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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on the
+Elements of Sculpture, by John Ruskin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on the Elements of Sculpture
+       Given before the University of Oxford in Michaelmas Term, 1870
+
+Author: John Ruskin
+
+Release Date: June 25, 2008 [EBook #25897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARATRA PENTELICI, SEVEN LECTURES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Library Edition
+
+THE COMPLETE WORKS
+
+OF
+
+JOHN RUSKIN
+
+CROWN OF WILD OLIVE
+TIME AND TIDE
+QUEEN OF THE AIR
+LECTURES ON ART AND LANDSCAPE
+ARATRA PENTELICI
+
+NATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
+NEW YORK       CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+ARATRA PENTELICI.
+
+SEVEN LECTURES
+
+ON THE
+
+ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE,
+
+GIVEN BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN MICHAELMAS TERM, 1870.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE
+
+PREFACE                                                  v
+
+LECTURE I.
+OF THE DIVISION OF ARTS                                  1
+
+LECTURE II.
+IDOLATRY                                                20
+
+LECTURE III.
+IMAGINATION                                             39
+
+LECTURE IV.
+LIKENESS                                                67
+
+LECTURE V.
+STRUCTURE                                               90
+
+LECTURE VI.
+THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS                                   114
+
+LECTURE VII.
+THE RELATION BETWEEN MICHAEL ANGELO AND TINTORET       132
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+                                                          Facing Page
+
+I. Porch of San Zenone, Verona                                     14
+
+II. The Arethusa of Syracuse                                       15
+
+III. The Warning to the Kings, San Zenone, Verona                  15
+
+IV. The Nativity of Athena                                         46
+
+V. Tomb of the Doges Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo                    49
+
+VI. Archaic Athena of Athens and Corinth                           50
+
+VII. Archaic, Central and Declining Art of Greece                  72
+
+VIII. The Apollo of Syracuse, and the Self-made Man                84
+
+IX. Apollo Chrysocomes of Clazomenę                                85
+
+X. Marble Masonry in the Duomo of Verona                          100
+
+XI. The First Elements of Sculpture. Incised outline
+  and opened space                                                101
+
+XII. Branch of Phillyrea                                          109
+
+XIII. Greek Flat relief, and sculpture by edged incision          111
+
+XIV. Apollo and the Python. Heracles and the Nemean Lion          119
+
+XV. Hera of Argos. Zeus of Syracuse                               120
+
+XVI. Demeter of Messene. Hera of Cnossus                          121
+
+XVII. Athena of Thurium. Siren Ligeia of Terina                   121
+
+XVIII. Artemis of Syracuse. Hera of Lacinian Cape                 122
+
+XIX. Zeus of Messene. Ajax of Opus                                124
+
+XX. Greek and Barbarian Sculpture                                 127
+
+XXI. The Beginnings of Chivalry                                   129
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+1. I must pray the readers of the following Lectures to remember that
+the duty at present laid on me at Oxford is of an exceptionally complex
+character. Directly, it is to awaken the interest of my pupils in a
+study which they have hitherto found unattractive, and imagined to be
+useless; but more imperatively, it is to define the principles by which
+the study itself should be guided; and to vindicate their security
+against the doubts with which frequent discussion has lately incumbered
+a subject which all think themselves competent to discuss. The
+possibility of such vindication is, of course, implied in the original
+consent of the Universities to the establishment of Art Professorships.
+Nothing can be made an element of education of which it is impossible to
+determine whether it is ill done or well; and the clear assertion that
+there is a canon law in formative Art is, at this time, a more important
+function of each University than the instruction of its younger members
+in any branch of practical skill. It matters comparatively little
+whether few or many of our students learn to draw; but it matters much
+that all who learn should be taught with accuracy. And the number who
+may be justifiably advised to give any part of the time they spend at
+college to the study of painting or sculpture ought to depend, and
+finally _must_ depend, on their being certified that painting and
+sculpture, no less than language, or than reasoning, have grammar and
+method,--that they permit a recognizable distinction between scholarship
+and ignorance, and enforce a constant distinction between Right and
+Wrong.
+
+2. This opening course of Lectures on Sculpture is therefore restricted
+to the statement, not only of first principles, but of those which were
+illustrated by the practice of one school, and by that practice in its
+simplest branch, the analysis of which could be certified by easily
+accessible examples, and aided by the indisputable evidence of
+photography.[1]
+
+The exclusion of the terminal Lecture[2] of the course from the series
+now published, is in order to mark more definitely this limitation of my
+subject; but in other respects the Lectures have been amplified in
+arranging them for the press, and the portions of them trusted at the
+time to extempore delivery (not through indolence, but because
+explanations of detail are always most intelligible when most familiar)
+have been in substance to the best of my power set down, and in what I
+said too imperfectly, completed.
+
+3. In one essential particular I have felt it necessary to write what I
+would not have spoken. I had intended to make no reference, in my
+University Lectures, to existing schools of Art, except in cases where
+it might be necessary to point out some undervalued excellence. The
+objects specified in the eleventh paragraph of my inaugural Lecture[3]
+might, I hoped, have been accomplished without reference to any works
+deserving of blame; but the Exhibition of the Royal Academy in the
+present year showed me a necessity of departing from my original
+intention. The task of impartial criticism[4] is now, unhappily, no
+longer to rescue modest skill from neglect; but to withstand the errors
+of insolent genius, and abate the influence of plausible mediocrity.
+
+The Exhibition of 1871 was very notable in this important particular,
+that it embraced some representation of the modern schools of nearly
+every country in Europe: and I am well assured that, looking back upon
+it after the excitement of that singular interest has passed away, every
+thoughtful judge of Art will confirm my assertion, that it contained not
+a single picture of accomplished merit; while it contained many that
+were disgraceful to Art, and some that were disgraceful to humanity.
+
+4. It becomes, under such circumstances, my inevitable duty to speak of
+the existing conditions of Art with plainness enough to guard the youths
+whose judgments I am intrusted to form, from being misled, either by
+their own naturally vivid interest in what represents, however
+unworthily, the scenes and persons of their own day, or by the cunningly
+devised, and, without doubt, powerful allurements of Art which has long
+since confessed itself to have no other object than to allure. I have,
+therefore, added to the second of these Lectures such illustration of
+the motives and course of modern industry as naturally arose out of its
+subject; and shall continue in future to make similar applications;
+rarely indeed, permitting myself, in the Lectures actually read before
+the University, to introduce, subjects of instant, and therefore too
+exciting, interest; but completing the addresses which I prepare for
+publication in these, and in any other, particulars, which may render
+them more widely serviceable.
+
+5. The present course of Lectures will be followed, if I am able to
+fulfill the design of them, by one of a like elementary character on
+Architecture; and that by a third series on Christian Sculpture: but, in
+the meantime, my effort is to direct the attention of the resident
+students to Natural History, and to the higher branches of ideal
+Landscape: and it will be, I trust, accepted as sufficient reason for
+the delay which has occurred in preparing the following sheets for the
+press, that I have not only been interrupted by a dangerous illness, but
+engaged, in what remained to me of the summer, in an endeavor to deduce,
+from the overwhelming complexity of modern classification in the Natural
+Sciences, some forms capable of easier reference by Art students, to
+whom the anatomy of brutal and floral nature is often no less important
+than that of the human body.
+
+The preparation of examples for manual practice, and the arrangement of
+standards for reference, both in Painting and Sculpture, had to be
+carried on, meanwhile, as I was able. For what has already been done,
+the reader is referred to the "Catalogue of the Educational Series,"
+published at the end of the Spring Term: of what remains to be done I
+will make no anticipatory statement, being content to have ascribed to
+me rather the fault of narrowness in design, than of extravagance in
+expectation.
+
+    DENMARK HILL,
+
+    _25th November, 1871._
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Photography cannot exhibit the character of large and finished
+sculpture; but its audacity of shadow is in perfect harmony with the
+more roughly picturesque treatment necessary in coins. For the rendering
+of all such frank relief, and for the better explanation of forms
+disturbed by the luster of metal or polished stone, the method employed
+in the plates of this volume will be found, I believe, satisfactory.
+Casts are first taken from the coins, in white plaster; these are
+photographed, and the photograph printed by the autotype process. Plate
+XII. is exceptional, being a pure mezzotint engraving of the old school,
+excellently carried through by my assistant, Mr. Allen, who was taught,
+as a personal favor to myself, by my friend, and Turner's fellow-worker,
+Thomas Lupton. Plate IV. was intended to be a photograph from the superb
+vase in the British Museum, No. 564 in Mr. Newton's Catalogue; but its
+variety of color defied photography, and after the sheets had gone to
+press I was compelled to reduce Le Normand's plate of it, which is
+unsatisfactory, but answers my immediate purpose.
+
+The enlarged photographs for use in the Lecture Room were made for me
+with most successful skill by Sergeant Spackman, of South Kensington;
+and the help throughout rendered to me by Mr. Burgess is acknowledged in
+the course of the Lectures; though with thanks which must remain
+inadequate lest they should become tedious; for Mr. Burgess drew the
+subjects of Plates III., X., and XIII.; and drew and engraved every
+wood-cut in the book.
+
+[2] It is included in this edition. See Lecture VII., pp. 132-158.
+
+[3] Lectures on Art, 1870.
+
+[4] A pamphlet by the Earl of Southesk, 'Britain's Art Paradise'
+(Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh), contains an entirely admirable
+criticism of the most faultful pictures of the 1871 Exhibition. It is to
+be regretted that Lord Southesk speaks only to condemn; but indeed, in
+my own three days' review of the rooms, I found nothing deserving of
+notice otherwise, except Mr. Hook's always pleasant sketches from
+fisher-life, and Mr. Pettie's graceful and powerful, though too slightly
+painted, study from Henry IV.
+
+
+
+
+ARATRA PENTELICI.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE I.
+
+OF THE DIVISION OF ARTS.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+1. If, as is commonly believed, the subject of study which it is my
+special function to bring before you had no relation to the great
+interests of mankind, I should have less courage in asking for your
+attention to-day, than when I first addressed you; though, even then, I
+did not do so without painful diffidence. For at this moment, even
+supposing that in other places it were possible for men to pursue their
+ordinary avocations undisturbed by indignation or pity,--here, at least,
+in the midst of the deliberative and religious influences of England,
+only one subject, I am well assured, can seriously occupy your
+thoughts--the necessity, namely, of determining how it has come to pass
+that, in these recent days, iniquity the most reckless and monstrous can
+be committed unanimously, by men more generous than ever yet in the
+world's history were deceived into deeds of cruelty; and that prolonged
+agony of body and spirit, such as we should shrink from inflicting
+willfully on a single criminal, has become the appointed and accepted
+portion of unnumbered multitudes of innocent persons, inhabiting the
+districts of the world which, of all others, as it seemed, were best
+instructed in the laws of civilization, and most richly invested with
+the honor, and indulged in the felicity, of peace.
+
+Believe me, however, the subject of Art--instead of being foreign to
+these deep questions of social duty and peril,--is so vitally connected
+with them, that it would be impossible for me now to pursue the line of
+thought in which I began these lectures, because so ghastly an emphasis
+would be given to every sentence by the force of passing events. It is
+well, then, that in the plan I have laid down for your study, we shall
+now be led into the examination of technical details, or abstract
+conditions of sentiment; so that the hours you spend with me may be
+times of repose from heavier thoughts. But it chances strangely that, in
+this course of minutely detailed study, I have first to set before you
+the most essential piece of human workmanship, the plow, at the very
+moment when--(you may see the announcement in the journals either of
+yesterday or the day before)--the swords of your soldiers have been sent
+for _to be sharpened_, and not at all to be beaten into plowshares. I
+permit myself, therefore, to remind you of the watchword of all my
+earnest writings--"Soldiers of the Plowshare, instead of Soldiers of the
+Sword,"--and I know it my duty to assert to you that the work we enter
+upon to-day is no trivial one, but full of solemn hope; the hope,
+namely, that among you there may be found men wise enough to lead the
+national passions towards the arts of peace, instead of the arts of war.
+
+I say, the work "we enter upon," because the first four lectures I gave
+in the spring were wholly prefatory; and the following three only
+defined for you methods of practice. To-day we begin the systematic
+analysis and progressive study of our subject.
+
+2. In general, the three great, or fine, Arts of Painting, Sculpture,
+and Architecture, are thought of as distinct from the lower and more
+mechanical formative arts, such as carpentry or pottery. But we cannot,
+either verbally, or with any practical advantage, admit such
+classification. How are we to distinguish painting on canvas from
+painting on china?--or painting on china from painting on glass?--or
+painting on glass from infusion of color into any vitreous substance,
+such as enamel?--or the infusion of color into glass and enamel from
+the infusion of color into wool or silk, and weaving of pictures in
+tapestry, or patterns in dress? You will find that although, in
+ultimately accurate use of the word, painting must be held to mean only
+the laying of a pigment on a surface with a soft instrument; yet, in
+broad comparison of the functions of Art, we must conceive of one and
+the same great artistic faculty, as governing _every mode of disposing
+colors in a permanent relation on, or in, a solid substance_; whether it
+be by tinting canvas, or dyeing stuffs; inlaying metals with fused
+flint, or coating walls with colored stone.
+
+3. Similarly, the word 'Sculpture,'--though in ultimate accuracy it is
+to be limited to the development of form in hard substances by cutting
+away portions of their mass--in broad definition, must be held to
+signify _the reduction of any shapeless mass of solid matter into an
+intended shape_, whatever the consistence of the substance, or nature of
+the instrument employed; whether we carve a granite mountain, or a piece
+of box-wood, and whether we use, for our forming instrument, ax, or
+hammer, or chisel, or our own hands, or water to soften, or fire to
+fuse;--whenever and however we bring a shapeless thing into shape, we do
+so under the laws of the one great art of Sculpture.
+
+4. Having thus broadly defined painting and sculpture, we shall see that
+there is, in the third place, a class of work separated from both, in a
+specific manner, and including a great group of arts which neither, of
+necessity, _tint_, nor for the sake of form merely, _shape_ the
+substances they deal with; but construct or arrange them with a view to
+the resistance of some external force. We construct, for instance, a
+table with a flat top, and some support of prop, or leg, proportioned in
+strength to such weights as the table is intended to carry. We construct
+a ship out of planks, or plates of iron, with reference to certain
+forces of impact to be sustained, and of inertia to be overcome; or we
+construct a wall or roof with distinct reference to forces of pressure
+and oscillation, to be sustained or guarded against; and, therefore, in
+every case, with especial consideration of the strength of our
+materials, and the nature of that strength, elastic, tenacious, brittle,
+and the like.
+
+Now although this group of arts nearly always involves the putting of
+two or more separate pieces together, we must not define it by that
+accident. The blade of an oar is not less formed with reference to
+external force than if it were made of many pieces; and the frame of a
+boat, whether hollowed out of a tree-trunk, or constructed of planks
+nailed together, is essentially the same piece of art; to be judged by
+its buoyancy and capacity of progression. Still, from the most wonderful
+piece of all architecture, the human skeleton, to this simple one,[5]
+the plowshare, on which it depends for its subsistence, _the putting of
+two or more pieces together_ is curiously necessary to the perfectness
+of every fine instrument; and the peculiar mechanical work of
+Dędalus,--inlaying,--becomes all the more delightful to us in external
+aspect, because, as in the jawbone of a Saurian, or the wood of a bow,
+it is essential to the finest capacities of tension and resistance.
+
+5. And observe how unbroken the ascent from this, the simplest
+architecture, to the loftiest. The placing of the timbers in a ship's
+stem, and the laying of the stones in a bridge buttress, are similar in
+art to the construction of the plowshare, differing in no essential
+point, either in that they deal with other materials, or because, of the
+three things produced, one has to divide earth by advancing through it,
+another to divide water by advancing through it, and the third to divide
+water which advances against it. And again, the buttress of a bridge
+differs only from that of a cathedral in having less weight to sustain,
+and more to resist. We can find no term in the gradation, from the
+plowshare to the cathedral buttress, at which we can set a logical
+distinction.
+
+6. Thus then we have simply three divisions of Art--one, that of giving
+colors to substance; another, that of giving form to it without question
+of resistance to force; and the third, that of giving form or position
+which will make it capable of such resistance. All the fine arts are
+embraced under these three divisions. Do not think that it is only a
+logical or scientific affectation to mass them together in this manner;
+it is, on the contrary, of the first practical importance to understand
+that the painter's faculty, or masterhood over color, being as subtle as
+a musician's over sound, must be looked to for the government of every
+operation in which color is employed; and that, in the same manner, the
+appliance of any art whatsoever to minor objects cannot be right, unless
+under the direction of a true master of that art. Under the present
+system, you keep your Academician occupied only in producing tinted
+pieces of canvas to be shown in frames, and smooth pieces of marble to
+be placed in niches; while you expect your builder or constructor to
+design colored patterns in stone and brick, and your china-ware merchant
+to keep a separate body of workwomen who can paint china, but nothing
+else. By this division of labor, you ruin all the arts at once. The work
+of the Academician becomes mean and effeminate, because he is not used
+to treat color on a grand scale and in rough materials; and your
+manufactures become base, because no well-educated person sets hand to
+them. And therefore it is necessary to understand, not merely as a
+logical statement, but as a practical necessity, that wherever beautiful
+color is to be arranged, you need a Master of Painting; and wherever
+noble form is to be given, a Master of Sculpture; and wherever complex
+mechanical force is to be resisted; a Master of Architecture.
+
+7. But over this triple division there must rule another yet more
+important. Any of these three arts may be either imitative of natural
+objects or limited to useful appliance. You may either paint a picture
+that represents a scene, or your street door, to keep it from rotting;
+you may mold a statue, or a plate; build the resemblance of a cluster
+of lotus stalks, or only a square pier. Generally speaking, Painting
+and Sculpture will be imitative, and Architecture merely useful; but
+there is a great deal of Sculpture--as this crystal ball,[6] for
+instance, which is not imitative, and a great deal of architecture
+which, to some extent, is so, as the so-called foils of Gothic
+apertures; and for many other reasons you will find it necessary to keep
+distinction clear in your minds between the arts--of whatever
+kind--which are imitative, and produce a resemblance or image of
+something which is not present; and those which are limited to the
+production of some useful reality, as the blade of a knife, or the wall
+of a house. You will perceive also, as we advance, that sculpture and
+painting are indeed in this respect only one art; and that we shall have
+constantly to speak and think of them as simply _graphic_, whether with
+chisel or color, their principal function being to make us, in the words
+of Aristotle, "[Greek: theōrźtikoi tou peri sōmata kallous]" (Polit. 8.
+3), "having capacity and habit of contemplation of the beauty that is in
+material things;" while architecture, and its correlative arts, are to
+be practiced under quite other conditions of sentiment.
+
+8. Now it is obvious that so far as the fine arts consist either in
+imitation or mechanical construction, the right judgment of them must
+depend on our knowledge of the things they imitate, and forces they
+resist: and my function of teaching here would (for instance) so far
+resolve itself, either into demonstration that this painting of a
+peach[7] does resemble a peach, or explanation of the way in which this
+plowshare (for instance) is shaped so as to throw the earth aside with
+least force of thrust. And in both of these methods of study, though of
+course your own diligence must be your chief master, to a certain extent
+your Professor of Art can always guide you securely, and can show you,
+either that the image does truly resemble what it attempts to resemble,
+or that the structure is rightly prepared for the service it has to
+perform. But there is yet another virtue of fine art which is, perhaps,
+exactly that about which you will expect your Professor to teach you
+most, and which, on the contrary, is exactly that about which you must
+teach yourselves all that it is essential to learn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+9. I have here in my hand one of the simplest possible examples of the
+union of the graphic and constructive powers,--one of my breakfast
+plates. Since all the finely architectural arts, we said, began in the
+shaping of the cup and the platter, we will begin, ourselves, with the
+platter.
+
+Why has it been made round? For two structural reasons: first, that the
+greatest holding surface may be gathered into the smallest space; and
+secondly, that in being pushed past other things on the table, it may
+come into least contact with them.
+
+Next, why has it a rim? For two other structural reasons: first, that
+it is convenient to put salt or mustard upon; but secondly, and chiefly,
+that the plate may be easily laid hold of. The rim is the simplest form
+of continuous handle.
+
+Farther, to keep it from soiling the cloth, it will be wise to put this
+ridge beneath, round the bottom; for as the rim is the simplest possible
+form of continuous handle, so this is the simplest form of continuous
+leg. And we get the section given beneath the figure for the essential
+one of a rightly made platter.
+
+10. Thus far our art has been strictly utilitarian, having respect to
+conditions of collision, of carriage, and of support. But now, on the
+surface of our piece of pottery, here are various bands and spots of
+color which are presumably set there to make it pleasanter to the eye.
+Six of the spots, seen closely, you discover are intended to represent
+flowers. These then have as distinctly a graphic purpose as the other
+properties of the plate have an architectural one, and the first
+critical question we have to ask about them is, whether they are like
+roses or not. I will anticipate what I have to say in subsequent
+Lectures so far as to assure you that, if they are to be like roses at
+all, the liker they can be, the better. Do not suppose, as many people
+will tell you, that because this is a common manufactured article, your
+roses on it are the better for being ill-painted, or half-painted. If
+they had been painted by the same hand that did this peach, the plate
+would have been all the better for it; but, as it chanced, there was no
+hand such as William Hunt's to paint them, and their graphic power is
+not distinguished. In any case, however, that graphic power must have
+been subordinate to their effect as pink spots, while the band of
+green-blue round the plate's edge, and the spots of gold, pretend to no
+graphic power at all, but are meaningless spaces of color or metal.
+Still less have they any mechanical office: they add nowise to the
+serviceableness of the plate; and their agreeableness, if they possess
+any, depends, therefore, neither on any imitative, nor any structural,
+character; but on some inherent pleasantness in themselves, either of
+mere colors to the eye, (as of taste to the tongue,) or in the placing
+of those colors in relations which obey some mental principle of order,
+or physical principle of harmony.
+
+11. These abstract relations and inherent pleasantnesses, whether in
+space, number, or time, and whether of colors or sounds, form what we
+may properly term the musical or harmonic element in every art; and the
+study of them is an entirely separate science. It is the branch of
+art-philosophy to which the word 'ęsthetics' should be strictly limited,
+being the inquiry into the nature of things that in themselves are
+pleasant to the human senses or instincts, though they represent
+nothing, and serve for nothing, their only service _being_ their
+pleasantness. Thus it is the province of ęsthetics to tell you, (if you
+did not know it before,) that the taste and color of a peach are
+pleasant, and to ascertain, if it be ascertainable, (and you have any
+curiosity to know,) why they are so.
+
+12. The information would, I presume, to most of you, be gratuitous. If
+it were not, and you chanced to be in a sick state of body in which you
+disliked peaches, it would be, for the time, to you false information,
+and, so far as it was true of other people, to you useless. Nearly the
+whole study of ęsthetics is in like manner either gratuitous or useless.
+Either you like the right things without being recommended to do so, or,
+if you dislike them, your mind cannot be changed by lectures on the laws
+of taste. You recollect the story of Thackeray, provoked, as he was
+helping himself to strawberries, by a young coxcomb's telling him that
+"he never took fruit or sweets." "That," replied, or is said to have
+replied, Thackeray, "is because you are a sot, and a glutton." And the
+whole science of ęsthetics is, in the depth of it, expressed by one
+passage of Goethe's in the end of the second part of Faust;--the notable
+one that follows the song of the Lemures, when the angels enter to
+dispute with the fiends for the soul of Faust. They enter
+singing--"Pardon to sinners and life to the dust." Mephistopheles hears
+them first, and exclaims to his troop, "Discord I hear, and filthy
+jingling"--"Mis-töne höre ich: garstiges Geklimper." This, you see, is
+the extreme of bad taste in music. Presently the angelic host begin
+strewing roses, which discomfits the diabolic crowd altogether.
+Mephistopheles in vain calls to them--"What do you duck and shrink
+for--is that proper hellish behavior? Stand fast, and let them
+strew"--"Was duckt und zuckt ihr; ist das Hellen-brauch? So haltet
+stand, und lasst sie streuen." There you have also, the extreme, of bad
+taste in sight and smell. And in the whole passage is a brief embodiment
+for you of the ultimate fact that all ęsthetics depend on the health of
+soul and body, and the proper exercise of both, not only through years,
+but generations. Only by harmony of both collateral and successive lives
+can the great doctrine of the Muses be received which enables men
+"[Greek: chairein orthōs],"--"to have pleasure rightly;" and there is no
+other definition of the beautiful, nor of any subject of delight to the
+ęsthetic faculty, than that it is what one noble spirit has created,
+seen and felt by another of similar or equal nobility. So much as there
+is in you of ox, or of swine, perceives no beauty, and creates none:
+what is human in you, in exact proportion to the perfectness of its
+humanity, can create it, and receive.
+
+13. Returning now to the very elementary form in which the appeal to our
+ęsthetic virtue is made in our breakfast-plate, you notice that there
+are two distinct kinds of pleasantness attempted. One by hues of color;
+the other by proportions of space. I have called these the musical
+elements of the arts relating to sight; and there are indeed two
+complete sciences, one of the combinations of color, and the other of
+the combinations of line and form, which might each of them separately
+engage us in as intricate study as that of the science of music. But of
+the two, the science of color is, in the Greek sense, the more musical,
+being one of the divisions of the Apolline power; and it is so
+practically educational, that if we are not using the faculty for color
+to discipline nations, they will infallibly use it themselves as a means
+of corruption. Both music and color are naturally influences of peace;
+but in the war trumpet, and the war shield, in the battle song and
+battle standard, they have concentrated by beautiful imagination the
+cruel passions of men; and there is nothing in all the Divina Commedia
+of history more grotesque, yet more frightful, than the fact that, from
+the almost fabulous period when the insanity and impiety of war wrote
+themselves in the symbols of the shields of the Seven against Thebes,
+colors have been the sign and stimulus of the most furious and fatal
+passions that have rent the nations: blue against green, in the decline
+of the Roman Empire; black against white, in that of Florence; red
+against white, in the wars of the Royal houses in England; and at this
+moment, red against white, in the contest of anarchy and loyalty, in all
+the world.
+
+14. On the other hand, the directly ethical influence of color in the
+sky, the trees, flowers, and colored creatures round us, and in our own
+various arts massed under the one name of painting, is so essential and
+constant that we cease to recognize it, because we are never long enough
+altogether deprived of it to feel our need; and the mental diseases
+induced by the influence of corrupt color are as little suspected, or
+traced to their true source, as the bodily weaknesses resulting from
+atmospheric miasmata.
+
+15. The second musical science which belongs peculiarly to sculpture,
+(and to painting, so far as it represents form,) consists in the
+disposition of beautiful masses. That is to say, beautiful surfaces
+limited by beautiful lines. Beautiful _surfaces_, observe; and remember
+what is noted in my Fourth Lecture of the difference between a space and
+a mass. If you have at any time examined carefully, or practiced from,
+the drawings of shells placed in your copying series, you cannot but
+have felt the difference in the grace between the aspects of the same
+line, when inclosing a rounded or unrounded space. The exact science of
+sculpture is that of the relations between outline and the solid form it
+limits; and it does not matter whether that relation be indicated by
+drawing or carving, so long as the expression of solid form is the
+mental purpose; it is the science always of the beauty of relation in
+three dimensions. To take the simplest possible line of continuous
+limit--the circle: the flat disk inclosed by it may indeed be made an
+element of decoration, though a very meager one; but its relative mass,
+the ball, being gradated in three dimensions, is always delightful.
+Here[8] is at once the simplest, and, in mere patient mechanism, the
+most skillful, piece of sculpture I can possibly show you,--a piece of
+the purest rock-crystal, chiseled, (I believe, by mere toil of hand,)
+into a perfect sphere. Imitating nothing, constructing nothing;
+sculpture for sculpture's sake of purest natural substance into simplest
+primary form.
+
+16. Again. Out of the nacre of any mussel or oyster shell you might cut,
+at your pleasure, any quantity of small flat circular disks of the
+prettiest color and luster. To some extent, such tinsel or foil of shell
+_is_ used pleasantly for decoration. But the mussel or oyster becoming
+itself an unwilling modeler, agglutinates its juice into three
+dimensions, and the fact of the surface being now geometrically
+gradated, together with the savage instinct of attributing value to what
+is difficult to obtain, make the little boss so precious in men's sight,
+that wise eagerness of search for the kingdom of heaven can be likened
+to their eagerness of search for _it_; and the gates of Paradise can be
+no otherwise rendered so fair to their poor intelligence, as by telling
+them that every gate was of "one pearl."
+
+17. But take note here. We have just seen that the sum of the perceptive
+faculty is expressed in these words of Aristotle's, "to take pleasure
+rightly" or straightly--[Greek: chairein orthōs]. Now, it is not
+possible to do the direct opposite of that,--to take pleasure
+iniquitously or obliquely--[Greek: chairein adikōs] or [Greek:
+skoliōs],--more than you do in enjoying a thing because your neighbor
+cannot get it. You may enjoy a thing legitimately because it is rare,
+and cannot be seen often (as you do a fine aurora, or a sunset, or an
+unusually lovely flower); that is Nature's way of stimulating your
+attention. But if you enjoy it because your neighbor cannot have
+it,--and, remember, all value attached to pearls more than glass beads,
+is merely and purely for that cause,--then you rejoice through the worst
+of idolatries, covetousness; and neither arithmetic, nor writing, nor
+any other so-called essential of education, is now so vitally necessary
+to the population of Europe, as such acquaintance with the principles of
+intrinsic value, as may result in the iconoclasm of jewelry; and in the
+clear understanding that we are not, in that instinct, civilized, but
+yet remain wholly savage, so far as we care for display of this selfish
+kind.
+
+You think, perhaps, I am quitting my subject, and proceeding, as it is
+too often with appearance of justice alleged against me, into irrelevant
+matter. Pardon me; the end, not only of these Lectures, but of my whole
+Professorship, would be accomplished,--and far more than that,--if only
+the English nation could be made to understand that the beauty which is
+indeed to be a joy forever, must be a joy for all; and that though the
+idolatry may not have been wholly divine which sculptured gods, the
+idolatry is wholly diabolic, which, for vulgar display, sculptures
+diamonds.
+
+18. To go back to the point under discussion. A pearl, or a glass bead,
+may owe its pleasantness in some degree to its luster as well as to its
+roundness. But a mere and simple ball of unpolished stone is enough for
+sculpturesque value. You may have noticed that the quatrefoil used in
+the Ducal Palace of Venice owes its complete loveliness in distant
+effect to the finishing of its cusps. The extremity of the cusp is a
+mere ball of Istrian marble; and consider how subtle the faculty of
+sight must be, since it recognizes at any distance, and is gratified by,
+the mystery of the termination of cusp obtained by the gradated light on
+the ball.
+
+In that Venetian tracery this simplest element of sculptured form is
+used sparingly, as the most precious that can be employed to finish the
+faēade. But alike in our own, and the French, central Gothic, the
+ball-flower is lavished on every line--and in your St. Mary's spire, and
+the Salisbury spire, and the towers of Notre Dame of Paris, the rich
+pleasantness of decoration,--indeed, their so-called 'decorative
+style,'--consists only in being daintily beset with stone balls. It is
+true the balls are modified into dim likeness of flowers; but do you
+trace the resemblance to the rose in their distant, which is their
+intended, effect?
+
+19. But, farther, let the ball have motion; then the form it generates
+will be that of a cylinder. You have, perhaps, thought that pure early
+English architecture depended for its charm on visibility of
+construction. It depends for its charm altogether on the abstract
+harmony of groups of cylinders,[9] arbitrarily bent into moldings, and
+arbitrarily associated as shafts, having no _real_ relation to
+construction whatsoever, and a theoretical relation so subtle that none
+of us had seen it till Professor Willis worked it out for us.
+
+20. And now, proceeding to analysis of higher sculpture, you may have
+observed the importance I have attached to the porch of San Zenone, at
+Verona, by making it, among your standards, the first of the group which
+is to illustrate the system of sculpture and architecture founded on
+faith in a future life. That porch, fortunately represented in the
+photograph, from which Plate I. has been engraved, under a clear and
+pleasant light, furnishes you with examples of sculpture of every kind,
+from the flattest incised bas-relief to solid statues, both in marble
+and bronze. And the two points I have been pressing upon you are
+conclusively exhibited here, namely,--(1) that sculpture is essentially
+the production of a pleasant bossiness or roundness of surface; (2) that
+the pleasantness of that bossy condition to the eye is irrespective of
+imitation on one side, and of structure on the other.
+
+[Illustration: I.
+
+PORCH OF SAN ZENONE. VERONA.]
+
+[Illustration: II.
+
+THE ARETHUSA OF SYRACUSE.]
+
+[Illustration: III.
+
+THE WARNING TO THE KINGS
+
+SAN ZENONE. VERONA.]
+
+21. (1.) Sculpture is essentially the production of a pleasant bossiness
+or roundness of surface.
+
+If you look from some distance at these two engravings of Greek coins,
+(place the book open, so that you can see the opposite plate three or
+four yards off,) you will find the relief on each of them simplifies
+itself into a pearl-like portion of a sphere, with exquisitely gradated
+light on its surface. When you look at them nearer, you will see that
+each smaller portion into which they are divided--cheek, or brow, or
+leaf, or tress of hair--resolves itself also into a rounded or undulated
+surface, pleasant by gradation of light. Every several surface is
+delightful in itself, as a shell, or a tuft of rounded moss, or the
+bossy masses of distant forest would be. That these intricately
+modulated masses present some resemblance to a girl's face, such as the
+Syracusans imagined that of the water-goddess Arethusa, is entirely a
+secondary matter; the primary condition is that the masses shall be
+beautifully rounded, and disposed with due discretion and order.
+
+22. (2.) It is difficult for you, at first, to feel this order and
+beauty of surface, apart from the imitation. But you can see there is a
+pretty disposition of, and relation between, the projections of a
+fir-cone, though the studded spiral imitates nothing. Order exactly the
+same in kind, only much more complex; and an abstract beauty of surface
+rendered definite by increase and decline of light--(for every curve of
+surface has its own luminous law, and the light and shade on a parabolic
+solid differs, specifically, from that on an elliptical or spherical
+one)--it is the essential business of the sculptor to obtain; as it is
+the essential business of a painter to get good color, whether he
+imitates anything or not. At a distance from the picture, or carving,
+where the things represented become absolutely unintelligible, we must
+yet be able to say, at a glance, "That is good painting, or good
+carving."
+
+And you will be surprised to find, when you try the experiment, how
+much the eye must instinctively judge in this manner. Take the front of
+San Zenone, for instance, Plate I. You will find it impossible, without
+a lens, to distinguish in the bronze gates, and in great part of the
+wall, anything that their bosses represent. You cannot tell whether the
+sculpture is of men, animals, or trees; only you feel it to be composed
+of pleasant projecting masses; you acknowledge that both gates and wall
+are, somehow, delightfully roughened; and only afterwards, by slow
+degrees, can you make out what this roughness means; nay, though here
+(Plate III.) I magnify[10] one of the bronze plates of the gate to a
+scale, which gives you the same advantage as if you saw it quite close,
+in the reality,--you may still be obliged to me for the information that
+_this_ boss represents the Madonna asleep in her little bed; and this
+smaller boss, the Infant Christ in His; and this at the top, a cloud
+with an angel coming out of it; and these jagged bosses, two of the
+Three Kings, with their crowns on, looking up to the star, (which is
+intelligible enough, I admit); but what this straggling, three-legged
+boss beneath signifies, I suppose neither you nor I can tell, unless it
+be the shepherd's dog, who has come suddenly upon the Kings with their
+crowns on, and is greatly startled at them.
+
+23. Farther, and much more definitely, the pleasantness of the surface
+decoration is independent of structure; that is to say, of any
+architectural requirement of stability. The greater part of the
+sculpture here is exclusively ornamentation of a flat wall, or of
+door-paneling; only a small portion of the church front is thus treated,
+and the sculpture has no more to do with the form of the building than a
+piece of lace veil would have, suspended beside its gates on a festal
+day: the proportions of shaft and arch might be altered in a hundred
+different ways without diminishing their stability; and the pillars
+would stand more safely on the ground than on the backs of these carved
+animals.
+
+24. I wish you especially to notice these points, because the false
+theory that ornamentation should be merely decorated structure is so
+pretty and plausible, that it is likely to take away your attention from
+the far more important abstract conditions of design. Structure should
+never be contradicted, and in the best buildings it is pleasantly
+exhibited and enforced: in this very porch the joints of every stone are
+visible, and you will find me in the Fifth Lecture insisting on this
+clearness of its anatomy as a merit; yet so independent is the
+mechanical structure of the true design, that when I begin my Lectures
+on Architecture, the first building I shall give you as a standard will
+be one in which the structure is wholly concealed. It will be the
+Baptistery of Florence, which is, in reality, as much a buttressed
+chapel with a vaulted roof, as the Chapter House of York;--but round it,
+in order to conceal that buttressed structure, (not to decorate,
+observe, but to _conceal_,) a flat external wall is raised; simplifying
+the whole to a mere hexagonal box, like a wooden piece of Tunbridge
+ware, on the surface of which the eye and intellect are to be interested
+by the relations of dimension and curve between pieces of incrusting
+marble of different colors, which have no more to do with the real make
+of the building than the diaper of a Harlequin's jacket has to do with
+his bones.
+
+25. The sense of abstract proportion, on which the enjoyment of such a
+piece of art entirely depends, is one of the ęsthetic faculties which
+nothing can develop but time and education. It belongs only to highly
+trained nations; and, among them, to their most strictly refined
+classes, though the germs of it are found, as part of their innate
+power, in every people capable of art. It has for the most part vanished
+at present from the English mind, in consequence of our eager desire for
+excitement, and for the kind of splendor that exhibits wealth, careless
+of dignity; so that, I suppose, there are very few now even of our best
+trained Londoners who know the difference between the design of
+Whitehall and that of any modern club-house in Pall Mall. The order and
+harmony which, in his enthusiastic account of the Theater of Epidaurus,
+Pausanias insists on before beauty, can only be recognized by stern
+order and harmony in our daily lives; and the perception of them is as
+little to be compelled, or taught suddenly, as the laws of still finer
+choice in the conception of dramatic incident which regulate poetic
+sculpture.
+
+26. And now, at last, I think, we can sketch out the subject before us
+in a clear light. We have a structural art, divine and human, of which
+the investigation comes under the general term Anatomy; whether the
+junctions or joints be in mountains, or in branches of trees, or in
+buildings, or in bones of animals. We have next a musical art, falling
+into two distinct divisions--one using colors, the other masses, for its
+elements of composition; lastly, we have an imitative art, concerned
+with the representation of the outward appearances of things. And, for
+many reasons, I think it best to begin with imitative Sculpture; that
+being defined as _the art which, by the musical disposition of masses,
+imitates anything of which the imitation is justly pleasant to us; and
+does so in accordance with structural laws having due reference to the
+materials employed_.
+
+So that you see our task will involve the immediate inquiry what the
+things are of which the imitation is justly pleasant to us: what, in few
+words,--if we are to be occupied in the making of graven images,--we
+ought to like to make images _of_. Secondly, after having determined its
+subject, what degree of imitation or likeness we ought to desire in our
+graven image; and, lastly, under what limitations demanded by structure
+and material, such likeness may be obtained.
+
+These inquiries I shall endeavor to pursue with you to some practical
+conclusion, in my next four Lectures; and in the sixth, I will briefly
+sketch the actual facts that have taken place in the development of
+sculpture by the two greatest schools of it that hitherto have existed
+in the world.
+
+27. The tenor of our next Lecture, then, must be an inquiry into the
+real nature of Idolatry; that is to say, the invention and service of
+Idols: and, in the interval, may I commend to your own thoughts this
+question, not wholly irrelevant, yet which I cannot pursue; namely,
+whether the God to whom we have so habitually prayed for deliverance
+"from battle, murder, and sudden death," _is_ indeed, seeing that the
+present state of Christendom is the result of a thousand years' praying
+to that effect, "as the gods of the heathen who were but idols;" or
+whether--(and observe, one or other of these things _must_ be
+true)--whether our prayers to Him have been, by this much, worse than
+Idolatry;--that heathen prayer was true prayer to false gods; and our
+prayers have been false prayers to the True One?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] I had a real plowshare on my lecture-table; but it would interrupt
+the drift of the statements in the text too long if I attempted here to
+illustrate by figures the relation of the colter to the share, and of
+the hard to the soft pieces of metal in the share itself.
+
+[6] A sphere of rock crystal, cut in Japan, enough imaginable by the
+reader, without a figure.
+
+[7] One of William Hunt's peaches; not, I am afraid, imaginable
+altogether, but still less representable by figure.
+
+[8] The crystal ball above mentioned.
+
+[9] All grandest effects in moldings may be, and for the most part have
+been, obtained by rolls and cavettos of circular (segmental) section.
+More refined sections, as that of the fluting of a Doric shaft, are only
+of use near the eye and in beautiful stone; and the pursuit of them was
+one of the many errors of later Gothic. The statement in the text that
+the moldings, even of best time, "have no real relation to
+construction," is scarcely strong enough: they in fact contend with, and
+deny the construction, their principal purpose seeming to be the
+concealment of the joints of the voussoirs.
+
+[10] Some of the most precious work done for me by my assistant, Mr.
+Burgess, during the course of these Lectures, consisted in making
+enlarged drawings from portions of photographs. Plate III. is engraved
+from a drawing of his, enlarged from the original photograph of which
+Plate I. is a reduction.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE II.
+
+IDOLATRY.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+28. Beginning with the simple conception of sculpture as the art of
+fiction in solid substance, we are now to consider what its subject
+should be. What--having the gift of imagery--should we by preference
+endeavor to image? A question which is, indeed, subordinate to the
+deeper one--why we should wish to image anything at all.
+
+29. Some years ago, having been always desirous that the education of
+women should begin in learning how to cook, I got leave, one day, for a
+little girl of eleven years old to exchange, much to her satisfaction,
+her schoolroom for the kitchen. But as ill-fortune would have it, there
+was some pastry toward, and she was left unadvisedly in command of some
+delicately rolled paste; whereof she made no pies, but an unlimited
+quantity of cats and mice.
+
+Now you may read the works of the gravest critics of art from end to
+end; but you will find, at last, they can give you no other true account
+of the spirit of sculpture than that it is an irresistible human
+instinct for the making of cats and mice, and other imitable living
+creatures, in such permanent form that one may play with the images at
+leisure.
+
+Play with them, or love them, or fear them, or worship them. The cat may
+become the goddess Pasht, and the mouse, in the hand of a sculptured
+king, enforce his enduring words "[Greek: es eme tis horeōn eusebźs
+estō]"; but the great mimetic instinct underlies all such purpose; and
+is zooplastic,--life-shaping,--alike in the reverent and the impious.
+
+30. Is, I say, and has been, hitherto; none of us dare say that it will
+be. I shall have to show you hereafter that the greater part of the
+technic energy of men, as yet, has indicated a kind of childhood; and
+that the race becomes, if not more wise, at least more manly,[11] with
+every gained century. I can fancy that all this sculpturing and painting
+of ours may be looked back upon, in some distant time, as a kind of
+doll-making, and that the words of Sir Isaac Newton may be smiled at no
+more: only it will not be for stars that we desert our stone dolls, but
+for men. When the day comes, as come it must, in which we no more deface
+and defile God's image in living clay, I am not sure that we shall any
+of us care so much for the images made of Him, in burnt clay.
+
+31. But, hitherto, the energy of growth in any people may be almost
+directly measured by their passion for imitative art; namely, for
+sculpture, or for the drama, which is living and speaking sculpture, or,
+as in Greece, for both; and in national as in actual childhood, it is
+not merely the _making_, but the _making-believe_; not merely the acting
+for the sake of the scene, but acting for the sake of acting, that is
+delightful. And, of the two mimetic arts, the drama, being more
+passionate, and involving conditions of greater excitement and luxury,
+is usually in its excellence the sign of culminating strength in the
+people; while fine sculpture, requiring always submission to severe law,
+is an unfailing proof of their being in early and active progress.
+_There is no instance of fine sculpture being produced by a nation
+either torpid, weak, or in decadence._ Their drama may gain in grace and
+wit; but their sculpture, in days of decline, is _always_ base.
+
+32. If my little lady in the kitchen had been put in command of colors,
+as well as of dough, and if the paste would have taken the colors, we
+may be sure her mice would have been painted brown, and her cats
+tortoiseshell; and this, partly indeed for the added delight and
+prettiness of color itself, but more for the sake of absolute
+realization to her eyes and mind. Now all the early sculpture of the
+most accomplished nations has been thus colored, rudely or finely; and
+therefore you see at once how necessary it is that we should keep the
+term 'graphic' for imitative art generally; since no separation can at
+first be made between carving and painting, with reference to the mental
+powers exerted in, or addressed by, them. In the earliest known art of
+the world, a reindeer hunt may be scratched in outline on the flat side
+of a clean-picked bone, and a reindeer's head carved out of the end of
+it; both these are flint-knife work, and, strictly speaking, sculpture:
+but the scratched outline is the beginning of drawing, and the carved
+head of sculpture proper. When the spaces inclosed by the scratched
+outline are filled with color, the coloring soon becomes a principal
+means of effect; so that, in the engraving of an Egyptian-color
+bas-relief (S. 101), Rosellini has been content to miss the outlining
+incisions altogether, and represent it as a painting only. Its proper
+definition is, 'painting accented by sculpture;' on the other hand, in
+solid colored statues,--Dresden china figures, for example,--we have
+pretty sculpture accented by painting; the mental purpose in both kinds
+of art being to obtain the utmost degree of realization possible, and
+the ocular impression being the same, whether the delineation is
+obtained by engraving or painting. For, as I pointed out to you in my
+Fifth Lecture, everything is seen by the eye as patches of color, and of
+color only;--a fact which the Greeks knew well; so that when it becomes
+a question in the dialogue of Minos, "[Greek: tini onti tź opsei horatai
+ta horōmena]," the answer is "[Greek: aisthźsei tautź tź dia tōn
+ophthalmōn dźlousź hźmin ta chrōmata]."--"What kind of power is the
+sight with which we see things? It is that sense which, through the
+eyes, can reveal _colors_ to us."
+
+33. And now observe that, while the graphic arts begin in the mere
+mimetic effort, they proceed, as they obtain more perfect realization,
+to act under the influence of a stronger and higher instinct. They begin
+by scratching the reindeer, the most interesting object of sight. But
+presently, as the human creature rises in scale of intellect, it
+proceeds to scratch, not the most interesting object of sight only, but
+the most interesting object of imagination; not the reindeer, but the
+Maker and Giver of the reindeer. And the second great condition for the
+advance of the art of sculpture is that the race should possess, in
+addition to the mimetic instinct, the realistic or idolizing instinct;
+the desire to see as substantial the powers that are unseen, and bring
+near those that are far off, and to possess and cherish those that are
+strange. To make in some way tangible and visible the nature of the
+gods--to illustrate and explain it by symbols; to bring the immortals
+out of the recesses of the clouds, and make them Penates; to bring back
+the dead from darkness, and make them Lares.
+
+34. Our conception of this tremendous and universal human passion has
+been altogether narrowed by the current idea that Pagan religious art
+consisted only, or chiefly, in giving personality to the gods. The
+personality was never doubted; it was visibility, interpretation, and
+possession that the hearts of men sought. Possession, first of all--the
+getting hold of some hewn log of wild olive-wood that would fall on its
+knees if it was pulled from its pedestal--and, afterwards, slowly
+clearing manifestation; the exactly right expression is used in Lucian's
+dream,--[Greek: Pheidias edeixe ton Dia]; "Showed[12] Zeus;" manifested
+him; nay, in a certain sense, brought forth, or created, as you have it,
+in Anacreon's ode to the Rose, of the birth of Athena herself,--
+
+    [Greek: polemoklonon t' Athźnźn
+    koryphźs edeiknye Zeus.]
+
+But I will translate the passage from Lucian to you at length--it is in
+every way profitable.
+
+35. "There came to me, in the healing[13] night, a divine dream, so
+clear that it missed nothing of the truth itself; yes, and still after
+all this time, the shapes of what I saw remain in my sight, and the
+sound of what I heard dwells in my ears"--(note the lovely sense of
+[Greek: enaulos]--the sound being as of a stream passing always by in
+the same channel)--"so distinct was everything to me. Two women laid
+hold of my hands and pulled me, each towards herself, so violently, that
+I had like to have been pulled asunder; and they cried out against one
+another,--the one, that she resolved to have me to herself, being indeed
+her own; and the other, that it was vain for her to claim what belonged
+to others;--and the one who first claimed me for her own was like a hard
+worker, and had strength as a man's; and her hair was dusty, and her
+hand full of horny places, and her dress fastened tight about her, and
+the folds of it loaded with white marble-dust, so that she looked just
+as my uncle used to look when he was filing stones: but the other was
+pleasant in features, and delicate in form, and orderly in her dress;
+and so, in the end, they left it to me to decide, after hearing what
+they had to say, with which of them I would go; and first the
+hard-featured and masculine one spoke:--
+
+36. "'Dear child, I am the Art of Image-sculpture, which yesterday you
+began to learn; and I am as one of your own people, and of your house,
+for your grandfather' (and she named my mother's father) 'was a
+stone-cutter; and both your uncles had good name through me: and if you
+will keep yourself well clear of the sillinesses and fluent follies that
+come from this creature,' (and she pointed to the other woman,) 'and
+will follow me, and live with me, first of all, you shall be brought up
+as a man should be, and have strong shoulders; and, besides that, you
+shall be kept well quit of all restless desires, and you shall never be
+obliged to go away into any foreign places, leaving your own country and
+the people of your house; _neither shall all men praise you for your
+talk_.[14] And you must not despise this rude serviceableness of my
+body, neither this meanness of my dusty dress; for, pushing on in their
+strength from such things as these, that great Phidias revealed Zeus,
+and Polyclitus wrought out Hera, and Myron was praised, and Praxiteles
+marveled at: therefore are these men worshiped with the gods.'"
+
+37. There is a beautiful ambiguity in the use of the preposition with
+the genitive in this last sentence. "Pushing on from these things" means
+indeed, justly, that the sculptors rose from a mean state to a noble
+one; but not as _leaving_ the mean state,--not as, from a hard life,
+attaining to a soft one,--but as being helped and strengthened by the
+rough life to do what was greatest. Again, "worshiped with the gods"
+does not mean that they are thought of as in any sense equal to, or like
+to, the gods, but as being on the side of the gods against what is base
+and ungodly; and that the kind of worth which is in them is therefore
+indeed worshipful, as having its source with the gods. Finally, observe
+that every one of the expressions used of the four sculptors is
+definitely the best that Lucian could have chosen. Phidias carved like
+one who had seen Zeus, and had only to _reveal_ him; Polyclitus, in
+labor of intellect, completed his sculpture by just law, and _wrought_
+out Hera; Myron was of all most _praised_, because he did best what
+pleased the vulgar; and Praxiteles the most _wondered at_, or admired,
+because he bestowed utmost exquisiteness of beauty.
+
+38. I am sorry not to go on with the dream: the more refined lady, as
+you may remember, is liberal or gentlemanly Education, and prevails at
+last; so that Lucian becomes an author instead of a sculptor, I think to
+his own regret, though to our present benefit. One more passage of his I
+must refer you to, as illustrative of the point before us; the
+description of the temple of the Syrian Hieropolis, where he explains
+the absence of the images of the sun and moon. "In the temple itself,"
+he says, "on the left hand as one goes in, there is set first the
+throne of the sun; but no form of him is thereon, for of these two
+powers alone, the sun and the moon, they show no carved images. And I
+also learned why this is their law, for they say that it is permissible,
+indeed, to make of the other gods, graven images, since the forms of
+them are not visible to all men. But Helios and Selenaia are everywhere
+clear-bright, and all men behold them; what need is there therefore for
+sculptured work of these, who appear in the air?"
+
+39. This, then, is the second instinct necessary to sculpture; the
+desire for the manifestation, description, and companionship of unknown
+powers; and for possession of a bodily substance--the 'bronze
+Strasbourg,' which you can embrace, and hang immortelles on the head
+of--instead of an abstract idea. But if you get nothing more in the
+depth of the national mind than these two feelings, the mimetic and
+idolizing instincts, there may be still no progress possible for the
+arts except in delicacy of manipulation and accumulative caprice of
+design. You must have not only the idolizing instinct, but an [Greek:
+źthos] which chooses the right thing to idolize! Else, you will get
+states of art like those in China or India, non-progressive, and in
+great part diseased and frightful, being wrought under the influence of
+foolish terror, or foolish admiration. So that a third condition,
+completing and confirming both the others, must exist in order to the
+development of the creative power.
+
+40. This third condition is that the heart of the nation shall be set on
+the discovery of just or equal law, and shall be from day to day
+developing that law more perfectly. The Greek school of sculpture is
+formed during, and in consequence of, the national effort to discover
+the nature of justice; the Tuscan, during, and in consequence of, the
+national effort to discover the nature of justification. I assert to you
+at present briefly, what will, I hope, be the subject of prolonged
+illustration hereafter.
+
+41. Now when a nation with mimetic instinct and imaginative longing is
+also thus occupied earnestly in the discovery of Ethic law, that effort
+gradually brings precision and truth into all its manual acts; and the
+physical progress of sculpture, as in the Greek, so in the Tuscan,
+school, consists in gradually _limiting_ what was before indefinite, in
+_verifying_ what was inaccurate, and in _humanizing_ what was monstrous.
+I might perhaps content you by showing these external phenomena, and by
+dwelling simply on the increasing desire of naturalness, which compels,
+in every successive decade of years, literally, in the sculptured
+images, the mimicked bones to come together, bone to his bone; and the
+flesh to come up upon them, until from a flattened and pinched handful
+of clay, respecting which you may gravely question whether it was
+intended for a human form at all;--by slow degrees, and added touch to
+touch, in increasing consciousness of the bodily truth,--at last the
+Aphrodite of Melos stands before you, a perfect woman. But all that
+search for physical accuracy is merely the external operation, in the
+arts, of the seeking for truth in the inner soul; it is impossible
+without that higher effort, and the demonstration of it would be worse
+than useless to you, unless I made you aware at the same time of its
+spiritual cause.
+
+42. Observe farther; the increasing truth in representation is
+correlative with increasing beauty in the thing to be represented. The
+pursuit of justice which regulates the imitative effort, regulates also
+the development of the race into dignity of person, as of mind; and
+their culminating art-skill attains the grasp of entire truth at the
+moment when the truth becomes most lovely. And then, ideal sculpture may
+go on safely into portraiture. But I shall not touch on the subject of
+portrait sculpture to-day; it introduces many questions of detail, and
+must be a matter for subsequent consideration.
+
+43. These, then, are the three great passions which are concerned in
+true sculpture. I cannot find better, or, at least, more easily
+remembered, names for them than 'the Instincts of Mimicry, Idolatry, and
+Discipline;' meaning, by the last, the desire of equity and wholesome
+restraint, in all acts and works of life. Now of these, there is no
+question but that the love of Mimicry is natural and right, and the love
+of Discipline is natural and right. But it looks a grave question
+whether the yearning for Idolatry (the desire of companionship with
+images) is right. Whether, indeed, if such an instinct be essential to
+good sculpture, the art founded on it can possibly be 'fine' art.
+
+44. I must now beg for your close attention, because I have to point out
+distinctions in modes of conception which will appear trivial to you,
+unless accurately understood; but of an importance in the history of art
+which cannot be overrated.
+
+When the populace of Paris adorned the statue of Strasbourg with
+immortelles, none, even the simplest of the pious decorators, would
+suppose that the city of Strasbourg itself, or any spirit or ghost of
+the city, was actually there, sitting in the Place de la Concorde. The
+figure was delightful to them as a visible nucleus for their fond
+thoughts about Strasbourg; but never for a moment supposed to _be_
+Strasbourg.
+
+Similarly, they might have taken delight in a statue purporting to
+represent a river instead of a city,--the Rhine, or Garonne,
+suppose,--and have been touched with strong emotion in looking at it, if
+the real river were dear to them, and yet never think for an instant
+that the statue _was_ the river.
+
+And yet again, similarly, but much more distinctly, they might take
+delight in the beautiful image of a god, because it gathered and
+perpetuated their thoughts about that god; and yet never suppose, nor be
+capable of being deceived by any arguments into supposing, that the
+statue _was_ the god.
+
+On the other hand, if a meteoric stone fell from the sky in the sight of
+a savage, and he picked it up hot, he would most probably lay it aside
+in some, to him, sacred place, and believe the _stone itself_ to be a
+kind of god, and offer prayer and sacrifice to it.
+
+In like manner, any other strange or terrifying object, such, for
+instance, as a powerfully noxious animal or plant, he would be apt to
+regard in the same way; and very possibly also construct for himself
+frightful idols of some kind, calculated to produce upon him a vague
+impression of their being alive; whose imaginary anger he might
+deprecate or avert with sacrifice, although incapable of conceiving in
+them any one attribute of exalted intellectual or moral nature.
+
+45. If you will now refer to §§ 52-9 of my Introductory Lectures, you
+will find this distinction between a resolute conception, recognized for
+such, and an involuntary apprehension of spiritual existence, already
+insisted on at some length. And you will see more and more clearly as we
+proceed, that the deliberate and intellectually commanded conception is
+not idolatrous in any evil sense whatever, but is one of the grandest
+and wholesomest functions of the human soul; and that the essence of
+evil idolatry begins only in the idea or belief of a real presence of
+any kind, in a thing in which there is no such presence.
+
+46. I need not say that the harm of the idolatry must depend on the
+certainty of the negative. If there be a real presence in a pillar of
+cloud, in an unconsuming flame, or in a still small voice, it is no sin
+to bow down before these.
+
+But, as matter of historical fact, the idea of such presence has
+generally been both ignoble and false, and confined to nations of
+inferior race, who are often condemned to remain for ages in conditions
+of vile terror, destitute of thought. Nearly all Indian architecture and
+Chinese design arise out of such a state: so also, though in a less
+gross degree, Ninevite and Phoenician art, early Irish, and
+Scandinavian; the latter, however, with vital elements of high intellect
+mingled in it from the first.
+
+But the greatest races are never grossly subject to such terror, even in
+their childhood, and the course of their minds is broadly divisible into
+three distinct stages.
+
+47. (I.) In their infancy they begin to imitate the real animals about
+them, as my little girl made the cats and mice, but with an
+under-current of partial superstition--a sense that there must be more
+in the creatures than they can see; also they catch up vividly any of
+the fancies of the baser nations round them, and repeat these more or
+less apishly, yet rapidly naturalizing and beautifying them. They then
+connect all kinds of shapes together, compounding meanings out of the
+old chimeras, and inventing new ones with the speed of a running
+wildfire; but always getting more of man into their images, and
+admitting less of monster or brute; their own characters, meanwhile,
+expanding and purging themselves, and shaking off the feverish fancy, as
+springing flowers shake the earth off their stalks.
+
+48. (II.) In the second stage, being now themselves perfect men and
+women, they reach the conception of true and great gods as existent in
+the universe; and absolutely cease to think of them as in any wise
+present in statues or images; but they have now learned to make these
+statues beautifully human, and to surround them with attributes that may
+concentrate their thoughts of the gods. This is, in Greece, accurately
+the Pindaric time, just a little preceding the Phidian; the Phidian is
+already dimmed with a faint shadow of infidelity; still, the Olympic
+Zeus may be taken as a sufficiently central type of a statue which was
+no more supposed to _be_ Zeus, than the gold or elephants' tusks it was
+made of; but in which the most splendid powers of human art were
+exhausted in representing a believed and honored God to the happy and
+holy imagination of a sincerely religious people.
+
+49. (III.) The third stage of national existence follows, in which, the
+imagination having now done its utmost, and being partly restrained by
+the sanctities of tradition, which permit no farther change in the
+conceptions previously created, begins to be superseded by logical
+deduction and scientific investigation. At the same moment, the elder
+artists having done all that is possible in realizing the national
+conceptions of the gods, the younger ones, forbidden to change the
+scheme of existing representations, and incapable of doing anything
+better in that kind, betake themselves to refine and decorate the old
+ideas with more attractive skill. Their aims are thus more and more
+limited to manual dexterity, and their fancy paralyzed. Also in the
+course of centuries, the methods of every art continually improving, and
+being made subjects of popular inquiry, praise is now to be got, for
+eminence in these, from the whole mob of the nation; whereas
+intellectual design can never be discerned but by the few. So that in
+this third era we find every kind of imitative and vulgar dexterity more
+and more cultivated; while design and imagination are every day less
+cared for, and less possible.
+
+50. Meanwhile, as I have just said, the leading minds in literature and
+science become continually more logical and investigative; and once that
+they are established in the habit of testing facts accurately, a very
+few years are enough to convince all the strongest thinkers that the old
+imaginative religion is untenable, and cannot any longer be honestly
+taught in its fixed traditional form, except by ignorant persons. And at
+this point the fate of the people absolutely depends on the degree of
+moral strength into which their hearts have been already trained. If it
+be a strong, industrious, chaste, and honest race, the taking its old
+gods, or at least the old forms of them, away from it, will indeed make
+it deeply sorrowful and amazed; but will in no whit shake its will, nor
+alter its practice. Exceptional persons, naturally disposed to become
+drunkards, harlots, and cheats, but who had been previously restrained
+from indulging these dispositions by their fear of God, will, of course,
+break out into open vice, when that fear is removed. But the heads of
+the families of the people, instructed in the pure habits and perfect
+delights of an honest life, and to whom the thought of a Father in
+heaven had been a comfort, not a restraint, will assuredly not seek
+relief from the discomfort of their orphanage by becoming uncharitable
+and vile. Also the high leaders of their thought gather their whole
+strength together in the gloom; and at the first entrance to this Valley
+of the Shadow of Death, look their new enemy full in the eyeless face of
+him, and subdue him, and his terror, under their feet. "Metus omnes, et
+inexorabile fatum,... strepitumque Acherontis avari." This is the
+condition of national soul expressed by the art, and the words, of
+Holbein, Dürer, Shakspeare, Pope, and Goethe.
+
+51. But if the people, at the moment when the trial of darkness
+approaches, be not confirmed in moral character, but are only
+maintaining a superficial virtue by the aid of a spectral religion; the
+moment the staff of their faith is broken, the character of the race
+falls like a climbing plant cut from its hold: then all the earthliest
+vices attack it as it lies in the dust; every form of sensual and insane
+sin is developed; and half a century is sometimes enough to close in
+hopeless shame the career of the nation in literature, art, and war.
+
+52. Notably, within the last hundred years, all religion has perished
+from the practically active national mind of France and England. No
+statesman in the senate of either country would dare to use a sentence
+out of their acceptedly divine Revelation, as having now a literal
+authority over them for their guidance, or even a suggestive wisdom for
+their contemplation. England, especially, has cast her Bible full in the
+face of her former God; and proclaimed, with open challenge to Him, her
+resolved worship of His declared enemy, Mammon. All the arts, therefore,
+founded on religion and sculpture chiefly, are here in England effete
+and corrupt, to a degree which arts never were hitherto in the history
+of mankind; and it is possible to show you the condition of sculpture
+living, and sculpture dead, in accurate opposition, by simply comparing
+the nascent Pisan school in Italy with the existing school in England.
+
+53. You were perhaps surprised at my placing in your educational series,
+as a type of original Italian sculpture, the pulpit by Niccola Pisano in
+the Duomo of Siena. I would rather, had it been possible, have given the
+pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in the Duomo of Pisa; but that pulpit is
+dispersed in fragments through the upper galleries of the Duomo, and the
+cloister of the Campo Santo; and the casts of its fragments now put
+together at Kensington are too coarse to be of use to you. You may
+partly judge, however, of the method of their execution by the eagle's
+head, which I have sketched from the marble in the Campo Santo (Edu.,
+No. 113), and the lioness with her cubs (Edu., No. 103, more carefully
+studied at Siena); and I will get you other illustrations in due time.
+Meanwhile, I want you to compare the main purpose of the Cathedral of
+Pisa, and its associated Bell Tower, Baptistery, and Holy Field, with
+the main purpose of the principal building lately raised for the people
+of London. In these days, we indeed desire no cathedrals; but we have
+constructed an enormous and costly edifice, which, in claiming
+educational influence over the whole London populace, and middle class,
+is verily the Metropolitan cathedral of this century,--the Crystal
+Palace.
+
+54. It was proclaimed, at its erection, an example of a newly discovered
+style of architecture, greater than any hitherto known,--our best
+popular writers, in their enthusiasm, describing it as an edifice of
+Fairyland. You are nevertheless to observe that this novel production of
+fairy enchantment is destitute of every kind of sculpture, except the
+bosses produced by the heads of nails and rivets; while the Duomo of
+Pisa, in the wreathen work of its doors, in the foliage of its capitals,
+inlaid color designs of its faēade, embossed panels of its Baptistery
+font, and figure sculpture of its two pulpits, contained the germ of a
+school of sculpture which was to maintain, through a subsequent period
+of four hundred years, the greatest power yet reached by the arts of the
+world, in description of Form, and expression of Thought.
+
+55. Now it is easy to show you the essential cause of the vast
+discrepancy in the character of these two buildings.
+
+In the vault of the apse of the Duomo of Pisa was a colossal image of
+Christ, in colored mosaic, bearing to the temple, as nearly as possible,
+the relation which the statue of Athena bore to the Parthenon; and in
+the same manner, concentrating the imagination of the Pisan on the
+attributes of the God in whom he believed.
+
+In precisely the same position with respect to the nave of the
+building, but of larger size, as proportioned to the three or four times
+greater scale of the whole, a colossal piece of sculpture was placed by
+English designers, at the extremity of the Crystal Palace, in
+preparation for their solemnities in honor of the birthday of Christ, in
+December 1867 or 1868.
+
+That piece of sculpture was the face of the clown in a pantomime, some
+twelve feet high from brow to chin, which face, being moved by the
+mechanism which is our pride, every half-minute opened its mouth from
+ear to ear, showed its teeth, and revolved its eyes, the force of these
+periodical seasons of expression being increased and explained by the
+illuminated inscription underneath, "Here we are again."
+
+56. When it is assumed, and with too good reason, that the mind of the
+English populace is to be addressed, in the principal Sacred Festival of
+its year, by sculpture such as this, I need scarcely point out to you
+that the hope is absolutely futile of advancing their intelligence by
+collecting within this building (itself devoid absolutely of every kind
+of art, and so vilely constructed that those who traverse it are
+continually in danger of falling over the cross-bars that bind it
+together,) examples of sculpture filched indiscriminately from the past
+work, bad and good, of Turks, Greeks, Romans, Moors, and Christians,
+miscolored, misplaced, and misinterpreted;[15] here thrust into unseemly
+corners, and there mortised together into mere confusion of
+heterogeneous obstacle; pronouncing itself hourly more intolerable in
+weariness, until any kind of relief is sought from it in steam
+wheelbarrows or cheap toyshops; and most of all in beer and meat, the
+corks and the bones being dropped through the chinks in the damp deal
+flooring of the English Fairy Palace.
+
+57. But you will probably think me unjust in assuming that a building
+prepared only for the amusement of the people can typically represent
+the architecture or sculpture of modern England. You may urge that I
+ought rather to describe the qualities of the refined sculpture which is
+executed in large quantities for private persons belonging to the upper
+classes, and for sepulchral and memorial purposes. But I could not now
+criticise that sculpture with any power of conviction to you, because I
+have not yet stated to you the principles of good sculpture in general.
+I will, however, in some points, tell you the facts by anticipation.
+
+58. We have much excellent portrait sculpture; but portrait sculpture,
+which is nothing more, is always third-rate work, even when produced by
+men of genius;--nor does it in the least require men of genius to
+produce it. To paint a portrait, indeed, implies the very highest gifts
+of painting; but any man, of ordinary patience and artistic feeling, can
+carve a satisfactory bust.
+
+59. Of our powers in historical sculpture, I am, without question, just,
+in taking for sufficient evidence the monuments we have erected to our
+two greatest heroes by sea and land; namely, the Nelson Column, and the
+statue of the Duke of Wellington opposite Apsley House. Nor will you, I
+hope, think me severe,--certainly, whatever you may think me, I am using
+only the most temperate language, in saying of both these monuments,
+that they are absolutely devoid of high sculptural merit. But consider
+how much is involved in the fact thus dispassionately stated, respecting
+the two monuments in the principal places of our capital, to our two
+greatest heroes.
+
+60. Remember that we have before our eyes, as subjects of perpetual
+study and thought, the art of all the world for three thousand years
+past; especially, we have the best sculpture of Greece, for example of
+bodily perfection; the best of Rome, for example of character in
+portraiture; the best of Florence, for example of romantic passion; we
+have unlimited access to books and other sources of instruction; we have
+the most perfect scientific illustrations of anatomy, both human and
+comparative; and we have bribes for the reward of success, large in the
+proportion of at least twenty to one, as compared with those offered to
+the artists of any other period. And with all these advantages, and the
+stimulus also of fame carried instantly by the press to the remotest
+corners of Europe, the best efforts we can make, on the grandest of
+occasions, result in work which it is impossible in any one particular
+to praise.
+
+Now consider for yourselves what an intensity of the negation of the
+faculty of sculpture this implies in the national mind! What measure can
+be assigned to the gulf of incapacity, which can deliberately swallow up
+in the gorge of it the teaching and example of three thousand years, and
+produce, as the result of that instruction, what it is courteous to call
+'nothing'?
+
+61. That is the conclusion at which we arrive on the evidence presented
+by our historical sculpture. To complete the measure of ourselves, we
+must endeavor to estimate the rank of the two opposite schools of
+sculpture employed by us in the nominal service of religion, and in the
+actual service of vice.
+
+I am aware of no statue of Christ, nor of any apostle of Christ, nor of
+any scene related in the New Testament, produced by us within the last
+three hundred years, which has possessed even superficial merit enough
+to attract public attention.
+
+Whereas the steadily immoral effect of the formative art which we learn,
+more or less apishly, from the French schools, and employ, but too
+gladly, in manufacturing articles for the amusement of the luxurious
+classes, must be ranked as one of the chief instruments used by joyful
+fiends and angry fates for the ruin of our civilization.
+
+If, after I have set before you the nature and principles of true
+sculpture, in Athens, Pisa, and Florence, you consider these
+facts,--(which you will then at once recognize as such),--you will find
+that they absolutely justify my assertion that the state of sculpture in
+modern England, as compared with that of the great Ancients, is
+literally one of corrupt and dishonorable death, as opposed to bright
+and fameful life.
+
+62. And now, will you bear with me while I tell you finally why this is
+so?
+
+The cause with which you are personally concerned is your own frivolity;
+though essentially this is not your fault, but that of the system of
+your early training. But the fact remains the same, that here, in
+Oxford, you, a chosen body of English youth, in nowise care for the
+history of your country, for its present dangers, or its present duties.
+You still, like children of seven or eight years old, are interested
+only in bats, balls, and oars: nay, including with you the students of
+Germany and France, it is certain that the general body of modern
+European youth have their minds occupied more seriously by the sculpture
+and painting of the bowls of their tobacco-pipes, than by all the
+divinest workmanship and passionate imagination of Greece, Rome, and
+Medięval Christendom.
+
+63. But the elementary causes, both of this frivolity in you, and of
+worse than frivolity in older persons, are the two forms of deadly
+Idolatry which are now all but universal in England.
+
+The first of these is the worship of the Eidolon, or Fantasm of Wealth;
+worship of which you will find the nature partly examined in the
+thirty-seventh paragraph of my 'Munera Pulveris'; but which is briefly
+to be defined as the servile apprehension of an active power in Money,
+and the submission to it as the God of our life.
+
+64. The second elementary cause of the loss of our nobly imaginative
+faculty, is the worship of the Letter, instead of the Spirit, in what we
+chiefly accept as the ordinance and teaching of Deity; and the
+apprehension of a healing sacredness in the act of reading the Book
+whose primal commands we refuse to obey.
+
+No feather idol of Polynesia was ever a sign of a more shameful idolatry
+than the modern notion in the minds of certainly the majority of English
+religious persons, that the Word of God, by which the heavens were of
+old, and the earth, standing out of the water and in the water,--the
+Word of God which came to the prophets, and comes still forever to all
+who will hear it (and to many who will forbear); and which, called
+Faithful and True, is to lead forth, in the judgment, the armies of
+heaven,--that this 'Word of God' may yet be bound at our pleasure in
+morocco, and carried about in a young lady's pocket, with tasseled
+ribbons to mark the passages she most approves of.
+
+65. Gentlemen, there has hitherto been seen no instance, and England is
+little likely to give the unexampled spectacle, of a country successful
+in the noble arts, yet in which the youths were frivolous, the maidens
+falsely religious; the men, slaves of money, and the matrons, of vanity.
+Not from all the marble of the hills of Luini will such a people ever
+shape one statue that may stand nobly against the sky; not from all the
+treasures bequeathed to them by the great dead, will they gather, for
+their own descendants, any inheritance but shame.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] Glance forward at once to § 75, read it, and return to this.
+
+[12] There is a primary and vulgar sense of 'exhibited' in Lucian's
+mind; but the higher meaning is involved in it.
+
+[13] In the Greek, 'ambrosial.' Recollect always that ambrosia, as food
+of gods, is the continual restorer of strength; that all food is
+ambrosial when it nourishes, and that the night is called 'ambrosial'
+because it restores strength to the soul through its peace, as, in the
+23d Psalm, the stillness of waters.
+
+[14] I have italicized this final promise of blessedness, given by the
+noble Spirit of Workmanship. Compare Carlyle's fifth Latter-day
+Pamphlet, throughout; but especially pp. 12-14, in the first edition.
+
+[15] "Falsely represented," would be the better expression. In the cast
+of the tomb of Queen Eleanor, for a single instance, the Gothic foliage,
+of which one essential virtue is its change over every shield, is
+represented by a repetition of casts from one mold, of which the design
+itself is entirely conjectural.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE III.
+
+IMAGINATION.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+66. The principal object of the preceding Lecture, (and I choose rather
+to incur your blame for tediousness in repeating, than for obscurity in
+defining it,) was to enforce the distinction between the ignoble and
+false phase of Idolatry, which consists in the attribution of a
+spiritual power to a material thing; and the noble and truth-seeking
+phase of it, to which I shall in these Lectures[16] give the general
+term of Imagination;--that is to say, the invention of material symbols
+which may lead us to contemplate the character and nature of gods,
+spirits, or abstract virtues and powers, without in the least implying
+the actual presence of such Beings among us, or even their possession,
+in reality, of the forms we attribute to them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+67. For instance, in the ordinarily received Greek type of Athena, on
+vases of the Phidian time, (sufficiently represented in the following
+wood-cut,) no Greek would have supposed the vase on which this was
+painted to be itself Athena, nor to contain Athena inside of it, as the
+Arabian fisherman's casket contained the genie; neither did he think
+that this rude black painting, done at speed as the potter's fancy urged
+his hand, represented anything like the form or aspect of the goddess
+herself. Nor would he have thought so, even had the image been ever so
+beautifully wrought. The goddess might, indeed, visibly appear under the
+form of an armed virgin, as she might under that of a hawk or a swallow,
+when it pleased her to give such manifestation of her presence; but it
+did not, therefore, follow that she was constantly invested with any of
+these forms, or that the best which human skill could, even by her own
+aid, picture of her, was, indeed, a likeness of her. The real use, at
+all events, of this rude image, was only to signify to the eye and heart
+the facts of the existence, in some manner, of a Spirit of wisdom,
+perfect in gentleness, irresistible in anger; having also physical
+dominion over the air which is the life and breath of all creatures, and
+clothed, to human eyes, with ęgis of fiery cloud, and raiment of falling
+dew.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+68. In the yet more abstract conception of the Spirit of Agriculture, in
+which the wings of the chariot represent the winds of Spring, and its
+crested dragons are originally a mere type of the seed with its twisted
+root piercing the ground, and sharp-edged leaves rising above it, we are
+in still less danger of mistaking the symbol for the presumed form of an
+actual Person. But I must, with persistence, beg of you to observe that
+in all the noble actions of imagination in this kind, the distinction
+from idolatry consists, not in the denial of the being, or presence, of
+the Spirit, but only in the due recognition of our human incapacity to
+conceive the one, or compel the other.
+
+69. Farther--and for this statement I claim your attention still more
+earnestly. As no nation has ever attained real greatness during periods
+in which it was subject to any condition of Idolatry, so no nation has
+ever attained or persevered in greatness, except in reaching and
+maintaining a passionate Imagination of a spiritual estate higher than
+that of men; and of spiritual creatures nobler than men, having a quite
+real and personal existence, however imperfectly apprehended by us.
+
+And all the arts of the present age deserving to be included under the
+name of sculpture have been degraded by us, and all principles of just
+policy have vanished from us,--and that totally,--for this double
+reason; that we are, on one side, given up to idolatries of the most
+servile kind, as I showed you in the close of the last Lecture,--while,
+on the other hand, we have absolutely ceased from the exercise of
+faithful imagination; and the only remnants of the desire of truth which
+remain in us have been corrupted into a prurient itch to discover the
+origin of life in the nature of the dust, and prove that the source of
+the order of the universe is the accidental concurrence of its atoms.
+
+70. Under these two calamities of our time, the art of sculpture has
+perished more totally than any other, because the object of that art is
+exclusively the representation of form as the exponent of life. It is
+essentially concerned only with the human form, which is the exponent of
+the highest life we know; and with all subordinate forms only as they
+exhibit conditions of vital power which have some certain relation to
+humanity. It deals with the "particula undique desecta" of the animal
+nature, and itself contemplates, and brings forward for its disciples'
+contemplation, all the energies of creation which transform the [Greek:
+pźlos], or, lower still, the [Greek: borboros] of the _trivia_, by
+Athena's help, into forms of power;--([Greek: to men holon architektōn
+autos źn syneirgazeto de toi kai hź 'Athźna empneousa ton pźlon kai
+empsycha poiousa einai ta plasmata;])[17]--but it has nothing whatever
+to do with the representation of forms not living, however beautiful (as
+of clouds or waves); nor may it condescend to use its perfect skill,
+except in expressing the noblest conditions of life.
+
+These laws of sculpture, being wholly contrary to the practice of our
+day, I cannot expect you to accept on my assertion, nor do I wish you to
+do so. By placing definitely good and bad sculpture before you, I do not
+doubt but that I shall gradually prove to you the nature of all
+excelling and enduring qualities; but to-day I will only confirm my
+assertions by laying before you the statement of the Greeks themselves
+on the subject; given in their own noblest time, and assuredly
+authoritative, in every point which it embraces, for all time to come.
+
+71. If any of you have looked at the explanation I have given of the
+myth of Athena in my 'Queen of the Air,' you cannot but have been
+surprised that I took scarcely any note of the story of her birth. I did
+not, because that story is connected intimately with the Apolline myths;
+and is told of Athena, not essentially as the goddess of the air, but as
+the goddess of Art-Wisdom.
+
+You have probably often smiled at the legend itself, or avoided thinking
+of it, as revolting. It is, indeed, one of the most painful and childish
+of sacred myths; yet remember, ludicrous and ugly as it seems to us,
+this story satisfied the fancy of the Athenian people in their highest
+state; and if it did not satisfy, yet it was accepted by, all later
+mythologists: you may also remember I told you to be prepared always to
+find that, given a certain degree of national intellect, the ruder the
+symbol, the deeper would be its purpose. And this legend of the birth of
+Athena is the central myth of all that the Greeks have left us
+respecting the power of their arts; and in it they have expressed, as it
+seemed good to them, the most important things they had to tell us on
+these matters. We may read them wrongly; but we must read them here, if
+anywhere.
+
+72. There are so many threads to be gathered up in the legend, that I
+cannot hope to put it before you in total clearness, but I will take
+main points. Athena is born in the island of Rhodes; and that island is
+raised out of the sea by Apollo, after he had been left without
+inheritance among the gods. Zeus[18] would have cast the lot again, but
+Apollo orders the golden-girdled Lachesis to stretch out her hands; and
+not now by chance or lot, but by noble enchantment, the island rises out
+of the sea.
+
+Physically, this represents the action of heat and light on chaos,
+especially on the deep sea. It is the "Fiat lux" of Genesis, the first
+process in the conquest of Fate by Harmony. The island is dedicated to
+the nymph Rhodos, by whom Apollo has the seven sons who teach [Greek:
+sophōtata noźmata]; because the rose is the most beautiful organism
+existing in matter not vital, expressive of the direct action of light
+on the earth, giving lovely form and color at once, (compare the use of
+it by Dante, as the form of the sainted crowd in highest heaven); and
+remember that, therefore, the rose is, in the Greek mind, essentially a
+Doric flower, expressing the worship of Light, as the Iris or Ion is an
+Ionic one, expressing the worship of the Winds and Dew.
+
+73. To understand the agency of Hephęstus at the birth of Athena, we
+must again return to the founding of the arts on agriculture by the
+hand. Before you can cultivate land, you must clear it; and the
+characteristic weapon of Hephęstus,--which is as much his attribute as
+the trident is of Poseidon, and the rhabdos of Hermes, is not, as you
+would have expected, the hammer, but the clearing-ax--the double-edged
+[Greek: pelekys], the same that Calypso gives Ulysses with which to cut
+down the trees for his home voyage; so that both the naval and
+agricultural strength of the Athenians are expressed by this weapon,
+with which they had to hew out their fortune. And you must keep in mind
+this agriculturally laborious character of Hephęstus, even when he is
+most distinctly the god of serviceable fire; thus Horace's perfect
+epithet for him, "avidus," expresses at once the devouring eagerness of
+fire, and the zeal of progressive labor, for Horace gives it to him when
+he is fighting against the giants. And this rude symbol of his cleaving
+the forehead of Zeus with the ax, and giving birth to Athena, signifies
+indeed, physically, the thrilling power of heat in the heavens, rending
+the clouds, and giving birth to the blue air; but far more deeply it
+signifies the subduing of adverse Fate by true labor; until, out of the
+chasm, cleft by resolute and industrious fortitude, springs the Spirit
+of Wisdom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+74. Here (Fig. 4) is an early drawing of the myth, to which I shall
+have to refer afterwards in illustration of the childishness of the
+Greek mind at the time when its art-symbols were first fixed; but it is
+of peculiar value, because the physical character of Vulcan, as fire, is
+indicated by his wearing the [Greek: endromides] of Hermes, while the
+antagonism of Zeus, as the adverse chaos, either of cloud or of fate, is
+shown by his striking at Hephęstus with his thunderbolt. But Plate IV.
+gives you (as far as the light on the rounded vase will allow it to be
+deciphered) a characteristic representation of the scene, as conceived
+in later art.
+
+75. I told you in a former Lecture of this course[19] that the entire
+Greek intellect was in a childish phase as compared to that of modern
+times. Observe, however, childishness does not necessarily imply
+universal inferiority: there may be a vigorous, acute, pure, and solemn
+childhood, and there may be a weak, foul, and ridiculous condition of
+advanced life; but the one is still essentially the childish, and the
+other the adult phase of existence.
+
+76. You will find, then, that the Greeks were the first people that were
+born into complete humanity. All nations before them had been, and all
+around them still were, partly savage, bestial, clay-incumbered,
+inhuman; still semi-goat, or semi-ant, or semi-stone, or semi-cloud. But
+the power of a new spirit came upon the Greeks, and the stones were
+filled with breath, and the clouds clothed with flesh; and then came the
+great spiritual battle between the Centaurs and Lapithę; and the living
+creatures became "Children of Men." Taught, yet by the Centaur--sown, as
+they knew, in the fang--from the dappled skin of the brute, from the
+leprous scale of the serpent, their flesh came again as the flesh of a
+little child, and they were clean.
+
+Fix your mind on this as the very central character of the Greek
+race--the being born pure and human out of the brutal misery of the
+past, and looking abroad, for the first time, with their children's
+eyes, wonderingly open, on the strange and divine world.
+
+[Illustration: IV.
+
+THE NATIVITY OF ATHENA.]
+
+77. Make some effort to remember, so far as may be possible to you,
+either what you felt in yourselves when you were young, or what you have
+observed in other children, of the action of thought and fancy. Children
+are continually represented as living in an ideal world of their own. So
+far as I have myself observed, the distinctive character of a child is
+to live always in the tangible present, having little pleasure in
+memory, and being utterly impatient and tormented by anticipation: weak
+alike in reflection and forethought, but having an intense possession of
+the actual present, down to the shortest moments and least objects of
+it; possessing it, indeed, so intensely that the sweet childish days are
+as long as twenty days will be; and setting all the faculties of heart
+and imagination on little things, so as to be able to make anything out
+of them he chooses. Confined to a little garden, he does not imagine
+himself somewhere else, but makes a great garden out of that; possessed
+of an acorn-cup, he will not despise it and throw it away, and covet a
+golden one in its stead: it is the adult who does so. The child keeps
+his acorn-cup as a treasure, and makes a golden one out of it in his
+mind; so that the wondering grown-up person standing beside him is
+always tempted to ask concerning his treasures, not, "What would you
+have more than these?" but "What possibly can you see _in_ these?" for,
+to the bystander, there is a ludicrous and incomprehensible
+inconsistency between the child's words and the reality. The little
+thing tells him gravely, holding up the acorn-cup, that "this is a
+queen's crown," or "a fairy's boat," and, with beautiful effrontery,
+expects him to believe the same. But observe--the acorn-cup must be
+_there_, and in his own hand. "Give it me; then I will make more of it
+for myself." That is the child's one word, always.
+
+78. It is also the one word of the Greek--"Give it me." Give me _any_
+thing definite here in my sight, then I will make more of it.
+
+I cannot easily express to you how strange it seems to me that I am
+obliged, here in Oxford, to take the position of an apologist for Greek
+art; that I find, in spite of all the devotion of the admirable scholars
+who have so long maintained in our public schools the authority of Greek
+literature, our younger students take no interest in the manual work of
+the people upon whose thoughts the tone of their early intellectual life
+has exclusively depended. But I am not surprised that the interest, if
+awakened, should not at first take the form of admiration. The
+inconsistency between an Homeric description of a piece of furniture or
+armor, and the actual rudeness of any piece of art approximating, within
+even three or four centuries, to the Homeric period, is so great, that
+we at first cannot recognize the art as elucidatory of, or in any way
+related to, the poetic language.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: V.
+
+TOMB OF THE DOGES JACOPO AND LORENZO TIEPOLO.]
+
+79. You will find, however, exactly the same kind of discrepancy between
+early sculpture, and the languages of deed and thought, in the second
+birth, and childhood, of the world, under Christianity. The same fair
+thoughts and bright imaginations arise again; and, similarly, the fancy
+is content with the rudest symbols by which they can be formalized to
+the eyes. You cannot understand that the rigid figure (2) with checkers
+or spots on its breast, and sharp lines of drapery to its feet, could
+represent, to the Greek, the healing majesty of heaven: but can you any
+better understand how a symbol so haggard as this (Fig. 5) could
+represent to the noblest hearts of the Christian ages the power and
+ministration of angels? Yet it not only did so, but retained in the rude
+undulatory and linear ornamentation of its dress, record of the thoughts
+intended to be conveyed by the spotted ęgis and falling chiton of
+Athena, eighteen hundred years before. Greek and Venetian alike, in
+their noble childhood, knew with the same terror the coiling wind and
+congealed hail in heaven--saw with the same thankfulness the dew shed
+softly on the earth, and on its flowers; and both recognized, ruling
+these, and symbolized by them, the great helpful spirit of Wisdom, which
+leads the children of men to all knowledge, all courage, and all art.
+
+80. Read the inscription written on the sarcophagus (Plate V.), at the
+extremity of which this angel is sculptured. It stands in an open recess
+in the rude brick wall of the west front of the church of St. John and
+Paul at Venice, being the tomb of the two doges, father and son, Jacopo
+and Lorenzo Tiepolo. This is the inscription:--
+
+    "Quos natura pares studiis, virtutibus, arte
+    Edidit, illustres genitor natusque, sepulti
+    Hāc sub rupe Duces. Venetum charissima proles
+    Theupula collatis dedit hos celebranda triumphis.
+    Omnia presentis donavit predia templi
+    Dux Jacobus: valido fixit moderamine leges
+    Urbis, et ingratam redimens certamine Jadram
+    Dalmatiosque dedit patrie post, Marte subactas
+    Graiorum pelago maculavit sanguine classes.
+    Suscipit oblatos princeps Laurentius Istros,
+    Et domuit rigidos, ingenti strage cadentes,
+    Bononie populos. Hinc subdita Cervia cessit.
+    Fundavere vias pacis; fortique relictā
+    Re, superos sacris petierunt mentibus ambo.
+
+    Dominus Jachobus hobiit[20] M. CCLI. Dominus Laurentius hobiit
+    M. CCLXXVIII."
+
+You see, therefore, this tomb is an invaluable example of
+thirteenth-century sculpture in Venice. In Plate VI., you have an
+example of the (coin) sculpture of the date accurately corresponding in
+Greece to the thirteenth century in Venice, when the meaning of symbols
+was everything, and the workmanship comparatively nothing. The upper
+head is an Athena, of Athenian work in the seventh or sixth
+century--(the coin itself may have been struck later, but the archaic
+type was retained). The two smaller impressions below are the front and
+obverse of a coin of the same age from Corinth, the head of Athena on
+one side, and Pegasus, with the archaic Koppa, on the other. The smaller
+head is bare, the hair being looped up at the back and closely bound
+with an olive branch. You are to note this general outline of the head,
+already given in a more finished type in Plate II., as a most important
+elementary form in the finest sculpture, not of Greece only, but of all
+Christendom. In the upper head the hair is restrained still more closely
+by a round helmet, for the most part smooth, but embossed with a single
+flower tendril, having one bud, one flower, and, above it, two olive
+leaves. You have thus the most absolutely restricted symbol possible to
+human thought of the power of Athena over the flowers and trees of the
+earth. An olive leaf by itself could not have stood for the sign of a
+tree, but the two can, when set in position of growth.
+
+I would not give you the reverse of the coin on the same plate, because
+you would have looked at it only, laughed at it, and not examined the
+rest; but here it is, wonderfully engraved for you (Fig. 6): of it we
+shall have more to say afterwards.
+
+[Illustration: VI.
+
+ARCHAIC ATHENA OF ATHENS AND CORINTH.]
+
+81. And now as you look at these rude vestiges of the religion of
+Greece, and at the vestiges still ruder, on the Ducal tomb, of the
+religion of Christendom, take warning against two opposite errors.
+
+There is a school of teachers who will tell you that nothing but Greek
+art is deserving of study, and that all our work at this day should be
+an imitation of it.
+
+Whenever you feel tempted to believe them, think of these portraits of
+Athena and her owl, and be assured that Greek art is not in all respects
+perfect, nor exclusively deserving of imitation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+There is another school of teachers who will tell you that Greek art is
+good for nothing; that the soul of the Greek was outcast, and that
+Christianity entirely superseded its faith, and excelled its works.
+
+Whenever you feel tempted to believe _them_, think of this angel on the
+tomb of Jacopo Tiepolo; and remember that Christianity, after it had
+been twelve hundred years existent as an imaginative power on the earth,
+could do no better work than this, though with all the former power of
+Greece to help it; nor was able to engrave its triumph in having stained
+its fleets in the seas of Greece with the blood of her people, but
+between barbarous imitations of the pillars which that people had
+invented.
+
+82. Receiving these two warnings, receive also this lesson. In both
+examples, childish though it be, this Heathen and Christian art is alike
+sincere, and alike vividly imaginative: the actual work is that of
+infancy; the thoughts, in their visionary simplicity, are also the
+thoughts of infancy, but in their solemn virtue they are the thoughts of
+men.
+
+We, on the contrary, are now, in all that we do, absolutely without
+sincerity;--absolutely, therefore, without imagination, and without
+virtue. Our hands are dexterous with the vile and deadly dexterity of
+machines; our minds filled with incoherent fragments of faith, which we
+cling to in cowardice, without believing, and make pictures of in
+vanity, without loving. False and base alike, whether we admire or
+imitate, we cannot learn from the Heathen's art, but only pilfer it; we
+cannot revive the Christian's art, but only galvanize it; we are, in the
+sum of us, not human artists at all, but mechanisms of conceited clay,
+masked in the furs and feathers of living creatures, and convulsed with
+voltaic spasms, in mockery of animation.
+
+83. You think, perhaps, that I am using terms unjustifiable in violence.
+They would, indeed, be unjustifiable, if, spoken from this chair, they
+were violent at all. They are, unhappily, temperate and
+accurate,--except in shortcoming of blame. For we are not only impotent
+to restore, but strong to defile, the work of past ages. Of the
+impotence, take but this one, utterly humiliatory, and, in the full
+meaning of it, ghastly, example. We have lately been busy embanking, in
+the capital of the country, the river which, of all its waters, the
+imagination of our ancestors had made most sacred, and the bounty of
+nature most useful. Of all architectural features of the metropolis,
+that embankment will be, in future, the most conspicuous; and in its
+position and purpose it was the most capable of noble adornment.
+
+For that adornment, nevertheless, the utmost which our modern poetical
+imagination has been able to invent, is a row of gas-lamps. It has,
+indeed, farther suggested itself to our minds as appropriate to
+gas-lamps set beside a river, that the gas should come out of fishes'
+tails; but we have not ingenuity enough to cast so much as a smelt or a
+sprat for ourselves; so we borrow the shape of a Neapolitan marble,
+which has been the refuse of the plate and candlestick shops in every
+capital in Europe for the last fifty years. We cast _that_ badly, and
+give luster to the ill-cast fish with lacquer in imitation of bronze. On
+the base of their pedestals, towards the road, we put, for
+advertisement's sake, the initials of the casting firm; and, for farther
+originality and Christianity's sake, the caduceus of Mercury: and to
+adorn the front of the pedestals, towards the river, being now wholly at
+our wits' end, we can think of nothing better than to borrow the
+door-knocker which--again for the last fifty years--has disturbed and
+decorated two or three millions of London street-doors; and magnifying
+the marvelous device of it, a lion's head with a ring in its mouth,
+(still borrowed from the Greek,) we complete the embankment with a row
+of heads and rings, on a scale which enables them to produce, at the
+distance at which only they can be seen, the exact effect of a row of
+sentry-boxes.
+
+84. Farther. In the very center of the City, and at the point where the
+Embankment commands a view of Westminster Abbey on one side, and of St.
+Paul's on the other,--that is to say, at precisely the most important
+and stately moment of its whole course,--it has to pass under one of the
+arches of Waterloo Bridge, which, in the sweep of its curve, is as
+vast--it alone--as the Rialto at Venice, and scarcely less seemly in
+proportions. But over the Rialto, though of late and debased Venetian
+work, there still reigns some power of human imagination: on the two
+flanks of it are carved the Virgin and the Angel of the Annunciation; on
+the keystone, the descending Dove. It is not, indeed, the fault of
+living designers that the Waterloo arch is nothing more than a gloomy
+and hollow heap of wedged blocks of blind granite. But just beyond the
+damp shadow of it, the new Embankment is reached by a flight of stairs,
+which are, in point of fact, the principal approach to it, afoot, from
+central London; the descent from the very midst of the metropolis of
+England to the banks of the chief river of England; and for this
+approach, living designers _are_ answerable.
+
+85. The principal decoration of the descent is again a gas-lamp, but a
+shattered one, with a brass crown on the top of it, or, rather,
+half-crown, and that turned the wrong way, the back of it to the river
+and causeway, its flame supplied by a visible pipe far wandering along
+the wall; the whole apparatus being supported by a rough cross-beam.
+Fastened to the center of the arch above is a large placard, stating
+that the Royal Humane Society's drags are in constant readiness, and
+that their office is at 4, Trafalgar Square. On each side of the arch
+are temporary, but dismally old and battered boardings, across two
+angles capable of unseemly use by the British public. Above one of these
+is another placard, stating that this is the Victoria Embankment. The
+steps themselves--some forty of them--descend under a tunnel, which the
+shattered gas-lamp lights by night, and nothing by day. They are covered
+with filthy dust, shaken off from infinitude of filthy feet; mixed up
+with shreds of paper, orange-peel, foul straw, rags, and cigar-ends, and
+ashes; the whole agglutinated, more or less, by dry saliva into slippery
+blotches and patches; or, when not so fastened, blown dismally by the
+sooty wind hither and thither, or into the faces of those who ascend and
+descend. The place is worth your visit, for you are not likely to find
+elsewhere a spot which, either in costly and ponderous brutality of
+building, or in the squalid and indecent accompaniment of it, is so far
+separated from the peace and grace of nature, and so accurately
+indicative of the methods of our national resistance to the Grace,
+Mercy, and Peace of Heaven.
+
+86. I am obliged always to use the English word 'Grace' in two senses,
+but remember that the Greek [Greek: charis] includes them both (the
+bestowing, that is to say, of Beauty and Mercy); and especially it
+includes these in the passage of Pindar's first ode, which gives us the
+key to the right interpretation of the power of sculpture in Greece. You
+remember that I told you, in my Sixth Introductory Lecture (§ 151), that
+the mythic accounts of Greek sculpture begin in the legends of the
+family of Tantalus; and especially in the most grotesque legend of them
+all, the inlaying of the ivory shoulder of Pelops. At that story Pindar
+pauses,--not, indeed, without admiration, nor alleging any impossibility
+in the circumstances themselves, but doubting the careless hunger of
+Demeter,--and gives his own reading of the event, instead of the ancient
+one. He justifies this to himself, and to his hearers, by the plea that
+myths have, in some sort, or degree, ([Greek: pou ti],) led the mind of
+mortals beyond the truth; and then he goes on:--
+
+"Grace, which creates everything that is kindly and soothing for
+mortals, adding honor, has often made things, at first untrustworthy,
+become trustworthy through Love."
+
+87. I cannot, except in these lengthened terms, give you the complete
+force of the passage; especially of the [Greek: apiston emźsato
+piston]--"made it trustworthy by passionate desire that it should be
+so"--which exactly describes the temper of religious persons at the
+present day, who are kindly and sincere, in clinging to the forms of
+faith which either have long been precious to themselves, or which they
+feel to have been without question instrumental in advancing the dignity
+of mankind. And it is part of the constitution of humanity--a part
+which, above others, you are in danger of unwisely contemning under the
+existing conditions of our knowledge, that the things thus sought for
+belief with eager passion, do, indeed, become trustworthy to us; that,
+to each of us, they verily become what we would have them; the force of
+the [Greek: mźnis] and [Greek: mnźmź] with which we seek after them,
+does, indeed, make them powerful to us for actual good or evil; and it
+is thus granted to us to create not only with our hands things that
+exalt or degrade our sight, but with our hearts also, things that exalt
+or degrade our souls; giving true substance to all that we hoped for;
+evidence to things that we have not seen, but have desired to see; and
+calling, in the sense of creating, things that are not, as though they
+were.
+
+88. You remember that in distinguishing Imagination from Idolatry, I
+referred[21] you to the forms of passionate affection with which a
+noble people commonly regards the rivers and springs of its native land.
+Some conception of personality, or of spiritual power in the stream, is
+almost necessarily involved in such emotion; and prolonged [Greek:
+charis], in the form of gratitude, the return of Love for benefits
+continually bestowed, at last alike in all the highest and the simplest
+minds, when they are honorable and pure, makes this untrue thing
+trustworthy; [Greek: apiston emźsato piston], until it becomes to them
+the safe basis of some of the happiest impulses of their moral nature.
+Next to the marbles of Verona, given you as a primal type of the
+sculpture of Christianity, moved to its best energy in adorning the
+entrance of its temples, I have not unwillingly placed, as your
+introduction to the best sculpture of the religion of Greece, the forms
+under which it represented the personality of the fountain Arethusa. But
+without restriction to those days of absolute devotion, let me simply
+point out to you how this untrue thing, made true by Love, has intimate
+and heavenly authority even over the minds of men of the most practical
+sense, the most shrewd wit, and the most severe precision of moral
+temper. The fair vision of Sabrina in 'Comus,' the endearing and tender
+promise, "Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium," and the joyful and proud
+affection of the great Lombard's address to the lakes of his enchanted
+land,--
+
+          "Te, Lari maxume, teque
+    Fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino,"
+
+may surely be remembered by you with regretful piety, when you stand by
+the blank stones which at once restrain and disgrace your native river,
+as the final worship rendered to it by modern philosophy. But a little
+incident which I saw last summer on its bridge at Wallingford, may put
+the contrast of ancient and modern feeling before you still more
+forcibly.
+
+89. Those of you who have read with attention (none of us can read with
+too much attention), Moličre's most perfect work, 'The Misanthrope,'
+must remember Celimčne's description of her lovers, and her excellent
+reason for being unable to regard with any favor, "notre grand flandrin
+de vicomte,--depuis que je l'ai vu, trois quarts d'heure durant, cracher
+dans un puits pour faire des ronds." That sentence is worth noting, both
+in contrast to the reverence paid by the ancients to wells and springs,
+and as one of the most interesting traces of the extension of the
+loathsome habit among the upper classes of Europe and America, which now
+renders all external grace, dignity, and decency impossible in the
+thoroughfares of their principal cities. In connection with that
+sentence of Moličre's you may advisably also remember this fact, which I
+chanced to notice on the bridge of Wallingford. I was walking from end
+to end of it, and back again, one Sunday afternoon of last May, trying
+to conjecture what had made this especial bend and ford of the Thames so
+important in all the Anglo-Saxon wars. It was one of the few sunny
+afternoons of the bitter spring, and I was very thankful for its light,
+and happy in watching beneath it the flow and the glittering of the
+classical river, when I noticed a well-dressed boy, apparently just out
+of some orderly Sunday-school, leaning far over the parapet; watching,
+as I conjectured, some bird or insect on the bridge-buttress. I went up
+to him to see what he was looking at; but just as I got close to him, he
+started over to the opposite parapet, and put himself there into the
+same position, his object being, as I then perceived, to spit from both
+sides upon the heads of a pleasure party who were passing in a boat
+below.
+
+90. The incident may seem to you too trivial to be noticed in this
+place. To me, gentlemen, it was by no means trivial. It meant, in the
+depth of it, such absence of all true [Greek: charis], reverence, and
+intellect, as it is very dreadful to trace in the mind of any human
+creature, much more in that of a child educated with apparently every
+advantage of circumstance in a beautiful English country town, within
+ten miles of our University. Most of all is it terrific when we regard
+it as the exponent (and this, in truth, it is) of the temper which, as
+distinguished from former methods, either of discipline or recreation,
+the present tenor of our general teaching fosters in the mind of
+youth;--teaching which asserts liberty to be a right, and obedience a
+degradation; and which, regardless alike of the fairness of nature and
+the grace of behavior, leaves the insolent spirit and degraded senses to
+find their only occupation in malice, and their only satisfaction in
+shame.
+
+91. You will, I hope, proceed with me, not scornfully any more, to
+trace, in the early art of a noble heathen nation, the feeling of what
+was at least a better childishness than this of ours; and the efforts to
+express, though with hands yet failing, and minds oppressed by ignorant
+fantasy, the first truth by which they knew that they lived; the birth
+of wisdom and of all her powers of help to man, as the reward of his
+resolute labor.
+
+92. "[Greek: Haphaiston technaisi]." Note that word of Pindar in the
+Seventh Olympic. This ax-blow of Vulcan's was to the Greek mind truly
+what Clytemnestra falsely asserts hers to have been, "[Greek: tźs de
+dexias cheros, ergon, dikaias tektonos]"; physically, it meant the
+opening of the blue through the rent clouds of heaven, by the action of
+local terrestrial heat (of Hephęstus as opposed to Apollo, who shines on
+the surface of the upper clouds, but cannot pierce them); and,
+spiritually, it meant the first birth of prudent thought out of rude
+labor, the clearing-ax in the hand of the woodman being the practical
+elementary sign of his difference from the wild animals of the wood.
+Then he goes on, "From the high head of her Father, Athenaia rushing
+forth, cried with her great and exceeding cry; and the Heaven trembled
+at her, and the Earth Mother." The cry of Athena, I have before pointed
+out, physically distinguishes her, as the spirit of the air, from silent
+elemental powers; but in this grand passage of Pindar it is again the
+mythic cry of which he thinks; that is to say, the giving articulate
+words, by intelligence, to the silence of Fate. "Wisdom crieth aloud,
+she uttereth her voice in the streets," and Heaven and Earth tremble at
+her reproof.
+
+93. Uttereth her voice in the "streets." For all men, that is to say;
+but to what work did the Greeks think that her voice was to call them?
+What was to be the impulse communicated by her prevailing presence; what
+the sign of the people's obedience to her?
+
+This was to be the sign--"But she, the goddess herself, gave to them to
+prevail over the dwellers upon earth, _with best-laboring hands in every
+art. And by their paths there were the likenesses of living and of
+creeping things_; and the glory was deep. For to the cunning workman,
+greater knowledge comes, undeceitful."
+
+94. An infinitely pregnant passage, this, of which to-day you are to
+note mainly these three things: First, that Athena is the goddess of
+Doing, not at all of sentimental inaction. She is begotten, as it were,
+of the woodman's ax; her purpose is never in a word only, but in a word
+and a blow. She guides the hands that labor best, in every art.
+
+95. Secondly. The victory given by Wisdom, the worker, to the hands that
+labor best, is that the streets and ways, [Greek: keleuthoi], shall be
+filled by likenesses of living and creeping things.
+
+Things living, and creeping! Are the Reptile things not alive then? You
+think Pindar wrote that carelessly? or that, if he had only known a
+little modern anatomy, instead of 'reptile' things, he would have said
+'monochondylous' things? Be patient, and let us attend to the main
+points first.
+
+Sculpture, it thus appears, is the only work of wisdom that the Greeks
+care to speak of; they think it involves and crowns every other.
+Image-making art; _this_ is Athena's, as queenliest of the arts.
+Literature, the order and the strength of word, of course belongs to
+Apollo and the Muses; under Athena are the Substances and the Forms of
+things.
+
+96. Thirdly. By this forming of Images there is to be gained a
+'deep'--that is to say, a weighty, and prevailing, glory; not a floating
+nor fugitive one. For to the cunning workman, greater knowledge comes,
+'undeceitful.'
