackson afforded me cordial assistance, and +during the period of preparation Naval Officers +worked in the closest cooperation with my staff +at General Headquarters and the staff of the +G.O.C. troops operating in that region.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Difficulties +regarding +water and +transport.</div> + +<p>The difficulties to be overcome in the operations +against Beersheba and the Sheria-Hareira +line were considerable, and careful preparations +and training were necessary. The chief +difficulties were those of water and transport, +and arrangements had to be made to ensure +that the troops could be kept supplied with +water while operating at considerable distances +from their original water base for a period +which might amount to a week or more; for, +though it was known that an ample supply of +water existed at Beersheba, it was uncertain +how quickly it could be developed or to what +extent the enemy would have damaged the wells +before we succeeded in occupying the town. +Except at Beersheba, no large supply of water +would be found till Sheria and Hareira had +been captured.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No good +roads +south of +Gaza-Beersheba +line.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Railway +lines to +be laid.</div> + +<p>The transport problem was no less difficult; +there were no good roads south of the line +Gaza-Beersheba, and no reliance could therefore +be placed on the use of motor transport. Owing +to the steep banks of many of the wadis which +intersected the area of operations, the routes +passable by wheeled transport were limited, +and the going was heavy and difficult in many +places. Practically the whole of the transport +available in the force, including 30,000 pack +camels, had to be allotted to one portion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> +eastern force to enable it to be kept supplied +with food, water, and ammunition at a distance +of 15 to 20 miles in advance of railhead. Arrangements +were also made for railhead to be +pushed forward as rapidly as possible towards +Karm, and for a line to be laid from +Gamli toward Beersheba for the transport of +ammunition.</p> + +<p>A railway line was also laid from Deir el +Belah to the Wadi Ghuzze, close behind the sector +held by another portion of the eastern force.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rushing +up artillery +and +supplies.</div> + +<p>Considerable strain was thrown on the military +railway from Kantara to the front during +the period of preparation. In addition to the +normal requirements of the force, a number of +siege and heavy batteries, besides other artillery +and units, had to be moved to the front, +and large depôts of supplies, ammunition, and +other stores accumulated at the various railheads. +Preparations had also to be made and +the necessary material accumulated to push +forward the lines from Deir el Belah and +Shellal.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +enemy determined +to maintain +Gaza +to +Beersheba +line.</div> + +<p>During the period from July to October, +1917, the enemy's force on the Palestine front +had been increased. It was evident, from the +arrival of these reinforcements and the construction +of railway extensions from El Tine, +on the Ramleh-Beersheba railway, to Deir +Sineid and Belt Hanun, north of Gaza, and +from Deir Sineid to Huj, and from reports of +the transport of large supplies of ammunition +and other stores to the Palestine front, that +the enemy was determined to make every effort +to maintain his position on the Gaza-Beersheba +line. He had considerably strengthened his defences +on this line; and the strong localities +mentioned had, by the end of October, been +joined up to form a practically continuous +line from the sea to a point south of Sheria, +except for a gap between Ali Muntar and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> +Sihan Group. The defensive works round +Beersheba remained a detached system, but had +been improved and extended.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Date of +attack on +Beersheba.</div> + +<p>The date of the attack on Beersheba, which +was to commence the operations, was fixed as +October 31, 1917. Work had been begun on the +railway from Shellal towards Karm, and on +the line from Gamli to El Buggar. The development +of water at Ecani, Khalasa, and Asluj +proceeded satisfactorily. These last two places +were to be the starting point for the mounted +force detailed to make a wide flanking movement +and attack Beersheba from the east and +north-east.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Turks +make a +strong +reconnaissance.</div> + +<p>On the morning of October 27 the Turks +made a strong reconnaissance towards Karm +from the direction of Kauwukah, two regiments +of cavalry and two or three thousand +infantry, with guns, being employed. They attacked +a line of outposts near El Girheir, held +by some Yeomanry, covering railway construction. +One small post was rushed and cut up, +but not before inflicting heavy loss on the enemy; +another post, though surrounded, held out +all day, and also caused the enemy heavy loss. +The gallant resistance made by the Yeomanry +enabled the 53rd (Welsh) Division to come up +in time, and on their advance the Turks withdrew.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bombardment +of +Gaza +defenses.</div> + +<p>The bombardment of the Gaza defences commenced +on October 27, and on October 30 warships +of the Royal Navy, assisted by a French +battleship, began cooperating in this bombardment.</p> + +<p>On the evening of October 30 the portion of +the eastern force, which was to make the attack +on Beersheba, was concentrated in positions of +readiness for the night march to its positions +of deployment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Imperial +Camel +Corps, +Infantry +and +Cavalry.</div> + +<p>The night march to the positions of deployment +was successfully carried out, all units<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> +reaching their appointed positions up to time. +The plan was to attack the hostile works +between the Khalasa road and the Wadi Saba +with two divisions, masking the works north +of the Wadi Saba with the Imperial Camel +Corps and some infantry, while a portion of the +53rd (Welsh) Division further north covered +the left of the corps. The right of the attack +was covered by a cavalry regiment. Further +east, mounted troops took up a line opposite +the southern defences of Beersheba.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy's +advanced +works +taken.</div> + +<p>As a preliminary to the main attack, in order +to enable field guns to be brought within effective +range for wire-cutting, the enemy's advanced +works at 1,070 were to be taken. This +was successfully accomplished at 8.45 a.m., +after a short preliminary bombardment, by +London troops, with small loss, 90 prisoners +being taken. The cutting of the wire on the +main line then proceeded satisfactorily, though +pauses had to be made to allow the dust to +clear; and the final assault was ordered for +12.15 p.m. It was successful all along the +front attacked, and by about 1 p.m. the whole +of the works between the Khalasa road and the +Wadi Saba were in our hands.</p> + +<p>Some delay occurred in ascertaining whether +the enemy still occupied the works north of the +road; it was decided, as they were still held +by small parties, to attack them from the +south. After a preliminary bombardment the +works were occupied with little opposition by +about 7.30 p.m.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +casualties +light.</div> + +<p>The casualties were light, considering the +strength of the works attacked; a large proportion +occurred during the advance towards +the positions previous to the assault, the hostile +guns being very accurate and very difficult to +locate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The road +toward +Beersheba.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile, the mounted troops, after a night +march, for part of the force of 25 and for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> +remainder of 35 miles, arrived early in the +morning of the 31st about Khasim Zanna, in +the hills some five miles east of Beersheba. +From the hills the advance into Beersheba from +the east and north-east lies over an open and +almost flat plain, commanded by the rising +ground north of the town and flanked by an +underfeature in the Wadi Saba called Tel el +Saba.</p> + +<p>A force was sent north to secure Bir es +Sakaty, on the Hebron road, and protect the +right flank, this force met with some opposition +and was engaged with hostile cavalry at Bir +es Sakaty and to the north during the day. +Tel el Saba was found strongly held by the +enemy, and was not captured till late in the +afternoon.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rapid +advance +of Australian +Light +Horse.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile, attempts to advance in small +parties across the plain towards the town made +slow progress. In the evening, however, a +mounted attack by Australian Light Horse, +who rode straight at the town from the east, +proved completely successful. They galloped +over two deep trenches held by the enemy just +outside the town, and entered the town at +about 7 p. m., capturing numerous prisoners.</p> + +<p>The Turks at Beersheba were undoubtedly +taken completely by surprise, a surprise from +which the dash of London troops and Yeomanry, +finely supported by their artillery, +never gave them time to recover. The charge +of the Australian Light Horse completed their +defeat.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Prisoners +and guns +taken.</div> + +<p>A very strong position was thus taken with +slight loss, and the Turkish detachment at +Beersheba almost completely put out of action. +About 2,000 prisoners and 13 guns were taken, +and some 500 Turkish corpses were buried on +the battlefield. This success laid open the left +flank of the main Turkish position for a decisive +blow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Complete +success of +Beersheba +operations.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">The attack +on +Gaza.