+
+"[Greek: Daenti;]" I am forced to use two English words to translate
+that single Greek one. The 'cunning' workman, thoughtful in experience,
+touch, and vision of the thing to be done; no machine, witless, and of
+necessary motion; yet not cunning only, but having perfect habitual
+skill of hand also; the confirmed reward of truthful doing. Recollect,
+in connection with this passage of Pindar, Homer's three verses about
+getting the lines of ship-timber true, (Il. XV. 410):
+
+    "[Greek: 'All' hōste stathmź dory nźion exithynei
+    tektonos en palam si daźmonos, hoo rha te pasźs
+    eu eidź sophiźs, hypothźmosynźsin 'Athźnźs],"
+
+and the beautiful epithet of Persephone,--"[Greek: daeira]," as the
+Tryer and Knower of good work; and remembering these, trust Pindar for
+the truth of his saying, that to the cunning workman--(and let me
+solemnly enforce the words by adding--that to him _only_,) knowledge
+comes undeceitful.
+
+97. You may have noticed, perhaps, and with a smile, as one of the
+paradoxes you often hear me blamed for too fondly stating, what I told
+you in the close of my Third Introductory Lecture,[22] that "so far from
+art's being immoral, little else except art is moral." I have now
+farther to tell you, that little else, except art, is wise; that all
+knowledge, unaccompanied by a habit of useful action, is too likely to
+become deceitful, and that every habit of useful action must resolve
+itself into some elementary practice of manual labor. And I would, in
+all sober and direct earnestness, advise you, whatever may be the aim,
+predilection, or necessity of your lives, to resolve upon this one thing
+at least, that you will enable yourselves daily to do actually with your
+hands, something that is useful to mankind. To do anything well with
+your hands, useful or not; to be, even in trifling, [Greek: palamźsi
+daźmōn], is already much. When we come to examine the art of the Middle
+Ages, I shall be able to show you that the strongest of all influences
+of right then brought to bear upon character was the necessity for
+exquisite manual dexterity in the management of the spear and bridle;
+and in your own experience most of you will be able to recognize the
+wholesome effect, alike on body and mind, of striving, within proper
+limits of time, to become either good batsmen or good oarsmen. But the
+bat and the racer's oar are children's toys. Resolve that you will be
+men in usefulness, as well as in strength; and you will find that then
+also, but not till then, you can become men in understanding; and that
+every fine vision and subtle theorem will present itself to you
+thence-forward undeceitfully, [Greek: hypothźmosynźsin Athźnźs].
+
+98. But there is more to be gathered yet from the words of Pindar. He is
+thinking, in his brief intense way, at once of Athena's work on the
+soul, and of her literal power on the dust of the Earth. His "[Greek:
+keleuthoi]" is a wide word, meaning all the paths of sea and land.
+Consider, therefore, what Athena's own work _actually is_--in the
+literal fact of it. The blue, clear air _is_ the sculpturing power upon
+the earth and sea. Where the surface of the earth is reached by that,
+and its matter and substance inspired with and filled by that, organic
+form becomes possible. You must indeed have the sun, also, and moisture;
+the kingdom of Apollo risen out of the sea: but the sculpturing of
+living things, shape by shape, is Athena's, so that under the brooding
+spirit of the air, what was without form, and void, brings forth the
+moving creature that hath life.
+
+99. That is her work then--the giving of Form; then the separately
+Apolline work is the giving of Light; or, more strictly, Sight: giving
+that faculty to the retina to which we owe not merely the idea of light,
+but the existence of it; for light is to be defined only as the
+sensation produced in the eye of an animal, under given conditions;
+those same conditions being, to a stone, only warmth or chemical
+influence, but not light. And that power of seeing, and the other
+various personalities and authorities of the animal body, in pleasure
+and pain, have never, hitherto, been, I do not say, explained, but in
+anywise touched or approached by scientific discovery. Some of the
+conditions of mere external animal form and of muscular vitality have
+been shown; but for the most part that is true, even of external form,
+which I wrote six years ago. "You may always stand by Form against
+Force. To a painter, the essential character of anything is the form of
+it, and the philosophers cannot touch that. They come and tell you, for
+instance, that there is as much heat, or motion, or calorific energy (or
+whatever else they like to call it), in a tea-kettle, as in a
+gier-eagle. Very good: that is so, and it is very interesting. It
+requires just as much heat as will boil the kettle, to take the
+gier-eagle up to his nest, and as much more to bring him down again on a
+hare or a partridge. But we painters, acknowledging the equality and
+similarity of the kettle and the bird in all scientific respects,
+attach, for our part, our principal interest to the difference in their
+forms. For us, the primarily cognizable facts, in the two things, are,
+that the kettle has a spout, and the eagle a beak; the one a lid on its
+back, the other a pair of wings; not to speak of the distinction also of
+volition, which the philosophers may properly call merely a form or mode
+of force--but then, to an artist, the form or mode is the gist of the
+business."[23]
+
+100. As you will find that it is, not to the artist only, but to all of
+us. The laws under which matter is collected and constructed are the
+same throughout the universe: the substance so collected, whether for
+the making of the eagle, or the worm, may be analyzed into gaseous
+identity; a diffusive vital force, apparently so closely related to
+mechanically measurable heat as to admit the conception of its being
+itself mechanically measurable, and unchanging in total quantity, ebbs
+and flows alike through the limbs of men and the fibers of insects. But,
+above all this, and ruling every grotesque or degraded accident of this,
+are two laws of beauty in form, and of nobility in character, which
+stand in the chaos of creation between the Living and the Dead, to
+separate the things that have in them a sacred and helpful, from those
+that have in them an accursed and destroying, nature; and the power of
+Athena, first physically put forth in the sculpturing of these [Greek:
+zōa] and [Greek: herpeta], these living and reptile things, is put
+forth, finally, in enabling the hearts of men to discern the one from
+the other; to know the unquenchable fires of the Spirit from the
+unquenchable fires of Death; and to choose, not unaided, between
+submission to the Love that cannot end, or to the Worm that cannot die.
+
+101. The unconsciousness of their antagonism is the most notable
+characteristic of the modern scientific mind; and I believe no credulity
+or fallacy admitted by the weakness (or it may sometimes rather have
+been the strength) of early imagination, indicates so strange a
+depression beneath the due scale of human intellect, as the failure of
+the sense of beauty in form, and loss of faith in heroism of conduct,
+which have become the curses of recent science,[24] art, and policy.
+
+102. That depression of intellect has been alike exhibited in the mean
+consternation confessedly felt on one side, and the mean triumph
+apparently felt on the other, during the course of the dispute now
+pending as to the origin of man. Dispute for the present not to be
+decided, and of which the decision is, to persons in the modern temper
+of mind, wholly without significance: and I earnestly desire that you,
+my pupils, may have firmness enough to disengage your energies from
+investigation so premature and so fruitless, and sense enough to
+perceive that it does not matter how you have been made, so long as you
+are satisfied with being what you are. If you are dissatisfied with
+yourselves, it ought not to console, but humiliate you, to imagine that
+you were once seraphs; and if you are pleased with yourselves, it is not
+any ground of reasonable shame to you if, by no fault of your own, you
+have passed through the elementary condition of apes.
+
+103. Remember, therefore, that it is of the very highest importance that
+you should know what you _are_, and determine to be the best that you
+may be; but it is of no importance whatever, except as it may contribute
+to that end, to know what you have been. Whether your Creator shaped
+you with fingers, or tools, as a sculptor would a lump of clay, or
+gradually raised you to manhood through a series of inferior forms, is
+only of moment to you in this respect--that in the one case you cannot
+expect your children to be nobler creatures than you are yourselves--in
+the other, every act and thought of your present life may be hastening
+the advent of a race which will look back to you, their fathers (and you
+ought at least to have attained the dignity of desiring that it may be
+so,) with incredulous disdain.
+
+104. But that you _are_ yourselves capable of that disdain and dismay;
+that you are ashamed of having been apes, if you ever were so; that you
+acknowledge, instinctively, a relation of better and worse, and a law
+respecting what is noble and base, which makes it no question to you
+that the man is worthier than the baboon,--_this_ is a fact of infinite
+significance. This law of preference in your hearts is the true essence
+of your being, and the consciousness of that law is a more positive
+existence than any dependent on the coherence or forms of matter.
+
+105. Now, but a few words more of mythology, and I have done. Remember
+that Athena holds the weaver's shuttle, not merely as an instrument of
+_texture_, but as an instrument of _picture_; the ideas of clothing, and
+of the warmth of life, being thus inseparably connected with those of
+graphic beauty, and the brightness of life. I have told you that no art
+could be recovered among us without perfectness in dress, nor without
+the elementary graphic art of women, in divers colors of needlework.
+There has been no nation of any art-energy, but has strenuously occupied
+and interested itself in this household picturing, from the web of
+Penelope to the tapestry of Queen Matilda, and the meshes of Arras and
+Gobelins.
+
+106. We should then naturally ask what kind of embroidery Athena put on
+her own robe; "[Greek: peplon heanon, poikilon, hon r' autź poiźsato kai
+kame chersin]."
+
+The subject of that [Greek: poikilia] of hers, as you know, was the war
+of the giants and gods. Now the real name of these giants, remember, is
+that used by Hesiod, '[Greek: pźlogonoi],' 'mud-begotten,' and the
+meaning of the contest between these and Zeus, [Greek: pźlogonōn
+elatźr], is, again, the inspiration of life into the clay, by the
+goddess of breath; and the actual confusion going on visibly before you,
+daily, of the earth, heaping itself into cumbrous war with the powers
+above it.
+
+107. Thus, briefly, the entire material of Art, under Athena's hand, is
+the contest of life with clay; and all my task in explaining to you the
+early thought of both the Athenian and Tuscan schools will only be the
+tracing of this battle of the giants into its full heroic form, when,
+not in tapestry only, but in sculpture, and on the portal of the Temple
+of Delphi itself, you have the "[Greek: klonos en teichesi lainoisi
+gigantōn]," and their defeat hailed by the passionate cry of delight
+from the Athenian maids, beholding Pallas in her full power, "[Greek:
+leussō Pallad' eman theon]," my own goddess. All our work, I repeat,
+will be nothing but the inquiry into the development of this one
+subject, and the pressing fully home the question of Plato about that
+embroidery--"And think you that there is verily war with each other
+among the Gods? and dreadful enmities and battles, such as the poets
+have told, and such as our painters set forth in graven scripture, to
+adorn all our sacred rites and holy places; yes, and in the great
+Panathenaea themselves, the Peplus, full of such wild picturing, is
+carried up into the Acropolis--shall we say that these things are true,
+oh Euthuphron, right-minded friend?"
+
+108. Yes, we say, and know, that these things are true; and true
+forever: battles of the gods, not among themselves, but against the
+earth-giants. Battle prevailing age by age, in nobler life and lovelier
+imagery; creation, which no theory of mechanism, no definition of force,
+can explain, the adoption and completing of individual form by
+individual animation, breathed out of the lips of the Father of Spirits.
+And to recognize the presence in every knitted shape of dust, by which
+it lives and moves and has its being--to recognize it, revere, and show
+it forth, is to be our eternal Idolatry.
+
+"Thou shalt not bow down to them, nor worship them."
+
+"Assuredly no," we answered once, in our pride; and through porch and
+aisle, broke down the carved work thereof, with axes and hammers.
+
+Who would have thought the day so near when we should bow down to
+worship, not the creatures, but their atoms,--not the forces that form,
+but those that dissolve them? Trust me, gentlemen, the command which is
+stringent against adoration of brutality, is stringent no less against
+adoration of chaos, nor is faith in an image fallen from heaven to be
+reformed by a faith only in the phenomenon of decadence. We have ceased
+from the making of monsters to be appeased by sacrifice;--it is
+well,--if indeed we have also ceased from making them in our thoughts.
+We have learned to distrust the adorning of fair fantasms, to which we
+once sought for succor;--it is well, if we learn to distrust also the
+adorning of those to which we seek, for temptation; but the verity of
+gains like these can only be known by our confession of the divine seal
+of strength and beauty upon the tempered frame, and honor in the fervent
+heart, by which, increasing visibly, may yet be manifested to us the
+holy presence, and the approving love, of the Loving God, who visits the
+iniquities of the Fathers upon the Children, unto the third and fourth
+generation of them that hate Him, and shows mercy unto thousands of them
+that love Him, and keep His Commandments.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] I shall be obliged in future Lectures, as hitherto in my other
+writings, to use the terms Idolatry and Imagination in a more
+comprehensive sense; but here I use them for convenience' sake,
+limitedly, to avoid the continual occurrence of the terms noble and
+ignoble, or false and true, with reference to modes of conception.
+
+[17] "And in sum, he himself (Prometheus) was the master-maker, and
+Athena worked together with him, breathing into the clay, and caused the
+molded things to have soul (psyche) in them."--LUCIAN, _Prometheus._
+
+[18] His relations with the two great Titans, Themis and Mnemosyne,
+belong to another group of myths. The father of Athena is the lower and
+nearer physical Zeus, from whom Metis, the mother of Athena, long
+withdraws and disguises herself.
+
+[19] _Ante_, § 30.
+
+[20] The Latin verses are of later date; the contemporary plain prose
+retains the Venetian gutturals and aspirates.
+
+[21] _Ante_, § 44.
+
+[22] "Lectures on Art," § 95.
+
+[23] "Ethics of the Dust," Lecture X.
+
+[24] The best modern illustrated scientific works show perfect faculty
+of representing monkeys, lizards, and insects; absolute incapability of
+representing either a man, a horse, or a lion.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE IV.
+
+LIKENESS.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+109. You were probably vexed, and tired, towards the close of my last
+Lecture, by the time it took us to arrive at the apparently simple
+conclusion that sculpture must only represent organic form, and the
+strength of life in its contest with matter. But it is no small thing to
+have that "[Greek: leussō Pallada]" fixed in your minds, as the one
+necessary sign by which you are to recognize right sculpture; and,
+believe me, you will find it the best of all things, if you can take for
+yourselves the saying from the lips of the Athenian maids, in its
+entirety, and say also--[Greek: leussō Pallad' eman theon]. I proceed
+to-day into the practical appliance of this apparently speculative, but
+in reality imperative, law.
+
+110. You observe, I have hitherto spoken of the power of Athena, as over
+painting no less than sculpture. But her rule over both arts is only so
+far as they are zoographic;--representative, that is to say, of animal
+life, or of such order and discipline among other elements, as may
+invigorate and purify it. Now there is a speciality of the art of
+painting beyond this, namely, the representation of phenomena of color
+and shadow, as such, without question of the nature of the things that
+receive them. I am now accordingly obliged to speak of sculpture and
+painting as distinct arts: but the laws which bind sculpture, bind no
+less the painting of the higher schools, which has, for its main
+purpose, the showing beauty in human or animal form; and which is
+therefore placed by the Greeks equally under the rule of Athena, as the
+Spirit, first, of Life, and then of Wisdom in conduct.
+
+111. First, I say, you are to 'see Pallas' in all such work, as the
+Queen of Life; and the practical law which follows from this, is one of
+enormous range and importance, namely, that nothing must be represented
+by sculpture, external to any living form, which does not help to
+enforce or illustrate the conception of life. Both dress and armor may
+be made to do this, by great sculptors, and are continually so used by
+the greatest. One of the essential distinctions between the Athenian and
+Florentine schools is dependent on their treatment of drapery in this
+respect; an Athenian always sets it to exhibit the action of the body,
+by flowing with it, or over it, or from it, so as to illustrate both its
+form and gesture; a Florentine, on the contrary, always uses his drapery
+to conceal or disguise the forms of the body, and exhibit mental
+emotion; but both use it to enhance the life, either of the body or
+soul; Donatello and Michael Angelo, no less than the sculptors of Gothic
+chivalry, ennoble armor in the same way; but base sculptors carve
+drapery and armor for the sake of their folds and picturesqueness only,
+and forget the body beneath. The rule is so stern, that all delight in
+mere incidental beauty, which painting often triumphs in, is wholly
+forbidden to sculpture;--for instance, in _painting_ the branch of a
+tree, you may rightly represent and enjoy the lichens and moss on it,
+but a sculptor must not touch one of them: they are inessential to the
+tree's life,--he must give the flow and bending of the branch only, else
+he does not enough 'see Pallas' in it.
+
+Or, to take a higher instance, here is an exquisite little painted poem,
+by Edward Frere; a cottage interior, one of the thousands which within
+the last two months[25] have been laid desolate in unhappy France. Every
+accessory in the painting is of value--the fireside, the tiled floor,
+the vegetables lying upon it, and the basket hanging from the roof. But
+not one of these accessories would have been admissible in sculpture.
+You must carve nothing but what has life. "Why?" you probably feel
+instantly inclined to ask me.--You see the principle we have got,
+instead of being blunt or useless, is such an edged tool that you are
+startled the moment I apply it. "Must we refuse every pleasant accessory
+and picturesque detail, and petrify nothing but living creatures?" Even
+so: I would not assert it on my own authority. It is the Greeks who say
+it, but whatever they say of sculpture, be assured, is true.
+
+112. That then is the first law--you must see Pallas as the Lady of
+Life; the second is, you must see her as the Lady of Wisdom; or [Greek:
+sophia]--and this is the chief matter of all. I cannot but think that,
+after the considerations into which we have now entered, you will find
+more interest than hitherto in comparing the statements of Aristotle, in
+the Ethics, with those of Plato in the Polity, which are authoritative
+as Greek definitions of goodness in art, and which you may safely hold
+authoritative as constant definitions of it. You remember, doubtless,
+that the [Greek: sophia], or [Greek: aretź pechnźs], for the sake of
+which Phidias is called [Greek: sophos] as a sculpture, and Polyclitus
+as an image-maker, Eth. 6. 7. (the opposition is both between ideal and
+portrait sculpture, and between working in stone and bronze), consists
+in the "[Greek: nous tōn timiōtatōn t ź physei]," "the mental
+apprehension of the things that are most honorable in their nature."
+Therefore, what is indeed most lovely, the true image-maker will most
+love; and what is most hateful, he will most hate; and in all things
+discern the best and strongest part of them, and represent that
+essentially, or, if the opposite of that, then with manifest detestation
+and horror. That is his art wisdom; the knowledge of good and evil, and
+the love of good, so that you may discern, even in his representation of
+the vilest thing, his acknowledgment of what redemption is possible for
+it, or latent power exists in it; and, contrariwise, his sense of its
+present misery. But, for the most part, he will idolize, and force us
+also to idolize, whatever is living, and virtuous, and victoriously
+right; opposing to it in some definite mode the image of the conquered
+[Greek: herpeton].
+
+113. This is generally true of both the great arts; but in severity and
+precision, true of sculpture. To return to our illustration: this poor
+little girl was more interesting to Edward Frere, he being a painter,
+because she was poorly dressed, and wore these clumsy shoes, and old red
+cap, and patched gown. May we sculpture her so? No. We may sculpture her
+naked, if we like; but not in rags.
+
+But if we may not put her into marble in rags, may we give her a pretty
+frock with ribbons and flounces to it, and put her into marble in that?
+No. We may put her simplest peasant's dress, so it be perfect and
+orderly, into marble; anything finer than that would be more
+dishonorable in the eyes of Athena than rags. If she were a French
+princess, you might carve her embroidered robe and diadem; if she were
+Joan of Arc, you might carve her armor--for then these also would be
+"[Greek: tōn timiōtatōn]," not otherwise.
+
+114. Is not this an edge-tool we have got hold of, unawares? and a
+subtle one too; so delicate and cimeter-like in decision. For note that
+even Joan of Arc's armor must be only sculptured, _if she has it on_; it
+is not the honorableness or beauty of it that are enough, but the direct
+bearing of it by her body. You might be deeply, even pathetically,
+interested by looking at a good knight's dinted coat of mail, left in
+his desolate hall. May you sculpture it where it hangs? No; the helmet
+for his pillow, if you will--no more.
+
+You see we did not do our dull work for nothing in last Lecture. I
+define what we have gained once more, and then we will enter on our new
+ground.
+
+115. The proper subject of sculpture, we have determined, is the
+spiritual power seen in the form of any living thing, and so represented
+as to give evidence that the sculptor has loved the good of it and hated
+the evil.
+
+"_So_ represented," we say; but how is that to be done? Why should it
+not be represented, if possible, just as it is seen? What mode or limit
+of representation may we adopt? We are to carve things that have
+life;--shall we try so to imitate them that they may indeed seem
+living,--or only half living, and like stone instead of flesh?
+
+It will simplify this question if I show you three examples of what the
+Greeks actually did: three typical pieces of their sculpture, in order
+of perfection.
+
+116. And now, observe that in all our historical work, I will endeavor
+to do, myself, what I have asked you to do in your drawing exercises;
+namely, to outline firmly in the beginning, and then fill in the detail
+more minutely. I will give you first, therefore, in a symmetrical form,
+absolutely simple and easily remembered, the large chronology of the
+Greek school; within that unforgettable scheme we will place, as we
+discover them, the minor relations of arts and times.
+
+I number the nine centuries before Christ thus, upwards, and divide them
+into three groups of three each.
+
+                   {9
+    A. ARCHAIC.    {8
+                   {7
+                  ----
+
+                   {6
+    B. BEST.       {5
+                   {4
+                  ----
+
+                   {3
+    C. CORRUPT.    {2
+                   {1
+
+Then the ninth, eighth, and seventh centuries are the period of archaic
+Greek art, steadily progressive wherever it existed.
+
+The sixth, fifth, and fourth are the period of Central Greek art; the
+fifth, or central, century producing the finest. That is easily
+recollected by the battle of Marathon. And the third, second, and first
+centuries are the period of steady decline.
+
+Learn this A B C thoroughly, and mark, for yourselves, what you, at
+present, think the vital events in each century. As you know more, you
+will think other events the vital ones; but the best historical
+knowledge only approximates to true thought in that matter; only be
+sure that what is truly vital in the character which governs events, is
+always expressed by the art of the century; so that if you could
+interpret that art rightly, the better part of your task in reading
+history would be done to your hand.
+
+117. It is generally impossible to date with precision art of the
+archaic period--often difficult to date even that of the central three
+hundred years. I will not weary you with futile minor divisions of time;
+here are three coins (Plate VII.) roughly, but decisively,
+characteristic of the three ages. The first is an early coin of
+Tarentum. The city was founded, as you know, by the Spartan Phalanthus,
+late in the eighth century. I believe the head is meant for that of
+Apollo Archegetes; it may however be Taras, the son of Poseidon; it is
+no matter to us at present whom it is meant for, but the fact that we
+cannot know, is itself of the greatest import. We cannot say, with any
+certainty, unless by discovery of some collateral evidence, whether this
+head is intended for that of a god, or demigod, or a mortal warrior.
+Ought not that to disturb some of your thoughts respecting Greek
+idealism? Farther, if by investigation we discover that the head is
+meant for that of Phalanthus, we shall know nothing of the character of
+Phalanthus from the face; for there is no portraiture at this early
+time.
+
+118. The second coin is of Ęnus in Macedonia; probably of the fifth or
+early fourth century, and entirely characteristic of the central period.
+This we know to represent the face of a god--Hermes. The third coin is a
+king's, not a city's. I will not tell you, at this moment, what king's;
+but only that it is a late coin of the third period, and that it is as
+distinct in purpose as the coin of Tarentum is obscure. We know of this
+coin, that it represents no god nor demigod, but a mere mortal; and we
+know precisely, from the portrait, what that mortal's face was like.
+
+[Illustration: VII.
+
+ARCHAIC, CENTRAL AND DECLINING ART OF GREECE.]
+
+119. A glance at the three coins, as they are set side by side, will now
+show you the main differences in the three great Greek styles. The
+archaic coin is sharp and hard; every line decisive and numbered, set
+unhesitatingly in its place; nothing is wrong, though everything
+incomplete, and, to us who have seen finer art, ugly. The central coin
+is as decisive and clear in arrangement of masses, but its contours are
+completely rounded and finished. There is no character in its execution
+so prominent that you can give an epithet to the style. It is not hard,
+it is not soft, it is not delicate, it is not coarse, it is not
+grotesque, it is not beautiful; and I am convinced, unless you had been
+told that this is fine central Greek art, you would have seen nothing at
+all in it to interest you. Do not let yourselves be anywise forced into
+admiring it; there is, indeed, nothing more here than an approximately
+true rendering of a healthy youthful face, without the slightest attempt
+to give an expression of activity, cunning, nobility, or any other
+attribute of the Mercurial mind. Extreme simplicity, unpretending vigor
+of work, which claims no admiration either for minuteness or dexterity,
+and suggests no idea of effort at all; refusal of extraneous ornament,
+and perfectly arranged disposition of counted masses in a sequent order,
+whether in the beads, or the ringlets of hair; this is all you have to
+be pleased with; neither will you ever find, in the best Greek Art,
+more. You might at first suppose that the chain of beads round the cap
+was an extraneous ornament; but I have little doubt that it is as
+definitely the proper fillet for the head of Hermes, as the olive for
+Zeus, or corn for Triptolemus. The cap or petasus cannot have expanded
+edges; there is no room for them on the coin; these must be understood,
+therefore; but the nature of the cloud-petasus is explained by edging it
+with beads, representing either dew or hail. The shield of Athena often
+bears white pellets for hail, in like manner.
+
+120. The third coin will, I think, at once strike you by what we moderns
+should call its 'vigor of character.' You may observe also that the
+features are finished with great care and subtlety, but at the cost of
+simplicity and breadth. But the _essential_ difference between it and
+the central art, is its disorder in design--you see the locks of hair
+cannot be counted any longer--they are entirely disheveled and
+irregular. Now the individual character may, or may not, be a sign of
+decline; but the licentiousness, the casting loose of the masses in the
+design, is an infallible one. The effort at portraiture is good for art
+if the men to be portrayed are good men, not otherwise. In the instance
+before you, the head is that of Mithridates VI. of Pontus, who had,
+indeed, the good qualities of being a linguist and a patron of the arts;
+but, as you will remember, murdered, according to report, his mother,
+certainly his brother, certainly his wives and sisters, I have not
+counted how many of his children, and from a hundred to a hundred and
+fifty thousand persons besides; these last in a single day's massacre.
+The effort to represent this kind of person is not by any means a method
+of study from life ultimately beneficial to art.
+
+121. This, however, is not the point I have to urge to-day. What I want
+you to observe is, that though the master of the great time does not
+attempt portraiture, he _does_ attempt animation. And as far as his
+means will admit, he succeeds in making the face--you might almost
+think--vulgarly animated; as like a real face, literally, 'as it can
+stare.' Yes: and its sculptor meant it to be so; and that was what
+Phidias meant his Jupiter to be, if he could manage it. Not, indeed, to
+be taken for Zeus himself; and yet, to be as like a living Zeus as art
+could make it. Perhaps you think he tried to make it look living only
+for the sake of the mob, and would not have tried to do so for
+connoisseurs. Pardon me; for real connoisseurs he would, and did; and
+herein consists a truth which belongs to all the arts, and which I will
+at once drive home in your minds, as firmly as I can.
+
+122. All second-rate artists--(and remember, the second-rate ones are a
+loquacious multitude, while the great come only one or two in a century;
+and then, silently)--all second-rate artists will tell you that the
+object of fine art is not resemblance, but some kind of abstraction more
+refined than reality. Put that out of your heads at once. The object of
+the great Resemblant Arts is, and always has been, to resemble; and to
+resemble as closely as possible. It is the function of a good portrait
+to set the man before you in habit as he lived, and I would we had a few
+more that did so. It is the function of a good landscape to set the
+scene before you in its reality; to make you, if it may be, think the
+clouds are flying, and the streams foaming. It is the function of the
+best sculptor--the true Dędalus--to make stillness look like breathing,
+and marble look like flesh.
+
+123. And in all great times of art, this purpose is as naļvely expressed
+as it is steadily held. All the talk about abstraction belongs to
+periods of decadence. In living times, people see something living that
+pleases them; and they try to make it live forever, or to make something
+as like it as possible, that will last forever. They paint their
+statues, and inlay the eyes with jewels, and set real crowns on the
+heads; they finish, in their pictures, every thread of embroidery, and
+would fain, if they could, draw every leaf upon the trees. And their
+only verbal expression of conscious success is that they have made their
+work 'look real.'
+
+124. You think all that very wrong. So did I, once; but it was I that
+was wrong. A long time ago, before ever I had seen Oxford, I painted a
+picture of the Lake of Como, for my father. It was not at all like the
+Lake of Como; but I thought it rather the better for that. My father
+differed with me; and objected particularly to a boat with a red and
+yellow awning, which I had put into the most conspicuous corner of my
+drawing. I declared this boat to be 'necessary to the composition.' My
+father not the less objected, that he had never seen such a boat, either
+at Como or elsewhere; and suggested that if I would make the lake look a
+little more like water, I should be under no necessity of explaining its
+nature by the presence of floating objects. I thought him at the time a
+very simple person for his pains; but have since learned, and it is the
+very gist of all practical matters, which, as Professor of Fine Art, I
+have now to tell you, that the great point in painting a lake is--to
+get it to look like water.
+
+125. So far, so good. We lay it down for a first principle that our
+graphic art, whether painting or sculpture, is to produce something
+which shall look as like Nature as possible. But now we must go one step
+farther, and say that it is to produce what shall look like Nature to
+people who know what Nature is like! You see this is at once a great
+restriction, as well as a great exaltation of our aim. Our business is
+not to deceive the simple; but to deceive the wise! Here, for instance,
+is a modern Italian print, representing, to the best of its power, St.
+Cecilia, in a brilliantly realistic manner. And the fault of the work is
+not in its earnest endeavor to show St. Cecilia in habit as she lived,
+but in that the effort could only be successful with persons unaware of
+the habit St. Cecilia lived in. And this condition of appeal only to the
+wise increases the difficulty of imitative resemblance so greatly, that,
+with only average skill or materials, we must surrender all hope of it,
+and be content with an imperfect representation, true as far as it
+reaches, and such as to excite the imagination of a wise beholder to
+complete it; though falling very far short of what either he or we
+should otherwise have desired. For instance, here is a suggestion, by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds, of the general appearance of a British
+Judge,--requiring the imagination of a very wise beholder indeed to fill
+it up, or even at first to discover what it is meant for. Nevertheless,
+it is better art than the Italian St. Cecilia, because the artist,
+however little he may have done to represent his knowledge, does,
+indeed, know altogether what a Judge is like, and appeals only to the
+criticism of those who know also.
+
+126. There must be, therefore, two degrees of truth to be looked for in
+the good graphic arts; one, the commonest, which, by any partial or
+imperfect sign, conveys to you an idea which you must complete for
+yourself; and the other, the finest, a representation so perfect as to
+leave you nothing to be farther accomplished by this independent
+exertion; but to give you the same feeling of possession and presence
+which you would experience from the natural object itself. For instance
+of the first, in this representation of a rainbow,[26] the artist has no
+hope that, by the black lines of engraving, he can deceive you into any
+belief of the rainbow's being there, but he gives indication enough of
+what he intends, to enable you to supply the rest of the idea yourself,
+providing always you know beforehand what a rainbow is like. But in this
+drawing of the falls of Terni,[27] the painter has strained his skill to
+the utmost to give an actually deceptive resemblance of the iris,
+dawning and fading among the foam. So far as he has not actually
+deceived you, it is not because he would not have done so if he could;
+but only because his colors and science have fallen short of his desire.
+They have fallen so little short, that, in a good light, you may all but
+believe the foam, and the sunshine are drifting and changing among the
+rocks.
+
+127. And after looking a little while, you will begin to regret that
+they are not so: you will feel that, lovely as the drawing is, you would
+like far better to see the real place, and the goats skipping among the
+rocks, and the spray floating above the fall. And this is the true sign
+of the greatest art--to part voluntarily with its greatness;--to make
+_itself_ poor and unnoticed; but so to exalt and set forth its theme,
+that you may be fain to see the theme instead of it. So that you have
+never enough admired a great workman's doing, till you have begun to
+despise it. The best homage that could be paid to the Athena of Phidias
+would be to desire rather to see the living goddess; and the loveliest
+Madonnas of Christian art fall short of their due power, if they do not
+make their beholders sick at heart to see the living Virgin.
+
+128. We have then, for our requirement of the finest art, (sculpture, or
+anything else,) that it shall be so like the thing it represents as to
+please those who best know or can conceive the original; and, if
+possible, please them deceptively--its final triumph being to deceive
+even the wise; and (the Greeks thought) to please even the Immortals,
+who were so wise as to be undeceivable. So that you get the Greek, thus
+far entirely true, idea of perfectness in sculpture, expressed to you by
+what Phalaris says, at first sight of the bull of Perilaus, "It only
+wanted motion and bellowing to seem alive; and as soon as I saw it, I
+cried out, it ought to be sent to the god,"--to Apollo, for only he, the
+undeceivable, could thoroughly understand such sculpture, and perfectly
+delight in it.
+
+129. And with this expression of the Greek ideal of sculpture, I wish
+you to join the early Italian, summed in a single line by Dante--"non
+vide me' di me, chi vide 'l vero." Read the twelfth canto of the
+Purgatory, and learn that whole passage by heart; and if ever you chance
+to go to Pistoja, look at La Robbia's colored porcelain bas-reliefs of
+the seven works of Mercy on the front of the hospital there; and note
+especially the faces of the two sick men--one at the point of death, and
+the other in the first peace and long-drawn breathing of health after
+fever--and you will know what Dante meant by the preceding line, "Morti
+li morti, e i vivi parčn vivi."
+
+130. But now, may we not ask farther,--is it impossible for art such as
+this, prepared for the wise, to please the simple also? Without entering
+on the awkward questions of degree, how many the wise can be, or how
+much men should know, in order to be rightly called wise, may we not
+conceive an art to be possible, which would deceive _everybody_, or
+everybody worth deceiving? I showed you at my First Lecture, a little
+ringlet of Japan ivory, as a type of elementary bas-relief touched with
+color; and in your rudimentary series you have a drawing, by Mr.
+Burgess, of one of the little fishes enlarged, with every touch of the
+chisel facsimiled on the more visible scale; and showing the little
+black bead inlaid for the eye, which in the original is hardly to be
+seen without a lens. You may, perhaps, be surprised when I tell you that
+(putting the question of _subject_ aside for the moment, and speaking
+only of the mode of execution and aim at resemblance,) you have there a
+perfect example of the Greek ideal of method in sculpture. And you will
+admit that, to the simplest person whom we could introduce as a critic,
+that fish would be a satisfactory, nay, almost a deceptive, fish; while,
+to any one caring for subtleties of art, I need not point out that every
+touch of the chisel is applied with consummate knowledge, and that it
+would be impossible to convey more truth and life with the given
+quantity of workmanship.
+
+131. Here is, indeed, a drawing by Turner, (Edu. 131), in which, with
+some fifty times the quantity of labor, and far more highly educated
+faculty of sight, the artist has expressed some qualities of luster and
+color which only very wise persons indeed could perceive in a John Dory;
+and this piece of paper contains, therefore, much more, and more subtle,
+art, than the Japan ivory; but are we sure that it is therefore
+_greater_ art? or that the painter was better employed in producing this
+drawing, which only one person can possess, and only one in a hundred
+enjoy, than he would have been in producing two or three pieces on a
+larger scale, which should have been at once accessible to, and
+enjoyable by, a number of simpler persons? Suppose, for instance, that
+Turner, instead of faintly touching this outline, on white paper, with
+his camel's-hair pencil, had struck the main forms of his fish into
+marble, thus, (Fig. 7); and instead of coloring the white paper so
+delicately that, perhaps, only a few of the most keenly observant
+artists in England can see it at all, had, with his strong hand, tinted
+the marble with a few colors, deceptive to the people, and harmonious to
+the initiated; suppose that he had even conceded so much to the spirit
+of popular applause as to allow of a bright glass bead being inlaid for
+the eye, in the Japanese manner; and that the enlarged, deceptive, and
+popularly pleasing work had been carved on the outside of a great
+building,--say Fishmongers' Hall,--where everybody commercially
+connected with Billingsgate could have seen it, and ratified it with a
+wisdom of the market;--might not the art have been greater, worthier,
+and kinder in such use?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+132. Perhaps the idea does not at once approve itself to you of having
+your public buildings covered with ornaments; but, pray remember that
+the choice of _subject_ is an ethical question, not now before us. All I
+ask you to decide is whether the method is right, and would be pleasant,
+in giving the distinctiveness to pretty things, which it has here given
+to what, I suppose it may be assumed, you feel to be an ugly thing. Of
+course, I must note parenthetically, such realistic work is impossible
+in a country where the buildings are to be discolored by coal-smoke; but
+so is all fine sculpture whatsoever; and the whiter, the worse its
+chance. For that which is prepared for private persons, to be kept under
+cover, will, of necessity, degenerate into the copyism of past work, or
+merely sensational and sensual forms of present life, unless there be a
+governing school addressing the populace, for their instruction, on the
+outside of buildings. So that, as I partly warned you in my Third
+Lecture, you can simply have _no_ sculpture in a coal country. Whether
+you like coals or carvings best, is no business of mine. I merely have
+to assure you of the fact that they are incompatible.
+
+But, assuming that we are again, some day, to become a civilized and
+governing race, deputing ironmongery, coal-digging, and lucre-digging,
+to our slaves in other countries, it is quite conceivable that, with an
+increasing knowledge of natural history, and desire for such knowledge,
+what is now done by careful, but inefficient, wood-cuts, and in
+ill-colored engravings, might be put in quite permanent sculptures, with
+inlay of variegated precious stones, on the outside of buildings, where
+such pictures would be little costly to the people; and in a more
+popular manner still, by Robbia ware and Palissy ware, and inlaid
+majolica, which would differ from the housewife's present favorite
+decoration of plates above her kitchen dresser, by being every piece of
+it various, instructive, and universally visible.
+
+133. You hardly know, I suppose, whether I am speaking in jest or
+earnest. In the most solemn earnest, I assure you; though such is the
+strange course of our popular life that all the irrational arts of
+destruction are at once felt to be earnest; while any plan for those of
+instruction on a grand scale, sounds like a dream, or jest. Still, I do
+not absolutely propose to decorate our public buildings with sculpture
+wholly of this character; though beast, and fowl, and creeping things,
+and fishes, might all find room on such a building as the Solomon's
+House of a New Atlantis; and some of them might even become symbolic of
+much to us again. Passing through the Strand, only the other day, for
+instance, I saw four highly finished and delicately colored pictures of
+cock-fighting, which, for imitative quality, were nearly all that could
+be desired, going far beyond the Greek cock of Himera; and they would
+have delighted a Greek's soul, if they had meant as much as a Greek
+cock-fight; but they were only types of the "[Greek: endomachas
+alektōr]," and of the spirit of home contest, which has been so fatal
+lately to the Bird of France; and not of the defense of one's own
+barnyard, in thought of which the Olympians set the cock on the pillars
+of their chariot course; and gave it goodly alliance in its battle, as
+you may see here, in what is left of the angle of moldering marble in
+the chair of the priest of Dionusos. The cast of it, from the center of
+the theater under the Acropolis, is in the British Museum; and I wanted
+its spiral for you, and this kneeling Angel of Victory;--it is late
+Greek art, but nobly systematic flat bas-relief. So I set Mr. Burgess to
+draw it; but neither he nor I, for a little while, could make out what
+the Angel of Victory was kneeling for. His attitude is an ancient and
+grandly conventional one among the Egyptians; and I was tracing it back
+to a kneeling goddess of the greatest dynasty of the Pharaohs--a goddess
+of Evening, or Death, laying down the sun out of her right hand;--when,
+one bright day, the shadows came out clear on the Athenian throne, and I
+saw that my Angel of Victory was only backing a cock at a cock-fight.
+
+134. Still, as I have said, there is no reason why sculpture, even for
+simplest persons, should confine itself to imagery of fish, or fowl, or
+four-footed things.
+
+We go back to our first principle: we ought to carve nothing but what is
+honorable. And you are offended, at this moment, with my fish, (as I
+believe, when the first sculptures appeared on the windows of this
+museum, offense was taken at the unnecessary introduction of cats,)
+these dissatisfactions being properly felt by your "[Greek: nous tōn
+timiōtatōn]." For indeed, in all cases, our right judgment must depend
+on our wish to give honor only to things and creatures that deserve it.
+
+135. And now I must state to you another principle of veracity, both in
+sculpture, and all following arts, of wider scope than any hitherto
+examined. We have seen that sculpture is to be a true representation of
+true internal form. Much more is it to be a representation of true
+internal emotion. You must carve only what you yourself see as you see
+it; but, much more, you must carve only what you yourself feel, as you
+feel it. You may no more endeavor to feel through other men's souls,
+than to see with other men's eyes. Whereas generally now, in Europe and
+America, every man's energy is bent upon acquiring some false emotion,
+not his own, but belonging to the past, or to other persons, because he
+has been taught that such and such a result of it will be fine. Every
+attempted sentiment in relation to art is hypocritical; our notions of
+sublimity, of grace, or pious serenity, are all secondhand: and we are
+practically incapable of designing so much as a bell-handle or a
+door-knocker, without borrowing the first notion of it from those who
+are gone--where we shall not wake them with our knocking. I would we
+could.
+
+136. In the midst of this desolation we have nothing to count on for
+real growth but what we can find of honest liking and longing, in
+ourselves and in others. We must discover, if we would healthily
+advance, what things are verily [Greek: timiōtata] among us; and if we
+delight to honor the dishonorable, consider how, in future, we may
+better bestow our likings. Now it appears to me, from all our popular
+declarations, that we, at present, honor nothing so much as liberty and
+independence; and no person so much as the Free man and Self-made man,
+who will be ruled by no one, and has been taught, or helped, by no one.
+And the reason I chose a fish for you as the first subject of sculpture,
+was that in men who are free and self-made, you have the nearest
+approach, humanly possible, to the state of the fish, and finely
+organized [Greek: herpeton]. You get the exact phrase in Habakkuk, if
+you take the Septuagint text,--"[Greek: poiźseis tous anthrōpous hōs
+tous ichthyas tźs thalassźs, kai hōs ta herpeta ta ouk echonta
+hźgoumenon]." "Thou wilt make men as the fishes of the sea, and as the
+reptile things, _that have no ruler over them_." And it chanced that as
+I was preparing this Lecture, one of our most able and popular prints
+gave me a wood-cut of the 'self-made man,' specified as such, so
+vigorously drawn, and with so few touches, that Phidias or Turner
+himself could scarcely have done it better; so that I had only to ask my
+assistant to enlarge it with accuracy, and it became comparable with my
+fish at once. Of course it is not given by the caricaturist as an
+admirable face; only, I am enabled by his skill to set before you,
+without any suspicion of unfairness on _my_ part, the expression to
+which the life we profess to think most honorable, naturally leads. If
+we were to take the hat off, you see how nearly the profile corresponds
+with that of the typical fish.
+
+137. Such, then, being the definition, by your best popular art, of the
+ideal of feature at which we are gradually arriving by self-manufacture:
+when I place opposite to it (in Plate VIII.) the profile of a man not in
+anywise self-made, neither by the law of his own will, nor by the love
+of his own interest--nor capable, for a moment, of any kind of
+'Independence,' or of the idea of independence; but wholly dependent
+upon, and subjected to, external influence of just law, wise teaching,
+and trusted love and truth, in his fellow-spirits;--setting before you,
+I say, this profile of a God-made, instead of a self-made, man, I know
+that you will feel, on the instant, that you are brought into contact
+with the vital elements of human art; and that this, the sculpture of
+the good, is indeed the only permissible sculpture.
+
+138. A God-made _man_, I say. The face, indeed, stands as a symbol of
+more than man in its sculptor's mind. For as I gave you, to lead your
+first effort in the form of leaves, the scepter of Apollo, so this,
+which I give you as the first type of rightness in the form of flesh, is
+the countenance of the holder of that scepter, the Sun-God of Syracuse.
+But there is nothing in the face (nor did the Greek suppose there was)
+more perfect than might be seen in the daily beauty of the creatures the
+Sun-God shone upon, and whom his strength and honor animated. This is
+not an ideal, but a quite literally true, face of a Greek youth; nay, I
+will undertake to show you that it is not supremely beautiful, and even
+to surpass it altogether with the literal portrait of an Italian one. It
+is in verity no more than the form habitually taken by the features of a
+well-educated young Athenian or Sicilian citizen; and the one
+requirement for the sculptors of to-day is not, as it has been thought,
+to invent the same ideal, but merely to see the same reality.
+
+[Illustration: VIII.
+
+THE APOLLO OF SYRACUSE, AND THE SELF-MADE MAN.]
+
+[Illustration: IX.
+
+APOLLO CHRYSOCOMES OF CLAZOMENĘ.]
+
+Now, you know I told you in my Fourth Lecture[28] that the beginning of
+art was in getting our country clean and our people beautiful, and you
+supposed that to be a statement irrelevant to my subject; just as, at
+this moment, you perhaps think I am quitting the great subject of this
+present Lecture--the method of likeness-making,--and letting myself
+branch into the discussion of what things we are to make likeness of.
+But you shall see hereafter that the method of imitating a beautiful
+thing must be different from the method of imitating an ugly one; and
+that, with the change in subject from what is dishonorable to what is
+honorable, there will be involved a parallel change in the management of
+tools, of lines, and of colors. So that before I can determine for you
+_how_ you are to imitate, you must tell me what kind of face you wish to
+imitate. The best draughtsman in the world could not draw this Apollo in
+ten scratches, though he can draw the self-made man. Still less this
+nobler Apollo of Ionian Greece (Plate IX.), in which the incisions are
+softened into a harmony like that of Correggio's painting. So that you
+see the method itself,--the choice between black incision or fine
+sculpture, and perhaps, presently, the choice between color or no color,
+will depend on what you have to represent. Color may be expedient for a
+glistening dolphin or a spotted fawn;--perhaps inexpedient for white
+Poseidon, and gleaming Dian. So that, before defining the laws of
+sculpture, I am compelled to ask you, _what you mean to carve_; and
+that, little as you think it, is asking you how you mean to live, and
+what the laws of your State are to be, for _they_ determine those of
+your statue. You can only have this kind of face to study from, in the
+sort of state that produced it. And you will find that sort of state
+described in the beginning of the fourth book of the laws of Plato; as
+founded, for one thing, on the conviction that of all the evils that can
+happen to a state, quantity of money is the greatest! [Greek: meizon
+kakon, hōs epos eipein, polei ouden an gignoita, eis gennaiōn kai
+dikaiōn źthōn ktźsin], "for, to speak shortly, no greater evil, matching
+each against each, can possibly happen to a city, as adverse to its
+forming just or generous character," than its being full of silver and
+gold.
+
+139. Of course the Greek notion may be wrong, and ours right,
+only--[Greek: hōs epos eipein]--you can have Greek sculpture only on
+that Greek theory: shortly expressed by the words put into the mouth of
+Poverty herself, in the Plutus of Aristophanes, "[Greek: Tou ploutou
+parechō beltionas andras, kai tźn gnōmźn, kai tźn idean]," "I deliver to
+you better men than the God of Money can, both in imagination and
+feature." So, on the other hand, this ichthyoid, reptilian, or
+monochondyloid ideal of the self-made man can only be reached,
+universally, by a nation which holds that poverty, either of purse or
+spirit,--but especially the spiritual character of being [Greek: ptōchoi
+tō pneumati],--is the lowest of degradations; and which believes that
+the desire of wealth is the first of manly and moral sentiments. As I
+have been able to get the popular ideal represented by its own living
+art, so I can give you this popular faith in its own living words; but
+in words meant seriously, and not at all as caricature, from one of our
+leading journals, professedly ęsthetic also in its very name, the
+_Spectator_, of August 6, 1870.
+
+"Mr. Ruskin's plan," it says, "would make England poor, in order that
+she might be cultivated, and refined, and artistic. A wilder proposal
+was never broached by a man of ability; and it might be regarded as a
+proof that the assiduous study of art emasculates the intellect, _and
+even the moral sense_. Such a theory almost warrants the contempt with
+which art is often regarded by essentially intellectual natures, like
+Proudhon" (sic). "Art is noble as the flower of life, and the creations
+of a Titian are a great heritage of the race; but if England could
+secure high art and Venetian glory of color only by the sacrifice of her
+manufacturing supremacy, and _by the acceptance of national poverty_,
+then the pursuit of such artistic achievements would imply that we had
+ceased to possess natures of manly strength, _or to know the meaning of
+moral aims_. If we must choose between a Titian and a Lancashire cotton
+mill, then, in the name of manhood and of morality, give us the cotton
+mill. Only the dilettanteism of the studio; that dilettanteism which
+loosens the moral no less than the intellectual fiber, and which is as
+fatal to rectitude of action as to correctness of reasoning power, would
+make a different choice."
+
+You see also, by this interesting and most memorable passage, how
+completely the question is admitted to be one of ethics--the only real
+point at issue being, whether this face or that is developed on the
+truer moral principle.
+
+140. I assume, however, for the present, that this Apolline type is the
+kind of form you wish to reach and to represent. And now observe,
+instantly, the whole question of manner of imitation is altered for us.
+The fins of the fish, the plumes of the swan, and the flowing of the
+Sun-God's hair are all represented by incisions--but the incisions do
+sufficiently represent the fin and feather,--they _in_sufficiently
+represent the hair. If I chose, with a little more care and labor, I
+could absolutely get the surface of the scales and spines of the fish,
+and the expression of its mouth; but no quantity of labor would obtain
+the real surface of a tress of Apollo's hair, and the full expression of
+his mouth. So that we are compelled at once to call the imagination to
+help us, and say to it, _You_ know what the Apollo Chrysocomes must be
+like; finish all this for yourself. Now, the law under which imagination
+works, is just that of other good workers. "You must give me clear
+orders; show me what I have to do, and where I am to begin, and let me
+alone." And the orders can be given, quite clearly, up to a certain
+point, in form; but they cannot be given clearly in color, now that the
+subject is subtle. All beauty of this high kind depends on harmony; let
+but the slightest discord come into it, and the finer the thing is, the
+more fatal will be the flaw. Now, on a flat surface, I can command my
+color to be precisely what and where I mean it to be; on a round one I
+cannot. For all harmony depends, first, on the fixed proportion of the
+color of the light to that of the relative shadow; and therefore if I
+fasten my color, I must fasten my shade. But on a round surface the
+shadow changes at every hour of the day; and therefore all coloring
+which is expressive of form, is impossible; and if the form is fine,
+(and here there is nothing but what is fine,) you may bid farewell to
+color.
+
+141. Farewell to color; that is to say, if the thing is to be seen
+distinctly, and you have only wise people to show it to; but if it is to
+be seen indistinctly, at a distance, color may become explanatory; and
+if you have simple people to show it to, color may be necessary to
+excite _their_ imaginations, though not to excite yours. And the art is
+great always by meeting its conditions in the straightest way; and if it
+is to please a multitude of innocent and bluntly-minded persons, must
+express itself in the terms that will touch them; else it is not good.
+And I have to trace for you through the history of the past, and
+possibilities of the future, the expedients used by great sculptors to
+obtain clearness, impressiveness, or splendor; and the manner of their
+appeal to the people, under various light and shadow, and with reference
+to different degrees of public intelligence: such investigation
+resolving itself again and again, as we proceed, into questions
+absolutely ethical; as, for instance, whether color is to be bright or
+dull,--that is to say, for a populace cheerful or heartless;--whether it
+is to be delicate or strong,--that is to say, for a populace attentive
+or careless; whether it is to be a background like the sky, for a
+procession of young men and maidens, because your populace revere
+life--or the shadow of the vault behind a corpse stained with drops of
+blackened blood, for a populace taught to worship Death. Every critical
+determination of rightness depends on the obedience to some ethic law,
+by the most rational and, therefore, simplest means. And you see how it
+depends most, of all things, on whether you are working for chosen
+persons, or for the mob; for the joy of the boudoir, or of the Borgo.
+And if for the mob, whether the mob of Olympia, or of St. Antoine.
+Phidias, showing his Jupiter for the first time, hides behind the temple
+door to listen, resolved afterwards "[Greek: rhythmizein to agalma pros
+to tois pleistois dokoun, ou gar hźgeito mikran einai symboulźn dźmou
+tosoutou]," and truly, as your people is, in judgment, and in multitude,
+so must your sculpture be, in glory. An elementary principle which has
+been too long out of mind.
+
+142. I leave you to consider it, since, for some time, we shall not
+again be able to take up the inquiries to which it leads. But,
+ultimately, I do not doubt that you will rest satisfied in these
+following conclusions:
+
+1. Not only sculpture, but all the other fine arts, must be for the
+people.
+
+2. They must be didactic to the people, and that as their chief end. The
+structural arts, didactic in their manner; the graphic arts, in their
+matter also.
+
+3. And chiefly the great representative and imaginative arts--that is to
+say, the drama and sculpture--are to teach what is noble in past
+history, and lovely in existing human and organic life.
+
+4. And the test of right manner of execution in these arts, is that they
+strike, in the most emphatic manner, the rank of popular minds to which
+they are addressed.
+
+5. And the test of utmost fineness in execution in these arts, is that
+they make themselves be forgotten in what they represent; and so fulfill
+the words of their greatest Master,
+
+     "THE BEST, IN THIS KIND, ARE BUT SHADOWS."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] See date of delivery of Lecture. The picture was of a peasant girl
+of eleven or twelve years old, peeling carrots by a cottage fire.
+
+[26] In Dürer's 'Melancholia.'
+
+[27] Turner's, in the Hakewill series.
+
+[28] "Lectures on Art," § 116.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE V.
+
+STRUCTURE.
+
+_December, 1870._
+
+
+143. On previous occasions of addressing you, I have endeavored to show
+you, first, how sculpture is distinguished from other arts; then its
+proper subjects; then its proper method in the realization of these
+subjects. To-day, we must, in the fourth place, consider the means at
+its command for the accomplishment of these ends; the nature of its
+materials; and the mechanical or other difficulties of their treatment.
+
+And however doubtful we may have remained as to the justice of Greek
+ideals, or propriety of Greek methods of representing them, we may be
+certain that the example of the Greeks will be instructive in all
+practical matters relating to this great art, peculiarly their own. I
+think even the evidence I have already laid before you is enough to
+convince you that it was by rightness and reality, not by idealism or
+delightfulness only, that their minds were finally guided; and I am sure
+that, before closing the present course, I shall be able so far to
+complete that evidence, as to prove to you that the commonly received
+notions of classic art are, not only unfounded, but even, in many
+respects, directly contrary to the truth. You are constantly told that
+Greece idealized whatever she contemplated. She did the exact contrary:
+she realized and verified it. You are constantly told she sought only
+the beautiful. She sought, indeed, with all her heart; but she found,
+because she never doubted that the search was to be consistent with
+propriety and common sense. And the first thing you will always discern
+in Greek work is the first which you _ought_ to discern in all work;
+namely, that the object of it has been rational, and has been obtained
+by simple and unostentatious means.
+
+144. "That the object of the work has been rational"! Consider how much
+that implies. That it should be by all means seen to have been
+determined upon, and carried through, with sense and discretion; these
+being gifts of intellect far more precious than any knowledge of
+mathematics, or of the mechanical resources of art. Therefore, also,
+that it should be a modest and temperate work, a structure fitted to the
+actual state of men; proportioned to their actual size, as animals,--to
+their average strength,--to their true necessities,--and to the degree
+of easy command they have over the forces and substances of nature.
+
+145. You see how much this law excludes! All that is fondly magnificent,
+insolently ambitious, or vainly difficult. There is, indeed, such a
+thing as Magnanimity in design, but never unless it be joined also with
+modesty, and _Equ_animity. Nothing extravagant, monstrous, strained, or
+singular, can be structurally beautiful. No towers of Babel envious of
+the skies; no pyramids in mimicry of the mountains of the earth; no
+streets that are a weariness to traverse, nor temples that make pigmies
+of the worshipers.
+
+It is one of the primal merits and decencies of Greek work, that it was,
+on the whole, singularly small in scale, and wholly within reach of
+sight, to its finest details. And, indeed, the best buildings that I
+know are thus modest; and some of the best are minute jewel cases for
+sweet sculpture. The Parthenon would hardly attract notice, if it were
+set by the Charing Cross Railway Station: the Church of the Miracoli, at
+Venice, the Chapel of the Rose, at Lucca, and the Chapel of the Thorn,
+at Pisa, would not, I suppose, all three together, fill the tenth part,
+cube, of a transept of the Crystal Palace. And they are better so.
+
+146. In the chapter on Power in the 'Seven Lamps of Architecture,' I
+have stated what seems, at first, the reverse of what I am saying now;
+namely, that it is better to have one grand building than any number of
+mean ones. And that is true: but you cannot command grandeur by size
+till you can command grace in minuteness; and least of all, remember,
+will you so command it to-day, when magnitude has become the chief
+exponent of folly and misery, coördinate in the fraternal enormities of
+the Factory and Poorhouse,--the Barracks and Hospital. And the final law
+in this matter is that, if you require edifices only for the grace and
+health of mankind, and build them without pretense and without
+chicanery, they will be sublime on a modest scale, and lovely with
+little decoration.
+
+147. From these principles of simplicity and temperance, two very
+severely fixed laws of construction follow; namely, first, that our
+structure, to be beautiful, must be produced with tools of men; and,
+secondly, that it must be composed of natural substances. First, I say,
+produced with tools of men. All fine art requires the application of the
+whole strength and subtlety of the body, so that such art is not
+possible to any sickly person, but involves the action and force of a
+strong man's arm from the shoulder, as well as the delicatest touch of
+his fingers: and it is the evidence that this full and fine strength has
+been spent on it which makes the art executively noble; so that no
+instrument must be used, habitually, which is either too heavy to be
+delicately restrained, or too small and weak to transmit a vigorous
+impulse; much less any mechanical aid, such as would render the
+sensibility of the fingers ineffectual.[29]
+
+148. Of course, any kind of work in glass, or in metal, on a large
+scale, involves some painful endurance of heat; and working in clay,
+some habitual endurance of cold; but the point beyond which the effort
+must not be carried is marked by loss of power of manipulation. As long
+as the eyes and fingers have complete command of the material, (as a
+glass-blower has, for instance, in doing fine ornamental work,)--the law
+is not violated; but all our great engine and furnace work, in
+gun-making and the like, is degrading to the intellect; and no nation
+can long persist in it without losing many of its human faculties. Nay,
+even the use of machinery other than the common rope and pulley, for the
+lifting of weights, is degrading to architecture; the invention of
+expedients for the raising of enormous stones has always been a
+characteristic of partly savage or corrupted races. A block of marble
+not larger than a cart with a couple of oxen could carry, and a
+cross-beam, with a couple of pulleys, raise, is as large as should
+generally be used in any building. The employment of large masses is
+sure to lead to vulgar exhibitions of geometrical arrangement,[30] and
+to draw away the attention from the sculpture. In general, rocks
+naturally break into such pieces as the human beings that have to build
+with them can easily lift; and no larger should be sought for.
+
+149. In this respect, and in many other subtle ways, the law that the
+work is to be with tools of men is connected with the farther condition
+of its modesty, that it is to be wrought in substance provided by
+Nature, and to have a faithful respect to all the essential qualities of
+such substance.
+
+And here I must ask your attention to the idea, and, more than
+idea,--the fact, involved in that infinitely misused term,
+'Providentia,' when applied to the Divine power. In its truest sense and
+scholarly use, it is a human virtue, [Greek: Promźtheia]; the personal
+type of it is in Prometheus, and all the first power of [Greek: technź],
+is from him, as compared to the weakness of days when men without
+foresight "[Greek: ephyron eikź panta]." But, so far as we use the word
+'Providence' as an attribute of the Maker and Giver of all things, it
+does not mean that in a shipwreck He takes care of the passengers who
+are to be saved, and takes none of those who are to be drowned; but it
+_does_ mean that every race of creatures is born into the world under
+circumstances of approximate adaptation to its necessities; and, beyond
+all others, the ingenious and observant race of man is surrounded with
+elements naturally good for his food, pleasant to his sight, and
+suitable for the subjects of his ingenuity;--the stone, metal, and clay
+of the earth he walks upon lending themselves at once to his hand, for
+all manner of workmanship.
+
+150. Thus, his truest respect for the law of the entire creation is
+shown by his making the most of what he can get most easily; and there
+is no virtue of art, nor application of common sense, more sacredly
+necessary than this respect to the beauty of natural substance, and the
+ease of local use; neither are there any other precepts of construction
+so vital as these--that you show all the strength of your material,
+tempt none of its weaknesses, and do with it only what can be simply and
+permanently done.
+
+151. Thus, all good building will be with rocks, or pebbles, or burnt
+clay, but with no artificial compound; all good painting with common
+oils and pigments on common canvas, paper, plaster, or wood,--admitting
+sometimes, for precious work, precious things, but all applied in a
+simple and visible way. The highest imitative art should not, indeed, at
+first sight, call attention to the means of it; but even that, at
+length, should do so distinctly, and provoke the observer to take
+pleasure in seeing how completely the workman is master of the
+particular material he has used, and how beautiful and desirable a
+substance it was, for work of that kind. In oil painting, its unctuous
+quality is to be delighted in; in fresco, its chalky quality; in glass,
+its transparency; in wood, its grain; in marble, its softness; in
+porphyry, its hardness; in iron, its toughness. In a flint country, one
+should feel the delightfulness of having flints to pick up, and fasten
+together into rugged walls. In a marble country, one should be always
+more and more astonished at the exquisite color and structure of
+marble; in a slate country, one should feel as if every rock cleft
+itself only for the sake of being built with conveniently.
+
+152. Now, for sculpture, there are, briefly, two materials--Clay, and
+Stone; for glass is only a clay that gets clear and brittle as it cools,
+and metal a clay that gets opaque and tough as it cools. Indeed, the
+true use of gold in this world is only as a very pretty and very ductile
+clay, which you can spread as flat as you like, spin as fine as you
+like, and which will neither crack nor tarnish.
+
+All the arts of sculpture in clay may be summed up under the word
+'Plastic,' and all of those in stone, under the word 'Glyptic.'
+
+153. Sculpture in clay will accordingly include all cast brickwork,
+pottery, and tile-work[31]--a somewhat important branch of human skill.
+Next to the potter's work, you have all the arts in porcelain, glass,
+enamel, and metal,--everything, that is to say, playful and familiar in
+design, much of what is most felicitously inventive, and, in bronze or
+gold, most precious and permanent.
+
+154. Sculpture in stone, whether granite, gem, or marble, while we
+accurately use the general term 'glyptic' for it, may be thought of
+with, perhaps, the most clear force under the English word 'engraving.'
+For, from the mere angular incision which the Greek consecrated in the
+triglyphs of his greatest order of architecture, grow forth all the arts
+of bas-relief, and methods of localized groups of sculpture connected
+with each other and with architecture: as, in another direction, the
+arts of engraving and wood-cutting themselves.
+
+155. Over all this vast field of human skill the laws which I have
+enunciated to you rule with inevitable authority, embracing the
+greatest, and consenting to the humblest, exertion; strong to repress
+the ambition of nations, if fantastic and vain, but gentle to approve
+the efforts of children, made in accordance with the visible intention
+of the Maker of all flesh, and the Giver of all Intelligence. These
+laws, therefore, I now repeat, and beg of you to observe them as
+irrefragable.
+
+1. That the work is to be with tools of men.
+
+2. That it is to be in natural materials.
+
+3. That it is to exhibit the virtues of those materials, and aim at no
+quality inconsistent with them.
+
+4. That its temper is to be quiet and gentle, in harmony with common
+needs, and in consent to common intelligence.
+
+We will now observe the bearing of these laws on the elementary
+conditions of the art at present under discussion.
+
+156. There is, first, work in baked clay, which contracts, as it dries,
+and is very easily frangible. Then you must put no work into it
+requiring niceness in dimension, nor any so elaborate that it would be a
+great loss if it were broken; but as the clay yields at once to the
+hand, and the sculptor can do anything with it he likes, it is a
+material for him to sketch with and play with,--to record his fancies
+in, before they escape him,--and to express roughly, for people who can
+enjoy such sketches, what he has not time to complete in marble. The
+clay, being ductile, lends itself to all softness of line; being easily
+frangible, it would be ridiculous to give it sharp edges, so that a
+blunt and massive rendering of graceful gesture will be its natural
+function: but as it can be pinched, or pulled, or thrust in a moment
+into projection which it would take hours of chiseling to get in stone,
+it will also properly be used for all fantastic and grotesque form, not
+involving sharp edges. Therefore, what is true of chalk and charcoal,
+for painters, is equally true of clay, for sculptors; they are all most
+precious materials for true masters, but tempt the false ones into fatal
+license; and to judge rightly of terra-cotta work is a far higher reach
+of skill in sculpture-criticism than to distinguish the merits of a
+finished statue.
+
+157. We have, secondly, work in bronze, iron, gold, and other metals;
+in which the laws of structure are still more definite.
+
+All kinds of twisted and wreathen work on every scale become delightful
+when wrought in ductile or tenacious metal; but metal which is to be
+_hammered_ into form separates itself into two great divisions--solid,
+and flat.
+
+A. In solid metal-work, _i.e._, metal cast thick enough to resist
+bending, whether it be hollow or not, violent and various projection may
+be admitted, which would be offensive in marble; but no sharp edges,
+because it is difficult to produce them with the hammer. But since the
+permanence of the material justifies exquisiteness of workmanship,
+whatever delicate ornamentation can be wrought with rounded surfaces may
+be advisedly introduced; and since the color of bronze or any other
+metal is not so pleasantly representative of flesh as that of marble, a
+wise sculptor will depend less on flesh contour, and more on picturesque
+accessories, which, though they would be vulgar if attempted in stone,
+are rightly entertaining in bronze or silver. Verrocchio's statue of
+Colleone at Venice, Cellini's Perseus at Florence, and Ghiberti's gates
+at Florence, are models of bronze treatment.
+
+B. When metal is beaten thin, it becomes what is technically called
+'plate,' (the _flattened_ thing,) and may be treated advisably in two
+ways: one, by beating it out into bosses, the other by cutting it into
+strips and ramifications. The vast schools of goldsmiths' work and of
+iron decoration, founded on these two principles, have had the most
+powerful influences over general taste in all ages and countries. One of
+the simplest and most interesting elementary examples of the treatment
+of flat metal by cutting is the common branched iron bar, Fig. 8, used
+to close small apertures in countries possessing any good primitive
+style of ironwork, formed by alternate cuts on its sides, and the
+bending down of the severed portions. The ordinary domestic window
+balcony of Verona is formed by mere ribbons of iron, bent into curves as
+studiously refined as those of a Greek vase, and decorated merely by
+their own terminations in spiral volutes.
+
+All cast work in metal, unfinished by hand, is inadmissible in any
+school of living art, since it cannot possess the perfection of form due
+to a permanent substance; and the continual sight of it is destructive
+of the faculty of taste: but metal stamped with precision, as in coins,
+is to sculpture what engraving is to painting.
+
+158. Thirdly. Stone-sculpture divides itself into three schools: one in
+very hard material; one in very soft; and one in that of centrally
+useful consistence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+A. The virtue of work in hard material is the expression of form in
+shallow relief, or in broad contours: deep cutting in hard material is
+inadmissible; and the art, at once pompous and trivial, of gem
+engraving, has been in the last degree destructive of the honor and
+service of sculpture.
+
+B. The virtue of work in soft material is deep cutting, with studiously
+graceful disposition of the masses of light and shade. The greater
+number of flamboyant churches of France are cut out of an adhesive
+chalk; and the fantasy of their latest decoration was, in great part,
+induced by the facility of obtaining contrast of black space, undercut,
+with white tracery easily left in sweeping and interwoven rods--the
+lavish use of wood in domestic architecture materially increasing the
+habit of delight in branched complexity of line. These points, however,
+I must reserve for illustration in my Lectures on Architecture. To-day,
+I shall limit myself to the illustration of elementary sculptural
+structure in the best material,--that is to say, in crystalline marble,
+neither soft enough to encourage the caprice of the workman, nor hard
+enough to resist his will.
+
+159. C. By the true 'Providence' of Nature, the rock which is thus
+submissive has been in some places stained with the fairest colors, and
+in others blanched into the fairest absence of color that can be found
+to give harmony to inlaying, or dignity to form. The possession by the
+Greeks of their [Greek: leukos lithos] was indeed the first circumstance
+regulating the development of their art; it enabled them at once to
+express their passion for light by executing the faces, hands, and feet
+of their dark wooden statues in white marble, so that what we look upon
+only with pleasure for fineness of texture was to them an imitation of
+the luminous body of the deity shining from behind its dark robes; and
+ivory afterwards is employed in their best statues for its yet more soft
+and flesh-like brightness, receptive also of the most delicate
+color--(therefore to this day the favorite ground of miniature
+painters). In like manner, the existence of quarries of peach-colored
+marble within twelve miles of Verona, and of white marble and green
+serpentine between Pisa and Genoa, defined the manner both of sculpture
+and architecture for all the Gothic buildings of Italy. No subtlety of
+education could have formed a high school of art without these
+materials.
+
+160. Next to the color, the fineness of substance which will take a
+perfectly sharp edge, is essential; and this not merely to admit fine
+delineation in the sculpture itself, but to secure a delightful
+precision in placing the blocks of which it is composed. For the
+possession of too fine marble, as far as regards the work itself, is a
+temptation instead of an advantage to an inferior sculptor; and the
+abuse of the facility of undercutting, especially of undercutting so as
+to leave profiles defined by an edge against shadow, is one of the chief
+causes of decline of style in such incrusted bas-reliefs as those of the
+Certosa of Pavia and its contemporary monuments. But no undue temptation
+ever exists as to the fineness of block fitting; nothing contributes to
+give so pure and healthy a tone to sculpture as the attention of the
+builder to the jointing of his stones; and his having both the power to
+make them fit so perfectly as not to admit of the slightest portion of
+cement showing externally, and the skill to insure, if needful, and to
+suggest always, their stability in cementless construction. Plate X.
+represents a piece of entirely fine Lombardic building, the central
+portion of the arch in the Duomo in Verona, which corresponds to that of
+the porch of San Zenone, represented in Plate I. In both these pieces of
+building, the only line that traces the architrave round the arch, is
+that of the masonry joint; yet this line is drawn with extremest
+subtlety, with intention of delighting the eye by its relation of varied
+curvature to the arch itself; and it is just as much considered as the
+finest pen-line of a Raphael drawing. Every joint of the stone is used,
+in like manner, as a thin black line, which the slightest sign of cement
+would spoil like a blot. And so proud is the builder of his fine
+jointing, and so fearless of any distortion or strain spoiling the
+adjustment afterwards, that in one place he runs his joint quite
+gratuitously through a bas-relief, and gives the keystone its only sign
+of preėminence by the minute inlaying of the head of the Lamb into the
+stone of the course above.
+
+161. Proceeding from this fine jointing to fine draughtsmanship, you
+have, in the very outset and earliest stage of sculpture, your flat
+stone surface given you as a sheet of white paper, on which you are
+required to produce the utmost effect you can with the simplest means,
+cutting away as little of the stone as may be, to save both time and
+trouble; and above all, leaving the block itself, when shaped, as solid
+as you can, that its surface may better resist weather, and the carved
+parts be as much protected as possible by the masses left around them.
+
+[Illustration: X.
+
+MARBLE MASONRY IN THE DUOMO OF VERONA.]
+
+[Illustration: XI.
+
+THE FIRST ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE.
+
+INCISED OUTLINE AND OPENED SPACE.]
+
+162. The first thing to be done is clearly to trace the outline of
+subject with an incision approximating in section to that of the furrow
+of a plow, only more equal-sided. A fine sculptor strikes it, as his
+chisel leans, freely, on marble; an Egyptian, in hard rock, cuts it
+sharp, as in cuneiform inscriptions. In any case, you have a result
+somewhat like the upper figure, Plate XI., in which I show you the most
+elementary indication of form possible, by cutting the outline of the
+typical archaic Greek head with an incision like that of a Greek
+triglyph, only not so precise in edge or slope, as it is to be modified
+afterwards.
+
+163. Now, the simplest thing we can do next is to round off the flat
+surface _within_ the incision, and put what form we can get into the
+feebler projection of it thus obtained. The Egyptians do this, often
+with exquisite skill, and then, as I showed you in a former Lecture,
+color the whole--using the incision as an outline. Such a method of
+treatment is capable of good service in representing, at little cost of
+pains, subjects in distant effect; and common, or merely picturesque,
+subjects even near. To show you what it is capable of, and what colored
+sculpture would be in its rudest type, I have prepared the colored
+relief of the John Dory[32] as a natural history drawing for distant
+effect. You know, also, that I meant him to be ugly--as ugly as any
+creature can well be. In time, I hope to show you prettier
+things--peacocks and kingfishers, butterflies and flowers,--on grounds
+of gold, and the like, as they were in Byzantine work. I shall expect
+you, in right use of your ęsthetic faculties, to like those better than
+what I show you to-day. But it is now a question of method only; and if
+you will look, after the Lecture, first at the mere white relief, and
+then see how much may be gained by a few dashes of color, such as a
+practiced workman could lay in a quarter of an hour,--the whole
+forming, if well done, almost a deceptive image,--you will, at least,
+have the range of power in Egyptian sculpture clearly expressed to you.
+
+164. But for fine sculpture, we must advance by far other methods. If we
+carve the subject with real delicacy, the cast shadow of the incision
+will interfere with its outline, so that, for representation of
+beautiful things you must clear away the ground about it, at all events
+for a little distance. As the law of work is to use the least pains
+possible, you clear it only just as far back as you need, and then, for
+the sake of order and finish, you give the space a geometrical outline.
+By taking, in this case, the simplest I can,--a circle,--I can clear the
+head with little labor in the removal of surface round it; (see the
+lower figure in Plate XI.)
+
+165. Now, these are the first terms of all well-constructed bas-relief.
+The mass you have to treat consists of a piece of stone which, however
+you afterwards carve it, can but, at its most projecting point, reach
+the level of the external plane surface out of which it was mapped, and
+defined by a depression round it; that depression being at first a mere
+trench, then a moat of a certain width, of which the outer sloping bank
+is in contact, as a limiting geometrical line, with the laterally
+salient portions of sculpture. This, I repeat, is the primal
+construction of good bas-relief, implying, first, perfect protection to
+its surface from any transverse blow, and a geometrically limited space
+to be occupied by the design, into which it shall pleasantly (and as you
+shall ultimately see, ingeniously,) contract itself: implying, secondly,
+a determined depth of projection, which it shall rarely reach, and never
+exceed: and implying, finally, the production of the whole piece with
+the least possible labor of chisel and loss of stone.
+
+166. And these, which are the first, are very nearly the last
+constructive laws of sculpture. You will be surprised to find how much
+they include, and how much of minor propriety in treatment their
+observance involves.
+
+In a very interesting essay on the architecture of the Parthenon, by
+the Professor of Architecture of the École Polytechnique, M. Émile
+Boutmy, you will find it noticed that the Greeks do not usually weaken,
+by carving, the constructive masses of their building; but put their
+chief sculpture in the empty spaces between the triglyphs, or beneath
+the roof. This is true; but in so doing, they merely build their panel
+instead of carving it; they accept, no less than the Goths, the laws of
+recess and limitation, as being vital to the safety and dignity of their
+design; and their noblest recumbent statues are, constructively, the
+fillings of the acute extremity of a panel in the form of an obtusely
+summited triangle.
+
+167. In gradual descent from that severest type, you will find that an
+immense quantity of sculpture of all times and styles may be generally
+embraced under the notion of a mass hewn out of, or, at least, placed
+in, a panel or recess, deepening, it may be, into a niche; the sculpture
+being always designed with reference to its position in such recess:
+and, therefore, to the effect of the building out of which the recess is
+hewn.
+
+But, for the sake of simplifying our inquiry, I will at first suppose no
+surrounding protective ledge to exist, and that the area of stone we
+have to deal with is simply a flat slab, extant from a flat surface
+depressed all round it.
+
+168. A _flat_ slab, observe. The flatness of surface is essential to the
+problem of bas-relief. The lateral limit of the panel may, or may not,
+be required; but the vertical limit of surface _must_ be expressed; and
+the art of bas-relief is to give the effect of true form on that
+condition. For observe, if nothing more were needed than to make first a
+cast of a solid form, then cut it in half, and apply the half of it to
+the flat surface;--if, for instance, to carve a bas-relief of an apple,
+all I had to do was to cut my sculpture of the whole apple in half, and
+pin it to the wall, any ordinarily trained sculptor, or even a
+mechanical workman, could produce bas-relief; but the business is to
+carve a _round_ thing out of a _flat_ thing; to carve an apple out of a
+biscuit!--to conquer, as a subtle Florentine has here conquered,[33]
+his marble, so as not only to get motion into what is most rigidly
+fixed, but to get boundlessness into what is most narrowly bounded; and
+carve Madonna and Child, rolling clouds, flying angels, and space of
+heavenly air behind all, out of a film of stone not the third of an inch
+thick where it is thickest.
+
+169. Carried, however, to such a degree of subtlety as this, and with so
+ambitious and extravagant aim, bas-relief becomes a tour-de-force; and,
+you know, I have just told you all tours-de-force are wrong. The true
+law of bas-relief is to begin with a depth of incision proportioned
+justly to the distance of the observer and the character of the subject,
+and out of that rationally determined depth, neither increased for
+ostentation of effect, nor diminished for ostentation of skill, to do
+the utmost that will be easily visible to an observer, supposing him to
+give an average human amount of attention, but not to peer into, or
+critically scrutinize, the work.
+
+170. I cannot arrest you to-day by the statement of any of the laws of
+sight and distance which determine the proper depth of bas-relief.
+Suppose that depth fixed; then observe what a pretty problem, or,
+rather, continually varying cluster of problems, will be offered to us.
+You might, at first, imagine that, given what we may call our scale of
+solidity, or scale of depth, the diminution from nature would be in
+regular proportion, as, for instance, if the real depth of your subject
+be, suppose, a foot, and the depth of your bas-relief an inch, then the
+parts of the real subject which were six inches round the side of it
+would be carved, you might imagine, at the depth of half an inch, and so
+the whole thing mechanically reduced to scale. But not a bit of it. Here
+is a Greek bas-relief of a chariot with two horses (upper figure, Plate
+XXI.) Your whole subject has therefore the depth of two horses side by
+side, say six or eight feet. Your bas-relief has, on this scale,[34] say
+the depth of a third of an inch. Now, if you gave only the sixth of an
+inch for the depth of the off horse, and, dividing him again, only the
+twelfth of an inch for that of each foreleg, you would make him look a
+mile away from the other, and his own forelegs a mile apart. Actually,
+the Greek has made the _near leg of the off horse project much beyond
+the off leg of the near horse_; and has put nearly the whole depth and
+power of his relief into the breast of the off horse, while for the
+whole distance from the head of the nearest to the neck of the other, he
+has allowed himself only a shallow line; knowing that, if he deepened
+that, he would give the nearest horse the look of having a thick nose;
+whereas, by keeping that line down, he has not only made the head itself
+more delicate, but detached it from the other by giving no cast shadow,
+and left the shadow below to serve for thickness of breast, cutting it
+as sharp down as he possibly can, to make it bolder.
+
+171. Here is a fine piece of business we have got into!--even supposing
+that all this selection and adaptation were to be contrived under
+constant laws, and related only to the expression of given forms. But
+the Greek sculptor, all this while, is not only debating and deciding
+how to show what he wants, but, much more, debating and deciding what,
+as he can't show everything, he will choose to show at all. Thus, being
+himself interested, and supposing that you will be, in the manner of the
+driving, he takes great pains to carve the reins, to show you where they
+are knotted, and how they are fastened round the driver's waist, (you
+recollect how Hippolytus was lost by doing that); but he does not care
+the least bit about the chariot, and having rather more geometry than he
+likes in the cross and circle of one wheel of it, entirely omits the
+other!
+
+172. I think you must see by this time that the sculptor's is not quite
+a trade which you can teach like brickmaking; nor its produce an article
+of which you can supply any quantity 'demanded' for the next railroad
+waiting-room. It may perhaps, indeed, seem to you that, in the
+difficulties thus presented by it, bas-relief involves more direct
+exertion of intellect than finished solid sculpture. It is not so,
+however. The questions involved by bas-relief are of a more curious and
+amusing kind, requiring great variety of expedients; though none except
+such as a true workmanly instinct delights in inventing, and invents
+easily; but design in solid sculpture involves considerations of weight
+in mass, of balance, of perspective and opposition, in projecting forms,
+and of restraint for those which must not project, such as none but the
+greatest masters have ever completely solved; and they, not always; the
+difficulty of arranging the composition so as to be agreeable from
+points of view on all sides of it, being, itself, arduous enough.
+
+173. Thus far, I have been speaking only of the laws of structure
+relating to the projection of the mass which becomes itself the
+sculpture. Another most interesting group of constructive laws governs
+its relation to the line that contains or defines it.
+
+In your Standard Series I have placed a photograph of the south transept
+of Rouen Cathedral. Strictly speaking, all standards of Gothic are of
+the thirteenth century; but, in the fourteenth, certain qualities of
+richness are obtained by the diminution of restraint; out of which we
+must choose what is best in their kinds. The pedestals of the statues
+which once occupied the lateral recesses are, as you see, covered with
+groups of figures, inclosed each in a quatrefoil panel; the spaces
+between this panel and the inclosing square being filled with sculptures
+of animals.
+
+You cannot anywhere find a more lovely piece of fancy, or more
+illustrative of the quantity of result, than may be obtained with low
+and simple chiseling. The figures are all perfectly simple in drapery,
+the story told by lines of action only in the main group, no accessories
+being admitted. There is no undercutting anywhere, nor exhibition of
+technical skill, but the fondest and tenderest appliance of it; and one
+of the principal charms of the whole is the adaptation of every subject
+to its quaint limit. The tale must be told within the four petals of the
+quatrefoil, and the wildest and playfulest beasts must never come out of
+their narrow corners. The attention with which spaces of this kind are
+filled by the Gothic designers is not merely a beautiful compliance with
+architectural requirements, but a definite assertion of their delight in
+the restraint of law; for, in illuminating books, although, if they
+chose it, they might have designed floral ornaments, as we now usually
+do, rambling loosely over the leaves, and although, in later works, such
+license is often taken by them, in all books of the fine time the
+wandering tendrils are inclosed by limits approximately rectilinear, and
+in gracefulest branching often detach themselves from the right line
+only by curvature of extreme severity.
+
+174. Since the darkness and extent of shadow by which the sculpture is
+relieved necessarily vary with the depth of the recess, there arise a
+series of problems, in deciding which the wholesome desire for emphasis
+by means of shadow is too often exaggerated by the ambition of the
+sculptor to show his skill in undercutting. The extreme of vulgarity is
+usually reached when the entire bas-relief is cut hollow underneath, as
+in much Indian and Chinese work, so as to relieve its forms against an
+absolute darkness; but no formal law can ever be given; for exactly the
+same thing may be beautifully done for a wise purpose, by one person,
+which is basely done, and to no purpose, or to a bad one, by another.
+Thus, the desire for emphasis itself may be the craving of a deadened
+imagination, or the passion of a vigorous one; and relief against shadow
+may be sought by one man only for sensation, and by another for
+intelligibility. John of Pisa undercuts fiercely, in order to bring out
+the vigor of life which no level contour could render; the Lombardi of
+Venice undercut delicately, in order to obtain beautiful lines and edges
+of faultless precision; but the base Indian craftsmen undercut only that
+people may wonder how the chiseling was done through the holes, or that
+they may see every monster white against black.
+
+175. Yet, here again we are met by another necessity for discrimination.
+There may be a true delight in the inlaying of white on dark, as there
+is a true delight in vigorous rounding. Nevertheless, the general law is
+always, that, the lighter the incisions, and the broader the surface,
+the grander, cęteris paribus, will be the work. Of the structural terms
+of that work you now know enough to understand that the schools of good
+sculpture, considered in relation to projection, divide themselves into
+four entirely distinct groups:--
+
+     1st. Flat Relief, in which the surface is, in many places,
+     absolutely flat; and the expression depends greatly on the
+     lines of its outer contour, and on fine incisions within them.
+
+     2d. Round Relief, in which, as in the best coins, the
+     sculptured mass projects so as to be capable of complete
+     modulation into form, but is not anywhere undercut. The
+     formation of a coin by the blow of a die necessitates, of
+     course, the severest obedience to this law.
+
+     3d. Edged Relief. Undercutting admitted, so as to throw out the
+     forms against a background of shadow.
+
+     4th. Full Relief. The statue completely solid in form, and
+     unreduced in retreating depth of it, yet connected locally with
+     some definite part of the building, so as to be still dependent
+     on the shadow of its background and direction of protective
+     line.
+
+176. Let me recommend you at once to take what pains may be needful to
+enable you to distinguish these four kinds of sculpture, for the
+distinctions between them are not founded on mere differences in
+gradation of depth. They are truly four species, or orders, of
+sculpture, separated from each other by determined characters. I have
+used, you may have noted, hitherto in my Lectures, the word 'bas-relief'
+almost indiscriminately for all, because the degree of lowness or
+highness of relief is not the question, but the _method_ of relief.
+Observe again, therefore--
+
+[Illustration: XII.
+
+BRANCH OF PHILLYREA.]
+
+A. If a portion of the surface is absolutely flat, you have the first
+order--Flat Relief.
+
+B. If every portion of the surface is rounded, but none undercut, you
+have Round Relief--essentially that of seals and coins.
+
+C. If any part of the edges be undercut, but the general protection of
+solid form reduced, you have what I think you may conveniently call
+Foliate Relief,--the parts of the design overlapping each other, in
+places, like edges of leaves.
+
+D. If the undercutting is bold and deep, and the projection of solid
+form unreduced, you have Full Relief.
+
+Learn these four names at once by heart:--
+
+    Flat Relief.
+    Round Relief.
+    Foliate Relief.
+    Full Relief.
+
+And whenever you look at any piece of sculpture, determine first to
+which of these classes it belongs; and then consider how the sculptor
+has treated it with reference to the necessary structure--that
+reference, remember, being partly to the mechanical conditions of the
+material, partly to the means of light and shade at his command.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+177. To take a single instance. You know, for these many years, I have
+been telling our architects, with all the force of voice I had in me,
+that they could design nothing until they could carve natural forms
+rightly. Many imagined that work was easy; but judge for yourselves
+whether it be or not. In Plate XII., I have drawn, with approximate
+accuracy, a cluster of Phillyrea leaves as they grow, Now, if we wanted
+to cut them in bas-relief, the first thing we should have to consider
+would be the position of their outline on the marble;--here it is, as
+far down as the spring of the leaves. But do you suppose that is what an
+ordinary sculptor could either lay for his first sketch, or contemplate
+as a limit to be worked down to? Then consider how the interlacing and
+springing of the leaves can be expressed within this outline. It must be
+done by leaving such projection in the marble as will take the light in
+the same proportion as the drawing does;--and a Florentine workman could
+do it, for close sight, without driving one incision deeper, or raising
+a single surface higher, than the eighth of an inch. Indeed, no sculptor
+of the finest time would design such a complex cluster of leaves as
+this, except for bronze or iron work; they would take simpler contours
+for marble; but the laws of treatment would, under these conditions,
+remain just as strict: and you may, perhaps, believe me now when I tell
+you that, in any piece of fine structural sculpture by the great
+masters, there is more subtlety and noble obedience to lovely laws than
+could be explained to you if I took twenty lectures to do it in, instead
+of one.
+
+[Illustration: XIII.
+
+GREEK FLAT RELIEF, AND SCULPTURE BY EDGED INCISION.]
+
+178. There remains yet a point of mechanical treatment on which I have
+not yet touched at all; nor that the least important,--namely, the
+actual method and style of handling. A great sculptor uses his tool
+exactly as a painter his pencil, and you may recognize the decision of
+his thought, and glow of his temper, no less in the workmanship than the
+design. The modern system of modeling the work in clay, getting it into
+form by machinery, and by the hands of subordinates, and touching it at
+last, if indeed the (so-called) sculptor touch it at all, only to
+correct their inefficiencies, renders the production of good work in
+marble a physical impossibility. The first result of it is that the
+sculptor thinks in clay instead of marble, and loses his instinctive
+sense of the proper treatment of a brittle substance. The second is that
+neither he nor the public recognize the touch of the chisel as
+expressive of personal feeling of power, and that nothing is looked for
+except mechanical polish.
+
+179. The perfectly simple piece of Greek relief represented in Plate
+XIII., will enable you to understand at once,--examination of the
+original, at your leisure, will prevent you, I trust, from ever
+forgetting,--what is meant by the virtue of handling in sculpture.
+
+The projection of the heads of the four horses, one behind the other, is
+certainly not more, altogether, than three-quarters of an inch from the
+flat ground, and the one in front does not in reality project more than
+the one behind it, yet, by mere drawing,[35] you see the sculptor has
+got them to appear to recede in due order, and by the soft rounding of
+the flesh surfaces, and modulation of the veins, he has taken away all
+look of flatness from the necks. He has drawn the eyes and nostrils with
+dark incision, careful as the finest touches of a painter's pencil: and
+then, at last, when he comes to the manes, he has let fly hand and
+chisel with their full force; and where a base workman, (above all, if
+he had modeled the thing in clay first,) would have lost himself in
+laborious imitation of hair, the Greek has struck the tresses out with
+angular incisions, deep driven, every one in appointed place and
+deliberate curve, yet flowing so free under his noble hand that you
+cannot alter, without harm, the bending of any single ridge, nor
+contract, nor extend, a point of them. And if you will look back to
+Plate IX. you will see the difference between this sharp incision, used
+to express horse-hair, and the soft incision with intervening rounded
+ridge, used to express the hair of Apollo Chrysocomes; and, beneath, the
+obliquely ridged incision used to express the plumes of his swan; in
+both these cases the handling being much more slow, because the
+engraving is in metal; but the structural importance of incision, as the
+means of effect, never lost sight of. Finally, here are two actual
+examples of the work in marble of the two great schools of the world;
+one, a little Fortune, standing tiptoe on the globe of the Earth, its
+surface traced with lines in hexagons; not chaotic under Fortune's feet;
+Greek, this, and by a trained workman;--dug up in the temple of Neptune
+at Corfu;--and here, a Florentine portrait-marble, found in the recent
+alterations, face downwards, under the pavement of Sta. Maria Novella;
+both of them first-rate of their kind; and both of them, while
+exquisitely finished at the telling points, showing, on all their
+unregarded surfaces, the rough furrow of the fast-driven chisel, as
+distinctly as the edge of a common paving-stone.
+
+180. Let me suggest to you, in conclusion, one most interesting point of
+mental expression in these necessary aspects of finely executed
+sculpture. I have already again and again pressed on your attention the
+beginning of the arts of men in the make and use of the plowshare. Read
+more carefully--you might indeed do well to learn at once by heart,--the
+twenty-seven lines of the Fourth Pythian, which describe the plowing of
+Jason. There is nothing grander extant in human fancy, nor set down in
+human words: but this great mythical expression of the conquest of the
+earth-clay and brute-force by vital human energy, will become yet more
+interesting to you when you reflect what enchantment has been cut, on
+whiter clay, by the tracing of finer furrows;--what the delicate and
+consummate arts of man have done by the plowing of marble, and granite,
+and iron. You will learn daily more and more, as you advance in actual
+practice, how the primary manual art of engraving, in the steadiness,
+clearness, and irrevocableness of it, is the best art-discipline that
+can be given either to mind or hand;[36] you will recognize one law of
+right, pronouncing itself in the well-resolved work of every age; you
+will see the firmly traced and irrevocable incision determining, not
+only the forms, but, in great part, the moral temper, of all vitally
+progressive art; you will trace the same principle and power in the
+furrows which the oblique sun shows on the granite of his own Egyptian
+city,--in the white scratch of the stylus through the color on a Greek
+vase--in the first delineation, on the wet wall, of the groups of an
+Italian fresco; in the unerring and unalterable touch of the great
+engraver of Nuremberg,--and in the deep-driven and deep-bitten ravines
+of metal by which Turner closed, in embossed limits, the shadows of the
+Liber Studiorum.
+
+Learn, therefore, in its full extent, the force of the great Greek word
+[Greek: charassō];--and give me pardon, if you think pardon needed, that
+I ask you also to learn the full meaning of the English word derived
+from it. Here, at the Ford of the Oxen of Jason, are other furrows to be
+driven than these in the marble of Pentelicus. The fruitfulest, or the
+fatalest, of all plowing is that by the thoughts of your youth, on the
+white field of its Imagination. For by these, either down to the
+disturbed spirit, "[Greek: kekoptai kai charassetai pedon];" or around
+the quiet spirit, and on all the laws of conduct that hold it, as a fair
+vase its frankincense, are ordained the pure colors, and engraved the
+just characters, of Ęonian life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[29] Nothing is more wonderful, or more disgraceful, among the forms of
+ignorance engendered by modern vulgar occupations in pursuit of gain,
+than the unconsciousness, now total, that fine art is essentially
+Athletic. I received a letter from Birmingham, some little time since,
+inviting me to see how much, in glass manufacture, "machinery excelled
+rude hand-work." The writer had not the remotest conception that he
+might as well have asked me to come and see a mechanical boat-race rowed
+by automata, and "how much machinery excelled rude arm-work."
+
+[30] Such as the Sculptureless arch of Waterloo Bridge, for instance,
+referred to in the Third Lecture, § 84.
+
+[31] It is strange, at this day, to think of the relation of the
+Athenian Ceramicus to the French Tile-fields, Tileries, or Tuileries:
+and how these last may yet become--have already partly become--"the
+Potter's field," blood-bought. (_December, 1870._)
+
+[32] This relief is now among the other casts which I have placed in the
+lower school in the University galleries.
+
+[33] The reference is to a cast from a small and low relief of
+Florentine work in the Kensington Museum.
+
+[34] The actual bas-relief is on a coin, and the projection not above
+the twentieth of an inch, but I magnified it in photograph, for this
+Lecture, so as to represent a relief with about the third of an inch for
+maximum projection.
+
+[35] This plate has been executed from a drawing by Mr. Burgess, in
+which he has followed the curves of incision with exquisite care, and
+preserved the effect of the surface of the stone, where a photograph
+would have lost it by exaggerating accidental stains.
+
+[36] That it was also, in some cases, the earliest that the Greeks gave,
+is proved by Lucian's account of his first lesson at his uncle's; the
+[Greek: enkopeus], literally 'in cutter'--being the first tool put into
+his hand, and an earthenware tablet to cut upon, which the boy, pressing
+too hard, presently breaks;--gets beaten--goes home crying, and becomes,
+after his dream above quoted, (§§ 35, 36,) a philosopher instead of a
+sculptor.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VI.
+
+THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS.
+
+_December, 1870._
+
+
+181. It can scarcely be needful for me to tell even the younger members
+of my present audience, that the conditions necessary for the production
+of a perfect school of sculpture have only twice been met in the history
+of the world, and then for a short time; nor for short time only, but
+also in narrow districts,--namely, in the valleys and islands of Ionian
+Greece, and in the strip of land deposited by the Arno, between the
+Apennine crests and the sea.
+
+All other schools, except these two, led severally by Athens in the
+fifth century before Christ, and by Florence in the fifteenth of our own
+era, are imperfect; and the best of them are derivative: these two are
+consummate in themselves, and the origin of what is best in others.
+
+182. And observe, these Athenian and Florentine schools are both of
+equal rank, as essentially original and independent. The Florentine,
+being subsequent to the Greek, borrowed much from it; but it would have
+existed just as strongly--and, perhaps, in some respects more nobly--had
+it been the first, instead of the latter of the two. The task set to
+each of these mightiest of the nations was, indeed, practically the
+same, and as hard to the one as to the other. The Greeks found
+Phoenician and Etruscan art monstrous, and had to make them human. The
+Italians found Byzantine and Norman art monstrous, and had to make them
+human. The original power in the one case is easily traced; in the other
+it has partly to be unmasked, because the change at Florence was, in
+many points, suggested and stimulated by the former school. But we
+mistake in supposing that Athens taught Florence the laws of design; she
+taught her, in reality, only the duty of truth.
+
+183. You remember that I told you the highest art could do no more than
+rightly represent the human form. This is the simple test, then, of a
+perfect school,--that it has represented the human form, so that it is
+impossible to conceive of its being better done. And that, I repeat, has
+been accomplished twice only: once in Athens, once in Florence. And so
+narrow is the excellence even of these two exclusive schools, that it
+cannot be said of either of them that they represented the entire human
+form. The Greeks perfectly drew, and perfectly molded, the body and
+limbs; but there is, so far as I am aware, no instance of their
+representing the face as well as any great Italian. On the other hand,
+the Italian painted and carved the face insuperably; but I believe there
+is no instance of his having perfectly represented the body, which, by
+command of his religion, it became his pride to despise and his safety
+to mortify.
+
+184. The general course of your study here renders it desirable that you
+should be accurately acquainted with the leading principles of Greek
+sculpture; but I cannot lay these before you without giving undue
+prominence to some of the special merits of that school, unless I
+previously indicate the relation it holds to the more advanced, though
+less disciplined, excellence of Christian art.
+
+In this and the last Lecture of the present course,[37] I shall
+endeavor, therefore, to mass for you, in such rude and diagram-like
+outline as may be possible or intelligible, the main characteristics of
+the two schools, completing and correcting the details of comparison
+afterwards; and not answering, observe, at present, for any
+generalization I give you, except as a ground for subsequent closer and
+more qualified statements.
+
+And in carrying out this parallel, I shall speak indifferently of works
+of sculpture, and of the modes of painting which propose to themselves
+the same objects as sculpture. And this, indeed, Florentine, as opposed
+to Venetian, painting, and that of Athens in the fifth century, nearly
+always did.
+
+185. I begin, therefore, by comparing two designs of the simplest
+kind--engravings, or, at least, linear drawings both; one on clay, one
+on copper, made in the central periods of each style, and representing
+the same goddess--Aphrodite. They are now set beside each other in your
+Rudimentary Series. The first is from a patera lately found at Camirus,
+authoritatively assigned by Mr. Newton, in his recent catalogue, to the
+best period of Greek art. The second is from one of the series of
+engravings executed, probably, by Baccio Bandini, in 1485, out of which
+I chose your first practical exercise--the Scepter of Apollo. I cannot,
+however, make the comparison accurate in all respects, for I am obliged
+to set the restricted type of the Aphrodite Urania of the Greeks beside
+the universal Deity conceived by the Italian as governing the air,
+earth, and sea; nevertheless, the restriction in the mind of the Greek,
+and expatiation in that of the Florentine, are both characteristic. The
+Greek Venus Urania is flying in heaven, her power over the waters
+symbolized by her being borne by a swan, and her power over the earth by
+a single flower in her right hand; but the Italian Aphrodite is rising
+out of the actual sea, and only half risen: her limbs are still in the
+sea, her merely animal strength filling the waters with their life; but
+her body to the loins is in the sunshine, her face raised to the sky;
+her hand is about to lay a garland of flowers on the earth.
+
+186. The Venus Urania of the Greeks, in her relation to men, has power
+only over lawful and domestic love; therefore, she is fully dressed, and
+not only quite dressed, but most daintily and trimly: her feet
+delicately sandaled, her gown spotted with little stars, her hair
+brushed exquisitely smooth at the top of her head, trickling in minute
+waves down her forehead; and though, because there is such a quantity of
+it, she can't possibly help having a chignon, look how tightly she has
+fastened it in with her broad fillet. Of course she is married, so she
+must wear a cap with pretty minute pendent jewels at the border; and a
+very small necklace, all that her husband can properly afford, just
+enough to go closely round her neck, and no more. On the contrary, the
+Aphrodite of the Italian, being universal love, is pure-naked; and her
+long hair is thrown wild to the wind and sea.
+
+These primal differences in the symbolism, observe, are only because the
+artists are thinking of separate powers: they do not necessarily involve
+any national distinction in feeling. But the differences I have next to
+indicate are essential, and characterize the two opposed national modes
+of mind.
+
+187. First, and chiefly. The Greek Aphrodite is a very pretty person,
+and the Italian a decidedly plain one. That is because a Greek thought
+no one could possibly love any but pretty people; but an Italian thought
+that love could give dignity to the meanest form that it inhabited, and
+light to the poorest that it looked upon. So his Aphrodite will not
+condescend to be pretty.
+
+188. Secondly. In the Greek Venus the breasts are broad and full, though
+perfectly severe in their almost conical profile;--(you are allowed on
+purpose to see the outline of the right breast, under the chiton;)--also
+the right arm is left bare, and you can just see the contour of the
+front of the right limb and knee; both arm and limb pure and firm, but
+lovely. The plant she holds in her hand is a branching and flowering
+one, the seed-vessel prominent. These signs all mean that her essential
+function is child-bearing.
+
+On the contrary, in the Italian Venus the breasts are so small as to be
+scarcely traceable; the body strong, and almost masculine in its angles;
+the arms meager and unattractive, and she lays a decorative garland of
+flowers on the earth. These signs mean that the Italian thought of love
+as the strength of an eternal spirit, forever helpful; and forever
+crowned with flowers, that neither know seedtime nor harvest; and bloom
+where there is neither death nor birth.
+
+189. Thirdly. The Greek Aphrodite is entirely calm, and looks straight
+forward. Not one feature of her face is disturbed, or seems ever to have
+been subject to emotion. The Italian Aphrodite looks up, her face all
+quivering and burning with passion and wasting anxiety. The Greek one is
+quiet, self-possessed, and self-satisfied: the Italian incapable of
+rest; she has had no thought nor care for herself; her hair has been
+bound by a fillet like the Greek's; but it is now all fallen loose, and
+clotted with the sea, or clinging to her body; only the front tress of
+it is caught by the breeze from her raised forehead, and lifted, in the
+place where the tongues of fire rest on the brows, in the early
+Christian pictures of Pentecost, and the waving fires abide upon the
+heads of Angelico's seraphim.
+
+190. There are almost endless points of interest, great and small, to be
+noted in these differences of treatment. This binding of the hair by the
+single fillet marks the straight course of one great system of art
+method, from that Greek head which I showed you on the archaic coin of
+the seventh century before Christ, to this of the fifteenth of our own
+era;--nay, when you look close, you will see the entire action of the
+head depends on one lock of hair falling back from the ear, which it
+does in compliance with the old Greek observance of its being bent there
+by the pressure of the helmet. That rippling of it down her shoulders
+comes from the Athena of Corinth; the raising of it on her forehead,
+from the knot of the hair of Diana, changed into the vestal fire of the
+angels. But chiefly, the calmness of the features in the one face, and
+their anxiety in the other, indicate first, indeed, the characteristic
+difference in every conception of the schools, the Greek never
+representing expression, the Italian primarily seeking it; but far more,
+mark for us here the utter change in the conception of love; from the
+tranquil guide and queen of a happy terrestrial domestic life, accepting
+its immediate pleasures and natural duties, to the agonizing hope of an
+infinite good, and the ever mingled joy and terror of a love divine in
+jealousy, crying, "Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon
+thine arm; for love is strong as death, jealousy is cruel as the
+grave."
+
+[Illustration: XIV.
+
+APOLLO AND THE PYTHON.
+
+HERACLES AND THE NEMEAN LION.]
+
+The vast issues dependent on this change in the conception of the ruling
+passion of the human soul, I will endeavor to show you on a future
+occasion: in my present Lecture, I shall limit myself to the definition
+of the temper of Greek sculpture, and of its distinctions from
+Florentine in the treatment of any subject whatever, be it love or
+hatred, hope or despair.
+
+These great differences are mainly the following.
+
+191. First. A Greek never expresses momentary passion; a Florentine
+looks to momentary passion as the ultimate object of his skill.
+
+When you are next in London, look carefully in the British Museum at the
+casts from the statues in the pediment of the Temple of Minerva at
+Ęgina. You have there Greek work of definite date--about 600 B. C.,
+certainly before 580--of the purest kind; and you have the
+representation of a noble ideal subject, the combats of the Ęacidę at
+Troy, with Athena herself looking on. But there is no attempt whatever
+to represent expression in the features, none to give complexity of
+action or gesture; there is no struggling, no anxiety, no visible
+temporary exertion of muscles. There are fallen figures, one pulling a
+lance out of his wound, and others in attitudes of attack and defense;
+several kneeling to draw their bows. But all inflict and suffer, conquer
+or expire, with the same smile.
+
+192. Plate XIV. gives you examples, from more advanced art, of true
+Greek representation; the subjects being the two contests of leading
+import to the Greek heart--that of Apollo with the Python, and of
+Hercules with the Nemean Lion. You see that in neither case is there the
+slightest effort to represent the [Greek: lyssa], or agony of contest.
+No good Greek artist would have you behold the suffering either of
+gods, heroes, or men; nor allow you to be apprehensive of the issue of
+their contest with evil beasts, or evil spirits. All such lower sources
+of excitement are to be closed to you; your interest is to be in the
+thoughts involved by the fact of the war; and in the beauty or rightness
+of form, whether active or inactive. I have to work out this subject
+with you afterwards, and to compare with the pure Greek method of
+thought that of modern dramatic passion, ingrafted on it, as typically
+in Turner's contest of Apollo and the Python: in the meantime, be
+content with the statement of this first great principle--that a Greek,
+as such, never expresses momentary passion.
+
+[Illustration: XV.
+
+HERA OF ARGOS.
+
+ZEUS OF SYRACUSE.]
+
+[Illustration: XVI.
+
+DEMETER OF MESSENE.
+
+HERA OF CNOSSUS.]
+
+[Illustration: XVII.
+
+ATHENA OF THURIUM.
+
+SIREN LIGEIA OF TERINA.]
+
+193. Secondly. The Greek, as such, never expresses personal character,
+while a Florentine holds it to be the ultimate condition of beauty. You
+are startled, I suppose, at my saying this, having had it often pointed
+out to you, as a transcendent piece of subtlety in Greek art, that you
+could distinguish Hercules from Apollo by his being stout, and Diana
+from Juno by her being slender. That is very true; but those are general
+distinctions of class, not special distinctions of personal character.
+Even as general, they are bodily, not mental. They are the distinctions,
+in fleshly aspect, between an athlete and a musician,--between a matron
+and a huntress; but in nowise distinguish the simple-hearted hero from
+the subtle Master of the Muses, nor the willful and fitful girl-goddess
+from the cruel and resolute matron-goddess. But judge for yourselves. In
+the successive plates, XV.-XVIII., I show you,[38] typically represented
+as the protectresses of nations, the Argive, Cretan, and Lacinian Hera,
+the Messenian Demeter, the Athena of Corinth, the Artemis of Syracuse;
+the fountain Arethusa of Syracuse, and the Siren Ligeia of Terina. Now,
+of these heads, it is true that some are more delicate in feature than
+the rest, and some softer in expression: in other respects, can you
+trace any distinction between the Goddesses of Earth and Heaven, or
+between the Goddess of Wisdom and the Water Nymph of Syracuse? So little
+can you do so, that it would have remained a disputed question--had not
+the name luckily been inscribed on some Syracusan coins--whether the
+head upon them was meant for Arethusa at all; and, continually, it
+becomes a question respecting finished statues, if without attributes,
+"Is this Bacchus or Apollo--Zeus or Poseidon?" There is a fact for you;
+noteworthy, I think! There is no personal character in true Greek
+art:--abstract ideas of youth and age, strength and swiftness, virtue
+and vice,--yes: but there is no individuality; and the negative holds
+down to the revived conventionalism of the Greek school by Leonardo,
+when he tells you how you are to paint young women, and how old ones;
+though a Greek would hardly have been so discourteous to age as the
+Italian is in his canon of it,--"old women should be represented as
+passionate and hasty, after the manner of Infernal Furies."
+
+194. "But at least, if the Greeks do not give character, they give ideal
+beauty?" So it is said, without contradiction. But will you look again
+at the series of coins of the best time of Greek art, which I have just
+set before you? Are any of these goddesses or nymphs very beautiful?
+Certainly the Junos are not. Certainly the Demeters are not. The Siren,
+and Arethusa, have well-formed and regular features; but I am quite sure
+that if you look at them without prejudice, you will think neither
+reaches even the average standard of pretty English girls. The Venus
+Urania suggests at first the idea of a very charming person, but you
+will find there is no real depth nor sweetness in the contours, looked
+at closely. And remember, these are chosen examples,--the best I can
+find of art current in Greece at the great time; and if even I were to
+take the celebrated statues, of which only two or three are extant, not
+one of them excels the Venus of Melos; and she, as I have already
+asserted, in the 'Queen of the Air,' has nothing notable in feature
+except dignity and simplicity. Of Athena I do not know one authentic
+type of great beauty; but the intense ugliness which the Greeks could
+tolerate in their symbolism of her will be convincingly proved to you by
+the coin represented in Plate VI. You need only look at two or three
+vases of the best time to assure yourselves that beauty of feature was,
+in popular art, not only unattained, but unattempted; and, finally,--and
+this you may accept as a conclusive proof of the Greek insensitiveness
+to the most subtle beauty,--there is little evidence even in their
+literature, and none in their art, of their having ever perceived any
+beauty in infancy, or early childhood.
+
+195. The Greeks, then, do not give passion, do not give character, do
+not give refined or naļve beauty. But you may think that the absence of
+these is intended to give dignity to the gods and nymphs; and that their
+calm faces would be found, if you long observed them, instinct with some
+expression of divine mystery or power.
+
+I will convince you of the narrow range of Greek thought in these
+respects, by showing you, from the two sides of one and the same coin,
+images of the most mysterious of their deities, and the most
+powerful,--Demeter, and Zeus.
+
+Remember that just as the west coasts of Ireland and England catch first
+on their hills the rain of the Atlantic, so the Western Peloponnese
+arrests, in the clouds of the first mountain ranges of Arcadia, the
+moisture of the Mediterranean; and over all the plains of Elis, Pylos,
+and Messene, the strength and sustenance of men was naturally felt to be
+granted by Zeus; as, on the east coast of Greece, the greater clearness
+of the air by the power of Athena. If you will recollect the prayer of
+Rhea, in the single line of Callimachus--[Greek: "Taia philź, teke kai
+su; teai d' ōdines elaphrai]," (compare Pausanias, iv. 33, at the
+beginning,)--it will mark for you the connection, in the Greek mind, of
+the birth of the mountain springs of Arcadia with the birth of Zeus. And
+the centers of Greek thought on this western coast are necessarily Elis,
+and, (after the time of Epaminondas,) Messene.
+
+[Illustration: XVIII.
+
+ARTEMIS OF SYRACUSE.
+
+HERA OF LACINIAN CAPE.]
+
+196. I show you the coin of Messene, because the splendid height and
+form of Mount Ithome were more expressive of the physical power of Zeus
+than the lower hills of Olympia; and also because it was struck just at
+the time of the most finished and delicate Greek art--a little after the
+main strength of Phidias, but before decadence had generally pronounced
+itself. The coin is a silver didrachm, bearing on one side a head of
+Demeter, (Plate XVI., at the top); on the other a full figure of Zeus
+Aietophoros, (Plate XIX., at the top); the two together signifying the
+sustaining strength of the earth and heaven. Look first at the head of
+Demeter. It is merely meant to personify fullness of harvest; there is
+no mystery in it, no sadness, no vestige of the expression which we
+should have looked for in any effort to realize the Greek thoughts of
+the Earth Mother, as we find them spoken by the poets. But take it
+merely as personified Abundance,--the goddess of black furrow and tawny
+grass,--how commonplace it is, and how poor! The hair is grand, and
+there is one stalk of wheat set in it, which is enough to indicate the
+goddess who is meant; but, in that very office, ignoble, for it shows
+that the artist could only inform you that this was Demeter by such a
+symbol. How easy it would have been for a great designer to have made
+the hair lovely with fruitful flowers, and the features noble in mystery
+of gloom, or of tenderness. But here you have nothing to interest you,
+except the common Greek perfections of a straight nose and a full chin.
+
+197. We pass, on the reverse of the die, to the figure of Zeus
+Aietophoros. Think of the invocation to Zeus in the Suppliants, (525,)
+"King of Kings, and Happiest of the Happy, Perfectest of the Perfect in
+strength, abounding in all things, Jove--hear us, and be with us;" and
+then, consider what strange phase of mind it was, which, under the very
+mountain-home of the god, was content with this symbol of him as a
+well-fed athlete, holding a diminutive and crouching eagle on his fist.
+The features and the right hand have been injured in this coin, but the
+action of the arm shows that it held a thunderbolt, of which, I believe,
+the twisted rays were triple. In the presumably earlier coin engraved by
+Millingen, however,[39] it is singly pointed only; and the added
+inscription "[Greek: ITHŌM]," in the field, renders the conjecture of
+Millingen probable, that this is a rude representation of the statue of
+Zeus Ithomates, made by Ageladas, the master of Phidias; and I think it
+has, indeed, the aspect of the endeavor, by a workman of more advanced
+knowledge, and more vulgar temper, to put the softer anatomy of later
+schools into the simple action of an archaic figure. Be that as it may,
+here is one of the most refined cities of Greece content with the figure
+of an athlete as the representative of their own mountain god; marked as
+a divine power merely by the attributes of the eagle and thunderbolt.
+
+198. Lastly. The Greeks have not, it appears, in any supreme way, given
+to their statues character, beauty, or divine strength. Can they give
+divine sadness? Shall we find in their art-work any of that pensiveness
+and yearning for the dead which fills the chants of their tragedy? I
+suppose, if anything like nearness or firmness of faith in after-life is
+to be found in Greek legend, you might look for it in the stories about
+the Island of Leuce, at the mouth of the Danube, inhabited by the ghosts
+of Achilles, Patroclus, Ajax the son of Oļleus, and Helen; and in which
+the pavement of the Temple of Achilles was washed daily by the sea-birds
+with their wings, dipping them in the sea.
+
+Now it happens that we have actually on a coin of the Locrians the
+representation of the ghost of the Lesser Ajax. There is nothing in the
+history of human imagination more lovely than their leaving always a
+place for his spirit, vacant in their ranks of battle. But here is their
+sculptural representation of the phantom, (lower figure, Plate XIX.);
+and I think you will at once agree with me in feeling that it would be
+impossible to conceive anything more completely unspiritual. You might
+more than doubt that it could have been meant for the departed soul,
+unless you were aware of the meaning of this little circlet between the
+feet. On other coins you find his name inscribed there, but in this you
+have his habitation, the haunted Island of Leuce itself, with the waves
+flowing round it.
+
+[Illustration: XIX.
+
+ZEUS OF MESSENE.
+
+AJAX OF OPUS.]
+
+199. Again and again, however, I have to remind you, with respect to
+these apparently frank and simple failures, that the Greek always
+intends you to think for yourself, and understand, more than he can
+speak. Take this instance at our hands, the trim little circlet for the
+Island of Leuce. The workman knows very well it is not like the island,
+and that he could not make it so; that, at its best, his sculpture can
+be little more than a letter; and yet, in putting this circlet, and its
+encompassing fretwork of minute waves, he does more than if he had
+merely given you a letter L, or written 'Leuce.' If you know anything of
+beaches and sea, this symbol will set your imagination at work in
+recalling them; then you will think of the temple service of the
+novitiate sea-birds, and of the ghosts of Achilles and Patroclus
+appearing, like the Dioscuri, above the storm-clouds of the Euxine. And
+the artist, throughout his work, never for an instant loses faith in
+your sympathy and passion being ready to answer his;--if you have none
+to give, he does not care to take you into his counsel; on the whole,
+would rather that you should not look at his work.
+
+200. But if you have this sympathy to give, you may be sure that
+whatever he does for you will be right, as far as he can render it so.
+It may not be sublime, nor beautiful, nor amusing; but it will be full
+of meaning, and faithful in guidance. He will give you clue to myriads
+of things that he cannot literally teach; and, so far as he does teach,
+you may trust him. Is not this saying much?
+
+And as he strove only to teach what was true, so, in his sculptured
+symbol, he strove only to carve what was--Right. He rules over the arts
+to this day, and will forever, because he sought not first for beauty,
+not first for passion, or for invention, but for Rightness; striving to
+display, neither himself nor his art, but the thing that he dealt with,
+in its simplicity. That is his specific character as a Greek. Of course
+every nation's character is connected with that of others surrounding or
+preceding it; and in the best Greek work you will find some things that
+are still false, or fanciful; but whatever in it is false, or fanciful,
+is not the Greek part of it--it is the Phoenician, or Egyptian, or
+Pelasgian part. The essential Hellenic stamp is veracity:--Eastern
+nations drew their heroes with eight legs, but the Greeks drew them with
+two;--Egyptians drew their deities with cats' heads, but the Greeks drew
+them with men's; and out of all fallacy, disproportion, and
+indefiniteness, they were, day by day, resolvedly withdrawing and
+exalting themselves into restricted and demonstrable truth.
+
+201. And now, having cut away the misconceptions which incumbered our
+thoughts, I shall be able to put the Greek school into some clearness of
+its position for you, with respect to the art of the world. That
+relation is strangely duplicate; for, on one side, Greek art is the root
+of all simplicity; and, on the other, of all complexity.
+
+On one side, I say, it is the root of all simplicity. If you were for
+some prolonged period to study Greek sculpture exclusively in the Elgin
+room of the British Museum, and were then suddenly transported to the
+Hōtel de Cluny, or any other museum of Gothic and barbarian workmanship,
+you would imagine the Greeks were the masters of all that was grand,
+simple, wise, and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys
+of the rest of mankind.
+
+[Illustration: XX.
+
+GREEK AND BARBARIAN SCULPTURE.]
+
+202. On one side of their work they are so. From all vain and mean
+decoration--all wreak and monstrous error, the Greeks rescue the forms
+of man and beast, and sculpture them in the nakedness of their true
+flesh, and with the fire of their living soul. Distinctively from other
+races, as I have now, perhaps to your weariness, told you, this is the
+work of the Greek, to give health to what was diseased, and chastisement
+to what was untrue. So far as this is found in any other school,
+hereafter, it belongs to them by inheritance from the Greeks, or invests
+them with the brotherhood of the Greek. And this is the deep meaning of
+the myth of Dędalus as the giver of motion to statues. The literal
+change from the binding together of the feet to their separation, and
+the other modifications of action which took place, either in
+progressive skill, or often, as the mere consequence of the transition
+from wood to stone, (a figure carved out of one wooden log must have
+necessarily its feet near each other, and hands at its sides,) these
+literal changes are as nothing, in the Greek fable, compared to the
+bestowing of apparent life. The figures of monstrous gods on Indian
+temples have their legs separate enough; but they are infinitely more
+dead than the rude figures at Branchidę sitting with their hands on
+their knees. And, briefly, the work of Dędalus is the giving of
+deceptive life, as that of Prometheus the giving of real life; and I can
+put the relation of Greek to all other art, in this function, before
+you, in easily compared and remembered examples.
+
+203. Here, on the right, in Plate XX., is an Indian bull, colossal, and
+elaborately carved, which you may take as a sufficient type of the bad
+art of all the earth. False in form, dead in heart, and loaded with
+wealth, externally. We will not ask the date of this; it may rest in the
+eternal obscurity of evil art, everywhere, and forever. Now, beside this
+colossal bull, here is a bit of Dędalus-work, enlarged from a coin not
+bigger than a shilling: look at the two together, and you ought to know,
+henceforward, what Greek art means, to the end of your days.
+
+204. In this aspect of it, then, I say it is the simplest and nakedest
+of lovely veracities. But it has another aspect, or rather another pole,
+for the opposition is diametric. As the simplest, so also it is the most
+complex of human art. I told you in my Fifth Lecture, showing you the
+spotty picture of Velasquez, that an essential Greek character is a
+liking for things that are dappled. And you cannot but have noticed how
+often and how prevalently the idea which gave its name to the Porch of
+Polygnotus, "[Greek: stoa poikilź]," occurs to the Greeks as connected
+with the finest art. Thus, when the luxurious city is opposed to the
+simple and healthful one, in the second book of Plato's Polity, you find
+that, next to perfumes, pretty ladies, and dice, you must have in it
+"[Greek: poikilia]," which observe, both in that place and again in the
+third book, is the separate art of joiners' work, or inlaying; but the
+idea of exquisitely divided variegation or division, both in sight and
+sound--the "ravishing division to the lute," as in Pindar's "[Greek:
+poikiloi hymnoi]"--runs through the compass of all Greek
+art-description; and if, instead of studying that art among marbles, you
+were to look at it only on vases of a fine time, (look back, for
+instance, to Plate IV. here,) your impression of it would be, instead of
+breadth and simplicity, one of universal spottiness and checkeredness,
+"[Greek: en angeōu Herkesin pampoikilois];" and of the artist's
+delighting in nothing so much as in crossed or starred or spotted
+things; which, in right places, he and his public both do unlimitedly.
+Indeed they hold it complimentary even to a trout, to call him a
+'spotty.' Do you recollect the trout in the tributaries of the Ladon,
+which Pausanias says were spotted, so that they were like thrushes, and
+which, the Arcadians told him, could speak? In this last [Greek:
+poikilia], however, they disappointed him. "I, indeed, saw some of them
+caught," he says, "but I did not hear any of them speak, though I waited
+beside the river till sunset."
+
+205. I must sum roughly now, for I have detained you too long.
+
+The Greeks have been thus the origin, not only of all broad, mighty, and
+calm conception, but of all that is divided, delicate, and tremulous;
+"variable as the shade, by the light quivering aspen made." To them, as
+first leaders of ornamental design, belongs, of right, the praise of
+glistenings in gold, piercings in ivory, stainings in purple,
+burnishings in dark blue steel; of the fantasy of the Arabian
+roof,--quartering of the Christian shield,--rubric and arabesque of
+Christian scripture; in fine, all enlargement, and all diminution of
+adorning thought, from the temple to the toy, and from the mountainous
+pillars of Agrigentum to the last fineness of fretwork in the Pisan
+Chapel of the Thorn.
+
+[Illustration: XXI.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CHIVALRY.]
+
+And in their doing all this, they stand as masters of human order and
+justice, subduing the animal nature, guided by the spiritual one, as you
+see the Sicilian Charioteer stands, holding his horse-reins, with the
+wild lion racing beneath him, and the flying angel above, on the
+beautiful coin of early Syracuse; (lowest in Plate XXI.)
+
+And the beginnings of Christian chivalry were in that Greek bridling of
+the dark and the white horses.
+
+206. Not that a Greek never made mistakes. He made as many as we do
+ourselves, nearly;--he died of his mistakes at last--as we shall die of
+them; but so far as he was separated from the herd of more mistaken and
+more wretched nations--so far as he was Greek--it was by his rightness.
+He lived, and worked, and was satisfied with the fatness of his land,
+and the fame of his deeds, by his justice, and reason, and modesty. He
+became Gręculus esuriens, little, and hungry, and every man's
+errand-boy, by his iniquity, and his competition, and his love of talk.
+But his Gręcism was in having done, at least at one period of his
+dominion, more than anybody else, what was modest, useful, and eternally
+true; and as a workman, he verily did, or first suggested the doing of,
+everything possible to man.
+
+Take Dędalus, his great type of the practically executive craftsman, and
+the inventor of expedients in craftsmanship, (as distinguished from
+Prometheus, the institutor of moral order in art). Dędalus invents,--he,
+or his nephew,
+
+    The potter's wheel, and all work in clay;
+    The saw, and all work in wood;
+    The masts and sails of ships, and all modes of motion;
+      (wings only proving too dangerous!)
+    The entire art of minute ornament;
+    And the deceptive life of statues.
+
+By his personal toil, he involves the fatal labyrinth for Minos; builds
+an impregnable fortress for the Agrigentines; adorns healing baths among
+the wild parsley-fields of Selinus; buttresses the precipices of Eryx,
+under the temple of Aphrodite; and for her temple itself--finishes in
+exquisiteness the golden honeycomb.
+
+207. Take note of that last piece of his art: it is connected with many
+things which I must bring before you when we enter on the study of
+architecture. That study we shall begin at the foot of the Baptistery of
+Florence, which, of all buildings known to me, unites the most perfect
+symmetry with the quaintest [Greek: poikilia]. Then, from the tomb of
+your own Edward the Confessor, to the farthest shrine of the opposite
+Arabian and Indian world, I must show you how the glittering and
+iridescent dominion of Dędalus prevails; and his ingenuity in division,
+interposition, and labyrinthine sequence, more widely still. Only this
+last summer I found the dark red masses of the rough sandstone of
+Furness Abbey had been fitted by him, with no less pleasure than he had
+in carving them, into wedged hexagons--reminiscences of the honeycomb of
+Venus Erycina. His ingenuity plays around the framework of all the
+noblest things; and yet the brightness of it has a lurid shadow. The
+spot of the fawn, of the bird, and the moth, may be harmless. But
+Dędalus reigns no less over the spot of the leopard and snake. That
+cruel and venomous power of his art is marked, in the legends of him, by
+his invention of the saw from the serpent's tooth; and his seeking
+refuge, under blood-guiltiness, with Minos, who can judge evil, and
+measure, or remit, the penalty of it, but not reward good; Rhadamanthus
+only can measure _that_; but Minos is essentially the recognizer of evil
+deeds "conoscitor delle peccata," whom, therefore, you find in Dante
+under the form of the [Greek: erpeton]. "Cignesi con la coda tante
+volte, quantunque gradi vuol che giu sia messa."
+
+And this peril of the influence of Dędalus is twofold; first, in leading
+us to delight in glitterings and semblances of things, more than in
+their form, or truth;--admire the harlequin's jacket more than the
+hero's strength; and love the gilding of the missal more than its
+words;--but farther, and worse, the ingenuity of Dędalus may even become
+bestial, an instinct for mechanical labor only, strangely involved with
+a feverish and ghastly cruelty:--(you will find this distinct in the
+intensely Dędal work of the Japanese); rebellious, finally, against the
+laws of nature and honor, and building labyrinths for monsters,--not
+combs for bees.
+
+208. Gentlemen, we of the rough northern race may never, perhaps, be
+able to learn from the Greek his reverence for beauty; but we may at
+least learn his disdain of mechanism:--of all work which he felt to be
+monstrous and inhuman in its imprudent dexterities.
+
+We hold ourselves, we English, to be good workmen. I do not think I
+speak with light reference to recent calamity, (for I myself lost a
+young relation, full of hope and good purpose, in the foundered ship
+_London_,) when I say that either an Ęginetan or Ionian shipwright built
+ships that could be fought from, though they were under water; and
+neither of them would have been proud of having built one that would
+fill and sink helplessly if the sea washed over her deck, or turn
+upside-down if a squall struck her topsail.
+
+Believe me, gentlemen, good workmanship consists in continence and
+common sense, more than in frantic expatiation of mechanical ingenuity;
+and if you would be continent and rational, you had better learn more of
+Art than you do now, and less of Engineering. What is taking place at
+this very hour,[40] among the streets, once so bright, and avenues, once
+so pleasant, of the fairest city in Europe, may surely lead us all to
+feel that the skill of Dędalus, set to build impregnable fortresses, is
+not so wisely applied as in framing the [Greek: trźton ponon],--the
+golden honeycomb.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] The closing Lecture, on the religious temper of the Florentine,
+though necessary for the complete explanation of the subject to my
+class, at the time, introduced new points of inquiry which I do not
+choose to lay before the general reader until they can be examined in
+fuller sequence. The present volume, therefore, closes with the Sixth
+Lecture, and that on Christian art will be given as the first of the
+published course on Florentine Sculpture.
+
+[38] These plates of coins are given for future reference and
+examination, not merely for the use made of them in this place. The
+Lacinian Hera, if a coin could be found unworn in surface, would be very
+noble; her hair is thrown free because she is the goddess of the cape of
+storms, though in her temple, there, the wind never moved the ashes on
+its altar. (Livy, xxiv. 3.)
+
+[39] 'Ancient Cities and Kings,' Plate IV., No. 20.
+
+[40] The siege of Paris, at the time of the delivery of this Lecture,
+was in one of its most destructive phases.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VII.
+
+THE RELATION BETWEEN MICHAEL ANGELO AND TINTORET.[41]
+
+
+209. In preceding lectures on sculpture I have included references to
+the art of painting, so far as it proposes to itself the same object as
+sculpture, (idealization of form); and I have chosen for the subject of
+our closing inquiry, the works of the two masters who accomplished or
+implied the unity of these arts. Tintoret entirely conceives his figures
+as solid statues: sees them in his mind on every side; detaches each
+from the other by imagined air and light; and foreshortens, interposes,
+or involves them as if they were pieces of clay in his hand. On the
+contrary, Michael Angelo conceives his sculpture partly as if it were
+painted; and using (as I told you formerly) his pen like a chisel, uses
+also his chisel like a pencil; is sometimes as picturesque as Rembrandt,
+and sometimes as soft as Correggio.
+
+It is of him chiefly that I shall speak to-day; both because it is part
+of my duty to the strangers here present to indicate for them some of
+the points of interest in the drawings forming part of the University
+collections; but still more, because I must not allow the second year of
+my professorship to close, without some statement of the mode in which
+those collections may be useful or dangerous to my pupils. They seem at
+present little likely to be either; for since I entered on my duties, no
+student has ever asked me a single question respecting these drawings,
+or, so far as I could see, taken the slightest interest in them.
+
+210. There are several causes for this which might be obviated--there is
+one which cannot be. The collection, as exhibited at present, includes a
+number of copies which mimic in variously injurious ways the characters
+of Michael Angelo's own work; and the series, except as material for
+reference, can be of no practical service until these are withdrawn, and
+placed by themselves. It includes, besides, a number of original
+drawings which are indeed of value to any laborious student of Michael
+Angelo's life and temper; but which owe the greater part of this
+interest to their being executed in times of sickness or indolence, when
+the master, however strong, was failing in his purpose, and, however
+diligent, tired of his work. It will be enough to name, as an example of
+this class, the sheet of studies for the Medici tombs, No. 45, in which
+the lowest figure is, strictly speaking, neither a study nor a working
+drawing, but has either been scrawled in the feverish languor of
+exhaustion, which cannot escape its subject of thought; or, at best, in
+idly experimental addition of part to part, beginning with the head, and
+fitting muscle after muscle, and bone after bone, to it, thinking of
+their place only, not their proportion, till the head is only about
+one-twentieth part of the height of the body: finally, something between
+a face and a mask is blotted in the upper left-hand corner of the paper,
+indicative, in the weakness and frightfulness of it, simply of mental
+disorder from over-work; and there are several others of this kind,
+among even the better drawings of the collection, which ought never to
+be exhibited to the general public.
+
+211. It would be easy, however, to separate these, with the acknowledged
+copies, from the rest; and, doing the same with the drawings of Raphael,
+among which a larger number are of true value, to form a connected
+series of deep interest to artists, in illustration of the incipient and
+experimental methods of design practiced by each master.
+
+I say, to artists. Incipient methods of design are not, and ought not to
+be, subjects of earnest inquiry to other people; and although the
+re-arrangement of the drawings would materially increase the chance of
+their gaining due attention, there is a final and fatal reason for the
+want of interest in them displayed by the younger students;--namely,
+that these designs have nothing whatever to do with present life, with
+its passions, or with its religion. What their historic value is, and
+relation to the life of the past, I will endeavor, so far as time
+admits, to explain to-day.
+
+212. The course of Art divides itself hitherto, among all nations of the
+world that have practiced it successfully, into three great periods.
+
+The first, that in which their conscience is undeveloped, and their
+condition of life in many respects savage; but, nevertheless, in harmony
+with whatever conscience they possess. The most powerful tribes, in this
+stage of their intellect, usually live by rapine, and under the
+influence of vivid, but contracted, religious imagination. The early
+predatory activity of the Normans, and the confused minglings of
+religious subjects with scenes of hunting, war, and vile grotesque, in
+their first art, will sufficiently exemplify this state of a people;
+having, observe, their conscience undeveloped, but keeping their conduct
+in satisfied harmony with it.
+
+The second stage is that of the formation of conscience by the discovery
+of the true laws of social order and personal virtue, coupled with
+sincere effort to live by such laws as they are discovered.
+
+All the Arts advance steadily during this stage of national growth, and
+are lovely, even in their deficiencies, as the buds of flowers are
+lovely by their vital force, swift change, and continent beauty.
+
+213. The third stage is that in which the conscience is entirely formed,
+and the nation, finding it painful to live in obedience to the precepts
+it has discovered, looks about to discover, also, a compromise for
+obedience to them. In this condition of mind its first endeavor is
+nearly always to make its religion pompous, and please the gods by
+giving them gifts and entertainments, in which it may piously and
+pleasurably share itself; so that a magnificent display of the powers of
+art it has gained by sincerity, takes place for a few years, and is then
+followed by their extinction, rapid and complete exactly in the degree
+in which the nation resigns itself to hypocrisy.
+
+The works of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Tintoret belong to this period
+of compromise in the career of the greatest nation of the world; and are
+the most splendid efforts yet made by human creatures to maintain the
+dignity of states with beautiful colors, and defend the doctrines of
+theology with anatomical designs.
+
+Farther, and as an universal principle, we have to remember that the
+Arts express not only the moral temper, but the scholarship, of their
+age; and we have thus to study them under the influence, at the same
+moment of, it may be, declining probity, and advancing science.
+
+214. Now in this the Arts of Northern and Southern Europe stand exactly
+opposed. The Northern temper never accepts the Catholic faith with force
+such as it reached in Italy. Our sincerest thirteenth-century sculptor
+is cold and formal compared with that of the Pisani; nor can any
+Northern poet be set for an instant beside Dante, as an exponent of
+Catholic faith: on the contrary, the Northern temper accepts the
+scholarship of the Reformation with absolute sincerity, while the
+Italians seek refuge from it in the partly scientific and completely
+lascivious enthusiasms of literature and painting, renewed under
+classical influence. We therefore, in the north, produce our Shakspeare
+and Holbein; they their Petrarch and Raphael. And it is nearly
+impossible for you to study Shakspeare or Holbein too much, or Petrarch
+and Raphael too little.
+
+I do not say this, observe, in opposition to the Catholic faith, or to
+any other faith, but only to the attempts to support whatsoever the
+faith may be, by ornament or eloquence, instead of action. Every man who
+honestly accepts, and acts upon, the knowledge granted to him by the
+circumstances of his time, has the faith which God intends him to
+have;--assuredly a good one, whatever the terms or form of it--every man
+who dishonestly refuses, or interestedly disobeys the knowledge open to
+him, holds a faith which God does not mean him to hold, and therefore a
+bad one, however beautiful or traditionally respectable.
+
+215. Do not, therefore, I entreat you, think that I speak with any
+purpose of defending one system of theology against another; least of
+all, reformed against Catholic theology. There probably never was a
+system of religion so destructive to the loveliest arts and the
+loveliest virtues of men, as the modern Protestantism, which consists in
+an assured belief in the Divine forgiveness of all your sins, and the
+Divine correctness of all your opinions. But in the first searching and
+sincere activities, the doctrines of the Reformation produced the most
+instructive art, and the grandest literature, yet given to the world;
+while Italy, in her interested resistance to those doctrines, polluted
+and exhausted the arts she already possessed. Her iridescence of dying
+statesmanship--her magnificence of hollow piety,--were represented in
+the arts of Venice and Florence by two mighty men on either side--Titian
+and Tintoret,--Michael Angelo and Raphael. Of the calm and brave
+statesmanship, the modest and faithful religion, which had been her
+strength, I am content to name one chief representative artist at
+Venice, John Bellini.
+
+216. Let me now map out for you roughly the chronological relations of
+these five men. It is impossible to remember the minor years, in dates;
+I will give you them broadly in decades, and you can add what finesse
+afterwards you like.
+
+Recollect, first, the great year 1480. Twice four's eight--you can't
+mistake it. In that year Michael Angelo was five years old; Titian,
+three years old; Raphael, within three years of being born.
+
+So see how easily it comes. Michael Angelo five years old--and you
+divide six between Titian and Raphael,--three on each side of your
+standard year, 1480.
+
+Then add to 1480, forty years--an easy number to recollect, surely; and
+you get the exact year of Raphael's death, 1520.
+
+In that forty years all the new effort and deadly catastrophe took
+place. 1480 to 1520.
+
+Now, you have only to fasten to those forty years, the life of Bellini,
+who represents the best art before them, and of Tintoret, who represents
+the best art after them.
+
+217. I cannot fit you these on with a quite comfortable exactness, but
+with very slight inexactness I can fit them firmly.
+
+John Bellini was ninety years old when he died. He lived fifty years
+before the great forty of change, and he saw the forty, and died. Then
+Tintoret is born; lives eighty[42] years after the forty, and closes, in
+dying, the sixteenth century, and the great arts of the world.
+
+Those are the dates, roughly; now for the facts connected with them.
+
+John Bellini precedes the change, meets, and resists it victoriously to
+his death. Nothing of flaw or failure is ever to be discerned in him.
+
+Then Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Titian, together, bring about the
+deadly change, playing into each other's hands--Michael Angelo being the
+chief captain in evil; Titian, in natural force.
+
+Then Tintoret, himself alone nearly as strong as all the three, stands
+up for a last fight; for Venice, and the old time. He all but wins it at
+first; but the three together are too strong for him. Michael Angelo
+strikes him down; and the arts are ended. "Il disegno di Michael
+Agnolo." That fatal motto was his death-warrant.
+
+218. And now, having massed out my subject, I can clearly sketch for you
+the changes that took place from Bellini, through Michael Angelo, to
+Tintoret.
+
+The art of Bellini is centrally represented by two pictures at Venice:
+one, the Madonna in the Sacristy of the Frari, with two saints beside
+her, and two angels at her feet; the second, the Madonna with four
+Saints, over the second altar of San Zaccaria.
+
+In the first of these, the figures are under life size, and it
+represents the most perfect kind of picture for rooms; in which, since
+it is intended to be seen close to the spectator, every right kind of
+finish possible to the hand may be wisely lavished; yet which is not a
+miniature, nor in any wise petty, or ignoble.
+
+In the second, the figures are of life size, or a little more, and it
+represents the class of great pictures in which the boldest execution is
+used, but all brought to entire completion. These two, having every
+quality in balance, are as far as my present knowledge extends, and as
+far as I can trust my judgment, the two best pictures in the world.
+
+219. Observe respecting them--
+
+First, they are both wrought in entirely consistent and permanent
+material. The gold in them is represented by painting, not laid on with
+real gold. And the painting is so secure, that four hundred years have
+produced on it, so far as I can see, no harmful change whatsoever, of
+any kind.
+
+Secondly, the figures in both are in perfect peace. No action takes
+place except that the little angels are playing on musical instruments,
+but with uninterrupted and effortless gesture, as in a dream. A choir of
+singing angels by La Robbia or Donatello would be intent on their music,
+or eagerly rapturous in it, as in temporary exertion: in the little
+choirs of cherubs by Luini in the Adoration of the Shepherds, in the
+Cathedral of Como, we even feel by their dutiful anxiety that there
+might be danger of a false note if they were less attentive. But
+Bellini's angels, even the youngest, sing as calmly as the Fates weave.
+
+220. Let me at once point out to you that this calmness is the attribute
+of the entirely highest class of art: the introduction of strong or
+violently emotional incident is at once a confession of inferiority.
+
+Those are the two first attributes of the best art. Faultless
+workmanship, and perfect serenity; a continuous, not momentary,
+action,--or entire inaction. You are to be interested in the living
+creatures; not in what is happening to them.
+
+Then the third attribute of the best art is that it compels you to think
+of the spirit of the creature, and therefore of its face, more than of
+its body.
+
+And the fourth is that in the face you shall be led to see only beauty
+or joy;--never vileness, vice, or pain.
+
+Those are the four essentials of the greatest art. I repeat them, they
+are easily learned.
+
+1. Faultless and permanent workmanship.
+
+2. Serenity in state or action.
+
+3. The Face principal, not the body.
+
+4. And the Face free from either vice or pain.
+
+221. It is not possible, of course, always literally to observe the
+second condition, that there shall be quiet action or none; but
+Bellini's treatment of violence in action you may see exemplified in a
+notable way in his St. Peter Martyr. The soldier is indeed striking the
+sword down into his breast; but in the face of the Saint is only
+resignation, and faintness of death, not pain--that of the executioner
+is impassive; and, while a painter of the later schools would have
+covered breast and sword with blood, Bellini allows no stain of it; but
+pleases himself by the most elaborate and exquisite painting of a soft
+crimson feather in the executioner's helmet.
+
+222. Now the changes brought about by Michael Angelo--and permitted, or
+persisted in calamitously, by Tintoret--are in the four points these:
+
+     1st. Bad workmanship.
+
+     The greater part of all that these two men did is hastily and
+     incompletely done; and all that they did on a large scale in
+     color is in the best qualities of it perished.
+
+     2d. Violence of transitional action.
+
+     The figures flying,--falling,--striking,--or biting. Scenes of
+     Judgment,--battle,--martyrdom,--massacre; anything that is in
+     the acme of instantaneous interest and violent gesture. They
+     cannot any more trust their public to care for anything but
+     that.
+
+     3d. Physical instead of mental interest. The body, and its
+     anatomy, made the entire subject of interest: the face,
+     shadowed, as in the Duke Lorenzo,[43] unfinished, as in the
+     Twilight, or entirely foreshortened, backshortened, and
+     despised, among labyrinths of limbs, and mountains of sides and
+     shoulders.
+
+     4th. Evil chosen rather than good. On the face itself, instead
+     of joy or virtue, at the best, sadness, probably pride, often
+     sensuality, and always, by preference, vice or agony as the
+     subject of thought. In the Last Judgment of Michael Angelo, and
+     the Last Judgment of Tintoret, it is the wrath of the Dies Irę,
+     not its justice, in which they delight; and their only
+     passionate thought of the coming of Christ in the clouds, is
+     that all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of Him.
+
+Those are the four great changes wrought by Michael Angelo. I repeat
+them:
+
+    Ill work for good.
+    Tumult for Peace.
+    The Flesh of Man for his Spirit.
+    And the Curse of God for His blessing.
+
+223. Hitherto, I have massed, necessarily, but most unjustly, Michael
+Angelo and Tintoret together, because of their common relation to the
+art of others. I shall now proceed to distinguish the qualities of their
+own. And first as to the general temper of the two men.
+
+Nearly every existing work by Michael Angelo is an attempt to execute
+something beyond his power, coupled with a fevered desire that his power
+may be acknowledged. He is always matching himself either against the
+Greeks whom he cannot rival, or against rivals whom he cannot forget. He
+is proud, yet not proud enough to be at peace; melancholy, yet not
+deeply enough to be raised above petty pain; and strong beyond all his
+companion workmen, yet never strong enough to command his temper, or
+limit his aims.
+
+Tintoret, on the contrary, works in the consciousness of supreme
+strength, which cannot be wounded by neglect, and is only to be thwarted
+by time and space. He knows precisely all that art can accomplish under
+given conditions; determines absolutely how much of what can be done he
+will himself for the moment choose to do; and fulfills his purpose with
+as much ease as if, through his human body, were working the great
+forces of nature. Not that he is ever satisfied with what he has done,
+as vulgar and feeble artists are satisfied. He falls short of his ideal,
+more than any other man; but not more than is necessary; and is content
+to fall short of it to that degree, as he is content that his figures,
+however well painted, do not move nor speak. He is also entirely
+unconcerned respecting the satisfaction of the public. He neither cares
+to display his strength to them, nor convey his ideas to them; when he
+finishes his work, it is because he is in the humor to do so; and the
+sketch which a meaner painter would have left incomplete to show how
+cleverly it was begun, Tintoret simply leaves because he has done as
+much of it as he likes.
+
+224. Both Raphael and Michael Angelo are thus, in the most vital of all
+points, separate from the great Venetian. They are always in dramatic
+attitudes, and always appealing to the public for praise. They are the
+leading athletes in the gymnasium of the arts; and the crowd of the
+circus cannot take its eyes away from them, while the Venetian walks or
+rests with the simplicity of a wild animal; is scarcely noticed in his
+occasionally swifter motion; when he springs, it is to please himself;
+and so calmly, that no one thinks of estimating the distance covered.
+
+I do not praise him wholly in this. I praise him only for the
+well-founded pride, infinitely nobler than Michael Angelo's. You do not
+hear of Tintoret's putting any one into hell because they had found
+fault with his work. Tintoret would as soon have thought of putting a
+dog into hell for laying his paws on it. But he is to be blamed in
+this--that he thinks as little of the pleasure of the public, as of
+their opinion. A great painter's business is to do what the public ask
+of him, in the way that shall be helpful and instructive to them. His
+relation to them is exactly that of a tutor to a child; he is not to
+defer to their judgment, but he is carefully to form it;--not to consult
+their pleasure for his own sake, but to consult it much for theirs. It
+was scarcely, however, possible that this should be the case between
+Tintoret and his Venetians; he could not paint for the people, and in
+some respects he was happily protected by his subordination to the
+Senate. Raphael and Michael Angelo lived in a world of court intrigue,
+in which it was impossible to escape petty irritation, or refuse
+themselves the pleasure of mean victory. But Tintoret and Titian, even
+at the height of their reputation, practically lived as craftsmen in
+their workshops, and sent in samples of their wares, not to be praised
+or caviled at, but to be either taken or refused.
+
+225. I can clearly and adequately set before you these relations between
+the great painters of Venice and her Senate--relations which, in
+monetary matters, are entirely right and exemplary for all time--by
+reading to you two decrees of the Senate itself, and one petition to it.
+The first document shall be the decree of the Senate for giving help to
+John Bellini, in finishing the compartments of the great Council
+Chamber; granting him three assistants--one of them Victor Carpaccio.
+
+The decree, first referring to some other business, closes in these
+terms:[44]
+
+     "There having moreover offered his services to this effect our
+     most faithful citizen, Zuan Bellin, according to his agreement
+     employing his skill and all speed and diligence for the
+     completion of this work of the three pictures aforesaid,
+     provided he be assisted by the under-written painters.
+
+     "Be it therefore put to the ballot, that besides the aforesaid
+     Zuan Bellin in person, who will assume the superintendence of
+     this work, there be added Master Victor Scarpaza, with a
+     monthly salary of five ducats; Master Victor, son of the late
+     Mathio, at four ducats per month; and the painter, Hieronymo,
+     at two ducats per month; they rendering speedy and diligent
+     assistance to the aforesaid Zuan Bellin for the painting of the
+     pictures aforesaid, so that they be completed well and
+     carefully as speedily as possible. The salaries of the which
+     three master painters aforesaid, with the costs of colors and
+     other necessaries, to be defrayed by our Salt Office with the
+     moneys of the great chest.
+
+     "It being expressly declared that said pensioned painters be
+     tied and bound to work constantly and daily, so that said three
+     pictures may be completed as expeditiously as possible; the
+     artists aforesaid being pensioned at the good pleasure of this
+     Council.
+
+    "Ayes     23
+
+    "Noes      3
+
+    "Neutrals  0"
+
+This decree is the more interesting to us now, because it is the
+precedent to which Titian himself refers, when he first offers his
+services to the Senate.
+
+The petition which I am about to read to you, was read to the Council of
+Ten, on the last day of May, 1513, and the original draft of it is yet
+preserved in the Venice archives.
+
+    "'Most Illustrious Council of Ten.
+    "'Most Serene Prince and most Excellent Lords.
+
+     "'I, Titian of Serviete de Cadore, having from my boyhood
+     upwards set myself to learn the art of painting, not so much
+     from cupidity of gain as for the sake of endeavoring to
+     acquire some little fame, and of being ranked amongst those who
+     now profess the said art.
+
+     "'And altho heretofore, and likewise at this present, I have
+     been earnestly requested by the Pope and other potentates to go
+     and serve them, nevertheless, being anxious as your Serenity's
+     most faithful subject, for such I am, to leave some memorial in
+     this famous city; my determination is, should the Signory
+     approve, _to undertake, so long as I live, to come and paint in
+     the Grand Council with my whole soul and ability_; commencing,
+     provided your Serenity think of it, with the battle-piece on
+     the side towards the "Piaza," that being the most difficult;
+     nor down to this time has any one chosen to assume so hard a
+     task.
+
+     "'I, most excellent Lords, should be better pleased to receive
+     as recompense for the work to be done by me, such
+     acknowledgments as may be deemed sufficient, and much less; but
+     because, as already stated by me, I care solely for my honor,
+     and mere livelihood, should your Serenity approve, you will
+     vouchsafe to grant me for my life, the next brokers-patent in
+     the German factory,[45] by whatever means it may become vacant;
+     notwithstanding other expectancies; with the terms, conditions,
+     obligations, and exemptions, as in the case of Messer Zuan
+     Bellini; besides two youths whom I purpose bringing with me as
+     assistants; they to be paid by the Salt Office; as likewise the
+     colors and all other requisites, as conceded a few months ago
+     by the aforesaid most Illustrious Council to the said Messer
+     Zuan; for I promise to do such work and with so much speed and
+     excellency as shall satisfy your lordships to whom I humbly
+     recommend myself.'"
+
+226. "This proposal," Mr. Brown tells us, "in accordance with the
+petitions presented by Gentil Bellini and Alvise Vivarini, was
+immediately put to the ballot," and carried thus--the decision of the
+Grand Council, in favor of Titian, being, observe, by no means
+unanimous:
+
+    "Ayes     10
+
+    "Noes      6
+
+    "Neutrals  0"
+
+Immediately follows on the acceptance of Titian's services, this
+practical order:
+
+     "We, Chiefs of the most Illustrious Council of Ten, tell and
+     inform you Lords Proveditors for the State; videlicet the one
+     who is cashier of the Great Chest, and his successors, that for
+     the execution of what has been decreed above in the most
+     Illustrious Council aforesaid, you do have prepared all
+     necessaries for the above written Titian according to his
+     petition and demand, and as observed with regard to Juan
+     Bellini, that he may paint ut supra; paying from month to month
+     the two youths whom said Titian shall present to you at the
+     rate of four ducats each per month, as urged by him because of
+     their skill and sufficiency in said art of painting, tho' we do
+     not mean the payment of their salary to commence until they
+     begin work; and thus will you do. Given on the 8th of June,
+     1513."
+
+This is the way, then, the great workmen wish to be paid, and that is
+the way wise men pay them for their work. The perfect simplicity of such
+patronage leaves the painter free to do precisely what he thinks best:
+and a good painter always produces his best, with such license.
+
+227. And now I shall take the four conditions of change in succession,
+and examine the distinctions between the two masters in their acceptance
+of, or resistance to, them.
+
+(I.) The change of good and permanent workmanship for bad and insecure
+workmanship.
+
+You have often heard quoted the saying of Michael Angelo, that
+oil-painting was only fit for women and children.
+
+He said so, simply because he had neither the skill to lay a single
+touch of good oil-painting, nor the patience to overcome even its
+elementary difficulties.
+
+And it is one of my reasons for the choice of subject in this concluding
+lecture on Sculpture, that I may, with direct reference to this much
+quoted saying of Michael Angelo, make the positive statement to you,
+that oil-painting is the Art of arts;[46] that it is sculpture, drawing,
+and music, all in one, involving the technical dexterities of those
+three several arts; that is to say--the decision and strength of the
+stroke of the chisel;--the balanced distribution of appliance of that
+force necessary for graduation in light and shade;--and the passionate
+felicity of rightly multiplied actions, all unerring, which on an
+instrument produce right sound, and on canvas, living color. There is
+no other human skill so great or so wonderful as the skill of fine
+oil-painting; and there is no other art whose results are so absolutely
+permanent. Music is gone as soon as produced--marble discolors,--fresco
+fades,--glass darkens or decomposes--painting alone, well guarded, is
+practically everlasting.
+
+Of this splendid art Michael Angelo understood nothing; he understood
+even fresco, imperfectly. Tintoret understood both perfectly; but
+he--when no one would pay for his colors (and sometimes nobody would
+even give him space of wall to paint on)--used cheap blue for
+ultramarine; and he worked so rapidly, and on such huge spaces of
+canvas, that between damp and dry, his colors must go, for the most
+part; but any complete oil-painting of his stands as well as one of
+Bellini's own: while Michael Angelo's fresco is defaced already in every
+part of it, and Lionardo's oil-painting is all either gone black, or
+gone to nothing.
+
+228. (II.) Introduction of dramatic interest for the sake of excitement.
+I have already, in the _Stones of Venice_, illustrated Tintoret's
+dramatic power at so great length, that I will not, to-day, make any
+farther statement to justify my assertion that it is as much beyond
+Michael Angelo's as Shakspeare's is beyond Milton's--and somewhat with
+the same kind of difference in manner. Neither can I speak to-day, time
+not permitting me, of the abuse of their dramatic power by Venetian or
+Florentine; one thing only I beg you to note, that with full half of his
+strength, Tintoret remains faithful to the serenity of the past; and the
+examples I have given you from his work in S. 50,[47] are, one, of the
+most splendid drama, and the other, of the quietest portraiture ever
+attained by the arts of the Middle Ages.
+
+Note also this respecting his picture of the Judgment, that, in spite
+of all the violence and wildness of the imagined scene, Tintoret has not
+given, so far as I remember, the spectacle of any one soul under
+infliction of actual pain. In all previous representations of the Last
+Judgment there had at least been one division of the picture set apart
+for the representation of torment; and even the gentle Angelico shrinks
+from no orthodox detail in this respect; but Tintoret, too vivid and
+true in imagination to be able to endure the common thoughts of hell,
+represents indeed the wicked in ruin, but not in agony. They are swept
+down by flood and whirlwind--the place of them shall know them no more,
+but not one is seen in more than the natural pain of swift and
+irrevocable death.
+
+229. (III.) I pass to the third condition; the priority of flesh to
+spirit, and of the body to the face.
+
+In this alone, of the four innovations, Michael Angelo and Tintoret have
+the Greeks with them;--in this, alone, have they any right to be called
+classical. The Greeks gave them no excuse for bad workmanship; none for
+temporary passion; none for the preference of pain. Only in the honor
+done to the body may be alleged for them the authority of the ancients.
+
+You remember, I hope, how often in my preceding lectures I had to insist
+on the fact that Greek sculpture was essentially [Greek:
+aprosōpos];--independent, not only of the expression, but even of the
+beauty of the face. Nay, independent of its being so much as seen. The
+greater number of the finest pieces of it which remain for us to judge
+by, have had the heads broken away;--we do not seriously miss them
+either from the Three Fates, the Ilissus, or the Torso of the Vatican.
+The face of the Theseus is so far destroyed by time that you can form
+little conception of its former aspect. But it is otherwise in Christian
+sculpture. Strike the head off even the rudest statue in the porch of
+Chartres and you will greatly miss it--the harm would be still worse to
+Donatello's St. George:--and if you take the heads from a statue of
+Mino, or a painting of Angelico--very little but drapery will be
+left;--drapery made redundant in quantity and rigid in fold, that it may
+conceal the forms, and give a proud or ascetic reserve to the actions,
+of the bodily frame. Bellini and his school, indeed, rejected at once
+the false theory, and the easy mannerism, of such religious design; and
+painted the body without fear or reserve, as, in its subordination,
+honorable and lovely. But the inner heart and fire of it are by them
+always first thought of, and no action is given to it merely to show its
+beauty. Whereas the great culminating masters, and chiefly of these,
+Tintoret, Correggio, and Michael Angelo, delight in the body for its own
+sake, and cast it into every conceivable attitude, often in violation of
+all natural probability, that they may exhibit the action of its
+skeleton, and the contours of its flesh. The movement of a hand with
+Cima or Bellini expresses mental emotion only; but the clustering and
+twining of the fingers of Correggio's S. Catherine is enjoyed by the
+painter just in the same way as he would enjoy the twining of the
+branches of a graceful plant, and he compels them into intricacies which
+have little or no relation to St. Catherine's mind. In the two drawings
+of Correggio (S. 13 and 14) it is the rounding of limbs and softness of
+foot resting on cloud which are principally thought of in the form of
+the Madonna; and the countenance of St. John is foreshortened into a
+section, that full prominence may be given to the muscles of his arms
+and breast.
+
+So in Tintoret's drawing of the Graces (S. 22), he has entirely
+neglected the individual character of the Goddesses, and been content to
+indicate it merely by attributes of dice or flower, so only that he may
+sufficiently display varieties of contour in thigh and shoulder.
+
+230. Thus far, then, the Greeks, Correggio, Michael Angelo, Raphael in
+his latter design, and Tintoret in his scenic design (as opposed to
+portraiture), are at one. But the Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, are
+also together in this farther point; that they all draw the body for
+true delight in it, and with knowledge of it living; while Michael
+Angelo and Raphael draw the body for vanity, and from knowledge of it
+dead.
+
+The Venus of Melos,--Correggio's Venus, (with Mercury teaching Cupid to
+read),--and Tintoret's Graces, have the forms which their designers
+truly _liked_ to see in women. They may have been wrong or right in
+liking those forms, but they carved and painted them for their pleasure,
+not for vanity.
+
+But the form of Michael Angelo's Night is not one which he delighted to
+see in women. He gave it her, because he thought it was fine, and that
+he would be admired for reaching so lofty an ideal.[48]
+
+231. Again. The Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, learn the body from the
+living body, and delight in its breath, color, and motion.[49]
+
+Raphael and Michael Angelo learned it essentially from the corpse, and
+had no delight in it whatever, but great pride in showing that they knew
+all its mechanism; they therefore sacrifice its colors, and insist on
+its muscles, and surrender the breath and fire of it, for what is--not
+merely carnal,--but osseous, knowing that for one person who can
+recognize the loveliness of a look, or the purity of a color, there are
+a hundred who can calculate the length of a bone.
+
+The boy with the doves, in Raphael's cartoon of the Beautiful Gate of
+the Temple, is not a child running, but a surgical diagram of a child in
+a running posture.
+
+Farther, when the Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, draw the body active,
+it is because they rejoice in its force, and when they draw it inactive,
+it is because they rejoice in its repose. But Michael Angelo and Raphael
+invent for it ingenious mechanical motion, because they think it
+uninteresting when it is quiet, and cannot, in their pictures, endure
+any person's being simple-minded enough to stand upon both his legs at
+once, nor venture to imagine anyone's being clear enough in his language
+to make himself intelligible without pointing.
+
+In all these conditions, the Greek and Venetian treatment of the body is
+faithful, modest, and natural; but Michael Angelo's dishonest, insolent,
+and artificial.
+
+232. But between him and Tintoret there is a separation deeper than all
+these, when we examine their treatment of the face. Michael Angelo's
+vanity of surgical science rendered it impossible for him ever to treat
+the body as well as the Greeks treated it; but it left him wholly at
+liberty to treat the face as ill; and he did: and in some respects very
+curiously worse.
+
+The Greeks had, in all their work, one type of face for beautiful and
+honorable persons; and another, much contrary to it, for dishonorable
+ones; and they were continually setting these in opposition. Their type
+of beauty lay chiefly in the undisturbed peace and simplicity of all
+contours; in full roundness of chin; in perfect formation of the lips,
+showing neither pride nor care; and, most of all, in a straight and firm
+line from the brow to the end of the nose.
+
+The Greek type of dishonorable persons, especially satyrs, fauns, and
+sensual powers, consisted in irregular excrescence and decrement of
+features, especially in flatness of the upper part of the nose, and
+projection of the end of it into a blunt knob.
+
+By the most grotesque fatality, as if the personal bodily injury he had
+himself received had passed with a sickly echo into his mind also,
+Michael Angelo is always dwelling on this satyric form of
+countenance;--sometimes violently caricatures it, but never can help
+drawing it; and all the best profiles in this collection at Oxford have
+what Mr. Robinson calls a "nez retroussé;" but what is, in reality, the
+nose of the Greek Bacchic mask, treated as a dignified feature.
+
+233. For the sake of readers who cannot examine the drawings themselves,
+and lest I should be thought to have exaggerated in any wise the
+statement of this character, I quote Mr. Robinson's description of the
+head, No. 9--a celebrated and entirely authentic drawing, on which, I
+regret to say, my own pencil comment in passing is merely "brutal lower
+lip, and broken nose":--
+
+     "This admirable study was probably made from nature, additional
+     character and more powerful expression having been given to it
+     by a slight exaggeration of details, bordering on caricature
+     (observe the protruding lower lip, 'nez retroussé,' and
+     overhanging forehead). The head, in profile, turned to the
+     right, is proudly planted on a massive neck and shoulders, and
+     the short tufted hair stands up erect. The expression is that
+     of fierce, insolent self-confidence and malevolence; it is
+     engraved in facsimile in Ottley's 'Italian School of Design,'
+     and it is described in that work, p. 33, as 'Finely expressive
+     of scornfulness and pride, and evidently a study from nature.'
+
+     "Michel Angelo has made use of the same ferocious-looking model
+     on other occasions--see an instance in the well-known 'Head of
+     Satan' engraved in Woodburn's Lawrence Gallery (No. 16), and
+     now in the Malcolm Collection.
+
+     "The study on the reverse of the leaf is more lightly executed;
+     it represents a man of powerful frame, carrying a hog or boar
+     in his arms before him, the upper part of his body thrown back
+     to balance the weight, his head hidden by that of the animal,
+     which rests on the man's right shoulder.
+
+     "The power displayed in every line and touch of these drawings
+     is inimitable--the head was in truth one of the 'teste divine,'
+     and the hand which executed it the 'mano terribile,' so
+     enthusiastically alluded to by Vasari."
+
+234. Passing, for the moment, by No. 10, a "young woman of majestic
+character, marked by a certain expression of brooding melancholy," and
+"wearing on her head a fantastic cap or turban;"--by No. 11, a bearded
+man, "wearing a conical Phrygian cap, his mouth wide open," and his
+expression "obstreperously animated;"--and by No. 12, "a middle-aged or
+old man, with a snub nose, high forehead, and thin, scrubby hair," we
+will go on to the fairer examples of Divine heads in No. 32.
+
+     "This splendid sheet of studies is probably one of the 'carte
+     stupendissime di teste divine,' which Vasari says (Vita, p.
+     272) Michel Angelo executed, as presents or lessons for his
+     artistic friends. Not improbably it is actually one of those
+     made for his friend Tommaso dei Cavalieri, who, when young, was
+     desirous of learning to draw."
+
+But it is one of the chief misfortunes affecting Michael Angelo's
+reputation, that his ostentatious display of strength and science has a
+natural attraction for comparatively weak and pedantic persons. And this
+sheet of Vasari's "teste divine" contains, in fact, not a single drawing
+of high quality--only one of moderate agreeableness, and two caricatured
+heads, one of a satyr with hair like the fur of animals, and one of a
+monstrous and sensual face, such as could only have occurred to the
+sculptor in a fatigued dream, and which in my own notes I have classed
+with the vile face in No. 45.
+
+235. Returning, however, to the divine heads above it, I wish you to
+note "the most conspicuous and important of all," a study for one of the
+Genii behind the Sibylla Libyca. This Genius, like the young woman of a
+majestic character, and the man with his mouth open, wears a cap, or
+turban; opposite to him in the sheet, is a female in profile, "wearing a
+hood of massive drapery." And, when once your attention is directed to
+this point, you will perhaps be surprised to find how many of Michael
+Angelo's figures, intended to be sublime, have their heads bandaged. If
+you have been a student of Michael Angelo chiefly, you may easily have
+vitiated your taste to the extent of thinking that this is a dignified
+costume; but if you study Greek work, instead, you will find that
+nothing is more important in the system of it than a finished
+disposition of the hair; and as soon as you acquaint yourself with the
+execution of carved marbles generally, you will perceive these massy
+fillets to be merely a cheap means of getting over a difficulty too
+great for Michael Angelo's patience, and too exigent for his invention.
+They are not sublime arrangements, but economies of labor, and reliefs
+from the necessity of design; and if you had proposed to the sculptor of
+the Venus of Melos, or of the Jupiter of Olympia, to bind the ambrosial
+locks up in towels, you would most likely have been instantly bound,
+yourself; and sent to the nearest temple of Ęsculapius.
+
+236. I need not, surely, tell you,--I need only remind,--how in all
+these points, the Venetians and Correggio reverse Michael Angelo's evil,
+and vanquish him in good; how they refuse caricature, rejoice in beauty,
+and thirst for opportunity of toil. The waves of hair in a single figure
+of Tintoret's (the Mary Magdalen of the Paradise) contain more
+intellectual design in themselves alone than all the folds of unseemly
+linen in the Sistine chapel put together.
+
+In the fourth and last place, as Tintoret does not sacrifice, except as
+he is forced by the exigencies of display, the face for the body, so
+also he does not sacrifice happiness for pain. The chief reason why we
+all know the "Last Judgment" of Michael Angelo, and not the "Paradise"
+of Tintoret, is the same love of sensation which makes us read the
+_Inferno_ of Dante, and not his _Paradise_; and the choice, believe me,
+is our fault, not his; some farther evil influence is due to the fact
+that Michael Angelo has invested all his figures with picturesque and
+palpable elements of effect, while Tintoret has only made them lovely in
+themselves and has been content that they should deserve, not demand,
+your attention.
+
+237. You are accustomed to think the figures of Michael Angelo
+sublime--because they are dark, and colossal, and involved, and
+mysterious--because in a word, they look sometimes like shadows, and
+sometimes like mountains, and sometimes like specters, but never like
+human beings. Believe me, yet once more, in what I told you long
+since--man can invent nothing nobler than humanity. He cannot raise his
+form into anything better than God made it, by giving it either the
+flight of birds or strength of beasts, by enveloping it in mist, or
+heaping it into multitude. Your pilgrim must look like a pilgrim in a
+straw hat, or you will not make him into one with cockle and nimbus; an
+angel must look like an angel on the ground, as well as in the air; and
+the much-denounced pre-Raphaelite faith that a saint cannot look
+saintly unless he has thin legs, is not more absurd than Michael
+Angelo's, that a Sybil cannot look Sibylline unless she has thick ones.
+
+238. All that shadowing, storming, and coiling of his, when you look
+into it, is mere stage decoration, and that of a vulgar kind. Light is,
+in reality, more awful than darkness--modesty more majestic than
+strength; and there is truer sublimity in the sweet joy of a child, or
+the sweet virtue of a maiden, than in the strength of Antęus, or
+thunder-clouds of Ętna.
+
+Now, though in nearly all his greater pictures, Tintoret is entirely
+carried away by his sympathy with Michael Angelo, and conquers him in
+his own field;--outflies him in motion, outnumbers him in multitude,
+outwits him in fancy, and outflames him in rage,--he can be just as
+gentle as he is strong: and that Paradise, though it is the largest
+picture in the world, without any question, is also the thoughtfulest,
+and most precious.
+
+The Thoughtfulest!--it would be saying but little, as far as Michael
+Angelo is concerned.
+
+239. For consider of it yourselves. You have heard, from your youth up
+(and all educated persons have heard for three centuries), of this Last
+Judgment of his, as the most sublime picture in existence.
+
+The subject of it is one which should certainly be interesting to you,
+in one of two ways.
+
+If you never expect to be judged for any of your own doings, and the
+tradition of the coming of Christ is to you as an idle tale--still,
+think what a wonderful tale it would be, were it well told. You are at
+liberty, disbelieving it, to range the fields--Elysian and Tartarean--of
+all imagination. You may play with it, since it is false; and what a
+play would it not be, well written? Do you think the tragedy, or the
+miracle play, or the infinitely Divina Commedia of the Judgment of the
+astonished living who were dead;--the undeceiving of the sight of every
+human soul, understanding in an instant all the shallow, and depth of
+past life and future,--face to face with both,--and with God:--this
+apocalypse to all intellect, and completion to all passion, this minute
+and individual drama of the perfected history of separate spirits, and
+of their finally accomplished affections!--think you, I say, all this
+was well told by mere heaps of dark bodies curled and convulsed in
+space, and fall as of a crowd from a scaffolding, in writhed concretions
+of muscular pain?
+
+But take it the other way. Suppose you believe, be it never so dimly or
+feebly, in some kind of Judgment that is to be;--that you admit even the
+faint contingency of retribution, and can imagine, with vivacity enough
+to fear, that in this life, at all events, if not in another--there may
+be for you a Visitation of God, and a questioning--What hast thou done?
+The picture, if it is a good one, should have a deeper interest, surely
+on _this_ postulate? Thrilling enough, as a mere imagination of what is
+never to be--now, as a conjecture of what _is_ to be, held the best that
+in eighteen centuries of Christianity has for men's eyes been
+made;--Think of it so!
+
+240. And then, tell me, whether you yourselves, or any one you have
+known, did ever at any time receive from this picture any, the smallest
+vital thought, warning, quickening, or help? It may have appalled, or
+impressed you for a time, as a thunder-cloud might: but has it ever
+taught you anything--chastised in you anything--confirmed a
+purpose--fortified a resistance--purified a passion? I know that, for
+you, it has done none of these things; and I know also that, for others,
+it has done very different things. In every vain and proud designer who
+has since lived, that dark carnality of Michael Angelo's has fostered
+insolent science, and fleshly imagination. Daubers and blockheads think
+themselves painters, and are received by the public as such, if they
+know how to foreshorten bones and decipher entrails; and men with
+capacity of art either shrink away (the best of them always do) into
+petty felicities and innocencies of genre painting--landscapes, cattle,
+family breakfasts, village schoolings, and the like; or else, if they
+have the full sensuous art-faculty that would have made true painters
+of them, being taught, from their youth up, to look for and learn the
+body instead of the spirit, have learned it, and taught it to such
+purpose, that at this hour, when I speak to you, the rooms of the Royal
+Academy of England, receiving also what of best can be sent there by the
+masters of France, contain _not one_ picture honorable to the arts of
+their age; and contain many which are shameful in their record of its
+manners.
+
+241. Of that, hereafter. I will close to-day giving you some brief
+account of the scheme of Tintoret's Paradise, in justification of my
+assertion that it is the thoughtfulest as well as mightiest picture in
+the world.
+
+In the highest center is Christ, leaning on the globe of the earth,
+which is of dark crystal. Christ is crowned with a glory as of the sun,
+and all the picture is lighted by that glory, descending through circle
+beneath circle of cloud, and of flying or throned spirits.
+
+The Madonna, beneath Christ, and at some interval from Him, kneels to
+Him. She is crowned with the Seven stars, and kneels on a cloud of
+angels, whose wings change into ruby fire, where they are near her.
+
+The three great Archangels meeting from three sides, fly towards Christ.
+Michael delivers up his scales and sword. He is followed by the Thrones
+and Principalities of the Earth; so inscribed--Throni--Principatus. The
+Spirits of the Thrones bear scales in their hands; and of the
+Princedoms, shining globes: beneath the wings of the last of these are
+the four great teachers and lawgivers, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St.
+Gregory, St. Augustine, and behind St. Augustine stands his mother,
+watching him, her chief joy in Paradise.
+
+Under the Thrones, are set the Apostles, St. Paul separated a little
+from the rest, and put lowest, yet principal; under St. Paul, is St.
+Christopher, bearing a massive globe, with a cross upon it; but to mark
+him as the Christ-bearer, since here in Paradise he cannot have the
+Child on his shoulders, Tintoret has thrown on the globe a flashing
+stellar reflection of the sun the head of Christ.
+
+All this side of the picture is kept in glowing color,--the four Doctors
+of the church have golden miters and mantles; except the Cardinal, St.
+Jerome, who is in burning scarlet, his naked breast glowing, warm with
+noble life,--the darker red of his robe relieved against a white glory.
+
+242. Opposite to Michael, Gabriel flies towards the Madonna, having in
+his hand the Annunciation lily, large, and triple-blossomed. Above him,
+and above Michael, equally, extends a cloud of white angels, inscribed
+"Serafini;" but the group following Gabriel, and corresponding to the
+Throni following Michael, is inscribed "Cherubini." Under these are the
+great prophets, and singers and foretellers of the happiness or of the
+sorrow of time. David, and Solomon, and Isaiah, and Amos of the
+herdsmen. David has a colossal golden psaltery laid horizontally across
+his knees;--two angels behind him dictate to him as he sings, looking up
+towards Christ; but one strong angel sweeps down to Solomon from among
+the cherubs, and opens a book, resting it on the head of Solomon, who
+looks down earnestly unconscious of it;--to the left of David, separate
+from the group of prophets, as Paul from the apostles, is Moses,
+dark-robed; in the full light, withdrawn far behind him, Abraham,
+embracing Isaac with his left arm, and near him, pale St. Agnes. In
+front, nearer, dark and colossal, stands the glorious figure of Santa
+Giustina of Padua; then a little subordinate to her, St. Catherine, and,
+far on the left, and high, St. Barbara leaning on her tower. In front,
+nearer, flies Raphael; and under him is the four-square group of the
+Evangelists. Beneath them, on the left, Noah; on the right, Adam and
+Eve, both floating unsupported by cloud or angel; Noah buoyed by the
+Ark, which he holds above him, and it is _this_ into which Solomon gazes
+down, so earnestly. Eve's face is, perhaps, the most beautiful ever
+painted by Tintoret--full in light, but dark-eyed. Adam floats beside
+her, his figure fading into a winged gloom, edged in the outline of
+fig-leaves. Far down, under these, central in the lowest part of the
+picture, rises the Angel of the Sea, praying for Venice; for Tintoret
+conceives his Paradise as existing now, not as in the future. I at
+first mistook this soft Angel of the Sea for the Magdalen, for he is
+sustained by other three angels on either side, as the Magdalen is, in
+designs of earlier time, because of the verse, "There is joy in the
+presence of the angels over one sinner that repenteth." But the Magdalen
+is on the right, behind St. Monica; and on the same side, but lowest of
+all, Rachel, among the angels of her children, gathered now again to her
+forever.
+
+243. I have no hesitation in asserting this picture to be by far the
+most precious work of art of any kind whatsoever, now existing in the
+world; and it is, I believe, on the eve of final destruction; for it is
+said that the angle of the great council-chamber is soon to be rebuilt;
+and that process will involve the destruction of the picture by removal,
+and, far more, by repainting. I had thought of making some effort to
+save it by an appeal in London to persons generally interested in the
+arts; but the recent desolation of Paris has familiarized us with
+destruction, and I have no doubt the answer to me would be, that Venice
+must take care of her own. But remember, at least, that I have borne
+witness to you to-day of the treasures that we forget, while we amuse
+ourselves with the poor toys, and the petty or vile arts, of our own
+time.
+
+The years of that time have perhaps come, when we are to be taught to
+look no more to the dreams of painters, either for knowledge of
+Judgment, or of Paradise. The anger of Heaven will not longer, I think,
+be mocked for our amusement; and perhaps its love may not always be
+despised by our pride. Believe me, all the arts, and all the treasures
+of men, are fulfilled and preserved to them only, so far as they have
+chosen first, with their hearts, not the curse of God, but His blessing.
+Our Earth is now incumbered with ruin, our Heaven is clouded by Death.
+May we not wisely judge ourselves in some things now, instead of amusing
+ourselves with the painting of judgments to come?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] NOTE.--The separate edition of this lecture was prefaced by the
+following note:--
+
+"I have printed this Lecture separately, that strangers visiting the
+Galleries may be able to use it for reference to the drawings. But they
+must observe that its business is only to point out what is to be blamed
+in Michael Angelo, and that it assumes the facts of his power to be
+generally known. Mr. Tyrwhitt's statement of these, in his 'Lectures on
+Christian Art,' will put the reader into possession of all that may
+justly be alleged in honor of him.
+
+"_Corpus Christi College, 1st May, 1872._"
+
+[42] If you like to have it with perfect exactitude, recollect that
+Bellini died at true ninety,--Tintoret at eighty-two; that Bellini's
+death was four years before Raphael's, and that Tintoret was born four
+years before Bellini's death.
+
+[43] Julian, rather. _See_ Mr. Tyrwhitt's notice of the lately
+discovered error, in his _Lectures on Christian Art_.
+
+[44] From the invaluable series of documents relating to Titian and his
+times, extricated by Mr. Rawdon Brown from the archives of Venice, and
+arranged and translated by him.
+
+[45] Fondaco de Tedeschi. I saw the last wrecks of Giorgione's frescoes
+on the outside of it in 1845.
+
+[46] I beg that this statement may be observed with attention. It is of
+great importance, as in opposition to the views usually held respecting
+the grave schools of painting.
+
+[47] The upper photograph in S. 50 is, however, not taken from the great
+Paradise, which is in too dark a position to be photographed, but from a
+study of it existing in a private gallery, and every way inferior. I
+have vainly tried to photograph portions of the picture itself.
+
+[48] He had, indeed, other and more solemn thoughts of the Night than
+Correggio; and these he tried to express by distorting form, and making
+her partly Medusa-like. In this lecture, as above stated, I am only
+dwelling on points hitherto unnoticed of dangerous evil in the too much
+admired master.
+
+[49] Tintoret dissected, and used clay models, in the true academical
+manner, and produced academical results thereby; but all his fine work
+is done from life, like that of the Greeks.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on
+the Elements of Sculpture, by John Ruskin
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on the
+Elements of Sculpture, by John Ruskin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on the Elements of Sculpture
+       Given before the University of Oxford in Michaelmas Term, 1870
+
+Author: John Ruskin
+
+Release Date: June 25, 2008 [EBook #25897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARATRA PENTELICI, SEVEN LECTURES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h4>Library Edition</h4>
+
+<h2>THE COMPLETE WORKS</h2>
+
+<h5>OF</h5>
+
+<h1>JOHN RUSKIN</h1>
+
+<p class="center">
+CROWN OF WILD OLIVE<br />
+TIME AND TIDE<br />
+QUEEN OF THE AIR<br />
+LECTURES ON ART AND LANDSCAPE<br />
+ARATRA PENTELICI<br />
+<br /><br />
+NATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION<br />
+NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>ARATRA PENTELICI.</h1>
+
+<h3>SEVEN LECTURES</h3>
+
+<h4>ON THE</h4>
+
+<h2>ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE,</h2>
+
+<p class="center">GIVEN BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD<br /> IN MICHAELMAS TERM, 1870.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Preface</span>                                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE I.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Of the Division of Arts</span>                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE II.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Idolatry</span>                                                <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE III.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Imagination</span>                                             <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE IV.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Likeness</span>                                                <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE V.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Structure</span>                                               <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE VI.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The School of Athens</span>                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<br />
+LECTURE VII.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Relation Between Michael Angelo and Tintoret</span>       <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>LIST OF PLATES</h2>
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">Facing Page</span><br />
+<br />
+I. Porch of San Zenone, Verona                                     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+<br />
+II. The Arethusa of Syracuse                                       <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<br />
+III. The Warning to the Kings, San Zenone, Verona                  <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<br />
+IV. The Nativity of Athena                                         <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<br />
+V. Tomb of the Doges Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo                    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<br />
+VI. Archaic Athena of Athens and Corinth                           <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+VII. Archaic, Central and Declining Art of Greece                  <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<br />
+VIII. The Apollo of Syracuse, and the Self-made Man                <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br />
+<br />
+IX. Apollo Chrysocomes of Clazomen&aelig;                                <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<br />
+X. Marble Masonry in the Duomo of Verona                          <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XI. The First Elements of Sculpture. Incised outline and opened space      <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XII. Branch of Phillyrea                                          <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XIII. Greek Flat relief, and sculpture by edged incision          <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XIV. Apollo and the Python. Heracles and the Nemean Lion          <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XV. Hera of Argos. Zeus of Syracuse                               <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XVI. Demeter of Messene. Hera of Cnossus                          <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XVII. Athena of Thurium. Siren Ligeia of Terina                   <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XVIII. Artemis of Syracuse. Hera of Lacinian Cape                 <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XIX. Zeus of Messene. Ajax of Opus                                <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XX. Greek and Barbarian Sculpture                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<br />
+XXI. The Beginnings of Chivalry                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>1. I must pray the readers of the following Lectures to remember that
+the duty at present laid on me at Oxford is of an exceptionally complex
+character. Directly, it is to awaken the interest of my pupils in a
+study which they have hitherto found unattractive, and imagined to be
+useless; but more imperatively, it is to define the principles by which
+the study itself should be guided; and to vindicate their security
+against the doubts with which frequent discussion has lately incumbered
+a subject which all think themselves competent to discuss. The
+possibility of such vindication is, of course, implied in the original
+consent of the Universities to the establishment of Art Professorships.
+Nothing can be made an element of education of which it is impossible to
+determine whether it is ill done or well; and the clear assertion that
+there is a canon law in formative Art is, at this time, a more important
+function of each University than the instruction of its younger members
+in any branch of practical skill. It matters comparatively little
+whether few or many of our students learn to draw; but it matters much
+that all who learn should be taught with accuracy. And the number who
+may be justifiably advised to give any part of the time they spend at
+college to the study of painting or sculpture ought to depend, and
+finally <i>must</i> depend, on their being certified that painting and
+sculpture, no less than language, or than reasoning, have grammar and
+method,&mdash;that they permit a recognizable distinction between scholarship
+and ignorance, and enforce a constant distinction between Right and
+Wrong.</p>
+
+<p>2. This opening course of Lectures on Sculpture is therefore restricted
+to the statement, not only of first principles, but of those which were
+illustrated by the practice of one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> school, and by that practice in its
+simplest branch, the analysis of which could be certified by easily
+accessible examples, and aided by the indisputable evidence of
+photography.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The exclusion of the terminal Lecture<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> of the course from the series
+now published, is in order to mark more definitely this limitation of my
+subject; but in other respects the Lectures have been amplified in
+arranging them for the press, and the portions of them trusted at the
+time to extempore delivery (not through indolence, but because
+explanations of detail are always most intelligible when most familiar)
+have been in substance to the best of my power set down, and in what I
+said too imperfectly, completed.</p>
+
+<p>3. In one essential particular I have felt it necessary to write what I
+would not have spoken. I had intended to make no reference, in my
+University Lectures, to existing schools of Art, except in cases where
+it might be necessary to point out some undervalued excellence. The
+objects specified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> in the eleventh paragraph of my inaugural Lecture<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+might, I hoped, have been accomplished without reference to any works
+deserving of blame; but the Exhibition of the Royal Academy in the
+present year showed me a necessity of departing from my original
+intention. The task of impartial criticism<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> is now, unhappily, no
+longer to rescue modest skill from neglect; but to withstand the errors
+of insolent genius, and abate the influence of plausible mediocrity.</p>
+
+<p>The Exhibition of 1871 was very notable in this important particular,
+that it embraced some representation of the modern schools of nearly
+every country in Europe: and I am well assured that, looking back upon
+it after the excitement of that singular interest has passed away, every
+thoughtful judge of Art will confirm my assertion, that it contained not
+a single picture of accomplished merit; while it contained many that
+were disgraceful to Art, and some that were disgraceful to humanity.</p>
+
+<p>4. It becomes, under such circumstances, my inevitable duty to speak of
+the existing conditions of Art with plainness enough to guard the youths
+whose judgments I am intrusted to form, from being misled, either by
+their own naturally vivid interest in what represents, however
+unworthily, the scenes and persons of their own day, or by the cunningly
+devised, and, without doubt, powerful allurements of Art which has long
+since confessed itself to have no other object than to allure. I have,
+therefore, added to the second of these Lectures such illustration of
+the motives and course of modern industry as naturally arose out of its
+subject; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> shall continue in future to make similar applications;
+rarely indeed, permitting myself, in the Lectures actually read before
+the University, to introduce, subjects of instant, and therefore too
+exciting, interest; but completing the addresses which I prepare for
+publication in these, and in any other, particulars, which may render
+them more widely serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>5. The present course of Lectures will be followed, if I am able to
+fulfill the design of them, by one of a like elementary character on
+Architecture; and that by a third series on Christian Sculpture: but, in
+the meantime, my effort is to direct the attention of the resident
+students to Natural History, and to the higher branches of ideal
+Landscape: and it will be, I trust, accepted as sufficient reason for
+the delay which has occurred in preparing the following sheets for the
+press, that I have not only been interrupted by a dangerous illness, but
+engaged, in what remained to me of the summer, in an endeavor to deduce,
+from the overwhelming complexity of modern classification in the Natural
+Sciences, some forms capable of easier reference by Art students, to
+whom the anatomy of brutal and floral nature is often no less important
+than that of the human body.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of examples for manual practice, and the arrangement of
+standards for reference, both in Painting and Sculpture, had to be
+carried on, meanwhile, as I was able. For what has already been done,
+the reader is referred to the "Catalogue of the Educational Series,"
+published at the end of the Spring Term: of what remains to be done I
+will make no anticipatory statement, being content to have ascribed to
+me rather the fault of narrowness in design, than of extravagance in
+expectation.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Denmark Hill</span>,<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4"><i>25th November, 1871.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Photography cannot exhibit the character of large and
+finished sculpture; but its audacity of shadow is in perfect harmony
+with the more roughly picturesque treatment necessary in coins. For the
+rendering of all such frank relief, and for the better explanation of
+forms disturbed by the luster of metal or polished stone, the method
+employed in the plates of this volume will be found, I believe,
+satisfactory. Casts are first taken from the coins, in white plaster;
+these are photographed, and the photograph printed by the autotype
+process. Plate XII. is exceptional, being a pure mezzotint engraving of
+the old school, excellently carried through by my assistant, Mr. Allen,
+who was taught, as a personal favor to myself, by my friend, and
+Turner's fellow-worker, Thomas Lupton. Plate IV. was intended to be a
+photograph from the superb vase in the British Museum, No. 564 in Mr.
+Newton's Catalogue; but its variety of color defied photography, and
+after the sheets had gone to press I was compelled to reduce Le
+Normand's plate of it, which is unsatisfactory, but answers my immediate
+purpose.
+</p><p>
+The enlarged photographs for use in the Lecture Room were made for me
+with most successful skill by Sergeant Spackman, of South Kensington;
+and the help throughout rendered to me by Mr. Burgess is acknowledged in
+the course of the Lectures; though with thanks which must remain
+inadequate lest they should become tedious; for Mr. Burgess drew the
+subjects of Plates III., X., and XIII.; and drew and engraved every
+wood-cut in the book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> It is included in this edition. See Lecture VII., pp.
+132-158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Lectures on Art, 1870.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A pamphlet by the Earl of Southesk, 'Britain's Art
+Paradise' (Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh), contains an entirely
+admirable criticism of the most faultful pictures of the 1871
+Exhibition. It is to be regretted that Lord Southesk speaks only to
+condemn; but indeed, in my own three days' review of the rooms, I found
+nothing deserving of notice otherwise, except Mr. Hook's always pleasant
+sketches from fisher-life, and Mr. Pettie's graceful and powerful,
+though too slightly painted, study from Henry IV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>ARATRA PENTELICI.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE I.</h2>
+
+<h3>OF THE DIVISION OF ARTS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>November, 1870.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>1. If, as is commonly believed, the subject of study which it is my
+special function to bring before you had no relation to the great
+interests of mankind, I should have less courage in asking for your
+attention to-day, than when I first addressed you; though, even then, I
+did not do so without painful diffidence. For at this moment, even
+supposing that in other places it were possible for men to pursue their
+ordinary avocations undisturbed by indignation or pity,&mdash;here, at least,
+in the midst of the deliberative and religious influences of England,
+only one subject, I am well assured, can seriously occupy your
+thoughts&mdash;the necessity, namely, of determining how it has come to pass
+that, in these recent days, iniquity the most reckless and monstrous can
+be committed unanimously, by men more generous than ever yet in the
+world's history were deceived into deeds of cruelty; and that prolonged
+agony of body and spirit, such as we should shrink from inflicting
+willfully on a single criminal, has become the appointed and accepted
+portion of unnumbered multitudes of innocent persons, inhabiting the
+districts of the world which, of all others, as it seemed, were best
+instructed in the laws of civilization, and most richly invested with
+the honor, and indulged in the felicity, of peace.</p>
+
+<p>Believe me, however, the subject of Art&mdash;instead of being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> foreign to
+these deep questions of social duty and peril,&mdash;is so vitally connected
+with them, that it would be impossible for me now to pursue the line of
+thought in which I began these lectures, because so ghastly an emphasis
+would be given to every sentence by the force of passing events. It is
+well, then, that in the plan I have laid down for your study, we shall
+now be led into the examination of technical details, or abstract
+conditions of sentiment; so that the hours you spend with me may be
+times of repose from heavier thoughts. But it chances strangely that, in
+this course of minutely detailed study, I have first to set before you
+the most essential piece of human workmanship, the plow, at the very
+moment when&mdash;(you may see the announcement in the journals either of
+yesterday or the day before)&mdash;the swords of your soldiers have been sent
+for <i>to be sharpened</i>, and not at all to be beaten into plowshares. I
+permit myself, therefore, to remind you of the watchword of all my
+earnest writings&mdash;"Soldiers of the Plowshare, instead of Soldiers of the
+Sword,"&mdash;and I know it my duty to assert to you that the work we enter
+upon to-day is no trivial one, but full of solemn hope; the hope,
+namely, that among you there may be found men wise enough to lead the
+national passions towards the arts of peace, instead of the arts of war.</p>
+
+<p>I say, the work "we enter upon," because the first four lectures I gave
+in the spring were wholly prefatory; and the following three only
+defined for you methods of practice. To-day we begin the systematic
+analysis and progressive study of our subject.</p>
+
+<p>2. In general, the three great, or fine, Arts of Painting, Sculpture,
+and Architecture, are thought of as distinct from the lower and more
+mechanical formative arts, such as carpentry or pottery. But we cannot,
+either verbally, or with any practical advantage, admit such
+classification. How are we to distinguish painting on canvas from
+painting on china?&mdash;or painting on china from painting on glass?&mdash;or
+painting on glass from infusion of color into any vitreous substance,
+such as enamel?&mdash;or the infusion of color into glass and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> enamel from
+the infusion of color into wool or silk, and weaving of pictures in
+tapestry, or patterns in dress? You will find that although, in
+ultimately accurate use of the word, painting must be held to mean only
+the laying of a pigment on a surface with a soft instrument; yet, in
+broad comparison of the functions of Art, we must conceive of one and
+the same great artistic faculty, as governing <i>every mode of disposing
+colors in a permanent relation on, or in, a solid substance</i>; whether it
+be by tinting canvas, or dyeing stuffs; inlaying metals with fused
+flint, or coating walls with colored stone.</p>
+
+<p>3. Similarly, the word 'Sculpture,'&mdash;though in ultimate accuracy it is
+to be limited to the development of form in hard substances by cutting
+away portions of their mass&mdash;in broad definition, must be held to
+signify <i>the reduction of any shapeless mass of solid matter into an
+intended shape</i>, whatever the consistence of the substance, or nature of
+the instrument employed; whether we carve a granite mountain, or a piece
+of box-wood, and whether we use, for our forming instrument, ax, or
+hammer, or chisel, or our own hands, or water to soften, or fire to
+fuse;&mdash;whenever and however we bring a shapeless thing into shape, we do
+so under the laws of the one great art of Sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>4. Having thus broadly defined painting and sculpture, we shall see that
+there is, in the third place, a class of work separated from both, in a
+specific manner, and including a great group of arts which neither, of
+necessity, <i>tint</i>, nor for the sake of form merely, <i>shape</i> the
+substances they deal with; but construct or arrange them with a view to
+the resistance of some external force. We construct, for instance, a
+table with a flat top, and some support of prop, or leg, proportioned in
+strength to such weights as the table is intended to carry. We construct
+a ship out of planks, or plates of iron, with reference to certain
+forces of impact to be sustained, and of inertia to be overcome; or we
+construct a wall or roof with distinct reference to forces of pressure
+and oscillation, to be sustained or guarded against; and, therefore, in
+every case,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> with especial consideration of the strength of our
+materials, and the nature of that strength, elastic, tenacious, brittle,
+and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Now although this group of arts nearly always involves the putting of
+two or more separate pieces together, we must not define it by that
+accident. The blade of an oar is not less formed with reference to
+external force than if it were made of many pieces; and the frame of a
+boat, whether hollowed out of a tree-trunk, or constructed of planks
+nailed together, is essentially the same piece of art; to be judged by
+its buoyancy and capacity of progression. Still, from the most wonderful
+piece of all architecture, the human skeleton, to this simple one,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+the plowshare, on which it depends for its subsistence, <i>the putting of
+two or more pieces together</i> is curiously necessary to the perfectness
+of every fine instrument; and the peculiar mechanical work of
+D&aelig;dalus,&mdash;inlaying,&mdash;becomes all the more delightful to us in external
+aspect, because, as in the jawbone of a Saurian, or the wood of a bow,
+it is essential to the finest capacities of tension and resistance.</p>
+
+<p>5. And observe how unbroken the ascent from this, the simplest
+architecture, to the loftiest. The placing of the timbers in a ship's
+stem, and the laying of the stones in a bridge buttress, are similar in
+art to the construction of the plowshare, differing in no essential
+point, either in that they deal with other materials, or because, of the
+three things produced, one has to divide earth by advancing through it,
+another to divide water by advancing through it, and the third to divide
+water which advances against it. And again, the buttress of a bridge
+differs only from that of a cathedral in having less weight to sustain,
+and more to resist. We can find no term in the gradation, from the
+plowshare to the cathedral buttress, at which we can set a logical
+distinction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. Thus then we have simply three divisions of Art&mdash;one, that of giving
+colors to substance; another, that of giving form to it without question
+of resistance to force; and the third, that of giving form or position
+which will make it capable of such resistance. All the fine arts are
+embraced under these three divisions. Do not think that it is only a
+logical or scientific affectation to mass them together in this manner;
+it is, on the contrary, of the first practical importance to understand
+that the painter's faculty, or masterhood over color, being as subtle as
+a musician's over sound, must be looked to for the government of every
+operation in which color is employed; and that, in the same manner, the
+appliance of any art whatsoever to minor objects cannot be right, unless
+under the direction of a true master of that art. Under the present
+system, you keep your Academician occupied only in producing tinted
+pieces of canvas to be shown in frames, and smooth pieces of marble to
+be placed in niches; while you expect your builder or constructor to
+design colored patterns in stone and brick, and your china-ware merchant
+to keep a separate body of workwomen who can paint china, but nothing
+else. By this division of labor, you ruin all the arts at once. The work
+of the Academician becomes mean and effeminate, because he is not used
+to treat color on a grand scale and in rough materials; and your
+manufactures become base, because no well-educated person sets hand to
+them. And therefore it is necessary to understand, not merely as a
+logical statement, but as a practical necessity, that wherever beautiful
+color is to be arranged, you need a Master of Painting; and wherever
+noble form is to be given, a Master of Sculpture; and wherever complex
+mechanical force is to be resisted; a Master of Architecture.</p>
+
+<p>7. But over this triple division there must rule another yet more
+important. Any of these three arts may be either imitative of natural
+objects or limited to useful appliance. You may either paint a picture
+that represents a scene, or your street door, to keep it from rotting;
+you may mold a statue, or a plate; build the resemblance of a cluster
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> lotus stalks, or only a square pier. Generally speaking, Painting
+and Sculpture will be imitative, and Architecture merely useful; but
+there is a great deal of Sculpture&mdash;as this crystal ball,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> for
+instance, which is not imitative, and a great deal of architecture
+which, to some extent, is so, as the so-called foils of Gothic
+apertures; and for many other reasons you will find it necessary to keep
+distinction clear in your minds between the arts&mdash;of whatever
+kind&mdash;which are imitative, and produce a resemblance or image of
+something which is not present; and those which are limited to the
+production of some useful reality, as the blade of a knife, or the wall
+of a house. You will perceive also, as we advance, that sculpture and
+painting are indeed in this respect only one art; and that we shall have
+constantly to speak and think of them as simply <i>graphic</i>, whether with
+chisel or color, their principal function being to make us, in the words
+of Aristotle, "&#952;&#949;&#969;&#961;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#953; &#964;&#945; &#963;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#962;" (Polit. 8.
+3), "having capacity and habit of contemplation of the beauty that is in
+material things;" while architecture, and its correlative arts, are to
+be practiced under quite other conditions of sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>8. Now it is obvious that so far as the fine arts consist either in
+imitation or mechanical construction, the right judgment of them must
+depend on our knowledge of the things they imitate, and forces they
+resist: and my function of teaching here would (for instance) so far
+resolve itself, either into demonstration that this painting of a
+peach<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> does resemble a peach, or explanation of the way in which this
+plowshare (for instance) is shaped so as to throw the earth aside with
+least force of thrust. And in both of these methods of study, though of
+course your own diligence must be your chief master, to a certain extent
+your Professor of Art can always guide you securely, and can show you,
+either that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> the image does truly resemble what it attempts to resemble,
+or that the structure is rightly prepared for the service it has to
+perform. But there is yet another virtue of fine art which is, perhaps,
+exactly that about which you will expect your Professor to teach you
+most, and which, on the contrary, is exactly that about which you must
+teach yourselves all that it is essential to learn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="381" height="450" alt="Fig. 1" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>9. I have here in my hand one of the simplest possible examples of the
+union of the graphic and constructive powers,&mdash;one of my breakfast
+plates. Since all the finely architectural arts, we said, began in the
+shaping of the cup and the platter, we will begin, ourselves, with the
+platter.</p>
+
+<p>Why has it been made round? For two structural reasons: first, that the
+greatest holding surface may be gathered into the smallest space; and
+secondly, that in being pushed past other things on the table, it may
+come into least contact with them.</p>
+
+<p>Next, why has it a rim? For two other structural reasons:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> first, that
+it is convenient to put salt or mustard upon; but secondly, and chiefly,
+that the plate may be easily laid hold of. The rim is the simplest form
+of continuous handle.</p>
+
+<p>Farther, to keep it from soiling the cloth, it will be wise to put this
+ridge beneath, round the bottom; for as the rim is the simplest possible
+form of continuous handle, so this is the simplest form of continuous
+leg. And we get the section given beneath the figure for the essential
+one of a rightly made platter.</p>
+
+<p>10. Thus far our art has been strictly utilitarian, having respect to
+conditions of collision, of carriage, and of support. But now, on the
+surface of our piece of pottery, here are various bands and spots of
+color which are presumably set there to make it pleasanter to the eye.
+Six of the spots, seen closely, you discover are intended to represent
+flowers. These then have as distinctly a graphic purpose as the other
+properties of the plate have an architectural one, and the first
+critical question we have to ask about them is, whether they are like
+roses or not. I will anticipate what I have to say in subsequent
+Lectures so far as to assure you that, if they are to be like roses at
+all, the liker they can be, the better. Do not suppose, as many people
+will tell you, that because this is a common manufactured article, your
+roses on it are the better for being ill-painted, or half-painted. If
+they had been painted by the same hand that did this peach, the plate
+would have been all the better for it; but, as it chanced, there was no
+hand such as William Hunt's to paint them, and their graphic power is
+not distinguished. In any case, however, that graphic power must have
+been subordinate to their effect as pink spots, while the band of
+green-blue round the plate's edge, and the spots of gold, pretend to no
+graphic power at all, but are meaningless spaces of color or metal.
+Still less have they any mechanical office: they add nowise to the
+serviceableness of the plate; and their agreeableness, if they possess
+any, depends, therefore, neither on any imitative, nor any structural,
+character; but on some inherent pleasantness in themselves, either of
+mere colors to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> the eye, (as of taste to the tongue,) or in the placing
+of those colors in relations which obey some mental principle of order,
+or physical principle of harmony.</p>
+
+<p>11. These abstract relations and inherent pleasantnesses, whether in
+space, number, or time, and whether of colors or sounds, form what we
+may properly term the musical or harmonic element in every art; and the
+study of them is an entirely separate science. It is the branch of
+art-philosophy to which the word '&aelig;sthetics' should be strictly limited,
+being the inquiry into the nature of things that in themselves are
+pleasant to the human senses or instincts, though they represent
+nothing, and serve for nothing, their only service <i>being</i> their
+pleasantness. Thus it is the province of &aelig;sthetics to tell you, (if you
+did not know it before,) that the taste and color of a peach are
+pleasant, and to ascertain, if it be ascertainable, (and you have any
+curiosity to know,) why they are so.</p>
+
+<p>12. The information would, I presume, to most of you, be gratuitous. If
+it were not, and you chanced to be in a sick state of body in which you
+disliked peaches, it would be, for the time, to you false information,
+and, so far as it was true of other people, to you useless. Nearly the
+whole study of &aelig;sthetics is in like manner either gratuitous or useless.
+Either you like the right things without being recommended to do so, or,
+if you dislike them, your mind cannot be changed by lectures on the laws
+of taste. You recollect the story of Thackeray, provoked, as he was
+helping himself to strawberries, by a young coxcomb's telling him that
+"he never took fruit or sweets." "That," replied, or is said to have
+replied, Thackeray, "is because you are a sot, and a glutton." And the
+whole science of &aelig;sthetics is, in the depth of it, expressed by one
+passage of Goethe's in the end of the second part of Faust;&mdash;the notable
+one that follows the song of the Lemures, when the angels enter to
+dispute with the fiends for the soul of Faust. They enter
+singing&mdash;"Pardon to sinners and life to the dust." Mephistopheles hears
+them first, and exclaims to his troop, "Discord I hear, and filthy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+jingling"&mdash;"Mis-t&ouml;ne h&ouml;re ich: garstiges Geklimper." This, you see, is
+the extreme of bad taste in music. Presently the angelic host begin
+strewing roses, which discomfits the diabolic crowd altogether.
+Mephistopheles in vain calls to them&mdash;"What do you duck and shrink
+for&mdash;is that proper hellish behavior? Stand fast, and let them
+strew"&mdash;"Was duckt und zuckt ihr; ist das Hellen-brauch? So haltet
+stand, und lasst sie streuen." There you have also, the extreme, of bad
+taste in sight and smell. And in the whole passage is a brief embodiment
+for you of the ultimate fact that all &aelig;sthetics depend on the health of
+soul and body, and the proper exercise of both, not only through years,
+but generations. Only by harmony of both collateral and successive lives
+can the great doctrine of the Muses be received which enables men
+"&#967;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#959;&#961;&#952;&#969;&#962;,"&mdash;"to have pleasure rightly;" and there is no
+other definition of the beautiful, nor of any subject of delight to the
+&aelig;sthetic faculty, than that it is what one noble spirit has created,
+seen and felt by another of similar or equal nobility. So much as there
+is in you of ox, or of swine, perceives no beauty, and creates none:
+what is human in you, in exact proportion to the perfectness of its
+humanity, can create it, and receive.</p>
+
+<p>13. Returning now to the very elementary form in which the appeal to our
+&aelig;sthetic virtue is made in our breakfast-plate, you notice that there
+are two distinct kinds of pleasantness attempted. One by hues of color;
+the other by proportions of space. I have called these the musical
+elements of the arts relating to sight; and there are indeed two
+complete sciences, one of the combinations of color, and the other of
+the combinations of line and form, which might each of them separately
+engage us in as intricate study as that of the science of music. But of
+the two, the science of color is, in the Greek sense, the more musical,
+being one of the divisions of the Apolline power; and it is so
+practically educational, that if we are not using the faculty for color
+to discipline nations, they will infallibly use it themselves as a means
+of corruption. Both music and color are naturally influences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> of peace;
+but in the war trumpet, and the war shield, in the battle song and
+battle standard, they have concentrated by beautiful imagination the
+cruel passions of men; and there is nothing in all the Divina Commedia
+of history more grotesque, yet more frightful, than the fact that, from
+the almost fabulous period when the insanity and impiety of war wrote
+themselves in the symbols of the shields of the Seven against Thebes,
+colors have been the sign and stimulus of the most furious and fatal
+passions that have rent the nations: blue against green, in the decline
+of the Roman Empire; black against white, in that of Florence; red
+against white, in the wars of the Royal houses in England; and at this
+moment, red against white, in the contest of anarchy and loyalty, in all
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>14. On the other hand, the directly ethical influence of color in the
+sky, the trees, flowers, and colored creatures round us, and in our own
+various arts massed under the one name of painting, is so essential and
+constant that we cease to recognize it, because we are never long enough
+altogether deprived of it to feel our need; and the mental diseases
+induced by the influence of corrupt color are as little suspected, or
+traced to their true source, as the bodily weaknesses resulting from
+atmospheric miasmata.</p>
+
+<p>15. The second musical science which belongs peculiarly to sculpture,
+(and to painting, so far as it represents form,) consists in the
+disposition of beautiful masses. That is to say, beautiful surfaces
+limited by beautiful lines. Beautiful <i>surfaces</i>, observe; and remember
+what is noted in my Fourth Lecture of the difference between a space and
+a mass. If you have at any time examined carefully, or practiced from,
+the drawings of shells placed in your copying series, you cannot but
+have felt the difference in the grace between the aspects of the same
+line, when inclosing a rounded or unrounded space. The exact science of
+sculpture is that of the relations between outline and the solid form it
+limits; and it does not matter whether that relation be indicated by
+drawing or carving, so long as the expression of solid form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> is the
+mental purpose; it is the science always of the beauty of relation in
+three dimensions. To take the simplest possible line of continuous
+limit&mdash;the circle: the flat disk inclosed by it may indeed be made an
+element of decoration, though a very meager one; but its relative mass,
+the ball, being gradated in three dimensions, is always delightful.