</div> + +<p>The actual date of the attack at Gaza had +been left open till the result of the attack at +Beersheba was known, as it was intended that +the former attack, which was designed to draw +hostile reserves towards the Gaza sector, should +take place twenty-four to forty-eight hours previous +to the attack on the Sheria position. +After the complete success of the Beersheba +operations, and as the early reports indicated +that an ample supply of water would be available +at that place, it was hoped that it would +be possible to attack Sheria by November 3 or +4. The attack on Gaza was accordingly ordered +to take place on the morning of November 2. +Later reports showed that the water situation +was less favorable than had been hoped, +but it was decided not to postpone the +attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +works on +Umbrella +Hill +principal +objectives.</div> + +<p>The objective of this attack were the hostile +works from Umbrella Hill (2,000 yards south-west +of the town) to Sheikh Hasan, on the sea +(about 2,500 yards north-west of the town). +The front of the attack was about 6,000 yards, +and Sheikh Hasan, the furthest objective, was +over 3,000 yards from our front line. The +ground over which the attack took place consisted +of sand dunes, rising in places up to 150 +feet in height. This sand is very deep and +heavy going. The enemy's defences consisted of +several lines of strongly built trenches and redoubts.</p> + +<p>As Umbrella Hill flanked the advance against +the Turkish works further west, it was decided +to capture it by a preliminary operation, to +take place four hours previous to the main attack. +It was accordingly attacked, and captured +at 11 p. m. on November 1 by a portion +of the 52nd (Lowland) Division. This attack +drew a heavy bombardment of Umbrella Hill +itself and our front lines, which lasted for two +hours, but ceased in time to allow the main<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> +attack, which was timed for 3 a. m., to form +up without interference.</p> + +<p>It had been decided to make the attack before +daylight owing to the distance to be covered +between our front trenches and the enemy's +position.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Success of +the attack +on Umbrella +Hill.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Capture +of the +south-western +defenses.</div> + +<p>The attack was successful in reaching all +objectives, except for a section of trench on the +left and some of the final objectives in the +centre. Four hundred and fifty prisoners were +taken and many Turks killed. The enemy also +suffered heavily from the preliminary bombardment, +and subsequent reports from prisoners +stated that one of the divisions holding the +Gaza sector was withdrawn after losing 33 per +cent of its effectives, one of the divisions in +general reserve being drawn into the Gaza +sector to replace it. The attack thus succeeded +in its primary object, which was to prevent any +units being drawn from the Gaza defences to +meet the threat to the Turkish left flank, and +to draw into Gaza as large a proportion as +possible of the available Turkish reserves. Further, +the capture of Sheikh Hasan and the +south-western defences constituted a very distinct +threat to the whole of the Gaza position, +which could be developed on any sign of a withdrawal +on the part of the enemy.</p> + +<p>Our losses, though considerable, were not in +any way disproportionate to the results obtained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Water +and transport +difficulties.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile on our right flank the water and +transport difficulties were found to be greater +than anticipated, and the preparations for the +second phase of the attack were somewhat delayed +in consequence.</p> + +<p>On the early morning of November 1 the 53rd +(Welsh) Division, with the Imperial Camel +Corps on its right, had moved out into the hills +north of Beersheba, with the object of securing +the flank of the attack on Sheria. Mounted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> +troops were also sent north along the Hebron +Road to secure Dhaheriyeh if possible, as it +was hoped that a good supply of water would +be found in this area, and that a motor road +which the Turks were reported to have constructed +from Dhaheriyeh to Sheria could be +secured for our use.</p> + +<p>The 53rd (Welsh) Division, after a long +march, took up a position from Towal Abu +Jerwal (six miles north of Beersheba) to +Muweileh (four miles north-east of Abu Irgeig). +Irish troops occupied Abu Irgeig the same day.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Advance +on Kohleh +and +Khuweilfeh.</div> + +<p>On November 3 we advanced north on Ain +Kohleh and Tel Khuweilfeh, near which place +the mounted troops had engaged considerable +enemy forces on the previous day. This advance +was strongly opposed, but was pushed +on through difficult hill country to within a +short distance of Ain Kohleh and Khuweilfeh. +At these places the enemy was found holding a +strong position with considerable and increasing +forces. He was obviously determined not +only to bar any further progress in this direction, +but, if possible, to drive our flankguard +back on Beersheba. During the 4th and 5th +he made several determined attacks on the +mounted troops. These attacks were repulsed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hostile +cavalry +between +Khuweilfeh +and +Hebron +Road.</div> + +<p>By the evening of November 5 the 19th Turkish +Division, the remains of the 27th and certain +units of the 16th Division had been identified +in the fighting round Tel el Khuweilfeh, +and it was also fairly clear that the greater +part of the hostile cavalry, supported apparently +by some infantry ("depôt" troops) from +Hebron, were engaged between Khuweilfeh and +the Hebron Road.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +tries to +draw +forces +north of +Beersheba.</div> + +<p>The action of the enemy in thus employing +the whole of his available reserves in an immediate +counter-stroke so far to the east was apparently +a bold effort to induce me to make +essential alterations in my offensive plan, thereby<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> +gaining time and disorganizing my arrangements. +The country north of Beersheba was +exceedingly rough and hilly, and very little +water was to be found there. Had the enemy +succeeded in drawing considerable forces +against him in that area the result might +easily have been an indecisive fight (for the +terrain was very suitable to his methods of +defence) and my own main striking force would +probably have been made too weak effectively +to break the enemy's centre in the neighborhood +of Sheria Hareira. This might have resulted +in our gaining Beersheba, but failing to +do more—in which case Beersheba would only +have been an incubus of a most inconvenient +kind. However, the enemy's action was not +allowed to make any essential modification to +the original plan, which it had been decided +to carry out at dawn on November 6.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Effort +to reach +Sheria.</div> + +<p>By the evening of November 5, all preparations +had been made to attack in the Kauwukah +and Rushdi systems and to make every effort to +reach Sheria before nightfall.</p> + +<p>The mounted troops were to be prepared in +the event of a success by the main force to +collect, as they were somewhat widely scattered +owing to water difficulties, and push north in +pursuit of the enemy. Tel el Khuweilfeh was +to be attacked at dawn on the 6th, and the +troops were to endeavor to reach line Tel el +Khuweilfeh-Rijm el Dhib.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +plan of +attack.</div> + +<p>At dawn on the 6th the attacking force had +taken up positions of readiness to the S.E. of +the Kauwukah system of trenches. The attack +was to be commenced by an assault on the +group of works forming the extreme left of the +enemy's defensive system, followed by an advance +due west up the railway, capturing the +line of detached works which lay east of the +railway. During this attack London and Irish +troops were to advance towards the Kauwukah<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> +system, bringing forward their guns to within +wire-cutting range. They were to assault the +southeastern face of the Kauwukah system as +soon as the bombardment had proved effective, +and thence take the remainder of the system in +enfilade.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">All objectives +of the +attack +captured.</div> + +<p>The attack progressed rapidly, the Yeomanry +storming the works on the enemy's extreme +left with great dash; and soon after noon the +London and Irish troops commenced their +attack. It was completely successful in capturing +all its objectives, and the whole of the +Rushdi system in addition. Sheria Station was +also captured before dark. The Yeomanry +reached the line of the Wadi Sheria to Wadi +Union; and the troops on the left were close +to Hareira Redoubt, which was still occupied +by the enemy. This attack was a fine performance, +the troops advancing 8 or 9 miles during +the day and capturing a series of very strong +works covering a front of about 7 miles, the +greater part of which had been had and +strengthened by the enemy for over six months. +Some 600 prisoners were taken and some guns +and machine-guns captured. Our casualties +were comparatively slight. The greatest opposition +was encountered by the Yeomanry in the +early morning, the works covering the left of +the enemy's line being strong and stubbornly +defended.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mounted +troops are +ordered to +take +up the +pursuit.</div> + +<p>During the afternoon, as soon as it was seen +that the attack had succeeded, mounted troops +were ordered to take up the pursuit and to +occupy Huj and Jemmamah.