+Here<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is at once the simplest, and, in mere patient mechanism, the
+most skillful, piece of sculpture I can possibly show you,&mdash;a piece of
+the purest rock-crystal, chiseled, (I believe, by mere toil of hand,)
+into a perfect sphere. Imitating nothing, constructing nothing;
+sculpture for sculpture's sake of purest natural substance into simplest
+primary form.</p>
+
+<p>16. Again. Out of the nacre of any mussel or oyster shell you might cut,
+at your pleasure, any quantity of small flat circular disks of the
+prettiest color and luster. To some extent, such tinsel or foil of shell
+<i>is</i> used pleasantly for decoration. But the mussel or oyster becoming
+itself an unwilling modeler, agglutinates its juice into three
+dimensions, and the fact of the surface being now geometrically
+gradated, together with the savage instinct of attributing value to what
+is difficult to obtain, make the little boss so precious in men's sight,
+that wise eagerness of search for the kingdom of heaven can be likened
+to their eagerness of search for <i>it</i>; and the gates of Paradise can be
+no otherwise rendered so fair to their poor intelligence, as by telling
+them that every gate was of "one pearl."</p>
+
+<p>17. But take note here. We have just seen that the sum of the perceptive
+faculty is expressed in these words of Aristotle's, "to take pleasure
+rightly" or straightly&mdash;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#959;&#961;&#952;&#969;&#962;. Now, it is not
+possible to do the direct opposite of that,&mdash;to take pleasure
+iniquitously or obliquely&mdash;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#945;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#969;&#962; or
+&#963;&#954;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#969;&#962;,&mdash;more than you do in enjoying a thing because your neighbor
+cannot get it. You may enjoy a thing legitimately because it is rare,
+and cannot be seen often (as you do a fine aurora, or a sunset, or an
+unusually lovely flower); that is Nature's way of stimulating your
+attention.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> But if you enjoy it because your neighbor cannot have
+it,&mdash;and, remember, all value attached to pearls more than glass beads,
+is merely and purely for that cause,&mdash;then you rejoice through the worst
+of idolatries, covetousness; and neither arithmetic, nor writing, nor
+any other so-called essential of education, is now so vitally necessary
+to the population of Europe, as such acquaintance with the principles of
+intrinsic value, as may result in the iconoclasm of jewelry; and in the
+clear understanding that we are not, in that instinct, civilized, but
+yet remain wholly savage, so far as we care for display of this selfish
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>You think, perhaps, I am quitting my subject, and proceeding, as it is
+too often with appearance of justice alleged against me, into irrelevant
+matter. Pardon me; the end, not only of these Lectures, but of my whole
+Professorship, would be accomplished,&mdash;and far more than that,&mdash;if only
+the English nation could be made to understand that the beauty which is
+indeed to be a joy forever, must be a joy for all; and that though the
+idolatry may not have been wholly divine which sculptured gods, the
+idolatry is wholly diabolic, which, for vulgar display, sculptures
+diamonds.</p>
+
+<p>18. To go back to the point under discussion. A pearl, or a glass bead,
+may owe its pleasantness in some degree to its luster as well as to its
+roundness. But a mere and simple ball of unpolished stone is enough for
+sculpturesque value. You may have noticed that the quatrefoil used in
+the Ducal Palace of Venice owes its complete loveliness in distant
+effect to the finishing of its cusps. The extremity of the cusp is a
+mere ball of Istrian marble; and consider how subtle the faculty of
+sight must be, since it recognizes at any distance, and is gratified by,
+the mystery of the termination of cusp obtained by the gradated light on
+the ball.</p>
+
+<p>In that Venetian tracery this simplest element of sculptured form is
+used sparingly, as the most precious that can be employed to finish the
+fa&ccedil;ade. But alike in our own, and the French, central Gothic, the
+ball-flower is lavished on every line&mdash;and in your St. Mary's spire, and
+the Salisbury<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> spire, and the towers of Notre Dame of Paris, the rich
+pleasantness of decoration,&mdash;indeed, their so-called 'decorative
+style,'&mdash;consists only in being daintily beset with stone balls. It is
+true the balls are modified into dim likeness of flowers; but do you
+trace the resemblance to the rose in their distant, which is their
+intended, effect?</p>
+
+<p>19. But, farther, let the ball have motion; then the form it generates
+will be that of a cylinder. You have, perhaps, thought that pure early
+English architecture depended for its charm on visibility of
+construction. It depends for its charm altogether on the abstract
+harmony of groups of cylinders,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> arbitrarily bent into moldings, and
+arbitrarily associated as shafts, having no <i>real</i> relation to
+construction whatsoever, and a theoretical relation so subtle that none
+of us had seen it till Professor Willis worked it out for us.</p>
+
+<p>20. And now, proceeding to analysis of higher sculpture, you may have
+observed the importance I have attached to the porch of San Zenone, at
+Verona, by making it, among your standards, the first of the group which
+is to illustrate the system of sculpture and architecture founded on
+faith in a future life. That porch, fortunately represented in the
+photograph, from which Plate I. has been engraved, under a clear and
+pleasant light, furnishes you with examples of sculpture of every kind,
+from the flattest incised bas-relief to solid statues, both in marble
+and bronze. And the two points I have been pressing upon you are
+conclusively exhibited here, namely,&mdash;(1) that sculpture is essentially
+the production of a pleasant bossiness or roundness of surface; (2) that
+the pleasantness of that bossy condition to the eye is irrespective of
+imitation on one side, and of structure on the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<img src="images/plate1.jpg" width="324" height="470" alt="I." title="" />
+<span class="caption">I.<br /><br />
+
+PORCH OF SAN ZENONE. VERONA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/plate2.jpg" width="286" height="500" alt="II." title="" />
+<span class="caption">II.<br /><br />
+
+THE ARETHUSA OF SYRACUSE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/plate3.jpg" width="500" height="373" alt="III." title="" />
+<span class="caption">III.<br /><br />
+
+THE WARNING TO THE KINGS<br />
+
+SAN ZENONE. VERONA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>21. (1.) Sculpture is essentially the production of a pleasant bossiness
+or roundness of surface.</p>
+
+<p>If you look from some distance at these two engravings of Greek coins,
+(place the book open, so that you can see the opposite plate three or
+four yards off,) you will find the relief on each of them simplifies
+itself into a pearl-like portion of a sphere, with exquisitely gradated
+light on its surface. When you look at them nearer, you will see that
+each smaller portion into which they are divided&mdash;cheek, or brow, or
+leaf, or tress of hair&mdash;resolves itself also into a rounded or undulated
+surface, pleasant by gradation of light. Every several surface is
+delightful in itself, as a shell, or a tuft of rounded moss, or the
+bossy masses of distant forest would be. That these intricately
+modulated masses present some resemblance to a girl's face, such as the
+Syracusans imagined that of the water-goddess Arethusa, is entirely a
+secondary matter; the primary condition is that the masses shall be
+beautifully rounded, and disposed with due discretion and order.</p>
+
+<p>22. (2.) It is difficult for you, at first, to feel this order and
+beauty of surface, apart from the imitation. But you can see there is a
+pretty disposition of, and relation between, the projections of a
+fir-cone, though the studded spiral imitates nothing. Order exactly the
+same in kind, only much more complex; and an abstract beauty of surface
+rendered definite by increase and decline of light&mdash;(for every curve of
+surface has its own luminous law, and the light and shade on a parabolic
+solid differs, specifically, from that on an elliptical or spherical
+one)&mdash;it is the essential business of the sculptor to obtain; as it is
+the essential business of a painter to get good color, whether he
+imitates anything or not. At a distance from the picture, or carving,
+where the things represented become absolutely unintelligible, we must
+yet be able to say, at a glance, "That is good painting, or good
+carving."</p>
+
+<p>And you will be surprised to find, when you try the experiment,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> how
+much the eye must instinctively judge in this manner. Take the front of
+San Zenone, for instance, Plate I. You will find it impossible, without
+a lens, to distinguish in the bronze gates, and in great part of the
+wall, anything that their bosses represent. You cannot tell whether the
+sculpture is of men, animals, or trees; only you feel it to be composed
+of pleasant projecting masses; you acknowledge that both gates and wall
+are, somehow, delightfully roughened; and only afterwards, by slow
+degrees, can you make out what this roughness means; nay, though here
+(Plate III.) I magnify<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> one of the bronze plates of the gate to a
+scale, which gives you the same advantage as if you saw it quite close,
+in the reality,&mdash;you may still be obliged to me for the information that
+<i>this</i> boss represents the Madonna asleep in her little bed; and this
+smaller boss, the Infant Christ in His; and this at the top, a cloud
+with an angel coming out of it; and these jagged bosses, two of the
+Three Kings, with their crowns on, looking up to the star, (which is
+intelligible enough, I admit); but what this straggling, three-legged
+boss beneath signifies, I suppose neither you nor I can tell, unless it
+be the shepherd's dog, who has come suddenly upon the Kings with their
+crowns on, and is greatly startled at them.</p>
+
+<p>23. Farther, and much more definitely, the pleasantness of the surface
+decoration is independent of structure; that is to say, of any
+architectural requirement of stability. The greater part of the
+sculpture here is exclusively ornamentation of a flat wall, or of
+door-paneling; only a small portion of the church front is thus treated,
+and the sculpture has no more to do with the form of the building than a
+piece of lace veil would have, suspended beside its gates on a festal
+day: the proportions of shaft and arch might be altered in a hundred
+different ways without diminishing their stability; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> the pillars
+would stand more safely on the ground than on the backs of these carved
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>24. I wish you especially to notice these points, because the false
+theory that ornamentation should be merely decorated structure is so
+pretty and plausible, that it is likely to take away your attention from
+the far more important abstract conditions of design. Structure should
+never be contradicted, and in the best buildings it is pleasantly
+exhibited and enforced: in this very porch the joints of every stone are
+visible, and you will find me in the Fifth Lecture insisting on this
+clearness of its anatomy as a merit; yet so independent is the
+mechanical structure of the true design, that when I begin my Lectures
+on Architecture, the first building I shall give you as a standard will
+be one in which the structure is wholly concealed. It will be the
+Baptistery of Florence, which is, in reality, as much a buttressed
+chapel with a vaulted roof, as the Chapter House of York;&mdash;but round it,
+in order to conceal that buttressed structure, (not to decorate,
+observe, but to <i>conceal</i>,) a flat external wall is raised; simplifying
+the whole to a mere hexagonal box, like a wooden piece of Tunbridge
+ware, on the surface of which the eye and intellect are to be interested
+by the relations of dimension and curve between pieces of incrusting
+marble of different colors, which have no more to do with the real make
+of the building than the diaper of a Harlequin's jacket has to do with
+his bones.</p>
+
+<p>25. The sense of abstract proportion, on which the enjoyment of such a
+piece of art entirely depends, is one of the &aelig;sthetic faculties which
+nothing can develop but time and education. It belongs only to highly
+trained nations; and, among them, to their most strictly refined
+classes, though the germs of it are found, as part of their innate
+power, in every people capable of art. It has for the most part vanished
+at present from the English mind, in consequence of our eager desire for
+excitement, and for the kind of splendor that exhibits wealth, careless
+of dignity; so that, I suppose, there are very few now even of our best
+trained Londoners who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> know the difference between the design of
+Whitehall and that of any modern club-house in Pall Mall. The order and
+harmony which, in his enthusiastic account of the Theater of Epidaurus,
+Pausanias insists on before beauty, can only be recognized by stern
+order and harmony in our daily lives; and the perception of them is as
+little to be compelled, or taught suddenly, as the laws of still finer
+choice in the conception of dramatic incident which regulate poetic
+sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>26. And now, at last, I think, we can sketch out the subject before us
+in a clear light. We have a structural art, divine and human, of which
+the investigation comes under the general term Anatomy; whether the
+junctions or joints be in mountains, or in branches of trees, or in
+buildings, or in bones of animals. We have next a musical art, falling
+into two distinct divisions&mdash;one using colors, the other masses, for its
+elements of composition; lastly, we have an imitative art, concerned
+with the representation of the outward appearances of things. And, for
+many reasons, I think it best to begin with imitative Sculpture; that
+being defined as <i>the art which, by the musical disposition of masses,
+imitates anything of which the imitation is justly pleasant to us; and
+does so in accordance with structural laws having due reference to the
+materials employed</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So that you see our task will involve the immediate inquiry what the
+things are of which the imitation is justly pleasant to us: what, in few
+words,&mdash;if we are to be occupied in the making of graven images,&mdash;we
+ought to like to make images <i>of</i>. Secondly, after having determined its
+subject, what degree of imitation or likeness we ought to desire in our
+graven image; and, lastly, under what limitations demanded by structure
+and material, such likeness may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>These inquiries I shall endeavor to pursue with you to some practical
+conclusion, in my next four Lectures; and in the sixth, I will briefly
+sketch the actual facts that have taken place in the development of
+sculpture by the two greatest schools of it that hitherto have existed
+in the world.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>27. The tenor of our next Lecture, then, must be an inquiry into the
+real nature of Idolatry; that is to say, the invention and service of
+Idols: and, in the interval, may I commend to your own thoughts this
+question, not wholly irrelevant, yet which I cannot pursue; namely,
+whether the God to whom we have so habitually prayed for deliverance
+"from battle, murder, and sudden death," <i>is</i> indeed, seeing that the
+present state of Christendom is the result of a thousand years' praying
+to that effect, "as the gods of the heathen who were but idols;" or
+whether&mdash;(and observe, one or other of these things <i>must</i> be
+true)&mdash;whether our prayers to Him have been, by this much, worse than
+Idolatry;&mdash;that heathen prayer was true prayer to false gods; and our
+prayers have been false prayers to the True One?</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> I had a real plowshare on my lecture-table; but it would
+interrupt the drift of the statements in the text too long if I
+attempted here to illustrate by figures the relation of the colter to
+the share, and of the hard to the soft pieces of metal in the share
+itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A sphere of rock crystal, cut in Japan, enough imaginable
+by the reader, without a figure.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> One of William Hunt's peaches; not, I am afraid, imaginable
+altogether, but still less representable by figure.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The crystal ball above mentioned.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> All grandest effects in moldings may be, and for the most
+part have been, obtained by rolls and cavettos of circular (segmental)
+section. More refined sections, as that of the fluting of a Doric shaft,
+are only of use near the eye and in beautiful stone; and the pursuit of
+them was one of the many errors of later Gothic. The statement in the
+text that the moldings, even of best time, "have no real relation to
+construction," is scarcely strong enough: they in fact contend with, and
+deny the construction, their principal purpose seeming to be the
+concealment of the joints of the voussoirs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Some of the most precious work done for me by my
+assistant, Mr. Burgess, during the course of these Lectures, consisted
+in making enlarged drawings from portions of photographs. Plate III. is
+engraved from a drawing of his, enlarged from the original photograph of
+which Plate I. is a reduction.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE II.</h2>
+
+<h3>IDOLATRY.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>November, 1870.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>28. Beginning with the simple conception of sculpture as the art of
+fiction in solid substance, we are now to consider what its subject
+should be. What&mdash;having the gift of imagery&mdash;should we by preference
+endeavor to image? A question which is, indeed, subordinate to the
+deeper one&mdash;why we should wish to image anything at all.</p>
+
+<p>29. Some years ago, having been always desirous that the education of
+women should begin in learning how to cook, I got leave, one day, for a
+little girl of eleven years old to exchange, much to her satisfaction,
+her schoolroom for the kitchen. But as ill-fortune would have it, there
+was some pastry toward, and she was left unadvisedly in command of some
+delicately rolled paste; whereof she made no pies, but an unlimited
+quantity of cats and mice.</p>
+
+<p>Now you may read the works of the gravest critics of art from end to
+end; but you will find, at last, they can give you no other true account
+of the spirit of sculpture than that it is an irresistible human
+instinct for the making of cats and mice, and other imitable living
+creatures, in such permanent form that one may play with the images at
+leisure.</p>
+
+<p>Play with them, or love them, or fear them, or worship them. The cat may
+become the goddess Pasht, and the mouse, in the hand of a sculptured
+king, enforce his enduring words "&#949;&#962; &#949;&#956;&#949; &#964;&#953;&#962; &#8001;&#961;&#949;&#969;&#957; &#949;&#965;&#963;&#949;&#946;&#951;&#962; &#949;&#963;&#964;&#969;"; but the great mimetic instinct underlies all such purpose; and
+is zooplastic,&mdash;life-shaping,&mdash;alike in the reverent and the impious.</p>
+
+<p>30. Is, I say, and has been, hitherto; none of us dare say<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> that it will
+be. I shall have to show you hereafter that the greater part of the
+technic energy of men, as yet, has indicated a kind of childhood; and
+that the race becomes, if not more wise, at least more manly,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> with
+every gained century. I can fancy that all this sculpturing and painting
+of ours may be looked back upon, in some distant time, as a kind of
+doll-making, and that the words of Sir Isaac Newton may be smiled at no
+more: only it will not be for stars that we desert our stone dolls, but
+for men. When the day comes, as come it must, in which we no more deface
+and defile God's image in living clay, I am not sure that we shall any
+of us care so much for the images made of Him, in burnt clay.</p>
+
+<p>31. But, hitherto, the energy of growth in any people may be almost
+directly measured by their passion for imitative art; namely, for
+sculpture, or for the drama, which is living and speaking sculpture, or,
+as in Greece, for both; and in national as in actual childhood, it is
+not merely the <i>making</i>, but the <i>making-believe</i>; not merely the acting
+for the sake of the scene, but acting for the sake of acting, that is
+delightful. And, of the two mimetic arts, the drama, being more
+passionate, and involving conditions of greater excitement and luxury,
+is usually in its excellence the sign of culminating strength in the
+people; while fine sculpture, requiring always submission to severe law,
+is an unfailing proof of their being in early and active progress.
+<i>There is no instance of fine sculpture being produced by a nation
+either torpid, weak, or in decadence.</i> Their drama may gain in grace and
+wit; but their sculpture, in days of decline, is <i>always</i> base.</p>
+
+<p>32. If my little lady in the kitchen had been put in command of colors,
+as well as of dough, and if the paste would have taken the colors, we
+may be sure her mice would have been painted brown, and her cats
+tortoiseshell; and this, partly indeed for the added delight and
+prettiness of color itself, but more for the sake of absolute
+realization to her eyes and mind. Now all the early sculpture of the
+most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> accomplished nations has been thus colored, rudely or finely; and
+therefore you see at once how necessary it is that we should keep the
+term 'graphic' for imitative art generally; since no separation can at
+first be made between carving and painting, with reference to the mental
+powers exerted in, or addressed by, them. In the earliest known art of
+the world, a reindeer hunt may be scratched in outline on the flat side
+of a clean-picked bone, and a reindeer's head carved out of the end of
+it; both these are flint-knife work, and, strictly speaking, sculpture:
+but the scratched outline is the beginning of drawing, and the carved
+head of sculpture proper. When the spaces inclosed by the scratched
+outline are filled with color, the coloring soon becomes a principal
+means of effect; so that, in the engraving of an Egyptian-color
+bas-relief (S. 101), Rosellini has been content to miss the outlining
+incisions altogether, and represent it as a painting only. Its proper
+definition is, 'painting accented by sculpture;' on the other hand, in
+solid colored statues,&mdash;Dresden china figures, for example,&mdash;we have
+pretty sculpture accented by painting; the mental purpose in both kinds
+of art being to obtain the utmost degree of realization possible, and
+the ocular impression being the same, whether the delineation is
+obtained by engraving or painting. For, as I pointed out to you in my
+Fifth Lecture, everything is seen by the eye as patches of color, and of
+color only;&mdash;a fact which the Greeks knew well; so that when it becomes
+a question in the dialogue of Minos, "&#964;&#953;&#957;&#953; &#959;&#957;&#964;&#953; &#964;&#951; &#959;&#968;&#949;&#953; &#8001;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#945; &#8001;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#945;,"
+the answer is "&#945;&#953;&#963;&#952;&#951;&#963;&#949;&#953; &#964;&#945;&#965;&#964;&#951; &#964;&#951; &#948;&#953;&#945; &#964;&#969;&#957; &#959;&#966;&#952;&#945;&#955;&#956;&#969;&#957; &#948;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#951; &#7969;&#956;&#953;&#957; &#964;&#945; &#967;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;."&mdash;"What kind of power is the
+sight with which we see things? It is that sense which, through the
+eyes, can reveal <i>colors</i> to us."</p>
+
+<p>33. And now observe that, while the graphic arts begin in the mere
+mimetic effort, they proceed, as they obtain more perfect realization,
+to act under the influence of a stronger and higher instinct. They begin
+by scratching the reindeer, the most interesting object of sight. But
+presently, as the human creature rises in scale of intellect, it
+proceeds to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> scratch, not the most interesting object of sight only, but
+the most interesting object of imagination; not the reindeer, but the
+Maker and Giver of the reindeer. And the second great condition for the
+advance of the art of sculpture is that the race should possess, in
+addition to the mimetic instinct, the realistic or idolizing instinct;
+the desire to see as substantial the powers that are unseen, and bring
+near those that are far off, and to possess and cherish those that are
+strange. To make in some way tangible and visible the nature of the
+gods&mdash;to illustrate and explain it by symbols; to bring the immortals
+out of the recesses of the clouds, and make them Penates; to bring back
+the dead from darkness, and make them Lares.</p>
+
+<p>34. Our conception of this tremendous and universal human passion has
+been altogether narrowed by the current idea that Pagan religious art
+consisted only, or chiefly, in giving personality to the gods. The
+personality was never doubted; it was visibility, interpretation, and
+possession that the hearts of men sought. Possession, first of all&mdash;the
+getting hold of some hewn log of wild olive-wood that would fall on its
+knees if it was pulled from its pedestal&mdash;and, afterwards, slowly
+clearing manifestation; the exactly right expression is used in Lucian's
+dream,&mdash;&#934;&#949;&#953;&#948;&#953;&#945;&#962; &#949;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#958;&#949; &#964;&#959;&#957; &#916;&#953;&#945;; "Showed<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Zeus;" manifested
+him; nay, in a certain sense, brought forth, or created, as you have it,
+in Anacreon's ode to the Rose, of the birth of Athena herself,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#959;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#957; &#964;' &#7945;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#951;&#957;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&#954;&#959;&#961;&#965;&#966;&#951;&#962; &#949;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#954;&#957;&#965;&#949; &#918;&#949;&#965;&#962;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But I will translate the passage from Lucian to you at length&mdash;it is in
+every way profitable.</p>
+
+<p>35. "There came to me, in the healing<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> night, a divine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> dream, so
+clear that it missed nothing of the truth itself; yes, and still after
+all this time, the shapes of what I saw remain in my sight, and the
+sound of what I heard dwells in my ears"&mdash;(note the lovely sense of
+&#949;&#957;&#945;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;&mdash;the sound being as of a stream passing always by in
+the same channel)&mdash;"so distinct was everything to me. Two women laid
+hold of my hands and pulled me, each towards herself, so violently, that
+I had like to have been pulled asunder; and they cried out against one
+another,&mdash;the one, that she resolved to have me to herself, being indeed
+her own; and the other, that it was vain for her to claim what belonged
+to others;&mdash;and the one who first claimed me for her own was like a hard
+worker, and had strength as a man's; and her hair was dusty, and her
+hand full of horny places, and her dress fastened tight about her, and
+the folds of it loaded with white marble-dust, so that she looked just
+as my uncle used to look when he was filing stones: but the other was
+pleasant in features, and delicate in form, and orderly in her dress;
+and so, in the end, they left it to me to decide, after hearing what
+they had to say, with which of them I would go; and first the
+hard-featured and masculine one spoke:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>36. "'Dear child, I am the Art of Image-sculpture, which yesterday you
+began to learn; and I am as one of your own people, and of your house,
+for your grandfather' (and she named my mother's father) 'was a
+stone-cutter; and both your uncles had good name through me: and if you
+will keep yourself well clear of the sillinesses and fluent follies that
+come from this creature,' (and she pointed to the other woman,) 'and
+will follow me, and live with me, first of all, you shall be brought up
+as a man should be, and have strong shoulders; and, besides that, you
+shall be kept well quit of all restless desires, and you shall never be
+obliged to go away into any foreign places, leaving your own country and
+the people of your house; <i>neither shall all men praise you for your
+talk</i>.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> And you must not despise this rude serviceableness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> of my
+body, neither this meanness of my dusty dress; for, pushing on in their
+strength from such things as these, that great Phidias revealed Zeus,
+and Polyclitus wrought out Hera, and Myron was praised, and Praxiteles
+marveled at: therefore are these men worshiped with the gods.'"</p>
+
+<p>37. There is a beautiful ambiguity in the use of the preposition with
+the genitive in this last sentence. "Pushing on from these things" means
+indeed, justly, that the sculptors rose from a mean state to a noble
+one; but not as <i>leaving</i> the mean state,&mdash;not as, from a hard life,
+attaining to a soft one,&mdash;but as being helped and strengthened by the
+rough life to do what was greatest. Again, "worshiped with the gods"
+does not mean that they are thought of as in any sense equal to, or like
+to, the gods, but as being on the side of the gods against what is base
+and ungodly; and that the kind of worth which is in them is therefore
+indeed worshipful, as having its source with the gods. Finally, observe
+that every one of the expressions used of the four sculptors is
+definitely the best that Lucian could have chosen. Phidias carved like
+one who had seen Zeus, and had only to <i>reveal</i> him; Polyclitus, in
+labor of intellect, completed his sculpture by just law, and <i>wrought</i>
+out Hera; Myron was of all most <i>praised</i>, because he did best what
+pleased the vulgar; and Praxiteles the most <i>wondered at</i>, or admired,
+because he bestowed utmost exquisiteness of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>38. I am sorry not to go on with the dream: the more refined lady, as
+you may remember, is liberal or gentlemanly Education, and prevails at
+last; so that Lucian becomes an author instead of a sculptor, I think to
+his own regret, though to our present benefit. One more passage of his I
+must refer you to, as illustrative of the point before us; the
+description of the temple of the Syrian Hieropolis, where he explains
+the absence of the images of the sun and moon. "In the temple itself,"
+he says, "on the left hand as one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> goes in, there is set first the
+throne of the sun; but no form of him is thereon, for of these two
+powers alone, the sun and the moon, they show no carved images. And I
+also learned why this is their law, for they say that it is permissible,
+indeed, to make of the other gods, graven images, since the forms of
+them are not visible to all men. But Helios and Selenaia are everywhere
+clear-bright, and all men behold them; what need is there therefore for
+sculptured work of these, who appear in the air?"</p>
+
+<p>39. This, then, is the second instinct necessary to sculpture; the
+desire for the manifestation, description, and companionship of unknown
+powers; and for possession of a bodily substance&mdash;the 'bronze
+Strasbourg,' which you can embrace, and hang immortelles on the head
+of&mdash;instead of an abstract idea. But if you get nothing more in the
+depth of the national mind than these two feelings, the mimetic and
+idolizing instincts, there may be still no progress possible for the
+arts except in delicacy of manipulation and accumulative caprice of
+design. You must have not only the idolizing instinct, but an &#949;&#952;&#959;&#987;
+which chooses the right thing to idolize! Else, you will get
+states of art like those in China or India, non-progressive, and in
+great part diseased and frightful, being wrought under the influence of
+foolish terror, or foolish admiration. So that a third condition,
+completing and confirming both the others, must exist in order to the
+development of the creative power.</p>
+
+<p>40. This third condition is that the heart of the nation shall be set on
+the discovery of just or equal law, and shall be from day to day
+developing that law more perfectly. The Greek school of sculpture is
+formed during, and in consequence of, the national effort to discover
+the nature of justice; the Tuscan, during, and in consequence of, the
+national effort to discover the nature of justification. I assert to you
+at present briefly, what will, I hope, be the subject of prolonged
+illustration hereafter.</p>
+
+<p>41. Now when a nation with mimetic instinct and imaginative longing is
+also thus occupied earnestly in the discovery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> of Ethic law, that effort
+gradually brings precision and truth into all its manual acts; and the
+physical progress of sculpture, as in the Greek, so in the Tuscan,
+school, consists in gradually <i>limiting</i> what was before indefinite, in
+<i>verifying</i> what was inaccurate, and in <i>humanizing</i> what was monstrous.
+I might perhaps content you by showing these external phenomena, and by
+dwelling simply on the increasing desire of naturalness, which compels,
+in every successive decade of years, literally, in the sculptured
+images, the mimicked bones to come together, bone to his bone; and the
+flesh to come up upon them, until from a flattened and pinched handful
+of clay, respecting which you may gravely question whether it was
+intended for a human form at all;&mdash;by slow degrees, and added touch to
+touch, in increasing consciousness of the bodily truth,&mdash;at last the
+Aphrodite of Melos stands before you, a perfect woman. But all that
+search for physical accuracy is merely the external operation, in the
+arts, of the seeking for truth in the inner soul; it is impossible
+without that higher effort, and the demonstration of it would be worse
+than useless to you, unless I made you aware at the same time of its
+spiritual cause.</p>
+
+<p>42. Observe farther; the increasing truth in representation is
+correlative with increasing beauty in the thing to be represented. The
+pursuit of justice which regulates the imitative effort, regulates also
+the development of the race into dignity of person, as of mind; and
+their culminating art-skill attains the grasp of entire truth at the
+moment when the truth becomes most lovely. And then, ideal sculpture may
+go on safely into portraiture. But I shall not touch on the subject of
+portrait sculpture to-day; it introduces many questions of detail, and
+must be a matter for subsequent consideration.</p>
+
+<p>43. These, then, are the three great passions which are concerned in
+true sculpture. I cannot find better, or, at least, more easily
+remembered, names for them than 'the Instincts of Mimicry, Idolatry, and
+Discipline;' meaning, by the last, the desire of equity and wholesome
+restraint, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> all acts and works of life. Now of these, there is no
+question but that the love of Mimicry is natural and right, and the love
+of Discipline is natural and right. But it looks a grave question
+whether the yearning for Idolatry (the desire of companionship with
+images) is right. Whether, indeed, if such an instinct be essential to
+good sculpture, the art founded on it can possibly be 'fine' art.</p>
+
+<p>44. I must now beg for your close attention, because I have to point out
+distinctions in modes of conception which will appear trivial to you,
+unless accurately understood; but of an importance in the history of art
+which cannot be overrated.</p>
+
+<p>When the populace of Paris adorned the statue of Strasbourg with
+immortelles, none, even the simplest of the pious decorators, would
+suppose that the city of Strasbourg itself, or any spirit or ghost of
+the city, was actually there, sitting in the Place de la Concorde. The
+figure was delightful to them as a visible nucleus for their fond
+thoughts about Strasbourg; but never for a moment supposed to <i>be</i>
+Strasbourg.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, they might have taken delight in a statue purporting to
+represent a river instead of a city,&mdash;the Rhine, or Garonne,
+suppose,&mdash;and have been touched with strong emotion in looking at it, if
+the real river were dear to them, and yet never think for an instant
+that the statue <i>was</i> the river.</p>
+
+<p>And yet again, similarly, but much more distinctly, they might take
+delight in the beautiful image of a god, because it gathered and
+perpetuated their thoughts about that god; and yet never suppose, nor be
+capable of being deceived by any arguments into supposing, that the
+statue <i>was</i> the god.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, if a meteoric stone fell from the sky in the sight of
+a savage, and he picked it up hot, he would most probably lay it aside
+in some, to him, sacred place, and believe the <i>stone itself</i> to be a
+kind of god, and offer prayer and sacrifice to it.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, any other strange or terrifying object, such, for
+instance, as a powerfully noxious animal or plant, he would be apt to
+regard in the same way; and very possibly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> also construct for himself
+frightful idols of some kind, calculated to produce upon him a vague
+impression of their being alive; whose imaginary anger he might
+deprecate or avert with sacrifice, although incapable of conceiving in
+them any one attribute of exalted intellectual or moral nature.</p>
+
+<p>45. If you will now refer to &sect;&sect; 52-9 of my Introductory Lectures, you
+will find this distinction between a resolute conception, recognized for
+such, and an involuntary apprehension of spiritual existence, already
+insisted on at some length. And you will see more and more clearly as we
+proceed, that the deliberate and intellectually commanded conception is
+not idolatrous in any evil sense whatever, but is one of the grandest
+and wholesomest functions of the human soul; and that the essence of
+evil idolatry begins only in the idea or belief of a real presence of
+any kind, in a thing in which there is no such presence.</p>
+
+<p>46. I need not say that the harm of the idolatry must depend on the
+certainty of the negative. If there be a real presence in a pillar of
+cloud, in an unconsuming flame, or in a still small voice, it is no sin
+to bow down before these.</p>
+
+<p>But, as matter of historical fact, the idea of such presence has
+generally been both ignoble and false, and confined to nations of
+inferior race, who are often condemned to remain for ages in conditions
+of vile terror, destitute of thought. Nearly all Indian architecture and
+Chinese design arise out of such a state: so also, though in a less
+gross degree, Ninevite and Ph&oelig;nician art, early Irish, and
+Scandinavian; the latter, however, with vital elements of high intellect
+mingled in it from the first.</p>
+
+<p>But the greatest races are never grossly subject to such terror, even in
+their childhood, and the course of their minds is broadly divisible into
+three distinct stages.</p>
+
+<p>47. (I.) In their infancy they begin to imitate the real animals about
+them, as my little girl made the cats and mice, but with an
+under-current of partial superstition&mdash;a sense that there must be more
+in the creatures than they can see;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> also they catch up vividly any of
+the fancies of the baser nations round them, and repeat these more or
+less apishly, yet rapidly naturalizing and beautifying them. They then
+connect all kinds of shapes together, compounding meanings out of the
+old chimeras, and inventing new ones with the speed of a running
+wildfire; but always getting more of man into their images, and
+admitting less of monster or brute; their own characters, meanwhile,
+expanding and purging themselves, and shaking off the feverish fancy, as
+springing flowers shake the earth off their stalks.</p>
+
+<p>48. (II.) In the second stage, being now themselves perfect men and
+women, they reach the conception of true and great gods as existent in
+the universe; and absolutely cease to think of them as in any wise
+present in statues or images; but they have now learned to make these
+statues beautifully human, and to surround them with attributes that may
+concentrate their thoughts of the gods. This is, in Greece, accurately
+the Pindaric time, just a little preceding the Phidian; the Phidian is
+already dimmed with a faint shadow of infidelity; still, the Olympic
+Zeus may be taken as a sufficiently central type of a statue which was
+no more supposed to <i>be</i> Zeus, than the gold or elephants' tusks it was
+made of; but in which the most splendid powers of human art were
+exhausted in representing a believed and honored God to the happy and
+holy imagination of a sincerely religious people.</p>
+
+<p>49. (III.) The third stage of national existence follows, in which, the
+imagination having now done its utmost, and being partly restrained by
+the sanctities of tradition, which permit no farther change in the
+conceptions previously created, begins to be superseded by logical
+deduction and scientific investigation. At the same moment, the elder
+artists having done all that is possible in realizing the national
+conceptions of the gods, the younger ones, forbidden to change the
+scheme of existing representations, and incapable of doing anything
+better in that kind, betake themselves to refine and decorate the old
+ideas with more attractive skill. Their aims are thus more and more
+limited to manual dexterity,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> and their fancy paralyzed. Also in the
+course of centuries, the methods of every art continually improving, and
+being made subjects of popular inquiry, praise is now to be got, for
+eminence in these, from the whole mob of the nation; whereas
+intellectual design can never be discerned but by the few. So that in
+this third era we find every kind of imitative and vulgar dexterity more
+and more cultivated; while design and imagination are every day less
+cared for, and less possible.</p>
+
+<p>50. Meanwhile, as I have just said, the leading minds in literature and
+science become continually more logical and investigative; and once that
+they are established in the habit of testing facts accurately, a very
+few years are enough to convince all the strongest thinkers that the old
+imaginative religion is untenable, and cannot any longer be honestly
+taught in its fixed traditional form, except by ignorant persons. And at
+this point the fate of the people absolutely depends on the degree of
+moral strength into which their hearts have been already trained. If it
+be a strong, industrious, chaste, and honest race, the taking its old
+gods, or at least the old forms of them, away from it, will indeed make
+it deeply sorrowful and amazed; but will in no whit shake its will, nor
+alter its practice. Exceptional persons, naturally disposed to become
+drunkards, harlots, and cheats, but who had been previously restrained
+from indulging these dispositions by their fear of God, will, of course,
+break out into open vice, when that fear is removed. But the heads of
+the families of the people, instructed in the pure habits and perfect
+delights of an honest life, and to whom the thought of a Father in
+heaven had been a comfort, not a restraint, will assuredly not seek
+relief from the discomfort of their orphanage by becoming uncharitable
+and vile. Also the high leaders of their thought gather their whole
+strength together in the gloom; and at the first entrance to this Valley
+of the Shadow of Death, look their new enemy full in the eyeless face of
+him, and subdue him, and his terror, under their feet. "Metus omnes, et
+inexorabile fatum,... strepitumque<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> Acherontis avari." This is the
+condition of national soul expressed by the art, and the words, of
+Holbein, D&uuml;rer, Shakspeare, Pope, and Goethe.</p>
+
+<p>51. But if the people, at the moment when the trial of darkness
+approaches, be not confirmed in moral character, but are only
+maintaining a superficial virtue by the aid of a spectral religion; the
+moment the staff of their faith is broken, the character of the race
+falls like a climbing plant cut from its hold: then all the earthliest
+vices attack it as it lies in the dust; every form of sensual and insane
+sin is developed; and half a century is sometimes enough to close in
+hopeless shame the career of the nation in literature, art, and war.</p>
+
+<p>52. Notably, within the last hundred years, all religion has perished
+from the practically active national mind of France and England. No
+statesman in the senate of either country would dare to use a sentence
+out of their acceptedly divine Revelation, as having now a literal
+authority over them for their guidance, or even a suggestive wisdom for
+their contemplation. England, especially, has cast her Bible full in the
+face of her former God; and proclaimed, with open challenge to Him, her
+resolved worship of His declared enemy, Mammon. All the arts, therefore,
+founded on religion and sculpture chiefly, are here in England effete
+and corrupt, to a degree which arts never were hitherto in the history
+of mankind; and it is possible to show you the condition of sculpture
+living, and sculpture dead, in accurate opposition, by simply comparing
+the nascent Pisan school in Italy with the existing school in England.</p>
+
+<p>53. You were perhaps surprised at my placing in your educational series,
+as a type of original Italian sculpture, the pulpit by Niccola Pisano in
+the Duomo of Siena. I would rather, had it been possible, have given the
+pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in the Duomo of Pisa; but that pulpit is
+dispersed in fragments through the upper galleries of the Duomo, and the
+cloister of the Campo Santo; and the casts of its fragments now put
+together at Kensington are too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> coarse to be of use to you. You may
+partly judge, however, of the method of their execution by the eagle's
+head, which I have sketched from the marble in the Campo Santo (Edu.,
+No. 113), and the lioness with her cubs (Edu., No. 103, more carefully
+studied at Siena); and I will get you other illustrations in due time.
+Meanwhile, I want you to compare the main purpose of the Cathedral of
+Pisa, and its associated Bell Tower, Baptistery, and Holy Field, with
+the main purpose of the principal building lately raised for the people
+of London. In these days, we indeed desire no cathedrals; but we have
+constructed an enormous and costly edifice, which, in claiming
+educational influence over the whole London populace, and middle class,
+is verily the Metropolitan cathedral of this century,&mdash;the Crystal
+Palace.</p>
+
+<p>54. It was proclaimed, at its erection, an example of a newly discovered
+style of architecture, greater than any hitherto known,&mdash;our best
+popular writers, in their enthusiasm, describing it as an edifice of
+Fairyland. You are nevertheless to observe that this novel production of
+fairy enchantment is destitute of every kind of sculpture, except the
+bosses produced by the heads of nails and rivets; while the Duomo of
+Pisa, in the wreathen work of its doors, in the foliage of its capitals,
+inlaid color designs of its fa&ccedil;ade, embossed panels of its Baptistery
+font, and figure sculpture of its two pulpits, contained the germ of a
+school of sculpture which was to maintain, through a subsequent period
+of four hundred years, the greatest power yet reached by the arts of the
+world, in description of Form, and expression of Thought.</p>
+
+<p>55. Now it is easy to show you the essential cause of the vast
+discrepancy in the character of these two buildings.</p>
+
+<p>In the vault of the apse of the Duomo of Pisa was a colossal image of
+Christ, in colored mosaic, bearing to the temple, as nearly as possible,
+the relation which the statue of Athena bore to the Parthenon; and in
+the same manner, concentrating the imagination of the Pisan on the
+attributes of the God in whom he believed.</p>
+
+<p>In precisely the same position with respect to the nave of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> the
+building, but of larger size, as proportioned to the three or four times
+greater scale of the whole, a colossal piece of sculpture was placed by
+English designers, at the extremity of the Crystal Palace, in
+preparation for their solemnities in honor of the birthday of Christ, in
+December 1867 or 1868.</p>
+
+<p>That piece of sculpture was the face of the clown in a pantomime, some
+twelve feet high from brow to chin, which face, being moved by the
+mechanism which is our pride, every half-minute opened its mouth from
+ear to ear, showed its teeth, and revolved its eyes, the force of these
+periodical seasons of expression being increased and explained by the
+illuminated inscription underneath, "Here we are again."</p>
+
+<p>56. When it is assumed, and with too good reason, that the mind of the
+English populace is to be addressed, in the principal Sacred Festival of
+its year, by sculpture such as this, I need scarcely point out to you
+that the hope is absolutely futile of advancing their intelligence by
+collecting within this building (itself devoid absolutely of every kind
+of art, and so vilely constructed that those who traverse it are
+continually in danger of falling over the cross-bars that bind it
+together,) examples of sculpture filched indiscriminately from the past
+work, bad and good, of Turks, Greeks, Romans, Moors, and Christians,
+miscolored, misplaced, and misinterpreted;<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> here thrust into unseemly
+corners, and there mortised together into mere confusion of
+heterogeneous obstacle; pronouncing itself hourly more intolerable in
+weariness, until any kind of relief is sought from it in steam
+wheelbarrows or cheap toyshops; and most of all in beer and meat, the
+corks and the bones being dropped through the chinks in the damp deal
+flooring of the English Fairy Palace.</p>
+
+<p>57. But you will probably think me unjust in assuming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> that a building
+prepared only for the amusement of the people can typically represent
+the architecture or sculpture of modern England. You may urge that I
+ought rather to describe the qualities of the refined sculpture which is
+executed in large quantities for private persons belonging to the upper
+classes, and for sepulchral and memorial purposes. But I could not now
+criticise that sculpture with any power of conviction to you, because I
+have not yet stated to you the principles of good sculpture in general.
+I will, however, in some points, tell you the facts by anticipation.</p>
+
+<p>58. We have much excellent portrait sculpture; but portrait sculpture,
+which is nothing more, is always third-rate work, even when produced by
+men of genius;&mdash;nor does it in the least require men of genius to
+produce it. To paint a portrait, indeed, implies the very highest gifts
+of painting; but any man, of ordinary patience and artistic feeling, can
+carve a satisfactory bust.</p>
+
+<p>59. Of our powers in historical sculpture, I am, without question, just,
+in taking for sufficient evidence the monuments we have erected to our
+two greatest heroes by sea and land; namely, the Nelson Column, and the
+statue of the Duke of Wellington opposite Apsley House. Nor will you, I
+hope, think me severe,&mdash;certainly, whatever you may think me, I am using
+only the most temperate language, in saying of both these monuments,
+that they are absolutely devoid of high sculptural merit. But consider
+how much is involved in the fact thus dispassionately stated, respecting
+the two monuments in the principal places of our capital, to our two
+greatest heroes.</p>
+
+<p>60. Remember that we have before our eyes, as subjects of perpetual
+study and thought, the art of all the world for three thousand years
+past; especially, we have the best sculpture of Greece, for example of
+bodily perfection; the best of Rome, for example of character in
+portraiture; the best of Florence, for example of romantic passion; we
+have unlimited access to books and other sources of instruction; we have
+the most perfect scientific illustrations of anatomy, both human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> and
+comparative; and we have bribes for the reward of success, large in the
+proportion of at least twenty to one, as compared with those offered to
+the artists of any other period. And with all these advantages, and the
+stimulus also of fame carried instantly by the press to the remotest
+corners of Europe, the best efforts we can make, on the grandest of
+occasions, result in work which it is impossible in any one particular
+to praise.</p>
+
+<p>Now consider for yourselves what an intensity of the negation of the
+faculty of sculpture this implies in the national mind! What measure can
+be assigned to the gulf of incapacity, which can deliberately swallow up
+in the gorge of it the teaching and example of three thousand years, and
+produce, as the result of that instruction, what it is courteous to call
+'nothing'?</p>
+
+<p>61. That is the conclusion at which we arrive on the evidence presented
+by our historical sculpture. To complete the measure of ourselves, we
+must endeavor to estimate the rank of the two opposite schools of
+sculpture employed by us in the nominal service of religion, and in the
+actual service of vice.</p>
+
+<p>I am aware of no statue of Christ, nor of any apostle of Christ, nor of
+any scene related in the New Testament, produced by us within the last
+three hundred years, which has possessed even superficial merit enough
+to attract public attention.</p>
+
+<p>Whereas the steadily immoral effect of the formative art which we learn,
+more or less apishly, from the French schools, and employ, but too
+gladly, in manufacturing articles for the amusement of the luxurious
+classes, must be ranked as one of the chief instruments used by joyful
+fiends and angry fates for the ruin of our civilization.</p>
+
+<p>If, after I have set before you the nature and principles of true
+sculpture, in Athens, Pisa, and Florence, you consider these
+facts,&mdash;(which you will then at once recognize as such),&mdash;you will find
+that they absolutely justify my assertion that the state of sculpture in
+modern England, as compared with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> that of the great Ancients, is
+literally one of corrupt and dishonorable death, as opposed to bright
+and fameful life.</p>
+
+<p>62. And now, will you bear with me while I tell you finally why this is
+so?</p>
+
+<p>The cause with which you are personally concerned is your own frivolity;
+though essentially this is not your fault, but that of the system of
+your early training. But the fact remains the same, that here, in
+Oxford, you, a chosen body of English youth, in nowise care for the
+history of your country, for its present dangers, or its present duties.
+You still, like children of seven or eight years old, are interested
+only in bats, balls, and oars: nay, including with you the students of
+Germany and France, it is certain that the general body of modern
+European youth have their minds occupied more seriously by the sculpture
+and painting of the bowls of their tobacco-pipes, than by all the
+divinest workmanship and passionate imagination of Greece, Rome, and
+Medi&aelig;val Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>63. But the elementary causes, both of this frivolity in you, and of
+worse than frivolity in older persons, are the two forms of deadly
+Idolatry which are now all but universal in England.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these is the worship of the Eidolon, or Fantasm of Wealth;
+worship of which you will find the nature partly examined in the
+thirty-seventh paragraph of my 'Munera Pulveris'; but which is briefly
+to be defined as the servile apprehension of an active power in Money,
+and the submission to it as the God of our life.</p>
+
+<p>64. The second elementary cause of the loss of our nobly imaginative
+faculty, is the worship of the Letter, instead of the Spirit, in what we
+chiefly accept as the ordinance and teaching of Deity; and the
+apprehension of a healing sacredness in the act of reading the Book
+whose primal commands we refuse to obey.</p>
+
+<p>No feather idol of Polynesia was ever a sign of a more shameful idolatry
+than the modern notion in the minds of certainly the majority of English
+religious persons, that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> Word of God, by which the heavens were of
+old, and the earth, standing out of the water and in the water,&mdash;the
+Word of God which came to the prophets, and comes still forever to all
+who will hear it (and to many who will forbear); and which, called
+Faithful and True, is to lead forth, in the judgment, the armies of
+heaven,&mdash;that this 'Word of God' may yet be bound at our pleasure in
+morocco, and carried about in a young lady's pocket, with tasseled
+ribbons to mark the passages she most approves of.</p>
+
+<p>65. Gentlemen, there has hitherto been seen no instance, and England is
+little likely to give the unexampled spectacle, of a country successful
+in the noble arts, yet in which the youths were frivolous, the maidens
+falsely religious; the men, slaves of money, and the matrons, of vanity.
+Not from all the marble of the hills of Luini will such a people ever
+shape one statue that may stand nobly against the sky; not from all the
+treasures bequeathed to them by the great dead, will they gather, for
+their own descendants, any inheritance but shame.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Glance forward at once to &sect; 75, read it, and return to
+this.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> There is a primary and vulgar sense of 'exhibited' in
+Lucian's mind; but the higher meaning is involved in it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In the Greek, 'ambrosial.' Recollect always that ambrosia,
+as food of gods, is the continual restorer of strength; that all food is
+ambrosial when it nourishes, and that the night is called 'ambrosial'
+because it restores strength to the soul through its peace, as, in the
+23d Psalm, the stillness of waters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> I have italicized this final promise of blessedness, given
+by the noble Spirit of Workmanship. Compare Carlyle's fifth Latter-day
+Pamphlet, throughout; but especially pp. 12-14, in the first edition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Falsely represented," would be the better expression. In
+the cast of the tomb of Queen Eleanor, for a single instance, the Gothic
+foliage, of which one essential virtue is its change over every shield,
+is represented by a repetition of casts from one mold, of which the
+design itself is entirely conjectural.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE III.</h2>
+
+<h3>IMAGINATION.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>November, 1870.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>66. The principal object of the preceding Lecture, (and I choose rather
+to incur your blame for tediousness in repeating, than for obscurity in
+defining it,) was to enforce the distinction between the ignoble and
+false phase of Idolatry, which consists in the attribution of a
+spiritual power to a material thing; and the noble and truth-seeking
+phase of it, to which I shall in these Lectures<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> give the general
+term of Imagination;&mdash;that is to say, the invention of material symbols
+which may lead us to contemplate the character and nature of gods,
+spirits, or abstract virtues and powers, without in the least implying
+the actual presence of such Beings among us, or even their possession,
+in reality, of the forms we attribute to them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;">
+<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="285" height="450" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>67. For instance, in the ordinarily received Greek type of Athena, on
+vases of the Phidian time, (sufficiently represented in the following
+wood-cut,) no Greek would have supposed the vase on which this was
+painted to be itself Athena, nor to contain Athena inside of it, as the
+Arabian fisherman's casket contained the genie; neither did he think
+that this rude black painting, done at speed as the potter's fancy urged
+his hand, represented anything like the form or aspect of the goddess
+herself. Nor would he have thought so, even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> had the image been ever so
+beautifully wrought. The goddess might, indeed, visibly appear under the
+form of an armed virgin, as she might under that of a hawk or a swallow,
+when it pleased her to give such manifestation of her presence;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> but it
+did not, therefore, follow that she was constantly invested with any of
+these forms, or that the best which human skill could, even by her own
+aid, picture of her, was, indeed, a likeness of her. The real use, at
+all events, of this rude image, was only to signify to the eye and heart
+the facts of the existence, in some manner, of a Spirit of wisdom,
+perfect in gentleness, irresistible in anger; having also physical
+dominion over the air which is the life and breath of all creatures, and
+clothed, to human eyes, with &aelig;gis of fiery cloud, and raiment of falling
+dew.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;">
+<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="391" height="450" alt="Fig. 3." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>68. In the yet more abstract conception of the Spirit of Agriculture, in
+which the wings of the chariot represent the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> winds of Spring, and its
+crested dragons are originally a mere type of the seed with its twisted
+root piercing the ground, and sharp-edged leaves rising above it, we are
+in still less danger of mistaking the symbol for the presumed form of an
+actual Person. But I must, with persistence, beg of you to observe that
+in all the noble actions of imagination in this kind, the distinction
+from idolatry consists, not in the denial of the being, or presence, of
+the Spirit, but only in the due recognition of our human incapacity to
+conceive the one, or compel the other.</p>
+
+<p>69. Farther&mdash;and for this statement I claim your attention still more
+earnestly. As no nation has ever attained real greatness during periods
+in which it was subject to any condition of Idolatry, so no nation has
+ever attained or persevered in greatness, except in reaching and
+maintaining a passionate Imagination of a spiritual estate higher than
+that of men; and of spiritual creatures nobler than men, having a quite
+real and personal existence, however imperfectly apprehended by us.</p>
+
+<p>And all the arts of the present age deserving to be included under the
+name of sculpture have been degraded by us, and all principles of just
+policy have vanished from us,&mdash;and that totally,&mdash;for this double
+reason; that we are, on one side, given up to idolatries of the most
+servile kind, as I showed you in the close of the last Lecture,&mdash;while,
+on the other hand, we have absolutely ceased from the exercise of
+faithful imagination; and the only remnants of the desire of truth which
+remain in us have been corrupted into a prurient itch to discover the
+origin of life in the nature of the dust, and prove that the source of
+the order of the universe is the accidental concurrence of its atoms.</p>
+
+<p>70. Under these two calamities of our time, the art of sculpture has
+perished more totally than any other, because the object of that art is
+exclusively the representation of form as the exponent of life. It is
+essentially concerned only with the human form, which is the exponent of
+the highest life we know; and with all subordinate forms only as they
+exhibit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> conditions of vital power which have some certain relation to
+humanity. It deals with the "particula undique desecta" of the animal
+nature, and itself contemplates, and brings forward for its disciples'
+contemplation, all the energies of creation which transform the &#960;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#962;,
+or, lower still, the &#946;&#959;&#961;&#946;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962; of the <i>trivia</i>, by
+Athena's help, into forms of power;&mdash;(&#964;&#959; &#956;&#949;&#957; &#959;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#945;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#968;&#957; &#945;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#951;&#957; &#963;&#965;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#947;&#945;&#950;&#949;&#964;&#959; &#948;&#949; &#964;&#959;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#7969;' &#913;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#945;
+&#949;&#956;&#960;&#957;&#949;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#949;&#956;&#968;&#965;&#967;&#945; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#945; &#949;&#953;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#945; &#960;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;;)<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>&mdash;but it has nothing whatever
+to do with the representation of forms not living, however beautiful (as
+of clouds or waves); nor may it condescend to use its perfect skill,
+except in expressing the noblest conditions of life.</p>
+
+<p>These laws of sculpture, being wholly contrary to the practice of our
+day, I cannot expect you to accept on my assertion, nor do I wish you to
+do so. By placing definitely good and bad sculpture before you, I do not
+doubt but that I shall gradually prove to you the nature of all
+excelling and enduring qualities; but to-day I will only confirm my
+assertions by laying before you the statement of the Greeks themselves
+on the subject; given in their own noblest time, and assuredly
+authoritative, in every point which it embraces, for all time to come.</p>
+
+<p>71. If any of you have looked at the explanation I have given of the
+myth of Athena in my 'Queen of the Air,' you cannot but have been
+surprised that I took scarcely any note of the story of her birth. I did
+not, because that story is connected intimately with the Apolline myths;
+and is told of Athena, not essentially as the goddess of the air, but as
+the goddess of Art-Wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>You have probably often smiled at the legend itself, or avoided thinking
+of it, as revolting. It is, indeed, one of the most painful and childish
+of sacred myths; yet remember, ludicrous and ugly as it seems to us,
+this story satisfied the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> fancy of the Athenian people in their highest
+state; and if it did not satisfy, yet it was accepted by, all later
+mythologists: you may also remember I told you to be prepared always to
+find that, given a certain degree of national intellect, the ruder the
+symbol, the deeper would be its purpose. And this legend of the birth of
+Athena is the central myth of all that the Greeks have left us
+respecting the power of their arts; and in it they have expressed, as it
+seemed good to them, the most important things they had to tell us on
+these matters. We may read them wrongly; but we must read them here, if
+anywhere.</p>
+
+<p>72. There are so many threads to be gathered up in the legend, that I
+cannot hope to put it before you in total clearness, but I will take
+main points. Athena is born in the island of Rhodes; and that island is
+raised out of the sea by Apollo, after he had been left without
+inheritance among the gods. Zeus<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> would have cast the lot again, but
+Apollo orders the golden-girdled Lachesis to stretch out her hands; and
+not now by chance or lot, but by noble enchantment, the island rises out
+of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Physically, this represents the action of heat and light on chaos,
+especially on the deep sea. It is the "Fiat lux" of Genesis, the first
+process in the conquest of Fate by Harmony. The island is dedicated to
+the nymph Rhodos, by whom Apollo has the seven sons who teach &#963;&#959;&#966;&#969;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#957;&#959;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;; because the rose is the most beautiful organism
+existing in matter not vital, expressive of the direct action of light
+on the earth, giving lovely form and color at once, (compare the use of
+it by Dante, as the form of the sainted crowd in highest heaven); and
+remember that, therefore, the rose is, in the Greek mind, essentially a
+Doric flower, expressing the worship of Light, as the Iris or Ion is an
+Ionic one, expressing the worship of the Winds and Dew.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>73. To understand the agency of Heph&aelig;stus at the birth of Athena, we
+must again return to the founding of the arts on agriculture by the
+hand. Before you can cultivate land, you must clear it; and the
+characteristic weapon of Heph&aelig;stus,&mdash;which is as much his attribute as
+the trident is of Poseidon, and the rhabdos of Hermes, is not, as you
+would have expected, the hammer, but the clearing-ax&mdash;the double-edged
+&#961;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#954;&#965;&#962;, the same that Calypso gives Ulysses with which to cut
+down the trees for his home voyage; so that both the naval and
+agricultural strength of the Athenians are expressed by this weapon,
+with which they had to hew out their fortune. And you must keep in mind
+this agriculturally laborious character of Heph&aelig;stus, even when he is
+most distinctly the god of serviceable fire; thus Horace's perfect
+epithet for him, "avidus," expresses at once the devouring eagerness of
+fire, and the zeal of progressive labor, for Horace gives it to him when
+he is fighting against the giants. And this rude symbol of his cleaving
+the forehead of Zeus with the ax, and giving birth to Athena, signifies
+indeed, physically, the thrilling power of heat in the heavens, rending
+the clouds, and giving birth to the blue air; but far more deeply it
+signifies the subduing of adverse Fate by true labor; until, out of the
+chasm, cleft by resolute and industrious fortitude, springs the Spirit
+of Wisdom.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="450" height="246" alt="Fig. 4." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>74. Here (Fig. 4) is an early drawing of the myth, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> which I shall
+have to refer afterwards in illustration of the childishness of the
+Greek mind at the time when its art-symbols were first fixed; but it is
+of peculiar value, because the physical character of Vulcan, as fire, is
+indicated by his wearing the &#949;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#953;&#948;&#949;&#962; of Hermes, while the
+antagonism of Zeus, as the adverse chaos, either of cloud or of fate, is
+shown by his striking at Heph&aelig;stus with his thunderbolt. But Plate IV.
+gives you (as far as the light on the rounded vase will allow it to be
+deciphered) a characteristic representation of the scene, as conceived
+in later art.</p>
+
+<p>75. I told you in a former Lecture of this course<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> that the entire
+Greek intellect was in a childish phase as compared to that of modern
+times. Observe, however, childishness does not necessarily imply
+universal inferiority: there may be a vigorous, acute, pure, and solemn
+childhood, and there may be a weak, foul, and ridiculous condition of
+advanced life; but the one is still essentially the childish, and the
+other the adult phase of existence.</p>
+
+<p>76. You will find, then, that the Greeks were the first people that were
+born into complete humanity. All nations before them had been, and all
+around them still were, partly savage, bestial, clay-incumbered,
+inhuman; still semi-goat, or semi-ant, or semi-stone, or semi-cloud. But
+the power of a new spirit came upon the Greeks, and the stones were
+filled with breath, and the clouds clothed with flesh; and then came the
+great spiritual battle between the Centaurs and Lapith&aelig;; and the living
+creatures became "Children of Men." Taught, yet by the Centaur&mdash;sown, as
+they knew, in the fang&mdash;from the dappled skin of the brute, from the
+leprous scale of the serpent, their flesh came again as the flesh of a
+little child, and they were clean.</p>
+
+<p>Fix your mind on this as the very central character of the Greek
+race&mdash;the being born pure and human out of the brutal misery of the
+past, and looking abroad, for the first time, with their children's
+eyes, wonderingly open, on the strange and divine world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/plate4.jpg" width="650" height="316" alt="IV." title="" />
+<span class="caption">IV.<br /><br />
+
+THE NATIVITY OF ATHENA.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>77. Make some effort to remember, so far as may be possible to you,
+either what you felt in yourselves when you were young, or what you have
+observed in other children, of the action of thought and fancy. Children
+are continually represented as living in an ideal world of their own. So
+far as I have myself observed, the distinctive character of a child is
+to live always in the tangible present, having little pleasure in
+memory, and being utterly impatient and tormented by anticipation: weak
+alike in reflection and forethought, but having an intense possession of
+the actual present, down to the shortest moments and least objects of
+it; possessing it, indeed, so intensely that the sweet childish days are
+as long as twenty days will be; and setting all the faculties of heart
+and imagination on little things, so as to be able to make anything out
+of them he chooses. Confined to a little garden, he does not imagine
+himself somewhere else, but makes a great garden out of that; possessed
+of an acorn-cup, he will not despise it and throw it away, and covet a
+golden one in its stead: it is the adult who does so. The child keeps
+his acorn-cup as a treasure, and makes a golden one out of it in his
+mind; so that the wondering grown-up person standing beside him is
+always tempted to ask concerning his treasures, not, "What would you
+have more than these?" but "What possibly can you see <i>in</i> these?" for,
+to the bystander, there is a ludicrous and incomprehensible
+inconsistency between the child's words and the reality. The little
+thing tells him gravely, holding up the acorn-cup, that "this is a
+queen's crown," or "a fairy's boat," and, with beautiful effrontery,
+expects him to believe the same. But observe&mdash;the acorn-cup must be
+<i>there</i>, and in his own hand. "Give it me; then I will make more of it
+for myself." That is the child's one word, always.</p>
+
+<p>78. It is also the one word of the Greek&mdash;"Give it me." Give me <i>any</i>
+thing definite here in my sight, then I will make more of it.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot easily express to you how strange it seems to me that I am
+obliged, here in Oxford, to take the position of an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> apologist for Greek
+art; that I find, in spite of all the devotion of the admirable scholars
+who have so long maintained in our public schools the authority of Greek
+literature, our younger students take no interest in the manual work of
+the people upon whose thoughts the tone of their early intellectual life
+has exclusively depended. But I am not surprised that the interest, if
+awakened, should not at first take the form of admiration. The
+inconsistency between an Homeric description of a piece of furniture or
+armor, and the actual rudeness of any piece of art approximating, within
+even three or four centuries, to the Homeric period, is so great, that
+we at first cannot recognize the art as elucidatory of, or in any way
+related to, the poetic language.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="307" height="450" alt="Fig. 5." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/plate5.jpg" width="650" height="426" alt="V." title="" />
+<span class="caption">V.<br /><br />
+
+TOMB OF THE DOGES JACOPO AND LORENZO TIEPOLO.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>79. You will find, however, exactly the same kind of discrepancy between
+early sculpture, and the languages of deed and thought, in the second
+birth, and childhood, of the world, under Christianity. The same fair
+thoughts and bright imaginations arise again; and, similarly, the fancy
+is content with the rudest symbols by which they can be formalized to
+the eyes. You cannot understand that the rigid figure (2) with checkers
+or spots on its breast, and sharp lines of drapery to its feet, could
+represent, to the Greek, the healing majesty of heaven: but can you any
+better understand how a symbol so haggard as this (Fig. 5) could
+represent to the noblest hearts of the Christian ages the power and
+ministration of angels? Yet it not only did so, but retained in the rude
+undulatory and linear ornamentation of its dress, record of the thoughts
+intended to be conveyed by the spotted &aelig;gis and falling chiton of
+Athena, eighteen hundred years before. Greek and Venetian alike, in
+their noble childhood, knew with the same terror the coiling wind and
+congealed hail in heaven&mdash;saw with the same thankfulness the dew shed
+softly on the earth, and on its flowers; and both recognized, ruling
+these, and symbolized by them, the great helpful spirit of Wisdom, which
+leads the children of men to all knowledge, all courage, and all art.</p>
+
+<p>80. Read the inscription written on the sarcophagus (Plate V.), at the
+extremity of which this angel is sculptured. It stands in an open recess
+in the rude brick wall of the west front of the church of St. John and
+Paul at Venice, being the tomb of the two doges, father and son, Jacopo
+and Lorenzo Tiepolo. This is the inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Quos natura pares studiis, virtutibus, arte<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Edidit, illustres genitor natusque, sepulti<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">H&acirc;c sub rupe Duces. Venetum charissima proles<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Theupula collatis dedit hos celebranda triumphis.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Omnia presentis donavit predia templi<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dux Jacobus: valido fixit moderamine leges<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Urbis, et ingratam redimens certamine Jadram<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dalmatiosque dedit patrie post, Marte subactas<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Graiorum pelago maculavit sanguine classes.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Suscipit oblatos princeps Laurentius Istros,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Et domuit rigidos, ingenti strage cadentes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bononie populos. Hinc subdita Cervia cessit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fundavere vias pacis; fortique relict&acirc;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Re, superos sacris petierunt mentibus ambo.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Dominus Jachobus hobiit<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> <span class="smcap">m. ccli.</span> Dominus Laurentius hobiit<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">m. cclxxviii.</span>"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>You see, therefore, this tomb is an invaluable example of
+thirteenth-century sculpture in Venice. In Plate VI., you have an
+example of the (coin) sculpture of the date accurately corresponding in
+Greece to the thirteenth century in Venice, when the meaning of symbols
+was everything, and the workmanship comparatively nothing. The upper
+head is an Athena, of Athenian work in the seventh or sixth
+century&mdash;(the coin itself may have been struck later, but the archaic
+type was retained). The two smaller impressions below are the front and
+obverse of a coin of the same age from Corinth, the head of Athena on
+one side, and Pegasus, with the archaic Koppa, on the other. The smaller
+head is bare, the hair being looped up at the back and closely bound
+with an olive branch. You are to note this general outline of the head,
+already given in a more finished type in Plate II., as a most important
+elementary form in the finest sculpture, not of Greece only, but of all
+Christendom. In the upper head the hair is restrained still more closely
+by a round helmet, for the most part smooth, but embossed with a single
+flower tendril, having one bud, one flower, and, above it, two olive
+leaves. You have thus the most absolutely restricted symbol possible to
+human thought of the power of Athena over the flowers and trees of the
+earth. An olive leaf by itself could not have stood for the sign of a
+tree, but the two can, when set in position of growth.</p>
+
+<p>I would not give you the reverse of the coin on the same plate, because
+you would have looked at it only, laughed at it, and not examined the
+rest; but here it is, wonderfully engraved for you (Fig. 6): of it we
+shall have more to say afterwards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<img src="images/plate6.jpg" width="296" height="500" alt="VI." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VI.<br /><br />
+
+ARCHAIC ATHENA OF ATHENS AND CORINTH.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>81. And now as you look at these rude vestiges of the religion of
+Greece, and at the vestiges still ruder, on the Ducal tomb, of the
+religion of Christendom, take warning against two opposite errors.</p>
+
+<p>There is a school of teachers who will tell you that nothing but Greek
+art is deserving of study, and that all our work at this day should be
+an imitation of it.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever you feel tempted to believe them, think of these portraits of
+Athena and her owl, and be assured that Greek art is not in all respects
+perfect, nor exclusively deserving of imitation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="375" height="350" alt="Fig. 6." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is another school of teachers who will tell you that Greek art is
+good for nothing; that the soul of the Greek was outcast, and that
+Christianity entirely superseded its faith, and excelled its works.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever you feel tempted to believe <i>them</i>, think of this angel on the
+tomb of Jacopo Tiepolo; and remember that Christianity, after it had
+been twelve hundred years existent as an imaginative power on the earth,
+could do no better work than this, though with all the former power of
+Greece to help it; nor was able to engrave its triumph in having stained
+its fleets in the seas of Greece with the blood of her people, but
+between barbarous imitations of the pillars which that people had
+invented.</p>
+
+<p>82. Receiving these two warnings, receive also this lesson. In both
+examples, childish though it be, this Heathen and Christian art is alike
+sincere, and alike vividly imaginative:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> the actual work is that of
+infancy; the thoughts, in their visionary simplicity, are also the
+thoughts of infancy, but in their solemn virtue they are the thoughts of
+men.</p>
+
+<p>We, on the contrary, are now, in all that we do, absolutely without
+sincerity;&mdash;absolutely, therefore, without imagination, and without
+virtue. Our hands are dexterous with the vile and deadly dexterity of
+machines; our minds filled with incoherent fragments of faith, which we
+cling to in cowardice, without believing, and make pictures of in
+vanity, without loving. False and base alike, whether we admire or
+imitate, we cannot learn from the Heathen's art, but only pilfer it; we
+cannot revive the Christian's art, but only galvanize it; we are, in the
+sum of us, not human artists at all, but mechanisms of conceited clay,
+masked in the furs and feathers of living creatures, and convulsed with
+voltaic spasms, in mockery of animation.</p>
+
+<p>83. You think, perhaps, that I am using terms unjustifiable in violence.
+They would, indeed, be unjustifiable, if, spoken from this chair, they
+were violent at all. They are, unhappily, temperate and
+accurate,&mdash;except in shortcoming of blame. For we are not only impotent
+to restore, but strong to defile, the work of past ages. Of the
+impotence, take but this one, utterly humiliatory, and, in the full
+meaning of it, ghastly, example. We have lately been busy embanking, in
+the capital of the country, the river which, of all its waters, the
+imagination of our ancestors had made most sacred, and the bounty of
+nature most useful. Of all architectural features of the metropolis,
+that embankment will be, in future, the most conspicuous; and in its
+position and purpose it was the most capable of noble adornment.</p>
+
+<p>For that adornment, nevertheless, the utmost which our modern poetical
+imagination has been able to invent, is a row of gas-lamps. It has,
+indeed, farther suggested itself to our minds as appropriate to
+gas-lamps set beside a river, that the gas should come out of fishes'
+tails; but we have not ingenuity enough to cast so much as a smelt or a
+sprat for ourselves; so we borrow the shape of a Neapolitan marble,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+which has been the refuse of the plate and candlestick shops in every
+capital in Europe for the last fifty years. We cast <i>that</i> badly, and
+give luster to the ill-cast fish with lacquer in imitation of bronze. On
+the base of their pedestals, towards the road, we put, for
+advertisement's sake, the initials of the casting firm; and, for farther
+originality and Christianity's sake, the caduceus of Mercury: and to
+adorn the front of the pedestals, towards the river, being now wholly at
+our wits' end, we can think of nothing better than to borrow the
+door-knocker which&mdash;again for the last fifty years&mdash;has disturbed and
+decorated two or three millions of London street-doors; and magnifying
+the marvelous device of it, a lion's head with a ring in its mouth,
+(still borrowed from the Greek,) we complete the embankment with a row
+of heads and rings, on a scale which enables them to produce, at the
+distance at which only they can be seen, the exact effect of a row of
+sentry-boxes.</p>
+
+<p>84. Farther. In the very center of the City, and at the point where the
+Embankment commands a view of Westminster Abbey on one side, and of St.
+Paul's on the other,&mdash;that is to say, at precisely the most important
+and stately moment of its whole course,&mdash;it has to pass under one of the
+arches of Waterloo Bridge, which, in the sweep of its curve, is as
+vast&mdash;it alone&mdash;as the Rialto at Venice, and scarcely less seemly in
+proportions. But over the Rialto, though of late and debased Venetian
+work, there still reigns some power of human imagination: on the two
+flanks of it are carved the Virgin and the Angel of the Annunciation; on
+the keystone, the descending Dove. It is not, indeed, the fault of
+living designers that the Waterloo arch is nothing more than a gloomy
+and hollow heap of wedged blocks of blind granite. But just beyond the
+damp shadow of it, the new Embankment is reached by a flight of stairs,
+which are, in point of fact, the principal approach to it, afoot, from
+central London; the descent from the very midst of the metropolis of
+England to the banks of the chief river of England; and for this
+approach, living designers <i>are</i> answerable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>85. The principal decoration of the descent is again a gas-lamp, but a
+shattered one, with a brass crown on the top of it, or, rather,
+half-crown, and that turned the wrong way, the back of it to the river
+and causeway, its flame supplied by a visible pipe far wandering along
+the wall; the whole apparatus being supported by a rough cross-beam.
+Fastened to the center of the arch above is a large placard, stating
+that the Royal Humane Society's drags are in constant readiness, and
+that their office is at 4, Trafalgar Square. On each side of the arch
+are temporary, but dismally old and battered boardings, across two
+angles capable of unseemly use by the British public. Above one of these
+is another placard, stating that this is the Victoria Embankment. The
+steps themselves&mdash;some forty of them&mdash;descend under a tunnel, which the
+shattered gas-lamp lights by night, and nothing by day. They are covered
+with filthy dust, shaken off from infinitude of filthy feet; mixed up
+with shreds of paper, orange-peel, foul straw, rags, and cigar-ends, and
+ashes; the whole agglutinated, more or less, by dry saliva into slippery
+blotches and patches; or, when not so fastened, blown dismally by the
+sooty wind hither and thither, or into the faces of those who ascend and
+descend. The place is worth your visit, for you are not likely to find
+elsewhere a spot which, either in costly and ponderous brutality of
+building, or in the squalid and indecent accompaniment of it, is so far
+separated from the peace and grace of nature, and so accurately
+indicative of the methods of our national resistance to the Grace,
+Mercy, and Peace of Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>86. I am obliged always to use the English word 'Grace' in two senses,
+but remember that the Greek &#967;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#962; includes them both (the
+bestowing, that is to say, of Beauty and Mercy); and especially it
+includes these in the passage of Pindar's first ode, which gives us the
+key to the right interpretation of the power of sculpture in Greece. You
+remember that I told you, in my Sixth Introductory Lecture (&sect; 151), that
+the mythic accounts of Greek sculpture begin in the legends of the
+family of Tantalus; and especially in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> the most grotesque legend of them
+all, the inlaying of the ivory shoulder of Pelops. At that story Pindar
+pauses,&mdash;not, indeed, without admiration, nor alleging any impossibility
+in the circumstances themselves, but doubting the careless hunger of
+Demeter,&mdash;and gives his own reading of the event, instead of the ancient
+one. He justifies this to himself, and to his hearers, by the plea that
+myths have, in some sort, or degree, (&#961;&#959;&#965; &#964;&#953;,) led the mind of
+mortals beyond the truth; and then he goes on:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Grace, which creates everything that is kindly and soothing for
+mortals, adding honor, has often made things, at first untrustworthy,
+become trustworthy through Love."</p>
+
+<p>87. I cannot, except in these lengthened terms, give you the complete
+force of the passage; especially of the &#945;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#956;&#951;&#963;&#945;&#964;&#959; &#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957;&mdash;"made
+it trustworthy by passionate desire that it should be
+so"&mdash;which exactly describes the temper of religious persons at the
+present day, who are kindly and sincere, in clinging to the forms of
+faith which either have long been precious to themselves, or which they
+feel to have been without question instrumental in advancing the dignity
+of mankind. And it is part of the constitution of humanity&mdash;a part
+which, above others, you are in danger of unwisely contemning under the
+existing conditions of our knowledge, that the things thus sought for
+belief with eager passion, do, indeed, become trustworthy to us; that,
+to each of us, they verily become what we would have them; the force of
+the &#956;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#962; and &#956;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#951; with which we seek after them,
+does, indeed, make them powerful to us for actual good or evil; and it
+is thus granted to us to create not only with our hands things that
+exalt or degrade our sight, but with our hearts also, things that exalt
+or degrade our souls; giving true substance to all that we hoped for;
+evidence to things that we have not seen, but have desired to see; and
+calling, in the sense of creating, things that are not, as though they
+were.</p>
+
+<p>88. You remember that in distinguishing Imagination from Idolatry, I
+referred<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> you to the forms of passionate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> affection with which a
+noble people commonly regards the rivers and springs of its native land.
+Some conception of personality, or of spiritual power in the stream, is
+almost necessarily involved in such emotion; and prolonged &#967;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#962;, in the form of gratitude, the return of Love for benefits
+continually bestowed, at last alike in all the highest and the simplest
+minds, when they are honorable and pure, makes this untrue thing
+trustworthy; &#945;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#956;&#951;&#963;&#945;&#964;&#959; &#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957;, until it becomes to them
+the safe basis of some of the happiest impulses of their moral nature.
+Next to the marbles of Verona, given you as a primal type of the
+sculpture of Christianity, moved to its best energy in adorning the
+entrance of its temples, I have not unwillingly placed, as your
+introduction to the best sculpture of the religion of Greece, the forms
+under which it represented the personality of the fountain Arethusa. But
+without restriction to those days of absolute devotion, let me simply
+point out to you how this untrue thing, made true by Love, has intimate
+and heavenly authority even over the minds of men of the most practical
+sense, the most shrewd wit, and the most severe precision of moral
+temper. The fair vision of Sabrina in 'Comus,' the endearing and tender
+promise, "Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium," and the joyful and proud
+affection of the great Lombard's address to the lakes of his enchanted
+land,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i6">"Te, Lari maxume, teque<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino,"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>may surely be remembered by you with regretful piety, when you stand by
+the blank stones which at once restrain and disgrace your native river,
+as the final worship rendered to it by modern philosophy. But a little
+incident which I saw last summer on its bridge at Wallingford, may put
+the contrast of ancient and modern feeling before you still more
+forcibly.</p>
+
+<p>89. Those of you who have read with attention (none of us can read with
+too much attention), Moli&egrave;re's most perfect work, 'The Misanthrope,'
+must remember Celim&egrave;ne's description<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> of her lovers, and her excellent
+reason for being unable to regard with any favor, "notre grand flandrin
+de vicomte,&mdash;depuis que je l'ai vu, trois quarts d'heure durant, cracher
+dans un puits pour faire des ronds." That sentence is worth noting, both
+in contrast to the reverence paid by the ancients to wells and springs,
+and as one of the most interesting traces of the extension of the
+loathsome habit among the upper classes of Europe and America, which now
+renders all external grace, dignity, and decency impossible in the
+thoroughfares of their principal cities. In connection with that
+sentence of Moli&egrave;re's you may advisably also remember this fact, which I
+chanced to notice on the bridge of Wallingford. I was walking from end
+to end of it, and back again, one Sunday afternoon of last May, trying
+to conjecture what had made this especial bend and ford of the Thames so
+important in all the Anglo-Saxon wars. It was one of the few sunny
+afternoons of the bitter spring, and I was very thankful for its light,
+and happy in watching beneath it the flow and the glittering of the
+classical river, when I noticed a well-dressed boy, apparently just out
+of some orderly Sunday-school, leaning far over the parapet; watching,
+as I conjectured, some bird or insect on the bridge-buttress. I went up
+to him to see what he was looking at; but just as I got close to him, he
+started over to the opposite parapet, and put himself there into the
+same position, his object being, as I then perceived, to spit from both
+sides upon the heads of a pleasure party who were passing in a boat
+below.</p>
+
+<p>90. The incident may seem to you too trivial to be noticed in this
+place. To me, gentlemen, it was by no means trivial. It meant, in the
+depth of it, such absence of all true &#967;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#962;, reverence, and
+intellect, as it is very dreadful to trace in the mind of any human
+creature, much more in that of a child educated with apparently every
+advantage of circumstance in a beautiful English country town, within
+ten miles of our University. Most of all is it terrific when we regard
+it as the exponent (and this, in truth, it is) of the temper which, as
+distinguished from former methods, either of discipline<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> or recreation,
+the present tenor of our general teaching fosters in the mind of
+youth;&mdash;teaching which asserts liberty to be a right, and obedience a
+degradation; and which, regardless alike of the fairness of nature and
+the grace of behavior, leaves the insolent spirit and degraded senses to
+find their only occupation in malice, and their only satisfaction in
+shame.</p>
+
+<p>91. You will, I hope, proceed with me, not scornfully any more, to
+trace, in the early art of a noble heathen nation, the feeling of what
+was at least a better childishness than this of ours; and the efforts to
+express, though with hands yet failing, and minds oppressed by ignorant
+fantasy, the first truth by which they knew that they lived; the birth
+of wisdom and of all her powers of help to man, as the reward of his
+resolute labor.</p>
+
+<p>92. "&#7945;&#966;&#945;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#964;&#949;&#967;&#957;&#953;&#963;&#953;." Note that word of Pindar in the
+Seventh Olympic. This ax-blow of Vulcan's was to the Greek mind truly
+what Clytemnestra falsely asserts hers to have been, "&#964;&#951;&#962; &#948;&#949; &#948;&#949;&#958;&#953;&#945;&#962; &#967;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#962;, &#949;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#957;, &#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#953;&#945;&#962; &#964;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#962;";
+physically, it meant the
+opening of the blue through the rent clouds of heaven, by the action of
+local terrestrial heat (of Heph&aelig;stus as opposed to Apollo, who shines on
+the surface of the upper clouds, but cannot pierce them); and,
+spiritually, it meant the first birth of prudent thought out of rude
+labor, the clearing-ax in the hand of the woodman being the practical
+elementary sign of his difference from the wild animals of the wood.
+Then he goes on, "From the high head of her Father, Athenaia rushing
+forth, cried with her great and exceeding cry; and the Heaven trembled
+at her, and the Earth Mother." The cry of Athena, I have before pointed
+out, physically distinguishes her, as the spirit of the air, from silent
+elemental powers; but in this grand passage of Pindar it is again the
+mythic cry of which he thinks; that is to say, the giving articulate
+words, by intelligence, to the silence of Fate. "Wisdom crieth aloud,
+she uttereth her voice in the streets," and Heaven and Earth tremble at
+her reproof.</p>
+
+<p>93. Uttereth her voice in the "streets." For all men,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> that is to say;
+but to what work did the Greeks think that her voice was to call them?
+What was to be the impulse communicated by her prevailing presence; what
+the sign of the people's obedience to her?</p>
+
+<p>This was to be the sign&mdash;"But she, the goddess herself, gave to them to
+prevail over the dwellers upon earth, <i>with best-laboring hands in every
+art. And by their paths there were the likenesses of living and of
+creeping things</i>; and the glory was deep. For to the cunning workman,
+greater knowledge comes, undeceitful."</p>
+
+<p>94. An infinitely pregnant passage, this, of which to-day you are to
+note mainly these three things: First, that Athena is the goddess of
+Doing, not at all of sentimental inaction. She is begotten, as it were,
+of the woodman's ax; her purpose is never in a word only, but in a word
+and a blow. She guides the hands that labor best, in every art.</p>
+
+<p>95. Secondly. The victory given by Wisdom, the worker, to the hands that
+labor best, is that the streets and ways, &#954;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#952;&#959;&#953;, shall be
+filled by likenesses of living and creeping things.</p>
+
+<p>Things living, and creeping! Are the Reptile things not alive then? You
+think Pindar wrote that carelessly? or that, if he had only known a
+little modern anatomy, instead of 'reptile' things, he would have said
+'monochondylous' things? Be patient, and let us attend to the main
+points first.</p>
+
+<p>Sculpture, it thus appears, is the only work of wisdom that the Greeks
+care to speak of; they think it involves and crowns every other.
+Image-making art; <i>this</i> is Athena's, as queenliest of the arts.
+Literature, the order and the strength of word, of course belongs to
+Apollo and the Muses; under Athena are the Substances and the Forms of
+things.</p>
+
+<p>96. Thirdly. By this forming of Images there is to be gained a
+'deep'&mdash;that is to say, a weighty, and prevailing, glory; not a floating
+nor fugitive one. For to the cunning workman, greater knowledge comes,
+'undeceitful.'</p>
+
+<p>"&#916;&#945;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#953;" I am forced to use two English words to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> translate
+that single Greek one. The 'cunning' workman, thoughtful in experience,
+touch, and vision of the thing to be done; no machine, witless, and of
+necessary motion; yet not cunning only, but having perfect habitual
+skill of hand also; the confirmed reward of truthful doing. Recollect,
+in connection with this passage of Pindar, Homer's three verses about
+getting the lines of ship-timber true, (Il. <span class="smcap">xv</span>. 410):</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"&#7945;&#955;&#955;' &#969;&#963;&#964;&#949; &#963;&#964;&#945;&#952;&#956;&#951; &#948;&#959;&#961;&#965; &#957;&#951;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#958;&#953;&#952;&#965;&#957;&#949;&#953;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&#964;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#949;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#956; &#963;&#953; &#948;&#945;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#962;, &#8001;&#959; &#8165;&#945; &#964;&#949; &#960;&#945;&#963;&#951;&#962;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&#949;&#965; &#949;&#953;&#948;&#951; &#963;&#959;&#966;&#953;&#951;&#962;, &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#965;&#957;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#957;' &#913;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#951;&#962;,"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and the beautiful epithet of Persephone,&mdash;"&#948;&#945;&#949;&#961;&#945;," as the
+Tryer and Knower of good work; and remembering these, trust Pindar for
+the truth of his saying, that to the cunning workman&mdash;(and let me
+solemnly enforce the words by adding&mdash;that to him <i>only</i>,) knowledge
+comes undeceitful.</p>
+
+<p>97. You may have noticed, perhaps, and with a smile, as one of the
+paradoxes you often hear me blamed for too fondly stating, what I told
+you in the close of my Third Introductory Lecture,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> that "so far from
+art's being immoral, little else except art is moral." I have now
+farther to tell you, that little else, except art, is wise; that all
+knowledge, unaccompanied by a habit of useful action, is too likely to
+become deceitful, and that every habit of useful action must resolve
+itself into some elementary practice of manual labor. And I would, in
+all sober and direct earnestness, advise you, whatever may be the aim,
+predilection, or necessity of your lives, to resolve upon this one thing
+at least, that you will enable yourselves daily to do actually with your
+hands, something that is useful to mankind. To do anything well with
+your hands, useful or not; to be, even in trifling, &#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#956;&#951;&#963;&#953; &#948;&#945;&#951;&#956;&#969;&#957;, is already much. When we come to examine the art of the Middle
+Ages, I shall be able to show you that the strongest of all influences
+of right then brought to bear upon character was the necessity for
+exquisite manual dexterity in the management of the spear and bridle;
+and in your own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> experience most of you will be able to recognize the
+wholesome effect, alike on body and mind, of striving, within proper
+limits of time, to become either good batsmen or good oarsmen. But the
+bat and the racer's oar are children's toys. Resolve that you will be
+men in usefulness, as well as in strength; and you will find that then
+also, but not till then, you can become men in understanding; and that
+every fine vision and subtle theorem will present itself to you
+thence-forward undeceitfully, &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#965;&#957;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#957; &#913;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#951;&#962;.</p>
+
+<p>98. But there is more to be gathered yet from the words of Pindar. He is
+thinking, in his brief intense way, at once of Athena's work on the
+soul, and of her literal power on the dust of the Earth. His "&#954;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#952;&#959;&#953;"
+is a wide word, meaning all the paths of sea and land.
+Consider, therefore, what Athena's own work <i>actually is</i>&mdash;in the
+literal fact of it. The blue, clear air <i>is</i> the sculpturing power upon
+the earth and sea. Where the surface of the earth is reached by that,
+and its matter and substance inspired with and filled by that, organic
+form becomes possible. You must indeed have the sun, also, and moisture;
+the kingdom of Apollo risen out of the sea: but the sculpturing of
+living things, shape by shape, is Athena's, so that under the brooding
+spirit of the air, what was without form, and void, brings forth the
+moving creature that hath life.</p>
+
+<p>99. That is her work then&mdash;the giving of Form; then the separately
+Apolline work is the giving of Light; or, more strictly, Sight: giving
+that faculty to the retina to which we owe not merely the idea of light,
+but the existence of it; for light is to be defined only as the
+sensation produced in the eye of an animal, under given conditions;
+those same conditions being, to a stone, only warmth or chemical
+influence, but not light. And that power of seeing, and the other
+various personalities and authorities of the animal body, in pleasure
+and pain, have never, hitherto, been, I do not say, explained, but in
+anywise touched or approached by scientific discovery. Some of the
+conditions of mere external animal form and of muscular vitality have
+been shown; but for the most part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> that is true, even of external form,
+which I wrote six years ago. "You may always stand by Form against
+Force. To a painter, the essential character of anything is the form of
+it, and the philosophers cannot touch that. They come and tell you, for
+instance, that there is as much heat, or motion, or calorific energy (or
+whatever else they like to call it), in a tea-kettle, as in a
+gier-eagle. Very good: that is so, and it is very interesting. It
+requires just as much heat as will boil the kettle, to take the
+gier-eagle up to his nest, and as much more to bring him down again on a
+hare or a partridge. But we painters, acknowledging the equality and
+similarity of the kettle and the bird in all scientific respects,
+attach, for our part, our principal interest to the difference in their
+forms. For us, the primarily cognizable facts, in the two things, are,
+that the kettle has a spout, and the eagle a beak; the one a lid on its
+back, the other a pair of wings; not to speak of the distinction also of
+volition, which the philosophers may properly call merely a form or mode
+of force&mdash;but then, to an artist, the form or mode is the gist of the
+business."<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>100. As you will find that it is, not to the artist only, but to all of
+us. The laws under which matter is collected and constructed are the
+same throughout the universe: the substance so collected, whether for
+the making of the eagle, or the worm, may be analyzed into gaseous
+identity; a diffusive vital force, apparently so closely related to
+mechanically measurable heat as to admit the conception of its being
+itself mechanically measurable, and unchanging in total quantity, ebbs
+and flows alike through the limbs of men and the fibers of insects. But,
+above all this, and ruling every grotesque or degraded accident of this,
+are two laws of beauty in form, and of nobility in character, which
+stand in the chaos of creation between the Living and the Dead, to
+separate the things that have in them a sacred and helpful, from those
+that have in them an accursed and destroying, nature; and the power of
+Athena, first physically put forth in the sculpturing of these &#950;&#969;&#945;
+and &#7953;&#961;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#945;, these living and reptile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> things, is put
+forth, finally, in enabling the hearts of men to discern the one from
+the other; to know the unquenchable fires of the Spirit from the
+unquenchable fires of Death; and to choose, not unaided, between
+submission to the Love that cannot end, or to the Worm that cannot die.</p>
+
+<p>101. The unconsciousness of their antagonism is the most notable
+characteristic of the modern scientific mind; and I believe no credulity
+or fallacy admitted by the weakness (or it may sometimes rather have
+been the strength) of early imagination, indicates so strange a
+depression beneath the due scale of human intellect, as the failure of
+the sense of beauty in form, and loss of faith in heroism of conduct,
+which have become the curses of recent science,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> art, and policy.</p>
+
+<p>102. That depression of intellect has been alike exhibited in the mean
+consternation confessedly felt on one side, and the mean triumph
+apparently felt on the other, during the course of the dispute now
+pending as to the origin of man. Dispute for the present not to be
+decided, and of which the decision is, to persons in the modern temper
+of mind, wholly without significance: and I earnestly desire that you,
+my pupils, may have firmness enough to disengage your energies from
+investigation so premature and so fruitless, and sense enough to
+perceive that it does not matter how you have been made, so long as you
+are satisfied with being what you are. If you are dissatisfied with
+yourselves, it ought not to console, but humiliate you, to imagine that
+you were once seraphs; and if you are pleased with yourselves, it is not
+any ground of reasonable shame to you if, by no fault of your own, you
+have passed through the elementary condition of apes.</p>
+
+<p>103. Remember, therefore, that it is of the very highest importance that
+you should know what you <i>are</i>, and determine to be the best that you
+may be; but it is of no importance whatever, except as it may contribute
+to that end, to know what you have been. Whether your Creator shaped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+you with fingers, or tools, as a sculptor would a lump of clay, or
+gradually raised you to manhood through a series of inferior forms, is
+only of moment to you in this respect&mdash;that in the one case you cannot
+expect your children to be nobler creatures than you are yourselves&mdash;in
+the other, every act and thought of your present life may be hastening
+the advent of a race which will look back to you, their fathers (and you
+ought at least to have attained the dignity of desiring that it may be
+so,) with incredulous disdain.</p>
+
+<p>104. But that you <i>are</i> yourselves capable of that disdain and dismay;
+that you are ashamed of having been apes, if you ever were so; that you
+acknowledge, instinctively, a relation of better and worse, and a law
+respecting what is noble and base, which makes it no question to you
+that the man is worthier than the baboon,&mdash;<i>this</i> is a fact of infinite
+significance. This law of preference in your hearts is the true essence
+of your being, and the consciousness of that law is a more positive
+existence than any dependent on the coherence or forms of matter.</p>
+
+<p>105. Now, but a few words more of mythology, and I have done. Remember
+that Athena holds the weaver's shuttle, not merely as an instrument of
+<i>texture</i>, but as an instrument of <i>picture</i>; the ideas of clothing, and
+of the warmth of life, being thus inseparably connected with those of
+graphic beauty, and the brightness of life. I have told you that no art
+could be recovered among us without perfectness in dress, nor without
+the elementary graphic art of women, in divers colors of needlework.
+There has been no nation of any art-energy, but has strenuously occupied
+and interested itself in this household picturing, from the web of
+Penelope to the tapestry of Queen Matilda, and the meshes of Arras and
+Gobelins.</p>
+
+<p>106. We should then naturally ask what kind of embroidery Athena put on
+her own robe; "&#960;&#949;&#960;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;, &#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#957;, &#8001;&#957; &#961;' &#945;&#965;&#964;&#951; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#951;&#962;&#945;&#964;&#959; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#956;&#949; &#967;&#949;&#961;&#963;&#953;&#957;."</p>
+
+<p>The subject of that &#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#945; of hers, as you know, was the war
+of the giants and gods. Now the real name of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> giants, remember, is
+that used by Hesiod, '&#960;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#953;,' 'mud-begotten,' and the
+meaning of the contest between these and Zeus, &#960;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#949;&#955;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#961;, is, again, the inspiration of life into the clay, by the
+goddess of breath; and the actual confusion going on visibly before you,
+daily, of the earth, heaping itself into cumbrous war with the powers
+above it.</p>
+
+<p>107. Thus, briefly, the entire material of Art, under Athena's hand, is
+the contest of life with clay; and all my task in explaining to you the
+early thought of both the Athenian and Tuscan schools will only be the
+tracing of this battle of the giants into its full heroic form, when,
+not in tapestry only, but in sculpture, and on the portal of the Temple
+of Delphi itself, you have the "&#954;&#955;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#949;&#957; &#964;&#949;&#953;&#967;&#949;&#963;&#953; &#955;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#963;&#953; &#947;&#953;&#947;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#969;&#957;,"
+and their defeat hailed by the passionate cry of delight
+from the Athenian maids, beholding Pallas in her full power, "&#955;&#949;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#969;; &#928;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#948;'&#949;&#956;&#945;&#957; &#952;&#949;&#959;&#957;,"
+my own goddess. All our work, I repeat,
+will be nothing but the inquiry into the development of this one
+subject, and the pressing fully home the question of Plato about that
+embroidery&mdash;"And think you that there is verily war with each other
+among the Gods? and dreadful enmities and battles, such as the poets
+have told, and such as our painters set forth in graven scripture, to
+adorn all our sacred rites and holy places; yes, and in the great
+Panathenaea themselves, the Peplus, full of such wild picturing, is
+carried up into the Acropolis&mdash;shall we say that these things are true,
+oh Euthuphron, right-minded friend?"</p>
+
+<p>108. Yes, we say, and know, that these things are true; and true
+forever: battles of the gods, not among themselves, but against the
+earth-giants. Battle prevailing age by age, in nobler life and lovelier
+imagery; creation, which no theory of mechanism, no definition of force,
+can explain, the adoption and completing of individual form by
+individual animation, breathed out of the lips of the Father of Spirits.
+And to recognize the presence in every knitted shape of dust, by which
+it lives and moves and has its being&mdash;to recognize it, revere, and show
+it forth, is to be our eternal Idolatry.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Thou shalt not bow down to them, nor worship them."</p>
+
+<p>"Assuredly no," we answered once, in our pride; and through porch and
+aisle, broke down the carved work thereof, with axes and hammers.</p>
+
+<p>Who would have thought the day so near when we should bow down to
+worship, not the creatures, but their atoms,&mdash;not the forces that form,
+but those that dissolve them? Trust me, gentlemen, the command which is
+stringent against adoration of brutality, is stringent no less against
+adoration of chaos, nor is faith in an image fallen from heaven to be
+reformed by a faith only in the phenomenon of decadence. We have ceased
+from the making of monsters to be appeased by sacrifice;&mdash;it is
+well,&mdash;if indeed we have also ceased from making them in our thoughts.
+We have learned to distrust the adorning of fair fantasms, to which we
+once sought for succor;&mdash;it is well, if we learn to distrust also the
+adorning of those to which we seek, for temptation; but the verity of
+gains like these can only be known by our confession of the divine seal
+of strength and beauty upon the tempered frame, and honor in the fervent
+heart, by which, increasing visibly, may yet be manifested to us the
+holy presence, and the approving love, of the Loving God, who visits the
+iniquities of the Fathers upon the Children, unto the third and fourth
+generation of them that hate Him, and shows mercy unto thousands of them
+that love Him, and keep His Commandments.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> I shall be obliged in future Lectures, as hitherto in my
+other writings, to use the terms Idolatry and Imagination in a more
+comprehensive sense; but here I use them for convenience' sake,
+limitedly, to avoid the continual occurrence of the terms noble and
+ignoble, or false and true, with reference to modes of conception.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> "And in sum, he himself (Prometheus) was the master-maker,
+and Athena worked together with him, breathing into the clay, and caused
+the molded things to have soul (psyche) in them."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lucian</span>,
+<i>Prometheus.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> His relations with the two great Titans, Themis and
+Mnemosyne, belong to another group of myths. The father of Athena is the
+lower and nearer physical Zeus, from whom Metis, the mother of Athena,
+long withdraws and disguises herself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Ante</i>, &sect; 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The Latin verses are of later date; the contemporary plain
+prose retains the Venetian gutturals and aspirates.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Ante</i>, &sect; 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "Lectures on Art," &sect; 95.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Ethics of the Dust," Lecture X.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The best modern illustrated scientific works show perfect
+faculty of representing monkeys, lizards, and insects; absolute
+incapability of representing either a man, a horse, or a lion.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>LIKENESS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>November, 1870.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>109. You were probably vexed, and tired, towards the close of my last
+Lecture, by the time it took us to arrive at the apparently simple
+conclusion that sculpture must only represent organic form, and the
+strength of life in its contest with matter. But it is no small thing to
+have that "&#955;&#949;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#969; &#928;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#948;&#945;" fixed in your minds, as the one
+necessary sign by which you are to recognize right sculpture; and,
+believe me, you will find it the best of all things, if you can take for
+yourselves the saying from the lips of the Athenian maids, in its
+entirety, and say also&mdash;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#969; &#928;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#948;' &#949;&#956;&#945;&#957; &#952;&#949;&#959;&#957;. I proceed
+to-day into the practical appliance of this apparently speculative, but
+in reality imperative, law.</p>
+
+<p>110. You observe, I have hitherto spoken of the power of Athena, as over
+painting no less than sculpture. But her rule over both arts is only so
+far as they are zoographic;&mdash;representative, that is to say, of animal
+life, or of such order and discipline among other elements, as may
+invigorate and purify it. Now there is a speciality of the art of
+painting beyond this, namely, the representation of phenomena of color
+and shadow, as such, without question of the nature of the things that
+receive them. I am now accordingly obliged to speak of sculpture and
+painting as distinct arts: but the laws which bind sculpture, bind no
+less the painting of the higher schools, which has, for its main
+purpose, the showing beauty in human or animal form; and which is
+therefore placed by the Greeks equally under the rule of Athena, as the
+Spirit, first, of Life, and then of Wisdom in conduct.</p>
+
+<p>111. First, I say, you are to 'see Pallas' in all such work,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> as the
+Queen of Life; and the practical law which follows from this, is one of
+enormous range and importance, namely, that nothing must be represented
+by sculpture, external to any living form, which does not help to
+enforce or illustrate the conception of life. Both dress and armor may
+be made to do this, by great sculptors, and are continually so used by
+the greatest. One of the essential distinctions between the Athenian and
+Florentine schools is dependent on their treatment of drapery in this
+respect; an Athenian always sets it to exhibit the action of the body,
+by flowing with it, or over it, or from it, so as to illustrate both its
+form and gesture; a Florentine, on the contrary, always uses his drapery
+to conceal or disguise the forms of the body, and exhibit mental
+emotion; but both use it to enhance the life, either of the body or
+soul; Donatello and Michael Angelo, no less than the sculptors of Gothic
+chivalry, ennoble armor in the same way; but base sculptors carve
+drapery and armor for the sake of their folds and picturesqueness only,
+and forget the body beneath. The rule is so stern, that all delight in
+mere incidental beauty, which painting often triumphs in, is wholly
+forbidden to sculpture;&mdash;for instance, in <i>painting</i> the branch of a
+tree, you may rightly represent and enjoy the lichens and moss on it,
+but a sculptor must not touch one of them: they are inessential to the
+tree's life,&mdash;he must give the flow and bending of the branch only, else
+he does not enough 'see Pallas' in it.</p>
+
+<p>Or, to take a higher instance, here is an exquisite little painted poem,
+by Edward Frere; a cottage interior, one of the thousands which within
+the last two months<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> have been laid desolate in unhappy France. Every
+accessory in the painting is of value&mdash;the fireside, the tiled floor,
+the vegetables lying upon it, and the basket hanging from the roof. But
+not one of these accessories would have been admissible in sculpture.
+You must carve nothing but what has life. "Why?" you probably feel
+instantly inclined to ask me.&mdash;You<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> see the principle we have got,
+instead of being blunt or useless, is such an edged tool that you are
+startled the moment I apply it. "Must we refuse every pleasant accessory
+and picturesque detail, and petrify nothing but living creatures?" Even
+so: I would not assert it on my own authority. It is the Greeks who say
+it, but whatever they say of sculpture, be assured, is true.</p>
+
+<p>112. That then is the first law&mdash;you must see Pallas as the Lady of
+Life; the second is, you must see her as the Lady of Wisdom; or &#963;&#959;&#966;&#953;&#945;&mdash;and this is the chief matter of all. I cannot but think that,
+after the considerations into which we have now entered, you will find
+more interest than hitherto in comparing the statements of Aristotle, in
+the Ethics, with those of Plato in the Polity, which are authoritative
+as Greek definitions of goodness in art, and which you may safely hold
+authoritative as constant definitions of it. You remember, doubtless,
+that the &#963;&#959;&#966;&#953;&#945;, or &#945;&#961;&#949;&#964;&#951; &#960;&#949;&#967;&#951;&#962;, for the sake of
+which Phidias is called &#963;&#959;&#966;&#959;&#962; as a sculpture, and Polyclitus
+as an image-maker, Eth. 6. 7. (the opposition is both between ideal and
+portrait sculpture, and between working in stone and bronze), consists
+in the "&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#964;&#969;&#957; &#964;&#953;&#956;&#953;&#969;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#969;&#957; &#964; &#951; &#966;&#965;&#963;&#949;&#953;," "the mental
+apprehension of the things that are most honorable in their nature."
+Therefore, what is indeed most lovely, the true image-maker will most
+love; and what is most hateful, he will most hate; and in all things
+discern the best and strongest part of them, and represent that
+essentially, or, if the opposite of that, then with manifest detestation
+and horror. That is his art wisdom; the knowledge of good and evil, and
+the love of good, so that you may discern, even in his representation of
+the vilest thing, his acknowledgment of what redemption is possible for
+it, or latent power exists in it; and, contrariwise, his sense of its
+present misery. But, for the most part, he will idolize, and force us
+also to idolize, whatever is living, and virtuous, and victoriously
+right; opposing to it in some definite mode the image of the conquered
+&#7953;&#961;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#957;.</p>
+
+<p>113. This is generally true of both the great arts; but in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> severity and
+precision, true of sculpture. To return to our illustration: this poor
+little girl was more interesting to Edward Frere, he being a painter,
+because she was poorly dressed, and wore these clumsy shoes, and old red
+cap, and patched gown. May we sculpture her so? No. We may sculpture her
+naked, if we like; but not in rags.</p>
+
+<p>But if we may not put her into marble in rags, may we give her a pretty
+frock with ribbons and flounces to it, and put her into marble in that?
+No. We may put her simplest peasant's dress, so it be perfect and
+orderly, into marble; anything finer than that would be more
+dishonorable in the eyes of Athena than rags. If she were a French
+princess, you might carve her embroidered robe and diadem; if she were
+Joan of Arc, you might carve her armor&mdash;for then these also would be
+"&#964;&#969;&#957; &#964;&#953;&#956;&#953;&#969;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#969;&#957;," not otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>114. Is not this an edge-tool we have got hold of, unawares? and a
+subtle one too; so delicate and cimeter-like in decision. For note that
+even Joan of Arc's armor must be only sculptured, <i>if she has it on</i>; it
+is not the honorableness or beauty of it that are enough, but the direct
+bearing of it by her body. You might be deeply, even pathetically,
+interested by looking at a good knight's dinted coat of mail, left in
+his desolate hall. May you sculpture it where it hangs? No; the helmet
+for his pillow, if you will&mdash;no more.</p>
+
+<p>You see we did not do our dull work for nothing in last Lecture. I
+define what we have gained once more, and then we will enter on our new
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>115. The proper subject of sculpture, we have determined, is the
+spiritual power seen in the form of any living thing, and so represented
+as to give evidence that the sculptor has loved the good of it and hated
+the evil.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>So</i> represented," we say; but how is that to be done? Why should it
+not be represented, if possible, just as it is seen? What mode or limit
+of representation may we adopt? We are to carve things that have
+life;&mdash;shall we try so to imitate them that they may indeed seem
+living,&mdash;or only half living, and like stone instead of flesh?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It will simplify this question if I show you three examples of what the
+Greeks actually did: three typical pieces of their sculpture, in order
+of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>116. And now, observe that in all our historical work, I will endeavor
+to do, myself, what I have asked you to do in your drawing exercises;
+namely, to outline firmly in the beginning, and then fill in the detail
+more minutely. I will give you first, therefore, in a symmetrical form,
+absolutely simple and easily remembered, the large chronology of the
+Greek school; within that unforgettable scheme we will place, as we
+discover them, the minor relations of arts and times.</p>
+
+<p>I number the nine centuries before Christ thus, upwards, and divide them
+into three groups of three each.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Archaic.</span></td><td align='left'>{8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>B.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Best.</span></td><td align='left'>{5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>C.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Corrupt.</span></td><td align='left'>{2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{1</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Then the ninth, eighth, and seventh centuries are the period of archaic
+Greek art, steadily progressive wherever it existed.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth, fifth, and fourth are the period of Central Greek art; the
+fifth, or central, century producing the finest. That is easily
+recollected by the battle of Marathon. And the third, second, and first
+centuries are the period of steady decline.</p>
+
+<p>Learn this A B C thoroughly, and mark, for yourselves, what you, at
+present, think the vital events in each century. As you know more, you
+will think other events the vital ones; but the best historical
+knowledge only approximates to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> true thought in that matter; only be
+sure that what is truly vital in the character which governs events, is
+always expressed by the art of the century; so that if you could
+interpret that art rightly, the better part of your task in reading
+history would be done to your hand.</p>
+
+<p>117. It is generally impossible to date with precision art of the
+archaic period&mdash;often difficult to date even that of the central three
+hundred years. I will not weary you with futile minor divisions of time;
+here are three coins (Plate VII.) roughly, but decisively,
+characteristic of the three ages. The first is an early coin of
+Tarentum. The city was founded, as you know, by the Spartan Phalanthus,
+late in the eighth century. I believe the head is meant for that of
+Apollo Archegetes; it may however be Taras, the son of Poseidon; it is
+no matter to us at present whom it is meant for, but the fact that we
+cannot know, is itself of the greatest import. We cannot say, with any
+certainty, unless by discovery of some collateral evidence, whether this
+head is intended for that of a god, or demigod, or a mortal warrior.
+Ought not that to disturb some of your thoughts respecting Greek
+idealism? Farther, if by investigation we discover that the head is
+meant for that of Phalanthus, we shall know nothing of the character of
+Phalanthus from the face; for there is no portraiture at this early
+time.</p>
+
+<p>118. The second coin is of &AElig;nus in Macedonia; probably of the fifth or
+early fourth century, and entirely characteristic of the central period.
+This we know to represent the face of a god&mdash;Hermes. The third coin is a
+king's, not a city's. I will not tell you, at this moment, what king's;
+but only that it is a late coin of the third period, and that it is as
+distinct in purpose as the coin of Tarentum is obscure. We know of this
+coin, that it represents no god nor demigod, but a mere mortal; and we
+know precisely, from the portrait, what that mortal's face was like.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;">
+<img src="images/plate7.jpg" width="299" height="550" alt="VII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VII.<br /><br />
+
+ARCHAIC, CENTRAL AND DECLINING ART OF GREECE.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>119. A glance at the three coins, as they are set side by side, will now
+show you the main differences in the three great Greek styles. The
+archaic coin is sharp and hard; every line decisive and numbered, set
+unhesitatingly in its place; nothing is wrong, though everything
+incomplete, and, to us who have seen finer art, ugly. The central coin
+is as decisive and clear in arrangement of masses, but its contours are
+completely rounded and finished. There is no character in its execution
+so prominent that you can give an epithet to the style. It is not hard,
+it is not soft, it is not delicate, it is not coarse, it is not
+grotesque, it is not beautiful; and I am convinced, unless you had been
+told that this is fine central Greek art, you would have seen nothing at
+all in it to interest you. Do not let yourselves be anywise forced into
+admiring it; there is, indeed, nothing more here than an approximately
+true rendering of a healthy youthful face, without the slightest attempt
+to give an expression of activity, cunning, nobility, or any other
+attribute of the Mercurial mind. Extreme simplicity, unpretending vigor
+of work, which claims no admiration either for minuteness or dexterity,
+and suggests no idea of effort at all; refusal of extraneous ornament,
+and perfectly arranged disposition of counted masses in a sequent order,
+whether in the beads, or the ringlets of hair; this is all you have to
+be pleased with; neither will you ever find, in the best Greek Art,
+more. You might at first suppose that the chain of beads round the cap
+was an extraneous ornament; but I have little doubt that it is as
+definitely the proper fillet for the head of Hermes, as the olive for
+Zeus, or corn for Triptolemus. The cap or petasus cannot have expanded
+edges; there is no room for them on the coin; these must be understood,
+therefore; but the nature of the cloud-petasus is explained by edging it
+with beads, representing either dew or hail. The shield of Athena often
+bears white pellets for hail, in like manner.</p>
+
+<p>120. The third coin will, I think, at once strike you by what we moderns
+should call its 'vigor of character.' You may observe also that the
+features are finished with great care and subtlety, but at the cost of
+simplicity and breadth. But the <i>essential</i> difference between it and
+the central art, is its disorder in design&mdash;you see the locks of hair
+cannot be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> counted any longer&mdash;they are entirely disheveled and
+irregular. Now the individual character may, or may not, be a sign of
+decline; but the licentiousness, the casting loose of the masses in the
+design, is an infallible one. The effort at portraiture is good for art
+if the men to be portrayed are good men, not otherwise. In the instance
+before you, the head is that of Mithridates VI. of Pontus, who had,
+indeed, the good qualities of being a linguist and a patron of the arts;
+but, as you will remember, murdered, according to report, his mother,
+certainly his brother, certainly his wives and sisters, I have not
+counted how many of his children, and from a hundred to a hundred and
+fifty thousand persons besides; these last in a single day's massacre.
+The effort to represent this kind of person is not by any means a method
+of study from life ultimately beneficial to art.</p>
+
+<p>121. This, however, is not the point I have to urge to-day. What I want
+you to observe is, that though the master of the great time does not
+attempt portraiture, he <i>does</i> attempt animation. And as far as his
+means will admit, he succeeds in making the face&mdash;you might almost
+think&mdash;vulgarly animated; as like a real face, literally, 'as it can
+stare.' Yes: and its sculptor meant it to be so; and that was what
+Phidias meant his Jupiter to be, if he could manage it. Not, indeed, to
+be taken for Zeus himself; and yet, to be as like a living Zeus as art
+could make it. Perhaps you think he tried to make it look living only
+for the sake of the mob, and would not have tried to do so for
+connoisseurs. Pardon me; for real connoisseurs he would, and did; and
+herein consists a truth which belongs to all the arts, and which I will
+at once drive home in your minds, as firmly as I can.</p>
+
+<p>122. All second-rate artists&mdash;(and remember, the second-rate ones are a
+loquacious multitude, while the great come only one or two in a century;
+and then, silently)&mdash;all second-rate artists will tell you that the
+object of fine art is not resemblance, but some kind of abstraction more
+refined than reality. Put that out of your heads at once. The object of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+the great Resemblant Arts is, and always has been, to resemble; and to
+resemble as closely as possible. It is the function of a good portrait
+to set the man before you in habit as he lived, and I would we had a few
+more that did so. It is the function of a good landscape to set the
+scene before you in its reality; to make you, if it may be, think the
+clouds are flying, and the streams foaming. It is the function of the
+best sculptor&mdash;the true D&aelig;dalus&mdash;to make stillness look like breathing,
+and marble look like flesh.</p>
+
+<p>123. And in all great times of art, this purpose is as na&iuml;vely expressed
+as it is steadily held. All the talk about abstraction belongs to
+periods of decadence. In living times, people see something living that
+pleases them; and they try to make it live forever, or to make something
+as like it as possible, that will last forever. They paint their
+statues, and inlay the eyes with jewels, and set real crowns on the
+heads; they finish, in their pictures, every thread of embroidery, and
+would fain, if they could, draw every leaf upon the trees. And their
+only verbal expression of conscious success is that they have made their
+work 'look real.'</p>
+
+<p>124. You think all that very wrong. So did I, once; but it was I that
+was wrong. A long time ago, before ever I had seen Oxford, I painted a
+picture of the Lake of Como, for my father. It was not at all like the
+Lake of Como; but I thought it rather the better for that. My father
+differed with me; and objected particularly to a boat with a red and
+yellow awning, which I had put into the most conspicuous corner of my
+drawing. I declared this boat to be 'necessary to the composition.' My
+father not the less objected, that he had never seen such a boat, either
+at Como or elsewhere; and suggested that if I would make the lake look a
+little more like water, I should be under no necessity of explaining its
+nature by the presence of floating objects. I thought him at the time a
+very simple person for his pains; but have since learned, and it is the
+very gist of all practical matters, which, as Professor of Fine Art, I
+have now to tell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> you, that the great point in painting a lake is&mdash;to
+get it to look like water.</p>
+
+<p>125. So far, so good. We lay it down for a first principle that our
+graphic art, whether painting or sculpture, is to produce something
+which shall look as like Nature as possible. But now we must go one step
+farther, and say that it is to produce what shall look like Nature to
+people who know what Nature is like! You see this is at once a great
+restriction, as well as a great exaltation of our aim. Our business is
+not to deceive the simple; but to deceive the wise! Here, for instance,
+is a modern Italian print, representing, to the best of its power, St.