</p> + +<p>The 53rd (Welsh) Division had again had +very severe fighting on the 6th. Their attack +at dawn on Tel el Khuweilfeh was successful, +and, though they were driven off a hill by a +counterattack, they retook it and captured another +hill, which much improved their position. +The Turkish losses in this area were very heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> +indeed, and the stubborn fighting of the 53rd +(Welsh) Division, Imperial Camel Corps, and +part of the mounted troops during November 2 +to 6 drew in and exhausted the Turkish reserves +and paved the way for the success of the attack +on Sheria. The 53rd (Welsh) Division took +several hundred prisoners and some guns during +this fighting.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bombardment of +Gaza +continues.</div> + +<p>The bombardment of Gaza had meanwhile +continued, and another attack was ordered to +take place on the night of the 6th-7th.</p> + +<p>The objectives were, on the right, Outpost +Hill and Middlesex Hill (to be attacked at +11.30 p. m. on the 6th), and on the left the line +Belah Trench-Turtle Hill (to be attacked at +dawn on the 7th).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Airmen +observe +enemy +movements.</div> + +<p>During the 6th a certain amount of movement +on the roads north of Gaza was observed +by our airmen and fired on by our heavy artillery, +but nothing indicating a general retirement +from Gaza.</p> + +<p>The attack on Outpost Hill and Middlesex +Hill met with little opposition, and as soon, +after they had been taken, as patrols could be +pushed forward, the enemy was found to be +gone. East Anglian troops on the left also +found at dawn that the enemy had retired +during the night, and early in the morning the +main force occupied the northern and eastern +defences of Gaza. Rearguards were still occupying +Beit Hanun and the Atawineh and +Tank systems, from whence Turkish artillery +continued to fire on Gaza and Ali Muntar till +dusk.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Turks +evacuate +Gaza.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Turkish +rearguard +makes +counterattacks.</div> + +<p>As soon as it was seen that the Turks had +evacuated Gaza a part of the force pushed along +the coast to the mouth of the Wadi Hesi, +so as to turn the Wadi Hesi line and prevent +the enemy making any stand there. Cavalry +had already pushed on round the north of +Gaza, and became engaged with an enemy rearguard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> +at Beit Hanun, which maintained its +position till nightfall. The force advancing +along the coast reached the Wadi Hesi by +evening, and succeeded in establishing itself +on the north bank in the face of considerable +opposition, a Turkish rearguard making several +determined counterattacks.</p> + +<p>On our extreme right the situation remained +practically unchanged during the 7th; the enemy +made no further attempt to counterattack, +but maintained his positions opposite our right +flank guard.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">London +troops take +Tel el +Sheria.</div> + +<p>In the centre the Hareira Tepe Redoubt was +captured at dawn; some prisoners and guns +were taken. The London troops, after a severe +engagement at Tel el Sheria, which they captured +by a bayonet charge at 4 a. m. on the 7th +subsequently repulsing several counterattacks, +pushed forward their line about a mile to the +north of Tel el Sheria; the mounted troops on +the right moved towards Jemmamah and Huj, +but met with considerable opposition from +hostile rearguards.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Charge +of the +Worcester +and +Warwick +Yeomanry.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Reports +of the +Royal +Flying +Corps.</div> + +<p>During the 8th the advance was continued, +and interest was chiefly centred in an attempt +to cut off, if possible, the Turkish rearguard +which had held the Tank and Atawineh systems. +The enemy had, however, retreated during +the night 7th-8th, and though considerable +captures of prisoners, guns, ammunition, and +other stores were made during the day, chiefly +in the vicinity of Huj, no large formed body +of the enemy was cut off. The Turkish rearguards +fought stubbornly and offered considerable +opposition. Near Huj a fine charge by +some squadrons of the Worcester and Warwick +Yeomanry captured 12 guns, and broke the +resistance of a hostile rearguard. It soon became +obvious from the reports of the Royal +Flying Corps, who throughout the 7th and 8th +attacked the retreating columns with bombs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> +and machine-gun fire, and from other evidence, +that the enemy was retiring in considerable disorganization, +and could offer no very serious +resistance if pressed with determination.</p> + +<p>Instructions were accordingly issued on the +morning of the 9th to the mounted troops, +directing them on the line El Tine-Beit Duras, +with orders to press the enemy relentlessly. +They were to be supported by a portion of the +force, which was ordered to push forward to +Julis and Mejdel.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +pursued +toward +Hebron +by the +Yeomanry.</div> + +<p>The enemy opposite our right flank guard had +commenced to retreat towards Hebron on the +morning of the 8th. He was pursued for a +short distance by the Yeomanry, and some +prisoners and camels were captured, but the +Yeomanry were then recalled to rejoin the main +body of the mounted troops for the more important +task of the pursuit of the enemy's main +body.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +problem of +water and +forage.</div> + +<p>By the 9th, therefore, operations had reached +the stage of a direct pursuit by as many troops +as could be supplied so far in front of railhead. +The problem, in fact, became one of supply +rather than manœuvre. The question of water +and forage was a very difficult one. Even +where water was found in sufficient quantities, +it was usually in wells and not on the surface, +and consequently if the machinery for working +the wells was damaged, or a sufficient +supply of troughs was not available, the process +of watering a large quantity of animals was +slow and difficult.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +organizes +a counterattack.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy's +losses +heavy.</div> + +<p>On the evening of November 9 there were indications +that the enemy was organizing a counterattack +towards Arak el Menshiye by all +available units of the force which had retired +towards Hebron, with the object of taking pressure +off the main force, which was retiring +along the coastal plain. It was obvious that +the Hebron force, which was believed to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> +short of transport and ammunition, to have +lost heavily and to be in a generally disorganized +state, could make no effective diversion, +and that this threat could practically be disregarded. +Other information showed the seriousness +of the enemy's losses and the disorganization +of his forces.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Imperial +Camel +Corps +ordered to Tel de +Nejile.</div> + +<p>Orders were accordingly issued to press the +pursuit and to reach the Junction Station as +early as possible, thus cutting off the Jerusalem +Army, while the Imperial Camel Corps +was ordered to move to the neighborhood of +Tel de Nejile, where it would be on the flank +of any counter-stroke from the hills.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +Turkish +Army +makes a +stand.</div> + +<p>Operations on the 10th and 11th showed a +stiffening of the enemy's resistance on the general +line of the Wadi Sukereir, with centre +about El Kustineh; the Hebron group, after an +ineffective demonstration in the direction of +Arak el Menshiye on the 10th, retired north-east +and prolonged the enemy's line towards +Beit Jibrin. Royal Flying Corps reports indicated +the total hostile forces opposed to us +on this line at about 15,000; and this increased +resistance, coupled with the capture of prisoners +from almost every unit of the Turkish +force, tended to show that we were no longer +opposed to rearguards, but that all the remainder +of the Turkish Army which could be +induced to fight was making a last effort to arrest +our pursuit south of the important Junction +Station.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Troops +suffer +from +thirst.</div> + +<p>In these circumstances our progress on the +10th and 11th was slow; the troops suffered +considerably from thirst (a hot, exhausting +wind blew during these two days), and our +supply difficulties were great; but by the +evening of the 11th favorable positions had +been reached for a combined attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Forces far +from their +railhead.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Water +supply +slow to +obtain.</div> + +<p>The 12th was spent in preparations for the +attack, which was ordered to be begun early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> +on the morning of the 13th, on the enemy's +position covering Junction Station. Our forces +were now operating at a distance of some 35 +miles in advance of their railhead, and the +bringing up and distribution of supplies and +ammunition formed a difficult problem. The +routes north of the Wadi Hesi were found to +be hard and good going, though there were +some difficult Wadi crossings, but the main +road through Gaza and as far as Beit Hanun +was sandy and difficult. The supply of water +in the area of operations, though good and +plentiful in most of the villages, lies mainly in +wells 100 feet or more below the surface, and +in these circumstances a rapid supply and distribution +was almost impossible. Great credit +is due to all concerned that these difficulties +were overcome and that it was found possible +not only to supply the troops already in the +line, but to bring up two heavy batteries to +support the attack.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +enemy's +position +from El +Kubeibeh +to Beit +Jibrin.</div> + +<p>The situation on the morning of November +13 was that the enemy had strung out his force +(amounting probably to no more than 20,000 +rifles in all) on a front of 20 miles, from El +Kubeibeh on the north to about Beit Jibrin to +the south. The right half of his line ran +roughly parallel to and only about 5 miles in +front of the Ramleh-Junction Station railway, +his main line of supply from the north, and his +right flank was already almost turned. This +position had been dictated to him by the +rapidity of our movement along the coast, and +the determination with which his rearguards +on this flank had been pressed.