+Cecilia, in a brilliantly realistic manner. And the fault of the work is
+not in its earnest endeavor to show St. Cecilia in habit as she lived,
+but in that the effort could only be successful with persons unaware of
+the habit St. Cecilia lived in. And this condition of appeal only to the
+wise increases the difficulty of imitative resemblance so greatly, that,
+with only average skill or materials, we must surrender all hope of it,
+and be content with an imperfect representation, true as far as it
+reaches, and such as to excite the imagination of a wise beholder to
+complete it; though falling very far short of what either he or we
+should otherwise have desired. For instance, here is a suggestion, by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds, of the general appearance of a British
+Judge,&mdash;requiring the imagination of a very wise beholder indeed to fill
+it up, or even at first to discover what it is meant for. Nevertheless,
+it is better art than the Italian St. Cecilia, because the artist,
+however little he may have done to represent his knowledge, does,
+indeed, know altogether what a Judge is like, and appeals only to the
+criticism of those who know also.</p>
+
+<p>126. There must be, therefore, two degrees of truth to be looked for in
+the good graphic arts; one, the commonest, which, by any partial or
+imperfect sign, conveys to you an idea which you must complete for
+yourself; and the other, the finest, a representation so perfect as to
+leave you nothing to be farther accomplished by this independent
+exertion; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> to give you the same feeling of possession and presence
+which you would experience from the natural object itself. For instance
+of the first, in this representation of a rainbow,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> the artist has no
+hope that, by the black lines of engraving, he can deceive you into any
+belief of the rainbow's being there, but he gives indication enough of
+what he intends, to enable you to supply the rest of the idea yourself,
+providing always you know beforehand what a rainbow is like. But in this
+drawing of the falls of Terni,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> the painter has strained his skill to
+the utmost to give an actually deceptive resemblance of the iris,
+dawning and fading among the foam. So far as he has not actually
+deceived you, it is not because he would not have done so if he could;
+but only because his colors and science have fallen short of his desire.
+They have fallen so little short, that, in a good light, you may all but
+believe the foam, and the sunshine are drifting and changing among the
+rocks.</p>
+
+<p>127. And after looking a little while, you will begin to regret that
+they are not so: you will feel that, lovely as the drawing is, you would
+like far better to see the real place, and the goats skipping among the
+rocks, and the spray floating above the fall. And this is the true sign
+of the greatest art&mdash;to part voluntarily with its greatness;&mdash;to make
+<i>itself</i> poor and unnoticed; but so to exalt and set forth its theme,
+that you may be fain to see the theme instead of it. So that you have
+never enough admired a great workman's doing, till you have begun to
+despise it. The best homage that could be paid to the Athena of Phidias
+would be to desire rather to see the living goddess; and the loveliest
+Madonnas of Christian art fall short of their due power, if they do not
+make their beholders sick at heart to see the living Virgin.</p>
+
+<p>128. We have then, for our requirement of the finest art, (sculpture, or
+anything else,) that it shall be so like the thing it represents as to
+please those who best know or can conceive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> the original; and, if
+possible, please them deceptively&mdash;its final triumph being to deceive
+even the wise; and (the Greeks thought) to please even the Immortals,
+who were so wise as to be undeceivable. So that you get the Greek, thus
+far entirely true, idea of perfectness in sculpture, expressed to you by
+what Phalaris says, at first sight of the bull of Perilaus, "It only
+wanted motion and bellowing to seem alive; and as soon as I saw it, I
+cried out, it ought to be sent to the god,"&mdash;to Apollo, for only he, the
+undeceivable, could thoroughly understand such sculpture, and perfectly
+delight in it.</p>
+
+<p>129. And with this expression of the Greek ideal of sculpture, I wish
+you to join the early Italian, summed in a single line by Dante&mdash;"non
+vide me' di me, chi vide 'l vero." Read the twelfth canto of the
+Purgatory, and learn that whole passage by heart; and if ever you chance
+to go to Pistoja, look at La Robbia's colored porcelain bas-reliefs of
+the seven works of Mercy on the front of the hospital there; and note
+especially the faces of the two sick men&mdash;one at the point of death, and
+the other in the first peace and long-drawn breathing of health after
+fever&mdash;and you will know what Dante meant by the preceding line, "Morti
+li morti, e i vivi par&egrave;n vivi."</p>
+
+<p>130. But now, may we not ask farther,&mdash;is it impossible for art such as
+this, prepared for the wise, to please the simple also? Without entering
+on the awkward questions of degree, how many the wise can be, or how
+much men should know, in order to be rightly called wise, may we not
+conceive an art to be possible, which would deceive <i>everybody</i>, or
+everybody worth deceiving? I showed you at my First Lecture, a little
+ringlet of Japan ivory, as a type of elementary bas-relief touched with
+color; and in your rudimentary series you have a drawing, by Mr.
+Burgess, of one of the little fishes enlarged, with every touch of the
+chisel facsimiled on the more visible scale; and showing the little
+black bead inlaid for the eye, which in the original is hardly to be
+seen without a lens. You may, perhaps, be surprised when I tell you that
+(putting the question of <i>subject</i> aside for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> moment, and speaking
+only of the mode of execution and aim at resemblance,) you have there a
+perfect example of the Greek ideal of method in sculpture. And you will
+admit that, to the simplest person whom we could introduce as a critic,
+that fish would be a satisfactory, nay, almost a deceptive, fish; while,
+to any one caring for subtleties of art, I need not point out that every
+touch of the chisel is applied with consummate knowledge, and that it
+would be impossible to convey more truth and life with the given
+quantity of workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>131. Here is, indeed, a drawing by Turner, (Edu. 131), in which, with
+some fifty times the quantity of labor, and far more highly educated
+faculty of sight, the artist has expressed some qualities of luster and
+color which only very wise persons indeed could perceive in a John Dory;
+and this piece of paper contains, therefore, much more, and more subtle,
+art, than the Japan ivory; but are we sure that it is therefore
+<i>greater</i> art? or that the painter was better employed in producing this
+drawing, which only one person can possess, and only one in a hundred
+enjoy, than he would have been in producing two or three pieces on a
+larger scale, which should have been at once accessible to, and
+enjoyable by, a number of simpler persons? Suppose, for instance, that
+Turner, instead of faintly touching this outline, on white paper, with
+his camel's-hair pencil, had struck the main forms of his fish into
+marble, thus, (Fig. 7); and instead of coloring the white paper so
+delicately that, perhaps, only a few of the most keenly observant
+artists in England can see it at all, had, with his strong hand, tinted
+the marble with a few colors, deceptive to the people, and harmonious to
+the initiated; suppose that he had even conceded so much to the spirit
+of popular applause as to allow of a bright glass bead being inlaid for
+the eye, in the Japanese manner; and that the enlarged, deceptive, and
+popularly pleasing work had been carved on the outside of a great
+building,&mdash;say Fishmongers' Hall,&mdash;where everybody commercially
+connected with Billingsgate could have seen it, and ratified it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> with a
+wisdom of the market;&mdash;might not the art have been greater, worthier,
+and kinder in such use?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="450" height="372" alt="Fig. 7." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>132. Perhaps the idea does not at once approve itself to you of having
+your public buildings covered with ornaments; but, pray remember that
+the choice of <i>subject</i> is an ethical question, not now before us. All I
+ask you to decide is whether the method is right, and would be pleasant,
+in giving the distinctiveness to pretty things, which it has here given
+to what, I suppose it may be assumed, you feel to be an ugly thing. Of
+course, I must note parenthetically, such realistic work is impossible
+in a country where the buildings are to be discolored by coal-smoke; but
+so is all fine sculpture whatsoever; and the whiter, the worse its
+chance. For that which is prepared for private persons, to be kept under
+cover, will, of necessity, degenerate into the copyism of past work, or
+merely sensational and sensual forms of present life, unless there be a
+governing school addressing the populace,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> for their instruction, on the
+outside of buildings. So that, as I partly warned you in my Third
+Lecture, you can simply have <i>no</i> sculpture in a coal country. Whether
+you like coals or carvings best, is no business of mine. I merely have
+to assure you of the fact that they are incompatible.</p>
+
+<p>But, assuming that we are again, some day, to become a civilized and
+governing race, deputing ironmongery, coal-digging, and lucre-digging,
+to our slaves in other countries, it is quite conceivable that, with an
+increasing knowledge of natural history, and desire for such knowledge,
+what is now done by careful, but inefficient, wood-cuts, and in
+ill-colored engravings, might be put in quite permanent sculptures, with
+inlay of variegated precious stones, on the outside of buildings, where
+such pictures would be little costly to the people; and in a more
+popular manner still, by Robbia ware and Palissy ware, and inlaid
+majolica, which would differ from the housewife's present favorite
+decoration of plates above her kitchen dresser, by being every piece of
+it various, instructive, and universally visible.</p>
+
+<p>133. You hardly know, I suppose, whether I am speaking in jest or
+earnest. In the most solemn earnest, I assure you; though such is the
+strange course of our popular life that all the irrational arts of
+destruction are at once felt to be earnest; while any plan for those of
+instruction on a grand scale, sounds like a dream, or jest. Still, I do
+not absolutely propose to decorate our public buildings with sculpture
+wholly of this character; though beast, and fowl, and creeping things,
+and fishes, might all find room on such a building as the Solomon's
+House of a New Atlantis; and some of them might even become symbolic of
+much to us again. Passing through the Strand, only the other day, for
+instance, I saw four highly finished and delicately colored pictures of
+cock-fighting, which, for imitative quality, were nearly all that could
+be desired, going far beyond the Greek cock of Himera; and they would
+have delighted a Greek's soul, if they had meant as much as a Greek
+cock-fight; but they were only types of the "&#949;&#957;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#967;&#945;&#962; &#945;&#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#969;&#961;," and of the spirit of home contest,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> which has been so fatal
+lately to the Bird of France; and not of the defense of one's own
+barnyard, in thought of which the Olympians set the cock on the pillars
+of their chariot course; and gave it goodly alliance in its battle, as
+you may see here, in what is left of the angle of moldering marble in
+the chair of the priest of Dionusos. The cast of it, from the center of
+the theater under the Acropolis, is in the British Museum; and I wanted
+its spiral for you, and this kneeling Angel of Victory;&mdash;it is late
+Greek art, but nobly systematic flat bas-relief. So I set Mr. Burgess to
+draw it; but neither he nor I, for a little while, could make out what
+the Angel of Victory was kneeling for. His attitude is an ancient and
+grandly conventional one among the Egyptians; and I was tracing it back
+to a kneeling goddess of the greatest dynasty of the Pharaohs&mdash;a goddess
+of Evening, or Death, laying down the sun out of her right hand;&mdash;when,
+one bright day, the shadows came out clear on the Athenian throne, and I
+saw that my Angel of Victory was only backing a cock at a cock-fight.</p>
+
+<p>134. Still, as I have said, there is no reason why sculpture, even for
+simplest persons, should confine itself to imagery of fish, or fowl, or
+four-footed things.</p>
+
+<p>We go back to our first principle: we ought to carve nothing but what is
+honorable. And you are offended, at this moment, with my fish, (as I
+believe, when the first sculptures appeared on the windows of this
+museum, offense was taken at the unnecessary introduction of cats,)
+these dissatisfactions being properly felt by your "&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#964;&#969;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#956;&#953;&#969;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#969;&#957;."
+For indeed, in all cases, our right judgment must depend
+on our wish to give honor only to things and creatures that deserve it.</p>
+
+<p>135. And now I must state to you another principle of veracity, both in
+sculpture, and all following arts, of wider scope than any hitherto
+examined. We have seen that sculpture is to be a true representation of
+true internal form. Much more is it to be a representation of true
+internal emotion. You must carve only what you yourself see as you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> see
+it; but, much more, you must carve only what you yourself feel, as you
+feel it. You may no more endeavor to feel through other men's souls,
+than to see with other men's eyes. Whereas generally now, in Europe and
+America, every man's energy is bent upon acquiring some false emotion,
+not his own, but belonging to the past, or to other persons, because he
+has been taught that such and such a result of it will be fine. Every
+attempted sentiment in relation to art is hypocritical; our notions of
+sublimity, of grace, or pious serenity, are all secondhand: and we are
+practically incapable of designing so much as a bell-handle or a
+door-knocker, without borrowing the first notion of it from those who
+are gone&mdash;where we shall not wake them with our knocking. I would we
+could.</p>
+
+<p>136. In the midst of this desolation we have nothing to count on for
+real growth but what we can find of honest liking and longing, in
+ourselves and in others. We must discover, if we would healthily
+advance, what things are verily &#964;&#953;&#956;&#953;&#969;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#945; among us; and if we
+delight to honor the dishonorable, consider how, in future, we may
+better bestow our likings. Now it appears to me, from all our popular
+declarations, that we, at present, honor nothing so much as liberty and
+independence; and no person so much as the Free man and Self-made man,
+who will be ruled by no one, and has been taught, or helped, by no one.
+And the reason I chose a fish for you as the first subject of sculpture,
+was that in men who are free and self-made, you have the nearest
+approach, humanly possible, to the state of the fish, and finely
+organized &#7953;&#961;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#957;. You get the exact phrase in Habakkuk, if
+you take the Septuagint text,&mdash;"&#960;&#959;&#953;&#951;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#945;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#8033;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#953;&#967;&#952;&#965;&#945;&#962; &#964;&#951;&#962;
+&#952;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#951;&#962;, &#954;&#945;&#953; &#8033;&#962; &#964;&#945; &#949;&#961;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#945; &#964;&#945; &#959;&#965;&#954; &#949;&#967;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#7969;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957;." "Thou wilt make men as the fishes of the sea, and as the
+reptile things, <i>that have no ruler over them</i>." And it chanced that as
+I was preparing this Lecture, one of our most able and popular prints
+gave me a wood-cut of the 'self-made man,' specified as such, so
+vigorously drawn, and with so few touches, that Phidias or Turner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+himself could scarcely have done it better; so that I had only to ask my
+assistant to enlarge it with accuracy, and it became comparable with my
+fish at once. Of course it is not given by the caricaturist as an
+admirable face; only, I am enabled by his skill to set before you,
+without any suspicion of unfairness on <i>my</i> part, the expression to
+which the life we profess to think most honorable, naturally leads. If
+we were to take the hat off, you see how nearly the profile corresponds
+with that of the typical fish.</p>
+
+<p>137. Such, then, being the definition, by your best popular art, of the
+ideal of feature at which we are gradually arriving by self-manufacture:
+when I place opposite to it (in Plate VIII.) the profile of a man not in
+anywise self-made, neither by the law of his own will, nor by the love
+of his own interest&mdash;nor capable, for a moment, of any kind of
+'Independence,' or of the idea of independence; but wholly dependent
+upon, and subjected to, external influence of just law, wise teaching,
+and trusted love and truth, in his fellow-spirits;&mdash;setting before you,
+I say, this profile of a God-made, instead of a self-made, man, I know
+that you will feel, on the instant, that you are brought into contact
+with the vital elements of human art; and that this, the sculpture of
+the good, is indeed the only permissible sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>138. A God-made <i>man</i>, I say. The face, indeed, stands as a symbol of
+more than man in its sculptor's mind. For as I gave you, to lead your
+first effort in the form of leaves, the scepter of Apollo, so this,
+which I give you as the first type of rightness in the form of flesh, is
+the countenance of the holder of that scepter, the Sun-God of Syracuse.
+But there is nothing in the face (nor did the Greek suppose there was)
+more perfect than might be seen in the daily beauty of the creatures the
+Sun-God shone upon, and whom his strength and honor animated. This is
+not an ideal, but a quite literally true, face of a Greek youth; nay, I
+will undertake to show you that it is not supremely beautiful, and even
+to surpass it altogether with the literal portrait of an Italian one. It
+is in verity no more than the form habitually taken by the features of a
+well-educated young Athenian or Sicilian citizen; and the one
+requirement for the sculptors of to-day is not, as it has been thought,
+to invent the same ideal, but merely to see the same reality.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/plate8.jpg" width="650" height="357" alt="VIII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIII.<br /><br />
+
+THE APOLLO OF SYRACUSE, AND THE SELF-MADE MAN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/plate9.jpg" width="286" height="500" alt="IX." title="" />
+<span class="caption">IX.<br /><br />
+
+APOLLO CHRYSOCOMES OF CLAZOMEN&AElig;.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, you know I told you in my Fourth Lecture<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> that the beginning of
+art was in getting our country clean and our people beautiful, and you
+supposed that to be a statement irrelevant to my subject; just as, at
+this moment, you perhaps think I am quitting the great subject of this
+present Lecture&mdash;the method of likeness-making,&mdash;and letting myself
+branch into the discussion of what things we are to make likeness of.
+But you shall see hereafter that the method of imitating a beautiful
+thing must be different from the method of imitating an ugly one; and
+that, with the change in subject from what is dishonorable to what is
+honorable, there will be involved a parallel change in the management of
+tools, of lines, and of colors. So that before I can determine for you
+<i>how</i> you are to imitate, you must tell me what kind of face you wish to
+imitate. The best draughtsman in the world could not draw this Apollo in
+ten scratches, though he can draw the self-made man. Still less this
+nobler Apollo of Ionian Greece (Plate IX.), in which the incisions are
+softened into a harmony like that of Correggio's painting. So that you
+see the method itself,&mdash;the choice between black incision or fine
+sculpture, and perhaps, presently, the choice between color or no color,
+will depend on what you have to represent. Color may be expedient for a
+glistening dolphin or a spotted fawn;&mdash;perhaps inexpedient for white
+Poseidon, and gleaming Dian. So that, before defining the laws of
+sculpture, I am compelled to ask you, <i>what you mean to carve</i>; and
+that, little as you think it, is asking you how you mean to live, and
+what the laws of your State are to be, for <i>they</i> determine those of
+your statue. You can only have this kind of face to study from, in the
+sort of state that produced it. And you will find that sort of state
+described in the beginning of the fourth book of the laws of Plato;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> as
+founded, for one thing, on the conviction that of all the evils that can
+happen to a state, quantity of money is the greatest! &#956;&#949;&#953;&#950;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#957;, &#8033;&#962; &#949;&#960;&#959;&#962; &#949;&#953;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#957;, &#960;&#959;&#955;&#949;&#953; &#959;&#965;&#948;&#949;&#957; &#945;&#957; &#947;&#953;&#947;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#964;&#945;, &#949;&#953;&#962;
+&#947;&#949;&#957;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#969;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#953;&#969;&#957; &#951;&#952;&#969;&#957; &#954;&#964;&#951;&#959;&#953;&#957;, "for, to speak shortly, no greater evil, matching
+each against each, can possibly happen to a city, as adverse to its
+forming just or generous character," than its being full of silver and
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>139. Of course the Greek notion may be wrong, and ours right,
+only&mdash;&#8033;&#962; &#949;&#960;&#959;&#962; &#949;&#953;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#957;&mdash;you can have Greek sculpture only on
+that Greek theory: shortly expressed by the words put into the mouth of
+Poverty herself, in the Plutus of Aristophanes, "&#932;&#959;&#965; &#960;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#965;
+&#960;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#967;&#969; &#946;&#949;&#955;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957;&#945;&#962; &#945;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#945;&#962;, &#954;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#951;&#957; &#947;&#957;&#969;&#956;&#951;&#957;, &#954;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#951;&#957; &#953;&#948;&#949;&#945;&#957;," "I deliver to
+you better men than the God of Money can, both in imagination and
+feature." So, on the other hand, this ichthyoid, reptilian, or
+monochondyloid ideal of the self-made man can only be reached,
+universally, by a nation which holds that poverty, either of purse or
+spirit,&mdash;but especially the spiritual character of being &#960;&#964;&#969;&#967;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#969; &#960;&#957;&#949;&#965;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;,&mdash;is
+the lowest of degradations; and which believes that
+the desire of wealth is the first of manly and moral sentiments. As I
+have been able to get the popular ideal represented by its own living
+art, so I can give you this popular faith in its own living words; but
+in words meant seriously, and not at all as caricature, from one of our
+leading journals, professedly &aelig;sthetic also in its very name, the
+<i>Spectator</i>, of August 6, 1870.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Ruskin's plan," it says, "would make England poor, in order that
+she might be cultivated, and refined, and artistic. A wilder proposal
+was never broached by a man of ability; and it might be regarded as a
+proof that the assiduous study of art emasculates the intellect, <i>and
+even the moral sense</i>. Such a theory almost warrants the contempt with
+which art is often regarded by essentially intellectual natures, like
+Proudhon" (sic). "Art is noble as the flower of life, and the creations
+of a Titian are a great heritage of the race; but if England could
+secure high art and Venetian glory of color only by the sacrifice of her
+manufacturing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> supremacy, and <i>by the acceptance of national poverty</i>,
+then the pursuit of such artistic achievements would imply that we had
+ceased to possess natures of manly strength, <i>or to know the meaning of
+moral aims</i>. If we must choose between a Titian and a Lancashire cotton
+mill, then, in the name of manhood and of morality, give us the cotton
+mill. Only the dilettanteism of the studio; that dilettanteism which
+loosens the moral no less than the intellectual fiber, and which is as
+fatal to rectitude of action as to correctness of reasoning power, would
+make a different choice."</p>
+
+<p>You see also, by this interesting and most memorable passage, how
+completely the question is admitted to be one of ethics&mdash;the only real
+point at issue being, whether this face or that is developed on the
+truer moral principle.</p>
+
+<p>140. I assume, however, for the present, that this Apolline type is the
+kind of form you wish to reach and to represent. And now observe,
+instantly, the whole question of manner of imitation is altered for us.
+The fins of the fish, the plumes of the swan, and the flowing of the
+Sun-God's hair are all represented by incisions&mdash;but the incisions do
+sufficiently represent the fin and feather,&mdash;they <i>in</i>sufficiently
+represent the hair. If I chose, with a little more care and labor, I
+could absolutely get the surface of the scales and spines of the fish,
+and the expression of its mouth; but no quantity of labor would obtain
+the real surface of a tress of Apollo's hair, and the full expression of
+his mouth. So that we are compelled at once to call the imagination to
+help us, and say to it, <i>You</i> know what the Apollo Chrysocomes must be
+like; finish all this for yourself. Now, the law under which imagination
+works, is just that of other good workers. "You must give me clear
+orders; show me what I have to do, and where I am to begin, and let me
+alone." And the orders can be given, quite clearly, up to a certain
+point, in form; but they cannot be given clearly in color, now that the
+subject is subtle. All beauty of this high kind depends on harmony; let
+but the slightest discord come into it, and the finer the thing is, the
+more fatal will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> the flaw. Now, on a flat surface, I can command my
+color to be precisely what and where I mean it to be; on a round one I
+cannot. For all harmony depends, first, on the fixed proportion of the
+color of the light to that of the relative shadow; and therefore if I
+fasten my color, I must fasten my shade. But on a round surface the
+shadow changes at every hour of the day; and therefore all coloring
+which is expressive of form, is impossible; and if the form is fine,
+(and here there is nothing but what is fine,) you may bid farewell to
+color.</p>
+
+<p>141. Farewell to color; that is to say, if the thing is to be seen
+distinctly, and you have only wise people to show it to; but if it is to
+be seen indistinctly, at a distance, color may become explanatory; and
+if you have simple people to show it to, color may be necessary to
+excite <i>their</i> imaginations, though not to excite yours. And the art is
+great always by meeting its conditions in the straightest way; and if it
+is to please a multitude of innocent and bluntly-minded persons, must
+express itself in the terms that will touch them; else it is not good.
+And I have to trace for you through the history of the past, and
+possibilities of the future, the expedients used by great sculptors to
+obtain clearness, impressiveness, or splendor; and the manner of their
+appeal to the people, under various light and shadow, and with reference
+to different degrees of public intelligence: such investigation
+resolving itself again and again, as we proceed, into questions
+absolutely ethical; as, for instance, whether color is to be bright or
+dull,&mdash;that is to say, for a populace cheerful or heartless;&mdash;whether it
+is to be delicate or strong,&mdash;that is to say, for a populace attentive
+or careless; whether it is to be a background like the sky, for a
+procession of young men and maidens, because your populace revere
+life&mdash;or the shadow of the vault behind a corpse stained with drops of
+blackened blood, for a populace taught to worship Death. Every critical
+determination of rightness depends on the obedience to some ethic law,
+by the most rational and, therefore, simplest means. And you see how it
+depends most, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> all things, on whether you are working for chosen
+persons, or for the mob; for the joy of the boudoir, or of the Borgo.
+And if for the mob, whether the mob of Olympia, or of St. Antoine.
+Phidias, showing his Jupiter for the first time, hides behind the temple
+door to listen, resolved afterwards "&#961;&#965;&#952;&#956;&#953;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;
+&#964;&#959; &#945;&#947;&#945;&#955;&#956;&#945; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#964;&#959; &#964;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#960;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#948;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#957;,
+&#959;&#965; &#947;&#945;&#961; &#7969;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#957; &#949;&#953;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#963;&#965;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#951;&#957; &#948;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#965;
+&#964;&#959;&#963;&#959;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#965;," and truly, as your people is, in judgment, and in multitude,
+so must your sculpture be, in glory. An elementary principle which has
+been too long out of mind.</p>
+
+<p>142. I leave you to consider it, since, for some time, we shall not
+again be able to take up the inquiries to which it leads. But,
+ultimately, I do not doubt that you will rest satisfied in these
+following conclusions:</p>
+
+<p>1. Not only sculpture, but all the other fine arts, must be for the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>2. They must be didactic to the people, and that as their chief end. The
+structural arts, didactic in their manner; the graphic arts, in their
+matter also.</p>
+
+<p>3. And chiefly the great representative and imaginative arts&mdash;that is to
+say, the drama and sculpture&mdash;are to teach what is noble in past
+history, and lovely in existing human and organic life.</p>
+
+<p>4. And the test of right manner of execution in these arts, is that they
+strike, in the most emphatic manner, the rank of popular minds to which
+they are addressed.</p>
+
+<p>5. And the test of utmost fineness in execution in these arts, is that
+they make themselves be forgotten in what they represent; and so fulfill
+the words of their greatest Master,</p>
+
+<p class="center">"<span class="smcap">The Best, in This Kind, Are But Shadows</span>."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See date of delivery of Lecture. The picture was of a
+peasant girl of eleven or twelve years old, peeling carrots by a cottage
+fire.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> In D&uuml;rer's 'Melancholia.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Turner's, in the Hakewill series.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> "Lectures on Art," &sect; 116.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE V.</h2>
+
+<h3>STRUCTURE.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>December, 1870.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>143. On previous occasions of addressing you, I have endeavored to show
+you, first, how sculpture is distinguished from other arts; then its
+proper subjects; then its proper method in the realization of these
+subjects. To-day, we must, in the fourth place, consider the means at
+its command for the accomplishment of these ends; the nature of its
+materials; and the mechanical or other difficulties of their treatment.</p>
+
+<p>And however doubtful we may have remained as to the justice of Greek
+ideals, or propriety of Greek methods of representing them, we may be
+certain that the example of the Greeks will be instructive in all
+practical matters relating to this great art, peculiarly their own. I
+think even the evidence I have already laid before you is enough to
+convince you that it was by rightness and reality, not by idealism or
+delightfulness only, that their minds were finally guided; and I am sure
+that, before closing the present course, I shall be able so far to
+complete that evidence, as to prove to you that the commonly received
+notions of classic art are, not only unfounded, but even, in many
+respects, directly contrary to the truth. You are constantly told that
+Greece idealized whatever she contemplated. She did the exact contrary:
+she realized and verified it. You are constantly told she sought only
+the beautiful. She sought, indeed, with all her heart; but she found,
+because she never doubted that the search was to be consistent with
+propriety and common sense. And the first thing you will always discern
+in Greek work is the first which you <i>ought</i> to discern in all work;
+namely,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> that the object of it has been rational, and has been obtained
+by simple and unostentatious means.</p>
+
+<p>144. "That the object of the work has been rational"! Consider how much
+that implies. That it should be by all means seen to have been
+determined upon, and carried through, with sense and discretion; these
+being gifts of intellect far more precious than any knowledge of
+mathematics, or of the mechanical resources of art. Therefore, also,
+that it should be a modest and temperate work, a structure fitted to the
+actual state of men; proportioned to their actual size, as animals,&mdash;to
+their average strength,&mdash;to their true necessities,&mdash;and to the degree
+of easy command they have over the forces and substances of nature.</p>
+
+<p>145. You see how much this law excludes! All that is fondly magnificent,
+insolently ambitious, or vainly difficult. There is, indeed, such a
+thing as Magnanimity in design, but never unless it be joined also with
+modesty, and <i>Equ</i>animity. Nothing extravagant, monstrous, strained, or
+singular, can be structurally beautiful. No towers of Babel envious of
+the skies; no pyramids in mimicry of the mountains of the earth; no
+streets that are a weariness to traverse, nor temples that make pigmies
+of the worshipers.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the primal merits and decencies of Greek work, that it was,
+on the whole, singularly small in scale, and wholly within reach of
+sight, to its finest details. And, indeed, the best buildings that I
+know are thus modest; and some of the best are minute jewel cases for
+sweet sculpture. The Parthenon would hardly attract notice, if it were
+set by the Charing Cross Railway Station: the Church of the Miracoli, at
+Venice, the Chapel of the Rose, at Lucca, and the Chapel of the Thorn,
+at Pisa, would not, I suppose, all three together, fill the tenth part,
+cube, of a transept of the Crystal Palace. And they are better so.</p>
+
+<p>146. In the chapter on Power in the 'Seven Lamps of Architecture,' I
+have stated what seems, at first, the reverse of what I am saying now;
+namely, that it is better to have one grand building than any number of
+mean ones. And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> that is true: but you cannot command grandeur by size
+till you can command grace in minuteness; and least of all, remember,
+will you so command it to-day, when magnitude has become the chief
+exponent of folly and misery, co&ouml;rdinate in the fraternal enormities of
+the Factory and Poorhouse,&mdash;the Barracks and Hospital. And the final law
+in this matter is that, if you require edifices only for the grace and
+health of mankind, and build them without pretense and without
+chicanery, they will be sublime on a modest scale, and lovely with
+little decoration.</p>
+
+<p>147. From these principles of simplicity and temperance, two very
+severely fixed laws of construction follow; namely, first, that our
+structure, to be beautiful, must be produced with tools of men; and,
+secondly, that it must be composed of natural substances. First, I say,
+produced with tools of men. All fine art requires the application of the
+whole strength and subtlety of the body, so that such art is not
+possible to any sickly person, but involves the action and force of a
+strong man's arm from the shoulder, as well as the delicatest touch of
+his fingers: and it is the evidence that this full and fine strength has
+been spent on it which makes the art executively noble; so that no
+instrument must be used, habitually, which is either too heavy to be
+delicately restrained, or too small and weak to transmit a vigorous
+impulse; much less any mechanical aid, such as would render the
+sensibility of the fingers ineffectual.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>148. Of course, any kind of work in glass, or in metal, on a large
+scale, involves some painful endurance of heat; and working in clay,
+some habitual endurance of cold; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> the point beyond which the effort
+must not be carried is marked by loss of power of manipulation. As long
+as the eyes and fingers have complete command of the material, (as a
+glass-blower has, for instance, in doing fine ornamental work,)&mdash;the law
+is not violated; but all our great engine and furnace work, in
+gun-making and the like, is degrading to the intellect; and no nation
+can long persist in it without losing many of its human faculties. Nay,
+even the use of machinery other than the common rope and pulley, for the
+lifting of weights, is degrading to architecture; the invention of
+expedients for the raising of enormous stones has always been a
+characteristic of partly savage or corrupted races. A block of marble
+not larger than a cart with a couple of oxen could carry, and a
+cross-beam, with a couple of pulleys, raise, is as large as should
+generally be used in any building. The employment of large masses is
+sure to lead to vulgar exhibitions of geometrical arrangement,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> and
+to draw away the attention from the sculpture. In general, rocks
+naturally break into such pieces as the human beings that have to build
+with them can easily lift; and no larger should be sought for.</p>
+
+<p>149. In this respect, and in many other subtle ways, the law that the
+work is to be with tools of men is connected with the farther condition
+of its modesty, that it is to be wrought in substance provided by
+Nature, and to have a faithful respect to all the essential qualities of
+such substance.</p>
+
+<p>And here I must ask your attention to the idea, and, more than
+idea,&mdash;the fact, involved in that infinitely misused term,
+'Providentia,' when applied to the Divine power. In its truest sense and
+scholarly use, it is a human virtue, &#928;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#951;&#952;&#949;&#953;&#945;; the personal
+type of it is in Prometheus, and all the first power of &#964;&#949;&#967;&#957;&#951;,
+is from him, as compared to the weakness of days when men without
+foresight "&#949;&#966;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#953;&#954;&#951; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#945;." But, so far as we use the word
+'Providence' as an attribute of the Maker and Giver of all things, it
+does not mean that in a shipwreck He takes care of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> passengers who
+are to be saved, and takes none of those who are to be drowned; but it
+<i>does</i> mean that every race of creatures is born into the world under
+circumstances of approximate adaptation to its necessities; and, beyond
+all others, the ingenious and observant race of man is surrounded with
+elements naturally good for his food, pleasant to his sight, and
+suitable for the subjects of his ingenuity;&mdash;the stone, metal, and clay
+of the earth he walks upon lending themselves at once to his hand, for
+all manner of workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>150. Thus, his truest respect for the law of the entire creation is
+shown by his making the most of what he can get most easily; and there
+is no virtue of art, nor application of common sense, more sacredly
+necessary than this respect to the beauty of natural substance, and the
+ease of local use; neither are there any other precepts of construction
+so vital as these&mdash;that you show all the strength of your material,
+tempt none of its weaknesses, and do with it only what can be simply and
+permanently done.</p>
+
+<p>151. Thus, all good building will be with rocks, or pebbles, or burnt
+clay, but with no artificial compound; all good painting with common
+oils and pigments on common canvas, paper, plaster, or wood,&mdash;admitting
+sometimes, for precious work, precious things, but all applied in a
+simple and visible way. The highest imitative art should not, indeed, at
+first sight, call attention to the means of it; but even that, at
+length, should do so distinctly, and provoke the observer to take
+pleasure in seeing how completely the workman is master of the
+particular material he has used, and how beautiful and desirable a
+substance it was, for work of that kind. In oil painting, its unctuous
+quality is to be delighted in; in fresco, its chalky quality; in glass,
+its transparency; in wood, its grain; in marble, its softness; in
+porphyry, its hardness; in iron, its toughness. In a flint country, one
+should feel the delightfulness of having flints to pick up, and fasten
+together into rugged walls. In a marble country, one should be always
+more and more astonished at the exquisite color<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> and structure of
+marble; in a slate country, one should feel as if every rock cleft
+itself only for the sake of being built with conveniently.</p>
+
+<p>152. Now, for sculpture, there are, briefly, two materials&mdash;Clay, and
+Stone; for glass is only a clay that gets clear and brittle as it cools,
+and metal a clay that gets opaque and tough as it cools. Indeed, the
+true use of gold in this world is only as a very pretty and very ductile
+clay, which you can spread as flat as you like, spin as fine as you
+like, and which will neither crack nor tarnish.</p>
+
+<p>All the arts of sculpture in clay may be summed up under the word
+'Plastic,' and all of those in stone, under the word 'Glyptic.'</p>
+
+<p>153. Sculpture in clay will accordingly include all cast brickwork,
+pottery, and tile-work<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>&mdash;a somewhat important branch of human skill.
+Next to the potter's work, you have all the arts in porcelain, glass,
+enamel, and metal,&mdash;everything, that is to say, playful and familiar in
+design, much of what is most felicitously inventive, and, in bronze or
+gold, most precious and permanent.</p>
+
+<p>154. Sculpture in stone, whether granite, gem, or marble, while we
+accurately use the general term 'glyptic' for it, may be thought of
+with, perhaps, the most clear force under the English word 'engraving.'
+For, from the mere angular incision which the Greek consecrated in the
+triglyphs of his greatest order of architecture, grow forth all the arts
+of bas-relief, and methods of localized groups of sculpture connected
+with each other and with architecture: as, in another direction, the
+arts of engraving and wood-cutting themselves.</p>
+
+<p>155. Over all this vast field of human skill the laws which I have
+enunciated to you rule with inevitable authority, embracing the
+greatest, and consenting to the humblest, exertion; strong to repress
+the ambition of nations, if fantastic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> and vain, but gentle to approve
+the efforts of children, made in accordance with the visible intention
+of the Maker of all flesh, and the Giver of all Intelligence. These
+laws, therefore, I now repeat, and beg of you to observe them as
+irrefragable.</p>
+
+<p>1. That the work is to be with tools of men.</p>
+
+<p>2. That it is to be in natural materials.</p>
+
+<p>3. That it is to exhibit the virtues of those materials, and aim at no
+quality inconsistent with them.</p>
+
+<p>4. That its temper is to be quiet and gentle, in harmony with common
+needs, and in consent to common intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>We will now observe the bearing of these laws on the elementary
+conditions of the art at present under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>156. There is, first, work in baked clay, which contracts, as it dries,
+and is very easily frangible. Then you must put no work into it
+requiring niceness in dimension, nor any so elaborate that it would be a
+great loss if it were broken; but as the clay yields at once to the
+hand, and the sculptor can do anything with it he likes, it is a
+material for him to sketch with and play with,&mdash;to record his fancies
+in, before they escape him,&mdash;and to express roughly, for people who can
+enjoy such sketches, what he has not time to complete in marble. The
+clay, being ductile, lends itself to all softness of line; being easily
+frangible, it would be ridiculous to give it sharp edges, so that a
+blunt and massive rendering of graceful gesture will be its natural
+function: but as it can be pinched, or pulled, or thrust in a moment
+into projection which it would take hours of chiseling to get in stone,
+it will also properly be used for all fantastic and grotesque form, not
+involving sharp edges. Therefore, what is true of chalk and charcoal,
+for painters, is equally true of clay, for sculptors; they are all most
+precious materials for true masters, but tempt the false ones into fatal
+license; and to judge rightly of terra-cotta work is a far higher reach
+of skill in sculpture-criticism than to distinguish the merits of a
+finished statue.</p>
+
+<p>157. We have, secondly, work in bronze, iron, gold, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> other metals;
+in which the laws of structure are still more definite.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of twisted and wreathen work on every scale become delightful
+when wrought in ductile or tenacious metal; but metal which is to be
+<i>hammered</i> into form separates itself into two great divisions&mdash;solid,
+and flat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">a</span>. In solid metal-work, <i>i.e.</i>, metal cast thick enough to resist
+bending, whether it be hollow or not, violent and various projection may
+be admitted, which would be offensive in marble; but no sharp edges,
+because it is difficult to produce them with the hammer. But since the
+permanence of the material justifies exquisiteness of workmanship,
+whatever delicate ornamentation can be wrought with rounded surfaces may
+be advisedly introduced; and since the color of bronze or any other
+metal is not so pleasantly representative of flesh as that of marble, a
+wise sculptor will depend less on flesh contour, and more on picturesque
+accessories, which, though they would be vulgar if attempted in stone,
+are rightly entertaining in bronze or silver. Verrocchio's statue of
+Colleone at Venice, Cellini's Perseus at Florence, and Ghiberti's gates
+at Florence, are models of bronze treatment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">b</span>. When metal is beaten thin, it becomes what is technically called
+'plate,' (the <i>flattened</i> thing,) and may be treated advisably in two
+ways: one, by beating it out into bosses, the other by cutting it into
+strips and ramifications. The vast schools of goldsmiths' work and of
+iron decoration, founded on these two principles, have had the most
+powerful influences over general taste in all ages and countries. One of
+the simplest and most interesting elementary examples of the treatment
+of flat metal by cutting is the common branched iron bar, Fig. 8, used
+to close small apertures in countries possessing any good primitive
+style of ironwork, formed by alternate cuts on its sides, and the
+bending down of the severed portions. The ordinary domestic window
+balcony of Verona is formed by mere ribbons of iron, bent into curves as
+studiously refined as those of a Greek vase, and decorated merely by
+their own terminations in spiral volutes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All cast work in metal, unfinished by hand, is inadmissible in any
+school of living art, since it cannot possess the perfection of form due
+to a permanent substance; and the continual sight of it is destructive
+of the faculty of taste: but metal stamped with precision, as in coins,
+is to sculpture what engraving is to painting.</p>
+
+<p>158. Thirdly. Stone-sculpture divides itself into three schools: one in
+very hard material; one in very soft; and one in that of centrally
+useful consistence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 126px;">
+<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="126" height="450" alt="Fig. 8." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">a</span>. The virtue of work in hard material is the expression of form in
+shallow relief, or in broad contours: deep cutting in hard material is
+inadmissible; and the art, at once pompous and trivial, of gem
+engraving, has been in the last degree destructive of the honor and
+service of sculpture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">b</span>. The virtue of work in soft material is deep cutting, with studiously
+graceful disposition of the masses of light and shade. The greater
+number of flamboyant churches of France are cut out of an adhesive
+chalk; and the fantasy of their latest decoration was, in great part,
+induced by the facility of obtaining contrast of black space, undercut,
+with white tracery easily left in sweeping and interwoven rods&mdash;the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+lavish use of wood in domestic architecture materially increasing the
+habit of delight in branched complexity of line. These points, however,
+I must reserve for illustration in my Lectures on Architecture. To-day,
+I shall limit myself to the illustration of elementary sculptural
+structure in the best material,&mdash;that is to say, in crystalline marble,
+neither soft enough to encourage the caprice of the workman, nor hard
+enough to resist his will.</p>
+
+<p>159. <span class="smcap">c</span>. By the true 'Providence' of Nature, the rock which is thus
+submissive has been in some places stained with the fairest colors, and
+in others blanched into the fairest absence of color that can be found
+to give harmony to inlaying, or dignity to form. The possession by the
+Greeks of their &#955;&#949;&#965;&#954;&#959;&#962; &#955;&#953;&#952;&#959;&#962; was indeed the first circumstance
+regulating the development of their art; it enabled them at once to
+express their passion for light by executing the faces, hands, and feet
+of their dark wooden statues in white marble, so that what we look upon
+only with pleasure for fineness of texture was to them an imitation of
+the luminous body of the deity shining from behind its dark robes; and
+ivory afterwards is employed in their best statues for its yet more soft
+and flesh-like brightness, receptive also of the most delicate
+color&mdash;(therefore to this day the favorite ground of miniature
+painters). In like manner, the existence of quarries of peach-colored
+marble within twelve miles of Verona, and of white marble and green
+serpentine between Pisa and Genoa, defined the manner both of sculpture
+and architecture for all the Gothic buildings of Italy. No subtlety of
+education could have formed a high school of art without these
+materials.</p>
+
+<p>160. Next to the color, the fineness of substance which will take a
+perfectly sharp edge, is essential; and this not merely to admit fine
+delineation in the sculpture itself, but to secure a delightful
+precision in placing the blocks of which it is composed. For the
+possession of too fine marble, as far as regards the work itself, is a
+temptation instead of an advantage to an inferior sculptor; and the
+abuse of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> facility of undercutting, especially of undercutting so as
+to leave profiles defined by an edge against shadow, is one of the chief
+causes of decline of style in such incrusted bas-reliefs as those of the
+Certosa of Pavia and its contemporary monuments. But no undue temptation
+ever exists as to the fineness of block fitting; nothing contributes to
+give so pure and healthy a tone to sculpture as the attention of the
+builder to the jointing of his stones; and his having both the power to
+make them fit so perfectly as not to admit of the slightest portion of
+cement showing externally, and the skill to insure, if needful, and to
+suggest always, their stability in cementless construction. Plate X.
+represents a piece of entirely fine Lombardic building, the central
+portion of the arch in the Duomo in Verona, which corresponds to that of
+the porch of San Zenone, represented in Plate I. In both these pieces of
+building, the only line that traces the architrave round the arch, is
+that of the masonry joint; yet this line is drawn with extremest
+subtlety, with intention of delighting the eye by its relation of varied
+curvature to the arch itself; and it is just as much considered as the
+finest pen-line of a Raphael drawing. Every joint of the stone is used,
+in like manner, as a thin black line, which the slightest sign of cement
+would spoil like a blot. And so proud is the builder of his fine
+jointing, and so fearless of any distortion or strain spoiling the
+adjustment afterwards, that in one place he runs his joint quite
+gratuitously through a bas-relief, and gives the keystone its only sign
+of pre&euml;minence by the minute inlaying of the head of the Lamb into the
+stone of the course above.</p>
+
+<p>161. Proceeding from this fine jointing to fine draughtsmanship, you
+have, in the very outset and earliest stage of sculpture, your flat
+stone surface given you as a sheet of white paper, on which you are
+required to produce the utmost effect you can with the simplest means,
+cutting away as little of the stone as may be, to save both time and
+trouble; and above all, leaving the block itself, when shaped, as solid
+as you can, that its surface may better resist weather, and the carved
+parts be as much protected as possible by the masses left around them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/plate10.jpg" width="650" height="436" alt="X." title="" />
+<span class="caption">X.<br /><br />
+
+MARBLE MASONRY IN THE DUOMO OF VERONA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<img src="images/plate11.jpg" width="283" height="500" alt="XI." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XI.<br /><br />
+
+THE FIRST ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE.<br />
+
+INCISED OUTLINE AND OPENED SPACE.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>162. The first thing to be done is clearly to trace the outline of
+subject with an incision approximating in section to that of the furrow
+of a plow, only more equal-sided. A fine sculptor strikes it, as his
+chisel leans, freely, on marble; an Egyptian, in hard rock, cuts it
+sharp, as in cuneiform inscriptions. In any case, you have a result
+somewhat like the upper figure, Plate XI., in which I show you the most
+elementary indication of form possible, by cutting the outline of the
+typical archaic Greek head with an incision like that of a Greek
+triglyph, only not so precise in edge or slope, as it is to be modified
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>163. Now, the simplest thing we can do next is to round off the flat
+surface <i>within</i> the incision, and put what form we can get into the
+feebler projection of it thus obtained. The Egyptians do this, often
+with exquisite skill, and then, as I showed you in a former Lecture,
+color the whole&mdash;using the incision as an outline. Such a method of
+treatment is capable of good service in representing, at little cost of
+pains, subjects in distant effect; and common, or merely picturesque,
+subjects even near. To show you what it is capable of, and what colored
+sculpture would be in its rudest type, I have prepared the colored
+relief of the John Dory<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> as a natural history drawing for distant
+effect. You know, also, that I meant him to be ugly&mdash;as ugly as any
+creature can well be. In time, I hope to show you prettier
+things&mdash;peacocks and kingfishers, butterflies and flowers,&mdash;on grounds
+of gold, and the like, as they were in Byzantine work. I shall expect
+you, in right use of your &aelig;sthetic faculties, to like those better than
+what I show you to-day. But it is now a question of method only; and if
+you will look, after the Lecture, first at the mere white relief, and
+then see how much may be gained by a few dashes of color, such as a
+practiced workman could lay in a quarter of an hour,&mdash;the whole
+forming,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> if well done, almost a deceptive image,&mdash;you will, at least,
+have the range of power in Egyptian sculpture clearly expressed to you.</p>
+
+<p>164. But for fine sculpture, we must advance by far other methods. If we
+carve the subject with real delicacy, the cast shadow of the incision
+will interfere with its outline, so that, for representation of
+beautiful things you must clear away the ground about it, at all events
+for a little distance. As the law of work is to use the least pains
+possible, you clear it only just as far back as you need, and then, for
+the sake of order and finish, you give the space a geometrical outline.
+By taking, in this case, the simplest I can,&mdash;a circle,&mdash;I can clear the
+head with little labor in the removal of surface round it; (see the
+lower figure in Plate XI.)</p>
+
+<p>165. Now, these are the first terms of all well-constructed bas-relief.
+The mass you have to treat consists of a piece of stone which, however
+you afterwards carve it, can but, at its most projecting point, reach
+the level of the external plane surface out of which it was mapped, and
+defined by a depression round it; that depression being at first a mere
+trench, then a moat of a certain width, of which the outer sloping bank
+is in contact, as a limiting geometrical line, with the laterally
+salient portions of sculpture. This, I repeat, is the primal
+construction of good bas-relief, implying, first, perfect protection to
+its surface from any transverse blow, and a geometrically limited space
+to be occupied by the design, into which it shall pleasantly (and as you
+shall ultimately see, ingeniously,) contract itself: implying, secondly,
+a determined depth of projection, which it shall rarely reach, and never
+exceed: and implying, finally, the production of the whole piece with
+the least possible labor of chisel and loss of stone.</p>
+
+<p>166. And these, which are the first, are very nearly the last
+constructive laws of sculpture. You will be surprised to find how much
+they include, and how much of minor propriety in treatment their
+observance involves.</p>
+
+<p>In a very interesting essay on the architecture of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> Parthenon, by
+the Professor of Architecture of the &Eacute;cole Polytechnique, M. &Eacute;mile
+Boutmy, you will find it noticed that the Greeks do not usually weaken,
+by carving, the constructive masses of their building; but put their
+chief sculpture in the empty spaces between the triglyphs, or beneath
+the roof. This is true; but in so doing, they merely build their panel
+instead of carving it; they accept, no less than the Goths, the laws of
+recess and limitation, as being vital to the safety and dignity of their
+design; and their noblest recumbent statues are, constructively, the
+fillings of the acute extremity of a panel in the form of an obtusely
+summited triangle.</p>
+
+<p>167. In gradual descent from that severest type, you will find that an
+immense quantity of sculpture of all times and styles may be generally
+embraced under the notion of a mass hewn out of, or, at least, placed
+in, a panel or recess, deepening, it may be, into a niche; the sculpture
+being always designed with reference to its position in such recess:
+and, therefore, to the effect of the building out of which the recess is
+hewn.</p>
+
+<p>But, for the sake of simplifying our inquiry, I will at first suppose no
+surrounding protective ledge to exist, and that the area of stone we
+have to deal with is simply a flat slab, extant from a flat surface
+depressed all round it.</p>
+
+<p>168. A <i>flat</i> slab, observe. The flatness of surface is essential to the
+problem of bas-relief. The lateral limit of the panel may, or may not,
+be required; but the vertical limit of surface <i>must</i> be expressed; and
+the art of bas-relief is to give the effect of true form on that
+condition. For observe, if nothing more were needed than to make first a
+cast of a solid form, then cut it in half, and apply the half of it to
+the flat surface;&mdash;if, for instance, to carve a bas-relief of an apple,
+all I had to do was to cut my sculpture of the whole apple in half, and
+pin it to the wall, any ordinarily trained sculptor, or even a
+mechanical workman, could produce bas-relief; but the business is to
+carve a <i>round</i> thing out of a <i>flat</i> thing; to carve an apple out of a
+biscuit!&mdash;to conquer, as a subtle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> Florentine has here conquered,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+his marble, so as not only to get motion into what is most rigidly
+fixed, but to get boundlessness into what is most narrowly bounded; and
+carve Madonna and Child, rolling clouds, flying angels, and space of
+heavenly air behind all, out of a film of stone not the third of an inch
+thick where it is thickest.</p>
+
+<p>169. Carried, however, to such a degree of subtlety as this, and with so
+ambitious and extravagant aim, bas-relief becomes a tour-de-force; and,
+you know, I have just told you all tours-de-force are wrong. The true
+law of bas-relief is to begin with a depth of incision proportioned
+justly to the distance of the observer and the character of the subject,
+and out of that rationally determined depth, neither increased for
+ostentation of effect, nor diminished for ostentation of skill, to do
+the utmost that will be easily visible to an observer, supposing him to
+give an average human amount of attention, but not to peer into, or
+critically scrutinize, the work.</p>
+
+<p>170. I cannot arrest you to-day by the statement of any of the laws of
+sight and distance which determine the proper depth of bas-relief.
+Suppose that depth fixed; then observe what a pretty problem, or,
+rather, continually varying cluster of problems, will be offered to us.
+You might, at first, imagine that, given what we may call our scale of
+solidity, or scale of depth, the diminution from nature would be in
+regular proportion, as, for instance, if the real depth of your subject
+be, suppose, a foot, and the depth of your bas-relief an inch, then the
+parts of the real subject which were six inches round the side of it
+would be carved, you might imagine, at the depth of half an inch, and so
+the whole thing mechanically reduced to scale. But not a bit of it. Here
+is a Greek bas-relief of a chariot with two horses (upper figure, Plate
+XXI.) Your whole subject has therefore the depth of two horses side by
+side, say six or eight feet. Your bas-relief has, on this scale,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> say
+the depth of a third of an inch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> Now, if you gave only the sixth of an
+inch for the depth of the off horse, and, dividing him again, only the
+twelfth of an inch for that of each foreleg, you would make him look a
+mile away from the other, and his own forelegs a mile apart. Actually,
+the Greek has made the <i>near leg of the off horse project much beyond
+the off leg of the near horse</i>; and has put nearly the whole depth and
+power of his relief into the breast of the off horse, while for the
+whole distance from the head of the nearest to the neck of the other, he
+has allowed himself only a shallow line; knowing that, if he deepened
+that, he would give the nearest horse the look of having a thick nose;
+whereas, by keeping that line down, he has not only made the head itself
+more delicate, but detached it from the other by giving no cast shadow,
+and left the shadow below to serve for thickness of breast, cutting it
+as sharp down as he possibly can, to make it bolder.</p>
+
+<p>171. Here is a fine piece of business we have got into!&mdash;even supposing
+that all this selection and adaptation were to be contrived under
+constant laws, and related only to the expression of given forms. But
+the Greek sculptor, all this while, is not only debating and deciding
+how to show what he wants, but, much more, debating and deciding what,
+as he can't show everything, he will choose to show at all. Thus, being
+himself interested, and supposing that you will be, in the manner of the
+driving, he takes great pains to carve the reins, to show you where they
+are knotted, and how they are fastened round the driver's waist, (you
+recollect how Hippolytus was lost by doing that); but he does not care
+the least bit about the chariot, and having rather more geometry than he
+likes in the cross and circle of one wheel of it, entirely omits the
+other!</p>
+
+<p>172. I think you must see by this time that the sculptor's is not quite
+a trade which you can teach like brickmaking; nor its produce an article
+of which you can supply any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> quantity 'demanded' for the next railroad
+waiting-room. It may perhaps, indeed, seem to you that, in the
+difficulties thus presented by it, bas-relief involves more direct
+exertion of intellect than finished solid sculpture. It is not so,
+however. The questions involved by bas-relief are of a more curious and
+amusing kind, requiring great variety of expedients; though none except
+such as a true workmanly instinct delights in inventing, and invents
+easily; but design in solid sculpture involves considerations of weight
+in mass, of balance, of perspective and opposition, in projecting forms,
+and of restraint for those which must not project, such as none but the
+greatest masters have ever completely solved; and they, not always; the
+difficulty of arranging the composition so as to be agreeable from
+points of view on all sides of it, being, itself, arduous enough.</p>
+
+<p>173. Thus far, I have been speaking only of the laws of structure
+relating to the projection of the mass which becomes itself the
+sculpture. Another most interesting group of constructive laws governs
+its relation to the line that contains or defines it.</p>
+
+<p>In your Standard Series I have placed a photograph of the south transept
+of Rouen Cathedral. Strictly speaking, all standards of Gothic are of
+the thirteenth century; but, in the fourteenth, certain qualities of
+richness are obtained by the diminution of restraint; out of which we
+must choose what is best in their kinds. The pedestals of the statues
+which once occupied the lateral recesses are, as you see, covered with
+groups of figures, inclosed each in a quatrefoil panel; the spaces
+between this panel and the inclosing square being filled with sculptures
+of animals.</p>
+
+<p>You cannot anywhere find a more lovely piece of fancy, or more
+illustrative of the quantity of result, than may be obtained with low
+and simple chiseling. The figures are all perfectly simple in drapery,
+the story told by lines of action only in the main group, no accessories
+being admitted. There is no undercutting anywhere, nor exhibition of
+technical skill, but the fondest and tenderest appliance of it;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> and one
+of the principal charms of the whole is the adaptation of every subject
+to its quaint limit. The tale must be told within the four petals of the
+quatrefoil, and the wildest and playfulest beasts must never come out of
+their narrow corners. The attention with which spaces of this kind are
+filled by the Gothic designers is not merely a beautiful compliance with
+architectural requirements, but a definite assertion of their delight in
+the restraint of law; for, in illuminating books, although, if they
+chose it, they might have designed floral ornaments, as we now usually
+do, rambling loosely over the leaves, and although, in later works, such
+license is often taken by them, in all books of the fine time the
+wandering tendrils are inclosed by limits approximately rectilinear, and
+in gracefulest branching often detach themselves from the right line
+only by curvature of extreme severity.</p>
+
+<p>174. Since the darkness and extent of shadow by which the sculpture is
+relieved necessarily vary with the depth of the recess, there arise a
+series of problems, in deciding which the wholesome desire for emphasis
+by means of shadow is too often exaggerated by the ambition of the
+sculptor to show his skill in undercutting. The extreme of vulgarity is
+usually reached when the entire bas-relief is cut hollow underneath, as
+in much Indian and Chinese work, so as to relieve its forms against an
+absolute darkness; but no formal law can ever be given; for exactly the
+same thing may be beautifully done for a wise purpose, by one person,
+which is basely done, and to no purpose, or to a bad one, by another.
+Thus, the desire for emphasis itself may be the craving of a deadened
+imagination, or the passion of a vigorous one; and relief against shadow
+may be sought by one man only for sensation, and by another for
+intelligibility. John of Pisa undercuts fiercely, in order to bring out
+the vigor of life which no level contour could render; the Lombardi of
+Venice undercut delicately, in order to obtain beautiful lines and edges
+of faultless precision; but the base Indian craftsmen undercut only that
+people may wonder how the chiseling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> was done through the holes, or that
+they may see every monster white against black.</p>
+
+<p>175. Yet, here again we are met by another necessity for discrimination.
+There may be a true delight in the inlaying of white on dark, as there
+is a true delight in vigorous rounding. Nevertheless, the general law is
+always, that, the lighter the incisions, and the broader the surface,
+the grander, c&aelig;teris paribus, will be the work. Of the structural terms
+of that work you now know enough to understand that the schools of good
+sculpture, considered in relation to projection, divide themselves into
+four entirely distinct groups:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1st. Flat Relief, in which the surface is, in many places,
+absolutely flat; and the expression depends greatly on the
+lines of its outer contour, and on fine incisions within them.</p>
+
+<p>2d. Round Relief, in which, as in the best coins, the
+sculptured mass projects so as to be capable of complete
+modulation into form, but is not anywhere undercut. The
+formation of a coin by the blow of a die necessitates, of
+course, the severest obedience to this law.</p>
+
+<p>3d. Edged Relief. Undercutting admitted, so as to throw out the
+forms against a background of shadow.</p>
+
+<p>4th. Full Relief. The statue completely solid in form, and
+unreduced in retreating depth of it, yet connected locally with
+some definite part of the building, so as to be still dependent
+on the shadow of its background and direction of protective
+line.</p></div>
+
+<p>176. Let me recommend you at once to take what pains may be needful to
+enable you to distinguish these four kinds of sculpture, for the
+distinctions between them are not founded on mere differences in
+gradation of depth. They are truly four species, or orders, of
+sculpture, separated from each other by determined characters. I have
+used, you may have noted, hitherto in my Lectures, the word 'bas-relief'
+almost indiscriminately for all, because the degree of lowness or
+highness of relief is not the question, but the <i>method</i> of relief.
+Observe again, therefore&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;">
+<img src="images/plate12.jpg" width="327" height="500" alt="XII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XII.<br /><br />
+
+BRANCH OF PHILLYREA.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">a.</span> If a portion of the surface is absolutely flat, you have the first
+order&mdash;Flat Relief.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">b.</span> If every portion of the surface is rounded, but none undercut, you
+have Round Relief&mdash;essentially that of seals and coins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">c.</span> If any part of the edges be undercut, but the general protection of
+solid form reduced, you have what I think you may conveniently call
+Foliate Relief,&mdash;the parts of the design overlapping each other, in
+places, like edges of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">d.</span> If the undercutting is bold and deep, and the projection of solid
+form unreduced, you have Full Relief.</p>
+
+<p>Learn these four names at once by heart:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">Flat Relief.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Round Relief.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Foliate Relief.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Full Relief.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>And whenever you look at any piece of sculpture, determine first to
+which of these classes it belongs; and then consider how the sculptor
+has treated it with reference to the necessary structure&mdash;that
+reference, remember, being partly to the mechanical conditions of the
+material, partly to the means of light and shade at his command.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;">
+<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="346" height="450" alt="Fig. 9." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>177. To take a single instance. You know, for these many years, I have
+been telling our architects, with all the force of voice I had in me,
+that they could design nothing until they could carve natural forms
+rightly. Many imagined that work was easy; but judge for yourselves
+whether it be or not. In Plate XII., I have drawn, with approximate
+accuracy, a cluster of Phillyrea leaves as they grow, Now, if we wanted
+to cut them in bas-relief, the first thing we should have to consider
+would be the position of their outline on the marble;&mdash;here it is, as
+far down as the spring of the leaves. But do you suppose that is what an
+ordinary sculptor could either lay for his first sketch, or contemplate
+as a limit to be worked down to? Then consider how the interlacing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> and
+springing of the leaves can be expressed within this outline. It must be
+done by leaving such projection in the marble as will take the light in
+the same proportion as the drawing does;&mdash;and a Florentine workman could
+do it, for close sight, without driving one incision deeper, or raising
+a single surface higher, than the eighth of an inch. Indeed, no sculptor
+of the finest time would design such a complex cluster of leaves as
+this, except for bronze or iron work; they would take simpler contours
+for marble; but the laws of treatment would, under these conditions,
+remain just as strict: and you may, perhaps, believe me now when I tell
+you that, in any piece of fine structural sculpture by the great
+masters, there is more subtlety and noble obedience to lovely laws than
+could be explained to you if I took twenty lectures to do it in, instead
+of one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 629px;">
+<img src="images/plate13.jpg" width="629" height="500" alt="XIII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XIII.<br /><br />
+
+GREEK FLAT RELIEF, AND SCULPTURE BY EDGED INCISION.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>178. There remains yet a point of mechanical treatment on which I have
+not yet touched at all; nor that the least important,&mdash;namely, the
+actual method and style of handling. A great sculptor uses his tool
+exactly as a painter his pencil, and you may recognize the decision of
+his thought, and glow of his temper, no less in the workmanship than the
+design. The modern system of modeling the work in clay, getting it into
+form by machinery, and by the hands of subordinates, and touching it at
+last, if indeed the (so-called) sculptor touch it at all, only to
+correct their inefficiencies, renders the production of good work in
+marble a physical impossibility. The first result of it is that the
+sculptor thinks in clay instead of marble, and loses his instinctive
+sense of the proper treatment of a brittle substance. The second is that
+neither he nor the public recognize the touch of the chisel as
+expressive of personal feeling of power, and that nothing is looked for
+except mechanical polish.</p>
+
+<p>179. The perfectly simple piece of Greek relief represented in Plate
+XIII., will enable you to understand at once,&mdash;examination of the
+original, at your leisure, will prevent you, I trust, from ever
+forgetting,&mdash;what is meant by the virtue of handling in sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The projection of the heads of the four horses, one behind the other, is
+certainly not more, altogether, than three-quarters of an inch from the
+flat ground, and the one in front does not in reality project more than
+the one behind it, yet, by mere drawing,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> you see the sculptor has
+got them to appear to recede in due order, and by the soft rounding of
+the flesh surfaces, and modulation of the veins, he has taken away all
+look of flatness from the necks. He has drawn the eyes and nostrils with
+dark incision, careful as the finest touches of a painter's pencil: and
+then, at last, when he comes to the manes, he has let fly hand and
+chisel with their full force;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> and where a base workman, (above all, if
+he had modeled the thing in clay first,) would have lost himself in
+laborious imitation of hair, the Greek has struck the tresses out with
+angular incisions, deep driven, every one in appointed place and
+deliberate curve, yet flowing so free under his noble hand that you
+cannot alter, without harm, the bending of any single ridge, nor
+contract, nor extend, a point of them. And if you will look back to
+Plate IX. you will see the difference between this sharp incision, used
+to express horse-hair, and the soft incision with intervening rounded
+ridge, used to express the hair of Apollo Chrysocomes; and, beneath, the
+obliquely ridged incision used to express the plumes of his swan; in
+both these cases the handling being much more slow, because the
+engraving is in metal; but the structural importance of incision, as the
+means of effect, never lost sight of. Finally, here are two actual
+examples of the work in marble of the two great schools of the world;
+one, a little Fortune, standing tiptoe on the globe of the Earth, its
+surface traced with lines in hexagons; not chaotic under Fortune's feet;
+Greek, this, and by a trained workman;&mdash;dug up in the temple of Neptune
+at Corfu;&mdash;and here, a Florentine portrait-marble, found in the recent
+alterations, face downwards, under the pavement of Sta. Maria Novella;
+both of them first-rate of their kind; and both of them, while
+exquisitely finished at the telling points, showing, on all their
+unregarded surfaces, the rough furrow of the fast-driven chisel, as
+distinctly as the edge of a common paving-stone.</p>
+
+<p>180. Let me suggest to you, in conclusion, one most interesting point of
+mental expression in these necessary aspects of finely executed
+sculpture. I have already again and again pressed on your attention the
+beginning of the arts of men in the make and use of the plowshare. Read
+more carefully&mdash;you might indeed do well to learn at once by heart,&mdash;the
+twenty-seven lines of the Fourth Pythian, which describe the plowing of
+Jason. There is nothing grander extant in human fancy, nor set down in
+human words: but this great mythical expression of the conquest of the
+earth-clay and brute-force<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> by vital human energy, will become yet more
+interesting to you when you reflect what enchantment has been cut, on
+whiter clay, by the tracing of finer furrows;&mdash;what the delicate and
+consummate arts of man have done by the plowing of marble, and granite,
+and iron. You will learn daily more and more, as you advance in actual
+practice, how the primary manual art of engraving, in the steadiness,
+clearness, and irrevocableness of it, is the best art-discipline that
+can be given either to mind or hand;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> you will recognize one law of
+right, pronouncing itself in the well-resolved work of every age; you
+will see the firmly traced and irrevocable incision determining, not
+only the forms, but, in great part, the moral temper, of all vitally
+progressive art; you will trace the same principle and power in the
+furrows which the oblique sun shows on the granite of his own Egyptian
+city,&mdash;in the white scratch of the stylus through the color on a Greek
+vase&mdash;in the first delineation, on the wet wall, of the groups of an
+Italian fresco; in the unerring and unalterable touch of the great
+engraver of Nuremberg,&mdash;and in the deep-driven and deep-bitten ravines
+of metal by which Turner closed, in embossed limits, the shadows of the
+Liber Studiorum.</p>
+
+<p>Learn, therefore, in its full extent, the force of the great Greek word
+&#967;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#969;&mdash;and give me pardon, if you think pardon needed, that
+I ask you also to learn the full meaning of the English word derived
+from it. Here, at the Ford of the Oxen of Jason, are other furrows to be
+driven than these in the marble of Pentelicus. The fruitfulest, or the
+fatalest, of all plowing is that by the thoughts of your youth, on the
+white field of its Imagination. For by these, either down to the
+disturbed spirit, "&#954;&#949;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#967;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#960;&#949;&#948;&#959;&#957;;" or around
+the quiet spirit, and on all the laws of conduct that hold it, as a fair
+vase its frankincense, are ordained the pure colors, and engraved the
+just characters, of &AElig;onian life.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Nothing is more wonderful, or more disgraceful, among the
+forms of ignorance engendered by modern vulgar occupations in pursuit of
+gain, than the unconsciousness, now total, that fine art is essentially
+Athletic. I received a letter from Birmingham, some little time since,
+inviting me to see how much, in glass manufacture, "machinery excelled
+rude hand-work." The writer had not the remotest conception that he
+might as well have asked me to come and see a mechanical boat-race rowed
+by automata, and "how much machinery excelled rude arm-work."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Such as the Sculptureless arch of Waterloo Bridge, for
+instance, referred to in the Third Lecture, &sect; 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> It is strange, at this day, to think of the relation of
+the Athenian Ceramicus to the French Tile-fields, Tileries, or
+Tuileries: and how these last may yet become&mdash;have already partly
+become&mdash;"the Potter's field," blood-bought. (<i>December, 1870.</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> This relief is now among the other casts which I have
+placed in the lower school in the University galleries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> The reference is to a cast from a small and low relief of
+Florentine work in the Kensington Museum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The actual bas-relief is on a coin, and the projection not
+above the twentieth of an inch, but I magnified it in photograph, for
+this Lecture, so as to represent a relief with about the third of an
+inch for maximum projection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> This plate has been executed from a drawing by Mr.
+Burgess, in which he has followed the curves of incision with exquisite
+care, and preserved the effect of the surface of the stone, where a
+photograph would have lost it by exaggerating accidental stains.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> That it was also, in some cases, the earliest that the
+Greeks gave, is proved by Lucian's account of his first lesson at his
+uncle's; the &#949;&#957;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#965;&#962;, literally 'in cutter'&mdash;being the first
+tool put into his hand, and an earthenware tablet to cut upon, which the
+boy, pressing too hard, presently breaks;&mdash;gets beaten&mdash;goes home
+crying, and becomes, after his dream above quoted, (&sect;&sect; 35, 36,) a
+philosopher instead of a sculptor.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>December, 1870.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>181. It can scarcely be needful for me to tell even the younger members
+of my present audience, that the conditions necessary for the production
+of a perfect school of sculpture have only twice been met in the history
+of the world, and then for a short time; nor for short time only, but
+also in narrow districts,&mdash;namely, in the valleys and islands of Ionian
+Greece, and in the strip of land deposited by the Arno, between the
+Apennine crests and the sea.</p>
+
+<p>All other schools, except these two, led severally by Athens in the
+fifth century before Christ, and by Florence in the fifteenth of our own
+era, are imperfect; and the best of them are derivative: these two are
+consummate in themselves, and the origin of what is best in others.</p>
+
+<p>182. And observe, these Athenian and Florentine schools are both of
+equal rank, as essentially original and independent. The Florentine,
+being subsequent to the Greek, borrowed much from it; but it would have
+existed just as strongly&mdash;and, perhaps, in some respects more nobly&mdash;had
+it been the first, instead of the latter of the two. The task set to
+each of these mightiest of the nations was, indeed, practically the
+same, and as hard to the one as to the other. The Greeks found
+Ph&oelig;nician and Etruscan art monstrous, and had to make them human. The
+Italians found Byzantine and Norman art monstrous, and had to make them
+human. The original power in the one case is easily traced; in the other
+it has partly to be unmasked, because the change at Florence was, in
+many points, suggested and stimulated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> by the former school. But we
+mistake in supposing that Athens taught Florence the laws of design; she
+taught her, in reality, only the duty of truth.</p>
+
+<p>183. You remember that I told you the highest art could do no more than
+rightly represent the human form. This is the simple test, then, of a
+perfect school,&mdash;that it has represented the human form, so that it is
+impossible to conceive of its being better done. And that, I repeat, has
+been accomplished twice only: once in Athens, once in Florence. And so
+narrow is the excellence even of these two exclusive schools, that it
+cannot be said of either of them that they represented the entire human
+form. The Greeks perfectly drew, and perfectly molded, the body and
+limbs; but there is, so far as I am aware, no instance of their
+representing the face as well as any great Italian. On the other hand,
+the Italian painted and carved the face insuperably; but I believe there
+is no instance of his having perfectly represented the body, which, by
+command of his religion, it became his pride to despise and his safety
+to mortify.</p>
+
+<p>184. The general course of your study here renders it desirable that you
+should be accurately acquainted with the leading principles of Greek
+sculpture; but I cannot lay these before you without giving undue
+prominence to some of the special merits of that school, unless I
+previously indicate the relation it holds to the more advanced, though
+less disciplined, excellence of Christian art.</p>
+
+<p>In this and the last Lecture of the present course,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> I shall
+endeavor, therefore, to mass for you, in such rude and diagram-like
+outline as may be possible or intelligible, the main characteristics of
+the two schools, completing and correcting the details of comparison
+afterwards; and not answering, observe, at present, for any
+generalization I give you, except as a ground for subsequent closer and
+more qualified statements.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And in carrying out this parallel, I shall speak indifferently of works
+of sculpture, and of the modes of painting which propose to themselves
+the same objects as sculpture. And this, indeed, Florentine, as opposed
+to Venetian, painting, and that of Athens in the fifth century, nearly
+always did.</p>
+
+<p>185. I begin, therefore, by comparing two designs of the simplest
+kind&mdash;engravings, or, at least, linear drawings both; one on clay, one
+on copper, made in the central periods of each style, and representing
+the same goddess&mdash;Aphrodite. They are now set beside each other in your
+Rudimentary Series. The first is from a patera lately found at Camirus,
+authoritatively assigned by Mr. Newton, in his recent catalogue, to the
+best period of Greek art. The second is from one of the series of
+engravings executed, probably, by Baccio Bandini, in 1485, out of which
+I chose your first practical exercise&mdash;the Scepter of Apollo. I cannot,
+however, make the comparison accurate in all respects, for I am obliged
+to set the restricted type of the Aphrodite Urania of the Greeks beside
+the universal Deity conceived by the Italian as governing the air,
+earth, and sea; nevertheless, the restriction in the mind of the Greek,
+and expatiation in that of the Florentine, are both characteristic. The
+Greek Venus Urania is flying in heaven, her power over the waters
+symbolized by her being borne by a swan, and her power over the earth by
+a single flower in her right hand; but the Italian Aphrodite is rising
+out of the actual sea, and only half risen: her limbs are still in the
+sea, her merely animal strength filling the waters with their life; but
+her body to the loins is in the sunshine, her face raised to the sky;
+her hand is about to lay a garland of flowers on the earth.</p>
+
+<p>186. The Venus Urania of the Greeks, in her relation to men, has power
+only over lawful and domestic love; therefore, she is fully dressed, and
+not only quite dressed, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> most daintily and trimly: her feet
+delicately sandaled, her gown spotted with little stars, her hair
+brushed exquisitely smooth at the top of her head, trickling in minute
+waves down her forehead; and though, because there is such a quantity of
+it, she can't possibly help having a chignon, look how tightly she has
+fastened it in with her broad fillet. Of course she is married, so she
+must wear a cap with pretty minute pendent jewels at the border; and a
+very small necklace, all that her husband can properly afford, just
+enough to go closely round her neck, and no more. On the contrary, the
+Aphrodite of the Italian, being universal love, is pure-naked; and her
+long hair is thrown wild to the wind and sea.</p>
+
+<p>These primal differences in the symbolism, observe, are only because the
+artists are thinking of separate powers: they do not necessarily involve
+any national distinction in feeling. But the differences I have next to
+indicate are essential, and characterize the two opposed national modes
+of mind.</p>
+
+<p>187. First, and chiefly. The Greek Aphrodite is a very pretty person,
+and the Italian a decidedly plain one. That is because a Greek thought
+no one could possibly love any but pretty people; but an Italian thought
+that love could give dignity to the meanest form that it inhabited, and
+light to the poorest that it looked upon. So his Aphrodite will not
+condescend to be pretty.</p>
+
+<p>188. Secondly. In the Greek Venus the breasts are broad and full, though
+perfectly severe in their almost conical profile;&mdash;(you are allowed on
+purpose to see the outline of the right breast, under the chiton;)&mdash;also
+the right arm is left bare, and you can just see the contour of the
+front of the right limb and knee; both arm and limb pure and firm, but
+lovely. The plant she holds in her hand is a branching and flowering
+one, the seed-vessel prominent. These signs all mean that her essential
+function is child-bearing.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, in the Italian Venus the breasts are so small as to be
+scarcely traceable; the body strong, and almost masculine in its angles;
+the arms meager and unattractive,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> and she lays a decorative garland of
+flowers on the earth. These signs mean that the Italian thought of love
+as the strength of an eternal spirit, forever helpful; and forever
+crowned with flowers, that neither know seedtime nor harvest; and bloom
+where there is neither death nor birth.</p>
+
+<p>189. Thirdly. The Greek Aphrodite is entirely calm, and looks straight
+forward. Not one feature of her face is disturbed, or seems ever to have
+been subject to emotion. The Italian Aphrodite looks up, her face all
+quivering and burning with passion and wasting anxiety. The Greek one is
+quiet, self-possessed, and self-satisfied: the Italian incapable of
+rest; she has had no thought nor care for herself; her hair has been
+bound by a fillet like the Greek's; but it is now all fallen loose, and
+clotted with the sea, or clinging to her body; only the front tress of
+it is caught by the breeze from her raised forehead, and lifted, in the
+place where the tongues of fire rest on the brows, in the early
+Christian pictures of Pentecost, and the waving fires abide upon the
+heads of Angelico's seraphim.</p>
+
+<p>190. There are almost endless points of interest, great and small, to be
+noted in these differences of treatment. This binding of the hair by the
+single fillet marks the straight course of one great system of art
+method, from that Greek head which I showed you on the archaic coin of
+the seventh century before Christ, to this of the fifteenth of our own
+era;&mdash;nay, when you look close, you will see the entire action of the
+head depends on one lock of hair falling back from the ear, which it
+does in compliance with the old Greek observance of its being bent there
+by the pressure of the helmet. That rippling of it down her shoulders
+comes from the Athena of Corinth; the raising of it on her forehead,
+from the knot of the hair of Diana, changed into the vestal fire of the
+angels. But chiefly, the calmness of the features in the one face, and
+their anxiety in the other, indicate first, indeed, the characteristic
+difference in every conception of the schools, the Greek never
+representing expression, the Italian primarily seeking it; but far more,
+mark for us here the utter change in the conception of love; from the
+tranquil guide and queen of a happy terrestrial domestic life, accepting
+its immediate pleasures and natural duties, to the agonizing hope of an
+infinite good, and the ever mingled joy and terror of a love divine in
+jealousy, crying, "Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon
+thine arm; for love is strong as death, jealousy is cruel as the
+grave."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/plate14.jpg" width="280" height="500" alt="XIV." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XIV.<br /><br />
+
+APOLLO AND THE PYTHON.<br />
+
+HERACLES AND THE NEMEAN LION.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The vast issues dependent on this change in the conception of the ruling
+passion of the human soul, I will endeavor to show you on a future
+occasion: in my present Lecture, I shall limit myself to the definition
+of the temper of Greek sculpture, and of its distinctions from
+Florentine in the treatment of any subject whatever, be it love or
+hatred, hope or despair.</p>
+
+<p>These great differences are mainly the following.</p>
+
+<p>191. First. A Greek never expresses momentary passion; a Florentine
+looks to momentary passion as the ultimate object of his skill.</p>
+
+<p>When you are next in London, look carefully in the British Museum at the
+casts from the statues in the pediment of the Temple of Minerva at
+&AElig;gina. You have there Greek work of definite date&mdash;about 600 <span class="smcap">b. c.</span>,
+certainly before 580&mdash;of the purest kind; and you have the
+representation of a noble ideal subject, the combats of the &AElig;acid&aelig; at
+Troy, with Athena herself looking on. But there is no attempt whatever
+to represent expression in the features, none to give complexity of
+action or gesture; there is no struggling, no anxiety, no visible
+temporary exertion of muscles. There are fallen figures, one pulling a
+lance out of his wound, and others in attitudes of attack and defense;
+several kneeling to draw their bows. But all inflict and suffer, conquer
+or expire, with the same smile.</p>
+
+<p>192. Plate XIV. gives you examples, from more advanced art, of true
+Greek representation; the subjects being the two contests of leading
+import to the Greek heart&mdash;that of Apollo with the Python, and of
+Hercules with the Nemean Lion. You see that in neither case is there the
+slightest effort to represent the &#955;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#945;, or agony of contest.
+No good Greek<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> artist would have you behold the suffering either of
+gods, heroes, or men; nor allow you to be apprehensive of the issue of
+their contest with evil beasts, or evil spirits. All such lower sources
+of excitement are to be closed to you; your interest is to be in the
+thoughts involved by the fact of the war; and in the beauty or rightness
+of form, whether active or inactive. I have to work out this subject
+with you afterwards, and to compare with the pure Greek method of
+thought that of modern dramatic passion, ingrafted on it, as typically
+in Turner's contest of Apollo and the Python: in the meantime, be
+content with the statement of this first great principle&mdash;that a Greek,
+as such, never expresses momentary passion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<img src="images/plate15.jpg" width="275" height="500" alt="XV." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XV.<br /><br />
+
+HERA OF ARGOS.<br />
+
+ZEUS OF SYRACUSE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<img src="images/plate16.jpg" width="269" height="500" alt="XVI." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XVI.<br /><br />
+
+DEMETER OF MESSENE.<br />
+
+HERA OF CNOSSUS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/plate17.jpg" width="280" height="500" alt="XVII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XVII.<br /><br />
+
+ATHENA OF THURIUM.<br />
+
+SIREN LIGEIA OF TERINA.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>193. Secondly. The Greek, as such, never expresses personal character,
+while a Florentine holds it to be the ultimate condition of beauty. You
+are startled, I suppose, at my saying this, having had it often pointed
+out to you, as a transcendent piece of subtlety in Greek art, that you
+could distinguish Hercules from Apollo by his being stout, and Diana
+from Juno by her being slender. That is very true; but those are general
+distinctions of class, not special distinctions of personal character.
+Even as general, they are bodily, not mental. They are the distinctions,
+in fleshly aspect, between an athlete and a musician,&mdash;between a matron
+and a huntress; but in nowise distinguish the simple-hearted hero from
+the subtle Master of the Muses, nor the willful and fitful girl-goddess
+from the cruel and resolute matron-goddess. But judge for yourselves. In
+the successive plates, XV.-XVIII., I show you,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> typically represented
+as the protectresses of nations, the Argive, Cretan, and Lacinian Hera,
+the Messenian Demeter, the Athena of Corinth, the Artemis of Syracuse;
+the fountain Arethusa of Syracuse, and the Siren Ligeia of Terina. Now,
+of these heads, it is true that some are more delicate in feature than
+the rest, and some softer in expression: in other respects, can you
+trace any distinction between the Goddesses of Earth and Heaven, or
+between the Goddess of Wisdom and the Water Nymph of Syracuse? So little
+can you do so, that it would have remained a disputed question&mdash;had not
+the name luckily been inscribed on some Syracusan coins&mdash;whether the
+head upon them was meant for Arethusa at all; and, continually, it
+becomes a question respecting finished statues, if without attributes,
+"Is this Bacchus or Apollo&mdash;Zeus or Poseidon?" There is a fact for you;
+noteworthy, I think! There is no personal character in true Greek
+art:&mdash;abstract ideas of youth and age, strength and swiftness, virtue
+and vice,&mdash;yes: but there is no individuality; and the negative holds
+down to the revived conventionalism of the Greek school by Leonardo,
+when he tells you how you are to paint young women, and how old ones;
+though a Greek would hardly have been so discourteous to age as the
+Italian is in his canon of it,&mdash;"old women should be represented as
+passionate and hasty, after the manner of Infernal Furies."</p>
+
+<p>194. "But at least, if the Greeks do not give character, they give ideal
+beauty?" So it is said, without contradiction. But will you look again
+at the series of coins of the best time of Greek art, which I have just
+set before you? Are any of these goddesses or nymphs very beautiful?
+Certainly the Junos are not. Certainly the Demeters are not. The Siren,
+and Arethusa, have well-formed and regular features; but I am quite sure
+that if you look at them without prejudice, you will think neither
+reaches even the average standard of pretty English girls. The Venus
+Urania suggests at first the idea of a very charming person, but you
+will find there is no real depth nor sweetness in the contours, looked
+at closely. And remember, these are chosen examples,&mdash;the best I can
+find of art current in Greece at the great time; and if even I were to
+take the celebrated statues, of which only two or three are extant, not
+one of them excels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> the Venus of Melos; and she, as I have already
+asserted, in the 'Queen of the Air,' has nothing notable in feature
+except dignity and simplicity. Of Athena I do not know one authentic
+type of great beauty; but the intense ugliness which the Greeks could
+tolerate in their symbolism of her will be convincingly proved to you by
+the coin represented in Plate VI. You need only look at two or three
+vases of the best time to assure yourselves that beauty of feature was,
+in popular art, not only unattained, but unattempted; and, finally,&mdash;and
+this you may accept as a conclusive proof of the Greek insensitiveness
+to the most subtle beauty,&mdash;there is little evidence even in their
+literature, and none in their art, of their having ever perceived any
+beauty in infancy, or early childhood.</p>
+
+<p>195. The Greeks, then, do not give passion, do not give character, do
+not give refined or na&iuml;ve beauty. But you may think that the absence of
+these is intended to give dignity to the gods and nymphs; and that their
+calm faces would be found, if you long observed them, instinct with some
+expression of divine mystery or power.</p>
+
+<p>I will convince you of the narrow range of Greek thought in these
+respects, by showing you, from the two sides of one and the same coin,
+images of the most mysterious of their deities, and the most
+powerful,&mdash;Demeter, and Zeus.</p>
+
+<p>Remember that just as the west coasts of Ireland and England catch first
+on their hills the rain of the Atlantic, so the Western Peloponnese
+arrests, in the clouds of the first mountain ranges of Arcadia, the
+moisture of the Mediterranean; and over all the plains of Elis, Pylos,
+and Messene, the strength and sustenance of men was naturally felt to be
+granted by Zeus; as, on the east coast of Greece, the greater clearness
+of the air by the power of Athena. If you will recollect the prayer of
+Rhea, in the single line of Callimachus&mdash;"&#932;&#945;&#953;&#945;&#966;&#953;&#955;&#951;, &#964;&#949;&#954;&#949; &#954;&#945;&#953;
+&#963;&#965; &#964;&#949;&#945;&#953; &#948;' &#969;&#948;&#953;&#957;&#949;&#962; &#949;&#955;&#945;&#966;&#961;&#945;&#953;," (compare Pausanias, iv. 33, at the
+beginning,)&mdash;it will mark for you the connection, in the Greek mind, of
+the birth of the mountain springs of Arcadia with the birth of Zeus. And
+the centers of Greek thought on this western coast are necessarily Elis,
+and, (after the time of Epaminondas,) Messene.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<img src="images/plate18.jpg" width="270" height="500" alt="XVIII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XVIII.<br /><br />
+
+ARTEMIS OF SYRACUSE.<br />
+
+HERA OF LACINIAN CAPE.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>196. I show you the coin of Messene, because the splendid height and
+form of Mount Ithome were more expressive of the physical power of Zeus
+than the lower hills of Olympia; and also because it was struck just at
+the time of the most finished and delicate Greek art&mdash;a little after the
+main strength of Phidias, but before decadence had generally pronounced
+itself. The coin is a silver didrachm, bearing on one side a head of
+Demeter, (Plate XVI., at the top); on the other a full figure of Zeus
+Aietophoros, (Plate XIX., at the top); the two together signifying the
+sustaining strength of the earth and heaven. Look first at the head of
+Demeter. It is merely meant to personify fullness of harvest; there is
+no mystery in it, no sadness, no vestige of the expression which we
+should have looked for in any effort to realize the Greek thoughts of
+the Earth Mother, as we find them spoken by the poets. But take it
+merely as personified Abundance,&mdash;the goddess of black furrow and tawny
+grass,&mdash;how commonplace it is, and how poor! The hair is grand, and
+there is one stalk of wheat set in it, which is enough to indicate the
+goddess who is meant; but, in that very office, ignoble, for it shows
+that the artist could only inform you that this was Demeter by such a
+symbol. How easy it would have been for a great designer to have made
+the hair lovely with fruitful flowers, and the features noble in mystery
+of gloom, or of tenderness. But here you have nothing to interest you,
+except the common Greek perfections of a straight nose and a full chin.</p>
+
+<p>197. We pass, on the reverse of the die, to the figure of Zeus
+Aietophoros. Think of the invocation to Zeus in the Suppliants, (525,)
+"King of Kings, and Happiest of the Happy, Perfectest of the Perfect in
+strength, abounding in all things, Jove&mdash;hear us, and be with us;" and
+then, consider what strange phase of mind it was, which, under the very
+mountain-home of the god, was content with this symbol of him as a
+well-fed athlete, holding a diminutive and crouching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> eagle on his fist.
+The features and the right hand have been injured in this coin, but the
+action of the arm shows that it held a thunderbolt, of which, I believe,
+the twisted rays were triple. In the presumably earlier coin engraved by
+Millingen, however,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> it is singly pointed only; and the added
+inscription "&#921;&#920;&#937;&#924;," in the field, renders the conjecture of
+Millingen probable, that this is a rude representation of the statue of
+Zeus Ithomates, made by Ageladas, the master of Phidias; and I think it
+has, indeed, the aspect of the endeavor, by a workman of more advanced
+knowledge, and more vulgar temper, to put the softer anatomy of later
+schools into the simple action of an archaic figure. Be that as it may,
+here is one of the most refined cities of Greece content with the figure
+of an athlete as the representative of their own mountain god; marked as
+a divine power merely by the attributes of the eagle and thunderbolt.</p>
+
+<p>198. Lastly. The Greeks have not, it appears, in any supreme way, given
+to their statues character, beauty, or divine strength. Can they give
+divine sadness? Shall we find in their art-work any of that pensiveness
+and yearning for the dead which fills the chants of their tragedy? I
+suppose, if anything like nearness or firmness of faith in after-life is
+to be found in Greek legend, you might look for it in the stories about
+the Island of Leuce, at the mouth of the Danube, inhabited by the ghosts
+of Achilles, Patroclus, Ajax the son of O&iuml;leus, and Helen; and in which
+the pavement of the Temple of Achilles was washed daily by the sea-birds
+with their wings, dipping them in the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Now it happens that we have actually on a coin of the Locrians the
+representation of the ghost of the Lesser Ajax. There is nothing in the
+history of human imagination more lovely than their leaving always a
+place for his spirit, vacant in their ranks of battle. But here is their
+sculptural representation of the phantom, (lower figure, Plate XIX.);
+and I think you will at once agree with me in feeling that it would be
+impossible to conceive anything more completely unspiritual. You might
+more than doubt that it could have been meant for the departed soul,
+unless you were aware of the meaning of this little circlet between the
+feet. On other coins you find his name inscribed there, but in this you
+have his habitation, the haunted Island of Leuce itself, with the waves
+flowing round it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/plate19.jpg" width="280" height="500" alt="XIX." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XIX.<br /><br />
+
+ZEUS OF MESSENE.<br />
+
+AJAX OF OPUS.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>199. Again and again, however, I have to remind you, with respect to
+these apparently frank and simple failures, that the Greek always
+intends you to think for yourself, and understand, more than he can
+speak. Take this instance at our hands, the trim little circlet for the
+Island of Leuce. The workman knows very well it is not like the island,
+and that he could not make it so; that, at its best, his sculpture can
+be little more than a letter; and yet, in putting this circlet, and its
+encompassing fretwork of minute waves, he does more than if he had
+merely given you a letter L, or written 'Leuce.' If you know anything of
+beaches and sea, this symbol will set your imagination at work in
+recalling them; then you will think of the temple service of the
+novitiate sea-birds, and of the ghosts of Achilles and Patroclus
+appearing, like the Dioscuri, above the storm-clouds of the Euxine. And
+the artist, throughout his work, never for an instant loses faith in
+your sympathy and passion being ready to answer his;&mdash;if you have none
+to give, he does not care to take you into his counsel; on the whole,
+would rather that you should not look at his work.</p>
+
+<p>200. But if you have this sympathy to give, you may be sure that
+whatever he does for you will be right, as far as he can render it so.
+It may not be sublime, nor beautiful, nor amusing; but it will be full
+of meaning, and faithful in guidance. He will give you clue to myriads
+of things that he cannot literally teach; and, so far as he does teach,
+you may trust him. Is not this saying much?</p>
+
+<p>And as he strove only to teach what was true, so, in his sculptured
+symbol, he strove only to carve what was&mdash;Right. He rules over the arts
+to this day, and will forever, because he sought not first for beauty,
+not first for passion, or for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> invention, but for Rightness; striving to
+display, neither himself nor his art, but the thing that he dealt with,
+in its simplicity. That is his specific character as a Greek. Of course
+every nation's character is connected with that of others surrounding or
+preceding it; and in the best Greek work you will find some things that
+are still false, or fanciful; but whatever in it is false, or fanciful,
+is not the Greek part of it&mdash;it is the Ph&oelig;nician, or Egyptian, or
+Pelasgian part. The essential Hellenic stamp is veracity:&mdash;Eastern
+nations drew their heroes with eight legs, but the Greeks drew them with
+two;&mdash;Egyptians drew their deities with cats' heads, but the Greeks drew
+them with men's; and out of all fallacy, disproportion, and
+indefiniteness, they were, day by day, resolvedly withdrawing and
+exalting themselves into restricted and demonstrable truth.</p>
+
+<p>201. And now, having cut away the misconceptions which incumbered our
+thoughts, I shall be able to put the Greek school into some clearness of
+its position for you, with respect to the art of the world. That
+relation is strangely duplicate; for, on one side, Greek art is the root
+of all simplicity; and, on the other, of all complexity.</p>
+
+<p>On one side, I say, it is the root of all simplicity. If you were for
+some prolonged period to study Greek sculpture exclusively in the Elgin
+room of the British Museum, and were then suddenly transported to the
+H&ocirc;tel de Cluny, or any other museum of Gothic and barbarian workmanship,
+you would imagine the Greeks were the masters of all that was grand,
+simple, wise, and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys
+of the rest of mankind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/plate20.jpg" width="650" height="329" alt="XX." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XX.<br /><br />
+
+GREEK AND BARBARIAN SCULPTURE.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>202. On one side of their work they are so. From all vain and mean
+decoration&mdash;all wreak and monstrous error, the Greeks rescue the forms
+of man and beast, and sculpture them in the nakedness of their true
+flesh, and with the fire of their living soul. Distinctively from other
+races, as I have now, perhaps to your weariness, told you, this is the
+work of the Greek, to give health to what was diseased, and chastisement
+to what was untrue. So far as this is found in any other school,
+hereafter, it belongs to them by inheritance from the Greeks, or invests
+them with the brotherhood of the Greek. And this is the deep meaning of
+the myth of D&aelig;dalus as the giver of motion to statues. The literal
+change from the binding together of the feet to their separation, and
+the other modifications of action which took place, either in
+progressive skill, or often, as the mere consequence of the transition
+from wood to stone, (a figure carved out of one wooden log must have
+necessarily its feet near each other, and hands at its sides,) these
+literal changes are as nothing, in the Greek fable, compared to the
+bestowing of apparent life. The figures of monstrous gods on Indian
+temples have their legs separate enough; but they are infinitely more
+dead than the rude figures at Branchid&aelig; sitting with their hands on
+their knees. And, briefly, the work of D&aelig;dalus is the giving of
+deceptive life, as that of Prometheus the giving of real life; and I can
+put the relation of Greek to all other art, in this function, before
+you, in easily compared and remembered examples.</p>
+
+<p>203. Here, on the right, in Plate XX., is an Indian bull, colossal, and
+elaborately carved, which you may take as a sufficient type of the bad
+art of all the earth. False in form, dead in heart, and loaded with
+wealth, externally. We will not ask the date of this; it may rest in the
+eternal obscurity of evil art, everywhere, and forever. Now, beside this
+colossal bull, here is a bit of D&aelig;dalus-work, enlarged from a coin not
+bigger than a shilling: look at the two together, and you ought to know,
+henceforward, what Greek art means, to the end of your days.</p>
+
+<p>204. In this aspect of it, then, I say it is the simplest and nakedest
+of lovely veracities. But it has another aspect, or rather another pole,
+for the opposition is diametric. As the simplest, so also it is the most
+complex of human art. I told you in my Fifth Lecture, showing you the
+spotty picture of Velasquez, that an essential Greek character is a
+liking for things that are dappled. And you cannot but have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> noticed how
+often and how prevalently the idea which gave its name to the Porch of
+Polygnotus, "&#963;&#964;&#959;&#945; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#951;," occurs to the Greeks as connected
+with the finest art. Thus, when the luxurious city is opposed to the
+simple and healthful one, in the second book of Plato's Polity, you find
+that, next to perfumes, pretty ladies, and dice, you must have in it
+"&#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#945;," which observe, both in that place and again in the
+third book, is the separate art of joiners' work, or inlaying; but the
+idea of exquisitely divided variegation or division, both in sight and
+sound&mdash;the "ravishing division to the lute," as in Pindar's "&#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#953; &#8017;&#956;&#957;&#959;&#953;"&mdash;runs through the compass of all Greek
+art-description; and if, instead of studying that art among marbles, you
+were to look at it only on vases of a fine time, (look back, for
+instance, to Plate IV. here,) your impression of it would be, instead of
+breadth and simplicity, one of universal spottiness and checkeredness,
+"&#949;&#957; &#945;&#947;&#947;&#949;&#969;&#965; &#7961;&#961;&#954;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#956;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#953;&#962;;" and of the artist's
+delighting in nothing so much as in crossed or starred or spotted
+things; which, in right places, he and his public both do unlimitedly.
+Indeed they hold it complimentary even to a trout, to call him a
+'spotty.' Do you recollect the trout in the tributaries of the Ladon,
+which Pausanias says were spotted, so that they were like thrushes, and
+which, the Arcadians told him, could speak? In this last &#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#945;, however, they disappointed him. "I, indeed, saw some of them
+caught," he says, "but I did not hear any of them speak, though I waited
+beside the river till sunset."</p>
+
+<p>205. I must sum roughly now, for I have detained you too long.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks have been thus the origin, not only of all broad, mighty, and
+calm conception, but of all that is divided, delicate, and tremulous;
+"variable as the shade, by the light quivering aspen made." To them, as
+first leaders of ornamental design, belongs, of right, the praise of
+glistenings in gold, piercings in ivory, stainings in purple,
+burnishings in dark blue steel; of the fantasy of the Arabian
+roof,&mdash;quartering of the Christian shield,&mdash;rubric and arabesque of
+Christian scripture; in fine, all enlargement, and all diminution of
+adorning thought, from the temple to the toy, and from the mountainous
+pillars of Agrigentum to the last fineness of fretwork in the Pisan
+Chapel of the Thorn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;">
+<img src="images/plate21.jpg" width="272" height="500" alt="XXI." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XXI.<br /><br />
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CHIVALRY.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And in their doing all this, they stand as masters of human order and
+justice, subduing the animal nature, guided by the spiritual one, as you
+see the Sicilian Charioteer stands, holding his horse-reins, with the
+wild lion racing beneath him, and the flying angel above, on the
+beautiful coin of early Syracuse; (lowest in Plate XXI.)</p>
+
+<p>And the beginnings of Christian chivalry were in that Greek bridling of
+the dark and the white horses.</p>
+
+<p>206. Not that a Greek never made mistakes. He made as many as we do
+ourselves, nearly;&mdash;he died of his mistakes at last&mdash;as we shall die of
+them; but so far as he was separated from the herd of more mistaken and
+more wretched nations&mdash;so far as he was Greek&mdash;it was by his rightness.
+He lived, and worked, and was satisfied with the fatness of his land,
+and the fame of his deeds, by his justice, and reason, and modesty. He
+became Gr&aelig;culus esuriens, little, and hungry, and every man's
+errand-boy, by his iniquity, and his competition, and his love of talk.