</p> + +<p>The advanced guard of the 52nd (Lowland) +Division had forced its way almost to Burkah +on the 11th, on which day also some mounted +troops pushed across the Nahr Sukereir at Jisr +Esdud, where they held a bridge-head. During +the 12th the Yeomanry pushed north up the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> +left bank of the Nahr Suhereir, and eventually +seized Tel-el-Murreh on the right bank near the +mouth.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">One part +of enemy +retires +north, the +other east.</div> + +<p>The enemy's army had now been broken into +two separate parts, which retired north and +east respectively, and were reported to consist +of small scattered groups rather than formed +bodies of any size.</p> + +<p>In fifteen days our force had advanced sixty +miles on its right and about forty on its left. +It had driven a Turkish Army of nine Infantry +Divisions and one Cavalry Division out of a position +in which it had been entrenched for six +months, and had pursued it, giving battle +whenever it attempted to stand, and inflicting +on it losses amounting probably to nearly two-thirds +of the enemy's original effectives. Over +9,000 prisoners, about eighty guns, more than +100 machine guns, and very large quantities of +ammunition and other stores had been captured.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Capture of +Junction +Station.</div> + +<p>After the capture of Junction Station on the +morning of the 14th, our troops secured a position +covering the station, while the Australian +mounted troops reached Kezaze that same +evening.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Turks +fight New +Zealand +Mounted +Rifles.</div> + +<p>The mounted troops pressed on towards +Ramleh and Ludd. On the right Naaneh was +attacked and captured in the morning, while +on the left the New Zealand Mounted Rifles +had a smart engagement at Ayun Kara (six +miles south of Jaffa). Here the Turks made a +determined counter-attack and got to within +fifteen yards of our line. A bayonet attack +drove them back with heavy loss.</p> + +<p>Flanking the advance along the railway to +Ramleh and covering the main road from Ramleh +to Jerusalem, a ridge stands up prominently +out of the low foot hills surrounding it. This +is the site of the ancient Gezer, near which the +village of Abu Shusheh now stands. A hostile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> +rearguard had established itself on this feature. +It was captured on the morning of the 15th in +a brilliant attack by mounted troops, who galloped +up the ridge from the south. A gun and +360 prisoners were taken in this affair.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mounted +troops +reach +Ramleh +and Ludd. +Jaffa +taken.</div> + +<p>By the evening of the 15th the mounted +troops had occupied Ramleh and Ludd, and +had pushed patrols to within a short distance +of Jaffa. At Ludd 300 prisoners were taken, +and five destroyed aeroplanes and a quantity +of abandoned war material were found at Ramleh +and Ludd.</p> + +<p>Jaffa was occupied without opposition on +the evening of the 16th.</p> + +<p>The situation was now as follows:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Airmen +report +enemy +likely to +leave +Jerusalem.</div> + +<p>The enemy's army, cut in two by our capture +of Junction Station, had retired partly +east into the mountains towards Jerusalem and +partly north along the plain. The nearest line +on which these two portions could re-unite was +the line Tul Keram-Nablus. Reports from the +Royal Flying Corps indicated that it was the +probable intention of the enemy to evacuate +Jerusalem and withdraw to reorganize on this +line.</p> + +<p>On our side the mounted troops had been +marching and fighting continuously since October +31, and had advanced a distance of seventy-five +miles, measured in a straight line from +Asluj to Jaffa. The troops, after their heavy +fighting at Gaza, had advanced in nine days a +distance of about forty miles, with two severe +engagements and continual advanced +guard fighting. The 52nd (Lowland) Division +had covered sixty-nine miles in this +period.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Railway +is being +extended.</div> + +<p>The railway was being pushed forward as +rapidly as possible, and every opportunity was +taken of landing stores at points along the +coast. The landing of stores was dependent on +a continuance of favorable weather, and might<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> +at any moment be stopped for several days +together.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">One good +road from +Nablus to +Jerusalem.</div> + +<p>A pause was therefore necessary to await +the progress of railway construction, but before +our position in the plain could be considered +secure it was essential to obtain a hold +of the one good road which traverses the Judæan +range from north to south, from Nablus +to Jerusalem.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Road +damaged +in +several +places.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Water +supply +scanty.</div> + +<p>On our intended line of advance only one +good road, the main Jaffa-Jerusalem road, +traversed the hills from east to west. For +nearly four miles, between Bab el Wad (two +and one-half miles east of Latron) and Saris, +this road passes through a narrow defile, and +it had been damaged by the Turks in several +places. The other roads were mere tracks on +the side of the hill or up the stony beds of +wadis, and were impracticable for wheeled +transport without improvement. Throughout +these hills the water supply was scanty without +development.</p> + +<p>On November 17 the Yeomanry had commenced +to move from Ramleh through the +hills direct on Bireh by Annabeh, Berfilya and +Beit ur el Tahta (Lower Bethoron). By the +evening of November 18 one portion of the +Yeomanry had reached the last-named place, +while another portion had occupied Shilta. +The route had been found impossible for wheels +beyond Annabeh.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Infantry +begins its +advance.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Attempt +to avoid +fighting +near +Jerusalem.</div> + +<p>On the 19th the Infantry commenced its advance. +One portion was to advance up the +main road as far as Kuryet el Enab, with its +right flank protected by Australian mounted +troops. From that place, in order to avoid any +fighting in the close vicinity of the Holy City, +it was to strike north towards Bireh by +a track leading through Biddu. The remainder +of the infantry was to advance through +Berfilya to Beit Likia and Beit Dukka and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> +thence support the movement of the other +portion.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Saris +defended +by rearguards.</div> + +<p>After capturing Latron and Amnas on the +morning of the 19th, the remainder of the day +was spent in clearing the defile up to Saris, +which was defended by hostile rearguards.</p> + +<p>On the 20th Kuryet el Enab was captured +with the bayonet in the face of organized opposition, +while Beit Dukka was also captured. +On the same day the Yeomanry got to within +four miles of the Nablus-Jerusalem road, but +were stopped by strong opposition about Beitunia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Difficult +advance of +infantry +and +Yeomanry.</div> + +<p>On the 21st a body of infantry moved north-east +by a track from Kuryet el Enab through +Biddu and Kolundia towards Bireh. The track +was found impassable for wheels, and was +under hostile shell-fire. Progress was slow, +but by evening the ridge on which stands Neby +Samwil was secured. A further body of troops +was left at Kuryet el Enab to cover the flank +and demonstrate along the main Jerusalem +road. It drove hostile parties from Kostul, two +and one-half miles east of Kuryet el Enab, and +secured this ridge.</p> + +<p>By the afternoon of the 21st advanced parties +of Yeomanry were within two miles of the road +and an attack was being delivered on Beitunia +by other mounted troops.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Period +of organization +and +preparation +necessary.</div> + +<p>The positions reached on the evening of the +21st practically marked the limit of progress +in this first attempt to gain the Nablus-Jerusalem +road. The Yeomanry were heavily counter-attacked +and fell back, after bitter fighting, +on Beit ur el Foka (Upper Bethoron). During +the 22nd the enemy made two counter-attacks +on the Neby Samwil ridge, which were repulsed. +Determined and gallant attacks were made on +the 23rd and on the 24th on the strong positions +to the west of the road held by the enemy, +who had brought up reinforcements and numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> +machine-guns, and could support his +infantry by artillery fire from guns placed in +positions along the main road. Our artillery, +from lack of roads, could not be brought up to +give adequate support to our infantry. Both +attacks failed, and it was evident that a period +of preparation and organization would be +necessary before an attack could be delivered +in sufficient strength to drive the enemy from +his positions west of the road.</p> + +<p>Orders were accordingly issued to consolidate +the positions gained and prepare for relief.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Position +for final +attack +is won.</div> + +<p>Though these troops had failed to reach their +final objectives, they had achieved invaluable +results. The narrow passes from the plain to +the plateau of the Judæan range have seldom +been forced, and have been fatal to many invading +armies. Had the attempt not been made at +once, or had it been pressed with less determination, +the enemy would have had time to +reorganize his defences in the passes lower +down, and the conquest of the plateau would +then have been slow, costly, and precarious. +As it was, positions had been won from which +the final attack could be prepared and delivered +with good prospects of success.</p> + +<p>By December 4 all reliefs were complete, and +a line was held from Kustul by the Neby Samwil +ridge, Beit Izza, and Beit Dukka, to Beit +ur el Tahta.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Severe +local +fighting.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +pierces +outposts +near Jaffa.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Attacks +costly to +Turks.</div> + +<p>During this period attacks by the enemy +along the whole line led to severe local fighting. +On November 25 our advanced posts north of +the river Auja were driven back across the +river. From the 27th to the 30th the enemy +delivered a series of attacks directed especially +against the high ground north and north-east +of Jaffa, the left flank of our position in the +hills from Beit ur el Foka to El Burj, and the +Neby Samwil ridge. An attack on the night +of the 29th succeeded in penetrating our outpost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> +line north-east of Jaffa, but next morning +the whole hostile detachment, numbering 150, +was surrounded and captured by Australian +Light Horse. On the 30th a similar fate befell +a battalion which attacked near El Burj; a +counter-attack by Australian Light Horse took +220 prisoners and practically destroyed the attacking +battalion. There was particularly +heavy fighting between El Burj and Beit ur el +Foka, but the Yeomanry and Scottish troops +successfully resisted all attacks and inflicted +severe losses on the enemy. At Beit ur el Foka +one company took 300 prisoners. All efforts +by the enemy to drive us off the Neby Samwil +ridge were completely repulsed. These attacks +cost the Turks very dearly. We took 750 prisoners +between November 27 and 30, and the +enemy's losses in killed and wounded were undoubtedly +heavy. His attacks in no way +affected our positions nor impeded the progress +of our preparations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Improvement +of +roads and +water +supply.</div> + +<p>Favored by a continuance of fine weather, +preparations for a fresh advance against the +Turkish positions west and south of Jerusalem +proceeded rapidly. Existing roads and tracks +were improved and new ones constructed to +enable heavy and field artillery to be placed +in position and ammunition and supplies +brought up. The water supply was also developed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Advances +of British +troops.</div> + +<p>The date for the attack was fixed as December +8. Welsh troops, with a Cavalry regiment +attached, had advanced from their positions +north of Beersheba up the Hebron-Jerusalem +road on the 4th. No opposition was met, and +by the evening of the 6th the head of this column +was ten miles north of Hebron. The Infantry +were directed to reach the Bethlehem-Beit +Jala area by the 7th, and the line Surbahir-Sherafat +(about three miles south of +Jerusalem) by dawn on the 8th, and no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> +troops were to enter Jerusalem during this +operation.</p> + +<p>It was recognized that the troops on the extreme +right might be delayed on the 7th and +fail to reach the positions assigned to them +by dawn on the 8th. Arrangements were +therefore made to protect the right flank west +of Jerusalem, in case such delay occurred.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Three +days of +rain make +roads almost +impassable.</div> + +<p>On the 7th the weather broke, and for three +days rain was almost continuous. The hills +were covered with mist at frequent intervals, +rendering observation from the air and visual +signalling impossible. A more serious effect +of the rain was to jeopardize the supply arrangements +by rendering the roads almost impassable—quite +impassable, indeed, for mechanical +transport and camels in many places.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Artillery +support +difficult.</div> + +<p>The troops moved into positions of assembly +by night, and, assaulting at dawn on the 8th, +soon carried their first objectives. They then +pressed steadily forward. The mere physical +difficulty of climbing the steep and rocky hillsides +and crossing the deep valleys would have +sufficed to render progress slow, and the opposition +encountered was considerable. Artillery +support was soon difficult, owing to the length +of the advance and the difficulty of moving guns +forward. But by about noon London troops +had already advanced over two miles, and were +swinging north-east to gain the Nablus-Jerusalem +road; while the Yeomanry had captured +the Beit Iksa spur, and were preparing for +a further advance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Enemy +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'defenses'">defences</ins> +west of +Jerusalem +captured.</div> + +<p>As the right column had been delayed and +was still some distance south of Jerusalem, it +was necessary for the London troops to throw +back their right and form a defensive flank +facing east towards Jerusalem, from the western +outskirts of which considerable rifle and +artillery fire was being experienced. This delayed +the advance, and early in the afternoon it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> +was decided to consolidate the line gained and +resume the advance next day, when the right +column would be in a position to exert its +pressure. By nightfall our line ran from Neby +Samwil to the east of Beit Iksa, through Lifta +to a point about one and one-half miles west of +Jerusalem, whence it was thrown back facing +east. All the enemy's prepared defences west +and north-west of Jerusalem had been captured, +and our troops were within a short distance +of the Nablus-Jerusalem road.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Operations +isolate +Jerusalem.</div> + +<p>Next morning the advance was resumed. The +Turks had withdrawn during the night, and the +London troops and Yeomanry, driving back +rearguards, occupied a line across the Nablus-Jerusalem +road four miles north of Jerusalem, +while Welsh troops occupied a position east of +Jerusalem across the Jericho road. These +operations isolated Jerusalem, and at about +noon the enemy sent out a <i>parlementaire</i> and +surrendered the city.</p> + +<p>At noon on the 11th I made my official entry +into Jerusalem.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>There were many encounters between American +ships and German submarines in the +months of 1917, following the Declaration of +War. Official accounts of the most important +of these encounters are given in the following +pages.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p> +<h2>AMERICAN SHIPS AND GERMAN<br /> +SUBMARINES</h2> + +<h3>FROM OFFICIAL REPORTS</h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">The +destroyer +<i>Cassin</i> +sights a +submarine.</div> + +<p>On October 15, 1917, the U. S. destroyer +<i>Cassin</i> was patrolling off the south +coast of Ireland; when about 20 miles +south of Mine Head, at 1.30 p. m., a submarine +was sighted by the lookout aloft four or five +miles away, about two points on the port bow. +The submarine at this time was awash and was +made out by officers of the watch and the +quartermaster of the watch, but three minutes +later submerged.</p> + +<p>The <i>Cassin</i>, which was making 15 knots, continued +on its course until near the position +where the submarine had disappeared. When +last seen the submarine was heading in a south-easterly +direction, and when the destroyer +reached the point of disappearance the course +was changed, as it was thought the vessel would +make a decided change of course after submerging. +At this time the commanding officer, the +executive officer, engineer officer, officer of the +watch, and the junior watch officer were all on +the bridge searching for the submarine.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Torpedo +sighted +running +at high +speed.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Torpedo +strikes +destroyer +and depth +charges +also +explode.</div> + +<p>At about 1.57 p. m. the commanding officer +sighted a torpedo apparently shortly after it +had been fired, running near the surface and +in a direction that was estimated would make +a hit either in the engine or fire room. When +first seen the torpedo was between three or +four hundred yards from the ship, and the +wake could be followed on the other side for +about 400 yards. The torpedo was running at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> +high speed, at least 35 knots. The <i>Cassin</i> was +maneuvering to dodge the torpedo, double +emergency full speed ahead having been signaled +from the engine room and the rudder put +hard left as soon as the torpedo was sighted. +It looked for the moment as though the torpedo +would pass astern. When about fifteen or +twenty feet away the torpedo porpoised, completely +leaving the water and shearing to the +left. Before again taking the water the torpedo +hit the ship well aft on the port side about +frame 163 and above the water line. Almost +immediately after the explosion of the torpedo +the depth charges, located on the stern +and ready for firing, exploded. There were +two distinct explosions in quick succession +after the torpedo hit.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ingram's +sacrifice +saves his +comrades.</div> + +<p>But one life was lost. Osmond K. Ingram, +gunner's mate first class, was cleaning the +muzzle of No. 4 gun, target practice being just +over when the attack occurred. With rare presence +of mind, realizing that the torpedo was +about to strike the part of the ship where the +depth charges were stored and that the setting +off of these explosives might sink the ship, +Ingram, immediately seeing the danger, ran +aft to strip these charges and throw them overboard. +He was blown to pieces when the +torpedo struck. Thus Ingram sacrificed his +life in performing a duty which he believed +would save his ship and the lives of the officers +and men on board.</p> + +<p>Nine members of the crew received minor injuries.</p> + +<p>After the ship was hit, the crew was kept at +general quarters.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Port +engine +still workable.