+But his Gr&aelig;cism was in having done, at least at one period of his
+dominion, more than anybody else, what was modest, useful, and eternally
+true; and as a workman, he verily did, or first suggested the doing of,
+everything possible to man.</p>
+
+<p>Take D&aelig;dalus, his great type of the practically executive craftsman, and
+the inventor of expedients in craftsmanship, (as distinguished from
+Prometheus, the institutor of moral order in art). D&aelig;dalus invents,&mdash;he,
+or his nephew,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The potter's wheel, and all work in clay;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The saw, and all work in wood;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The masts and sails of ships, and all modes of motion;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">(wings only proving too dangerous!)<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The entire art of minute ornament;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the deceptive life of statues.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>By his personal toil, he involves the fatal labyrinth for Minos; builds
+an impregnable fortress for the Agrigentines; adorns healing baths among
+the wild parsley-fields of Selinus; buttresses the precipices of Eryx,
+under the temple of Aphrodite; and for her temple itself&mdash;finishes in
+exquisiteness the golden honeycomb.</p>
+
+<p>207. Take note of that last piece of his art: it is connected with many
+things which I must bring before you when we enter on the study of
+architecture. That study we shall begin at the foot of the Baptistery of
+Florence, which, of all buildings known to me, unites the most perfect
+symmetry with the quaintest &#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#945;. Then, from the tomb of
+your own Edward the Confessor, to the farthest shrine of the opposite
+Arabian and Indian world, I must show you how the glittering and
+iridescent dominion of D&aelig;dalus prevails; and his ingenuity in division,
+interposition, and labyrinthine sequence, more widely still. Only this
+last summer I found the dark red masses of the rough sandstone of
+Furness Abbey had been fitted by him, with no less pleasure than he had
+in carving them, into wedged hexagons&mdash;reminiscences of the honeycomb of
+Venus Erycina. His ingenuity plays around the framework of all the
+noblest things; and yet the brightness of it has a lurid shadow. The
+spot of the fawn, of the bird, and the moth, may be harmless. But
+D&aelig;dalus reigns no less over the spot of the leopard and snake. That
+cruel and venomous power of his art is marked, in the legends of him, by
+his invention of the saw from the serpent's tooth; and his seeking
+refuge, under blood-guiltiness, with Minos, who can judge evil, and
+measure, or remit, the penalty of it, but not reward good; Rhadamanthus
+only can measure <i>that</i>; but Minos is essentially the recognizer of evil
+deeds "conoscitor delle peccata," whom, therefore, you find in Dante
+under the form of the &#949;&#961;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#957;. "Cignesi con la coda tante
+volte, quantunque gradi vuol che giu sia messa."</p>
+
+<p>And this peril of the influence of D&aelig;dalus is twofold; first, in leading
+us to delight in glitterings and semblances of things, more than in
+their form, or truth;&mdash;admire the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> harlequin's jacket more than the
+hero's strength; and love the gilding of the missal more than its
+words;&mdash;but farther, and worse, the ingenuity of D&aelig;dalus may even become
+bestial, an instinct for mechanical labor only, strangely involved with
+a feverish and ghastly cruelty:&mdash;(you will find this distinct in the
+intensely D&aelig;dal work of the Japanese); rebellious, finally, against the
+laws of nature and honor, and building labyrinths for monsters,&mdash;not
+combs for bees.</p>
+
+<p>208. Gentlemen, we of the rough northern race may never, perhaps, be
+able to learn from the Greek his reverence for beauty; but we may at
+least learn his disdain of mechanism:&mdash;of all work which he felt to be
+monstrous and inhuman in its imprudent dexterities.</p>
+
+<p>We hold ourselves, we English, to be good workmen. I do not think I
+speak with light reference to recent calamity, (for I myself lost a
+young relation, full of hope and good purpose, in the foundered ship
+<i>London</i>,) when I say that either an &AElig;ginetan or Ionian shipwright built
+ships that could be fought from, though they were under water; and
+neither of them would have been proud of having built one that would
+fill and sink helplessly if the sea washed over her deck, or turn
+upside-down if a squall struck her topsail.</p>
+
+<p>Believe me, gentlemen, good workmanship consists in continence and
+common sense, more than in frantic expatiation of mechanical ingenuity;
+and if you would be continent and rational, you had better learn more of
+Art than you do now, and less of Engineering. What is taking place at
+this very hour,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> among the streets, once so bright, and avenues, once
+so pleasant, of the fairest city in Europe, may surely lead us all to
+feel that the skill of D&aelig;dalus, set to build impregnable fortresses, is
+not so wisely applied as in framing the &#964;&#961;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#957;,&mdash;the
+golden honeycomb.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The closing Lecture, on the religious temper of the
+Florentine, though necessary for the complete explanation of the subject
+to my class, at the time, introduced new points of inquiry which I do
+not choose to lay before the general reader until they can be examined
+in fuller sequence. The present volume, therefore, closes with the Sixth
+Lecture, and that on Christian art will be given as the first of the
+published course on Florentine Sculpture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> These plates of coins are given for future reference and
+examination, not merely for the use made of them in this place. The
+Lacinian Hera, if a coin could be found unworn in surface, would be very
+noble; her hair is thrown free because she is the goddess of the cape of
+storms, though in her temple, there, the wind never moved the ashes on
+its altar. (Livy, xxiv. 3.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> 'Ancient Cities and Kings,' Plate IV., No. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The siege of Paris, at the time of the delivery of this
+Lecture, was in one of its most destructive phases.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LECTURE VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION BETWEEN MICHAEL ANGELO AND TINTORET.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>209. In preceding lectures on sculpture I have included references to
+the art of painting, so far as it proposes to itself the same object as
+sculpture, (idealization of form); and I have chosen for the subject of
+our closing inquiry, the works of the two masters who accomplished or
+implied the unity of these arts. Tintoret entirely conceives his figures
+as solid statues: sees them in his mind on every side; detaches each
+from the other by imagined air and light; and foreshortens, interposes,
+or involves them as if they were pieces of clay in his hand. On the
+contrary, Michael Angelo conceives his sculpture partly as if it were
+painted; and using (as I told you formerly) his pen like a chisel, uses
+also his chisel like a pencil; is sometimes as picturesque as Rembrandt,
+and sometimes as soft as Correggio.</p>
+
+<p>It is of him chiefly that I shall speak to-day; both because it is part
+of my duty to the strangers here present to indicate for them some of
+the points of interest in the drawings forming part of the University
+collections; but still more, because I must not allow the second year of
+my professorship to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> close, without some statement of the mode in which
+those collections may be useful or dangerous to my pupils. They seem at
+present little likely to be either; for since I entered on my duties, no
+student has ever asked me a single question respecting these drawings,
+or, so far as I could see, taken the slightest interest in them.</p>
+
+<p>210. There are several causes for this which might be obviated&mdash;there is
+one which cannot be. The collection, as exhibited at present, includes a
+number of copies which mimic in variously injurious ways the characters
+of Michael Angelo's own work; and the series, except as material for
+reference, can be of no practical service until these are withdrawn, and
+placed by themselves. It includes, besides, a number of original
+drawings which are indeed of value to any laborious student of Michael
+Angelo's life and temper; but which owe the greater part of this
+interest to their being executed in times of sickness or indolence, when
+the master, however strong, was failing in his purpose, and, however
+diligent, tired of his work. It will be enough to name, as an example of
+this class, the sheet of studies for the Medici tombs, No. 45, in which
+the lowest figure is, strictly speaking, neither a study nor a working
+drawing, but has either been scrawled in the feverish languor of
+exhaustion, which cannot escape its subject of thought; or, at best, in
+idly experimental addition of part to part, beginning with the head, and
+fitting muscle after muscle, and bone after bone, to it, thinking of
+their place only, not their proportion, till the head is only about
+one-twentieth part of the height of the body: finally, something between
+a face and a mask is blotted in the upper left-hand corner of the paper,
+indicative, in the weakness and frightfulness of it, simply of mental
+disorder from over-work; and there are several others of this kind,
+among even the better drawings of the collection, which ought never to
+be exhibited to the general public.</p>
+
+<p>211. It would be easy, however, to separate these, with the acknowledged
+copies, from the rest; and, doing the same with the drawings of Raphael,
+among which a larger number are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> of true value, to form a connected
+series of deep interest to artists, in illustration of the incipient and
+experimental methods of design practiced by each master.</p>
+
+<p>I say, to artists. Incipient methods of design are not, and ought not to
+be, subjects of earnest inquiry to other people; and although the
+re-arrangement of the drawings would materially increase the chance of
+their gaining due attention, there is a final and fatal reason for the
+want of interest in them displayed by the younger students;&mdash;namely,
+that these designs have nothing whatever to do with present life, with
+its passions, or with its religion. What their historic value is, and
+relation to the life of the past, I will endeavor, so far as time
+admits, to explain to-day.</p>
+
+<p>212. The course of Art divides itself hitherto, among all nations of the
+world that have practiced it successfully, into three great periods.</p>
+
+<p>The first, that in which their conscience is undeveloped, and their
+condition of life in many respects savage; but, nevertheless, in harmony
+with whatever conscience they possess. The most powerful tribes, in this
+stage of their intellect, usually live by rapine, and under the
+influence of vivid, but contracted, religious imagination. The early
+predatory activity of the Normans, and the confused minglings of
+religious subjects with scenes of hunting, war, and vile grotesque, in
+their first art, will sufficiently exemplify this state of a people;
+having, observe, their conscience undeveloped, but keeping their conduct
+in satisfied harmony with it.</p>
+
+<p>The second stage is that of the formation of conscience by the discovery
+of the true laws of social order and personal virtue, coupled with
+sincere effort to live by such laws as they are discovered.</p>
+
+<p>All the Arts advance steadily during this stage of national growth, and
+are lovely, even in their deficiencies, as the buds of flowers are
+lovely by their vital force, swift change, and continent beauty.</p>
+
+<p>213. The third stage is that in which the conscience is entirely formed,
+and the nation, finding it painful to live in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> obedience to the precepts
+it has discovered, looks about to discover, also, a compromise for
+obedience to them. In this condition of mind its first endeavor is
+nearly always to make its religion pompous, and please the gods by
+giving them gifts and entertainments, in which it may piously and
+pleasurably share itself; so that a magnificent display of the powers of
+art it has gained by sincerity, takes place for a few years, and is then
+followed by their extinction, rapid and complete exactly in the degree
+in which the nation resigns itself to hypocrisy.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Tintoret belong to this period
+of compromise in the career of the greatest nation of the world; and are
+the most splendid efforts yet made by human creatures to maintain the
+dignity of states with beautiful colors, and defend the doctrines of
+theology with anatomical designs.</p>
+
+<p>Farther, and as an universal principle, we have to remember that the
+Arts express not only the moral temper, but the scholarship, of their
+age; and we have thus to study them under the influence, at the same
+moment of, it may be, declining probity, and advancing science.</p>
+
+<p>214. Now in this the Arts of Northern and Southern Europe stand exactly
+opposed. The Northern temper never accepts the Catholic faith with force
+such as it reached in Italy. Our sincerest thirteenth-century sculptor
+is cold and formal compared with that of the Pisani; nor can any
+Northern poet be set for an instant beside Dante, as an exponent of
+Catholic faith: on the contrary, the Northern temper accepts the
+scholarship of the Reformation with absolute sincerity, while the
+Italians seek refuge from it in the partly scientific and completely
+lascivious enthusiasms of literature and painting, renewed under
+classical influence. We therefore, in the north, produce our Shakspeare
+and Holbein; they their Petrarch and Raphael. And it is nearly
+impossible for you to study Shakspeare or Holbein too much, or Petrarch
+and Raphael too little.</p>
+
+<p>I do not say this, observe, in opposition to the Catholic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> faith, or to
+any other faith, but only to the attempts to support whatsoever the
+faith may be, by ornament or eloquence, instead of action. Every man who
+honestly accepts, and acts upon, the knowledge granted to him by the
+circumstances of his time, has the faith which God intends him to
+have;&mdash;assuredly a good one, whatever the terms or form of it&mdash;every man
+who dishonestly refuses, or interestedly disobeys the knowledge open to
+him, holds a faith which God does not mean him to hold, and therefore a
+bad one, however beautiful or traditionally respectable.</p>
+
+<p>215. Do not, therefore, I entreat you, think that I speak with any
+purpose of defending one system of theology against another; least of
+all, reformed against Catholic theology. There probably never was a
+system of religion so destructive to the loveliest arts and the
+loveliest virtues of men, as the modern Protestantism, which consists in
+an assured belief in the Divine forgiveness of all your sins, and the
+Divine correctness of all your opinions. But in the first searching and
+sincere activities, the doctrines of the Reformation produced the most
+instructive art, and the grandest literature, yet given to the world;
+while Italy, in her interested resistance to those doctrines, polluted
+and exhausted the arts she already possessed. Her iridescence of dying
+statesmanship&mdash;her magnificence of hollow piety,&mdash;were represented in
+the arts of Venice and Florence by two mighty men on either side&mdash;Titian
+and Tintoret,&mdash;Michael Angelo and Raphael. Of the calm and brave
+statesmanship, the modest and faithful religion, which had been her
+strength, I am content to name one chief representative artist at
+Venice, John Bellini.</p>
+
+<p>216. Let me now map out for you roughly the chronological relations of
+these five men. It is impossible to remember the minor years, in dates;
+I will give you them broadly in decades, and you can add what finesse
+afterwards you like.</p>
+
+<p>Recollect, first, the great year 1480. Twice four's eight&mdash;you can't
+mistake it. In that year Michael Angelo was five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> years old; Titian,
+three years old; Raphael, within three years of being born.</p>
+
+<p>So see how easily it comes. Michael Angelo five years old&mdash;and you
+divide six between Titian and Raphael,&mdash;three on each side of your
+standard year, 1480.</p>
+
+<p>Then add to 1480, forty years&mdash;an easy number to recollect, surely; and
+you get the exact year of Raphael's death, 1520.</p>
+
+<p>In that forty years all the new effort and deadly catastrophe took
+place. 1480 to 1520.</p>
+
+<p>Now, you have only to fasten to those forty years, the life of Bellini,
+who represents the best art before them, and of Tintoret, who represents
+the best art after them.</p>
+
+<p>217. I cannot fit you these on with a quite comfortable exactness, but
+with very slight inexactness I can fit them firmly.</p>
+
+<p>John Bellini was ninety years old when he died. He lived fifty years
+before the great forty of change, and he saw the forty, and died. Then
+Tintoret is born; lives eighty<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> years after the forty, and closes, in
+dying, the sixteenth century, and the great arts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Those are the dates, roughly; now for the facts connected with them.</p>
+
+<p>John Bellini precedes the change, meets, and resists it victoriously to
+his death. Nothing of flaw or failure is ever to be discerned in him.</p>
+
+<p>Then Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Titian, together, bring about the
+deadly change, playing into each other's hands&mdash;Michael Angelo being the
+chief captain in evil; Titian, in natural force.</p>
+
+<p>Then Tintoret, himself alone nearly as strong as all the three, stands
+up for a last fight; for Venice, and the old time. He all but wins it at
+first; but the three together are too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> strong for him. Michael Angelo
+strikes him down; and the arts are ended. "Il disegno di Michael
+Agnolo." That fatal motto was his death-warrant.</p>
+
+<p>218. And now, having massed out my subject, I can clearly sketch for you
+the changes that took place from Bellini, through Michael Angelo, to
+Tintoret.</p>
+
+<p>The art of Bellini is centrally represented by two pictures at Venice:
+one, the Madonna in the Sacristy of the Frari, with two saints beside
+her, and two angels at her feet; the second, the Madonna with four
+Saints, over the second altar of San Zaccaria.</p>
+
+<p>In the first of these, the figures are under life size, and it
+represents the most perfect kind of picture for rooms; in which, since
+it is intended to be seen close to the spectator, every right kind of
+finish possible to the hand may be wisely lavished; yet which is not a
+miniature, nor in any wise petty, or ignoble.</p>
+
+<p>In the second, the figures are of life size, or a little more, and it
+represents the class of great pictures in which the boldest execution is
+used, but all brought to entire completion. These two, having every
+quality in balance, are as far as my present knowledge extends, and as
+far as I can trust my judgment, the two best pictures in the world.</p>
+
+<p>219. Observe respecting them&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>First, they are both wrought in entirely consistent and permanent
+material. The gold in them is represented by painting, not laid on with
+real gold. And the painting is so secure, that four hundred years have
+produced on it, so far as I can see, no harmful change whatsoever, of
+any kind.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the figures in both are in perfect peace. No action takes
+place except that the little angels are playing on musical instruments,
+but with uninterrupted and effortless gesture, as in a dream. A choir of
+singing angels by La Robbia or Donatello would be intent on their music,
+or eagerly rapturous in it, as in temporary exertion: in the little
+choirs of cherubs by Luini in the Adoration of the Shepherds, in the
+Cathedral of Como, we even feel by their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> dutiful anxiety that there
+might be danger of a false note if they were less attentive. But
+Bellini's angels, even the youngest, sing as calmly as the Fates weave.</p>
+
+<p>220. Let me at once point out to you that this calmness is the attribute
+of the entirely highest class of art: the introduction of strong or
+violently emotional incident is at once a confession of inferiority.</p>
+
+<p>Those are the two first attributes of the best art. Faultless
+workmanship, and perfect serenity; a continuous, not momentary,
+action,&mdash;or entire inaction. You are to be interested in the living
+creatures; not in what is happening to them.</p>
+
+<p>Then the third attribute of the best art is that it compels you to think
+of the spirit of the creature, and therefore of its face, more than of
+its body.</p>
+
+<p>And the fourth is that in the face you shall be led to see only beauty
+or joy;&mdash;never vileness, vice, or pain.</p>
+
+<p>Those are the four essentials of the greatest art. I repeat them, they
+are easily learned.</p>
+
+<p>1. Faultless and permanent workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>2. Serenity in state or action.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Face principal, not the body.</p>
+
+<p>4. And the Face free from either vice or pain.</p>
+
+<p>221. It is not possible, of course, always literally to observe the
+second condition, that there shall be quiet action or none; but
+Bellini's treatment of violence in action you may see exemplified in a
+notable way in his St. Peter Martyr. The soldier is indeed striking the
+sword down into his breast; but in the face of the Saint is only
+resignation, and faintness of death, not pain&mdash;that of the executioner
+is impassive; and, while a painter of the later schools would have
+covered breast and sword with blood, Bellini allows no stain of it; but
+pleases himself by the most elaborate and exquisite painting of a soft
+crimson feather in the executioner's helmet.</p>
+
+<p>222. Now the changes brought about by Michael Angelo&mdash;and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> permitted, or
+persisted in calamitously, by Tintoret&mdash;are in the four points these:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1st. Bad workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of all that these two men did is hastily and
+incompletely done; and all that they did on a large scale in
+color is in the best qualities of it perished.</p>
+
+<p>2d. Violence of transitional action.</p>
+
+<p>The figures flying,&mdash;falling,&mdash;striking,&mdash;or biting. Scenes of
+Judgment,&mdash;battle,&mdash;martyrdom,&mdash;massacre; anything that is in
+the acme of instantaneous interest and violent gesture. They
+cannot any more trust their public to care for anything but
+that.</p>
+
+<p>3d. Physical instead of mental interest. The body, and its
+anatomy, made the entire subject of interest: the face,
+shadowed, as in the Duke Lorenzo,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> unfinished, as in the
+Twilight, or entirely foreshortened, backshortened, and
+despised, among labyrinths of limbs, and mountains of sides and
+shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>4th. Evil chosen rather than good. On the face itself, instead
+of joy or virtue, at the best, sadness, probably pride, often
+sensuality, and always, by preference, vice or agony as the
+subject of thought. In the Last Judgment of Michael Angelo, and
+the Last Judgment of Tintoret, it is the wrath of the Dies Ir&aelig;,
+not its justice, in which they delight; and their only
+passionate thought of the coming of Christ in the clouds, is
+that all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of Him.</p></div>
+
+<p>Those are the four great changes wrought by Michael Angelo. I repeat
+them:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Ill work for good.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tumult for Peace.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Flesh of Man for his Spirit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the Curse of God for His blessing.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>223. Hitherto, I have massed, necessarily, but most unjustly, Michael
+Angelo and Tintoret together, because of their common relation to the
+art of others. I shall now proceed to distinguish the qualities of their
+own. And first as to the general temper of the two men.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every existing work by Michael Angelo is an attempt to execute
+something beyond his power, coupled with a fevered desire that his power
+may be acknowledged. He is always matching himself either against the
+Greeks whom he cannot rival, or against rivals whom he cannot forget. He
+is proud, yet not proud enough to be at peace; melancholy, yet not
+deeply enough to be raised above petty pain; and strong beyond all his
+companion workmen, yet never strong enough to command his temper, or
+limit his aims.</p>
+
+<p>Tintoret, on the contrary, works in the consciousness of supreme
+strength, which cannot be wounded by neglect, and is only to be thwarted
+by time and space. He knows precisely all that art can accomplish under
+given conditions; determines absolutely how much of what can be done he
+will himself for the moment choose to do; and fulfills his purpose with
+as much ease as if, through his human body, were working the great
+forces of nature. Not that he is ever satisfied with what he has done,
+as vulgar and feeble artists are satisfied. He falls short of his ideal,
+more than any other man; but not more than is necessary; and is content
+to fall short of it to that degree, as he is content that his figures,
+however well painted, do not move nor speak. He is also entirely
+unconcerned respecting the satisfaction of the public. He neither cares
+to display his strength to them, nor convey his ideas to them; when he
+finishes his work, it is because he is in the humor to do so; and the
+sketch which a meaner painter would have left incomplete to show how
+cleverly it was begun, Tintoret simply leaves because he has done as
+much of it as he likes.</p>
+
+<p>224. Both Raphael and Michael Angelo are thus, in the most vital of all
+points, separate from the great Venetian. They are always in dramatic
+attitudes, and always appealing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> to the public for praise. They are the
+leading athletes in the gymnasium of the arts; and the crowd of the
+circus cannot take its eyes away from them, while the Venetian walks or
+rests with the simplicity of a wild animal; is scarcely noticed in his
+occasionally swifter motion; when he springs, it is to please himself;
+and so calmly, that no one thinks of estimating the distance covered.</p>
+
+<p>I do not praise him wholly in this. I praise him only for the
+well-founded pride, infinitely nobler than Michael Angelo's. You do not
+hear of Tintoret's putting any one into hell because they had found
+fault with his work. Tintoret would as soon have thought of putting a
+dog into hell for laying his paws on it. But he is to be blamed in
+this&mdash;that he thinks as little of the pleasure of the public, as of
+their opinion. A great painter's business is to do what the public ask
+of him, in the way that shall be helpful and instructive to them. His
+relation to them is exactly that of a tutor to a child; he is not to
+defer to their judgment, but he is carefully to form it;&mdash;not to consult
+their pleasure for his own sake, but to consult it much for theirs. It
+was scarcely, however, possible that this should be the case between
+Tintoret and his Venetians; he could not paint for the people, and in
+some respects he was happily protected by his subordination to the
+Senate. Raphael and Michael Angelo lived in a world of court intrigue,
+in which it was impossible to escape petty irritation, or refuse
+themselves the pleasure of mean victory. But Tintoret and Titian, even
+at the height of their reputation, practically lived as craftsmen in
+their workshops, and sent in samples of their wares, not to be praised
+or caviled at, but to be either taken or refused.</p>
+
+<p>225. I can clearly and adequately set before you these relations between
+the great painters of Venice and her Senate&mdash;relations which, in
+monetary matters, are entirely right and exemplary for all time&mdash;by
+reading to you two decrees of the Senate itself, and one petition to it.
+The first document shall be the decree of the Senate for giving help to
+John Bellini, in finishing the compartments of the great Council<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+Chamber; granting him three assistants&mdash;one of them Victor Carpaccio.</p>
+
+<p>The decree, first referring to some other business, closes in these
+terms:<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"There having moreover offered his services to this effect our
+most faithful citizen, Zuan Bellin, according to his agreement
+employing his skill and all speed and diligence for the
+completion of this work of the three pictures aforesaid,
+provided he be assisted by the under-written painters.</p>
+
+<p>"Be it therefore put to the ballot, that besides the aforesaid
+Zuan Bellin in person, who will assume the superintendence of
+this work, there be added Master Victor Scarpaza, with a
+monthly salary of five ducats; Master Victor, son of the late
+Mathio, at four ducats per month; and the painter, Hieronymo,
+at two ducats per month; they rendering speedy and diligent
+assistance to the aforesaid Zuan Bellin for the painting of the
+pictures aforesaid, so that they be completed well and
+carefully as speedily as possible. The salaries of the which
+three master painters aforesaid, with the costs of colors and
+other necessaries, to be defrayed by our Salt Office with the
+moneys of the great chest.</p>
+
+<p>"It being expressly declared that said pensioned painters be
+tied and bound to work constantly and daily, so that said three
+pictures may be completed as expeditiously as possible; the
+artists aforesaid being pensioned at the good pleasure of this
+Council.</p></div>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Ayes<span class='linenum'>23</span><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Noes<span class='linenum'>3</span><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Neutrals  0"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This decree is the more interesting to us now, because it is the
+precedent to which Titian himself refers, when he first offers his
+services to the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>The petition which I am about to read to you, was read to the Council of
+Ten, on the last day of May, 1513, and the original draft of it is yet
+preserved in the Venice archives.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"'Most Illustrious Council of Ten.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">"'Most Serene Prince and most Excellent Lords.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"'I, Titian of Serviete de Cadore, having from my boyhood
+upwards set myself to learn the art of painting, not so much
+from cupidity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> gain as for the sake of endeavoring to
+acquire some little fame, and of being ranked amongst those who
+now profess the said art.</p>
+
+<p>"'And altho heretofore, and likewise at this present, I have
+been earnestly requested by the Pope and other potentates to go
+and serve them, nevertheless, being anxious as your Serenity's
+most faithful subject, for such I am, to leave some memorial in
+this famous city; my determination is, should the Signory
+approve, <i>to undertake, so long as I live, to come and paint in
+the Grand Council with my whole soul and ability</i>; commencing,
+provided your Serenity think of it, with the battle-piece on
+the side towards the "Piaza," that being the most difficult;
+nor down to this time has any one chosen to assume so hard a
+task.</p>
+
+<p>"'I, most excellent Lords, should be better pleased to receive
+as recompense for the work to be done by me, such
+acknowledgments as may be deemed sufficient, and much less; but
+because, as already stated by me, I care solely for my honor,
+and mere livelihood, should your Serenity approve, you will
+vouchsafe to grant me for my life, the next brokers-patent in
+the German factory,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> by whatever means it may become vacant;
+notwithstanding other expectancies; with the terms, conditions,
+obligations, and exemptions, as in the case of Messer Zuan
+Bellini; besides two youths whom I purpose bringing with me as
+assistants; they to be paid by the Salt Office; as likewise the
+colors and all other requisites, as conceded a few months ago
+by the aforesaid most Illustrious Council to the said Messer
+Zuan; for I promise to do such work and with so much speed and
+excellency as shall satisfy your lordships to whom I humbly
+recommend myself.'"</p></div>
+
+<p>226. "This proposal," Mr. Brown tells us, "in accordance with the
+petitions presented by Gentil Bellini and Alvise Vivarini, was
+immediately put to the ballot," and carried thus&mdash;the decision of the
+Grand Council, in favor of Titian, being, observe, by no means
+unanimous:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Ayes<span class='linenum'>10</span><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Noes<span class='linenum'>6</span><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Neutrals  0"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Immediately follows on the acceptance of Titian's services, this
+practical order:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"We, Chiefs of the most Illustrious Council of Ten, tell and
+inform you Lords Proveditors for the State; videlicet the one
+who is cashier of the Great Chest, and his successors, that for
+the execution of what<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> has been decreed above in the most
+Illustrious Council aforesaid, you do have prepared all
+necessaries for the above written Titian according to his
+petition and demand, and as observed with regard to Juan
+Bellini, that he may paint ut supra; paying from month to month
+the two youths whom said Titian shall present to you at the
+rate of four ducats each per month, as urged by him because of
+their skill and sufficiency in said art of painting, tho' we do
+not mean the payment of their salary to commence until they
+begin work; and thus will you do. Given on the 8th of June,
+1513."</p></div>
+
+<p>This is the way, then, the great workmen wish to be paid, and that is
+the way wise men pay them for their work. The perfect simplicity of such
+patronage leaves the painter free to do precisely what he thinks best:
+and a good painter always produces his best, with such license.</p>
+
+<p>227. And now I shall take the four conditions of change in succession,
+and examine the distinctions between the two masters in their acceptance
+of, or resistance to, them.</p>
+
+<p>(I.) The change of good and permanent workmanship for bad and insecure
+workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>You have often heard quoted the saying of Michael Angelo, that
+oil-painting was only fit for women and children.</p>
+
+<p>He said so, simply because he had neither the skill to lay a single
+touch of good oil-painting, nor the patience to overcome even its
+elementary difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>And it is one of my reasons for the choice of subject in this concluding
+lecture on Sculpture, that I may, with direct reference to this much
+quoted saying of Michael Angelo, make the positive statement to you,
+that oil-painting is the Art of arts;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> that it is sculpture, drawing,
+and music, all in one, involving the technical dexterities of those
+three several arts; that is to say&mdash;the decision and strength of the
+stroke of the chisel;&mdash;the balanced distribution of appliance of that
+force necessary for graduation in light and shade;&mdash;and the passionate
+felicity of rightly multiplied actions, all unerring, which on an
+instrument produce right sound, and on canvas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> living color. There is
+no other human skill so great or so wonderful as the skill of fine
+oil-painting; and there is no other art whose results are so absolutely
+permanent. Music is gone as soon as produced&mdash;marble discolors,&mdash;fresco
+fades,&mdash;glass darkens or decomposes&mdash;painting alone, well guarded, is
+practically everlasting.</p>
+
+<p>Of this splendid art Michael Angelo understood nothing; he understood
+even fresco, imperfectly. Tintoret understood both perfectly; but
+he&mdash;when no one would pay for his colors (and sometimes nobody would
+even give him space of wall to paint on)&mdash;used cheap blue for
+ultramarine; and he worked so rapidly, and on such huge spaces of
+canvas, that between damp and dry, his colors must go, for the most
+part; but any complete oil-painting of his stands as well as one of
+Bellini's own: while Michael Angelo's fresco is defaced already in every
+part of it, and Lionardo's oil-painting is all either gone black, or
+gone to nothing.</p>
+
+<p>228. (II.) Introduction of dramatic interest for the sake of excitement.
+I have already, in the <i>Stones of Venice</i>, illustrated Tintoret's
+dramatic power at so great length, that I will not, to-day, make any
+farther statement to justify my assertion that it is as much beyond
+Michael Angelo's as Shakspeare's is beyond Milton's&mdash;and somewhat with
+the same kind of difference in manner. Neither can I speak to-day, time
+not permitting me, of the abuse of their dramatic power by Venetian or
+Florentine; one thing only I beg you to note, that with full half of his
+strength, Tintoret remains faithful to the serenity of the past; and the
+examples I have given you from his work in S. 50,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> are, one, of the
+most splendid drama, and the other, of the quietest portraiture ever
+attained by the arts of the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Note also this respecting his picture of the Judgment, that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> in spite
+of all the violence and wildness of the imagined scene, Tintoret has not
+given, so far as I remember, the spectacle of any one soul under
+infliction of actual pain. In all previous representations of the Last
+Judgment there had at least been one division of the picture set apart
+for the representation of torment; and even the gentle Angelico shrinks
+from no orthodox detail in this respect; but Tintoret, too vivid and
+true in imagination to be able to endure the common thoughts of hell,
+represents indeed the wicked in ruin, but not in agony. They are swept
+down by flood and whirlwind&mdash;the place of them shall know them no more,
+but not one is seen in more than the natural pain of swift and
+irrevocable death.</p>
+
+<p>229. (III.) I pass to the third condition; the priority of flesh to
+spirit, and of the body to the face.</p>
+
+<p>In this alone, of the four innovations, Michael Angelo and Tintoret have
+the Greeks with them;&mdash;in this, alone, have they any right to be called
+classical. The Greeks gave them no excuse for bad workmanship; none for
+temporary passion; none for the preference of pain. Only in the honor
+done to the body may be alleged for them the authority of the ancients.</p>
+
+<p>You remember, I hope, how often in my preceding lectures I had to insist
+on the fact that Greek sculpture was essentially &#945;&#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#962;;&mdash;independent, not only of the expression, but even of the
+beauty of the face. Nay, independent of its being so much as seen. The
+greater number of the finest pieces of it which remain for us to judge
+by, have had the heads broken away;&mdash;we do not seriously miss them
+either from the Three Fates, the Ilissus, or the Torso of the Vatican.
+The face of the Theseus is so far destroyed by time that you can form
+little conception of its former aspect. But it is otherwise in Christian
+sculpture. Strike the head off even the rudest statue in the porch of
+Chartres and you will greatly miss it&mdash;the harm would be still worse to
+Donatello's St. George:&mdash;and if you take the heads from a statue<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> of
+Mino, or a painting of Angelico&mdash;very little but drapery will be
+left;&mdash;drapery made redundant in quantity and rigid in fold, that it may
+conceal the forms, and give a proud or ascetic reserve to the actions,
+of the bodily frame. Bellini and his school, indeed, rejected at once
+the false theory, and the easy mannerism, of such religious design; and
+painted the body without fear or reserve, as, in its subordination,
+honorable and lovely. But the inner heart and fire of it are by them
+always first thought of, and no action is given to it merely to show its
+beauty. Whereas the great culminating masters, and chiefly of these,
+Tintoret, Correggio, and Michael Angelo, delight in the body for its own
+sake, and cast it into every conceivable attitude, often in violation of
+all natural probability, that they may exhibit the action of its
+skeleton, and the contours of its flesh. The movement of a hand with
+Cima or Bellini expresses mental emotion only; but the clustering and
+twining of the fingers of Correggio's S. Catherine is enjoyed by the
+painter just in the same way as he would enjoy the twining of the
+branches of a graceful plant, and he compels them into intricacies which
+have little or no relation to St. Catherine's mind. In the two drawings
+of Correggio (S. 13 and 14) it is the rounding of limbs and softness of
+foot resting on cloud which are principally thought of in the form of
+the Madonna; and the countenance of St. John is foreshortened into a
+section, that full prominence may be given to the muscles of his arms
+and breast.</p>
+
+<p>So in Tintoret's drawing of the Graces (S. 22), he has entirely
+neglected the individual character of the Goddesses, and been content to
+indicate it merely by attributes of dice or flower, so only that he may
+sufficiently display varieties of contour in thigh and shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>230. Thus far, then, the Greeks, Correggio, Michael Angelo, Raphael in
+his latter design, and Tintoret in his scenic design (as opposed to
+portraiture), are at one. But the Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, are
+also together in this farther point; that they all draw the body for
+true delight in it, and with knowledge of it living; while Michael
+Angelo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> and Raphael draw the body for vanity, and from knowledge of it
+dead.</p>
+
+<p>The Venus of Melos,&mdash;Correggio's Venus, (with Mercury teaching Cupid to
+read),&mdash;and Tintoret's Graces, have the forms which their designers
+truly <i>liked</i> to see in women. They may have been wrong or right in
+liking those forms, but they carved and painted them for their pleasure,
+not for vanity.</p>
+
+<p>But the form of Michael Angelo's Night is not one which he delighted to
+see in women. He gave it her, because he thought it was fine, and that
+he would be admired for reaching so lofty an ideal.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>231. Again. The Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, learn the body from the
+living body, and delight in its breath, color, and motion.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>Raphael and Michael Angelo learned it essentially from the corpse, and
+had no delight in it whatever, but great pride in showing that they knew
+all its mechanism; they therefore sacrifice its colors, and insist on
+its muscles, and surrender the breath and fire of it, for what is&mdash;not
+merely carnal,&mdash;but osseous, knowing that for one person who can
+recognize the loveliness of a look, or the purity of a color, there are
+a hundred who can calculate the length of a bone.</p>
+
+<p>The boy with the doves, in Raphael's cartoon of the Beautiful Gate of
+the Temple, is not a child running, but a surgical diagram of a child in
+a running posture.</p>
+
+<p>Farther, when the Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, draw the body active,
+it is because they rejoice in its force, and when they draw it inactive,
+it is because they rejoice in its repose. But Michael Angelo and Raphael
+invent for it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> ingenious mechanical motion, because they think it
+uninteresting when it is quiet, and cannot, in their pictures, endure
+any person's being simple-minded enough to stand upon both his legs at
+once, nor venture to imagine anyone's being clear enough in his language
+to make himself intelligible without pointing.</p>
+
+<p>In all these conditions, the Greek and Venetian treatment of the body is
+faithful, modest, and natural; but Michael Angelo's dishonest, insolent,
+and artificial.</p>
+
+<p>232. But between him and Tintoret there is a separation deeper than all
+these, when we examine their treatment of the face. Michael Angelo's
+vanity of surgical science rendered it impossible for him ever to treat
+the body as well as the Greeks treated it; but it left him wholly at
+liberty to treat the face as ill; and he did: and in some respects very
+curiously worse.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks had, in all their work, one type of face for beautiful and
+honorable persons; and another, much contrary to it, for dishonorable
+ones; and they were continually setting these in opposition. Their type
+of beauty lay chiefly in the undisturbed peace and simplicity of all
+contours; in full roundness of chin; in perfect formation of the lips,
+showing neither pride nor care; and, most of all, in a straight and firm
+line from the brow to the end of the nose.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek type of dishonorable persons, especially satyrs, fauns, and
+sensual powers, consisted in irregular excrescence and decrement of
+features, especially in flatness of the upper part of the nose, and
+projection of the end of it into a blunt knob.</p>
+
+<p>By the most grotesque fatality, as if the personal bodily injury he had
+himself received had passed with a sickly echo into his mind also,
+Michael Angelo is always dwelling on this satyric form of
+countenance;&mdash;sometimes violently caricatures it, but never can help
+drawing it; and all the best profiles in this collection at Oxford have
+what Mr. Robinson calls a "nez retrouss&eacute;;" but what is, in reality, the
+nose of the Greek Bacchic mask, treated as a dignified feature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>233. For the sake of readers who cannot examine the drawings themselves,
+and lest I should be thought to have exaggerated in any wise the
+statement of this character, I quote Mr. Robinson's description of the
+head, No. 9&mdash;a celebrated and entirely authentic drawing, on which, I
+regret to say, my own pencil comment in passing is merely "brutal lower
+lip, and broken nose":&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"This admirable study was probably made from nature, additional
+character and more powerful expression having been given to it
+by a slight exaggeration of details, bordering on caricature
+(observe the protruding lower lip, 'nez retrouss&eacute;,' and
+overhanging forehead). The head, in profile, turned to the
+right, is proudly planted on a massive neck and shoulders, and
+the short tufted hair stands up erect. The expression is that
+of fierce, insolent self-confidence and malevolence; it is
+engraved in facsimile in Ottley's 'Italian School of Design,'
+and it is described in that work, p. 33, as 'Finely expressive
+of scornfulness and pride, and evidently a study from nature.'</p>
+
+<p>"Michel Angelo has made use of the same ferocious-looking model
+on other occasions&mdash;see an instance in the well-known 'Head of
+Satan' engraved in Woodburn's Lawrence Gallery (No. 16), and
+now in the Malcolm Collection.</p>
+
+<p>"The study on the reverse of the leaf is more lightly executed;
+it represents a man of powerful frame, carrying a hog or boar
+in his arms before him, the upper part of his body thrown back
+to balance the weight, his head hidden by that of the animal,
+which rests on the man's right shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>"The power displayed in every line and touch of these drawings
+is inimitable&mdash;the head was in truth one of the 'teste divine,'
+and the hand which executed it the 'mano terribile,' so
+enthusiastically alluded to by Vasari."</p></div>
+
+<p>234. Passing, for the moment, by No. 10, a "young woman of majestic
+character, marked by a certain expression of brooding melancholy," and
+"wearing on her head a fantastic cap or turban;"&mdash;by No. 11, a bearded
+man, "wearing a conical Phrygian cap, his mouth wide open," and his
+expression "obstreperously animated;"&mdash;and by No. 12, "a middle-aged or
+old man, with a snub nose, high forehead, and thin, scrubby hair," we
+will go on to the fairer examples of Divine heads in No. 32.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"This splendid sheet of studies is probably one of the 'carte
+stupendissime di teste divine,' which Vasari says (Vita, p.
+272) Michel Angelo executed, as presents or lessons for his
+artistic friends. Not improbably it is actually one of those
+made for his friend Tommaso dei Cavalieri, who, when young, was
+desirous of learning to draw."</p></div>
+
+<p>But it is one of the chief misfortunes affecting Michael Angelo's
+reputation, that his ostentatious display of strength and science has a
+natural attraction for comparatively weak and pedantic persons. And this
+sheet of Vasari's "teste divine" contains, in fact, not a single drawing
+of high quality&mdash;only one of moderate agreeableness, and two caricatured
+heads, one of a satyr with hair like the fur of animals, and one of a
+monstrous and sensual face, such as could only have occurred to the
+sculptor in a fatigued dream, and which in my own notes I have classed
+with the vile face in No. 45.</p>
+
+<p>235. Returning, however, to the divine heads above it, I wish you to
+note "the most conspicuous and important of all," a study for one of the
+Genii behind the Sibylla Libyca. This Genius, like the young woman of a
+majestic character, and the man with his mouth open, wears a cap, or
+turban; opposite to him in the sheet, is a female in profile, "wearing a
+hood of massive drapery." And, when once your attention is directed to
+this point, you will perhaps be surprised to find how many of Michael
+Angelo's figures, intended to be sublime, have their heads bandaged. If
+you have been a student of Michael Angelo chiefly, you may easily have
+vitiated your taste to the extent of thinking that this is a dignified
+costume; but if you study Greek work, instead, you will find that
+nothing is more important in the system of it than a finished
+disposition of the hair; and as soon as you acquaint yourself with the
+execution of carved marbles generally, you will perceive these massy
+fillets to be merely a cheap means of getting over a difficulty too
+great for Michael Angelo's patience, and too exigent for his invention.
+They are not sublime arrangements, but economies of labor, and reliefs
+from the necessity of design; and if you had proposed to the sculptor of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> Venus of Melos, or of the Jupiter of Olympia, to bind the ambrosial
+locks up in towels, you would most likely have been instantly bound,
+yourself; and sent to the nearest temple of &AElig;sculapius.</p>
+
+<p>236. I need not, surely, tell you,&mdash;I need only remind,&mdash;how in all
+these points, the Venetians and Correggio reverse Michael Angelo's evil,
+and vanquish him in good; how they refuse caricature, rejoice in beauty,
+and thirst for opportunity of toil. The waves of hair in a single figure
+of Tintoret's (the Mary Magdalen of the Paradise) contain more
+intellectual design in themselves alone than all the folds of unseemly
+linen in the Sistine chapel put together.</p>
+
+<p>In the fourth and last place, as Tintoret does not sacrifice, except as
+he is forced by the exigencies of display, the face for the body, so
+also he does not sacrifice happiness for pain. The chief reason why we
+all know the "Last Judgment" of Michael Angelo, and not the "Paradise"
+of Tintoret, is the same love of sensation which makes us read the
+<i>Inferno</i> of Dante, and not his <i>Paradise</i>; and the choice, believe me,
+is our fault, not his; some farther evil influence is due to the fact
+that Michael Angelo has invested all his figures with picturesque and
+palpable elements of effect, while Tintoret has only made them lovely in
+themselves and has been content that they should deserve, not demand,
+your attention.</p>
+
+<p>237. You are accustomed to think the figures of Michael Angelo
+sublime&mdash;because they are dark, and colossal, and involved, and
+mysterious&mdash;because in a word, they look sometimes like shadows, and
+sometimes like mountains, and sometimes like specters, but never like
+human beings. Believe me, yet once more, in what I told you long
+since&mdash;man can invent nothing nobler than humanity. He cannot raise his
+form into anything better than God made it, by giving it either the
+flight of birds or strength of beasts, by enveloping it in mist, or
+heaping it into multitude. Your pilgrim must look like a pilgrim in a
+straw hat, or you will not make him into one with cockle and nimbus; an
+angel must look like an angel on the ground, as well as in the air; and
+the much-denounced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> pre-Raphaelite faith that a saint cannot look
+saintly unless he has thin legs, is not more absurd than Michael
+Angelo's, that a Sybil cannot look Sibylline unless she has thick ones.</p>
+
+<p>238. All that shadowing, storming, and coiling of his, when you look
+into it, is mere stage decoration, and that of a vulgar kind. Light is,
+in reality, more awful than darkness&mdash;modesty more majestic than
+strength; and there is truer sublimity in the sweet joy of a child, or
+the sweet virtue of a maiden, than in the strength of Ant&aelig;us, or
+thunder-clouds of &AElig;tna.</p>
+
+<p>Now, though in nearly all his greater pictures, Tintoret is entirely
+carried away by his sympathy with Michael Angelo, and conquers him in
+his own field;&mdash;outflies him in motion, outnumbers him in multitude,
+outwits him in fancy, and outflames him in rage,&mdash;he can be just as
+gentle as he is strong: and that Paradise, though it is the largest
+picture in the world, without any question, is also the thoughtfulest,
+and most precious.</p>
+
+<p>The Thoughtfulest!&mdash;it would be saying but little, as far as Michael
+Angelo is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>239. For consider of it yourselves. You have heard, from your youth up
+(and all educated persons have heard for three centuries), of this Last
+Judgment of his, as the most sublime picture in existence.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of it is one which should certainly be interesting to you,
+in one of two ways.</p>
+
+<p>If you never expect to be judged for any of your own doings, and the
+tradition of the coming of Christ is to you as an idle tale&mdash;still,
+think what a wonderful tale it would be, were it well told. You are at
+liberty, disbelieving it, to range the fields&mdash;Elysian and Tartarean&mdash;of
+all imagination. You may play with it, since it is false; and what a
+play would it not be, well written? Do you think the tragedy, or the
+miracle play, or the infinitely Divina Commedia of the Judgment of the
+astonished living who were dead;&mdash;the undeceiving of the sight of every
+human soul, understanding in an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> instant all the shallow, and depth of
+past life and future,&mdash;face to face with both,&mdash;and with God:&mdash;this
+apocalypse to all intellect, and completion to all passion, this minute
+and individual drama of the perfected history of separate spirits, and
+of their finally accomplished affections!&mdash;think you, I say, all this
+was well told by mere heaps of dark bodies curled and convulsed in
+space, and fall as of a crowd from a scaffolding, in writhed concretions
+of muscular pain?</p>
+
+<p>But take it the other way. Suppose you believe, be it never so dimly or
+feebly, in some kind of Judgment that is to be;&mdash;that you admit even the
+faint contingency of retribution, and can imagine, with vivacity enough
+to fear, that in this life, at all events, if not in another&mdash;there may
+be for you a Visitation of God, and a questioning&mdash;What hast thou done?
+The picture, if it is a good one, should have a deeper interest, surely
+on <i>this</i> postulate? Thrilling enough, as a mere imagination of what is
+never to be&mdash;now, as a conjecture of what <i>is</i> to be, held the best that
+in eighteen centuries of Christianity has for men's eyes been
+made;&mdash;Think of it so!</p>
+
+<p>240. And then, tell me, whether you yourselves, or any one you have
+known, did ever at any time receive from this picture any, the smallest
+vital thought, warning, quickening, or help? It may have appalled, or
+impressed you for a time, as a thunder-cloud might: but has it ever
+taught you anything&mdash;chastised in you anything&mdash;confirmed a
+purpose&mdash;fortified a resistance&mdash;purified a passion? I know that, for
+you, it has done none of these things; and I know also that, for others,
+it has done very different things. In every vain and proud designer who
+has since lived, that dark carnality of Michael Angelo's has fostered
+insolent science, and fleshly imagination. Daubers and blockheads think
+themselves painters, and are received by the public as such, if they
+know how to foreshorten bones and decipher entrails; and men with
+capacity of art either shrink away (the best of them always do) into
+petty felicities and innocencies of genre painting&mdash;landscapes, cattle,
+family breakfasts, village schoolings, and the like; or else, if they
+have the full sensuous art-faculty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> that would have made true painters
+of them, being taught, from their youth up, to look for and learn the
+body instead of the spirit, have learned it, and taught it to such
+purpose, that at this hour, when I speak to you, the rooms of the Royal
+Academy of England, receiving also what of best can be sent there by the
+masters of France, contain <i>not one</i> picture honorable to the arts of
+their age; and contain many which are shameful in their record of its
+manners.</p>
+
+<p>241. Of that, hereafter. I will close to-day giving you some brief
+account of the scheme of Tintoret's Paradise, in justification of my
+assertion that it is the thoughtfulest as well as mightiest picture in
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>In the highest center is Christ, leaning on the globe of the earth,
+which is of dark crystal. Christ is crowned with a glory as of the sun,
+and all the picture is lighted by that glory, descending through circle
+beneath circle of cloud, and of flying or throned spirits.</p>
+
+<p>The Madonna, beneath Christ, and at some interval from Him, kneels to
+Him. She is crowned with the Seven stars, and kneels on a cloud of
+angels, whose wings change into ruby fire, where they are near her.</p>
+
+<p>The three great Archangels meeting from three sides, fly towards Christ.
+Michael delivers up his scales and sword. He is followed by the Thrones
+and Principalities of the Earth; so inscribed&mdash;Throni&mdash;Principatus. The
+Spirits of the Thrones bear scales in their hands; and of the
+Princedoms, shining globes: beneath the wings of the last of these are
+the four great teachers and lawgivers, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St.
+Gregory, St. Augustine, and behind St. Augustine stands his mother,
+watching him, her chief joy in Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Thrones, are set the Apostles, St. Paul separated a little
+from the rest, and put lowest, yet principal; under St. Paul, is St.
+Christopher, bearing a massive globe, with a cross upon it; but to mark
+him as the Christ-bearer, since here in Paradise he cannot have the
+Child on his shoulders, Tintoret has thrown on the globe a flashing
+stellar reflection of the sun the head of Christ.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All this side of the picture is kept in glowing color,&mdash;the four Doctors
+of the church have golden miters and mantles; except the Cardinal, St.
+Jerome, who is in burning scarlet, his naked breast glowing, warm with
+noble life,&mdash;the darker red of his robe relieved against a white glory.</p>
+
+<p>242. Opposite to Michael, Gabriel flies towards the Madonna, having in
+his hand the Annunciation lily, large, and triple-blossomed. Above him,
+and above Michael, equally, extends a cloud of white angels, inscribed
+"Serafini;" but the group following Gabriel, and corresponding to the
+Throni following Michael, is inscribed "Cherubini." Under these are the
+great prophets, and singers and foretellers of the happiness or of the
+sorrow of time. David, and Solomon, and Isaiah, and Amos of the
+herdsmen. David has a colossal golden psaltery laid horizontally across
+his knees;&mdash;two angels behind him dictate to him as he sings, looking up
+towards Christ; but one strong angel sweeps down to Solomon from among
+the cherubs, and opens a book, resting it on the head of Solomon, who
+looks down earnestly unconscious of it;&mdash;to the left of David, separate
+from the group of prophets, as Paul from the apostles, is Moses,
+dark-robed; in the full light, withdrawn far behind him, Abraham,
+embracing Isaac with his left arm, and near him, pale St. Agnes. In
+front, nearer, dark and colossal, stands the glorious figure of Santa
+Giustina of Padua; then a little subordinate to her, St. Catherine, and,
+far on the left, and high, St. Barbara leaning on her tower. In front,
+nearer, flies Raphael; and under him is the four-square group of the
+Evangelists. Beneath them, on the left, Noah; on the right, Adam and
+Eve, both floating unsupported by cloud or angel; Noah buoyed by the
+Ark, which he holds above him, and it is <i>this</i> into which Solomon gazes
+down, so earnestly. Eve's face is, perhaps, the most beautiful ever
+painted by Tintoret&mdash;full in light, but dark-eyed. Adam floats beside
+her, his figure fading into a winged gloom, edged in the outline of
+fig-leaves. Far down, under these, central in the lowest part of the
+picture, rises the Angel of the Sea, praying for Venice; for Tintoret
+conceives<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> his Paradise as existing now, not as in the future. I at
+first mistook this soft Angel of the Sea for the Magdalen, for he is
+sustained by other three angels on either side, as the Magdalen is, in
+designs of earlier time, because of the verse, "There is joy in the
+presence of the angels over one sinner that repenteth." But the Magdalen
+is on the right, behind St. Monica; and on the same side, but lowest of
+all, Rachel, among the angels of her children, gathered now again to her
+forever.</p>
+
+<p>243. I have no hesitation in asserting this picture to be by far the
+most precious work of art of any kind whatsoever, now existing in the
+world; and it is, I believe, on the eve of final destruction; for it is
+said that the angle of the great council-chamber is soon to be rebuilt;
+and that process will involve the destruction of the picture by removal,
+and, far more, by repainting. I had thought of making some effort to
+save it by an appeal in London to persons generally interested in the
+arts; but the recent desolation of Paris has familiarized us with
+destruction, and I have no doubt the answer to me would be, that Venice
+must take care of her own. But remember, at least, that I have borne
+witness to you to-day of the treasures that we forget, while we amuse
+ourselves with the poor toys, and the petty or vile arts, of our own
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The years of that time have perhaps come, when we are to be taught to
+look no more to the dreams of painters, either for knowledge of
+Judgment, or of Paradise. The anger of Heaven will not longer, I think,
+be mocked for our amusement; and perhaps its love may not always be
+despised by our pride. Believe me, all the arts, and all the treasures
+of men, are fulfilled and preserved to them only, so far as they have
+chosen first, with their hearts, not the curse of God, but His blessing.
+Our Earth is now incumbered with ruin, our Heaven is clouded by Death.
+May we not wisely judge ourselves in some things now, instead of amusing
+ourselves with the painting of judgments to come?</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The separate edition of this lecture was prefaced
+by the following note:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"I have printed this Lecture separately, that strangers visiting the
+Galleries may be able to use it for reference to the drawings. But they
+must observe that its business is only to point out what is to be blamed
+in Michael Angelo, and that it assumes the facts of his power to be
+generally known. Mr. Tyrwhitt's statement of these, in his 'Lectures on
+Christian Art,' will put the reader into possession of all that may
+justly be alleged in honor of him.
+</p><p>
+"<i>Corpus Christi College, 1st May, 1872.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> If you like to have it with perfect exactitude, recollect
+that Bellini died at true ninety,&mdash;Tintoret at eighty-two; that
+Bellini's death was four years before Raphael's, and that Tintoret was
+born four years before Bellini's death.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Julian, rather. <i>See</i> Mr. Tyrwhitt's notice of the lately
+discovered error, in his <i>Lectures on Christian Art</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> From the invaluable series of documents relating to Titian
+and his times, extricated by Mr. Rawdon Brown from the archives of
+Venice, and arranged and translated by him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Fondaco de Tedeschi. I saw the last wrecks of Giorgione's
+frescoes on the outside of it in 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> I beg that this statement may be observed with attention.
+It is of great importance, as in opposition to the views usually held
+respecting the grave schools of painting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The upper photograph in S. 50 is, however, not taken from
+the great Paradise, which is in too dark a position to be photographed,
+but from a study of it existing in a private gallery, and every way
+inferior. I have vainly tried to photograph portions of the picture
+itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> He had, indeed, other and more solemn thoughts of the
+Night than Correggio; and these he tried to express by distorting form,
+and making her partly Medusa-like. In this lecture, as above stated, I
+am only dwelling on points hitherto unnoticed of dangerous evil in the
+too much admired master.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Tintoret dissected, and used clay models, in the true
+academical manner, and produced academical results thereby; but all his
+fine work is done from life, like that of the Greeks.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on
+the Elements of Sculpture, by John Ruskin
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,6219 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on the
+Elements of Sculpture, by John Ruskin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on the Elements of Sculpture
+       Given before the University of Oxford in Michaelmas Term, 1870
+
+Author: John Ruskin
+
+Release Date: June 25, 2008 [EBook #25897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARATRA PENTELICI, SEVEN LECTURES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Library Edition
+
+THE COMPLETE WORKS
+
+OF
+
+JOHN RUSKIN
+
+CROWN OF WILD OLIVE
+TIME AND TIDE
+QUEEN OF THE AIR
+LECTURES ON ART AND LANDSCAPE
+ARATRA PENTELICI
+
+NATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
+NEW YORK       CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+ARATRA PENTELICI.
+
+SEVEN LECTURES
+
+ON THE
+
+ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE,
+
+GIVEN BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN MICHAELMAS TERM, 1870.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE
+
+PREFACE                                                  v
+
+LECTURE I.
+OF THE DIVISION OF ARTS                                  1
+
+LECTURE II.
+IDOLATRY                                                20
+
+LECTURE III.
+IMAGINATION                                             39
+
+LECTURE IV.
+LIKENESS                                                67
+
+LECTURE V.
+STRUCTURE                                               90
+
+LECTURE VI.
+THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS                                   114
+
+LECTURE VII.
+THE RELATION BETWEEN MICHAEL ANGELO AND TINTORET       132
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+                                                          Facing Page
+
+I. Porch of San Zenone, Verona                                     14
+
+II. The Arethusa of Syracuse                                       15
+
+III. The Warning to the Kings, San Zenone, Verona                  15
+
+IV. The Nativity of Athena                                         46
+
+V. Tomb of the Doges Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo                    49
+
+VI. Archaic Athena of Athens and Corinth                           50
+
+VII. Archaic, Central and Declining Art of Greece                  72
+
+VIII. The Apollo of Syracuse, and the Self-made Man                84
+
+IX. Apollo Chrysocomes of Clazomenae                                85
+
+X. Marble Masonry in the Duomo of Verona                          100
+
+XI. The First Elements of Sculpture. Incised outline
+  and opened space                                                101
+
+XII. Branch of Phillyrea                                          109
+
+XIII. Greek Flat relief, and sculpture by edged incision          111
+
+XIV. Apollo and the Python. Heracles and the Nemean Lion          119
+
+XV. Hera of Argos. Zeus of Syracuse                               120
+
+XVI. Demeter of Messene. Hera of Cnossus                          121
+
+XVII. Athena of Thurium. Siren Ligeia of Terina                   121
+
+XVIII. Artemis of Syracuse. Hera of Lacinian Cape                 122
+
+XIX. Zeus of Messene. Ajax of Opus                                124
+
+XX. Greek and Barbarian Sculpture                                 127
+
+XXI. The Beginnings of Chivalry                                   129
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+1. I must pray the readers of the following Lectures to remember that
+the duty at present laid on me at Oxford is of an exceptionally complex
+character. Directly, it is to awaken the interest of my pupils in a
+study which they have hitherto found unattractive, and imagined to be
+useless; but more imperatively, it is to define the principles by which
+the study itself should be guided; and to vindicate their security
+against the doubts with which frequent discussion has lately incumbered
+a subject which all think themselves competent to discuss. The
+possibility of such vindication is, of course, implied in the original
+consent of the Universities to the establishment of Art Professorships.
+Nothing can be made an element of education of which it is impossible to
+determine whether it is ill done or well; and the clear assertion that
+there is a canon law in formative Art is, at this time, a more important
+function of each University than the instruction of its younger members
+in any branch of practical skill. It matters comparatively little
+whether few or many of our students learn to draw; but it matters much
+that all who learn should be taught with accuracy. And the number who
+may be justifiably advised to give any part of the time they spend at
+college to the study of painting or sculpture ought to depend, and
+finally _must_ depend, on their being certified that painting and
+sculpture, no less than language, or than reasoning, have grammar and
+method,--that they permit a recognizable distinction between scholarship
+and ignorance, and enforce a constant distinction between Right and
+Wrong.
+
+2. This opening course of Lectures on Sculpture is therefore restricted
+to the statement, not only of first principles, but of those which were
+illustrated by the practice of one school, and by that practice in its
+simplest branch, the analysis of which could be certified by easily
+accessible examples, and aided by the indisputable evidence of
+photography.[1]
+
+The exclusion of the terminal Lecture[2] of the course from the series
+now published, is in order to mark more definitely this limitation of my
+subject; but in other respects the Lectures have been amplified in
+arranging them for the press, and the portions of them trusted at the
+time to extempore delivery (not through indolence, but because
+explanations of detail are always most intelligible when most familiar)
+have been in substance to the best of my power set down, and in what I
+said too imperfectly, completed.
+
+3. In one essential particular I have felt it necessary to write what I
+would not have spoken. I had intended to make no reference, in my
+University Lectures, to existing schools of Art, except in cases where
+it might be necessary to point out some undervalued excellence. The
+objects specified in the eleventh paragraph of my inaugural Lecture[3]
+might, I hoped, have been accomplished without reference to any works
+deserving of blame; but the Exhibition of the Royal Academy in the
+present year showed me a necessity of departing from my original
+intention. The task of impartial criticism[4] is now, unhappily, no
+longer to rescue modest skill from neglect; but to withstand the errors
+of insolent genius, and abate the influence of plausible mediocrity.
+
+The Exhibition of 1871 was very notable in this important particular,
+that it embraced some representation of the modern schools of nearly
+every country in Europe: and I am well assured that, looking back upon
+it after the excitement of that singular interest has passed away, every
+thoughtful judge of Art will confirm my assertion, that it contained not
+a single picture of accomplished merit; while it contained many that
+were disgraceful to Art, and some that were disgraceful to humanity.
+
+4. It becomes, under such circumstances, my inevitable duty to speak of
+the existing conditions of Art with plainness enough to guard the youths
+whose judgments I am intrusted to form, from being misled, either by
+their own naturally vivid interest in what represents, however
+unworthily, the scenes and persons of their own day, or by the cunningly
+devised, and, without doubt, powerful allurements of Art which has long
+since confessed itself to have no other object than to allure. I have,
+therefore, added to the second of these Lectures such illustration of
+the motives and course of modern industry as naturally arose out of its
+subject; and shall continue in future to make similar applications;
+rarely indeed, permitting myself, in the Lectures actually read before
+the University, to introduce, subjects of instant, and therefore too
+exciting, interest; but completing the addresses which I prepare for
+publication in these, and in any other, particulars, which may render
+them more widely serviceable.
+
+5. The present course of Lectures will be followed, if I am able to
+fulfill the design of them, by one of a like elementary character on
+Architecture; and that by a third series on Christian Sculpture: but, in
+the meantime, my effort is to direct the attention of the resident
+students to Natural History, and to the higher branches of ideal
+Landscape: and it will be, I trust, accepted as sufficient reason for
+the delay which has occurred in preparing the following sheets for the
+press, that I have not only been interrupted by a dangerous illness, but
+engaged, in what remained to me of the summer, in an endeavor to deduce,
+from the overwhelming complexity of modern classification in the Natural
+Sciences, some forms capable of easier reference by Art students, to
+whom the anatomy of brutal and floral nature is often no less important
+than that of the human body.
+
+The preparation of examples for manual practice, and the arrangement of
+standards for reference, both in Painting and Sculpture, had to be
+carried on, meanwhile, as I was able. For what has already been done,
+the reader is referred to the "Catalogue of the Educational Series,"
+published at the end of the Spring Term: of what remains to be done I
+will make no anticipatory statement, being content to have ascribed to
+me rather the fault of narrowness in design, than of extravagance in
+expectation.
+
+    DENMARK HILL,
+
+    _25th November, 1871._
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Photography cannot exhibit the character of large and finished
+sculpture; but its audacity of shadow is in perfect harmony with the
+more roughly picturesque treatment necessary in coins. For the rendering
+of all such frank relief, and for the better explanation of forms
+disturbed by the luster of metal or polished stone, the method employed
+in the plates of this volume will be found, I believe, satisfactory.
+Casts are first taken from the coins, in white plaster; these are
+photographed, and the photograph printed by the autotype process. Plate
+XII. is exceptional, being a pure mezzotint engraving of the old school,
+excellently carried through by my assistant, Mr. Allen, who was taught,
+as a personal favor to myself, by my friend, and Turner's fellow-worker,
+Thomas Lupton. Plate IV. was intended to be a photograph from the superb
+vase in the British Museum, No. 564 in Mr. Newton's Catalogue; but its
+variety of color defied photography, and after the sheets had gone to
+press I was compelled to reduce Le Normand's plate of it, which is
+unsatisfactory, but answers my immediate purpose.
+
+The enlarged photographs for use in the Lecture Room were made for me
+with most successful skill by Sergeant Spackman, of South Kensington;
+and the help throughout rendered to me by Mr. Burgess is acknowledged in
+the course of the Lectures; though with thanks which must remain
+inadequate lest they should become tedious; for Mr. Burgess drew the
+subjects of Plates III., X., and XIII.; and drew and engraved every
+wood-cut in the book.
+
+[2] It is included in this edition. See Lecture VII., pp. 132-158.
+
+[3] Lectures on Art, 1870.
+
+[4] A pamphlet by the Earl of Southesk, 'Britain's Art Paradise'
+(Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh), contains an entirely admirable
+criticism of the most faultful pictures of the 1871 Exhibition. It is to
+be regretted that Lord Southesk speaks only to condemn; but indeed, in
+my own three days' review of the rooms, I found nothing deserving of
+notice otherwise, except Mr. Hook's always pleasant sketches from
+fisher-life, and Mr. Pettie's graceful and powerful, though too slightly
+painted, study from Henry IV.
+
+
+
+
+ARATRA PENTELICI.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE I.
+
+OF THE DIVISION OF ARTS.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+1. If, as is commonly believed, the subject of study which it is my
+special function to bring before you had no relation to the great
+interests of mankind, I should have less courage in asking for your
+attention to-day, than when I first addressed you; though, even then, I
+did not do so without painful diffidence. For at this moment, even
+supposing that in other places it were possible for men to pursue their
+ordinary avocations undisturbed by indignation or pity,--here, at least,
+in the midst of the deliberative and religious influences of England,
+only one subject, I am well assured, can seriously occupy your
+thoughts--the necessity, namely, of determining how it has come to pass
+that, in these recent days, iniquity the most reckless and monstrous can
+be committed unanimously, by men more generous than ever yet in the
+world's history were deceived into deeds of cruelty; and that prolonged
+agony of body and spirit, such as we should shrink from inflicting
+willfully on a single criminal, has become the appointed and accepted
+portion of unnumbered multitudes of innocent persons, inhabiting the
+districts of the world which, of all others, as it seemed, were best
+instructed in the laws of civilization, and most richly invested with
+the honor, and indulged in the felicity, of peace.
+
+Believe me, however, the subject of Art--instead of being foreign to
+these deep questions of social duty and peril,--is so vitally connected
+with them, that it would be impossible for me now to pursue the line of
+thought in which I began these lectures, because so ghastly an emphasis
+would be given to every sentence by the force of passing events. It is
+well, then, that in the plan I have laid down for your study, we shall
+now be led into the examination of technical details, or abstract
+conditions of sentiment; so that the hours you spend with me may be
+times of repose from heavier thoughts. But it chances strangely that, in
+this course of minutely detailed study, I have first to set before you
+the most essential piece of human workmanship, the plow, at the very
+moment when--(you may see the announcement in the journals either of
+yesterday or the day before)--the swords of your soldiers have been sent
+for _to be sharpened_, and not at all to be beaten into plowshares. I
+permit myself, therefore, to remind you of the watchword of all my
+earnest writings--"Soldiers of the Plowshare, instead of Soldiers of the
+Sword,"--and I know it my duty to assert to you that the work we enter
+upon to-day is no trivial one, but full of solemn hope; the hope,
+namely, that among you there may be found men wise enough to lead the
+national passions towards the arts of peace, instead of the arts of war.
+
+I say, the work "we enter upon," because the first four lectures I gave
+in the spring were wholly prefatory; and the following three only
+defined for you methods of practice. To-day we begin the systematic
+analysis and progressive study of our subject.
+
+2. In general, the three great, or fine, Arts of Painting, Sculpture,
+and Architecture, are thought of as distinct from the lower and more
+mechanical formative arts, such as carpentry or pottery. But we cannot,
+either verbally, or with any practical advantage, admit such
+classification. How are we to distinguish painting on canvas from
+painting on china?--or painting on china from painting on glass?--or
+painting on glass from infusion of color into any vitreous substance,
+such as enamel?--or the infusion of color into glass and enamel from
+the infusion of color into wool or silk, and weaving of pictures in
+tapestry, or patterns in dress? You will find that although, in
+ultimately accurate use of the word, painting must be held to mean only
+the laying of a pigment on a surface with a soft instrument; yet, in
+broad comparison of the functions of Art, we must conceive of one and
+the same great artistic faculty, as governing _every mode of disposing
+colors in a permanent relation on, or in, a solid substance_; whether it
+be by tinting canvas, or dyeing stuffs; inlaying metals with fused
+flint, or coating walls with colored stone.
+
+3. Similarly, the word 'Sculpture,'--though in ultimate accuracy it is
+to be limited to the development of form in hard substances by cutting
+away portions of their mass--in broad definition, must be held to
+signify _the reduction of any shapeless mass of solid matter into an
+intended shape_, whatever the consistence of the substance, or nature of
+the instrument employed; whether we carve a granite mountain, or a piece
+of box-wood, and whether we use, for our forming instrument, ax, or
+hammer, or chisel, or our own hands, or water to soften, or fire to
+fuse;--whenever and however we bring a shapeless thing into shape, we do
+so under the laws of the one great art of Sculpture.
+
+4. Having thus broadly defined painting and sculpture, we shall see that
+there is, in the third place, a class of work separated from both, in a
+specific manner, and including a great group of arts which neither, of
+necessity, _tint_, nor for the sake of form merely, _shape_ the
+substances they deal with; but construct or arrange them with a view to
+the resistance of some external force. We construct, for instance, a
+table with a flat top, and some support of prop, or leg, proportioned in
+strength to such weights as the table is intended to carry. We construct
+a ship out of planks, or plates of iron, with reference to certain
+forces of impact to be sustained, and of inertia to be overcome; or we
+construct a wall or roof with distinct reference to forces of pressure
+and oscillation, to be sustained or guarded against; and, therefore, in
+every case, with especial consideration of the strength of our
+materials, and the nature of that strength, elastic, tenacious, brittle,
+and the like.
+
+Now although this group of arts nearly always involves the putting of
+two or more separate pieces together, we must not define it by that
+accident. The blade of an oar is not less formed with reference to
+external force than if it were made of many pieces; and the frame of a
+boat, whether hollowed out of a tree-trunk, or constructed of planks
+nailed together, is essentially the same piece of art; to be judged by
+its buoyancy and capacity of progression. Still, from the most wonderful
+piece of all architecture, the human skeleton, to this simple one,[5]
+the plowshare, on which it depends for its subsistence, _the putting of
+two or more pieces together_ is curiously necessary to the perfectness
+of every fine instrument; and the peculiar mechanical work of
+Daedalus,--inlaying,--becomes all the more delightful to us in external
+aspect, because, as in the jawbone of a Saurian, or the wood of a bow,
+it is essential to the finest capacities of tension and resistance.
+
+5. And observe how unbroken the ascent from this, the simplest
+architecture, to the loftiest. The placing of the timbers in a ship's
+stem, and the laying of the stones in a bridge buttress, are similar in
+art to the construction of the plowshare, differing in no essential
+point, either in that they deal with other materials, or because, of the
+three things produced, one has to divide earth by advancing through it,
+another to divide water by advancing through it, and the third to divide
+water which advances against it. And again, the buttress of a bridge
+differs only from that of a cathedral in having less weight to sustain,
+and more to resist. We can find no term in the gradation, from the
+plowshare to the cathedral buttress, at which we can set a logical
+distinction.
+
+6. Thus then we have simply three divisions of Art--one, that of giving
+colors to substance; another, that of giving form to it without question
+of resistance to force; and the third, that of giving form or position
+which will make it capable of such resistance. All the fine arts are
+embraced under these three divisions. Do not think that it is only a
+logical or scientific affectation to mass them together in this manner;
+it is, on the contrary, of the first practical importance to understand
+that the painter's faculty, or masterhood over color, being as subtle as
+a musician's over sound, must be looked to for the government of every
+operation in which color is employed; and that, in the same manner, the
+appliance of any art whatsoever to minor objects cannot be right, unless
+under the direction of a true master of that art. Under the present
+system, you keep your Academician occupied only in producing tinted
+pieces of canvas to be shown in frames, and smooth pieces of marble to
+be placed in niches; while you expect your builder or constructor to
+design colored patterns in stone and brick, and your china-ware merchant
+to keep a separate body of workwomen who can paint china, but nothing
+else. By this division of labor, you ruin all the arts at once. The work
+of the Academician becomes mean and effeminate, because he is not used
+to treat color on a grand scale and in rough materials; and your
+manufactures become base, because no well-educated person sets hand to
+them. And therefore it is necessary to understand, not merely as a
+logical statement, but as a practical necessity, that wherever beautiful
+color is to be arranged, you need a Master of Painting; and wherever
+noble form is to be given, a Master of Sculpture; and wherever complex
+mechanical force is to be resisted; a Master of Architecture.
+
+7. But over this triple division there must rule another yet more
+important. Any of these three arts may be either imitative of natural
+objects or limited to useful appliance. You may either paint a picture
+that represents a scene, or your street door, to keep it from rotting;
+you may mold a statue, or a plate; build the resemblance of a cluster
+of lotus stalks, or only a square pier. Generally speaking, Painting
+and Sculpture will be imitative, and Architecture merely useful; but
+there is a great deal of Sculpture--as this crystal ball,[6] for
+instance, which is not imitative, and a great deal of architecture
+which, to some extent, is so, as the so-called foils of Gothic
+apertures; and for many other reasons you will find it necessary to keep
+distinction clear in your minds between the arts--of whatever
+kind--which are imitative, and produce a resemblance or image of
+something which is not present; and those which are limited to the
+production of some useful reality, as the blade of a knife, or the wall
+of a house. You will perceive also, as we advance, that sculpture and
+painting are indeed in this respect only one art; and that we shall have
+constantly to speak and think of them as simply _graphic_, whether with
+chisel or color, their principal function being to make us, in the words
+of Aristotle, "[Greek: theoretikoi tou peri somata kallous]" (Polit. 8.
+3), "having capacity and habit of contemplation of the beauty that is in
+material things;" while architecture, and its correlative arts, are to
+be practiced under quite other conditions of sentiment.
+
+8. Now it is obvious that so far as the fine arts consist either in
+imitation or mechanical construction, the right judgment of them must
+depend on our knowledge of the things they imitate, and forces they
+resist: and my function of teaching here would (for instance) so far
+resolve itself, either into demonstration that this painting of a
+peach[7] does resemble a peach, or explanation of the way in which this
+plowshare (for instance) is shaped so as to throw the earth aside with
+least force of thrust. And in both of these methods of study, though of
+course your own diligence must be your chief master, to a certain extent
+your Professor of Art can always guide you securely, and can show you,
+either that the image does truly resemble what it attempts to resemble,
+or that the structure is rightly prepared for the service it has to
+perform. But there is yet another virtue of fine art which is, perhaps,
+exactly that about which you will expect your Professor to teach you
+most, and which, on the contrary, is exactly that about which you must
+teach yourselves all that it is essential to learn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+9. I have here in my hand one of the simplest possible examples of the
+union of the graphic and constructive powers,--one of my breakfast
+plates. Since all the finely architectural arts, we said, began in the
+shaping of the cup and the platter, we will begin, ourselves, with the
+platter.
+
+Why has it been made round? For two structural reasons: first, that the
+greatest holding surface may be gathered into the smallest space; and
+secondly, that in being pushed past other things on the table, it may
+come into least contact with them.
+
+Next, why has it a rim? For two other structural reasons: first, that
+it is convenient to put salt or mustard upon; but secondly, and chiefly,
+that the plate may be easily laid hold of. The rim is the simplest form
+of continuous handle.
+
+Farther, to keep it from soiling the cloth, it will be wise to put this
+ridge beneath, round the bottom; for as the rim is the simplest possible
+form of continuous handle, so this is the simplest form of continuous
+leg. And we get the section given beneath the figure for the essential
+one of a rightly made platter.
+
+10. Thus far our art has been strictly utilitarian, having respect to
+conditions of collision, of carriage, and of support. But now, on the
+surface of our piece of pottery, here are various bands and spots of
+color which are presumably set there to make it pleasanter to the eye.
+Six of the spots, seen closely, you discover are intended to represent
+flowers. These then have as distinctly a graphic purpose as the other
+properties of the plate have an architectural one, and the first
+critical question we have to ask about them is, whether they are like
+roses or not. I will anticipate what I have to say in subsequent
+Lectures so far as to assure you that, if they are to be like roses at
+all, the liker they can be, the better. Do not suppose, as many people
+will tell you, that because this is a common manufactured article, your
+roses on it are the better for being ill-painted, or half-painted. If
+they had been painted by the same hand that did this peach, the plate
+would have been all the better for it; but, as it chanced, there was no
+hand such as William Hunt's to paint them, and their graphic power is
+not distinguished. In any case, however, that graphic power must have
+been subordinate to their effect as pink spots, while the band of
+green-blue round the plate's edge, and the spots of gold, pretend to no
+graphic power at all, but are meaningless spaces of color or metal.
+Still less have they any mechanical office: they add nowise to the
+serviceableness of the plate; and their agreeableness, if they possess
+any, depends, therefore, neither on any imitative, nor any structural,
+character; but on some inherent pleasantness in themselves, either of
+mere colors to the eye, (as of taste to the tongue,) or in the placing
+of those colors in relations which obey some mental principle of order,
+or physical principle of harmony.
+
+11. These abstract relations and inherent pleasantnesses, whether in
+space, number, or time, and whether of colors or sounds, form what we
+may properly term the musical or harmonic element in every art; and the
+study of them is an entirely separate science. It is the branch of
+art-philosophy to which the word 'aesthetics' should be strictly limited,
+being the inquiry into the nature of things that in themselves are
+pleasant to the human senses or instincts, though they represent
+nothing, and serve for nothing, their only service _being_ their
+pleasantness. Thus it is the province of aesthetics to tell you, (if you
+did not know it before,) that the taste and color of a peach are
+pleasant, and to ascertain, if it be ascertainable, (and you have any
+curiosity to know,) why they are so.
+
+12. The information would, I presume, to most of you, be gratuitous. If
+it were not, and you chanced to be in a sick state of body in which you
+disliked peaches, it would be, for the time, to you false information,
+and, so far as it was true of other people, to you useless. Nearly the
+whole study of aesthetics is in like manner either gratuitous or useless.
+Either you like the right things without being recommended to do so, or,
+if you dislike them, your mind cannot be changed by lectures on the laws
+of taste. You recollect the story of Thackeray, provoked, as he was
+helping himself to strawberries, by a young coxcomb's telling him that
+"he never took fruit or sweets." "That," replied, or is said to have
+replied, Thackeray, "is because you are a sot, and a glutton." And the
+whole science of aesthetics is, in the depth of it, expressed by one
+passage of Goethe's in the end of the second part of Faust;--the notable
+one that follows the song of the Lemures, when the angels enter to
+dispute with the fiends for the soul of Faust. They enter
+singing--"Pardon to sinners and life to the dust." Mephistopheles hears
+them first, and exclaims to his troop, "Discord I hear, and filthy
+jingling"--"Mis-toene hoere ich: garstiges Geklimper." This, you see, is
+the extreme of bad taste in music. Presently the angelic host begin
+strewing roses, which discomfits the diabolic crowd altogether.
+Mephistopheles in vain calls to them--"What do you duck and shrink
+for--is that proper hellish behavior? Stand fast, and let them
+strew"--"Was duckt und zuckt ihr; ist das Hellen-brauch? So haltet
+stand, und lasst sie streuen." There you have also, the extreme, of bad
+taste in sight and smell. And in the whole passage is a brief embodiment
+for you of the ultimate fact that all aesthetics depend on the health of
+soul and body, and the proper exercise of both, not only through years,
+but generations. Only by harmony of both collateral and successive lives
+can the great doctrine of the Muses be received which enables men
+"[Greek: chairein orthos],"--"to have pleasure rightly;" and there is no
+other definition of the beautiful, nor of any subject of delight to the
+aesthetic faculty, than that it is what one noble spirit has created,
+seen and felt by another of similar or equal nobility. So much as there
+is in you of ox, or of swine, perceives no beauty, and creates none:
+what is human in you, in exact proportion to the perfectness of its
+humanity, can create it, and receive.
+
+13. Returning now to the very elementary form in which the appeal to our
+aesthetic virtue is made in our breakfast-plate, you notice that there
+are two distinct kinds of pleasantness attempted. One by hues of color;
+the other by proportions of space. I have called these the musical
+elements of the arts relating to sight; and there are indeed two
+complete sciences, one of the combinations of color, and the other of
+the combinations of line and form, which might each of them separately
+engage us in as intricate study as that of the science of music. But of
+the two, the science of color is, in the Greek sense, the more musical,
+being one of the divisions of the Apolline power; and it is so
+practically educational, that if we are not using the faculty for color
+to discipline nations, they will infallibly use it themselves as a means
+of corruption. Both music and color are naturally influences of peace;
+but in the war trumpet, and the war shield, in the battle song and
+battle standard, they have concentrated by beautiful imagination the
+cruel passions of men; and there is nothing in all the Divina Commedia
+of history more grotesque, yet more frightful, than the fact that, from
+the almost fabulous period when the insanity and impiety of war wrote
+themselves in the symbols of the shields of the Seven against Thebes,
+colors have been the sign and stimulus of the most furious and fatal
+passions that have rent the nations: blue against green, in the decline
+of the Roman Empire; black against white, in that of Florence; red
+against white, in the wars of the Royal houses in England; and at this
+moment, red against white, in the contest of anarchy and loyalty, in all
+the world.
+
+14. On the other hand, the directly ethical influence of color in the
+sky, the trees, flowers, and colored creatures round us, and in our own
+various arts massed under the one name of painting, is so essential and
+constant that we cease to recognize it, because we are never long enough
+altogether deprived of it to feel our need; and the mental diseases
+induced by the influence of corrupt color are as little suspected, or
+traced to their true source, as the bodily weaknesses resulting from
+atmospheric miasmata.
+
+15. The second musical science which belongs peculiarly to sculpture,
+(and to painting, so far as it represents form,) consists in the
+disposition of beautiful masses. That is to say, beautiful surfaces
+limited by beautiful lines. Beautiful _surfaces_, observe; and remember
+what is noted in my Fourth Lecture of the difference between a space and
+a mass. If you have at any time examined carefully, or practiced from,
+the drawings of shells placed in your copying series, you cannot but
+have felt the difference in the grace between the aspects of the same
+line, when inclosing a rounded or unrounded space. The exact science of
+sculpture is that of the relations between outline and the solid form it
+limits; and it does not matter whether that relation be indicated by
+drawing or carving, so long as the expression of solid form is the
+mental purpose; it is the science always of the beauty of relation in
+three dimensions. To take the simplest possible line of continuous
+limit--the circle: the flat disk inclosed by it may indeed be made an
+element of decoration, though a very meager one; but its relative mass,
+the ball, being gradated in three dimensions, is always delightful.
+Here[8] is at once the simplest, and, in mere patient mechanism, the
+most skillful, piece of sculpture I can possibly show you,--a piece of
+the purest rock-crystal, chiseled, (I believe, by mere toil of hand,)
+into a perfect sphere. Imitating nothing, constructing nothing;
+sculpture for sculpture's sake of purest natural substance into simplest
+primary form.
+
+16. Again. Out of the nacre of any mussel or oyster shell you might cut,
+at your pleasure, any quantity of small flat circular disks of the
+prettiest color and luster. To some extent, such tinsel or foil of shell
+_is_ used pleasantly for decoration. But the mussel or oyster becoming
+itself an unwilling modeler, agglutinates its juice into three
+dimensions, and the fact of the surface being now geometrically
+gradated, together with the savage instinct of attributing value to what
+is difficult to obtain, make the little boss so precious in men's sight,
+that wise eagerness of search for the kingdom of heaven can be likened
+to their eagerness of search for _it_; and the gates of Paradise can be
+no otherwise rendered so fair to their poor intelligence, as by telling
+them that every gate was of "one pearl."
+
+17. But take note here. We have just seen that the sum of the perceptive
+faculty is expressed in these words of Aristotle's, "to take pleasure
+rightly" or straightly--[Greek: chairein orthos]. Now, it is not
+possible to do the direct opposite of that,--to take pleasure
+iniquitously or obliquely--[Greek: chairein adikos] or [Greek:
+skolios],--more than you do in enjoying a thing because your neighbor
+cannot get it. You may enjoy a thing legitimately because it is rare,
+and cannot be seen often (as you do a fine aurora, or a sunset, or an
+unusually lovely flower); that is Nature's way of stimulating your
+attention. But if you enjoy it because your neighbor cannot have
+it,--and, remember, all value attached to pearls more than glass beads,
+is merely and purely for that cause,--then you rejoice through the worst
+of idolatries, covetousness; and neither arithmetic, nor writing, nor
+any other so-called essential of education, is now so vitally necessary
+to the population of Europe, as such acquaintance with the principles of
+intrinsic value, as may result in the iconoclasm of jewelry; and in the
+clear understanding that we are not, in that instinct, civilized, but
+yet remain wholly savage, so far as we care for display of this selfish
+kind.
+
+You think, perhaps, I am quitting my subject, and proceeding, as it is
+too often with appearance of justice alleged against me, into irrelevant
+matter. Pardon me; the end, not only of these Lectures, but of my whole
+Professorship, would be accomplished,--and far more than that,--if only
+the English nation could be made to understand that the beauty which is
+indeed to be a joy forever, must be a joy for all; and that though the
+idolatry may not have been wholly divine which sculptured gods, the
+idolatry is wholly diabolic, which, for vulgar display, sculptures
+diamonds.
+
+18. To go back to the point under discussion. A pearl, or a glass bead,
+may owe its pleasantness in some degree to its luster as well as to its
+roundness. But a mere and simple ball of unpolished stone is enough for
+sculpturesque value. You may have noticed that the quatrefoil used in
+the Ducal Palace of Venice owes its complete loveliness in distant
+effect to the finishing of its cusps. The extremity of the cusp is a
+mere ball of Istrian marble; and consider how subtle the faculty of
+sight must be, since it recognizes at any distance, and is gratified by,
+the mystery of the termination of cusp obtained by the gradated light on
+the ball.
+
+In that Venetian tracery this simplest element of sculptured form is
+used sparingly, as the most precious that can be employed to finish the
+facade. But alike in our own, and the French, central Gothic, the
+ball-flower is lavished on every line--and in your St. Mary's spire, and
+the Salisbury spire, and the towers of Notre Dame of Paris, the rich
+pleasantness of decoration,--indeed, their so-called 'decorative
+style,'--consists only in being daintily beset with stone balls. It is
+true the balls are modified into dim likeness of flowers; but do you
+trace the resemblance to the rose in their distant, which is their
+intended, effect?
+
+19. But, farther, let the ball have motion; then the form it generates
+will be that of a cylinder. You have, perhaps, thought that pure early
+English architecture depended for its charm on visibility of
+construction. It depends for its charm altogether on the abstract
+harmony of groups of cylinders,[9] arbitrarily bent into moldings, and
+arbitrarily associated as shafts, having no _real_ relation to
+construction whatsoever, and a theoretical relation so subtle that none
+of us had seen it till Professor Willis worked it out for us.
+
+20. And now, proceeding to analysis of higher sculpture, you may have
+observed the importance I have attached to the porch of San Zenone, at
+Verona, by making it, among your standards, the first of the group which
+is to illustrate the system of sculpture and architecture founded on
+faith in a future life. That porch, fortunately represented in the
+photograph, from which Plate I. has been engraved, under a clear and
+pleasant light, furnishes you with examples of sculpture of every kind,
+from the flattest incised bas-relief to solid statues, both in marble
+and bronze. And the two points I have been pressing upon you are
+conclusively exhibited here, namely,--(1) that sculpture is essentially
+the production of a pleasant bossiness or roundness of surface; (2) that
+the pleasantness of that bossy condition to the eye is irrespective of
+imitation on one side, and of structure on the other.
+
+[Illustration: I.
+
+PORCH OF SAN ZENONE. VERONA.]
+
+[Illustration: II.
+
+THE ARETHUSA OF SYRACUSE.]
+
+[Illustration: III.
+
+THE WARNING TO THE KINGS
+
+SAN ZENONE. VERONA.]
+
+21. (1.) Sculpture is essentially the production of a pleasant bossiness
+or roundness of surface.
+
+If you look from some distance at these two engravings of Greek coins,
+(place the book open, so that you can see the opposite plate three or
+four yards off,) you will find the relief on each of them simplifies
+itself into a pearl-like portion of a sphere, with exquisitely gradated
+light on its surface. When you look at them nearer, you will see that
+each smaller portion into which they are divided--cheek, or brow, or
+leaf, or tress of hair--resolves itself also into a rounded or undulated
+surface, pleasant by gradation of light. Every several surface is
+delightful in itself, as a shell, or a tuft of rounded moss, or the
+bossy masses of distant forest would be. That these intricately
+modulated masses present some resemblance to a girl's face, such as the
+Syracusans imagined that of the water-goddess Arethusa, is entirely a
+secondary matter; the primary condition is that the masses shall be
+beautifully rounded, and disposed with due discretion and order.
+
+22. (2.) It is difficult for you, at first, to feel this order and
+beauty of surface, apart from the imitation. But you can see there is a
+pretty disposition of, and relation between, the projections of a
+fir-cone, though the studded spiral imitates nothing. Order exactly the
+same in kind, only much more complex; and an abstract beauty of surface
+rendered definite by increase and decline of light--(for every curve of
+surface has its own luminous law, and the light and shade on a parabolic
+solid differs, specifically, from that on an elliptical or spherical
+one)--it is the essential business of the sculptor to obtain; as it is
+the essential business of a painter to get good color, whether he
+imitates anything or not. At a distance from the picture, or carving,
+where the things represented become absolutely unintelligible, we must
+yet be able to say, at a glance, "That is good painting, or good
+carving."
+
+And you will be surprised to find, when you try the experiment, how
+much the eye must instinctively judge in this manner. Take the front of
+San Zenone, for instance, Plate I. You will find it impossible, without
+a lens, to distinguish in the bronze gates, and in great part of the
+wall, anything that their bosses represent. You cannot tell whether the
+sculpture is of men, animals, or trees; only you feel it to be composed
+of pleasant projecting masses; you acknowledge that both gates and wall
+are, somehow, delightfully roughened; and only afterwards, by slow
+degrees, can you make out what this roughness means; nay, though here
+(Plate III.) I magnify[10] one of the bronze plates of the gate to a
+scale, which gives you the same advantage as if you saw it quite close,
+in the reality,--you may still be obliged to me for the information that
+_this_ boss represents the Madonna asleep in her little bed; and this
+smaller boss, the Infant Christ in His; and this at the top, a cloud
+with an angel coming out of it; and these jagged bosses, two of the
+Three Kings, with their crowns on, looking up to the star, (which is
+intelligible enough, I admit); but what this straggling, three-legged
+boss beneath signifies, I suppose neither you nor I can tell, unless it
+be the shepherd's dog, who has come suddenly upon the Kings with their
+crowns on, and is greatly startled at them.
+
+23. Farther, and much more definitely, the pleasantness of the surface
+decoration is independent of structure; that is to say, of any
+architectural requirement of stability. The greater part of the
+sculpture here is exclusively ornamentation of a flat wall, or of
+door-paneling; only a small portion of the church front is thus treated,
+and the sculpture has no more to do with the form of the building than a
+piece of lace veil would have, suspended beside its gates on a festal
+day: the proportions of shaft and arch might be altered in a hundred
+different ways without diminishing their stability; and the pillars
+would stand more safely on the ground than on the backs of these carved
+animals.
+
+24. I wish you especially to notice these points, because the false
+theory that ornamentation should be merely decorated structure is so
+pretty and plausible, that it is likely to take away your attention from
+the far more important abstract conditions of design. Structure should
+never be contradicted, and in the best buildings it is pleasantly
+exhibited and enforced: in this very porch the joints of every stone are
+visible, and you will find me in the Fifth Lecture insisting on this
+clearness of its anatomy as a merit; yet so independent is the
+mechanical structure of the true design, that when I begin my Lectures
+on Architecture, the first building I shall give you as a standard will
+be one in which the structure is wholly concealed. It will be the
+Baptistery of Florence, which is, in reality, as much a buttressed
+chapel with a vaulted roof, as the Chapter House of York;--but round it,
+in order to conceal that buttressed structure, (not to decorate,
+observe, but to _conceal_,) a flat external wall is raised; simplifying
+the whole to a mere hexagonal box, like a wooden piece of Tunbridge
+ware, on the surface of which the eye and intellect are to be interested
+by the relations of dimension and curve between pieces of incrusting
+marble of different colors, which have no more to do with the real make
+of the building than the diaper of a Harlequin's jacket has to do with
+his bones.
+
+25. The sense of abstract proportion, on which the enjoyment of such a
+piece of art entirely depends, is one of the aesthetic faculties which
+nothing can develop but time and education. It belongs only to highly
+trained nations; and, among them, to their most strictly refined
+classes, though the germs of it are found, as part of their innate
+power, in every people capable of art. It has for the most part vanished
+at present from the English mind, in consequence of our eager desire for
+excitement, and for the kind of splendor that exhibits wealth, careless
+of dignity; so that, I suppose, there are very few now even of our best
+trained Londoners who know the difference between the design of
+Whitehall and that of any modern club-house in Pall Mall. The order and
+harmony which, in his enthusiastic account of the Theater of Epidaurus,
+Pausanias insists on before beauty, can only be recognized by stern
+order and harmony in our daily lives; and the perception of them is as
+little to be compelled, or taught suddenly, as the laws of still finer
+choice in the conception of dramatic incident which regulate poetic
+sculpture.
+
+26. And now, at last, I think, we can sketch out the subject before us
+in a clear light. We have a structural art, divine and human, of which
+the investigation comes under the general term Anatomy; whether the
+junctions or joints be in mountains, or in branches of trees, or in
+buildings, or in bones of animals. We have next a musical art, falling
+into two distinct divisions--one using colors, the other masses, for its
+elements of composition; lastly, we have an imitative art, concerned
+with the representation of the outward appearances of things. And, for
+many reasons, I think it best to begin with imitative Sculpture; that
+being defined as _the art which, by the musical disposition of masses,
+imitates anything of which the imitation is justly pleasant to us; and
+does so in accordance with structural laws having due reference to the
+materials employed_.
+
+So that you see our task will involve the immediate inquiry what the
+things are of which the imitation is justly pleasant to us: what, in few
+words,--if we are to be occupied in the making of graven images,--we
+ought to like to make images _of_. Secondly, after having determined its
+subject, what degree of imitation or likeness we ought to desire in our
+graven image; and, lastly, under what limitations demanded by structure
+and material, such likeness may be obtained.
+
+These inquiries I shall endeavor to pursue with you to some practical
+conclusion, in my next four Lectures; and in the sixth, I will briefly
+sketch the actual facts that have taken place in the development of
+sculpture by the two greatest schools of it that hitherto have existed
+in the world.
+
+27. The tenor of our next Lecture, then, must be an inquiry into the
+real nature of Idolatry; that is to say, the invention and service of
+Idols: and, in the interval, may I commend to your own thoughts this
+question, not wholly irrelevant, yet which I cannot pursue; namely,
+whether the God to whom we have so habitually prayed for deliverance
+"from battle, murder, and sudden death," _is_ indeed, seeing that the
+present state of Christendom is the result of a thousand years' praying
+to that effect, "as the gods of the heathen who were but idols;" or
+whether--(and observe, one or other of these things _must_ be
+true)--whether our prayers to Him have been, by this much, worse than
+Idolatry;--that heathen prayer was true prayer to false gods; and our
+prayers have been false prayers to the True One?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] I had a real plowshare on my lecture-table; but it would interrupt
+the drift of the statements in the text too long if I attempted here to
+illustrate by figures the relation of the colter to the share, and of
+the hard to the soft pieces of metal in the share itself.
+
+[6] A sphere of rock crystal, cut in Japan, enough imaginable by the
+reader, without a figure.
+
+[7] One of William Hunt's peaches; not, I am afraid, imaginable
+altogether, but still less representable by figure.
+
+[8] The crystal ball above mentioned.
+
+[9] All grandest effects in moldings may be, and for the most part have
+been, obtained by rolls and cavettos of circular (segmental) section.
+More refined sections, as that of the fluting of a Doric shaft, are only
+of use near the eye and in beautiful stone; and the pursuit of them was
+one of the many errors of later Gothic. The statement in the text that
+the moldings, even of best time, "have no real relation to
+construction," is scarcely strong enough: they in fact contend with, and
+deny the construction, their principal purpose seeming to be the
+concealment of the joints of the voussoirs.
+
+[10] Some of the most precious work done for me by my assistant, Mr.
+Burgess, during the course of these Lectures, consisted in making
+enlarged drawings from portions of photographs. Plate III. is engraved
+from a drawing of his, enlarged from the original photograph of which
+Plate I. is a reduction.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE II.
+
+IDOLATRY.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+28. Beginning with the simple conception of sculpture as the art of
+fiction in solid substance, we are now to consider what its subject
+should be. What--having the gift of imagery--should we by preference
+endeavor to image? A question which is, indeed, subordinate to the
+deeper one--why we should wish to image anything at all.
+
+29. Some years ago, having been always desirous that the education of
+women should begin in learning how to cook, I got leave, one day, for a
+little girl of eleven years old to exchange, much to her satisfaction,
+her schoolroom for the kitchen. But as ill-fortune would have it, there
+was some pastry toward, and she was left unadvisedly in command of some
+delicately rolled paste; whereof she made no pies, but an unlimited
+quantity of cats and mice.
+
+Now you may read the works of the gravest critics of art from end to
+end; but you will find, at last, they can give you no other true account
+of the spirit of sculpture than that it is an irresistible human
+instinct for the making of cats and mice, and other imitable living
+creatures, in such permanent form that one may play with the images at
+leisure.
+
+Play with them, or love them, or fear them, or worship them. The cat may
+become the goddess Pasht, and the mouse, in the hand of a sculptured
+king, enforce his enduring words "[Greek: es eme tis horeon eusebes
+esto]"; but the great mimetic instinct underlies all such purpose; and
+is zooplastic,--life-shaping,--alike in the reverent and the impious.
+
+30. Is, I say, and has been, hitherto; none of us dare say that it will
+be. I shall have to show you hereafter that the greater part of the
+technic energy of men, as yet, has indicated a kind of childhood; and
+that the race becomes, if not more wise, at least more manly,[11] with
+every gained century. I can fancy that all this sculpturing and painting
+of ours may be looked back upon, in some distant time, as a kind of
+doll-making, and that the words of Sir Isaac Newton may be smiled at no
+more: only it will not be for stars that we desert our stone dolls, but
+for men. When the day comes, as come it must, in which we no more deface
+and defile God's image in living clay, I am not sure that we shall any
+of us care so much for the images made of Him, in burnt clay.
+
+31. But, hitherto, the energy of growth in any people may be almost
+directly measured by their passion for imitative art; namely, for
+sculpture, or for the drama, which is living and speaking sculpture, or,
+as in Greece, for both; and in national as in actual childhood, it is
+not merely the _making_, but the _making-believe_; not merely the acting
+for the sake of the scene, but acting for the sake of acting, that is
+delightful. And, of the two mimetic arts, the drama, being more
+passionate, and involving conditions of greater excitement and luxury,
+is usually in its excellence the sign of culminating strength in the
+people; while fine sculpture, requiring always submission to severe law,
+is an unfailing proof of their being in early and active progress.
+_There is no instance of fine sculpture being produced by a nation
+either torpid, weak, or in decadence._ Their drama may gain in grace and
+wit; but their sculpture, in days of decline, is _always_ base.
+
+32. If my little lady in the kitchen had been put in command of colors,
+as well as of dough, and if the paste would have taken the colors, we
+may be sure her mice would have been painted brown, and her cats
+tortoiseshell; and this, partly indeed for the added delight and
+prettiness of color itself, but more for the sake of absolute
+realization to her eyes and mind. Now all the early sculpture of the
+most accomplished nations has been thus colored, rudely or finely; and
+therefore you see at once how necessary it is that we should keep the
+term 'graphic' for imitative art generally; since no separation can at
+first be made between carving and painting, with reference to the mental
+powers exerted in, or addressed by, them. In the earliest known art of
+the world, a reindeer hunt may be scratched in outline on the flat side
+of a clean-picked bone, and a reindeer's head carved out of the end of
+it; both these are flint-knife work, and, strictly speaking, sculpture:
+but the scratched outline is the beginning of drawing, and the carved
+head of sculpture proper. When the spaces inclosed by the scratched
+outline are filled with color, the coloring soon becomes a principal
+means of effect; so that, in the engraving of an Egyptian-color
+bas-relief (S. 101), Rosellini has been content to miss the outlining
+incisions altogether, and represent it as a painting only. Its proper
+definition is, 'painting accented by sculpture;' on the other hand, in
+solid colored statues,--Dresden china figures, for example,--we have
+pretty sculpture accented by painting; the mental purpose in both kinds
+of art being to obtain the utmost degree of realization possible, and
+the ocular impression being the same, whether the delineation is
+obtained by engraving or painting. For, as I pointed out to you in my
+Fifth Lecture, everything is seen by the eye as patches of color, and of
+color only;--a fact which the Greeks knew well; so that when it becomes
+a question in the dialogue of Minos, "[Greek: tini onti te opsei horatai
+ta horomena]," the answer is "[Greek: aisthesei taute te dia ton
+ophthalmon delouse hemin ta chromata]."--"What kind of power is the
+sight with which we see things? It is that sense which, through the
+eyes, can reveal _colors_ to us."
+
+33. And now observe that, while the graphic arts begin in the mere
+mimetic effort, they proceed, as they obtain more perfect realization,
+to act under the influence of a stronger and higher instinct. They begin
+by scratching the reindeer, the most interesting object of sight. But
+presently, as the human creature rises in scale of intellect, it
+proceeds to scratch, not the most interesting object of sight only, but
+the most interesting object of imagination; not the reindeer, but the
+Maker and Giver of the reindeer. And the second great condition for the
+advance of the art of sculpture is that the race should possess, in
+addition to the mimetic instinct, the realistic or idolizing instinct;
+the desire to see as substantial the powers that are unseen, and bring
+near those that are far off, and to possess and cherish those that are
+strange. To make in some way tangible and visible the nature of the
+gods--to illustrate and explain it by symbols; to bring the immortals
+out of the recesses of the clouds, and make them Penates; to bring back
+the dead from darkness, and make them Lares.
+
+34. Our conception of this tremendous and universal human passion has
+been altogether narrowed by the current idea that Pagan religious art
+consisted only, or chiefly, in giving personality to the gods. The
+personality was never doubted; it was visibility, interpretation, and
+possession that the hearts of men sought. Possession, first of all--the
+getting hold of some hewn log of wild olive-wood that would fall on its
+knees if it was pulled from its pedestal--and, afterwards, slowly
+clearing manifestation; the exactly right expression is used in Lucian's
+dream,--[Greek: Pheidias edeixe ton Dia]; "Showed[12] Zeus;" manifested
+him; nay, in a certain sense, brought forth, or created, as you have it,
+in Anacreon's ode to the Rose, of the birth of Athena herself,--
+
+    [Greek: polemoklonon t' Athenen
+    koryphes edeiknye Zeus.]
+
+But I will translate the passage from Lucian to you at length--it is in
+every way profitable.
+
+35. "There came to me, in the healing[13] night, a divine dream, so
+clear that it missed nothing of the truth itself; yes, and still after
+all this time, the shapes of what I saw remain in my sight, and the
+sound of what I heard dwells in my ears"--(note the lovely sense of
+[Greek: enaulos]--the sound being as of a stream passing always by in
+the same channel)--"so distinct was everything to me. Two women laid
+hold of my hands and pulled me, each towards herself, so violently, that
+I had like to have been pulled asunder; and they cried out against one
+another,--the one, that she resolved to have me to herself, being indeed
+her own; and the other, that it was vain for her to claim what belonged
+to others;--and the one who first claimed me for her own was like a hard
+worker, and had strength as a man's; and her hair was dusty, and her
+hand full of horny places, and her dress fastened tight about her, and
+the folds of it loaded with white marble-dust, so that she looked just
+as my uncle used to look when he was filing stones: but the other was
+pleasant in features, and delicate in form, and orderly in her dress;
+and so, in the end, they left it to me to decide, after hearing what
+they had to say, with which of them I would go; and first the
+hard-featured and masculine one spoke:--
+
+36. "'Dear child, I am the Art of Image-sculpture, which yesterday you
+began to learn; and I am as one of your own people, and of your house,
+for your grandfather' (and she named my mother's father) 'was a
+stone-cutter; and both your uncles had good name through me: and if you
+will keep yourself well clear of the sillinesses and fluent follies that
+come from this creature,' (and she pointed to the other woman,) 'and
+will follow me, and live with me, first of all, you shall be brought up
+as a man should be, and have strong shoulders; and, besides that, you
+shall be kept well quit of all restless desires, and you shall never be
+obliged to go away into any foreign places, leaving your own country and
+the people of your house; _neither shall all men praise you for your
+talk_.[14] And you must not despise this rude serviceableness of my
+body, neither this meanness of my dusty dress; for, pushing on in their
+strength from such things as these, that great Phidias revealed Zeus,
+and Polyclitus wrought out Hera, and Myron was praised, and Praxiteles
+marveled at: therefore are these men worshiped with the gods.'"
+
+37. There is a beautiful ambiguity in the use of the preposition with
+the genitive in this last sentence. "Pushing on from these things" means
+indeed, justly, that the sculptors rose from a mean state to a noble
+one; but not as _leaving_ the mean state,--not as, from a hard life,
+attaining to a soft one,--but as being helped and strengthened by the
+rough life to do what was greatest. Again, "worshiped with the gods"
+does not mean that they are thought of as in any sense equal to, or like
+to, the gods, but as being on the side of the gods against what is base
+and ungodly; and that the kind of worth which is in them is therefore
+indeed worshipful, as having its source with the gods. Finally, observe
+that every one of the expressions used of the four sculptors is
+definitely the best that Lucian could have chosen. Phidias carved like
+one who had seen Zeus, and had only to _reveal_ him; Polyclitus, in
+labor of intellect, completed his sculpture by just law, and _wrought_
+out Hera; Myron was of all most _praised_, because he did best what
+pleased the vulgar; and Praxiteles the most _wondered at_, or admired,
+because he bestowed utmost exquisiteness of beauty.
+
+38. I am sorry not to go on with the dream: the more refined lady, as
+you may remember, is liberal or gentlemanly Education, and prevails at
+last; so that Lucian becomes an author instead of a sculptor, I think to
+his own regret, though to our present benefit. One more passage of his I
+must refer you to, as illustrative of the point before us; the
+description of the temple of the Syrian Hieropolis, where he explains
+the absence of the images of the sun and moon. "In the temple itself,"
+he says, "on the left hand as one goes in, there is set first the
+throne of the sun; but no form of him is thereon, for of these two
+powers alone, the sun and the moon, they show no carved images. And I
+also learned why this is their law, for they say that it is permissible,
+indeed, to make of the other gods, graven images, since the forms of
+them are not visible to all men. But Helios and Selenaia are everywhere
+clear-bright, and all men behold them; what need is there therefore for
+sculptured work of these, who appear in the air?"
+
+39. This, then, is the second instinct necessary to sculpture; the
+desire for the manifestation, description, and companionship of unknown
+powers; and for possession of a bodily substance--the 'bronze
+Strasbourg,' which you can embrace, and hang immortelles on the head
+of--instead of an abstract idea. But if you get nothing more in the
+depth of the national mind than these two feelings, the mimetic and
+idolizing instincts, there may be still no progress possible for the
+arts except in delicacy of manipulation and accumulative caprice of
+design. You must have not only the idolizing instinct, but an [Greek:
+ethos] which chooses the right thing to idolize! Else, you will get
+states of art like those in China or India, non-progressive, and in
+great part diseased and frightful, being wrought under the influence of
+foolish terror, or foolish admiration. So that a third condition,
+completing and confirming both the others, must exist in order to the
+development of the creative power.
+
+40. This third condition is that the heart of the nation shall be set on
+the discovery of just or equal law, and shall be from day to day
+developing that law more perfectly. The Greek school of sculpture is
+formed during, and in consequence of, the national effort to discover
+the nature of justice; the Tuscan, during, and in consequence of, the
+national effort to discover the nature of justification. I assert to you
+at present briefly, what will, I hope, be the subject of prolonged
+illustration hereafter.
+
+41. Now when a nation with mimetic instinct and imaginative longing is
+also thus occupied earnestly in the discovery of Ethic law, that effort
+gradually brings precision and truth into all its manual acts; and the
+physical progress of sculpture, as in the Greek, so in the Tuscan,
+school, consists in gradually _limiting_ what was before indefinite, in
+_verifying_ what was inaccurate, and in _humanizing_ what was monstrous.
+I might perhaps content you by showing these external phenomena, and by
+dwelling simply on the increasing desire of naturalness, which compels,
+in every successive decade of years, literally, in the sculptured
+images, the mimicked bones to come together, bone to his bone; and the
+flesh to come up upon them, until from a flattened and pinched handful
+of clay, respecting which you may gravely question whether it was
+intended for a human form at all;--by slow degrees, and added touch to
+touch, in increasing consciousness of the bodily truth,--at last the
+Aphrodite of Melos stands before you, a perfect woman. But all that
+search for physical accuracy is merely the external operation, in the
+arts, of the seeking for truth in the inner soul; it is impossible
+without that higher effort, and the demonstration of it would be worse
+than useless to you, unless I made you aware at the same time of its
+spiritual cause.
+
+42. Observe farther; the increasing truth in representation is
+correlative with increasing beauty in the thing to be represented. The
+pursuit of justice which regulates the imitative effort, regulates also
+the development of the race into dignity of person, as of mind; and
+their culminating art-skill attains the grasp of entire truth at the
+moment when the truth becomes most lovely. And then, ideal sculpture may
+go on safely into portraiture. But I shall not touch on the subject of
+portrait sculpture to-day; it introduces many questions of detail, and
+must be a matter for subsequent consideration.
+
+43. These, then, are the three great passions which are concerned in
+true sculpture. I cannot find better, or, at least, more easily
+remembered, names for them than 'the Instincts of Mimicry, Idolatry, and
+Discipline;' meaning, by the last, the desire of equity and wholesome
+restraint, in all acts and works of life. Now of these, there is no
+question but that the love of Mimicry is natural and right, and the love
+of Discipline is natural and right. But it looks a grave question
+whether the yearning for Idolatry (the desire of companionship with
+images) is right. Whether, indeed, if such an instinct be essential to
+good sculpture, the art founded on it can possibly be 'fine' art.
+
+44. I must now beg for your close attention, because I have to point out
+distinctions in modes of conception which will appear trivial to you,
+unless accurately understood; but of an importance in the history of art
+which cannot be overrated.
+
+When the populace of Paris adorned the statue of Strasbourg with
+immortelles, none, even the simplest of the pious decorators, would
+suppose that the city of Strasbourg itself, or any spirit or ghost of
+the city, was actually there, sitting in the Place de la Concorde. The
+figure was delightful to them as a visible nucleus for their fond
+thoughts about Strasbourg; but never for a moment supposed to _be_
+Strasbourg.
+
+Similarly, they might have taken delight in a statue purporting to
+represent a river instead of a city,--the Rhine, or Garonne,
+suppose,--and have been touched with strong emotion in looking at it, if
+the real river were dear to them, and yet never think for an instant
+that the statue _was_ the river.
+
+And yet again, similarly, but much more distinctly, they might take
+delight in the beautiful image of a god, because it gathered and
+perpetuated their thoughts about that god; and yet never suppose, nor be
+capable of being deceived by any arguments into supposing, that the
+statue _was_ the god.
+
+On the other hand, if a meteoric stone fell from the sky in the sight of
+a savage, and he picked it up hot, he would most probably lay it aside
+in some, to him, sacred place, and believe the _stone itself_ to be a
+kind of god, and offer prayer and sacrifice to it.
+
+In like manner, any other strange or terrifying object, such, for
+instance, as a powerfully noxious animal or plant, he would be apt to
+regard in the same way; and very possibly also construct for himself
+frightful idols of some kind, calculated to produce upon him a vague
+impression of their being alive; whose imaginary anger he might
+deprecate or avert with sacrifice, although incapable of conceiving in
+them any one attribute of exalted intellectual or moral nature.
+
+45. If you will now refer to Sec.Sec. 52-9 of my Introductory Lectures, you
+will find this distinction between a resolute conception, recognized for
+such, and an involuntary apprehension of spiritual existence, already
+insisted on at some length. And you will see more and more clearly as we
+proceed, that the deliberate and intellectually commanded conception is
+not idolatrous in any evil sense whatever, but is one of the grandest
+and wholesomest functions of the human soul; and that the essence of
+evil idolatry begins only in the idea or belief of a real presence of
+any kind, in a thing in which there is no such presence.
+
+46. I need not say that the harm of the idolatry must depend on the
+certainty of the negative. If there be a real presence in a pillar of
+cloud, in an unconsuming flame, or in a still small voice, it is no sin
+to bow down before these.
+
+But, as matter of historical fact, the idea of such presence has
+generally been both ignoble and false, and confined to nations of
+inferior race, who are often condemned to remain for ages in conditions
+of vile terror, destitute of thought. Nearly all Indian architecture and
+Chinese design arise out of such a state: so also, though in a less
+gross degree, Ninevite and Phoenician art, early Irish, and
+Scandinavian; the latter, however, with vital elements of high intellect
+mingled in it from the first.
+
+But the greatest races are never grossly subject to such terror, even in
+their childhood, and the course of their minds is broadly divisible into
+three distinct stages.
+
+47. (I.) In their infancy they begin to imitate the real animals about
+them, as my little girl made the cats and mice, but with an
+under-current of partial superstition--a sense that there must be more
+in the creatures than they can see; also they catch up vividly any of
+the fancies of the baser nations round them, and repeat these more or
+less apishly, yet rapidly naturalizing and beautifying them. They then
+connect all kinds of shapes together, compounding meanings out of the
+old chimeras, and inventing new ones with the speed of a running
+wildfire; but always getting more of man into their images, and
+admitting less of monster or brute; their own characters, meanwhile,
+expanding and purging themselves, and shaking off the feverish fancy, as
+springing flowers shake the earth off their stalks.
+
+48. (II.) In the second stage, being now themselves perfect men and
+women, they reach the conception of true and great gods as existent in
+the universe; and absolutely cease to think of them as in any wise
+present in statues or images; but they have now learned to make these
+statues beautifully human, and to surround them with attributes that may
+concentrate their thoughts of the gods. This is, in Greece, accurately
+the Pindaric time, just a little preceding the Phidian; the Phidian is
+already dimmed with a faint shadow of infidelity; still, the Olympic
+Zeus may be taken as a sufficiently central type of a statue which was
+no more supposed to _be_ Zeus, than the gold or elephants' tusks it was
+made of; but in which the most splendid powers of human art were
+exhausted in representing a believed and honored God to the happy and
+holy imagination of a sincerely religious people.
+
+49. (III.) The third stage of national existence follows, in which, the
+imagination having now done its utmost, and being partly restrained by
+the sanctities of tradition, which permit no farther change in the
+conceptions previously created, begins to be superseded by logical
+deduction and scientific investigation. At the same moment, the elder
+artists having done all that is possible in realizing the national
+conceptions of the gods, the younger ones, forbidden to change the
+scheme of existing representations, and incapable of doing anything
+better in that kind, betake themselves to refine and decorate the old
+ideas with more attractive skill. Their aims are thus more and more
+limited to manual dexterity, and their fancy paralyzed. Also in the
+course of centuries, the methods of every art continually improving, and
+being made subjects of popular inquiry, praise is now to be got, for
+eminence in these, from the whole mob of the nation; whereas
+intellectual design can never be discerned but by the few. So that in
+this third era we find every kind of imitative and vulgar dexterity more
+and more cultivated; while design and imagination are every day less
+cared for, and less possible.
+
+50. Meanwhile, as I have just said, the leading minds in literature and
+science become continually more logical and investigative; and once that
+they are established in the habit of testing facts accurately, a very
+few years are enough to convince all the strongest thinkers that the old
+imaginative religion is untenable, and cannot any longer be honestly
+taught in its fixed traditional form, except by ignorant persons. And at
+this point the fate of the people absolutely depends on the degree of
+moral strength into which their hearts have been already trained. If it
+be a strong, industrious, chaste, and honest race, the taking its old
+gods, or at least the old forms of them, away from it, will indeed make
+it deeply sorrowful and amazed; but will in no whit shake its will, nor
+alter its practice. Exceptional persons, naturally disposed to become
+drunkards, harlots, and cheats, but who had been previously restrained
+from indulging these dispositions by their fear of God, will, of course,
+break out into open vice, when that fear is removed. But the heads of
+the families of the people, instructed in the pure habits and perfect
+delights of an honest life, and to whom the thought of a Father in
+heaven had been a comfort, not a restraint, will assuredly not seek
+relief from the discomfort of their orphanage by becoming uncharitable
+and vile. Also the high leaders of their thought gather their whole
+strength together in the gloom; and at the first entrance to this Valley
+of the Shadow of Death, look their new enemy full in the eyeless face of
+him, and subdue him, and his terror, under their feet. "Metus omnes, et
+inexorabile fatum,... strepitumque Acherontis avari." This is the
+condition of national soul expressed by the art, and the words, of
+Holbein, Duerer, Shakspeare, Pope, and Goethe.
+
+51. But if the people, at the moment when the trial of darkness
+approaches, be not confirmed in moral character, but are only
+maintaining a superficial virtue by the aid of a spectral religion; the
+moment the staff of their faith is broken, the character of the race
+falls like a climbing plant cut from its hold: then all the earthliest
+vices attack it as it lies in the dust; every form of sensual and insane
+sin is developed; and half a century is sometimes enough to close in
+hopeless shame the career of the nation in literature, art, and war.
+
+52. Notably, within the last hundred years, all religion has perished
+from the practically active national mind of France and England. No
+statesman in the senate of either country would dare to use a sentence
+out of their acceptedly divine Revelation, as having now a literal
+authority over them for their guidance, or even a suggestive wisdom for
+their contemplation. England, especially, has cast her Bible full in the
+face of her former God; and proclaimed, with open challenge to Him, her
+resolved worship of His declared enemy, Mammon. All the arts, therefore,
+founded on religion and sculpture chiefly, are here in England effete
+and corrupt, to a degree which arts never were hitherto in the history
+of mankind; and it is possible to show you the condition of sculpture
+living, and sculpture dead, in accurate opposition, by simply comparing
+the nascent Pisan school in Italy with the existing school in England.
+
+53. You were perhaps surprised at my placing in your educational series,
+as a type of original Italian sculpture, the pulpit by Niccola Pisano in
+the Duomo of Siena. I would rather, had it been possible, have given the
+pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in the Duomo of Pisa; but that pulpit is
+dispersed in fragments through the upper galleries of the Duomo, and the
+cloister of the Campo Santo; and the casts of its fragments now put
+together at Kensington are too coarse to be of use to you. You may
+partly judge, however, of the method of their execution by the eagle's
+head, which I have sketched from the marble in the Campo Santo (Edu.,
+No. 113), and the lioness with her cubs (Edu., No. 103, more carefully
+studied at Siena); and I will get you other illustrations in due time.
+Meanwhile, I want you to compare the main purpose of the Cathedral of
+Pisa, and its associated Bell Tower, Baptistery, and Holy Field, with
+the main purpose of the principal building lately raised for the people
+of London. In these days, we indeed desire no cathedrals; but we have
+constructed an enormous and costly edifice, which, in claiming
+educational influence over the whole London populace, and middle class,
+is verily the Metropolitan cathedral of this century,--the Crystal
+Palace.
+
+54. It was proclaimed, at its erection, an example of a newly discovered
+style of architecture, greater than any hitherto known,--our best
+popular writers, in their enthusiasm, describing it as an edifice of
+Fairyland. You are nevertheless to observe that this novel production of
+fairy enchantment is destitute of every kind of sculpture, except the
+bosses produced by the heads of nails and rivets; while the Duomo of
+Pisa, in the wreathen work of its doors, in the foliage of its capitals,
+inlaid color designs of its facade, embossed panels of its Baptistery
+font, and figure sculpture of its two pulpits, contained the germ of a
+school of sculpture which was to maintain, through a subsequent period
+of four hundred years, the greatest power yet reached by the arts of the
+world, in description of Form, and expression of Thought.
+
+55. Now it is easy to show you the essential cause of the vast
+discrepancy in the character of these two buildings.
+
+In the vault of the apse of the Duomo of Pisa was a colossal image of
+Christ, in colored mosaic, bearing to the temple, as nearly as possible,
+the relation which the statue of Athena bore to the Parthenon; and in
+the same manner, concentrating the imagination of the Pisan on the
+attributes of the God in whom he believed.
+
+In precisely the same position with respect to the nave of the
+building, but of larger size, as proportioned to the three or four times
+greater scale of the whole, a colossal piece of sculpture was placed by
+English designers, at the extremity of the Crystal Palace, in
+preparation for their solemnities in honor of the birthday of Christ, in
+December 1867 or 1868.
+
+That piece of sculpture was the face of the clown in a pantomime, some
+twelve feet high from brow to chin, which face, being moved by the
+mechanism which is our pride, every half-minute opened its mouth from
+ear to ear, showed its teeth, and revolved its eyes, the force of these
+periodical seasons of expression being increased and explained by the
+illuminated inscription underneath, "Here we are again."
+
+56. When it is assumed, and with too good reason, that the mind of the
+English populace is to be addressed, in the principal Sacred Festival of
+its year, by sculpture such as this, I need scarcely point out to you
+that the hope is absolutely futile of advancing their intelligence by
+collecting within this building (itself devoid absolutely of every kind
+of art, and so vilely constructed that those who traverse it are
+continually in danger of falling over the cross-bars that bind it
+together,) examples of sculpture filched indiscriminately from the past
+work, bad and good, of Turks, Greeks, Romans, Moors, and Christians,
+miscolored, misplaced, and misinterpreted;[15] here thrust into unseemly
+corners, and there mortised together into mere confusion of
+heterogeneous obstacle; pronouncing itself hourly more intolerable in
+weariness, until any kind of relief is sought from it in steam
+wheelbarrows or cheap toyshops; and most of all in beer and meat, the
+corks and the bones being dropped through the chinks in the damp deal
+flooring of the English Fairy Palace.
+
+57. But you will probably think me unjust in assuming that a building
+prepared only for the amusement of the people can typically represent
+the architecture or sculpture of modern England. You may urge that I
+ought rather to describe the qualities of the refined sculpture which is
+executed in large quantities for private persons belonging to the upper
+classes, and for sepulchral and memorial purposes. But I could not now
+criticise that sculpture with any power of conviction to you, because I
+have not yet stated to you the principles of good sculpture in general.
+I will, however, in some points, tell you the facts by anticipation.
+
+58. We have much excellent portrait sculpture; but portrait sculpture,
+which is nothing more, is always third-rate work, even when produced by
+men of genius;--nor does it in the least require men of genius to
+produce it. To paint a portrait, indeed, implies the very highest gifts
+of painting; but any man, of ordinary patience and artistic feeling, can
+carve a satisfactory bust.
+
+59. Of our powers in historical sculpture, I am, without question, just,
+in taking for sufficient evidence the monuments we have erected to our
+two greatest heroes by sea and land; namely, the Nelson Column, and the
+statue of the Duke of Wellington opposite Apsley House. Nor will you, I
+hope, think me severe,--certainly, whatever you may think me, I am using
+only the most temperate language, in saying of both these monuments,
+that they are absolutely devoid of high sculptural merit. But consider
+how much is involved in the fact thus dispassionately stated, respecting
+the two monuments in the principal places of our capital, to our two
+greatest heroes.
+
+60. Remember that we have before our eyes, as subjects of perpetual
+study and thought, the art of all the world for three thousand years
+past; especially, we have the best sculpture of Greece, for example of
+bodily perfection; the best of Rome, for example of character in
+portraiture; the best of Florence, for example of romantic passion; we
+have unlimited access to books and other sources of instruction; we have
+the most perfect scientific illustrations of anatomy, both human and
+comparative; and we have bribes for the reward of success, large in the
+proportion of at least twenty to one, as compared with those offered to
+the artists of any other period. And with all these advantages, and the
+stimulus also of fame carried instantly by the press to the remotest
+corners of Europe, the best efforts we can make, on the grandest of
+occasions, result in work which it is impossible in any one particular
+to praise.
+
+Now consider for yourselves what an intensity of the negation of the
+faculty of sculpture this implies in the national mind! What measure can
+be assigned to the gulf of incapacity, which can deliberately swallow up
+in the gorge of it the teaching and example of three thousand years, and
+produce, as the result of that instruction, what it is courteous to call
+'nothing'?
+
+61. That is the conclusion at which we arrive on the evidence presented
+by our historical sculpture. To complete the measure of ourselves, we
+must endeavor to estimate the rank of the two opposite schools of
+sculpture employed by us in the nominal service of religion, and in the
+actual service of vice.
+
+I am aware of no statue of Christ, nor of any apostle of Christ, nor of
+any scene related in the New Testament, produced by us within the last
+three hundred years, which has possessed even superficial merit enough
+to attract public attention.
+
+Whereas the steadily immoral effect of the formative art which we learn,
+more or less apishly, from the French schools, and employ, but too
+gladly, in manufacturing articles for the amusement of the luxurious
+classes, must be ranked as one of the chief instruments used by joyful
+fiends and angry fates for the ruin of our civilization.
+
+If, after I have set before you the nature and principles of true
+sculpture, in Athens, Pisa, and Florence, you consider these
+facts,--(which you will then at once recognize as such),--you will find
+that they absolutely justify my assertion that the state of sculpture in
+modern England, as compared with that of the great Ancients, is
+literally one of corrupt and dishonorable death, as opposed to bright
+and fameful life.
+
+62. And now, will you bear with me while I tell you finally why this is
+so?
+
+The cause with which you are personally concerned is your own frivolity;
+though essentially this is not your fault, but that of the system of
+your early training. But the fact remains the same, that here, in
+Oxford, you, a chosen body of English youth, in nowise care for the
+history of your country, for its present dangers, or its present duties.
+You still, like children of seven or eight years old, are interested
+only in bats, balls, and oars: nay, including with you the students of
+Germany and France, it is certain that the general body of modern
+European youth have their minds occupied more seriously by the sculpture
+and painting of the bowls of their tobacco-pipes, than by all the
+divinest workmanship and passionate imagination of Greece, Rome, and
+Mediaeval Christendom.
+
+63. But the elementary causes, both of this frivolity in you, and of
+worse than frivolity in older persons, are the two forms of deadly
+Idolatry which are now all but universal in England.
+
+The first of these is the worship of the Eidolon, or Fantasm of Wealth;
+worship of which you will find the nature partly examined in the
+thirty-seventh paragraph of my 'Munera Pulveris'; but which is briefly
+to be defined as the servile apprehension of an active power in Money,
+and the submission to it as the God of our life.
+
+64. The second elementary cause of the loss of our nobly imaginative
+faculty, is the worship of the Letter, instead of the Spirit, in what we
+chiefly accept as the ordinance and teaching of Deity; and the
+apprehension of a healing sacredness in the act of reading the Book
+whose primal commands we refuse to obey.
+
+No feather idol of Polynesia was ever a sign of a more shameful idolatry
+than the modern notion in the minds of certainly the majority of English
+religious persons, that the Word of God, by which the heavens were of
+old, and the earth, standing out of the water and in the water,--the
+Word of God which came to the prophets, and comes still forever to all
+who will hear it (and to many who will forbear); and which, called
+Faithful and True, is to lead forth, in the judgment, the armies of
+heaven,--that this 'Word of God' may yet be bound at our pleasure in
+morocco, and carried about in a young lady's pocket, with tasseled
+ribbons to mark the passages she most approves of.
+
+65. Gentlemen, there has hitherto been seen no instance, and England is
+little likely to give the unexampled spectacle, of a country successful
+in the noble arts, yet in which the youths were frivolous, the maidens
+falsely religious; the men, slaves of money, and the matrons, of vanity.
+Not from all the marble of the hills of Luini will such a people ever
+shape one statue that may stand nobly against the sky; not from all the
+treasures bequeathed to them by the great dead, will they gather, for
+their own descendants, any inheritance but shame.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] Glance forward at once to Sec. 75, read it, and return to this.
+
+[12] There is a primary and vulgar sense of 'exhibited' in Lucian's
+mind; but the higher meaning is involved in it.
+
+[13] In the Greek, 'ambrosial.' Recollect always that ambrosia, as food
+of gods, is the continual restorer of strength; that all food is
+ambrosial when it nourishes, and that the night is called 'ambrosial'
+because it restores strength to the soul through its peace, as, in the
+23d Psalm, the stillness of waters.
+
+[14] I have italicized this final promise of blessedness, given by the
+noble Spirit of Workmanship. Compare Carlyle's fifth Latter-day
+Pamphlet, throughout; but especially pp. 12-14, in the first edition.
+
+[15] "Falsely represented," would be the better expression. In the cast
+of the tomb of Queen Eleanor, for a single instance, the Gothic foliage,
+of which one essential virtue is its change over every shield, is
+represented by a repetition of casts from one mold, of which the design
+itself is entirely conjectural.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE III.
+
+IMAGINATION.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+66. The principal object of the preceding Lecture, (and I choose rather
+to incur your blame for tediousness in repeating, than for obscurity in
+defining it,) was to enforce the distinction between the ignoble and
+false phase of Idolatry, which consists in the attribution of a
+spiritual power to a material thing; and the noble and truth-seeking
+phase of it, to which I shall in these Lectures[16] give the general
+term of Imagination;--that is to say, the invention of material symbols
+which may lead us to contemplate the character and nature of gods,
+spirits, or abstract virtues and powers, without in the least implying
+the actual presence of such Beings among us, or even their possession,
+in reality, of the forms we attribute to them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+67. For instance, in the ordinarily received Greek type of Athena, on
+vases of the Phidian time, (sufficiently represented in the following
+wood-cut,) no Greek would have supposed the vase on which this was
+painted to be itself Athena, nor to contain Athena inside of it, as the
+Arabian fisherman's casket contained the genie; neither did he think
+that this rude black painting, done at speed as the potter's fancy urged
+his hand, represented anything like the form or aspect of the goddess
+herself. Nor would he have thought so, even had the image been ever so
+beautifully wrought. The goddess might, indeed, visibly appear under the
+form of an armed virgin, as she might under that of a hawk or a swallow,
+when it pleased her to give such manifestation of her presence; but it
+did not, therefore, follow that she was constantly invested with any of
+these forms, or that the best which human skill could, even by her own
+aid, picture of her, was, indeed, a likeness of her. The real use, at
+all events, of this rude image, was only to signify to the eye and heart
+the facts of the existence, in some manner, of a Spirit of wisdom,
+perfect in gentleness, irresistible in anger; having also physical
+dominion over the air which is the life and breath of all creatures, and
+clothed, to human eyes, with aegis of fiery cloud, and raiment of falling
+dew.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+68. In the yet more abstract conception of the Spirit of Agriculture, in
+which the wings of the chariot represent the winds of Spring, and its
+crested dragons are originally a mere type of the seed with its twisted
+root piercing the ground, and sharp-edged leaves rising above it, we are
+in still less danger of mistaking the symbol for the presumed form of an
+actual Person. But I must, with persistence, beg of you to observe that
+in all the noble actions of imagination in this kind, the distinction
+from idolatry consists, not in the denial of the being, or presence, of
+the Spirit, but only in the due recognition of our human incapacity to
+conceive the one, or compel the other.
+
+69. Farther--and for this statement I claim your attention still more
+earnestly. As no nation has ever attained real greatness during periods
+in which it was subject to any condition of Idolatry, so no nation has
+ever attained or persevered in greatness, except in reaching and
+maintaining a passionate Imagination of a spiritual estate higher than
+that of men; and of spiritual creatures nobler than men, having a quite
+real and personal existence, however imperfectly apprehended by us.
+
+And all the arts of the present age deserving to be included under the
+name of sculpture have been degraded by us, and all principles of just
+policy have vanished from us,--and that totally,--for this double
+reason; that we are, on one side, given up to idolatries of the most
+servile kind, as I showed you in the close of the last Lecture,--while,
+on the other hand, we have absolutely ceased from the exercise of
+faithful imagination; and the only remnants of the desire of truth which
+remain in us have been corrupted into a prurient itch to discover the
+origin of life in the nature of the dust, and prove that the source of
+the order of the universe is the accidental concurrence of its atoms.
+
+70. Under these two calamities of our time, the art of sculpture has
+perished more totally than any other, because the object of that art is
+exclusively the representation of form as the exponent of life. It is
+essentially concerned only with the human form, which is the exponent of
+the highest life we know; and with all subordinate forms only as they
+exhibit conditions of vital power which have some certain relation to
+humanity. It deals with the "particula undique desecta" of the animal
+nature, and itself contemplates, and brings forward for its disciples'
+contemplation, all the energies of creation which transform the [Greek:
+pelos], or, lower still, the [Greek: borboros] of the _trivia_, by
+Athena's help, into forms of power;--([Greek: to men holon architekton
+autos en syneirgazeto de toi kai he 'Athena empneousa ton pelon kai
+empsycha poiousa einai ta plasmata;])[17]--but it has nothing whatever
+to do with the representation of forms not living, however beautiful (as
+of clouds or waves); nor may it condescend to use its perfect skill,
+except in expressing the noblest conditions of life.
+
+These laws of sculpture, being wholly contrary to the practice of our
+day, I cannot expect you to accept on my assertion, nor do I wish you to
+do so. By placing definitely good and bad sculpture before you, I do not
+doubt but that I shall gradually prove to you the nature of all
+excelling and enduring qualities; but to-day I will only confirm my
+assertions by laying before you the statement of the Greeks themselves
+on the subject; given in their own noblest time, and assuredly
+authoritative, in every point which it embraces, for all time to come.
+
+71. If any of you have looked at the explanation I have given of the
+myth of Athena in my 'Queen of the Air,' you cannot but have been
+surprised that I took scarcely any note of the story of her birth. I did
+not, because that story is connected intimately with the Apolline myths;
+and is told of Athena, not essentially as the goddess of the air, but as
+the goddess of Art-Wisdom.
+
+You have probably often smiled at the legend itself, or avoided thinking
+of it, as revolting. It is, indeed, one of the most painful and childish
+of sacred myths; yet remember, ludicrous and ugly as it seems to us,
+this story satisfied the fancy of the Athenian people in their highest
+state; and if it did not satisfy, yet it was accepted by, all later
+mythologists: you may also remember I told you to be prepared always to
+find that, given a certain degree of national intellect, the ruder the
+symbol, the deeper would be its purpose. And this legend of the birth of
+Athena is the central myth of all that the Greeks have left us
+respecting the power of their arts; and in it they have expressed, as it
+seemed good to them, the most important things they had to tell us on
+these matters. We may read them wrongly; but we must read them here, if
+anywhere.
+
+72. There are so many threads to be gathered up in the legend, that I
+cannot hope to put it before you in total clearness, but I will take
+main points. Athena is born in the island of Rhodes; and that island is
+raised out of the sea by Apollo, after he had been left without
+inheritance among the gods. Zeus[18] would have cast the lot again, but
+Apollo orders the golden-girdled Lachesis to stretch out her hands; and
+not now by chance or lot, but by noble enchantment, the island rises out
+of the sea.
+
+Physically, this represents the action of heat and light on chaos,
+especially on the deep sea. It is the "Fiat lux" of Genesis, the first
+process in the conquest of Fate by Harmony. The island is dedicated to
+the nymph Rhodos, by whom Apollo has the seven sons who teach [Greek:
+sophotata noemata]; because the rose is the most beautiful organism
+existing in matter not vital, expressive of the direct action of light
+on the earth, giving lovely form and color at once, (compare the use of
+it by Dante, as the form of the sainted crowd in highest heaven); and
+remember that, therefore, the rose is, in the Greek mind, essentially a
+Doric flower, expressing the worship of Light, as the Iris or Ion is an
+Ionic one, expressing the worship of the Winds and Dew.
+
+73. To understand the agency of Hephaestus at the birth of Athena, we
+must again return to the founding of the arts on agriculture by the
+hand. Before you can cultivate land, you must clear it; and the
+characteristic weapon of Hephaestus,--which is as much his attribute as
+the trident is of Poseidon, and the rhabdos of Hermes, is not, as you
+would have expected, the hammer, but the clearing-ax--the double-edged
+[Greek: pelekys], the same that Calypso gives Ulysses with which to cut
+down the trees for his home voyage; so that both the naval and
+agricultural strength of the Athenians are expressed by this weapon,
+with which they had to hew out their fortune. And you must keep in mind
+this agriculturally laborious character of Hephaestus, even when he is
+most distinctly the god of serviceable fire; thus Horace's perfect
+epithet for him, "avidus," expresses at once the devouring eagerness of
+fire, and the zeal of progressive labor, for Horace gives it to him when
+he is fighting against the giants. And this rude symbol of his cleaving
+the forehead of Zeus with the ax, and giving birth to Athena, signifies
+indeed, physically, the thrilling power of heat in the heavens, rending
+the clouds, and giving birth to the blue air; but far more deeply it
+signifies the subduing of adverse Fate by true labor; until, out of the
+chasm, cleft by resolute and industrious fortitude, springs the Spirit
+of Wisdom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+74. Here (Fig. 4) is an early drawing of the myth, to which I shall
+have to refer afterwards in illustration of the childishness of the
+Greek mind at the time when its art-symbols were first fixed; but it is
+of peculiar value, because the physical character of Vulcan, as fire, is
+indicated by his wearing the [Greek: endromides] of Hermes, while the
+antagonism of Zeus, as the adverse chaos, either of cloud or of fate, is
+shown by his striking at Hephaestus with his thunderbolt. But Plate IV.
+gives you (as far as the light on the rounded vase will allow it to be
+deciphered) a characteristic representation of the scene, as conceived
+in later art.
+
+75. I told you in a former Lecture of this course[19] that the entire
+Greek intellect was in a childish phase as compared to that of modern
+times. Observe, however, childishness does not necessarily imply
+universal inferiority: there may be a vigorous, acute, pure, and solemn
+childhood, and there may be a weak, foul, and ridiculous condition of
+advanced life; but the one is still essentially the childish, and the
+other the adult phase of existence.
+
+76. You will find, then, that the Greeks were the first people that were
+born into complete humanity. All nations before them had been, and all
+around them still were, partly savage, bestial, clay-incumbered,
+inhuman; still semi-goat, or semi-ant, or semi-stone, or semi-cloud. But
+the power of a new spirit came upon the Greeks, and the stones were
+filled with breath, and the clouds clothed with flesh; and then came the
+great spiritual battle between the Centaurs and Lapithae; and the living
+creatures became "Children of Men." Taught, yet by the Centaur--sown, as
+they knew, in the fang--from the dappled skin of the brute, from the
+leprous scale of the serpent, their flesh came again as the flesh of a
+little child, and they were clean.
+
+Fix your mind on this as the very central character of the Greek
+race--the being born pure and human out of the brutal misery of the
+past, and looking abroad, for the first time, with their children's
+eyes, wonderingly open, on the strange and divine world.
+
+[Illustration: IV.
+
+THE NATIVITY OF ATHENA.]
+
+77. Make some effort to remember, so far as may be possible to you,
+either what you felt in yourselves when you were young, or what you have
+observed in other children, of the action of thought and fancy. Children
+are continually represented as living in an ideal world of their own. So
+far as I have myself observed, the distinctive character of a child is
+to live always in the tangible present, having little pleasure in
+memory, and being utterly impatient and tormented by anticipation: weak
+alike in reflection and forethought, but having an intense possession of
+the actual present, down to the shortest moments and least objects of
+it; possessing it, indeed, so intensely that the sweet childish days are
+as long as twenty days will be; and setting all the faculties of heart
+and imagination on little things, so as to be able to make anything out
+of them he chooses. Confined to a little garden, he does not imagine
+himself somewhere else, but makes a great garden out of that; possessed
+of an acorn-cup, he will not despise it and throw it away, and covet a
+golden one in its stead: it is the adult who does so. The child keeps
+his acorn-cup as a treasure, and makes a golden one out of it in his
+mind; so that the wondering grown-up person standing beside him is
+always tempted to ask concerning his treasures, not, "What would you
+have more than these?" but "What possibly can you see _in_ these?" for,
+to the bystander, there is a ludicrous and incomprehensible
+inconsistency between the child's words and the reality. The little
+thing tells him gravely, holding up the acorn-cup, that "this is a
+queen's crown," or "a fairy's boat," and, with beautiful effrontery,
+expects him to believe the same. But observe--the acorn-cup must be
+_there_, and in his own hand. "Give it me; then I will make more of it
+for myself." That is the child's one word, always.
+
+78. It is also the one word of the Greek--"Give it me." Give me _any_
+thing definite here in my sight, then I will make more of it.
+
+I cannot easily express to you how strange it seems to me that I am
+obliged, here in Oxford, to take the position of an apologist for Greek
+art; that I find, in spite of all the devotion of the admirable scholars
+who have so long maintained in our public schools the authority of Greek
+literature, our younger students take no interest in the manual work of
+the people upon whose thoughts the tone of their early intellectual life
+has exclusively depended. But I am not surprised that the interest, if
+awakened, should not at first take the form of admiration. The
+inconsistency between an Homeric description of a piece of furniture or
+armor, and the actual rudeness of any piece of art approximating, within
+even three or four centuries, to the Homeric period, is so great, that
+we at first cannot recognize the art as elucidatory of, or in any way
+related to, the poetic language.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: V.
+
+TOMB OF THE DOGES JACOPO AND LORENZO TIEPOLO.]
+
+79. You will find, however, exactly the same kind of discrepancy between
+early sculpture, and the languages of deed and thought, in the second
+birth, and childhood, of the world, under Christianity. The same fair
+thoughts and bright imaginations arise again; and, similarly, the fancy
+is content with the rudest symbols by which they can be formalized to
+the eyes. You cannot understand that the rigid figure (2) with checkers
+or spots on its breast, and sharp lines of drapery to its feet, could
+represent, to the Greek, the healing majesty of heaven: but can you any
+better understand how a symbol so haggard as this (Fig. 5) could
+represent to the noblest hearts of the Christian ages the power and
+ministration of angels? Yet it not only did so, but retained in the rude
+undulatory and linear ornamentation of its dress, record of the thoughts
+intended to be conveyed by the spotted aegis and falling chiton of
+Athena, eighteen hundred years before. Greek and Venetian alike, in
+their noble childhood, knew with the same terror the coiling wind and
+congealed hail in heaven--saw with the same thankfulness the dew shed
+softly on the earth, and on its flowers; and both recognized, ruling
+these, and symbolized by them, the great helpful spirit of Wisdom, which
+leads the children of men to all knowledge, all courage, and all art.
+
+80. Read the inscription written on the sarcophagus (Plate V.), at the
+extremity of which this angel is sculptured. It stands in an open recess
+in the rude brick wall of the west front of the church of St. John and
+Paul at Venice, being the tomb of the two doges, father and son, Jacopo
+and Lorenzo Tiepolo. This is the inscription:--
+
+    "Quos natura pares studiis, virtutibus, arte
+    Edidit, illustres genitor natusque, sepulti
+    Hac sub rupe Duces. Venetum charissima proles
+    Theupula collatis dedit hos celebranda triumphis.
+    Omnia presentis donavit predia templi
+    Dux Jacobus: valido fixit moderamine leges
+    Urbis, et ingratam redimens certamine Jadram
+    Dalmatiosque dedit patrie post, Marte subactas
+    Graiorum pelago maculavit sanguine classes.
+    Suscipit oblatos princeps Laurentius Istros,
+    Et domuit rigidos, ingenti strage cadentes,
+    Bononie populos. Hinc subdita Cervia cessit.
+    Fundavere vias pacis; fortique relicta
+    Re, superos sacris petierunt mentibus ambo.
+
+    Dominus Jachobus hobiit[20] M. CCLI. Dominus Laurentius hobiit
+    M. CCLXXVIII."
+
+You see, therefore, this tomb is an invaluable example of
+thirteenth-century sculpture in Venice. In Plate VI., you have an
+example of the (coin) sculpture of the date accurately corresponding in
+Greece to the thirteenth century in Venice, when the meaning of symbols
+was everything, and the workmanship comparatively nothing. The upper
+head is an Athena, of Athenian work in the seventh or sixth
+century--(the coin itself may have been struck later, but the archaic
+type was retained). The two smaller impressions below are the front and
+obverse of a coin of the same age from Corinth, the head of Athena on
+one side, and Pegasus, with the archaic Koppa, on the other. The smaller
+head is bare, the hair being looped up at the back and closely bound
+with an olive branch. You are to note this general outline of the head,
+already given in a more finished type in Plate II., as a most important
+elementary form in the finest sculpture, not of Greece only, but of all
+Christendom. In the upper head the hair is restrained still more closely
+by a round helmet, for the most part smooth, but embossed with a single
+flower tendril, having one bud, one flower, and, above it, two olive
+leaves. You have thus the most absolutely restricted symbol possible to
+human thought of the power of Athena over the flowers and trees of the
+earth. An olive leaf by itself could not have stood for the sign of a
+tree, but the two can, when set in position of growth.
+
+I would not give you the reverse of the coin on the same plate, because
+you would have looked at it only, laughed at it, and not examined the
+rest; but here it is, wonderfully engraved for you (Fig. 6): of it we
+shall have more to say afterwards.
+
+[Illustration: VI.
+
+ARCHAIC ATHENA OF ATHENS AND CORINTH.]
+
+81. And now as you look at these rude vestiges of the religion of
+Greece, and at the vestiges still ruder, on the Ducal tomb, of the
+religion of Christendom, take warning against two opposite errors.
+
+There is a school of teachers who will tell you that nothing but Greek
+art is deserving of study, and that all our work at this day should be
+an imitation of it.
+
+Whenever you feel tempted to believe them, think of these portraits of
+Athena and her owl, and be assured that Greek art is not in all respects
+perfect, nor exclusively deserving of imitation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+There is another school of teachers who will tell you that Greek art is
+good for nothing; that the soul of the Greek was outcast, and that
+Christianity entirely superseded its faith, and excelled its works.
+
+Whenever you feel tempted to believe _them_, think of this angel on the
+tomb of Jacopo Tiepolo; and remember that Christianity, after it had
+been twelve hundred years existent as an imaginative power on the earth,
+could do no better work than this, though with all the former power of
+Greece to help it; nor was able to engrave its triumph in having stained
+its fleets in the seas of Greece with the blood of her people, but
+between barbarous imitations of the pillars which that people had
+invented.
+
+82. Receiving these two warnings, receive also this lesson. In both
+examples, childish though it be, this Heathen and Christian art is alike
+sincere, and alike vividly imaginative: the actual work is that of
+infancy; the thoughts, in their visionary simplicity, are also the
+thoughts of infancy, but in their solemn virtue they are the thoughts of
+men.
+
+We, on the contrary, are now, in all that we do, absolutely without
+sincerity;--absolutely, therefore, without imagination, and without
+virtue. Our hands are dexterous with the vile and deadly dexterity of
+machines; our minds filled with incoherent fragments of faith, which we
+cling to in cowardice, without believing, and make pictures of in
+vanity, without loving. False and base alike, whether we admire or
+imitate, we cannot learn from the Heathen's art, but only pilfer it; we
+cannot revive the Christian's art, but only galvanize it; we are, in the
+sum of us, not human artists at all, but mechanisms of conceited clay,
+masked in the furs and feathers of living creatures, and convulsed with
+voltaic spasms, in mockery of animation.
+
+83. You think, perhaps, that I am using terms unjustifiable in violence.
+They would, indeed, be unjustifiable, if, spoken from this chair, they
+were violent at all. They are, unhappily, temperate and
+accurate,--except in shortcoming of blame. For we are not only impotent
+to restore, but strong to defile, the work of past ages. Of the
+impotence, take but this one, utterly humiliatory, and, in the full
+meaning of it, ghastly, example. We have lately been busy embanking, in
+the capital of the country, the river which, of all its waters, the
+imagination of our ancestors had made most sacred, and the bounty of
+nature most useful. Of all architectural features of the metropolis,
+that embankment will be, in future, the most conspicuous; and in its
+position and purpose it was the most capable of noble adornment.
+
+For that adornment, nevertheless, the utmost which our modern poetical
+imagination has been able to invent, is a row of gas-lamps. It has,
+indeed, farther suggested itself to our minds as appropriate to
+gas-lamps set beside a river, that the gas should come out of fishes'
+tails; but we have not ingenuity enough to cast so much as a smelt or a
+sprat for ourselves; so we borrow the shape of a Neapolitan marble,
+which has been the refuse of the plate and candlestick shops in every
+capital in Europe for the last fifty years. We cast _that_ badly, and
+give luster to the ill-cast fish with lacquer in imitation of bronze. On
+the base of their pedestals, towards the road, we put, for
+advertisement's sake, the initials of the casting firm; and, for farther
+originality and Christianity's sake, the caduceus of Mercury: and to
+adorn the front of the pedestals, towards the river, being now wholly at
+our wits' end, we can think of nothing better than to borrow the
+door-knocker which--again for the last fifty years--has disturbed and
+decorated two or three millions of London street-doors; and magnifying
+the marvelous device of it, a lion's head with a ring in its mouth,
+(still borrowed from the Greek,) we complete the embankment with a row
+of heads and rings, on a scale which enables them to produce, at the
+distance at which only they can be seen, the exact effect of a row of
+sentry-boxes.
+
+84. Farther. In the very center of the City, and at the point where the
+Embankment commands a view of Westminster Abbey on one side, and of St.
+Paul's on the other,--that is to say, at precisely the most important
+and stately moment of its whole course,--it has to pass under one of the
+arches of Waterloo Bridge, which, in the sweep of its curve, is as
+vast--it alone--as the Rialto at Venice, and scarcely less seemly in
+proportions. But over the Rialto, though of late and debased Venetian
+work, there still reigns some power of human imagination: on the two
+flanks of it are carved the Virgin and the Angel of the Annunciation; on
+the keystone, the descending Dove. It is not, indeed, the fault of
+living designers that the Waterloo arch is nothing more than a gloomy
+and hollow heap of wedged blocks of blind granite. But just beyond the
+damp shadow of it, the new Embankment is reached by a flight of stairs,
+which are, in point of fact, the principal approach to it, afoot, from
+central London; the descent from the very midst of the metropolis of
+England to the banks of the chief river of England; and for this
+approach, living designers _are_ answerable.
+
+85. The principal decoration of the descent is again a gas-lamp, but a
+shattered one, with a brass crown on the top of it, or, rather,
+half-crown, and that turned the wrong way, the back of it to the river
+and causeway, its flame supplied by a visible pipe far wandering along
+the wall; the whole apparatus being supported by a rough cross-beam.
+Fastened to the center of the arch above is a large placard, stating
+that the Royal Humane Society's drags are in constant readiness, and
+that their office is at 4, Trafalgar Square. On each side of the arch
+are temporary, but dismally old and battered boardings, across two
+angles capable of unseemly use by the British public. Above one of these
+is another placard, stating that this is the Victoria Embankment. The
+steps themselves--some forty of them--descend under a tunnel, which the
+shattered gas-lamp lights by night, and nothing by day. They are covered
+with filthy dust, shaken off from infinitude of filthy feet; mixed up
+with shreds of paper, orange-peel, foul straw, rags, and cigar-ends, and
+ashes; the whole agglutinated, more or less, by dry saliva into slippery
+blotches and patches; or, when not so fastened, blown dismally by the
+sooty wind hither and thither, or into the faces of those who ascend and
+descend. The place is worth your visit, for you are not likely to find
+elsewhere a spot which, either in costly and ponderous brutality of
+building, or in the squalid and indecent accompaniment of it, is so far
+separated from the peace and grace of nature, and so accurately
+indicative of the methods of our national resistance to the Grace,
+Mercy, and Peace of Heaven.
+
+86. I am obliged always to use the English word 'Grace' in two senses,
+but remember that the Greek [Greek: charis] includes them both (the
+bestowing, that is to say, of Beauty and Mercy); and especially it
+includes these in the passage of Pindar's first ode, which gives us the
+key to the right interpretation of the power of sculpture in Greece. You
+remember that I told you, in my Sixth Introductory Lecture (Sec. 151), that
+the mythic accounts of Greek sculpture begin in the legends of the
+family of Tantalus; and especially in the most grotesque legend of them
+all, the inlaying of the ivory shoulder of Pelops. At that story Pindar
+pauses,--not, indeed, without admiration, nor alleging any impossibility
+in the circumstances themselves, but doubting the careless hunger of
+Demeter,--and gives his own reading of the event, instead of the ancient
+one. He justifies this to himself, and to his hearers, by the plea that
+myths have, in some sort, or degree, ([Greek: pou ti],) led the mind of
+mortals beyond the truth; and then he goes on:--
+
+"Grace, which creates everything that is kindly and soothing for
+mortals, adding honor, has often made things, at first untrustworthy,
+become trustworthy through Love."
+
+87. I cannot, except in these lengthened terms, give you the complete
+force of the passage; especially of the [Greek: apiston emesato
+piston]--"made it trustworthy by passionate desire that it should be
+so"--which exactly describes the temper of religious persons at the
+present day, who are kindly and sincere, in clinging to the forms of
+faith which either have long been precious to themselves, or which they
+feel to have been without question instrumental in advancing the dignity
+of mankind. And it is part of the constitution of humanity--a part
+which, above others, you are in danger of unwisely contemning under the
+existing conditions of our knowledge, that the things thus sought for
+belief with eager passion, do, indeed, become trustworthy to us; that,
+to each of us, they verily become what we would have them; the force of
+the [Greek: menis] and [Greek: mneme] with which we seek after them,
+does, indeed, make them powerful to us for actual good or evil; and it
+is thus granted to us to create not only with our hands things that
+exalt or degrade our sight, but with our hearts also, things that exalt
+or degrade our souls; giving true substance to all that we hoped for;
+evidence to things that we have not seen, but have desired to see; and
+calling, in the sense of creating, things that are not, as though they
+were.
+
+88. You remember that in distinguishing Imagination from Idolatry, I
+referred[21] you to the forms of passionate affection with which a
+noble people commonly regards the rivers and springs of its native land.
+Some conception of personality, or of spiritual power in the stream, is
+almost necessarily involved in such emotion; and prolonged [Greek:
+charis], in the form of gratitude, the return of Love for benefits
+continually bestowed, at last alike in all the highest and the simplest
+minds, when they are honorable and pure, makes this untrue thing
+trustworthy; [Greek: apiston emesato piston], until it becomes to them
+the safe basis of some of the happiest impulses of their moral nature.
+Next to the marbles of Verona, given you as a primal type of the
+sculpture of Christianity, moved to its best energy in adorning the
+entrance of its temples, I have not unwillingly placed, as your
+introduction to the best sculpture of the religion of Greece, the forms
+under which it represented the personality of the fountain Arethusa. But
+without restriction to those days of absolute devotion, let me simply
+point out to you how this untrue thing, made true by Love, has intimate
+and heavenly authority even over the minds of men of the most practical
+sense, the most shrewd wit, and the most severe precision of moral
+temper. The fair vision of Sabrina in 'Comus,' the endearing and tender
+promise, "Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium," and the joyful and proud
+affection of the great Lombard's address to the lakes of his enchanted
+land,--
+
+          "Te, Lari maxume, teque
+    Fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino,"
+
+may surely be remembered by you with regretful piety, when you stand by
+the blank stones which at once restrain and disgrace your native river,
+as the final worship rendered to it by modern philosophy. But a little
+incident which I saw last summer on its bridge at Wallingford, may put
+the contrast of ancient and modern feeling before you still more
+forcibly.
+
+89. Those of you who have read with attention (none of us can read with
+too much attention), Moliere's most perfect work, 'The Misanthrope,'
+must remember Celimene's description of her lovers, and her excellent
+reason for being unable to regard with any favor, "notre grand flandrin
+de vicomte,--depuis que je l'ai vu, trois quarts d'heure durant, cracher
+dans un puits pour faire des ronds." That sentence is worth noting, both
+in contrast to the reverence paid by the ancients to wells and springs,
+and as one of the most interesting traces of the extension of the
+loathsome habit among the upper classes of Europe and America, which now
+renders all external grace, dignity, and decency impossible in the
+thoroughfares of their principal cities. In connection with that
+sentence of Moliere's you may advisably also remember this fact, which I
+chanced to notice on the bridge of Wallingford. I was walking from end
+to end of it, and back again, one Sunday afternoon of last May, trying
+to conjecture what had made this especial bend and ford of the Thames so
+important in all the Anglo-Saxon wars. It was one of the few sunny
+afternoons of the bitter spring, and I was very thankful for its light,
+and happy in watching beneath it the flow and the glittering of the
+classical river, when I noticed a well-dressed boy, apparently just out
+of some orderly Sunday-school, leaning far over the parapet; watching,
+as I conjectured, some bird or insect on the bridge-buttress. I went up
+to him to see what he was looking at; but just as I got close to him, he
+started over to the opposite parapet, and put himself there into the
+same position, his object being, as I then perceived, to spit from both
+sides upon the heads of a pleasure party who were passing in a boat
+below.
+
+90. The incident may seem to you too trivial to be noticed in this
+place. To me, gentlemen, it was by no means trivial. It meant, in the
+depth of it, such absence of all true [Greek: charis], reverence, and
+intellect, as it is very dreadful to trace in the mind of any human
+creature, much more in that of a child educated with apparently every
+advantage of circumstance in a beautiful English country town, within
+ten miles of our University. Most of all is it terrific when we regard
+it as the exponent (and this, in truth, it is) of the temper which, as
+distinguished from former methods, either of discipline or recreation,
+the present tenor of our general teaching fosters in the mind of
+youth;--teaching which asserts liberty to be a right, and obedience a
+degradation; and which, regardless alike of the fairness of nature and
+the grace of behavior, leaves the insolent spirit and degraded senses to
+find their only occupation in malice, and their only satisfaction in
+shame.
+
+91. You will, I hope, proceed with me, not scornfully any more, to
+trace, in the early art of a noble heathen nation, the feeling of what
+was at least a better childishness than this of ours; and the efforts to
+express, though with hands yet failing, and minds oppressed by ignorant
+fantasy, the first truth by which they knew that they lived; the birth
+of wisdom and of all her powers of help to man, as the reward of his
+resolute labor.
+
+92. "[Greek: Haphaiston technaisi]." Note that word of Pindar in the
+Seventh Olympic. This ax-blow of Vulcan's was to the Greek mind truly
+what Clytemnestra falsely asserts hers to have been, "[Greek: tes de
+dexias cheros, ergon, dikaias tektonos]"; physically, it meant the
+opening of the blue through the rent clouds of heaven, by the action of
+local terrestrial heat (of Hephaestus as opposed to Apollo, who shines on
+the surface of the upper clouds, but cannot pierce them); and,
+spiritually, it meant the first birth of prudent thought out of rude
+labor, the clearing-ax in the hand of the woodman being the practical
+elementary sign of his difference from the wild animals of the wood.
+Then he goes on, "From the high head of her Father, Athenaia rushing
+forth, cried with her great and exceeding cry; and the Heaven trembled
+at her, and the Earth Mother." The cry of Athena, I have before pointed
+out, physically distinguishes her, as the spirit of the air, from silent
+elemental powers; but in this grand passage of Pindar it is again the
+mythic cry of which he thinks; that is to say, the giving articulate
+words, by intelligence, to the silence of Fate. "Wisdom crieth aloud,
+she uttereth her voice in the streets," and Heaven and Earth tremble at
+her reproof.
+
+93. Uttereth her voice in the "streets." For all men, that is to say;
+but to what work did the Greeks think that her voice was to call them?
+What was to be the impulse communicated by her prevailing presence; what
+the sign of the people's obedience to her?
+
+This was to be the sign--"But she, the goddess herself, gave to them to
+prevail over the dwellers upon earth, _with best-laboring hands in every
+art. And by their paths there were the likenesses of living and of
+creeping things_; and the glory was deep. For to the cunning workman,
+greater knowledge comes, undeceitful."
+
+94. An infinitely pregnant passage, this, of which to-day you are to
+note mainly these three things: First, that Athena is the goddess of
+Doing, not at all of sentimental inaction. She is begotten, as it were,
+of the woodman's ax; her purpose is never in a word only, but in a word
+and a blow. She guides the hands that labor best, in every art.
+
+95. Secondly. The victory given by Wisdom, the worker, to the hands that
+labor best, is that the streets and ways, [Greek: keleuthoi], shall be
+filled by likenesses of living and creeping things.
+
+Things living, and creeping! Are the Reptile things not alive then? You
+think Pindar wrote that carelessly? or that, if he had only known a
+little modern anatomy, instead of 'reptile' things, he would have said
+'monochondylous' things? Be patient, and let us attend to the main
+points first.
+
+Sculpture, it thus appears, is the only work of wisdom that the Greeks
+care to speak of; they think it involves and crowns every other.
+Image-making art; _this_ is Athena's, as queenliest of the arts.
+Literature, the order and the strength of word, of course belongs to
+Apollo and the Muses; under Athena are the Substances and the Forms of
+things.
+
+96. Thirdly. By this forming of Images there is to be gained a
+'deep'--that is to say, a weighty, and prevailing, glory; not a floating
+nor fugitive one. For to the cunning workman, greater knowledge comes,
+'undeceitful.'
+
+"[Greek: Daenti;]" I am forced to use two English words to translate
+that single Greek one. The 'cunning' workman, thoughtful in experience,
+touch, and vision of the thing to be done; no machine, witless, and of
+necessary motion; yet not cunning only, but having perfect habitual
+skill of hand also; the confirmed reward of truthful doing. Recollect,
+in connection with this passage of Pindar, Homer's three verses about
+getting the lines of ship-timber true, (Il. XV. 410):
+
+    "[Greek: 'All' hoste stathme dory neion exithynei
+    tektonos en palam si daemonos, hoo rha te pases
+    eu eide sophies, hypothemosynesin 'Athenes],"
+
+and the beautiful epithet of Persephone,--"[Greek: daeira]," as the
+Tryer and Knower of good work; and remembering these, trust Pindar for
+the truth of his saying, that to the cunning workman--(and let me
+solemnly enforce the words by adding--that to him _only_,) knowledge
+comes undeceitful.
+
+97. You may have noticed, perhaps, and with a smile, as one of the
+paradoxes you often hear me blamed for too fondly stating, what I told
+you in the close of my Third Introductory Lecture,[22] that "so far from
+art's being immoral, little else except art is moral." I have now
+farther to tell you, that little else, except art, is wise; that all
+knowledge, unaccompanied by a habit of useful action, is too likely to
+become deceitful, and that every habit of useful action must resolve
+itself into some elementary practice of manual labor. And I would, in
+all sober and direct earnestness, advise you, whatever may be the aim,
+predilection, or necessity of your lives, to resolve upon this one thing
+at least, that you will enable yourselves daily to do actually with your
+hands, something that is useful to mankind. To do anything well with
+your hands, useful or not; to be, even in trifling, [Greek: palamesi
+daemon], is already much. When we come to examine the art of the Middle
+Ages, I shall be able to show you that the strongest of all influences
+of right then brought to bear upon character was the necessity for
+exquisite manual dexterity in the management of the spear and bridle;
+and in your own experience most of you will be able to recognize the
+wholesome effect, alike on body and mind, of striving, within proper
+limits of time, to become either good batsmen or good oarsmen. But the
+bat and the racer's oar are children's toys. Resolve that you will be
+men in usefulness, as well as in strength; and you will find that then
+also, but not till then, you can become men in understanding; and that
+every fine vision and subtle theorem will present itself to you
+thence-forward undeceitfully, [Greek: hypothemosynesin Athenes].
+
+98. But there is more to be gathered yet from the words of Pindar. He is
+thinking, in his brief intense way, at once of Athena's work on the
+soul, and of her literal power on the dust of the Earth. His "[Greek:
+keleuthoi]" is a wide word, meaning all the paths of sea and land.
+Consider, therefore, what Athena's own work _actually is_--in the
+literal fact of it. The blue, clear air _is_ the sculpturing power upon
+the earth and sea. Where the surface of the earth is reached by that,
+and its matter and substance inspired with and filled by that, organic
+form becomes possible. You must indeed have the sun, also, and moisture;
+the kingdom of Apollo risen out of the sea: but the sculpturing of
+living things, shape by shape, is Athena's, so that under the brooding
+spirit of the air, what was without form, and void, brings forth the
+moving creature that hath life.
+
+99. That is her work then--the giving of Form; then the separately
+Apolline work is the giving of Light; or, more strictly, Sight: giving
+that faculty to the retina to which we owe not merely the idea of light,
+but the existence of it; for light is to be defined only as the
+sensation produced in the eye of an animal, under given conditions;
+those same conditions being, to a stone, only warmth or chemical
+influence, but not light. And that power of seeing, and the other
+various personalities and authorities of the animal body, in pleasure
+and pain, have never, hitherto, been, I do not say, explained, but in
+anywise touched or approached by scientific discovery. Some of the
+conditions of mere external animal form and of muscular vitality have
+been shown; but for the most part that is true, even of external form,
+which I wrote six years ago. "You may always stand by Form against
+Force. To a painter, the essential character of anything is the form of
+it, and the philosophers cannot touch that. They come and tell you, for
+instance, that there is as much heat, or motion, or calorific energy (or
+whatever else they like to call it), in a tea-kettle, as in a
+gier-eagle. Very good: that is so, and it is very interesting. It
+requires just as much heat as will boil the kettle, to take the
+gier-eagle up to his nest, and as much more to bring him down again on a
+hare or a partridge. But we painters, acknowledging the equality and
+similarity of the kettle and the bird in all scientific respects,
+attach, for our part, our principal interest to the difference in their
+forms. For us, the primarily cognizable facts, in the two things, are,
+that the kettle has a spout, and the eagle a beak; the one a lid on its
+back, the other a pair of wings; not to speak of the distinction also of
+volition, which the philosophers may properly call merely a form or mode
+of force--but then, to an artist, the form or mode is the gist of the
+business."[23]
+
+100. As you will find that it is, not to the artist only, but to all of
+us. The laws under which matter is collected and constructed are the
+same throughout the universe: the substance so collected, whether for
+the making of the eagle, or the worm, may be analyzed into gaseous
+identity; a diffusive vital force, apparently so closely related to
+mechanically measurable heat as to admit the conception of its being
+itself mechanically measurable, and unchanging in total quantity, ebbs
+and flows alike through the limbs of men and the fibers of insects. But,
+above all this, and ruling every grotesque or degraded accident of this,
+are two laws of beauty in form, and of nobility in character, which
+stand in the chaos of creation between the Living and the Dead, to
+separate the things that have in them a sacred and helpful, from those
+that have in them an accursed and destroying, nature; and the power of
+Athena, first physically put forth in the sculpturing of these [Greek:
+zoa] and [Greek: herpeta], these living and reptile things, is put
+forth, finally, in enabling the hearts of men to discern the one from
+the other; to know the unquenchable fires of the Spirit from the
+unquenchable fires of Death; and to choose, not unaided, between
+submission to the Love that cannot end, or to the Worm that cannot die.
+
+101. The unconsciousness of their antagonism is the most notable
+characteristic of the modern scientific mind; and I believe no credulity
+or fallacy admitted by the weakness (or it may sometimes rather have
+been the strength) of early imagination, indicates so strange a
+depression beneath the due scale of human intellect, as the failure of
+the sense of beauty in form, and loss of faith in heroism of conduct,
+which have become the curses of recent science,[24] art, and policy.
+
+102. That depression of intellect has been alike exhibited in the mean
+consternation confessedly felt on one side, and the mean triumph
+apparently felt on the other, during the course of the dispute now
+pending as to the origin of man. Dispute for the present not to be
+decided, and of which the decision is, to persons in the modern temper
+of mind, wholly without significance: and I earnestly desire that you,
+my pupils, may have firmness enough to disengage your energies from
+investigation so premature and so fruitless, and sense enough to
+perceive that it does not matter how you have been made, so long as you
+are satisfied with being what you are. If you are dissatisfied with
+yourselves, it ought not to console, but humiliate you, to imagine that
+you were once seraphs; and if you are pleased with yourselves, it is not
+any ground of reasonable shame to you if, by no fault of your own, you
+have passed through the elementary condition of apes.
+
+103. Remember, therefore, that it is of the very highest importance that
+you should know what you _are_, and determine to be the best that you
+may be; but it is of no importance whatever, except as it may contribute
+to that end, to know what you have been. Whether your Creator shaped
+you with fingers, or tools, as a sculptor would a lump of clay, or
+gradually raised you to manhood through a series of inferior forms, is
+only of moment to you in this respect--that in the one case you cannot
+expect your children to be nobler creatures than you are yourselves--in
+the other, every act and thought of your present life may be hastening
+the advent of a race which will look back to you, their fathers (and you
+ought at least to have attained the dignity of desiring that it may be
+so,) with incredulous disdain.
+
+104. But that you _are_ yourselves capable of that disdain and dismay;
+that you are ashamed of having been apes, if you ever were so; that you
+acknowledge, instinctively, a relation of better and worse, and a law
+respecting what is noble and base, which makes it no question to you
+that the man is worthier than the baboon,--_this_ is a fact of infinite
+significance. This law of preference in your hearts is the true essence
+of your being, and the consciousness of that law is a more positive
+existence than any dependent on the coherence or forms of matter.
+
+105. Now, but a few words more of mythology, and I have done. Remember
+that Athena holds the weaver's shuttle, not merely as an instrument of
+_texture_, but as an instrument of _picture_; the ideas of clothing, and
+of the warmth of life, being thus inseparably connected with those of
+graphic beauty, and the brightness of life. I have told you that no art
+could be recovered among us without perfectness in dress, nor without
+the elementary graphic art of women, in divers colors of needlework.
+There has been no nation of any art-energy, but has strenuously occupied
+and interested itself in this household picturing, from the web of
+Penelope to the tapestry of Queen Matilda, and the meshes of Arras and
+Gobelins.
+
+106. We should then naturally ask what kind of embroidery Athena put on
+her own robe; "[Greek: peplon heanon, poikilon, hon r' aute poiesato kai
+kame chersin]."
+
+The subject of that [Greek: poikilia] of hers, as you know, was the war
+of the giants and gods. Now the real name of these giants, remember, is
+that used by Hesiod, '[Greek: pelogonoi],' 'mud-begotten,' and the
+meaning of the contest between these and Zeus, [Greek: pelogonon
+elater], is, again, the inspiration of life into the clay, by the
+goddess of breath; and the actual confusion going on visibly before you,
+daily, of the earth, heaping itself into cumbrous war with the powers
+above it.
+
+107. Thus, briefly, the entire material of Art, under Athena's hand, is
+the contest of life with clay; and all my task in explaining to you the
+early thought of both the Athenian and Tuscan schools will only be the
+tracing of this battle of the giants into its full heroic form, when,
+not in tapestry only, but in sculpture, and on the portal of the Temple
+of Delphi itself, you have the "[Greek: klonos en teichesi lainoisi
+giganton]," and their defeat hailed by the passionate cry of delight
+from the Athenian maids, beholding Pallas in her full power, "[Greek:
+leusso Pallad' eman theon]," my own goddess. All our work, I repeat,
+will be nothing but the inquiry into the development of this one
+subject, and the pressing fully home the question of Plato about that
+embroidery--"And think you that there is verily war with each other
+among the Gods? and dreadful enmities and battles, such as the poets
+have told, and such as our painters set forth in graven scripture, to
+adorn all our sacred rites and holy places; yes, and in the great
+Panathenaea themselves, the Peplus, full of such wild picturing, is
+carried up into the Acropolis--shall we say that these things are true,
+oh Euthuphron, right-minded friend?"
+
+108. Yes, we say, and know, that these things are true; and true
+forever: battles of the gods, not among themselves, but against the
+earth-giants. Battle prevailing age by age, in nobler life and lovelier
+imagery; creation, which no theory of mechanism, no definition of force,
+can explain, the adoption and completing of individual form by
+individual animation, breathed out of the lips of the Father of Spirits.
+And to recognize the presence in every knitted shape of dust, by which
+it lives and moves and has its being--to recognize it, revere, and show
+it forth, is to be our eternal Idolatry.
+
+"Thou shalt not bow down to them, nor worship them."
+
+"Assuredly no," we answered once, in our pride; and through porch and
+aisle, broke down the carved work thereof, with axes and hammers.
+
+Who would have thought the day so near when we should bow down to
+worship, not the creatures, but their atoms,--not the forces that form,
+but those that dissolve them? Trust me, gentlemen, the command which is
+stringent against adoration of brutality, is stringent no less against
+adoration of chaos, nor is faith in an image fallen from heaven to be
+reformed by a faith only in the phenomenon of decadence. We have ceased
+from the making of monsters to be appeased by sacrifice;--it is
+well,--if indeed we have also ceased from making them in our thoughts.
+We have learned to distrust the adorning of fair fantasms, to which we
+once sought for succor;--it is well, if we learn to distrust also the
+adorning of those to which we seek, for temptation; but the verity of
+gains like these can only be known by our confession of the divine seal
+of strength and beauty upon the tempered frame, and honor in the fervent
+heart, by which, increasing visibly, may yet be manifested to us the
+holy presence, and the approving love, of the Loving God, who visits the
+iniquities of the Fathers upon the Children, unto the third and fourth
+generation of them that hate Him, and shows mercy unto thousands of them
+that love Him, and keep His Commandments.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] I shall be obliged in future Lectures, as hitherto in my other
+writings, to use the terms Idolatry and Imagination in a more
+comprehensive sense; but here I use them for convenience' sake,
+limitedly, to avoid the continual occurrence of the terms noble and
+ignoble, or false and true, with reference to modes of conception.
+
+[17] "And in sum, he himself (Prometheus) was the master-maker, and
+Athena worked together with him, breathing into the clay, and caused the
+molded things to have soul (psyche) in them."--LUCIAN, _Prometheus._
+
+[18] His relations with the two great Titans, Themis and Mnemosyne,
+belong to another group of myths. The father of Athena is the lower and
+nearer physical Zeus, from whom Metis, the mother of Athena, long
+withdraws and disguises herself.
+
+[19] _Ante_, Sec. 30.
+
+[20] The Latin verses are of later date; the contemporary plain prose
+retains the Venetian gutturals and aspirates.
+
+[21] _Ante_, Sec. 44.
+
+[22] "Lectures on Art," Sec. 95.
+
+[23] "Ethics of the Dust," Lecture X.
+
+[24] The best modern illustrated scientific works show perfect faculty
+of representing monkeys, lizards, and insects; absolute incapability of
+representing either a man, a horse, or a lion.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE IV.
+
+LIKENESS.
+
+_November, 1870._
+
+
+109. You were probably vexed, and tired, towards the close of my last
+Lecture, by the time it took us to arrive at the apparently simple
+conclusion that sculpture must only represent organic form, and the
+strength of life in its contest with matter. But it is no small thing to
+have that "[Greek: leusso Pallada]" fixed in your minds, as the one
+necessary sign by which you are to recognize right sculpture; and,
+believe me, you will find it the best of all things, if you can take for
+yourselves the saying from the lips of the Athenian maids, in its
+entirety, and say also--[Greek: leusso Pallad' eman theon]. I proceed
+to-day into the practical appliance of this apparently speculative, but
+in reality imperative, law.
+
+110. You observe, I have hitherto spoken of the power of Athena, as over
+painting no less than sculpture. But her rule over both arts is only so
+far as they are zoographic;--representative, that is to say, of animal
+life, or of such order and discipline among other elements, as may
+invigorate and purify it. Now there is a speciality of the art of
+painting beyond this, namely, the representation of phenomena of color
+and shadow, as such, without question of the nature of the things that
+receive them. I am now accordingly obliged to speak of sculpture and
+painting as distinct arts: but the laws which bind sculpture, bind no
+less the painting of the higher schools, which has, for its main
+purpose, the showing beauty in human or animal form; and which is
+therefore placed by the Greeks equally under the rule of Athena, as the
+Spirit, first, of Life, and then of Wisdom in conduct.
+
+111. First, I say, you are to 'see Pallas' in all such work, as the
+Queen of Life; and the practical law which follows from this, is one of
+enormous range and importance, namely, that nothing must be represented
+by sculpture, external to any living form, which does not help to
+enforce or illustrate the conception of life. Both dress and armor may
+be made to do this, by great sculptors, and are continually so used by
+the greatest. One of the essential distinctions between the Athenian and
+Florentine schools is dependent on their treatment of drapery in this
+respect; an Athenian always sets it to exhibit the action of the body,
+by flowing with it, or over it, or from it, so as to illustrate both its
+form and gesture; a Florentine, on the contrary, always uses his drapery
+to conceal or disguise the forms of the body, and exhibit mental
+emotion; but both use it to enhance the life, either of the body or
+soul; Donatello and Michael Angelo, no less than the sculptors of Gothic
+chivalry, ennoble armor in the same way; but base sculptors carve
+drapery and armor for the sake of their folds and picturesqueness only,
+and forget the body beneath. The rule is so stern, that all delight in
+mere incidental beauty, which painting often triumphs in, is wholly
+forbidden to sculpture;--for instance, in _painting_ the branch of a
+tree, you may rightly represent and enjoy the lichens and moss on it,
+but a sculptor must not touch one of them: they are inessential to the
+tree's life,--he must give the flow and bending of the branch only, else
+he does not enough 'see Pallas' in it.
+
+Or, to take a higher instance, here is an exquisite little painted poem,
+by Edward Frere; a cottage interior, one of the thousands which within
+the last two months[25] have been laid desolate in unhappy France. Every
+accessory in the painting is of value--the fireside, the tiled floor,
+the vegetables lying upon it, and the basket hanging from the roof. But
+not one of these accessories would have been admissible in sculpture.
+You must carve nothing but what has life. "Why?" you probably feel
+instantly inclined to ask me.--You see the principle we have got,
+instead of being blunt or useless, is such an edged tool that you are
+startled the moment I apply it. "Must we refuse every pleasant accessory
+and picturesque detail, and petrify nothing but living creatures?" Even
+so: I would not assert it on my own authority. It is the Greeks who say
+it, but whatever they say of sculpture, be assured, is true.
+
+112. That then is the first law--you must see Pallas as the Lady of
+Life; the second is, you must see her as the Lady of Wisdom; or [Greek:
+sophia]--and this is the chief matter of all. I cannot but think that,
+after the considerations into which we have now entered, you will find
+more interest than hitherto in comparing the statements of Aristotle, in
+the Ethics, with those of Plato in the Polity, which are authoritative
+as Greek definitions of goodness in art, and which you may safely hold
+authoritative as constant definitions of it. You remember, doubtless,
+that the [Greek: sophia], or [Greek: arete pechnes], for the sake of
+which Phidias is called [Greek: sophos] as a sculpture, and Polyclitus
+as an image-maker, Eth. 6. 7. (the opposition is both between ideal and
+portrait sculpture, and between working in stone and bronze), consists
+in the "[Greek: nous ton timiotaton t e physei]," "the mental
+apprehension of the things that are most honorable in their nature."
+Therefore, what is indeed most lovely, the true image-maker will most
+love; and what is most hateful, he will most hate; and in all things
+discern the best and strongest part of them, and represent that
+essentially, or, if the opposite of that, then with manifest detestation
+and horror. That is his art wisdom; the knowledge of good and evil, and
+the love of good, so that you may discern, even in his representation of
+the vilest thing, his acknowledgment of what redemption is possible for
+it, or latent power exists in it; and, contrariwise, his sense of its
+present misery. But, for the most part, he will idolize, and force us
+also to idolize, whatever is living, and virtuous, and victoriously
+right; opposing to it in some definite mode the image of the conquered
+[Greek: herpeton].
+
+113. This is generally true of both the great arts; but in severity and
+precision, true of sculpture. To return to our illustration: this poor
+little girl was more interesting to Edward Frere, he being a painter,
+because she was poorly dressed, and wore these clumsy shoes, and old red
+cap, and patched gown. May we sculpture her so? No. We may sculpture her
+naked, if we like; but not in rags.
+
+But if we may not put her into marble in rags, may we give her a pretty
+frock with ribbons and flounces to it, and put her into marble in that?
+No. We may put her simplest peasant's dress, so it be perfect and
+orderly, into marble; anything finer than that would be more
+dishonorable in the eyes of Athena than rags. If she were a French
+princess, you might carve her embroidered robe and diadem; if she were
+Joan of Arc, you might carve her armor--for then these also would be
+"[Greek: ton timiotaton]," not otherwise.
+
+114. Is not this an edge-tool we have got hold of, unawares? and a
+subtle one too; so delicate and cimeter-like in decision. For note that
+even Joan of Arc's armor must be only sculptured, _if she has it on_; it
+is not the honorableness or beauty of it that are enough, but the direct
+bearing of it by her body. You might be deeply, even pathetically,
+interested by looking at a good knight's dinted coat of mail, left in
+his desolate hall. May you sculpture it where it hangs? No; the helmet
+for his pillow, if you will--no more.
+
+You see we did not do our dull work for nothing in last Lecture. I
+define what we have gained once more, and then we will enter on our new
+ground.
+
+115. The proper subject of sculpture, we have determined, is the
+spiritual power seen in the form of any living thing, and so represented
+as to give evidence that the sculptor has loved the good of it and hated
+the evil.
+
+"_So_ represented," we say; but how is that to be done? Why should it
+not be represented, if possible, just as it is seen? What mode or limit
+of representation may we adopt? We are to carve things that have
+life;--shall we try so to imitate them that they may indeed seem
+living,--or only half living, and like stone instead of flesh?
+
+It will simplify this question if I show you three examples of what the
+Greeks actually did: three typical pieces of their sculpture, in order
+of perfection.
+
+116. And now, observe that in all our historical work, I will endeavor
+to do, myself, what I have asked you to do in your drawing exercises;
+namely, to outline firmly in the beginning, and then fill in the detail
+more minutely. I will give you first, therefore, in a symmetrical form,
+absolutely simple and easily remembered, the large chronology of the
+Greek school; within that unforgettable scheme we will place, as we
+discover them, the minor relations of arts and times.
+
+I number the nine centuries before Christ thus, upwards, and divide them
+into three groups of three each.
+
+                   {9
+    A. ARCHAIC.    {8
+                   {7
+                  ----
+
+                   {6
+    B. BEST.       {5
+                   {4
+                  ----
+
+                   {3
+    C. CORRUPT.    {2
+                   {1
+
+Then the ninth, eighth, and seventh centuries are the period of archaic
+Greek art, steadily progressive wherever it existed.
+
+The sixth, fifth, and fourth are the period of Central Greek art; the
+fifth, or central, century producing the finest. That is easily
+recollected by the battle of Marathon. And the third, second, and first
+centuries are the period of steady decline.
+
+Learn this A B C thoroughly, and mark, for yourselves, what you, at
+present, think the vital events in each century. As you know more, you
+will think other events the vital ones; but the best historical
+knowledge only approximates to true thought in that matter; only be
+sure that what is truly vital in the character which governs events, is
+always expressed by the art of the century; so that if you could
+interpret that art rightly, the better part of your task in reading
+history would be done to your hand.
+
+117. It is generally impossible to date with precision art of the
+archaic period--often difficult to date even that of the central three
+hundred years. I will not weary you with futile minor divisions of time;
+here are three coins (Plate VII.) roughly, but decisively,
+characteristic of the three ages. The first is an early coin of
+Tarentum. The city was founded, as you know, by the Spartan Phalanthus,
+late in the eighth century. I believe the head is meant for that of
+Apollo Archegetes; it may however be Taras, the son of Poseidon; it is
+no matter to us at present whom it is meant for, but the fact that we
+cannot know, is itself of the greatest import. We cannot say, with any
+certainty, unless by discovery of some collateral evidence, whether this
+head is intended for that of a god, or demigod, or a mortal warrior.
+Ought not that to disturb some of your thoughts respecting Greek
+idealism? Farther, if by investigation we discover that the head is
+meant for that of Phalanthus, we shall know nothing of the character of
+Phalanthus from the face; for there is no portraiture at this early
+time.
+
+118. The second coin is of AEnus in Macedonia; probably of the fifth or
+early fourth century, and entirely characteristic of the central period.
+This we know to represent the face of a god--Hermes. The third coin is a
+king's, not a city's. I will not tell you, at this moment, what king's;
+but only that it is a late coin of the third period, and that it is as
+distinct in purpose as the coin of Tarentum is obscure. We know of this
+coin, that it represents no god nor demigod, but a mere mortal; and we
+know precisely, from the portrait, what that mortal's face was like.
+
+[Illustration: VII.
+
+ARCHAIC, CENTRAL AND DECLINING ART OF GREECE.]
+
+119. A glance at the three coins, as they are set side by side, will now
+show you the main differences in the three great Greek styles. The
+archaic coin is sharp and hard; every line decisive and numbered, set
+unhesitatingly in its place; nothing is wrong, though everything
+incomplete, and, to us who have seen finer art, ugly. The central coin
+is as decisive and clear in arrangement of masses, but its contours are
+completely rounded and finished. There is no character in its execution
+so prominent that you can give an epithet to the style. It is not hard,
+it is not soft, it is not delicate, it is not coarse, it is not
+grotesque, it is not beautiful; and I am convinced, unless you had been
+told that this is fine central Greek art, you would have seen nothing at
+all in it to interest you. Do not let yourselves be anywise forced into
+admiring it; there is, indeed, nothing more here than an approximately
+true rendering of a healthy youthful face, without the slightest attempt
+to give an expression of activity, cunning, nobility, or any other
+attribute of the Mercurial mind. Extreme simplicity, unpretending vigor
+of work, which claims no admiration either for minuteness or dexterity,
+and suggests no idea of effort at all; refusal of extraneous ornament,
+and perfectly arranged disposition of counted masses in a sequent order,
+whether in the beads, or the ringlets of hair; this is all you have to
+be pleased with; neither will you ever find, in the best Greek Art,
+more. You might at first suppose that the chain of beads round the cap
+was an extraneous ornament; but I have little doubt that it is as
+definitely the proper fillet for the head of Hermes, as the olive for
+Zeus, or corn for Triptolemus. The cap or petasus cannot have expanded
+edges; there is no room for them on the coin; these must be understood,
+therefore; but the nature of the cloud-petasus is explained by edging it
+with beads, representing either dew or hail. The shield of Athena often
+bears white pellets for hail, in like manner.
+
+120. The third coin will, I think, at once strike you by what we moderns
+should call its 'vigor of character.' You may observe also that the
+features are finished with great care and subtlety, but at the cost of
+simplicity and breadth. But the _essential_ difference between it and
+the central art, is its disorder in design--you see the locks of hair
+cannot be counted any longer--they are entirely disheveled and
+irregular. Now the individual character may, or may not, be a sign of
+decline; but the licentiousness, the casting loose of the masses in the
+design, is an infallible one. The effort at portraiture is good for art
+if the men to be portrayed are good men, not otherwise. In the instance
+before you, the head is that of Mithridates VI. of Pontus, who had,
+indeed, the good qualities of being a linguist and a patron of the arts;
+but, as you will remember, murdered, according to report, his mother,
+certainly his brother, certainly his wives and sisters, I have not
+counted how many of his children, and from a hundred to a hundred and
+fifty thousand persons besides; these last in a single day's massacre.
+The effort to represent this kind of person is not by any means a method
+of study from life ultimately beneficial to art.
+
+121. This, however, is not the point I have to urge to-day. What I want
+you to observe is, that though the master of the great time does not
+attempt portraiture, he _does_ attempt animation. And as far as his
+means will admit, he succeeds in making the face--you might almost
+think--vulgarly animated; as like a real face, literally, 'as it can
+stare.' Yes: and its sculptor meant it to be so; and that was what
+Phidias meant his Jupiter to be, if he could manage it. Not, indeed, to
+be taken for Zeus himself; and yet, to be as like a living Zeus as art
+could make it. Perhaps you think he tried to make it look living only
+for the sake of the mob, and would not have tried to do so for
+connoisseurs. Pardon me; for real connoisseurs he would, and did; and
+herein consists a truth which belongs to all the arts, and which I will
+at once drive home in your minds, as firmly as I can.
+
+122. All second-rate artists--(and remember, the second-rate ones are a
+loquacious multitude, while the great come only one or two in a century;
+and then, silently)--all second-rate artists will tell you that the
+object of fine art is not resemblance, but some kind of abstraction more
+refined than reality. Put that out of your heads at once. The object of
+the great Resemblant Arts is, and always has been, to resemble; and to
+resemble as closely as possible. It is the function of a good portrait
+to set the man before you in habit as he lived, and I would we had a few
+more that did so. It is the function of a good landscape to set the
+scene before you in its reality; to make you, if it may be, think the
+clouds are flying, and the streams foaming. It is the function of the
+best sculptor--the true Daedalus--to make stillness look like breathing,
+and marble look like flesh.
+
+123. And in all great times of art, this purpose is as naively expressed
+as it is steadily held. All the talk about abstraction belongs to
+periods of decadence. In living times, people see something living that
+pleases them; and they try to make it live forever, or to make something
+as like it as possible, that will last forever. They paint their
+statues, and inlay the eyes with jewels, and set real crowns on the
+heads; they finish, in their pictures, every thread of embroidery, and
+would fain, if they could, draw every leaf upon the trees. And their
+only verbal expression of conscious success is that they have made their
+work 'look real.'
+
+124. You think all that very wrong. So did I, once; but it was I that
+was wrong. A long time ago, before ever I had seen Oxford, I painted a
+picture of the Lake of Como, for my father. It was not at all like the
+Lake of Como; but I thought it rather the better for that. My father
+differed with me; and objected particularly to a boat with a red and
+yellow awning, which I had put into the most conspicuous corner of my
+drawing. I declared this boat to be 'necessary to the composition.' My
+father not the less objected, that he had never seen such a boat, either
+at Como or elsewhere; and suggested that if I would make the lake look a
+little more like water, I should be under no necessity of explaining its
+nature by the presence of floating objects. I thought him at the time a
+very simple person for his pains; but have since learned, and it is the
+very gist of all practical matters, which, as Professor of Fine Art, I
+have now to tell you, that the great point in painting a lake is--to
+get it to look like water.
+
+125. So far, so good. We lay it down for a first principle that our
+graphic art, whether painting or sculpture, is to produce something
+which shall look as like Nature as possible. But now we must go one step
+farther, and say that it is to produce what shall look like Nature to
+people who know what Nature is like! You see this is at once a great
+restriction, as well as a great exaltation of our aim. Our business is
+not to deceive the simple; but to deceive the wise! Here, for instance,
+is a modern Italian print, representing, to the best of its power, St.
+Cecilia, in a brilliantly realistic manner. And the fault of the work is
+not in its earnest endeavor to show St. Cecilia in habit as she lived,
+but in that the effort could only be successful with persons unaware of
+the habit St. Cecilia lived in. And this condition of appeal only to the
+wise increases the difficulty of imitative resemblance so greatly, that,
+with only average skill or materials, we must surrender all hope of it,
+and be content with an imperfect representation, true as far as it
+reaches, and such as to excite the imagination of a wise beholder to
+complete it; though falling very far short of what either he or we
+should otherwise have desired. For instance, here is a suggestion, by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds, of the general appearance of a British
+Judge,--requiring the imagination of a very wise beholder indeed to fill
+it up, or even at first to discover what it is meant for. Nevertheless,
+it is better art than the Italian St. Cecilia, because the artist,
+however little he may have done to represent his knowledge, does,
+indeed, know altogether what a Judge is like, and appeals only to the
+criticism of those who know also.
+
+126. There must be, therefore, two degrees of truth to be looked for in
+the good graphic arts; one, the commonest, which, by any partial or
+imperfect sign, conveys to you an idea which you must complete for
+yourself; and the other, the finest, a representation so perfect as to
+leave you nothing to be farther accomplished by this independent
+exertion; but to give you the same feeling of possession and presence
+which you would experience from the natural object itself. For instance
+of the first, in this representation of a rainbow,[26] the artist has no
+hope that, by the black lines of engraving, he can deceive you into any
+belief of the rainbow's being there, but he gives indication enough of
+what he intends, to enable you to supply the rest of the idea yourself,
+providing always you know beforehand what a rainbow is like. But in this
+drawing of the falls of Terni,[27] the painter has strained his skill to
+the utmost to give an actually deceptive resemblance of the iris,
+dawning and fading among the foam. So far as he has not actually
+deceived you, it is not because he would not have done so if he could;
+but only because his colors and science have fallen short of his desire.
+They have fallen so little short, that, in a good light, you may all but
+believe the foam, and the sunshine are drifting and changing among the
+rocks.
+
+127. And after looking a little while, you will begin to regret that
+they are not so: you will feel that, lovely as the drawing is, you would
+like far better to see the real place, and the goats skipping among the
+rocks, and the spray floating above the fall. And this is the true sign
+of the greatest art--to part voluntarily with its greatness;--to make
+_itself_ poor and unnoticed; but so to exalt and set forth its theme,
+that you may be fain to see the theme instead of it. So that you have
+never enough admired a great workman's doing, till you have begun to
+despise it. The best homage that could be paid to the Athena of Phidias
+would be to desire rather to see the living goddess; and the loveliest
+Madonnas of Christian art fall short of their due power, if they do not
+make their beholders sick at heart to see the living Virgin.
+
+128. We have then, for our requirement of the finest art, (sculpture, or
+anything else,) that it shall be so like the thing it represents as to
+please those who best know or can conceive the original; and, if
+possible, please them deceptively--its final triumph being to deceive
+even the wise; and (the Greeks thought) to please even the Immortals,
+who were so wise as to be undeceivable. So that you get the Greek, thus
+far entirely true, idea of perfectness in sculpture, expressed to you by
+what Phalaris says, at first sight of the bull of Perilaus, "It only
+wanted motion and bellowing to seem alive; and as soon as I saw it, I
+cried out, it ought to be sent to the god,"--to Apollo, for only he, the
+undeceivable, could thoroughly understand such sculpture, and perfectly
+delight in it.
+
+129. And with this expression of the Greek ideal of sculpture, I wish
+you to join the early Italian, summed in a single line by Dante--"non
+vide me' di me, chi vide 'l vero." Read the twelfth canto of the
+Purgatory, and learn that whole passage by heart; and if ever you chance
+to go to Pistoja, look at La Robbia's colored porcelain bas-reliefs of
+the seven works of Mercy on the front of the hospital there; and note
+especially the faces of the two sick men--one at the point of death, and
+the other in the first peace and long-drawn breathing of health after
+fever--and you will know what Dante meant by the preceding line, "Morti
+li morti, e i vivi paren vivi."
+
+130. But now, may we not ask farther,--is it impossible for art such as
+this, prepared for the wise, to please the simple also? Without entering
+on the awkward questions of degree, how many the wise can be, or how
+much men should know, in order to be rightly called wise, may we not
+conceive an art to be possible, which would deceive _everybody_, or
+everybody worth deceiving? I showed you at my First Lecture, a little
+ringlet of Japan ivory, as a type of elementary bas-relief touched with
+color; and in your rudimentary series you have a drawing, by Mr.
+Burgess, of one of the little fishes enlarged, with every touch of the
+chisel facsimiled on the more visible scale; and showing the little
+black bead inlaid for the eye, which in the original is hardly to be
+seen without a lens. You may, perhaps, be surprised when I tell you that
+(putting the question of _subject_ aside for the moment, and speaking
+only of the mode of execution and aim at resemblance,) you have there a
+perfect example of the Greek ideal of method in sculpture. And you will
+admit that, to the simplest person whom we could introduce as a critic,
+that fish would be a satisfactory, nay, almost a deceptive, fish; while,
+to any one caring for subtleties of art, I need not point out that every
+touch of the chisel is applied with consummate knowledge, and that it
+would be impossible to convey more truth and life with the given
+quantity of workmanship.
+
+131. Here is, indeed, a drawing by Turner, (Edu. 131), in which, with
+some fifty times the quantity of labor, and far more highly educated
+faculty of sight, the artist has expressed some qualities of luster and
+color which only very wise persons indeed could perceive in a John Dory;
+and this piece of paper contains, therefore, much more, and more subtle,
+art, than the Japan ivory; but are we sure that it is therefore
+_greater_ art? or that the painter was better employed in producing this
+drawing, which only one person can possess, and only one in a hundred
+enjoy, than he would have been in producing two or three pieces on a
+larger scale, which should have been at once accessible to, and
+enjoyable by, a number of simpler persons? Suppose, for instance, that
+Turner, instead of faintly touching this outline, on white paper, with
+his camel's-hair pencil, had struck the main forms of his fish into
+marble, thus, (Fig. 7); and instead of coloring the white paper so
+delicately that, perhaps, only a few of the most keenly observant
+artists in England can see it at all, had, with his strong hand, tinted
+the marble with a few colors, deceptive to the people, and harmonious to
+the initiated; suppose that he had even conceded so much to the spirit
+of popular applause as to allow of a bright glass bead being inlaid for
+the eye, in the Japanese manner; and that the enlarged, deceptive, and
+popularly pleasing work had been carved on the outside of a great
+building,--say Fishmongers' Hall,--where everybody commercially
+connected with Billingsgate could have seen it, and ratified it with a
+wisdom of the market;--might not the art have been greater, worthier,
+and kinder in such use?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+132. Perhaps the idea does not at once approve itself to you of having
+your public buildings covered with ornaments; but, pray remember that
+the choice of _subject_ is an ethical question, not now before us. All I
+ask you to decide is whether the method is right, and would be pleasant,
+in giving the distinctiveness to pretty things, which it has here given
+to what, I suppose it may be assumed, you feel to be an ugly thing. Of
+course, I must note parenthetically, such realistic work is impossible
+in a country where the buildings are to be discolored by coal-smoke; but
+so is all fine sculpture whatsoever; and the whiter, the worse its
+chance. For that which is prepared for private persons, to be kept under
+cover, will, of necessity, degenerate into the copyism of past work, or
+merely sensational and sensual forms of present life, unless there be a
+governing school addressing the populace, for their instruction, on the
+outside of buildings. So that, as I partly warned you in my Third
+Lecture, you can simply have _no_ sculpture in a coal country. Whether
+you like coals or carvings best, is no business of mine. I merely have
+to assure you of the fact that they are incompatible.
+
+But, assuming that we are again, some day, to become a civilized and
+governing race, deputing ironmongery, coal-digging, and lucre-digging,
+to our slaves in other countries, it is quite conceivable that, with an
+increasing knowledge of natural history, and desire for such knowledge,
+what is now done by careful, but inefficient, wood-cuts, and in
+ill-colored engravings, might be put in quite permanent sculptures, with
+inlay of variegated precious stones, on the outside of buildings, where
+such pictures would be little costly to the people; and in a more
+popular manner still, by Robbia ware and Palissy ware, and inlaid
+majolica, which would differ from the housewife's present favorite
+decoration of plates above her kitchen dresser, by being every piece of
+it various, instructive, and universally visible.
+
+133. You hardly know, I suppose, whether I am speaking in jest or
+earnest. In the most solemn earnest, I assure you; though such is the
+strange course of our popular life that all the irrational arts of
+destruction are at once felt to be earnest; while any plan for those of
+instruction on a grand scale, sounds like a dream, or jest. Still, I do
+not absolutely propose to decorate our public buildings with sculpture
+wholly of this character; though beast, and fowl, and creeping things,
+and fishes, might all find room on such a building as the Solomon's
+House of a New Atlantis; and some of them might even become symbolic of
+much to us again. Passing through the Strand, only the other day, for
+instance, I saw four highly finished and delicately colored pictures of
+cock-fighting, which, for imitative quality, were nearly all that could
+be desired, going far beyond the Greek cock of Himera; and they would
+have delighted a Greek's soul, if they had meant as much as a Greek
+cock-fight; but they were only types of the "[Greek: endomachas
+alektor]," and of the spirit of home contest, which has been so fatal
+lately to the Bird of France; and not of the defense of one's own
+barnyard, in thought of which the Olympians set the cock on the pillars
+of their chariot course; and gave it goodly alliance in its battle, as
+you may see here, in what is left of the angle of moldering marble in
+the chair of the priest of Dionusos. The cast of it, from the center of
+the theater under the Acropolis, is in the British Museum; and I wanted
+its spiral for you, and this kneeling Angel of Victory;--it is late
+Greek art, but nobly systematic flat bas-relief. So I set Mr. Burgess to
+draw it; but neither he nor I, for a little while, could make out what
+the Angel of Victory was kneeling for. His attitude is an ancient and
+grandly conventional one among the Egyptians; and I was tracing it back
+to a kneeling goddess of the greatest dynasty of the Pharaohs--a goddess
+of Evening, or Death, laying down the sun out of her right hand;--when,
+one bright day, the shadows came out clear on the Athenian throne, and I
+saw that my Angel of Victory was only backing a cock at a cock-fight.
+
+134. Still, as I have said, there is no reason why sculpture, even for
+simplest persons, should confine itself to imagery of fish, or fowl, or
+four-footed things.
+
+We go back to our first principle: we ought to carve nothing but what is
+honorable. And you are offended, at this moment, with my fish, (as I
+believe, when the first sculptures appeared on the windows of this
+museum, offense was taken at the unnecessary introduction of cats,)
+these dissatisfactions being properly felt by your "[Greek: nous ton
+timiotaton]." For indeed, in all cases, our right judgment must depend
+on our wish to give honor only to things and creatures that deserve it.
+
+135. And now I must state to you another principle of veracity, both in
+sculpture, and all following arts, of wider scope than any hitherto
+examined. We have seen that sculpture is to be a true representation of
+true internal form. Much more is it to be a representation of true
+internal emotion. You must carve only what you yourself see as you see
+it; but, much more, you must carve only what you yourself feel, as you
+feel it. You may no more endeavor to feel through other men's souls,
+than to see with other men's eyes. Whereas generally now, in Europe and
+America, every man's energy is bent upon acquiring some false emotion,
+not his own, but belonging to the past, or to other persons, because he
+has been taught that such and such a result of it will be fine. Every
+attempted sentiment in relation to art is hypocritical; our notions of
+sublimity, of grace, or pious serenity, are all secondhand: and we are
+practically incapable of designing so much as a bell-handle or a
+door-knocker, without borrowing the first notion of it from those who
+are gone--where we shall not wake them with our knocking. I would we
+could.
+
+136. In the midst of this desolation we have nothing to count on for
+real growth but what we can find of honest liking and longing, in
+ourselves and in others. We must discover, if we would healthily
+advance, what things are verily [Greek: timiotata] among us; and if we
+delight to honor the dishonorable, consider how, in future, we may
+better bestow our likings. Now it appears to me, from all our popular
+declarations, that we, at present, honor nothing so much as liberty and
+independence; and no person so much as the Free man and Self-made man,
+who will be ruled by no one, and has been taught, or helped, by no one.
+And the reason I chose a fish for you as the first subject of sculpture,
+was that in men who are free and self-made, you have the nearest
+approach, humanly possible, to the state of the fish, and finely
+organized [Greek: herpeton]. You get the exact phrase in Habakkuk, if
+you take the Septuagint text,--"[Greek: poieseis tous anthropous hos
+tous ichthyas tes thalasses, kai hos ta herpeta ta ouk echonta
+hegoumenon]." "Thou wilt make men as the fishes of the sea, and as the
+reptile things, _that have no ruler over them_." And it chanced that as
+I was preparing this Lecture, one of our most able and popular prints
+gave me a wood-cut of the 'self-made man,' specified as such, so
+vigorously drawn, and with so few touches, that Phidias or Turner
+himself could scarcely have done it better; so that I had only to ask my
+assistant to enlarge it with accuracy, and it became comparable with my
+fish at once. Of course it is not given by the caricaturist as an
+admirable face; only, I am enabled by his skill to set before you,
+without any suspicion of unfairness on _my_ part, the expression to
+which the life we profess to think most honorable, naturally leads. If
+we were to take the hat off, you see how nearly the profile corresponds
+with that of the typical fish.
+
+137. Such, then, being the definition, by your best popular art, of the
+ideal of feature at which we are gradually arriving by self-manufacture:
+when I place opposite to it (in Plate VIII.) the profile of a man not in
+anywise self-made, neither by the law of his own will, nor by the love
+of his own interest--nor capable, for a moment, of any kind of
+'Independence,' or of the idea of independence; but wholly dependent
+upon, and subjected to, external influence of just law, wise teaching,
+and trusted love and truth, in his fellow-spirits;--setting before you,
+I say, this profile of a God-made, instead of a self-made, man, I know
+that you will feel, on the instant, that you are brought into contact
+with the vital elements of human art; and that this, the sculpture of
+the good, is indeed the only permissible sculpture.
+
+138. A God-made _man_, I say. The face, indeed, stands as a symbol of
+more than man in its sculptor's mind. For as I gave you, to lead your
+first effort in the form of leaves, the scepter of Apollo, so this,
+which I give you as the first type of rightness in the form of flesh, is
+the countenance of the holder of that scepter, the Sun-God of Syracuse.
+But there is nothing in the face (nor did the Greek suppose there was)
+more perfect than might be seen in the daily beauty of the creatures the
+Sun-God shone upon, and whom his strength and honor animated. This is
+not an ideal, but a quite literally true, face of a Greek youth; nay, I
+will undertake to show you that it is not supremely beautiful, and even
+to surpass it altogether with the literal portrait of an Italian one. It
+is in verity no more than the form habitually taken by the features of a
+well-educated young Athenian or Sicilian citizen; and the one
+requirement for the sculptors of to-day is not, as it has been thought,
+to invent the same ideal, but merely to see the same reality.
+
+[Illustration: VIII.
+
+THE APOLLO OF SYRACUSE, AND THE SELF-MADE MAN.]
+
+[Illustration: IX.
+
+APOLLO CHRYSOCOMES OF CLAZOMENAE.]
+
+Now, you know I told you in my Fourth Lecture[28] that the beginning of
+art was in getting our country clean and our people beautiful, and you
+supposed that to be a statement irrelevant to my subject; just as, at
+this moment, you perhaps think I am quitting the great subject of this
+present Lecture--the method of likeness-making,--and letting myself
+branch into the discussion of what things we are to make likeness of.
+But you shall see hereafter that the method of imitating a beautiful
+thing must be different from the method of imitating an ugly one; and
+that, with the change in subject from what is dishonorable to what is
+honorable, there will be involved a parallel change in the management of
+tools, of lines, and of colors. So that before I can determine for you
+_how_ you are to imitate, you must tell me what kind of face you wish to
+imitate. The best draughtsman in the world could not draw this Apollo in
+ten scratches, though he can draw the self-made man. Still less this
+nobler Apollo of Ionian Greece (Plate IX.), in which the incisions are
+softened into a harmony like that of Correggio's painting. So that you
+see the method itself,--the choice between black incision or fine
+sculpture, and perhaps, presently, the choice between color or no color,
+will depend on what you have to represent. Color may be expedient for a
+glistening dolphin or a spotted fawn;--perhaps inexpedient for white
+Poseidon, and gleaming Dian. So that, before defining the laws of
+sculpture, I am compelled to ask you, _what you mean to carve_; and
+that, little as you think it, is asking you how you mean to live, and
+what the laws of your State are to be, for _they_ determine those of
+your statue. You can only have this kind of face to study from, in the
+sort of state that produced it. And you will find that sort of state
+described in the beginning of the fourth book of the laws of Plato; as
+founded, for one thing, on the conviction that of all the evils that can
+happen to a state, quantity of money is the greatest! [Greek: meizon
+kakon, hos epos eipein, polei ouden an gignoita, eis gennaion kai
+dikaion ethon ktesin], "for, to speak shortly, no greater evil, matching
+each against each, can possibly happen to a city, as adverse to its
+forming just or generous character," than its being full of silver and
+gold.
+
+139. Of course the Greek notion may be wrong, and ours right,
+only--[Greek: hos epos eipein]--you can have Greek sculpture only on
+that Greek theory: shortly expressed by the words put into the mouth of
+Poverty herself, in the Plutus of Aristophanes, "[Greek: Tou ploutou
+parecho beltionas andras, kai ten gnomen, kai ten idean]," "I deliver to
+you better men than the God of Money can, both in imagination and
+feature." So, on the other hand, this ichthyoid, reptilian, or
+monochondyloid ideal of the self-made man can only be reached,
+universally, by a nation which holds that poverty, either of purse or
+spirit,--but especially the spiritual character of being [Greek: ptochoi
+to pneumati],--is the lowest of degradations; and which believes that
+the desire of wealth is the first of manly and moral sentiments. As I
+have been able to get the popular ideal represented by its own living
+art, so I can give you this popular faith in its own living words; but
+in words meant seriously, and not at all as caricature, from one of our
+leading journals, professedly aesthetic also in its very name, the
+_Spectator_, of August 6, 1870.
+
+"Mr. Ruskin's plan," it says, "would make England poor, in order that
+she might be cultivated, and refined, and artistic. A wilder proposal
+was never broached by a man of ability; and it might be regarded as a
+proof that the assiduous study of art emasculates the intellect, _and
+even the moral sense_. Such a theory almost warrants the contempt with
+which art is often regarded by essentially intellectual natures, like
+Proudhon" (sic). "Art is noble as the flower of life, and the creations
+of a Titian are a great heritage of the race; but if England could
+secure high art and Venetian glory of color only by the sacrifice of her
+manufacturing supremacy, and _by the acceptance of national poverty_,
+then the pursuit of such artistic achievements would imply that we had
+ceased to possess natures of manly strength, _or to know the meaning of
+moral aims_. If we must choose between a Titian and a Lancashire cotton
+mill, then, in the name of manhood and of morality, give us the cotton
+mill. Only the dilettanteism of the studio; that dilettanteism which
+loosens the moral no less than the intellectual fiber, and which is as
+fatal to rectitude of action as to correctness of reasoning power, would
+make a different choice."
+
+You see also, by this interesting and most memorable passage, how
+completely the question is admitted to be one of ethics--the only real
+point at issue being, whether this face or that is developed on the
+truer moral principle.
+
+140. I assume, however, for the present, that this Apolline type is the
+kind of form you wish to reach and to represent. And now observe,
+instantly, the whole question of manner of imitation is altered for us.
+The fins of the fish, the plumes of the swan, and the flowing of the
+Sun-God's hair are all represented by incisions--but the incisions do
+sufficiently represent the fin and feather,--they _in_sufficiently
+represent the hair. If I chose, with a little more care and labor, I
+could absolutely get the surface of the scales and spines of the fish,
+and the expression of its mouth; but no quantity of labor would obtain
+the real surface of a tress of Apollo's hair, and the full expression of
+his mouth. So that we are compelled at once to call the imagination to
+help us, and say to it, _You_ know what the Apollo Chrysocomes must be
+like; finish all this for yourself. Now, the law under which imagination
+works, is just that of other good workers. "You must give me clear
+orders; show me what I have to do, and where I am to begin, and let me
+alone." And the orders can be given, quite clearly, up to a certain
+point, in form; but they cannot be given clearly in color, now that the
+subject is subtle. All beauty of this high kind depends on harmony; let
+but the slightest discord come into it, and the finer the thing is, the
+more fatal will be the flaw. Now, on a flat surface, I can command my
+color to be precisely what and where I mean it to be; on a round one I
+cannot. For all harmony depends, first, on the fixed proportion of the
+color of the light to that of the relative shadow; and therefore if I
+fasten my color, I must fasten my shade. But on a round surface the
+shadow changes at every hour of the day; and therefore all coloring
+which is expressive of form, is impossible; and if the form is fine,
+(and here there is nothing but what is fine,) you may bid farewell to
+color.
+
+141. Farewell to color; that is to say, if the thing is to be seen
+distinctly, and you have only wise people to show it to; but if it is to
+be seen indistinctly, at a distance, color may become explanatory; and
+if you have simple people to show it to, color may be necessary to
+excite _their_ imaginations, though not to excite yours. And the art is
+great always by meeting its conditions in the straightest way; and if it
+is to please a multitude of innocent and bluntly-minded persons, must
+express itself in the terms that will touch them; else it is not good.
+And I have to trace for you through the history of the past, and
+possibilities of the future, the expedients used by great sculptors to
+obtain clearness, impressiveness, or splendor; and the manner of their
+appeal to the people, under various light and shadow, and with reference
+to different degrees of public intelligence: such investigation
+resolving itself again and again, as we proceed, into questions
+absolutely ethical; as, for instance, whether color is to be bright or
+dull,--that is to say, for a populace cheerful or heartless;--whether it
+is to be delicate or strong,--that is to say, for a populace attentive
+or careless; whether it is to be a background like the sky, for a
+procession of young men and maidens, because your populace revere
+life--or the shadow of the vault behind a corpse stained with drops of
+blackened blood, for a populace taught to worship Death. Every critical
+determination of rightness depends on the obedience to some ethic law,
+by the most rational and, therefore, simplest means. And you see how it
+depends most, of all things, on whether you are working for chosen
+persons, or for the mob; for the joy of the boudoir, or of the Borgo.
+And if for the mob, whether the mob of Olympia, or of St. Antoine.
+Phidias, showing his Jupiter for the first time, hides behind the temple
+door to listen, resolved afterwards "[Greek: rhythmizein to agalma pros
+to tois pleistois dokoun, ou gar hegeito mikran einai symboulen demou
+tosoutou]," and truly, as your people is, in judgment, and in multitude,
+so must your sculpture be, in glory. An elementary principle which has
+been too long out of mind.
+
+142. I leave you to consider it, since, for some time, we shall not
+again be able to take up the inquiries to which it leads. But,
+ultimately, I do not doubt that you will rest satisfied in these
+following conclusions:
+
+1. Not only sculpture, but all the other fine arts, must be for the
+people.
+
+2. They must be didactic to the people, and that as their chief end. The
+structural arts, didactic in their manner; the graphic arts, in their
+matter also.
+
+3. And chiefly the great representative and imaginative arts--that is to
+say, the drama and sculpture--are to teach what is noble in past
+history, and lovely in existing human and organic life.
+
+4. And the test of right manner of execution in these arts, is that they
+strike, in the most emphatic manner, the rank of popular minds to which
+they are addressed.
+
+5. And the test of utmost fineness in execution in these arts, is that
+they make themselves be forgotten in what they represent; and so fulfill
+the words of their greatest Master,
+
+     "THE BEST, IN THIS KIND, ARE BUT SHADOWS."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] See date of delivery of Lecture. The picture was of a peasant girl
+of eleven or twelve years old, peeling carrots by a cottage fire.
+
+[26] In Duerer's 'Melancholia.'
+
+[27] Turner's, in the Hakewill series.
+
+[28] "Lectures on Art," Sec. 116.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE V.
+
+STRUCTURE.
+
+_December, 1870._
+
+
+143. On previous occasions of addressing you, I have endeavored to show
+you, first, how sculpture is distinguished from other arts; then its
+proper subjects; then its proper method in the realization of these
+subjects. To-day, we must, in the fourth place, consider the means at
+its command for the accomplishment of these ends; the nature of its
+materials; and the mechanical or other difficulties of their treatment.
+
+And however doubtful we may have remained as to the justice of Greek
+ideals, or propriety of Greek methods of representing them, we may be
+certain that the example of the Greeks will be instructive in all
+practical matters relating to this great art, peculiarly their own. I
+think even the evidence I have already laid before you is enough to
+convince you that it was by rightness and reality, not by idealism or
+delightfulness only, that their minds were finally guided; and I am sure
+that, before closing the present course, I shall be able so far to
+complete that evidence, as to prove to you that the commonly received
+notions of classic art are, not only unfounded, but even, in many
+respects, directly contrary to the truth. You are constantly told that
+Greece idealized whatever she contemplated. She did the exact contrary:
+she realized and verified it. You are constantly told she sought only
+the beautiful. She sought, indeed, with all her heart; but she found,
+because she never doubted that the search was to be consistent with
+propriety and common sense. And the first thing you will always discern
+in Greek work is the first which you _ought_ to discern in all work;
+namely, that the object of it has been rational, and has been obtained
+by simple and unostentatious means.
+
+144. "That the object of the work has been rational"! Consider how much
+that implies. That it should be by all means seen to have been
+determined upon, and carried through, with sense and discretion; these
+being gifts of intellect far more precious than any knowledge of
+mathematics, or of the mechanical resources of art. Therefore, also,
+that it should be a modest and temperate work, a structure fitted to the
+actual state of men; proportioned to their actual size, as animals,--to
+their average strength,--to their true necessities,--and to the degree
+of easy command they have over the forces and substances of nature.
+
+145. You see how much this law excludes! All that is fondly magnificent,
+insolently ambitious, or vainly difficult. There is, indeed, such a
+thing as Magnanimity in design, but never unless it be joined also with
+modesty, and _Equ_animity. Nothing extravagant, monstrous, strained, or
+singular, can be structurally beautiful. No towers of Babel envious of
+the skies; no pyramids in mimicry of the mountains of the earth; no
+streets that are a weariness to traverse, nor temples that make pigmies
+of the worshipers.
+
+It is one of the primal merits and decencies of Greek work, that it was,
+on the whole, singularly small in scale, and wholly within reach of
+sight, to its finest details. And, indeed, the best buildings that I
+know are thus modest; and some of the best are minute jewel cases for
+sweet sculpture. The Parthenon would hardly attract notice, if it were
+set by the Charing Cross Railway Station: the Church of the Miracoli, at
+Venice, the Chapel of the Rose, at Lucca, and the Chapel of the Thorn,
+at Pisa, would not, I suppose, all three together, fill the tenth part,
+cube, of a transept of the Crystal Palace. And they are better so.
+
+146. In the chapter on Power in the 'Seven Lamps of Architecture,' I
+have stated what seems, at first, the reverse of what I am saying now;
+namely, that it is better to have one grand building than any number of
+mean ones. And that is true: but you cannot command grandeur by size
+till you can command grace in minuteness; and least of all, remember,
+will you so command it to-day, when magnitude has become the chief
+exponent of folly and misery, coordinate in the fraternal enormities of
+the Factory and Poorhouse,--the Barracks and Hospital. And the final law
+in this matter is that, if you require edifices only for the grace and
+health of mankind, and build them without pretense and without
+chicanery, they will be sublime on a modest scale, and lovely with
+little decoration.
+
+147. From these principles of simplicity and temperance, two very
+severely fixed laws of construction follow; namely, first, that our
+structure, to be beautiful, must be produced with tools of men; and,
+secondly, that it must be composed of natural substances. First, I say,
+produced with tools of men. All fine art requires the application of the
+whole strength and subtlety of the body, so that such art is not
+possible to any sickly person, but involves the action and force of a
+strong man's arm from the shoulder, as well as the delicatest touch of
+his fingers: and it is the evidence that this full and fine strength has
+been spent on it which makes the art executively noble; so that no
+instrument must be used, habitually, which is either too heavy to be
+delicately restrained, or too small and weak to transmit a vigorous
+impulse; much less any mechanical aid, such as would render the
+sensibility of the fingers ineffectual.[29]
+
+148. Of course, any kind of work in glass, or in metal, on a large
+scale, involves some painful endurance of heat; and working in clay,
+some habitual endurance of cold; but the point beyond which the effort
+must not be carried is marked by loss of power of manipulation. As long
+as the eyes and fingers have complete command of the material, (as a
+glass-blower has, for instance, in doing fine ornamental work,)--the law
+is not violated; but all our great engine and furnace work, in
+gun-making and the like, is degrading to the intellect; and no nation
+can long persist in it without losing many of its human faculties. Nay,
+even the use of machinery other than the common rope and pulley, for the
+lifting of weights, is degrading to architecture; the invention of
+expedients for the raising of enormous stones has always been a
+characteristic of partly savage or corrupted races. A block of marble
+not larger than a cart with a couple of oxen could carry, and a
+cross-beam, with a couple of pulleys, raise, is as large as should
+generally be used in any building. The employment of large masses is
+sure to lead to vulgar exhibitions of geometrical arrangement,[30] and
+to draw away the attention from the sculpture. In general, rocks
+naturally break into such pieces as the human beings that have to build
+with them can easily lift; and no larger should be sought for.