</div> + +<p>The executive officer and engineer officer inspected +the parts of the ship that were damaged, +and those adjacent to the damage. It was +found that the engine and fire rooms and after +magazine were intact and that the engines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> +could be worked; but that the ship could not +be steered, the rudder having been blown off +and the stern blown to starboard. The ship +continued to turn to starboard in a circle. In +an effort to put the ship on a course by the +use of the engines, something carried away +which put the starboard engine out of commission. +The port engine was kept going at +slow speed. The ship, being absolutely unmanageable, +sometimes turned in a circle and +at times held an approximate course for several +minutes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Radio +officers +improvise +temporary +wireless.</div> + +<p>Immediately after the ship was torpedoed the +radio was out of commission. The radio officer +and radio electrician chief managed to improvise +a temporary auxiliary antenna. The +generators were out of commission for a short +time after the explosion, the ship being in +darkness below.</p> + +<p>When this vessel was torpedoed, there was +another United States destroyer, name unknown, +within signal distance. She had acknowledged +our call by searchlight before we +were torpedoed. After being torpedoed, an +attempt was made to signal her by searchlight, +flag, and whistle, and the distress signal was +hoisted. Apparently through a misunderstanding +she steamed away and was lost sight of.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Another +submarine +fight.</div> + +<p>At about 2.30 p. m., when we were in approximately +the same position as when torpedoed, a +submarine conning tower was sighted on port +beam, distant about 1,500 yards, ship still +circling under port engine. Opened fire with +No. 2 gun, firing four rounds. Submarine submerged +and was not seen again. Two shots +came very close to submarine.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">American +and +British +vessels +stand by.</div> + +<p>At 3.50 p. m., U. S. S. <i>Porter</i> stood by. At +4.25 p. m., wreckage which was hanging to stern +dropped off. At dark stopped port engine and +drifted. At about 9 p. m., H. M. S. <i>Jessamine</i> +and H. M. S. <i>Tamarisk</i> stood by. H. M. S.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> +<i>Jessamine</i> signalled she would stand by until +morning and then take us in tow. At this time +sea was very rough, wind about six or seven +and increasing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attempts +to tow the +<i>Cassin</i> +fail.</div> + +<p>H. M. S. <i>Tamarisk</i> prepared to take us in +tow and made one attempt after another to get +a line to us. Finally, about 2.10 a. m., October +16, the <i>Tamarisk</i> lowered a boat in rough sea +and sent grass line by means of which our eight-inch +hawser was sent over to her. At about +2.30 a. m. <i>Tamarisk</i> started towing us to +Queenstown, speed about four knots, this vessel +towing well on starboard quarter of <i>Tamarisk</i>, +due to condition of stern described above. At +3.25 hawser parted.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +<i>Tamarisk</i> +succeeds +in getting +out a line.</div> + +<p>Between this time and 10.37 a. m., when a +towing line was received from H. M. S. <i>Snowdrop</i>, +various attempts were made by the <i>Tamarisk</i> +and two trawlers and a tug to tow the +<i>Cassin</i>. An eleven-inch towing hawser from +the <i>Tamarisk</i> parted. All ships, except her, +lost the <i>Cassin</i> during the night. The <i>Cassin</i> +was drifting rapidly on a lee shore, and had it +not been for the <i>Tamarisk</i> getting out a line in +the early morning, the vessel would have undoubtedly +grounded on Hook Point, as it is +extremely doubtful if her anchors would have +held.</p> + +<p>About thirty-five feet of the stern was blown +off or completely ruptured. The after living +compartments and after storerooms are completely +wrecked or gone, and all stores and +clothing from these parts of the ship are gone +or ruined. About forty-five members of the +crew, including the chief petty officers, lost +practically everything but the clothes they +had on.</p> + +<p>At the time of the explosion there were +a number of men in the after compartments. +How they managed to escape is beyond explanation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span></p> + +<p>The officers and crew behaved splendidly. +There was no excitement. The men went to +their stations quietly and remained there all +night, except when called away to handle +lines.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Efficiency +of +officers +and men.</div> + +<p>The work of the executive officer, Lieutenant +J. W. McClaran, and of the engineer officer, +Lieutenant J. A. Saunders, is deserving of +especial commendation. These two officers inspected +magazines and spaces below decks and +superintended shoring of bulkheads and restaying +of masts. Lieutenant (Junior Grade) R. +M. Parkinson did excellent work in getting an +improvised radio set into commission. W. J. +Murphy, chief electrician (radio), and F. R. +Fisher, chief machinist's mate, are specifically +mentioned in the commanding officer's report +for their cool and efficient work.</p> + +<p>Twenty-two enlisted men are mentioned by +name as conspicuous for their coolness and +leadership.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Luck in +favor of +the submarine.</div> + +<p>From the statement of all the officers it is +evident that luck favored the submarine. The +destroyer probably would have escaped being +hit had not the torpedo broached twice and +turned decidedly to the left both times—in +other words, failed to function properly.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The results +of +the explosion.</div> + +<p>The equivalent of 850 pounds of T. N. T. is +estimated to have exploded in and upon the +<i>Cassin's</i> fantail; this includes the charges of +the torpedo and of both depth mines. No. 4 +gun, blown overboard, left the ship to port, +although that was the side which the torpedo +hit. The gun went over at a point well forward +of her mount. The mass of the wreckage, however, +went to starboard. Explosion of the +depth charges, rather than that of the torpedo +outward or in throwback, supposedly effected +this. About five seconds elapsed between the +torpedo's detonation and those of the mines. +They probably went off close together, for accounts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> +vary as to whether there were in all two +or three explosions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +bulkhead +buckles.</div> + +<p>Of the two after doors, that to port threatened +to carry away soon after the seas began +to pound in. The main mass of the wreckage +which dropped off did so upward of an hour +after the explosions. It was at this time that +the bulkhead began to buckle and the port +door and dogging weaken. It was shored with +mattresses under the personal direction of the +executive. Up to this time and until the seas +began to crumple the bulkhead completely, +there was only a few inches of water in the +two P. O. compartments; and even when the +<i>Cassin</i> reached Queenstown, hardly more than +three feet. None of the compartments directly +under these three on the deck below—handling +room, magazine, and oil tanks—were injured +at all. The tanks were farthest aft, and were +pumped out after docking.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Freaks +of flying +metal.</div> + +<p>One piece of metal entered the wash room +and before coming to rest completely circled it +without touching a man who was standing in +the center of the compartment. Another stray +piece tore a six-inch hole in one of the stacks.</p> + +<p>The destroyer within signal distance at the +time of the attack was the U. S. S. <i>Porter</i>. It +is believed that she saw the explosion, at least +of the two depth charges, and thinking that the +<i>Cassin</i> was attacking a submarine, started off +scouting before a signal could be sent and +after the radio was out of commission.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +<i>Alcedo's</i> +last +voyage.</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Low +visibility +hides +convoy.</div> + +<p>At 4 p. m., November 4, 1917, the U. S. S. +<i>Alcedo</i> proceeded to sea from Quiberon Bay +on escort duty to take convoy through the war +zone. Following the northbound convoy for +Brest, when north of Belle Ile formation was +taken with the <i>Alcedo</i> on the starboard flank. +At 5.45 p. m. the <i>Alcedo</i> took departure from +Point Poulins Light. Darkness had fallen and +owing to a haze visibility was poor, at times<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> +the convoy not being visible. About 11.30 +visibility was such that the convoy was seen +on the port bow of the <i>Alcedo</i>, the nearest ship, +according to the commanding officer's estimate, +being about 1,200 yards distant. Having +written his night order, the commanding officer +left the bridge and turned in.</p> + +<p>The following is his report of the torpedoing:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">"Submarine, +Captain."</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Attempts +to avoid +the +torpedo.</div> + +<p>At or about 1.45 a. m., November 5, while +sleeping in emergency cabin, immediately under +upper bridge, I was awakened by a commotion +and immediately received a report from +some man unknown, "Submarine, captain." I +jumped out of bed and went to the upper +bridge, and the officer of the deck, Lieutenant +Paul, stated he had sounded "general quarters," +had seen submarine on surface about 300 yards +on port bow, and submarine had fired a torpedo, +which was approaching. I took station +on port wing of upper bridge and saw torpedo +approaching about 200 feet distant. Lieutenant +Paul had put the rudder full right before I +arrived on bridge, hoping to avoid the torpedo. +The ship answered slowly to her helm, however, +and before any other action could be taken +the torpedo I saw struck the ship's side immediately +under the port forward chain plates, +the detonation occurring instantly. I was +thrown down and for a few seconds dazed by +falling débris and water.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Submarine +alarm +sounded +on siren.</div> + +<p>Upon regaining my feet I sounded the submarine +alarm on the siren, to call all hands if +they had not heard the general alarm gong, +and to direct the attention of the convoy and +other escorting vessels. Called to the forward +guns' crews to see if at stations, but by this +time realized that gallant forecastle was practically +awash. The <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'foremost'">foremast</ins> had fallen, carrying +away radio aerial. I called out to abandon +ship.</p> + +<p>I then left the upper bridge and went into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> +the chart house to obtain ship's position from +the chart, but, as there was no light, could not +see. I then went out of the chart house and +met the navigator, Lieutenant Leonard, and +asked him if he had sent any radio, and he replied +"No." I then directed him and accompanied +him to the main deck and told him to +take charge of cutting away forward dories and +life rafts.</p> + +<p>I then proceeded along starboard gangway +and found a man lying face down in gangway. +I stooped and rolled him over and spoke to him, +but received no reply and was unable to learn +his identity, owing to the darkness. It is my +opinion that this man was dead.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dories and +life rafts +are cut +away.</div> + +<p>I then continued to the after end of ship, +took station on aftergun platform. I then +realized that the ship was filling rapidly and +her bulwarks amidships were level with the +water. I directed the after dories and life +rafts to be cut away and thrown overboard and +ordered the men in the immediate vicinity to +jump over the side, intending to follow them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The ship +sinks—Captain +reaches a +whaleboat.</div> + +<p>Before I could jump, however, the ship listed +heavily to port, plunging by the head, and sunk, +carrying me down with the suction. I experienced +no difficulty, however, in getting clear, +and when I came to the surface I swam a few +yards to a life raft, to which were clinging +three men. We climbed on board this raft and +upon looking around observed Doyle, chief +boatswain's mate, and one other man in the +whaleboat. We paddled to the whaleboat and +embarked from the life raft.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rescuing +men from +the water.</div> + +<p>The whaleboat was about half full of water, +and we immediately started bailing and then +to rescue men from wreckage, and quickly filled +the whaleboat to more than its maximum +capacity, so that no others could be taken +aboard. We then picked up two overturned +dories which were nested together, separated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> +them and righted them, only to find that their +sterns had been broken. We then located another +nest of dories, which were separated and +righted and found to be seaworthy. Transferred +some men from the whaleboat into these +dories and proceeded to pick up other men +from wreckage. During this time cries were +heard from two men in the water some distance +away who were holding on to wreckage and +calling for assistance. It is believed that these +men were Ernest M. Harrison, mess attendant, +and John Winne, jr., seaman. As soon as the +dories were available we proceeded to where +they were last seen, but could find no trace of +them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Submarine +of <i>U-27</i> +type approaches.</div> + +<p>About this time, which was probably an hour +after the ship sank, a German submarine approached +the scene of torpedoing and lay to +near some of the dories and life rafts. She +was in the light condition, and from my observation +of her I am of the opinion that she +was of the <i>U-27-31</i> type. This has been confirmed +by having a number of men and officers +check the silhouette book. The submarine was +probably 100 yards distant from my whaleboat, +and I heard no remarks from anyone on +the submarine, although I observed three persons +standing on top of conning tower. After +laying on surface about half an hour the submarine +steered off and submerged.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Boats +leave +scene of +disaster.</div> + +<p>I then proceeded with the whaleboat and +two dories searching through the wreckage to +make sure that no survivors were left in the +water. No other people being seen, at 4.30 a. m. +we started away from the scene of disaster.</p> + +<p>The <i>Alcedo</i> was sunk, as near as I can estimate, +75 miles west true of north end of Belle +Ile. The torpedo struck ship at 1.46 by the +officer of the deck's watch, and the same watch +stopped at 1.54 a. m., November 5, this showing +that the ship remained afloat eight minutes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">A French +torpedo +boat +rescues +the +Captain's +party.</div> + +<p>The flare of Penmark Light was visible, and +I headed for it and ascertained the course by +Polaris to be approximately northeast. We +rowed until 1.15, when Penmark Lighthouse +was sighted. Continued rowing until 5.15 +p. m. when Penmark Lighthouse was distant +about 2½ miles. We were then picked up by +French torpedo boat <i>275</i>, and upon going on +board I requested the commanding officer to +radio immediately to Brest reporting the fact +of torpedoing and that 3 officers and 40 men +were proceeding to Brest. The French gave +all assistance possible for the comfort of the +survivors. We arrived at Brest about 11 p. m. +Those requiring medical attention were sent to +the hospital and the others were sent off to the +<i>Panther</i> to be quartered.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Crews of +two other +dories +safe.</div> + +<p>Upon arrival at Brest I was informed that +two other dories containing Lieutenant H. R. +Leonard, Lieutenant H. A. Peterson, Passed +Assistant Surgeon Paul O. M. Andreae, and 25 +men had landed at Pen March Point. This +was my first intimation that these officers +and men had been saved, as they had not +been seen by any of my party at the scene of +torpedoing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +destroyer +<i>Jacob +Jones</i> is +torpedoed.</div> + +<p>At 4.21 p. m. on December 6, 1917, in latitude +49·23 north, longitude 6·13 west, clear weather, +smooth sea, speed 13 knots zigzagging, the +U. S. S. <i>Jacob Jones</i> was struck on the starboard +side by a torpedo from an enemy submarine. +The ship was one of six of an escorting +group which were returning independently +from off Brest to Queenstown. All other ships +of the group were out of sight ahead.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attempts +to avoid +the +torpedo.</div> + +<p>I was in the chart house and heard some one +call out "Torpedo!" I jumped at once to the +bridge, and on the way up saw the torpedo +about 800 yards from the ship approaching +from about one point abaft the starboard beam +headed for a point about midships, making a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> +perfectly straight surface run (alternately +broaching and submerging to apparently 4 or +5 feet), at an estimated speed of at least 40 +knots. No periscope was sighted. When I +reached the bridge I found that the officer of +the deck had already put the rudder hard left +and rung up emergency speed on the engine-room +telegraph. The ship had already begun +to swing to the left. I personally rang up +emergency speed again and then turned to +watch the torpedo. The executive officer, Lieutenant +Norman Scott, left the chart house just +ahead of me, saw the torpedo immediately on +getting outside the door, and estimates that +the torpedo when he sighted it was 1,000 yards +away, approaching from one point, or slightly +less, abaft the beam and making exceedingly +high speed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lieutenant +Kalk acts +promptly.</div> + +<p>After seeing the torpedo and realizing the +straight run, line of approach, and high speed +it was making, I was convinced that it was +impossible to maneuver to avoid it. Lieutenant +(Junior Grade) S. F. Kalk was officer of +the deck at the time, and I consider that he +took correct and especially prompt measures in +maneuvering to avoid the torpedo. Lieutenant +Kalk was a very able officer, calm and collected +in emergency. He had been attached to the +ship for about two months and had shown especial +aptitude. His action in this emergency +entirely justified my confidence in him. I +deeply regret to state that he was lost as a +result of the torpedoing of the ship, dying of +exposure on one of the rafts.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Torpedo +strikes +fuel-oil +tank below +water line.</div> + +<p>The torpedo broached and jumped clear of +the water at a short distance from the ship, +submerged about 50 or 60 feet from the ship, +and struck approximately three feet below the +water line in the fuel-oil tank between the +auxiliary room and the after crew space. The +ship settled aft immediately after being torpedoed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> +to a point at which the deck just forward +of the after deck house was awash, and +then more gradually until the deck abreast the +engine-room hatch was awash. A man on +watch in the engine room, D. R. Carter, oiler, +attempted to close the water-tight door between +the auxiliary room and the engine room, but +was unable to do so against the pressure of +water from the auxiliary room.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects +of the +explosion.</div> + +<p>The deck over the forward part of the after +crew space and over the fuel-oil tank just forward +of it was blown clear for a space athwartships +of about 20 feet from starboard to port, +and the auxiliary room wrecked. The starboard +after torpedo tube was blown into the +air. No fuel oil ignited and, apparently, no +ammunition exploded. The depth charges in +the chutes aft were set on ready and exploded +after the stern sank. It was impossible to get +to them to set them on safe as they were under +water. Immediately the ship was torpedoed, +Lieutenant J. K. Richards, the gunnery officer, +rushed aft to attempt to set the charges on +"safe," but was unable to get further aft than +the after deck house.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Impossible +to use +radio.</div> + +<p>As soon as the torpedo struck I attempted +to send out an "S. O. S." message by radio, but +the mainmast was carried away, antennae falling, +and all electric power had failed. I then +tried to have the gun-sight lighting batteries +connected up in an effort to send out a low-power +message with them, but it was at once +evident that this would not be practicable before +the ship sank. There was no other vessel +in sight, and it was therefore impossible to get +through a distress signal of any kind.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Confidential +publications are +weighted +and +thrown +overboard.</div> + +<p>Immediately after the ship was torpedoed +every effort was made to get rafts and boats +launched. Also the circular life belts from +the bridge and several splinter mats from the +outside of the bridge were cut adrift and afterwards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> +proved very useful in holding men up +until they could be got to the rafts. Weighted +confidential publications were thrown over the +side. There was no time to destroy other confidential +matter, but it went down with the +ship.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Men jump +overboard.</div> + +<p>The ship sank about 4.29 p. m. (about eight +minutes after being torpedoed). As I saw her +settling rapidly, I ran along the deck and ordered +everybody I saw to jump overboard. At +this time most of those not killed by the explosion +had got clear of the ship and were on +rafts or wreckage. Some, however, were swimming +and a few appeared to be about a ship's +length astern of the ship, at some distance from +the rafts, probably having jumped overboard +very soon after the ship was struck.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The ship +sinks +stern +first. +Depth +charges +explode.</div> + +<p>Before the ship sank two shots were fired +from No. 4 gun with the hope of attracting attention +of some nearby ship. As the ship began +sinking I jumped overboard. The ship +sank stern first and twisted slowly through +nearly 180 degrees as she swung upright. From +this nearly vertical position, bow in the air +to about the forward funnel, she went straight +down. Before the ship reached the vertical +position the depth charges exploded, and I believe +them to have caused the death of a number +of men. They also partially paralyzed, +stunned, or dazed a number of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'other'">others</ins>, including +Lieutenant Kalk and myself and several men, +some of whom are still disabled but recovering.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rafts and +boats +float.</div> + +<p>Immediate efforts were made to get all survivors +on the rafts and then get rafts and boats +together. Three rafts were launched before the +ship sank and one floated off when she sank. +The motor dory, hull undamaged but engine +out of commission, also floated off, and the +punt and wherry also floated clear. The punt +was wrecked beyond usefulness, and the wherry +was damaged and leaking badly, but was of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> +considerable use in getting men to the rafts. +The whaleboat was launched but capsized soon +afterwards, having been damaged by the explosion +of the depth charges. The motor sailor +did not float clear, but went down with the +ship.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Submarine +appears +and picks +up one +man.</div> + +<p>About 15 or 20 minutes after the ship sank +the submarine appeared on the surface about +two or three miles to the westward of the rafts, +and gradually approached until about 800 to +1,000 yards from the ship, where it stopped and +was seen to pick up one unidentified man from +the water. The submarine then submerged and +was not seen again.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +captain's +boat steers +for the +Scillys.</div> + +<p>I was picked up by the motor dory and at +once began to make arrangements to try to +reach the Scillys in that boat in order to get +assistance to those on the rafts. All the survivors +then in sight were collected and I gave +orders to Lieutenant Richards to keep them +together. Lieutenant Scott, the navigating officer, +had fixed the ship's position a few minutes +before the explosion and both he and I knew +accurately the course to be steered. I kept +Lieutenant Scott to assist me and four men who +were in good condition in the boat to man the +oars, the engine being out of commission. With +the exception of some emergency rations and +half a bucket of water, all provisions, including +medical kit, were taken from the dory and left +on the rafts. There was no apparatus of any +kind which could be used for night signaling.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Survivors +are +picked up.</div> + +<p>After a very trying trip during which it was +necessary to steer by stars and by the direction +of the wind, the dory was picked up about 1 +p. m., December 7, by a small patrol vessel +about 6 miles south of St. Marys. Commander +Randal, R. N. R., Senior Naval Officer, Scilly +Isles, informed me that the other survivors had +been rescued.</p> + +<p>One small raft (which had been separated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> +from the others from the first) was picked up +by the S. S. <i>Catalina</i> at 8 p. m., December 6. +After a most trying experience through the +night, the remaining survivors were picked up +by H. M. S. <i>Camellia</i>, at 8.30 a. m., December 7.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The +number +lost.</div> + +<p>I deeply regret to state that out of a total +of 7 officers and 103 men on board at the time +of the torpedoing, 2 officers and 64 men died +in the performance of duty.</p> + +<p>The behavior of officers and men under the +exceptionally hard conditions is worthy of the +highest praise.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lieutenant +Scott's +valuable +services.</div> + +<p>Lieutenant Norman Scott, executive officer, +accomplished a great deal toward getting boats +and rafts in the water, turning off steam from +the fireroom to the engine room, getting life +belts and splinter mats from the bridge into +the water, in person firing signal guns, encouraging +and assisting the men, and in general +doing everything possible in the short time +available. He was of invaluable assistance during +the trip in the dory.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Calmness +and +efficiency +of other +officers.</div> + +<p>Lieutenant J. K. Richards was left in charge +of all the rafts, and his coolness and cheerfulness +under exceedingly hard conditions was +highly commendable and undoubtedly served to +put heart into the men to stand the strain.</p> + +<p>Lieutenant (Junior Grade) S. F. Kalk, during +the early part of the evening, but already +in a weakened condition, swam from one raft +to another in the effort to equalize weight on +the rafts. The men who were on the raft with +him state, in their own words, that "He was +game to the last."</p> + +<p>Lieutenant (Junior Grade) N. N. Gates was +calm and efficient in the performance of duty.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Men +recommended +for +commendation.</div> + +<p>During the night, Charlesworth, C., boatswain's +mate first class, removed parts of his +own clothing (when all realized that their lives +depended on keeping warm) to try to keep alive +men more thinly clad than himself. This sacrifice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> +shows his caliber and I recommend that +he be commended for his action.</p> + +<p>At the risk of almost certain death, Burger, +P. J., seaman second class, remained in the +motor sailer and endeavored to get it clear for +floating from the ship. While he did not +succeed in accomplishing this work (which +would undoubtedly have saved 20 or 30 lives) +I desire to call attention to his sticking to duty +until the very last, and recommend him as +being most worthy of commendation. He was +drawn under the water with the boat, but later +came to the surface and was rescued.</p> + +<p>Kelly, L. J., chief electrician, and Chase, H. +U., quartermaster third class, remained on +board until the last, greatly endangering their +lives thereby, to cut adrift splinter mats and +life preservers. Kelly's stamina and spirit +were especially valuable during the motor +dory's trip.</p> + +<p>Gibson, H. L., chief boatswain's mate, and +Meier, E., water tender, were of great assistance +to the men on their rafts in advising +and cheering them up under most adverse +conditions.</p> + +<p>The foregoing report is made from my own +observations and after questioning all surviving +officers and men.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The American naval authorities early recognized +that the swift destroyers were the most +effective instruments for hunting down German +submarines, and the most efficient guardians +for the loaded troop and food ships crossing the +Atlantic. Life on board one of these swift and +powerful boats is described in the following +narrative.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Transcriber's Note: This narrative will be found in Vol. III +of this series.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3> +<p>Obvious punctuation errors repaired.</p> + + +<p>Many words were hyphenated or not depending on the article. Examples: battlefield, battle-field; +bridgehead, bridge-head; varied forms of cooperate, co-operate, coöperate.</p> +<p>The remaining corrections made are indicated by dotted lines under the corrections. Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of World's War Events, Vol. II, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORLD'S WAR EVENTS, VOL. II *** + +***** This file should be named 25963-h.htm or 25963-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/9/6/25963/ + +Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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