+
+149. In this respect, and in many other subtle ways, the law that the
+work is to be with tools of men is connected with the farther condition
+of its modesty, that it is to be wrought in substance provided by
+Nature, and to have a faithful respect to all the essential qualities of
+such substance.
+
+And here I must ask your attention to the idea, and, more than
+idea,--the fact, involved in that infinitely misused term,
+'Providentia,' when applied to the Divine power. In its truest sense and
+scholarly use, it is a human virtue, [Greek: Prometheia]; the personal
+type of it is in Prometheus, and all the first power of [Greek: techne],
+is from him, as compared to the weakness of days when men without
+foresight "[Greek: ephyron eike panta]." But, so far as we use the word
+'Providence' as an attribute of the Maker and Giver of all things, it
+does not mean that in a shipwreck He takes care of the passengers who
+are to be saved, and takes none of those who are to be drowned; but it
+_does_ mean that every race of creatures is born into the world under
+circumstances of approximate adaptation to its necessities; and, beyond
+all others, the ingenious and observant race of man is surrounded with
+elements naturally good for his food, pleasant to his sight, and
+suitable for the subjects of his ingenuity;--the stone, metal, and clay
+of the earth he walks upon lending themselves at once to his hand, for
+all manner of workmanship.
+
+150. Thus, his truest respect for the law of the entire creation is
+shown by his making the most of what he can get most easily; and there
+is no virtue of art, nor application of common sense, more sacredly
+necessary than this respect to the beauty of natural substance, and the
+ease of local use; neither are there any other precepts of construction
+so vital as these--that you show all the strength of your material,
+tempt none of its weaknesses, and do with it only what can be simply and
+permanently done.
+
+151. Thus, all good building will be with rocks, or pebbles, or burnt
+clay, but with no artificial compound; all good painting with common
+oils and pigments on common canvas, paper, plaster, or wood,--admitting
+sometimes, for precious work, precious things, but all applied in a
+simple and visible way. The highest imitative art should not, indeed, at
+first sight, call attention to the means of it; but even that, at
+length, should do so distinctly, and provoke the observer to take
+pleasure in seeing how completely the workman is master of the
+particular material he has used, and how beautiful and desirable a
+substance it was, for work of that kind. In oil painting, its unctuous
+quality is to be delighted in; in fresco, its chalky quality; in glass,
+its transparency; in wood, its grain; in marble, its softness; in
+porphyry, its hardness; in iron, its toughness. In a flint country, one
+should feel the delightfulness of having flints to pick up, and fasten
+together into rugged walls. In a marble country, one should be always
+more and more astonished at the exquisite color and structure of
+marble; in a slate country, one should feel as if every rock cleft
+itself only for the sake of being built with conveniently.
+
+152. Now, for sculpture, there are, briefly, two materials--Clay, and
+Stone; for glass is only a clay that gets clear and brittle as it cools,
+and metal a clay that gets opaque and tough as it cools. Indeed, the
+true use of gold in this world is only as a very pretty and very ductile
+clay, which you can spread as flat as you like, spin as fine as you
+like, and which will neither crack nor tarnish.
+
+All the arts of sculpture in clay may be summed up under the word
+'Plastic,' and all of those in stone, under the word 'Glyptic.'
+
+153. Sculpture in clay will accordingly include all cast brickwork,
+pottery, and tile-work[31]--a somewhat important branch of human skill.
+Next to the potter's work, you have all the arts in porcelain, glass,
+enamel, and metal,--everything, that is to say, playful and familiar in
+design, much of what is most felicitously inventive, and, in bronze or
+gold, most precious and permanent.
+
+154. Sculpture in stone, whether granite, gem, or marble, while we
+accurately use the general term 'glyptic' for it, may be thought of
+with, perhaps, the most clear force under the English word 'engraving.'
+For, from the mere angular incision which the Greek consecrated in the
+triglyphs of his greatest order of architecture, grow forth all the arts
+of bas-relief, and methods of localized groups of sculpture connected
+with each other and with architecture: as, in another direction, the
+arts of engraving and wood-cutting themselves.
+
+155. Over all this vast field of human skill the laws which I have
+enunciated to you rule with inevitable authority, embracing the
+greatest, and consenting to the humblest, exertion; strong to repress
+the ambition of nations, if fantastic and vain, but gentle to approve
+the efforts of children, made in accordance with the visible intention
+of the Maker of all flesh, and the Giver of all Intelligence. These
+laws, therefore, I now repeat, and beg of you to observe them as
+irrefragable.
+
+1. That the work is to be with tools of men.
+
+2. That it is to be in natural materials.
+
+3. That it is to exhibit the virtues of those materials, and aim at no
+quality inconsistent with them.
+
+4. That its temper is to be quiet and gentle, in harmony with common
+needs, and in consent to common intelligence.
+
+We will now observe the bearing of these laws on the elementary
+conditions of the art at present under discussion.
+
+156. There is, first, work in baked clay, which contracts, as it dries,
+and is very easily frangible. Then you must put no work into it
+requiring niceness in dimension, nor any so elaborate that it would be a
+great loss if it were broken; but as the clay yields at once to the
+hand, and the sculptor can do anything with it he likes, it is a
+material for him to sketch with and play with,--to record his fancies
+in, before they escape him,--and to express roughly, for people who can
+enjoy such sketches, what he has not time to complete in marble. The
+clay, being ductile, lends itself to all softness of line; being easily
+frangible, it would be ridiculous to give it sharp edges, so that a
+blunt and massive rendering of graceful gesture will be its natural
+function: but as it can be pinched, or pulled, or thrust in a moment
+into projection which it would take hours of chiseling to get in stone,
+it will also properly be used for all fantastic and grotesque form, not
+involving sharp edges. Therefore, what is true of chalk and charcoal,
+for painters, is equally true of clay, for sculptors; they are all most
+precious materials for true masters, but tempt the false ones into fatal
+license; and to judge rightly of terra-cotta work is a far higher reach
+of skill in sculpture-criticism than to distinguish the merits of a
+finished statue.
+
+157. We have, secondly, work in bronze, iron, gold, and other metals;
+in which the laws of structure are still more definite.
+
+All kinds of twisted and wreathen work on every scale become delightful
+when wrought in ductile or tenacious metal; but metal which is to be
+_hammered_ into form separates itself into two great divisions--solid,
+and flat.
+
+A. In solid metal-work, _i.e._, metal cast thick enough to resist
+bending, whether it be hollow or not, violent and various projection may
+be admitted, which would be offensive in marble; but no sharp edges,
+because it is difficult to produce them with the hammer. But since the
+permanence of the material justifies exquisiteness of workmanship,
+whatever delicate ornamentation can be wrought with rounded surfaces may
+be advisedly introduced; and since the color of bronze or any other
+metal is not so pleasantly representative of flesh as that of marble, a
+wise sculptor will depend less on flesh contour, and more on picturesque
+accessories, which, though they would be vulgar if attempted in stone,
+are rightly entertaining in bronze or silver. Verrocchio's statue of
+Colleone at Venice, Cellini's Perseus at Florence, and Ghiberti's gates
+at Florence, are models of bronze treatment.
+
+B. When metal is beaten thin, it becomes what is technically called
+'plate,' (the _flattened_ thing,) and may be treated advisably in two
+ways: one, by beating it out into bosses, the other by cutting it into
+strips and ramifications. The vast schools of goldsmiths' work and of
+iron decoration, founded on these two principles, have had the most
+powerful influences over general taste in all ages and countries. One of
+the simplest and most interesting elementary examples of the treatment
+of flat metal by cutting is the common branched iron bar, Fig. 8, used
+to close small apertures in countries possessing any good primitive
+style of ironwork, formed by alternate cuts on its sides, and the
+bending down of the severed portions. The ordinary domestic window
+balcony of Verona is formed by mere ribbons of iron, bent into curves as
+studiously refined as those of a Greek vase, and decorated merely by
+their own terminations in spiral volutes.
+
+All cast work in metal, unfinished by hand, is inadmissible in any
+school of living art, since it cannot possess the perfection of form due
+to a permanent substance; and the continual sight of it is destructive
+of the faculty of taste: but metal stamped with precision, as in coins,
+is to sculpture what engraving is to painting.
+
+158. Thirdly. Stone-sculpture divides itself into three schools: one in
+very hard material; one in very soft; and one in that of centrally
+useful consistence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+A. The virtue of work in hard material is the expression of form in
+shallow relief, or in broad contours: deep cutting in hard material is
+inadmissible; and the art, at once pompous and trivial, of gem
+engraving, has been in the last degree destructive of the honor and
+service of sculpture.
+
+B. The virtue of work in soft material is deep cutting, with studiously
+graceful disposition of the masses of light and shade. The greater
+number of flamboyant churches of France are cut out of an adhesive
+chalk; and the fantasy of their latest decoration was, in great part,
+induced by the facility of obtaining contrast of black space, undercut,
+with white tracery easily left in sweeping and interwoven rods--the
+lavish use of wood in domestic architecture materially increasing the
+habit of delight in branched complexity of line. These points, however,
+I must reserve for illustration in my Lectures on Architecture. To-day,
+I shall limit myself to the illustration of elementary sculptural
+structure in the best material,--that is to say, in crystalline marble,
+neither soft enough to encourage the caprice of the workman, nor hard
+enough to resist his will.
+
+159. C. By the true 'Providence' of Nature, the rock which is thus
+submissive has been in some places stained with the fairest colors, and
+in others blanched into the fairest absence of color that can be found
+to give harmony to inlaying, or dignity to form. The possession by the
+Greeks of their [Greek: leukos lithos] was indeed the first circumstance
+regulating the development of their art; it enabled them at once to
+express their passion for light by executing the faces, hands, and feet
+of their dark wooden statues in white marble, so that what we look upon
+only with pleasure for fineness of texture was to them an imitation of
+the luminous body of the deity shining from behind its dark robes; and
+ivory afterwards is employed in their best statues for its yet more soft
+and flesh-like brightness, receptive also of the most delicate
+color--(therefore to this day the favorite ground of miniature
+painters). In like manner, the existence of quarries of peach-colored
+marble within twelve miles of Verona, and of white marble and green
+serpentine between Pisa and Genoa, defined the manner both of sculpture
+and architecture for all the Gothic buildings of Italy. No subtlety of
+education could have formed a high school of art without these
+materials.
+
+160. Next to the color, the fineness of substance which will take a
+perfectly sharp edge, is essential; and this not merely to admit fine
+delineation in the sculpture itself, but to secure a delightful
+precision in placing the blocks of which it is composed. For the
+possession of too fine marble, as far as regards the work itself, is a
+temptation instead of an advantage to an inferior sculptor; and the
+abuse of the facility of undercutting, especially of undercutting so as
+to leave profiles defined by an edge against shadow, is one of the chief
+causes of decline of style in such incrusted bas-reliefs as those of the
+Certosa of Pavia and its contemporary monuments. But no undue temptation
+ever exists as to the fineness of block fitting; nothing contributes to
+give so pure and healthy a tone to sculpture as the attention of the
+builder to the jointing of his stones; and his having both the power to
+make them fit so perfectly as not to admit of the slightest portion of
+cement showing externally, and the skill to insure, if needful, and to
+suggest always, their stability in cementless construction. Plate X.
+represents a piece of entirely fine Lombardic building, the central
+portion of the arch in the Duomo in Verona, which corresponds to that of
+the porch of San Zenone, represented in Plate I. In both these pieces of
+building, the only line that traces the architrave round the arch, is
+that of the masonry joint; yet this line is drawn with extremest
+subtlety, with intention of delighting the eye by its relation of varied
+curvature to the arch itself; and it is just as much considered as the
+finest pen-line of a Raphael drawing. Every joint of the stone is used,
+in like manner, as a thin black line, which the slightest sign of cement
+would spoil like a blot. And so proud is the builder of his fine
+jointing, and so fearless of any distortion or strain spoiling the
+adjustment afterwards, that in one place he runs his joint quite
+gratuitously through a bas-relief, and gives the keystone its only sign
+of preeminence by the minute inlaying of the head of the Lamb into the
+stone of the course above.
+
+161. Proceeding from this fine jointing to fine draughtsmanship, you
+have, in the very outset and earliest stage of sculpture, your flat
+stone surface given you as a sheet of white paper, on which you are
+required to produce the utmost effect you can with the simplest means,
+cutting away as little of the stone as may be, to save both time and
+trouble; and above all, leaving the block itself, when shaped, as solid
+as you can, that its surface may better resist weather, and the carved
+parts be as much protected as possible by the masses left around them.
+
+[Illustration: X.
+
+MARBLE MASONRY IN THE DUOMO OF VERONA.]
+
+[Illustration: XI.
+
+THE FIRST ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE.
+
+INCISED OUTLINE AND OPENED SPACE.]
+
+162. The first thing to be done is clearly to trace the outline of
+subject with an incision approximating in section to that of the furrow
+of a plow, only more equal-sided. A fine sculptor strikes it, as his
+chisel leans, freely, on marble; an Egyptian, in hard rock, cuts it
+sharp, as in cuneiform inscriptions. In any case, you have a result
+somewhat like the upper figure, Plate XI., in which I show you the most
+elementary indication of form possible, by cutting the outline of the
+typical archaic Greek head with an incision like that of a Greek
+triglyph, only not so precise in edge or slope, as it is to be modified
+afterwards.
+
+163. Now, the simplest thing we can do next is to round off the flat
+surface _within_ the incision, and put what form we can get into the
+feebler projection of it thus obtained. The Egyptians do this, often
+with exquisite skill, and then, as I showed you in a former Lecture,
+color the whole--using the incision as an outline. Such a method of
+treatment is capable of good service in representing, at little cost of
+pains, subjects in distant effect; and common, or merely picturesque,
+subjects even near. To show you what it is capable of, and what colored
+sculpture would be in its rudest type, I have prepared the colored
+relief of the John Dory[32] as a natural history drawing for distant
+effect. You know, also, that I meant him to be ugly--as ugly as any
+creature can well be. In time, I hope to show you prettier
+things--peacocks and kingfishers, butterflies and flowers,--on grounds
+of gold, and the like, as they were in Byzantine work. I shall expect
+you, in right use of your aesthetic faculties, to like those better than
+what I show you to-day. But it is now a question of method only; and if
+you will look, after the Lecture, first at the mere white relief, and
+then see how much may be gained by a few dashes of color, such as a
+practiced workman could lay in a quarter of an hour,--the whole
+forming, if well done, almost a deceptive image,--you will, at least,
+have the range of power in Egyptian sculpture clearly expressed to you.
+
+164. But for fine sculpture, we must advance by far other methods. If we
+carve the subject with real delicacy, the cast shadow of the incision
+will interfere with its outline, so that, for representation of
+beautiful things you must clear away the ground about it, at all events
+for a little distance. As the law of work is to use the least pains
+possible, you clear it only just as far back as you need, and then, for
+the sake of order and finish, you give the space a geometrical outline.
+By taking, in this case, the simplest I can,--a circle,--I can clear the
+head with little labor in the removal of surface round it; (see the
+lower figure in Plate XI.)
+
+165. Now, these are the first terms of all well-constructed bas-relief.
+The mass you have to treat consists of a piece of stone which, however
+you afterwards carve it, can but, at its most projecting point, reach
+the level of the external plane surface out of which it was mapped, and
+defined by a depression round it; that depression being at first a mere
+trench, then a moat of a certain width, of which the outer sloping bank
+is in contact, as a limiting geometrical line, with the laterally
+salient portions of sculpture. This, I repeat, is the primal
+construction of good bas-relief, implying, first, perfect protection to
+its surface from any transverse blow, and a geometrically limited space
+to be occupied by the design, into which it shall pleasantly (and as you
+shall ultimately see, ingeniously,) contract itself: implying, secondly,
+a determined depth of projection, which it shall rarely reach, and never
+exceed: and implying, finally, the production of the whole piece with
+the least possible labor of chisel and loss of stone.
+
+166. And these, which are the first, are very nearly the last
+constructive laws of sculpture. You will be surprised to find how much
+they include, and how much of minor propriety in treatment their
+observance involves.
+
+In a very interesting essay on the architecture of the Parthenon, by
+the Professor of Architecture of the Ecole Polytechnique, M. Emile
+Boutmy, you will find it noticed that the Greeks do not usually weaken,
+by carving, the constructive masses of their building; but put their
+chief sculpture in the empty spaces between the triglyphs, or beneath
+the roof. This is true; but in so doing, they merely build their panel
+instead of carving it; they accept, no less than the Goths, the laws of
+recess and limitation, as being vital to the safety and dignity of their
+design; and their noblest recumbent statues are, constructively, the
+fillings of the acute extremity of a panel in the form of an obtusely
+summited triangle.
+
+167. In gradual descent from that severest type, you will find that an
+immense quantity of sculpture of all times and styles may be generally
+embraced under the notion of a mass hewn out of, or, at least, placed
+in, a panel or recess, deepening, it may be, into a niche; the sculpture
+being always designed with reference to its position in such recess:
+and, therefore, to the effect of the building out of which the recess is
+hewn.
+
+But, for the sake of simplifying our inquiry, I will at first suppose no
+surrounding protective ledge to exist, and that the area of stone we
+have to deal with is simply a flat slab, extant from a flat surface
+depressed all round it.
+
+168. A _flat_ slab, observe. The flatness of surface is essential to the
+problem of bas-relief. The lateral limit of the panel may, or may not,
+be required; but the vertical limit of surface _must_ be expressed; and
+the art of bas-relief is to give the effect of true form on that
+condition. For observe, if nothing more were needed than to make first a
+cast of a solid form, then cut it in half, and apply the half of it to
+the flat surface;--if, for instance, to carve a bas-relief of an apple,
+all I had to do was to cut my sculpture of the whole apple in half, and
+pin it to the wall, any ordinarily trained sculptor, or even a
+mechanical workman, could produce bas-relief; but the business is to
+carve a _round_ thing out of a _flat_ thing; to carve an apple out of a
+biscuit!--to conquer, as a subtle Florentine has here conquered,[33]
+his marble, so as not only to get motion into what is most rigidly
+fixed, but to get boundlessness into what is most narrowly bounded; and
+carve Madonna and Child, rolling clouds, flying angels, and space of
+heavenly air behind all, out of a film of stone not the third of an inch
+thick where it is thickest.
+
+169. Carried, however, to such a degree of subtlety as this, and with so
+ambitious and extravagant aim, bas-relief becomes a tour-de-force; and,
+you know, I have just told you all tours-de-force are wrong. The true
+law of bas-relief is to begin with a depth of incision proportioned
+justly to the distance of the observer and the character of the subject,
+and out of that rationally determined depth, neither increased for
+ostentation of effect, nor diminished for ostentation of skill, to do
+the utmost that will be easily visible to an observer, supposing him to
+give an average human amount of attention, but not to peer into, or
+critically scrutinize, the work.
+
+170. I cannot arrest you to-day by the statement of any of the laws of
+sight and distance which determine the proper depth of bas-relief.
+Suppose that depth fixed; then observe what a pretty problem, or,
+rather, continually varying cluster of problems, will be offered to us.
+You might, at first, imagine that, given what we may call our scale of
+solidity, or scale of depth, the diminution from nature would be in
+regular proportion, as, for instance, if the real depth of your subject
+be, suppose, a foot, and the depth of your bas-relief an inch, then the
+parts of the real subject which were six inches round the side of it
+would be carved, you might imagine, at the depth of half an inch, and so
+the whole thing mechanically reduced to scale. But not a bit of it. Here
+is a Greek bas-relief of a chariot with two horses (upper figure, Plate
+XXI.) Your whole subject has therefore the depth of two horses side by
+side, say six or eight feet. Your bas-relief has, on this scale,[34] say
+the depth of a third of an inch. Now, if you gave only the sixth of an
+inch for the depth of the off horse, and, dividing him again, only the
+twelfth of an inch for that of each foreleg, you would make him look a
+mile away from the other, and his own forelegs a mile apart. Actually,
+the Greek has made the _near leg of the off horse project much beyond
+the off leg of the near horse_; and has put nearly the whole depth and
+power of his relief into the breast of the off horse, while for the
+whole distance from the head of the nearest to the neck of the other, he
+has allowed himself only a shallow line; knowing that, if he deepened
+that, he would give the nearest horse the look of having a thick nose;
+whereas, by keeping that line down, he has not only made the head itself
+more delicate, but detached it from the other by giving no cast shadow,
+and left the shadow below to serve for thickness of breast, cutting it
+as sharp down as he possibly can, to make it bolder.
+
+171. Here is a fine piece of business we have got into!--even supposing
+that all this selection and adaptation were to be contrived under
+constant laws, and related only to the expression of given forms. But
+the Greek sculptor, all this while, is not only debating and deciding
+how to show what he wants, but, much more, debating and deciding what,
+as he can't show everything, he will choose to show at all. Thus, being
+himself interested, and supposing that you will be, in the manner of the
+driving, he takes great pains to carve the reins, to show you where they
+are knotted, and how they are fastened round the driver's waist, (you
+recollect how Hippolytus was lost by doing that); but he does not care
+the least bit about the chariot, and having rather more geometry than he
+likes in the cross and circle of one wheel of it, entirely omits the
+other!
+
+172. I think you must see by this time that the sculptor's is not quite
+a trade which you can teach like brickmaking; nor its produce an article
+of which you can supply any quantity 'demanded' for the next railroad
+waiting-room. It may perhaps, indeed, seem to you that, in the
+difficulties thus presented by it, bas-relief involves more direct
+exertion of intellect than finished solid sculpture. It is not so,
+however. The questions involved by bas-relief are of a more curious and
+amusing kind, requiring great variety of expedients; though none except
+such as a true workmanly instinct delights in inventing, and invents
+easily; but design in solid sculpture involves considerations of weight
+in mass, of balance, of perspective and opposition, in projecting forms,
+and of restraint for those which must not project, such as none but the
+greatest masters have ever completely solved; and they, not always; the
+difficulty of arranging the composition so as to be agreeable from
+points of view on all sides of it, being, itself, arduous enough.
+
+173. Thus far, I have been speaking only of the laws of structure
+relating to the projection of the mass which becomes itself the
+sculpture. Another most interesting group of constructive laws governs
+its relation to the line that contains or defines it.
+
+In your Standard Series I have placed a photograph of the south transept
+of Rouen Cathedral. Strictly speaking, all standards of Gothic are of
+the thirteenth century; but, in the fourteenth, certain qualities of
+richness are obtained by the diminution of restraint; out of which we
+must choose what is best in their kinds. The pedestals of the statues
+which once occupied the lateral recesses are, as you see, covered with
+groups of figures, inclosed each in a quatrefoil panel; the spaces
+between this panel and the inclosing square being filled with sculptures
+of animals.
+
+You cannot anywhere find a more lovely piece of fancy, or more
+illustrative of the quantity of result, than may be obtained with low
+and simple chiseling. The figures are all perfectly simple in drapery,
+the story told by lines of action only in the main group, no accessories
+being admitted. There is no undercutting anywhere, nor exhibition of
+technical skill, but the fondest and tenderest appliance of it; and one
+of the principal charms of the whole is the adaptation of every subject
+to its quaint limit. The tale must be told within the four petals of the
+quatrefoil, and the wildest and playfulest beasts must never come out of
+their narrow corners. The attention with which spaces of this kind are
+filled by the Gothic designers is not merely a beautiful compliance with
+architectural requirements, but a definite assertion of their delight in
+the restraint of law; for, in illuminating books, although, if they
+chose it, they might have designed floral ornaments, as we now usually
+do, rambling loosely over the leaves, and although, in later works, such
+license is often taken by them, in all books of the fine time the
+wandering tendrils are inclosed by limits approximately rectilinear, and
+in gracefulest branching often detach themselves from the right line
+only by curvature of extreme severity.
+
+174. Since the darkness and extent of shadow by which the sculpture is
+relieved necessarily vary with the depth of the recess, there arise a
+series of problems, in deciding which the wholesome desire for emphasis
+by means of shadow is too often exaggerated by the ambition of the
+sculptor to show his skill in undercutting. The extreme of vulgarity is
+usually reached when the entire bas-relief is cut hollow underneath, as
+in much Indian and Chinese work, so as to relieve its forms against an
+absolute darkness; but no formal law can ever be given; for exactly the
+same thing may be beautifully done for a wise purpose, by one person,
+which is basely done, and to no purpose, or to a bad one, by another.
+Thus, the desire for emphasis itself may be the craving of a deadened
+imagination, or the passion of a vigorous one; and relief against shadow
+may be sought by one man only for sensation, and by another for
+intelligibility. John of Pisa undercuts fiercely, in order to bring out
+the vigor of life which no level contour could render; the Lombardi of
+Venice undercut delicately, in order to obtain beautiful lines and edges
+of faultless precision; but the base Indian craftsmen undercut only that
+people may wonder how the chiseling was done through the holes, or that
+they may see every monster white against black.
+
+175. Yet, here again we are met by another necessity for discrimination.
+There may be a true delight in the inlaying of white on dark, as there
+is a true delight in vigorous rounding. Nevertheless, the general law is
+always, that, the lighter the incisions, and the broader the surface,
+the grander, caeteris paribus, will be the work. Of the structural terms
+of that work you now know enough to understand that the schools of good
+sculpture, considered in relation to projection, divide themselves into
+four entirely distinct groups:--
+
+     1st. Flat Relief, in which the surface is, in many places,
+     absolutely flat; and the expression depends greatly on the
+     lines of its outer contour, and on fine incisions within them.
+
+     2d. Round Relief, in which, as in the best coins, the
+     sculptured mass projects so as to be capable of complete
+     modulation into form, but is not anywhere undercut. The
+     formation of a coin by the blow of a die necessitates, of
+     course, the severest obedience to this law.
+
+     3d. Edged Relief. Undercutting admitted, so as to throw out the
+     forms against a background of shadow.
+
+     4th. Full Relief. The statue completely solid in form, and
+     unreduced in retreating depth of it, yet connected locally with
+     some definite part of the building, so as to be still dependent
+     on the shadow of its background and direction of protective
+     line.
+
+176. Let me recommend you at once to take what pains may be needful to
+enable you to distinguish these four kinds of sculpture, for the
+distinctions between them are not founded on mere differences in
+gradation of depth. They are truly four species, or orders, of
+sculpture, separated from each other by determined characters. I have
+used, you may have noted, hitherto in my Lectures, the word 'bas-relief'
+almost indiscriminately for all, because the degree of lowness or
+highness of relief is not the question, but the _method_ of relief.
+Observe again, therefore--
+
+[Illustration: XII.
+
+BRANCH OF PHILLYREA.]
+
+A. If a portion of the surface is absolutely flat, you have the first
+order--Flat Relief.
+
+B. If every portion of the surface is rounded, but none undercut, you
+have Round Relief--essentially that of seals and coins.
+
+C. If any part of the edges be undercut, but the general protection of
+solid form reduced, you have what I think you may conveniently call
+Foliate Relief,--the parts of the design overlapping each other, in
+places, like edges of leaves.
+
+D. If the undercutting is bold and deep, and the projection of solid
+form unreduced, you have Full Relief.
+
+Learn these four names at once by heart:--
+
+    Flat Relief.
+    Round Relief.
+    Foliate Relief.
+    Full Relief.
+
+And whenever you look at any piece of sculpture, determine first to
+which of these classes it belongs; and then consider how the sculptor
+has treated it with reference to the necessary structure--that
+reference, remember, being partly to the mechanical conditions of the
+material, partly to the means of light and shade at his command.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+177. To take a single instance. You know, for these many years, I have
+been telling our architects, with all the force of voice I had in me,
+that they could design nothing until they could carve natural forms
+rightly. Many imagined that work was easy; but judge for yourselves
+whether it be or not. In Plate XII., I have drawn, with approximate
+accuracy, a cluster of Phillyrea leaves as they grow, Now, if we wanted
+to cut them in bas-relief, the first thing we should have to consider
+would be the position of their outline on the marble;--here it is, as
+far down as the spring of the leaves. But do you suppose that is what an
+ordinary sculptor could either lay for his first sketch, or contemplate
+as a limit to be worked down to? Then consider how the interlacing and
+springing of the leaves can be expressed within this outline. It must be
+done by leaving such projection in the marble as will take the light in
+the same proportion as the drawing does;--and a Florentine workman could
+do it, for close sight, without driving one incision deeper, or raising
+a single surface higher, than the eighth of an inch. Indeed, no sculptor
+of the finest time would design such a complex cluster of leaves as
+this, except for bronze or iron work; they would take simpler contours
+for marble; but the laws of treatment would, under these conditions,
+remain just as strict: and you may, perhaps, believe me now when I tell
+you that, in any piece of fine structural sculpture by the great
+masters, there is more subtlety and noble obedience to lovely laws than
+could be explained to you if I took twenty lectures to do it in, instead
+of one.
+
+[Illustration: XIII.
+
+GREEK FLAT RELIEF, AND SCULPTURE BY EDGED INCISION.]
+
+178. There remains yet a point of mechanical treatment on which I have
+not yet touched at all; nor that the least important,--namely, the
+actual method and style of handling. A great sculptor uses his tool
+exactly as a painter his pencil, and you may recognize the decision of
+his thought, and glow of his temper, no less in the workmanship than the
+design. The modern system of modeling the work in clay, getting it into
+form by machinery, and by the hands of subordinates, and touching it at
+last, if indeed the (so-called) sculptor touch it at all, only to
+correct their inefficiencies, renders the production of good work in
+marble a physical impossibility. The first result of it is that the
+sculptor thinks in clay instead of marble, and loses his instinctive
+sense of the proper treatment of a brittle substance. The second is that
+neither he nor the public recognize the touch of the chisel as
+expressive of personal feeling of power, and that nothing is looked for
+except mechanical polish.
+
+179. The perfectly simple piece of Greek relief represented in Plate
+XIII., will enable you to understand at once,--examination of the
+original, at your leisure, will prevent you, I trust, from ever
+forgetting,--what is meant by the virtue of handling in sculpture.
+
+The projection of the heads of the four horses, one behind the other, is
+certainly not more, altogether, than three-quarters of an inch from the
+flat ground, and the one in front does not in reality project more than
+the one behind it, yet, by mere drawing,[35] you see the sculptor has
+got them to appear to recede in due order, and by the soft rounding of
+the flesh surfaces, and modulation of the veins, he has taken away all
+look of flatness from the necks. He has drawn the eyes and nostrils with
+dark incision, careful as the finest touches of a painter's pencil: and
+then, at last, when he comes to the manes, he has let fly hand and
+chisel with their full force; and where a base workman, (above all, if
+he had modeled the thing in clay first,) would have lost himself in
+laborious imitation of hair, the Greek has struck the tresses out with
+angular incisions, deep driven, every one in appointed place and
+deliberate curve, yet flowing so free under his noble hand that you
+cannot alter, without harm, the bending of any single ridge, nor
+contract, nor extend, a point of them. And if you will look back to
+Plate IX. you will see the difference between this sharp incision, used
+to express horse-hair, and the soft incision with intervening rounded
+ridge, used to express the hair of Apollo Chrysocomes; and, beneath, the
+obliquely ridged incision used to express the plumes of his swan; in
+both these cases the handling being much more slow, because the
+engraving is in metal; but the structural importance of incision, as the
+means of effect, never lost sight of. Finally, here are two actual
+examples of the work in marble of the two great schools of the world;
+one, a little Fortune, standing tiptoe on the globe of the Earth, its
+surface traced with lines in hexagons; not chaotic under Fortune's feet;
+Greek, this, and by a trained workman;--dug up in the temple of Neptune
+at Corfu;--and here, a Florentine portrait-marble, found in the recent
+alterations, face downwards, under the pavement of Sta. Maria Novella;
+both of them first-rate of their kind; and both of them, while
+exquisitely finished at the telling points, showing, on all their
+unregarded surfaces, the rough furrow of the fast-driven chisel, as
+distinctly as the edge of a common paving-stone.
+
+180. Let me suggest to you, in conclusion, one most interesting point of
+mental expression in these necessary aspects of finely executed
+sculpture. I have already again and again pressed on your attention the
+beginning of the arts of men in the make and use of the plowshare. Read
+more carefully--you might indeed do well to learn at once by heart,--the
+twenty-seven lines of the Fourth Pythian, which describe the plowing of
+Jason. There is nothing grander extant in human fancy, nor set down in
+human words: but this great mythical expression of the conquest of the
+earth-clay and brute-force by vital human energy, will become yet more
+interesting to you when you reflect what enchantment has been cut, on
+whiter clay, by the tracing of finer furrows;--what the delicate and
+consummate arts of man have done by the plowing of marble, and granite,
+and iron. You will learn daily more and more, as you advance in actual
+practice, how the primary manual art of engraving, in the steadiness,
+clearness, and irrevocableness of it, is the best art-discipline that
+can be given either to mind or hand;[36] you will recognize one law of
+right, pronouncing itself in the well-resolved work of every age; you
+will see the firmly traced and irrevocable incision determining, not
+only the forms, but, in great part, the moral temper, of all vitally
+progressive art; you will trace the same principle and power in the
+furrows which the oblique sun shows on the granite of his own Egyptian
+city,--in the white scratch of the stylus through the color on a Greek
+vase--in the first delineation, on the wet wall, of the groups of an
+Italian fresco; in the unerring and unalterable touch of the great
+engraver of Nuremberg,--and in the deep-driven and deep-bitten ravines
+of metal by which Turner closed, in embossed limits, the shadows of the
+Liber Studiorum.
+
+Learn, therefore, in its full extent, the force of the great Greek word
+[Greek: charasso];--and give me pardon, if you think pardon needed, that
+I ask you also to learn the full meaning of the English word derived
+from it. Here, at the Ford of the Oxen of Jason, are other furrows to be
+driven than these in the marble of Pentelicus. The fruitfulest, or the
+fatalest, of all plowing is that by the thoughts of your youth, on the
+white field of its Imagination. For by these, either down to the
+disturbed spirit, "[Greek: kekoptai kai charassetai pedon];" or around
+the quiet spirit, and on all the laws of conduct that hold it, as a fair
+vase its frankincense, are ordained the pure colors, and engraved the
+just characters, of AEonian life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[29] Nothing is more wonderful, or more disgraceful, among the forms of
+ignorance engendered by modern vulgar occupations in pursuit of gain,
+than the unconsciousness, now total, that fine art is essentially
+Athletic. I received a letter from Birmingham, some little time since,
+inviting me to see how much, in glass manufacture, "machinery excelled
+rude hand-work." The writer had not the remotest conception that he
+might as well have asked me to come and see a mechanical boat-race rowed
+by automata, and "how much machinery excelled rude arm-work."
+
+[30] Such as the Sculptureless arch of Waterloo Bridge, for instance,
+referred to in the Third Lecture, Sec. 84.
+
+[31] It is strange, at this day, to think of the relation of the
+Athenian Ceramicus to the French Tile-fields, Tileries, or Tuileries:
+and how these last may yet become--have already partly become--"the
+Potter's field," blood-bought. (_December, 1870._)
+
+[32] This relief is now among the other casts which I have placed in the
+lower school in the University galleries.
+
+[33] The reference is to a cast from a small and low relief of
+Florentine work in the Kensington Museum.
+
+[34] The actual bas-relief is on a coin, and the projection not above
+the twentieth of an inch, but I magnified it in photograph, for this
+Lecture, so as to represent a relief with about the third of an inch for
+maximum projection.
+
+[35] This plate has been executed from a drawing by Mr. Burgess, in
+which he has followed the curves of incision with exquisite care, and
+preserved the effect of the surface of the stone, where a photograph
+would have lost it by exaggerating accidental stains.
+
+[36] That it was also, in some cases, the earliest that the Greeks gave,
+is proved by Lucian's account of his first lesson at his uncle's; the
+[Greek: enkopeus], literally 'in cutter'--being the first tool put into
+his hand, and an earthenware tablet to cut upon, which the boy, pressing
+too hard, presently breaks;--gets beaten--goes home crying, and becomes,
+after his dream above quoted, (Sec.Sec. 35, 36,) a philosopher instead of a
+sculptor.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VI.
+
+THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS.
+
+_December, 1870._
+
+
+181. It can scarcely be needful for me to tell even the younger members
+of my present audience, that the conditions necessary for the production
+of a perfect school of sculpture have only twice been met in the history
+of the world, and then for a short time; nor for short time only, but
+also in narrow districts,--namely, in the valleys and islands of Ionian
+Greece, and in the strip of land deposited by the Arno, between the
+Apennine crests and the sea.
+
+All other schools, except these two, led severally by Athens in the
+fifth century before Christ, and by Florence in the fifteenth of our own
+era, are imperfect; and the best of them are derivative: these two are
+consummate in themselves, and the origin of what is best in others.
+
+182. And observe, these Athenian and Florentine schools are both of
+equal rank, as essentially original and independent. The Florentine,
+being subsequent to the Greek, borrowed much from it; but it would have
+existed just as strongly--and, perhaps, in some respects more nobly--had
+it been the first, instead of the latter of the two. The task set to
+each of these mightiest of the nations was, indeed, practically the
+same, and as hard to the one as to the other. The Greeks found
+Phoenician and Etruscan art monstrous, and had to make them human. The
+Italians found Byzantine and Norman art monstrous, and had to make them
+human. The original power in the one case is easily traced; in the other
+it has partly to be unmasked, because the change at Florence was, in
+many points, suggested and stimulated by the former school. But we
+mistake in supposing that Athens taught Florence the laws of design; she
+taught her, in reality, only the duty of truth.
+
+183. You remember that I told you the highest art could do no more than
+rightly represent the human form. This is the simple test, then, of a
+perfect school,--that it has represented the human form, so that it is
+impossible to conceive of its being better done. And that, I repeat, has
+been accomplished twice only: once in Athens, once in Florence. And so
+narrow is the excellence even of these two exclusive schools, that it
+cannot be said of either of them that they represented the entire human
+form. The Greeks perfectly drew, and perfectly molded, the body and
+limbs; but there is, so far as I am aware, no instance of their
+representing the face as well as any great Italian. On the other hand,
+the Italian painted and carved the face insuperably; but I believe there
+is no instance of his having perfectly represented the body, which, by
+command of his religion, it became his pride to despise and his safety
+to mortify.
+
+184. The general course of your study here renders it desirable that you
+should be accurately acquainted with the leading principles of Greek
+sculpture; but I cannot lay these before you without giving undue
+prominence to some of the special merits of that school, unless I
+previously indicate the relation it holds to the more advanced, though
+less disciplined, excellence of Christian art.
+
+In this and the last Lecture of the present course,[37] I shall
+endeavor, therefore, to mass for you, in such rude and diagram-like
+outline as may be possible or intelligible, the main characteristics of
+the two schools, completing and correcting the details of comparison
+afterwards; and not answering, observe, at present, for any
+generalization I give you, except as a ground for subsequent closer and
+more qualified statements.
+
+And in carrying out this parallel, I shall speak indifferently of works
+of sculpture, and of the modes of painting which propose to themselves
+the same objects as sculpture. And this, indeed, Florentine, as opposed
+to Venetian, painting, and that of Athens in the fifth century, nearly
+always did.
+
+185. I begin, therefore, by comparing two designs of the simplest
+kind--engravings, or, at least, linear drawings both; one on clay, one
+on copper, made in the central periods of each style, and representing
+the same goddess--Aphrodite. They are now set beside each other in your
+Rudimentary Series. The first is from a patera lately found at Camirus,
+authoritatively assigned by Mr. Newton, in his recent catalogue, to the
+best period of Greek art. The second is from one of the series of
+engravings executed, probably, by Baccio Bandini, in 1485, out of which
+I chose your first practical exercise--the Scepter of Apollo. I cannot,
+however, make the comparison accurate in all respects, for I am obliged
+to set the restricted type of the Aphrodite Urania of the Greeks beside
+the universal Deity conceived by the Italian as governing the air,
+earth, and sea; nevertheless, the restriction in the mind of the Greek,
+and expatiation in that of the Florentine, are both characteristic. The
+Greek Venus Urania is flying in heaven, her power over the waters
+symbolized by her being borne by a swan, and her power over the earth by
+a single flower in her right hand; but the Italian Aphrodite is rising
+out of the actual sea, and only half risen: her limbs are still in the
+sea, her merely animal strength filling the waters with their life; but
+her body to the loins is in the sunshine, her face raised to the sky;
+her hand is about to lay a garland of flowers on the earth.
+
+186. The Venus Urania of the Greeks, in her relation to men, has power
+only over lawful and domestic love; therefore, she is fully dressed, and
+not only quite dressed, but most daintily and trimly: her feet
+delicately sandaled, her gown spotted with little stars, her hair
+brushed exquisitely smooth at the top of her head, trickling in minute
+waves down her forehead; and though, because there is such a quantity of
+it, she can't possibly help having a chignon, look how tightly she has
+fastened it in with her broad fillet. Of course she is married, so she
+must wear a cap with pretty minute pendent jewels at the border; and a
+very small necklace, all that her husband can properly afford, just
+enough to go closely round her neck, and no more. On the contrary, the
+Aphrodite of the Italian, being universal love, is pure-naked; and her
+long hair is thrown wild to the wind and sea.
+
+These primal differences in the symbolism, observe, are only because the
+artists are thinking of separate powers: they do not necessarily involve
+any national distinction in feeling. But the differences I have next to
+indicate are essential, and characterize the two opposed national modes
+of mind.
+
+187. First, and chiefly. The Greek Aphrodite is a very pretty person,
+and the Italian a decidedly plain one. That is because a Greek thought
+no one could possibly love any but pretty people; but an Italian thought
+that love could give dignity to the meanest form that it inhabited, and
+light to the poorest that it looked upon. So his Aphrodite will not
+condescend to be pretty.
+
+188. Secondly. In the Greek Venus the breasts are broad and full, though
+perfectly severe in their almost conical profile;--(you are allowed on
+purpose to see the outline of the right breast, under the chiton;)--also
+the right arm is left bare, and you can just see the contour of the
+front of the right limb and knee; both arm and limb pure and firm, but
+lovely. The plant she holds in her hand is a branching and flowering
+one, the seed-vessel prominent. These signs all mean that her essential
+function is child-bearing.
+
+On the contrary, in the Italian Venus the breasts are so small as to be
+scarcely traceable; the body strong, and almost masculine in its angles;
+the arms meager and unattractive, and she lays a decorative garland of
+flowers on the earth. These signs mean that the Italian thought of love
+as the strength of an eternal spirit, forever helpful; and forever
+crowned with flowers, that neither know seedtime nor harvest; and bloom
+where there is neither death nor birth.
+
+189. Thirdly. The Greek Aphrodite is entirely calm, and looks straight
+forward. Not one feature of her face is disturbed, or seems ever to have
+been subject to emotion. The Italian Aphrodite looks up, her face all
+quivering and burning with passion and wasting anxiety. The Greek one is
+quiet, self-possessed, and self-satisfied: the Italian incapable of
+rest; she has had no thought nor care for herself; her hair has been
+bound by a fillet like the Greek's; but it is now all fallen loose, and
+clotted with the sea, or clinging to her body; only the front tress of
+it is caught by the breeze from her raised forehead, and lifted, in the
+place where the tongues of fire rest on the brows, in the early
+Christian pictures of Pentecost, and the waving fires abide upon the
+heads of Angelico's seraphim.
+
+190. There are almost endless points of interest, great and small, to be
+noted in these differences of treatment. This binding of the hair by the
+single fillet marks the straight course of one great system of art
+method, from that Greek head which I showed you on the archaic coin of
+the seventh century before Christ, to this of the fifteenth of our own
+era;--nay, when you look close, you will see the entire action of the
+head depends on one lock of hair falling back from the ear, which it
+does in compliance with the old Greek observance of its being bent there
+by the pressure of the helmet. That rippling of it down her shoulders
+comes from the Athena of Corinth; the raising of it on her forehead,
+from the knot of the hair of Diana, changed into the vestal fire of the
+angels. But chiefly, the calmness of the features in the one face, and
+their anxiety in the other, indicate first, indeed, the characteristic
+difference in every conception of the schools, the Greek never
+representing expression, the Italian primarily seeking it; but far more,
+mark for us here the utter change in the conception of love; from the
+tranquil guide and queen of a happy terrestrial domestic life, accepting
+its immediate pleasures and natural duties, to the agonizing hope of an
+infinite good, and the ever mingled joy and terror of a love divine in
+jealousy, crying, "Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon
+thine arm; for love is strong as death, jealousy is cruel as the
+grave."
+
+[Illustration: XIV.
+
+APOLLO AND THE PYTHON.
+
+HERACLES AND THE NEMEAN LION.]
+
+The vast issues dependent on this change in the conception of the ruling
+passion of the human soul, I will endeavor to show you on a future
+occasion: in my present Lecture, I shall limit myself to the definition
+of the temper of Greek sculpture, and of its distinctions from
+Florentine in the treatment of any subject whatever, be it love or
+hatred, hope or despair.
+
+These great differences are mainly the following.
+
+191. First. A Greek never expresses momentary passion; a Florentine
+looks to momentary passion as the ultimate object of his skill.
+
+When you are next in London, look carefully in the British Museum at the
+casts from the statues in the pediment of the Temple of Minerva at
+AEgina. You have there Greek work of definite date--about 600 B. C.,
+certainly before 580--of the purest kind; and you have the
+representation of a noble ideal subject, the combats of the AEacidae at
+Troy, with Athena herself looking on. But there is no attempt whatever
+to represent expression in the features, none to give complexity of
+action or gesture; there is no struggling, no anxiety, no visible
+temporary exertion of muscles. There are fallen figures, one pulling a
+lance out of his wound, and others in attitudes of attack and defense;
+several kneeling to draw their bows. But all inflict and suffer, conquer
+or expire, with the same smile.
+
+192. Plate XIV. gives you examples, from more advanced art, of true
+Greek representation; the subjects being the two contests of leading
+import to the Greek heart--that of Apollo with the Python, and of
+Hercules with the Nemean Lion. You see that in neither case is there the
+slightest effort to represent the [Greek: lyssa], or agony of contest.
+No good Greek artist would have you behold the suffering either of
+gods, heroes, or men; nor allow you to be apprehensive of the issue of
+their contest with evil beasts, or evil spirits. All such lower sources
+of excitement are to be closed to you; your interest is to be in the
+thoughts involved by the fact of the war; and in the beauty or rightness
+of form, whether active or inactive. I have to work out this subject
+with you afterwards, and to compare with the pure Greek method of
+thought that of modern dramatic passion, ingrafted on it, as typically
+in Turner's contest of Apollo and the Python: in the meantime, be
+content with the statement of this first great principle--that a Greek,
+as such, never expresses momentary passion.
+
+[Illustration: XV.
+
+HERA OF ARGOS.
+
+ZEUS OF SYRACUSE.]
+
+[Illustration: XVI.
+
+DEMETER OF MESSENE.
+
+HERA OF CNOSSUS.]
+
+[Illustration: XVII.
+
+ATHENA OF THURIUM.
+
+SIREN LIGEIA OF TERINA.]
+
+193. Secondly. The Greek, as such, never expresses personal character,
+while a Florentine holds it to be the ultimate condition of beauty. You
+are startled, I suppose, at my saying this, having had it often pointed
+out to you, as a transcendent piece of subtlety in Greek art, that you
+could distinguish Hercules from Apollo by his being stout, and Diana
+from Juno by her being slender. That is very true; but those are general
+distinctions of class, not special distinctions of personal character.
+Even as general, they are bodily, not mental. They are the distinctions,
+in fleshly aspect, between an athlete and a musician,--between a matron
+and a huntress; but in nowise distinguish the simple-hearted hero from
+the subtle Master of the Muses, nor the willful and fitful girl-goddess
+from the cruel and resolute matron-goddess. But judge for yourselves. In
+the successive plates, XV.-XVIII., I show you,[38] typically represented
+as the protectresses of nations, the Argive, Cretan, and Lacinian Hera,
+the Messenian Demeter, the Athena of Corinth, the Artemis of Syracuse;
+the fountain Arethusa of Syracuse, and the Siren Ligeia of Terina. Now,
+of these heads, it is true that some are more delicate in feature than
+the rest, and some softer in expression: in other respects, can you
+trace any distinction between the Goddesses of Earth and Heaven, or
+between the Goddess of Wisdom and the Water Nymph of Syracuse? So little
+can you do so, that it would have remained a disputed question--had not
+the name luckily been inscribed on some Syracusan coins--whether the
+head upon them was meant for Arethusa at all; and, continually, it
+becomes a question respecting finished statues, if without attributes,
+"Is this Bacchus or Apollo--Zeus or Poseidon?" There is a fact for you;
+noteworthy, I think! There is no personal character in true Greek
+art:--abstract ideas of youth and age, strength and swiftness, virtue
+and vice,--yes: but there is no individuality; and the negative holds
+down to the revived conventionalism of the Greek school by Leonardo,
+when he tells you how you are to paint young women, and how old ones;
+though a Greek would hardly have been so discourteous to age as the
+Italian is in his canon of it,--"old women should be represented as
+passionate and hasty, after the manner of Infernal Furies."
+
+194. "But at least, if the Greeks do not give character, they give ideal
+beauty?" So it is said, without contradiction. But will you look again
+at the series of coins of the best time of Greek art, which I have just
+set before you? Are any of these goddesses or nymphs very beautiful?
+Certainly the Junos are not. Certainly the Demeters are not. The Siren,
+and Arethusa, have well-formed and regular features; but I am quite sure
+that if you look at them without prejudice, you will think neither
+reaches even the average standard of pretty English girls. The Venus
+Urania suggests at first the idea of a very charming person, but you
+will find there is no real depth nor sweetness in the contours, looked
+at closely. And remember, these are chosen examples,--the best I can
+find of art current in Greece at the great time; and if even I were to
+take the celebrated statues, of which only two or three are extant, not
+one of them excels the Venus of Melos; and she, as I have already
+asserted, in the 'Queen of the Air,' has nothing notable in feature
+except dignity and simplicity. Of Athena I do not know one authentic
+type of great beauty; but the intense ugliness which the Greeks could
+tolerate in their symbolism of her will be convincingly proved to you by
+the coin represented in Plate VI. You need only look at two or three
+vases of the best time to assure yourselves that beauty of feature was,
+in popular art, not only unattained, but unattempted; and, finally,--and
+this you may accept as a conclusive proof of the Greek insensitiveness
+to the most subtle beauty,--there is little evidence even in their
+literature, and none in their art, of their having ever perceived any
+beauty in infancy, or early childhood.
+
+195. The Greeks, then, do not give passion, do not give character, do
+not give refined or naive beauty. But you may think that the absence of
+these is intended to give dignity to the gods and nymphs; and that their
+calm faces would be found, if you long observed them, instinct with some
+expression of divine mystery or power.
+
+I will convince you of the narrow range of Greek thought in these
+respects, by showing you, from the two sides of one and the same coin,
+images of the most mysterious of their deities, and the most
+powerful,--Demeter, and Zeus.
+
+Remember that just as the west coasts of Ireland and England catch first
+on their hills the rain of the Atlantic, so the Western Peloponnese
+arrests, in the clouds of the first mountain ranges of Arcadia, the
+moisture of the Mediterranean; and over all the plains of Elis, Pylos,
+and Messene, the strength and sustenance of men was naturally felt to be
+granted by Zeus; as, on the east coast of Greece, the greater clearness
+of the air by the power of Athena. If you will recollect the prayer of
+Rhea, in the single line of Callimachus--[Greek: "Taia phile, teke kai
+su; teai d' odines elaphrai]," (compare Pausanias, iv. 33, at the
+beginning,)--it will mark for you the connection, in the Greek mind, of
+the birth of the mountain springs of Arcadia with the birth of Zeus. And
+the centers of Greek thought on this western coast are necessarily Elis,
+and, (after the time of Epaminondas,) Messene.
+
+[Illustration: XVIII.
+
+ARTEMIS OF SYRACUSE.
+
+HERA OF LACINIAN CAPE.]
+
+196. I show you the coin of Messene, because the splendid height and
+form of Mount Ithome were more expressive of the physical power of Zeus
+than the lower hills of Olympia; and also because it was struck just at
+the time of the most finished and delicate Greek art--a little after the
+main strength of Phidias, but before decadence had generally pronounced
+itself. The coin is a silver didrachm, bearing on one side a head of
+Demeter, (Plate XVI., at the top); on the other a full figure of Zeus
+Aietophoros, (Plate XIX., at the top); the two together signifying the
+sustaining strength of the earth and heaven. Look first at the head of
+Demeter. It is merely meant to personify fullness of harvest; there is
+no mystery in it, no sadness, no vestige of the expression which we
+should have looked for in any effort to realize the Greek thoughts of
+the Earth Mother, as we find them spoken by the poets. But take it
+merely as personified Abundance,--the goddess of black furrow and tawny
+grass,--how commonplace it is, and how poor! The hair is grand, and
+there is one stalk of wheat set in it, which is enough to indicate the
+goddess who is meant; but, in that very office, ignoble, for it shows
+that the artist could only inform you that this was Demeter by such a
+symbol. How easy it would have been for a great designer to have made
+the hair lovely with fruitful flowers, and the features noble in mystery
+of gloom, or of tenderness. But here you have nothing to interest you,
+except the common Greek perfections of a straight nose and a full chin.
+
+197. We pass, on the reverse of the die, to the figure of Zeus
+Aietophoros. Think of the invocation to Zeus in the Suppliants, (525,)
+"King of Kings, and Happiest of the Happy, Perfectest of the Perfect in
+strength, abounding in all things, Jove--hear us, and be with us;" and
+then, consider what strange phase of mind it was, which, under the very
+mountain-home of the god, was content with this symbol of him as a
+well-fed athlete, holding a diminutive and crouching eagle on his fist.
+The features and the right hand have been injured in this coin, but the
+action of the arm shows that it held a thunderbolt, of which, I believe,
+the twisted rays were triple. In the presumably earlier coin engraved by
+Millingen, however,[39] it is singly pointed only; and the added
+inscription "[Greek: ITHOM]," in the field, renders the conjecture of
+Millingen probable, that this is a rude representation of the statue of
+Zeus Ithomates, made by Ageladas, the master of Phidias; and I think it
+has, indeed, the aspect of the endeavor, by a workman of more advanced
+knowledge, and more vulgar temper, to put the softer anatomy of later
+schools into the simple action of an archaic figure. Be that as it may,
+here is one of the most refined cities of Greece content with the figure
+of an athlete as the representative of their own mountain god; marked as
+a divine power merely by the attributes of the eagle and thunderbolt.
+
+198. Lastly. The Greeks have not, it appears, in any supreme way, given
+to their statues character, beauty, or divine strength. Can they give
+divine sadness? Shall we find in their art-work any of that pensiveness
+and yearning for the dead which fills the chants of their tragedy? I
+suppose, if anything like nearness or firmness of faith in after-life is
+to be found in Greek legend, you might look for it in the stories about
+the Island of Leuce, at the mouth of the Danube, inhabited by the ghosts
+of Achilles, Patroclus, Ajax the son of Oileus, and Helen; and in which
+the pavement of the Temple of Achilles was washed daily by the sea-birds
+with their wings, dipping them in the sea.
+
+Now it happens that we have actually on a coin of the Locrians the
+representation of the ghost of the Lesser Ajax. There is nothing in the
+history of human imagination more lovely than their leaving always a
+place for his spirit, vacant in their ranks of battle. But here is their
+sculptural representation of the phantom, (lower figure, Plate XIX.);
+and I think you will at once agree with me in feeling that it would be
+impossible to conceive anything more completely unspiritual. You might
+more than doubt that it could have been meant for the departed soul,
+unless you were aware of the meaning of this little circlet between the
+feet. On other coins you find his name inscribed there, but in this you
+have his habitation, the haunted Island of Leuce itself, with the waves
+flowing round it.
+
+[Illustration: XIX.
+
+ZEUS OF MESSENE.
+
+AJAX OF OPUS.]
+
+199. Again and again, however, I have to remind you, with respect to
+these apparently frank and simple failures, that the Greek always
+intends you to think for yourself, and understand, more than he can
+speak. Take this instance at our hands, the trim little circlet for the
+Island of Leuce. The workman knows very well it is not like the island,
+and that he could not make it so; that, at its best, his sculpture can
+be little more than a letter; and yet, in putting this circlet, and its
+encompassing fretwork of minute waves, he does more than if he had
+merely given you a letter L, or written 'Leuce.' If you know anything of
+beaches and sea, this symbol will set your imagination at work in
+recalling them; then you will think of the temple service of the
+novitiate sea-birds, and of the ghosts of Achilles and Patroclus
+appearing, like the Dioscuri, above the storm-clouds of the Euxine. And
+the artist, throughout his work, never for an instant loses faith in
+your sympathy and passion being ready to answer his;--if you have none
+to give, he does not care to take you into his counsel; on the whole,
+would rather that you should not look at his work.
+
+200. But if you have this sympathy to give, you may be sure that
+whatever he does for you will be right, as far as he can render it so.
+It may not be sublime, nor beautiful, nor amusing; but it will be full
+of meaning, and faithful in guidance. He will give you clue to myriads
+of things that he cannot literally teach; and, so far as he does teach,
+you may trust him. Is not this saying much?
+
+And as he strove only to teach what was true, so, in his sculptured
+symbol, he strove only to carve what was--Right. He rules over the arts
+to this day, and will forever, because he sought not first for beauty,
+not first for passion, or for invention, but for Rightness; striving to
+display, neither himself nor his art, but the thing that he dealt with,
+in its simplicity. That is his specific character as a Greek. Of course
+every nation's character is connected with that of others surrounding or
+preceding it; and in the best Greek work you will find some things that
+are still false, or fanciful; but whatever in it is false, or fanciful,
+is not the Greek part of it--it is the Phoenician, or Egyptian, or
+Pelasgian part. The essential Hellenic stamp is veracity:--Eastern
+nations drew their heroes with eight legs, but the Greeks drew them with
+two;--Egyptians drew their deities with cats' heads, but the Greeks drew
+them with men's; and out of all fallacy, disproportion, and
+indefiniteness, they were, day by day, resolvedly withdrawing and
+exalting themselves into restricted and demonstrable truth.
+
+201. And now, having cut away the misconceptions which incumbered our
+thoughts, I shall be able to put the Greek school into some clearness of
+its position for you, with respect to the art of the world. That
+relation is strangely duplicate; for, on one side, Greek art is the root
+of all simplicity; and, on the other, of all complexity.
+
+On one side, I say, it is the root of all simplicity. If you were for
+some prolonged period to study Greek sculpture exclusively in the Elgin
+room of the British Museum, and were then suddenly transported to the
+Hotel de Cluny, or any other museum of Gothic and barbarian workmanship,
+you would imagine the Greeks were the masters of all that was grand,
+simple, wise, and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys
+of the rest of mankind.
+
+[Illustration: XX.
+
+GREEK AND BARBARIAN SCULPTURE.]
+
+202. On one side of their work they are so. From all vain and mean
+decoration--all wreak and monstrous error, the Greeks rescue the forms
+of man and beast, and sculpture them in the nakedness of their true
+flesh, and with the fire of their living soul. Distinctively from other
+races, as I have now, perhaps to your weariness, told you, this is the
+work of the Greek, to give health to what was diseased, and chastisement
+to what was untrue. So far as this is found in any other school,
+hereafter, it belongs to them by inheritance from the Greeks, or invests
+them with the brotherhood of the Greek. And this is the deep meaning of
+the myth of Daedalus as the giver of motion to statues. The literal
+change from the binding together of the feet to their separation, and
+the other modifications of action which took place, either in
+progressive skill, or often, as the mere consequence of the transition
+from wood to stone, (a figure carved out of one wooden log must have
+necessarily its feet near each other, and hands at its sides,) these
+literal changes are as nothing, in the Greek fable, compared to the
+bestowing of apparent life. The figures of monstrous gods on Indian
+temples have their legs separate enough; but they are infinitely more
+dead than the rude figures at Branchidae sitting with their hands on
+their knees. And, briefly, the work of Daedalus is the giving of
+deceptive life, as that of Prometheus the giving of real life; and I can
+put the relation of Greek to all other art, in this function, before
+you, in easily compared and remembered examples.
+
+203. Here, on the right, in Plate XX., is an Indian bull, colossal, and
+elaborately carved, which you may take as a sufficient type of the bad
+art of all the earth. False in form, dead in heart, and loaded with
+wealth, externally. We will not ask the date of this; it may rest in the
+eternal obscurity of evil art, everywhere, and forever. Now, beside this
+colossal bull, here is a bit of Daedalus-work, enlarged from a coin not
+bigger than a shilling: look at the two together, and you ought to know,
+henceforward, what Greek art means, to the end of your days.
+
+204. In this aspect of it, then, I say it is the simplest and nakedest
+of lovely veracities. But it has another aspect, or rather another pole,
+for the opposition is diametric. As the simplest, so also it is the most
+complex of human art. I told you in my Fifth Lecture, showing you the
+spotty picture of Velasquez, that an essential Greek character is a
+liking for things that are dappled. And you cannot but have noticed how
+often and how prevalently the idea which gave its name to the Porch of
+Polygnotus, "[Greek: stoa poikile]," occurs to the Greeks as connected
+with the finest art. Thus, when the luxurious city is opposed to the
+simple and healthful one, in the second book of Plato's Polity, you find
+that, next to perfumes, pretty ladies, and dice, you must have in it
+"[Greek: poikilia]," which observe, both in that place and again in the
+third book, is the separate art of joiners' work, or inlaying; but the
+idea of exquisitely divided variegation or division, both in sight and
+sound--the "ravishing division to the lute," as in Pindar's "[Greek:
+poikiloi hymnoi]"--runs through the compass of all Greek
+art-description; and if, instead of studying that art among marbles, you
+were to look at it only on vases of a fine time, (look back, for
+instance, to Plate IV. here,) your impression of it would be, instead of
+breadth and simplicity, one of universal spottiness and checkeredness,
+"[Greek: en angeou Herkesin pampoikilois];" and of the artist's
+delighting in nothing so much as in crossed or starred or spotted
+things; which, in right places, he and his public both do unlimitedly.
+Indeed they hold it complimentary even to a trout, to call him a
+'spotty.' Do you recollect the trout in the tributaries of the Ladon,
+which Pausanias says were spotted, so that they were like thrushes, and
+which, the Arcadians told him, could speak? In this last [Greek:
+poikilia], however, they disappointed him. "I, indeed, saw some of them
+caught," he says, "but I did not hear any of them speak, though I waited
+beside the river till sunset."
+
+205. I must sum roughly now, for I have detained you too long.
+
+The Greeks have been thus the origin, not only of all broad, mighty, and
+calm conception, but of all that is divided, delicate, and tremulous;
+"variable as the shade, by the light quivering aspen made." To them, as
+first leaders of ornamental design, belongs, of right, the praise of
+glistenings in gold, piercings in ivory, stainings in purple,
+burnishings in dark blue steel; of the fantasy of the Arabian
+roof,--quartering of the Christian shield,--rubric and arabesque of
+Christian scripture; in fine, all enlargement, and all diminution of
+adorning thought, from the temple to the toy, and from the mountainous
+pillars of Agrigentum to the last fineness of fretwork in the Pisan
+Chapel of the Thorn.
+
+[Illustration: XXI.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CHIVALRY.]
+
+And in their doing all this, they stand as masters of human order and
+justice, subduing the animal nature, guided by the spiritual one, as you
+see the Sicilian Charioteer stands, holding his horse-reins, with the
+wild lion racing beneath him, and the flying angel above, on the
+beautiful coin of early Syracuse; (lowest in Plate XXI.)
+
+And the beginnings of Christian chivalry were in that Greek bridling of
+the dark and the white horses.
+
+206. Not that a Greek never made mistakes. He made as many as we do
+ourselves, nearly;--he died of his mistakes at last--as we shall die of
+them; but so far as he was separated from the herd of more mistaken and
+more wretched nations--so far as he was Greek--it was by his rightness.
+He lived, and worked, and was satisfied with the fatness of his land,
+and the fame of his deeds, by his justice, and reason, and modesty. He
+became Graeculus esuriens, little, and hungry, and every man's
+errand-boy, by his iniquity, and his competition, and his love of talk.
+But his Graecism was in having done, at least at one period of his
+dominion, more than anybody else, what was modest, useful, and eternally
+true; and as a workman, he verily did, or first suggested the doing of,
+everything possible to man.
+
+Take Daedalus, his great type of the practically executive craftsman, and
+the inventor of expedients in craftsmanship, (as distinguished from
+Prometheus, the institutor of moral order in art). Daedalus invents,--he,
+or his nephew,
+
+    The potter's wheel, and all work in clay;
+    The saw, and all work in wood;
+    The masts and sails of ships, and all modes of motion;
+      (wings only proving too dangerous!)
+    The entire art of minute ornament;
+    And the deceptive life of statues.
+
+By his personal toil, he involves the fatal labyrinth for Minos; builds
+an impregnable fortress for the Agrigentines; adorns healing baths among
+the wild parsley-fields of Selinus; buttresses the precipices of Eryx,
+under the temple of Aphrodite; and for her temple itself--finishes in
+exquisiteness the golden honeycomb.
+
+207. Take note of that last piece of his art: it is connected with many
+things which I must bring before you when we enter on the study of
+architecture. That study we shall begin at the foot of the Baptistery of
+Florence, which, of all buildings known to me, unites the most perfect
+symmetry with the quaintest [Greek: poikilia]. Then, from the tomb of
+your own Edward the Confessor, to the farthest shrine of the opposite
+Arabian and Indian world, I must show you how the glittering and
+iridescent dominion of Daedalus prevails; and his ingenuity in division,
+interposition, and labyrinthine sequence, more widely still. Only this
+last summer I found the dark red masses of the rough sandstone of
+Furness Abbey had been fitted by him, with no less pleasure than he had
+in carving them, into wedged hexagons--reminiscences of the honeycomb of
+Venus Erycina. His ingenuity plays around the framework of all the
+noblest things; and yet the brightness of it has a lurid shadow. The
+spot of the fawn, of the bird, and the moth, may be harmless. But
+Daedalus reigns no less over the spot of the leopard and snake. That
+cruel and venomous power of his art is marked, in the legends of him, by
+his invention of the saw from the serpent's tooth; and his seeking
+refuge, under blood-guiltiness, with Minos, who can judge evil, and
+measure, or remit, the penalty of it, but not reward good; Rhadamanthus
+only can measure _that_; but Minos is essentially the recognizer of evil
+deeds "conoscitor delle peccata," whom, therefore, you find in Dante
+under the form of the [Greek: erpeton]. "Cignesi con la coda tante
+volte, quantunque gradi vuol che giu sia messa."
+
+And this peril of the influence of Daedalus is twofold; first, in leading
+us to delight in glitterings and semblances of things, more than in
+their form, or truth;--admire the harlequin's jacket more than the
+hero's strength; and love the gilding of the missal more than its
+words;--but farther, and worse, the ingenuity of Daedalus may even become
+bestial, an instinct for mechanical labor only, strangely involved with
+a feverish and ghastly cruelty:--(you will find this distinct in the
+intensely Daedal work of the Japanese); rebellious, finally, against the
+laws of nature and honor, and building labyrinths for monsters,--not
+combs for bees.
+
+208. Gentlemen, we of the rough northern race may never, perhaps, be
+able to learn from the Greek his reverence for beauty; but we may at
+least learn his disdain of mechanism:--of all work which he felt to be
+monstrous and inhuman in its imprudent dexterities.
+
+We hold ourselves, we English, to be good workmen. I do not think I
+speak with light reference to recent calamity, (for I myself lost a
+young relation, full of hope and good purpose, in the foundered ship
+_London_,) when I say that either an AEginetan or Ionian shipwright built
+ships that could be fought from, though they were under water; and
+neither of them would have been proud of having built one that would
+fill and sink helplessly if the sea washed over her deck, or turn
+upside-down if a squall struck her topsail.
+
+Believe me, gentlemen, good workmanship consists in continence and
+common sense, more than in frantic expatiation of mechanical ingenuity;
+and if you would be continent and rational, you had better learn more of
+Art than you do now, and less of Engineering. What is taking place at
+this very hour,[40] among the streets, once so bright, and avenues, once
+so pleasant, of the fairest city in Europe, may surely lead us all to
+feel that the skill of Daedalus, set to build impregnable fortresses, is
+not so wisely applied as in framing the [Greek: treton ponon],--the
+golden honeycomb.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] The closing Lecture, on the religious temper of the Florentine,
+though necessary for the complete explanation of the subject to my
+class, at the time, introduced new points of inquiry which I do not
+choose to lay before the general reader until they can be examined in
+fuller sequence. The present volume, therefore, closes with the Sixth
+Lecture, and that on Christian art will be given as the first of the
+published course on Florentine Sculpture.
+
+[38] These plates of coins are given for future reference and
+examination, not merely for the use made of them in this place. The
+Lacinian Hera, if a coin could be found unworn in surface, would be very
+noble; her hair is thrown free because she is the goddess of the cape of
+storms, though in her temple, there, the wind never moved the ashes on
+its altar. (Livy, xxiv. 3.)
+
+[39] 'Ancient Cities and Kings,' Plate IV., No. 20.
+
+[40] The siege of Paris, at the time of the delivery of this Lecture,
+was in one of its most destructive phases.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VII.
+
+THE RELATION BETWEEN MICHAEL ANGELO AND TINTORET.[41]
+
+
+209. In preceding lectures on sculpture I have included references to
+the art of painting, so far as it proposes to itself the same object as
+sculpture, (idealization of form); and I have chosen for the subject of
+our closing inquiry, the works of the two masters who accomplished or
+implied the unity of these arts. Tintoret entirely conceives his figures
+as solid statues: sees them in his mind on every side; detaches each
+from the other by imagined air and light; and foreshortens, interposes,
+or involves them as if they were pieces of clay in his hand. On the
+contrary, Michael Angelo conceives his sculpture partly as if it were
+painted; and using (as I told you formerly) his pen like a chisel, uses
+also his chisel like a pencil; is sometimes as picturesque as Rembrandt,
+and sometimes as soft as Correggio.
+
+It is of him chiefly that I shall speak to-day; both because it is part
+of my duty to the strangers here present to indicate for them some of
+the points of interest in the drawings forming part of the University
+collections; but still more, because I must not allow the second year of
+my professorship to close, without some statement of the mode in which
+those collections may be useful or dangerous to my pupils. They seem at
+present little likely to be either; for since I entered on my duties, no
+student has ever asked me a single question respecting these drawings,
+or, so far as I could see, taken the slightest interest in them.
+
+210. There are several causes for this which might be obviated--there is
+one which cannot be. The collection, as exhibited at present, includes a
+number of copies which mimic in variously injurious ways the characters
+of Michael Angelo's own work; and the series, except as material for
+reference, can be of no practical service until these are withdrawn, and
+placed by themselves. It includes, besides, a number of original
+drawings which are indeed of value to any laborious student of Michael
+Angelo's life and temper; but which owe the greater part of this
+interest to their being executed in times of sickness or indolence, when
+the master, however strong, was failing in his purpose, and, however
+diligent, tired of his work. It will be enough to name, as an example of
+this class, the sheet of studies for the Medici tombs, No. 45, in which
+the lowest figure is, strictly speaking, neither a study nor a working
+drawing, but has either been scrawled in the feverish languor of
+exhaustion, which cannot escape its subject of thought; or, at best, in
+idly experimental addition of part to part, beginning with the head, and
+fitting muscle after muscle, and bone after bone, to it, thinking of
+their place only, not their proportion, till the head is only about
+one-twentieth part of the height of the body: finally, something between
+a face and a mask is blotted in the upper left-hand corner of the paper,
+indicative, in the weakness and frightfulness of it, simply of mental
+disorder from over-work; and there are several others of this kind,
+among even the better drawings of the collection, which ought never to
+be exhibited to the general public.
+
+211. It would be easy, however, to separate these, with the acknowledged
+copies, from the rest; and, doing the same with the drawings of Raphael,
+among which a larger number are of true value, to form a connected
+series of deep interest to artists, in illustration of the incipient and
+experimental methods of design practiced by each master.
+
+I say, to artists. Incipient methods of design are not, and ought not to
+be, subjects of earnest inquiry to other people; and although the
+re-arrangement of the drawings would materially increase the chance of
+their gaining due attention, there is a final and fatal reason for the
+want of interest in them displayed by the younger students;--namely,
+that these designs have nothing whatever to do with present life, with
+its passions, or with its religion. What their historic value is, and
+relation to the life of the past, I will endeavor, so far as time
+admits, to explain to-day.
+
+212. The course of Art divides itself hitherto, among all nations of the
+world that have practiced it successfully, into three great periods.
+
+The first, that in which their conscience is undeveloped, and their
+condition of life in many respects savage; but, nevertheless, in harmony
+with whatever conscience they possess. The most powerful tribes, in this
+stage of their intellect, usually live by rapine, and under the
+influence of vivid, but contracted, religious imagination. The early
+predatory activity of the Normans, and the confused minglings of
+religious subjects with scenes of hunting, war, and vile grotesque, in
+their first art, will sufficiently exemplify this state of a people;
+having, observe, their conscience undeveloped, but keeping their conduct
+in satisfied harmony with it.
+
+The second stage is that of the formation of conscience by the discovery
+of the true laws of social order and personal virtue, coupled with
+sincere effort to live by such laws as they are discovered.
+
+All the Arts advance steadily during this stage of national growth, and
+are lovely, even in their deficiencies, as the buds of flowers are
+lovely by their vital force, swift change, and continent beauty.
+
+213. The third stage is that in which the conscience is entirely formed,
+and the nation, finding it painful to live in obedience to the precepts
+it has discovered, looks about to discover, also, a compromise for
+obedience to them. In this condition of mind its first endeavor is
+nearly always to make its religion pompous, and please the gods by
+giving them gifts and entertainments, in which it may piously and
+pleasurably share itself; so that a magnificent display of the powers of
+art it has gained by sincerity, takes place for a few years, and is then
+followed by their extinction, rapid and complete exactly in the degree
+in which the nation resigns itself to hypocrisy.
+
+The works of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Tintoret belong to this period
+of compromise in the career of the greatest nation of the world; and are
+the most splendid efforts yet made by human creatures to maintain the
+dignity of states with beautiful colors, and defend the doctrines of
+theology with anatomical designs.
+
+Farther, and as an universal principle, we have to remember that the
+Arts express not only the moral temper, but the scholarship, of their
+age; and we have thus to study them under the influence, at the same
+moment of, it may be, declining probity, and advancing science.
+
+214. Now in this the Arts of Northern and Southern Europe stand exactly
+opposed. The Northern temper never accepts the Catholic faith with force
+such as it reached in Italy. Our sincerest thirteenth-century sculptor
+is cold and formal compared with that of the Pisani; nor can any
+Northern poet be set for an instant beside Dante, as an exponent of
+Catholic faith: on the contrary, the Northern temper accepts the
+scholarship of the Reformation with absolute sincerity, while the
+Italians seek refuge from it in the partly scientific and completely
+lascivious enthusiasms of literature and painting, renewed under
+classical influence. We therefore, in the north, produce our Shakspeare
+and Holbein; they their Petrarch and Raphael. And it is nearly
+impossible for you to study Shakspeare or Holbein too much, or Petrarch
+and Raphael too little.
+
+I do not say this, observe, in opposition to the Catholic faith, or to
+any other faith, but only to the attempts to support whatsoever the
+faith may be, by ornament or eloquence, instead of action. Every man who
+honestly accepts, and acts upon, the knowledge granted to him by the
+circumstances of his time, has the faith which God intends him to
+have;--assuredly a good one, whatever the terms or form of it--every man
+who dishonestly refuses, or interestedly disobeys the knowledge open to
+him, holds a faith which God does not mean him to hold, and therefore a
+bad one, however beautiful or traditionally respectable.
+
+215. Do not, therefore, I entreat you, think that I speak with any
+purpose of defending one system of theology against another; least of
+all, reformed against Catholic theology. There probably never was a
+system of religion so destructive to the loveliest arts and the
+loveliest virtues of men, as the modern Protestantism, which consists in
+an assured belief in the Divine forgiveness of all your sins, and the
+Divine correctness of all your opinions. But in the first searching and
+sincere activities, the doctrines of the Reformation produced the most
+instructive art, and the grandest literature, yet given to the world;
+while Italy, in her interested resistance to those doctrines, polluted
+and exhausted the arts she already possessed. Her iridescence of dying
+statesmanship--her magnificence of hollow piety,--were represented in
+the arts of Venice and Florence by two mighty men on either side--Titian
+and Tintoret,--Michael Angelo and Raphael. Of the calm and brave
+statesmanship, the modest and faithful religion, which had been her
+strength, I am content to name one chief representative artist at
+Venice, John Bellini.
+
+216. Let me now map out for you roughly the chronological relations of
+these five men. It is impossible to remember the minor years, in dates;
+I will give you them broadly in decades, and you can add what finesse
+afterwards you like.
+
+Recollect, first, the great year 1480. Twice four's eight--you can't
+mistake it. In that year Michael Angelo was five years old; Titian,
+three years old; Raphael, within three years of being born.
+
+So see how easily it comes. Michael Angelo five years old--and you
+divide six between Titian and Raphael,--three on each side of your
+standard year, 1480.
+
+Then add to 1480, forty years--an easy number to recollect, surely; and
+you get the exact year of Raphael's death, 1520.
+
+In that forty years all the new effort and deadly catastrophe took
+place. 1480 to 1520.
+
+Now, you have only to fasten to those forty years, the life of Bellini,
+who represents the best art before them, and of Tintoret, who represents
+the best art after them.
+
+217. I cannot fit you these on with a quite comfortable exactness, but
+with very slight inexactness I can fit them firmly.
+
+John Bellini was ninety years old when he died. He lived fifty years
+before the great forty of change, and he saw the forty, and died. Then
+Tintoret is born; lives eighty[42] years after the forty, and closes, in
+dying, the sixteenth century, and the great arts of the world.
+
+Those are the dates, roughly; now for the facts connected with them.
+
+John Bellini precedes the change, meets, and resists it victoriously to
+his death. Nothing of flaw or failure is ever to be discerned in him.
+
+Then Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Titian, together, bring about the
+deadly change, playing into each other's hands--Michael Angelo being the
+chief captain in evil; Titian, in natural force.
+
+Then Tintoret, himself alone nearly as strong as all the three, stands
+up for a last fight; for Venice, and the old time. He all but wins it at
+first; but the three together are too strong for him. Michael Angelo
+strikes him down; and the arts are ended. "Il disegno di Michael
+Agnolo." That fatal motto was his death-warrant.
+
+218. And now, having massed out my subject, I can clearly sketch for you
+the changes that took place from Bellini, through Michael Angelo, to
+Tintoret.
+
+The art of Bellini is centrally represented by two pictures at Venice:
+one, the Madonna in the Sacristy of the Frari, with two saints beside
+her, and two angels at her feet; the second, the Madonna with four
+Saints, over the second altar of San Zaccaria.
+
+In the first of these, the figures are under life size, and it
+represents the most perfect kind of picture for rooms; in which, since
+it is intended to be seen close to the spectator, every right kind of
+finish possible to the hand may be wisely lavished; yet which is not a
+miniature, nor in any wise petty, or ignoble.
+
+In the second, the figures are of life size, or a little more, and it
+represents the class of great pictures in which the boldest execution is
+used, but all brought to entire completion. These two, having every
+quality in balance, are as far as my present knowledge extends, and as
+far as I can trust my judgment, the two best pictures in the world.
+
+219. Observe respecting them--
+
+First, they are both wrought in entirely consistent and permanent
+material. The gold in them is represented by painting, not laid on with
+real gold. And the painting is so secure, that four hundred years have
+produced on it, so far as I can see, no harmful change whatsoever, of
+any kind.
+
+Secondly, the figures in both are in perfect peace. No action takes
+place except that the little angels are playing on musical instruments,
+but with uninterrupted and effortless gesture, as in a dream. A choir of
+singing angels by La Robbia or Donatello would be intent on their music,
+or eagerly rapturous in it, as in temporary exertion: in the little
+choirs of cherubs by Luini in the Adoration of the Shepherds, in the
+Cathedral of Como, we even feel by their dutiful anxiety that there
+might be danger of a false note if they were less attentive. But
+Bellini's angels, even the youngest, sing as calmly as the Fates weave.
+
+220. Let me at once point out to you that this calmness is the attribute
+of the entirely highest class of art: the introduction of strong or
+violently emotional incident is at once a confession of inferiority.
+
+Those are the two first attributes of the best art. Faultless
+workmanship, and perfect serenity; a continuous, not momentary,
+action,--or entire inaction. You are to be interested in the living
+creatures; not in what is happening to them.
+
+Then the third attribute of the best art is that it compels you to think
+of the spirit of the creature, and therefore of its face, more than of
+its body.
+
+And the fourth is that in the face you shall be led to see only beauty
+or joy;--never vileness, vice, or pain.
+
+Those are the four essentials of the greatest art. I repeat them, they
+are easily learned.
+
+1. Faultless and permanent workmanship.
+
+2. Serenity in state or action.
+
+3. The Face principal, not the body.
+
+4. And the Face free from either vice or pain.
+
+221. It is not possible, of course, always literally to observe the
+second condition, that there shall be quiet action or none; but
+Bellini's treatment of violence in action you may see exemplified in a
+notable way in his St. Peter Martyr. The soldier is indeed striking the
+sword down into his breast; but in the face of the Saint is only
+resignation, and faintness of death, not pain--that of the executioner
+is impassive; and, while a painter of the later schools would have
+covered breast and sword with blood, Bellini allows no stain of it; but
+pleases himself by the most elaborate and exquisite painting of a soft
+crimson feather in the executioner's helmet.
+
+222. Now the changes brought about by Michael Angelo--and permitted, or
+persisted in calamitously, by Tintoret--are in the four points these:
+
+     1st. Bad workmanship.
+
+     The greater part of all that these two men did is hastily and
+     incompletely done; and all that they did on a large scale in
+     color is in the best qualities of it perished.
+
+     2d. Violence of transitional action.
+
+     The figures flying,--falling,--striking,--or biting. Scenes of
+     Judgment,--battle,--martyrdom,--massacre; anything that is in
+     the acme of instantaneous interest and violent gesture. They
+     cannot any more trust their public to care for anything but
+     that.
+
+     3d. Physical instead of mental interest. The body, and its
+     anatomy, made the entire subject of interest: the face,
+     shadowed, as in the Duke Lorenzo,[43] unfinished, as in the
+     Twilight, or entirely foreshortened, backshortened, and
+     despised, among labyrinths of limbs, and mountains of sides and
+     shoulders.
+
+     4th. Evil chosen rather than good. On the face itself, instead
+     of joy or virtue, at the best, sadness, probably pride, often
+     sensuality, and always, by preference, vice or agony as the
+     subject of thought. In the Last Judgment of Michael Angelo, and
+     the Last Judgment of Tintoret, it is the wrath of the Dies Irae,
+     not its justice, in which they delight; and their only
+     passionate thought of the coming of Christ in the clouds, is
+     that all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of Him.
+
+Those are the four great changes wrought by Michael Angelo. I repeat
+them:
+
+    Ill work for good.
+    Tumult for Peace.
+    The Flesh of Man for his Spirit.
+    And the Curse of God for His blessing.
+
+223. Hitherto, I have massed, necessarily, but most unjustly, Michael
+Angelo and Tintoret together, because of their common relation to the
+art of others. I shall now proceed to distinguish the qualities of their
+own. And first as to the general temper of the two men.
+
+Nearly every existing work by Michael Angelo is an attempt to execute
+something beyond his power, coupled with a fevered desire that his power
+may be acknowledged. He is always matching himself either against the
+Greeks whom he cannot rival, or against rivals whom he cannot forget. He
+is proud, yet not proud enough to be at peace; melancholy, yet not
+deeply enough to be raised above petty pain; and strong beyond all his
+companion workmen, yet never strong enough to command his temper, or
+limit his aims.
+
+Tintoret, on the contrary, works in the consciousness of supreme
+strength, which cannot be wounded by neglect, and is only to be thwarted
+by time and space. He knows precisely all that art can accomplish under
+given conditions; determines absolutely how much of what can be done he
+will himself for the moment choose to do; and fulfills his purpose with
+as much ease as if, through his human body, were working the great
+forces of nature. Not that he is ever satisfied with what he has done,
+as vulgar and feeble artists are satisfied. He falls short of his ideal,
+more than any other man; but not more than is necessary; and is content
+to fall short of it to that degree, as he is content that his figures,
+however well painted, do not move nor speak. He is also entirely
+unconcerned respecting the satisfaction of the public. He neither cares
+to display his strength to them, nor convey his ideas to them; when he
+finishes his work, it is because he is in the humor to do so; and the
+sketch which a meaner painter would have left incomplete to show how
+cleverly it was begun, Tintoret simply leaves because he has done as
+much of it as he likes.
+
+224. Both Raphael and Michael Angelo are thus, in the most vital of all
+points, separate from the great Venetian. They are always in dramatic
+attitudes, and always appealing to the public for praise. They are the
+leading athletes in the gymnasium of the arts; and the crowd of the
+circus cannot take its eyes away from them, while the Venetian walks or
+rests with the simplicity of a wild animal; is scarcely noticed in his
+occasionally swifter motion; when he springs, it is to please himself;
+and so calmly, that no one thinks of estimating the distance covered.
+
+I do not praise him wholly in this. I praise him only for the
+well-founded pride, infinitely nobler than Michael Angelo's. You do not
+hear of Tintoret's putting any one into hell because they had found
+fault with his work. Tintoret would as soon have thought of putting a
+dog into hell for laying his paws on it. But he is to be blamed in
+this--that he thinks as little of the pleasure of the public, as of
+their opinion. A great painter's business is to do what the public ask
+of him, in the way that shall be helpful and instructive to them. His
+relation to them is exactly that of a tutor to a child; he is not to
+defer to their judgment, but he is carefully to form it;--not to consult
+their pleasure for his own sake, but to consult it much for theirs. It
+was scarcely, however, possible that this should be the case between
+Tintoret and his Venetians; he could not paint for the people, and in
+some respects he was happily protected by his subordination to the
+Senate. Raphael and Michael Angelo lived in a world of court intrigue,
+in which it was impossible to escape petty irritation, or refuse
+themselves the pleasure of mean victory. But Tintoret and Titian, even
+at the height of their reputation, practically lived as craftsmen in
+their workshops, and sent in samples of their wares, not to be praised
+or caviled at, but to be either taken or refused.
+
+225. I can clearly and adequately set before you these relations between
+the great painters of Venice and her Senate--relations which, in
+monetary matters, are entirely right and exemplary for all time--by
+reading to you two decrees of the Senate itself, and one petition to it.
+The first document shall be the decree of the Senate for giving help to
+John Bellini, in finishing the compartments of the great Council
+Chamber; granting him three assistants--one of them Victor Carpaccio.
+
+The decree, first referring to some other business, closes in these
+terms:[44]
+
+     "There having moreover offered his services to this effect our
+     most faithful citizen, Zuan Bellin, according to his agreement
+     employing his skill and all speed and diligence for the
+     completion of this work of the three pictures aforesaid,
+     provided he be assisted by the under-written painters.
+
+     "Be it therefore put to the ballot, that besides the aforesaid
+     Zuan Bellin in person, who will assume the superintendence of
+     this work, there be added Master Victor Scarpaza, with a
+     monthly salary of five ducats; Master Victor, son of the late
+     Mathio, at four ducats per month; and the painter, Hieronymo,
+     at two ducats per month; they rendering speedy and diligent
+     assistance to the aforesaid Zuan Bellin for the painting of the
+     pictures aforesaid, so that they be completed well and
+     carefully as speedily as possible. The salaries of the which
+     three master painters aforesaid, with the costs of colors and
+     other necessaries, to be defrayed by our Salt Office with the
+     moneys of the great chest.
+
+     "It being expressly declared that said pensioned painters be
+     tied and bound to work constantly and daily, so that said three
+     pictures may be completed as expeditiously as possible; the
+     artists aforesaid being pensioned at the good pleasure of this
+     Council.
+
+    "Ayes     23
+
+    "Noes      3
+
+    "Neutrals  0"
+
+This decree is the more interesting to us now, because it is the
+precedent to which Titian himself refers, when he first offers his
+services to the Senate.
+
+The petition which I am about to read to you, was read to the Council of
+Ten, on the last day of May, 1513, and the original draft of it is yet
+preserved in the Venice archives.
+
+    "'Most Illustrious Council of Ten.
+    "'Most Serene Prince and most Excellent Lords.
+
+     "'I, Titian of Serviete de Cadore, having from my boyhood
+     upwards set myself to learn the art of painting, not so much
+     from cupidity of gain as for the sake of endeavoring to
+     acquire some little fame, and of being ranked amongst those who
+     now profess the said art.
+
+     "'And altho heretofore, and likewise at this present, I have
+     been earnestly requested by the Pope and other potentates to go
+     and serve them, nevertheless, being anxious as your Serenity's
+     most faithful subject, for such I am, to leave some memorial in
+     this famous city; my determination is, should the Signory
+     approve, _to undertake, so long as I live, to come and paint in
+     the Grand Council with my whole soul and ability_; commencing,
+     provided your Serenity think of it, with the battle-piece on
+     the side towards the "Piaza," that being the most difficult;
+     nor down to this time has any one chosen to assume so hard a
+     task.
+
+     "'I, most excellent Lords, should be better pleased to receive
+     as recompense for the work to be done by me, such
+     acknowledgments as may be deemed sufficient, and much less; but
+     because, as already stated by me, I care solely for my honor,
+     and mere livelihood, should your Serenity approve, you will
+     vouchsafe to grant me for my life, the next brokers-patent in
+     the German factory,[45] by whatever means it may become vacant;
+     notwithstanding other expectancies; with the terms, conditions,
+     obligations, and exemptions, as in the case of Messer Zuan
+     Bellini; besides two youths whom I purpose bringing with me as
+     assistants; they to be paid by the Salt Office; as likewise the
+     colors and all other requisites, as conceded a few months ago
+     by the aforesaid most Illustrious Council to the said Messer
+     Zuan; for I promise to do such work and with so much speed and
+     excellency as shall satisfy your lordships to whom I humbly
+     recommend myself.'"
+
+226. "This proposal," Mr. Brown tells us, "in accordance with the
+petitions presented by Gentil Bellini and Alvise Vivarini, was
+immediately put to the ballot," and carried thus--the decision of the
+Grand Council, in favor of Titian, being, observe, by no means
+unanimous:
+
+    "Ayes     10
+
+    "Noes      6
+
+    "Neutrals  0"
+
+Immediately follows on the acceptance of Titian's services, this
+practical order:
+
+     "We, Chiefs of the most Illustrious Council of Ten, tell and
+     inform you Lords Proveditors for the State; videlicet the one
+     who is cashier of the Great Chest, and his successors, that for
+     the execution of what has been decreed above in the most
+     Illustrious Council aforesaid, you do have prepared all
+     necessaries for the above written Titian according to his
+     petition and demand, and as observed with regard to Juan
+     Bellini, that he may paint ut supra; paying from month to month
+     the two youths whom said Titian shall present to you at the
+     rate of four ducats each per month, as urged by him because of
+     their skill and sufficiency in said art of painting, tho' we do
+     not mean the payment of their salary to commence until they
+     begin work; and thus will you do. Given on the 8th of June,
+     1513."
+
+This is the way, then, the great workmen wish to be paid, and that is
+the way wise men pay them for their work. The perfect simplicity of such
+patronage leaves the painter free to do precisely what he thinks best:
+and a good painter always produces his best, with such license.
+
+227. And now I shall take the four conditions of change in succession,
+and examine the distinctions between the two masters in their acceptance
+of, or resistance to, them.
+
+(I.) The change of good and permanent workmanship for bad and insecure
+workmanship.
+
+You have often heard quoted the saying of Michael Angelo, that
+oil-painting was only fit for women and children.
+
+He said so, simply because he had neither the skill to lay a single
+touch of good oil-painting, nor the patience to overcome even its
+elementary difficulties.
+
+And it is one of my reasons for the choice of subject in this concluding
+lecture on Sculpture, that I may, with direct reference to this much
+quoted saying of Michael Angelo, make the positive statement to you,
+that oil-painting is the Art of arts;[46] that it is sculpture, drawing,
+and music, all in one, involving the technical dexterities of those
+three several arts; that is to say--the decision and strength of the
+stroke of the chisel;--the balanced distribution of appliance of that
+force necessary for graduation in light and shade;--and the passionate
+felicity of rightly multiplied actions, all unerring, which on an
+instrument produce right sound, and on canvas, living color. There is
+no other human skill so great or so wonderful as the skill of fine
+oil-painting; and there is no other art whose results are so absolutely
+permanent. Music is gone as soon as produced--marble discolors,--fresco
+fades,--glass darkens or decomposes--painting alone, well guarded, is
+practically everlasting.
+
+Of this splendid art Michael Angelo understood nothing; he understood
+even fresco, imperfectly. Tintoret understood both perfectly; but
+he--when no one would pay for his colors (and sometimes nobody would
+even give him space of wall to paint on)--used cheap blue for
+ultramarine; and he worked so rapidly, and on such huge spaces of
+canvas, that between damp and dry, his colors must go, for the most
+part; but any complete oil-painting of his stands as well as one of
+Bellini's own: while Michael Angelo's fresco is defaced already in every
+part of it, and Lionardo's oil-painting is all either gone black, or
+gone to nothing.
+
+228. (II.) Introduction of dramatic interest for the sake of excitement.
+I have already, in the _Stones of Venice_, illustrated Tintoret's
+dramatic power at so great length, that I will not, to-day, make any
+farther statement to justify my assertion that it is as much beyond
+Michael Angelo's as Shakspeare's is beyond Milton's--and somewhat with
+the same kind of difference in manner. Neither can I speak to-day, time
+not permitting me, of the abuse of their dramatic power by Venetian or
+Florentine; one thing only I beg you to note, that with full half of his
+strength, Tintoret remains faithful to the serenity of the past; and the
+examples I have given you from his work in S. 50,[47] are, one, of the
+most splendid drama, and the other, of the quietest portraiture ever
+attained by the arts of the Middle Ages.
+
+Note also this respecting his picture of the Judgment, that, in spite
+of all the violence and wildness of the imagined scene, Tintoret has not
+given, so far as I remember, the spectacle of any one soul under
+infliction of actual pain. In all previous representations of the Last
+Judgment there had at least been one division of the picture set apart
+for the representation of torment; and even the gentle Angelico shrinks
+from no orthodox detail in this respect; but Tintoret, too vivid and
+true in imagination to be able to endure the common thoughts of hell,
+represents indeed the wicked in ruin, but not in agony. They are swept
+down by flood and whirlwind--the place of them shall know them no more,
+but not one is seen in more than the natural pain of swift and
+irrevocable death.
+
+229. (III.) I pass to the third condition; the priority of flesh to
+spirit, and of the body to the face.
+
+In this alone, of the four innovations, Michael Angelo and Tintoret have
+the Greeks with them;--in this, alone, have they any right to be called
+classical. The Greeks gave them no excuse for bad workmanship; none for
+temporary passion; none for the preference of pain. Only in the honor
+done to the body may be alleged for them the authority of the ancients.
+
+You remember, I hope, how often in my preceding lectures I had to insist
+on the fact that Greek sculpture was essentially [Greek:
+aprosopos];--independent, not only of the expression, but even of the
+beauty of the face. Nay, independent of its being so much as seen. The
+greater number of the finest pieces of it which remain for us to judge
+by, have had the heads broken away;--we do not seriously miss them
+either from the Three Fates, the Ilissus, or the Torso of the Vatican.
+The face of the Theseus is so far destroyed by time that you can form
+little conception of its former aspect. But it is otherwise in Christian
+sculpture. Strike the head off even the rudest statue in the porch of
+Chartres and you will greatly miss it--the harm would be still worse to
+Donatello's St. George:--and if you take the heads from a statue of
+Mino, or a painting of Angelico--very little but drapery will be
+left;--drapery made redundant in quantity and rigid in fold, that it may
+conceal the forms, and give a proud or ascetic reserve to the actions,
+of the bodily frame. Bellini and his school, indeed, rejected at once
+the false theory, and the easy mannerism, of such religious design; and
+painted the body without fear or reserve, as, in its subordination,
+honorable and lovely. But the inner heart and fire of it are by them
+always first thought of, and no action is given to it merely to show its
+beauty. Whereas the great culminating masters, and chiefly of these,
+Tintoret, Correggio, and Michael Angelo, delight in the body for its own
+sake, and cast it into every conceivable attitude, often in violation of
+all natural probability, that they may exhibit the action of its
+skeleton, and the contours of its flesh. The movement of a hand with
+Cima or Bellini expresses mental emotion only; but the clustering and
+twining of the fingers of Correggio's S. Catherine is enjoyed by the
+painter just in the same way as he would enjoy the twining of the
+branches of a graceful plant, and he compels them into intricacies which
+have little or no relation to St. Catherine's mind. In the two drawings
+of Correggio (S. 13 and 14) it is the rounding of limbs and softness of
+foot resting on cloud which are principally thought of in the form of
+the Madonna; and the countenance of St. John is foreshortened into a
+section, that full prominence may be given to the muscles of his arms
+and breast.
+
+So in Tintoret's drawing of the Graces (S. 22), he has entirely
+neglected the individual character of the Goddesses, and been content to
+indicate it merely by attributes of dice or flower, so only that he may
+sufficiently display varieties of contour in thigh and shoulder.
+
+230. Thus far, then, the Greeks, Correggio, Michael Angelo, Raphael in
+his latter design, and Tintoret in his scenic design (as opposed to
+portraiture), are at one. But the Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, are
+also together in this farther point; that they all draw the body for
+true delight in it, and with knowledge of it living; while Michael
+Angelo and Raphael draw the body for vanity, and from knowledge of it
+dead.
+
+The Venus of Melos,--Correggio's Venus, (with Mercury teaching Cupid to
+read),--and Tintoret's Graces, have the forms which their designers
+truly _liked_ to see in women. They may have been wrong or right in
+liking those forms, but they carved and painted them for their pleasure,
+not for vanity.
+
+But the form of Michael Angelo's Night is not one which he delighted to
+see in women. He gave it her, because he thought it was fine, and that
+he would be admired for reaching so lofty an ideal.[48]
+
+231. Again. The Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, learn the body from the
+living body, and delight in its breath, color, and motion.[49]
+
+Raphael and Michael Angelo learned it essentially from the corpse, and
+had no delight in it whatever, but great pride in showing that they knew
+all its mechanism; they therefore sacrifice its colors, and insist on
+its muscles, and surrender the breath and fire of it, for what is--not
+merely carnal,--but osseous, knowing that for one person who can
+recognize the loveliness of a look, or the purity of a color, there are
+a hundred who can calculate the length of a bone.
+
+The boy with the doves, in Raphael's cartoon of the Beautiful Gate of
+the Temple, is not a child running, but a surgical diagram of a child in
+a running posture.
+
+Farther, when the Greeks, Correggio, and Tintoret, draw the body active,
+it is because they rejoice in its force, and when they draw it inactive,
+it is because they rejoice in its repose. But Michael Angelo and Raphael
+invent for it ingenious mechanical motion, because they think it
+uninteresting when it is quiet, and cannot, in their pictures, endure
+any person's being simple-minded enough to stand upon both his legs at
+once, nor venture to imagine anyone's being clear enough in his language
+to make himself intelligible without pointing.
+
+In all these conditions, the Greek and Venetian treatment of the body is
+faithful, modest, and natural; but Michael Angelo's dishonest, insolent,
+and artificial.
+
+232. But between him and Tintoret there is a separation deeper than all
+these, when we examine their treatment of the face. Michael Angelo's
+vanity of surgical science rendered it impossible for him ever to treat
+the body as well as the Greeks treated it; but it left him wholly at
+liberty to treat the face as ill; and he did: and in some respects very
+curiously worse.
+
+The Greeks had, in all their work, one type of face for beautiful and
+honorable persons; and another, much contrary to it, for dishonorable
+ones; and they were continually setting these in opposition. Their type
+of beauty lay chiefly in the undisturbed peace and simplicity of all
+contours; in full roundness of chin; in perfect formation of the lips,
+showing neither pride nor care; and, most of all, in a straight and firm
+line from the brow to the end of the nose.
+
+The Greek type of dishonorable persons, especially satyrs, fauns, and
+sensual powers, consisted in irregular excrescence and decrement of
+features, especially in flatness of the upper part of the nose, and
+projection of the end of it into a blunt knob.
+
+By the most grotesque fatality, as if the personal bodily injury he had
+himself received had passed with a sickly echo into his mind also,
+Michael Angelo is always dwelling on this satyric form of
+countenance;--sometimes violently caricatures it, but never can help
+drawing it; and all the best profiles in this collection at Oxford have
+what Mr. Robinson calls a "nez retrousse;" but what is, in reality, the
+nose of the Greek Bacchic mask, treated as a dignified feature.
+
+233. For the sake of readers who cannot examine the drawings themselves,
+and lest I should be thought to have exaggerated in any wise the
+statement of this character, I quote Mr. Robinson's description of the
+head, No. 9--a celebrated and entirely authentic drawing, on which, I
+regret to say, my own pencil comment in passing is merely "brutal lower
+lip, and broken nose":--
+
+     "This admirable study was probably made from nature, additional
+     character and more powerful expression having been given to it
+     by a slight exaggeration of details, bordering on caricature
+     (observe the protruding lower lip, 'nez retrousse,' and
+     overhanging forehead). The head, in profile, turned to the
+     right, is proudly planted on a massive neck and shoulders, and
+     the short tufted hair stands up erect. The expression is that
+     of fierce, insolent self-confidence and malevolence; it is
+     engraved in facsimile in Ottley's 'Italian School of Design,'
+     and it is described in that work, p. 33, as 'Finely expressive
+     of scornfulness and pride, and evidently a study from nature.'
+
+     "Michel Angelo has made use of the same ferocious-looking model
+     on other occasions--see an instance in the well-known 'Head of
+     Satan' engraved in Woodburn's Lawrence Gallery (No. 16), and
+     now in the Malcolm Collection.
+
+     "The study on the reverse of the leaf is more lightly executed;
+     it represents a man of powerful frame, carrying a hog or boar
+     in his arms before him, the upper part of his body thrown back
+     to balance the weight, his head hidden by that of the animal,
+     which rests on the man's right shoulder.
+
+     "The power displayed in every line and touch of these drawings
+     is inimitable--the head was in truth one of the 'teste divine,'
+     and the hand which executed it the 'mano terribile,' so
+     enthusiastically alluded to by Vasari."
+
+234. Passing, for the moment, by No. 10, a "young woman of majestic
+character, marked by a certain expression of brooding melancholy," and
+"wearing on her head a fantastic cap or turban;"--by No. 11, a bearded
+man, "wearing a conical Phrygian cap, his mouth wide open," and his
+expression "obstreperously animated;"--and by No. 12, "a middle-aged or
+old man, with a snub nose, high forehead, and thin, scrubby hair," we
+will go on to the fairer examples of Divine heads in No. 32.
+
+     "This splendid sheet of studies is probably one of the 'carte
+     stupendissime di teste divine,' which Vasari says (Vita, p.
+     272) Michel Angelo executed, as presents or lessons for his
+     artistic friends. Not improbably it is actually one of those
+     made for his friend Tommaso dei Cavalieri, who, when young, was
+     desirous of learning to draw."
+
+But it is one of the chief misfortunes affecting Michael Angelo's
+reputation, that his ostentatious display of strength and science has a
+natural attraction for comparatively weak and pedantic persons. And this
+sheet of Vasari's "teste divine" contains, in fact, not a single drawing
+of high quality--only one of moderate agreeableness, and two caricatured
+heads, one of a satyr with hair like the fur of animals, and one of a
+monstrous and sensual face, such as could only have occurred to the
+sculptor in a fatigued dream, and which in my own notes I have classed
+with the vile face in No. 45.
+
+235. Returning, however, to the divine heads above it, I wish you to
+note "the most conspicuous and important of all," a study for one of the
+Genii behind the Sibylla Libyca. This Genius, like the young woman of a
+majestic character, and the man with his mouth open, wears a cap, or
+turban; opposite to him in the sheet, is a female in profile, "wearing a
+hood of massive drapery." And, when once your attention is directed to
+this point, you will perhaps be surprised to find how many of Michael
+Angelo's figures, intended to be sublime, have their heads bandaged. If
+you have been a student of Michael Angelo chiefly, you may easily have
+vitiated your taste to the extent of thinking that this is a dignified
+costume; but if you study Greek work, instead, you will find that
+nothing is more important in the system of it than a finished
+disposition of the hair; and as soon as you acquaint yourself with the
+execution of carved marbles generally, you will perceive these massy
+fillets to be merely a cheap means of getting over a difficulty too
+great for Michael Angelo's patience, and too exigent for his invention.
+They are not sublime arrangements, but economies of labor, and reliefs
+from the necessity of design; and if you had proposed to the sculptor of
+the Venus of Melos, or of the Jupiter of Olympia, to bind the ambrosial
+locks up in towels, you would most likely have been instantly bound,
+yourself; and sent to the nearest temple of AEsculapius.
+
+236. I need not, surely, tell you,--I need only remind,--how in all
+these points, the Venetians and Correggio reverse Michael Angelo's evil,
+and vanquish him in good; how they refuse caricature, rejoice in beauty,
+and thirst for opportunity of toil. The waves of hair in a single figure
+of Tintoret's (the Mary Magdalen of the Paradise) contain more
+intellectual design in themselves alone than all the folds of unseemly
+linen in the Sistine chapel put together.
+
+In the fourth and last place, as Tintoret does not sacrifice, except as
+he is forced by the exigencies of display, the face for the body, so
+also he does not sacrifice happiness for pain. The chief reason why we
+all know the "Last Judgment" of Michael Angelo, and not the "Paradise"
+of Tintoret, is the same love of sensation which makes us read the
+_Inferno_ of Dante, and not his _Paradise_; and the choice, believe me,
+is our fault, not his; some farther evil influence is due to the fact
+that Michael Angelo has invested all his figures with picturesque and
+palpable elements of effect, while Tintoret has only made them lovely in
+themselves and has been content that they should deserve, not demand,
+your attention.
+
+237. You are accustomed to think the figures of Michael Angelo
+sublime--because they are dark, and colossal, and involved, and
+mysterious--because in a word, they look sometimes like shadows, and
+sometimes like mountains, and sometimes like specters, but never like
+human beings. Believe me, yet once more, in what I told you long
+since--man can invent nothing nobler than humanity. He cannot raise his
+form into anything better than God made it, by giving it either the
+flight of birds or strength of beasts, by enveloping it in mist, or
+heaping it into multitude. Your pilgrim must look like a pilgrim in a
+straw hat, or you will not make him into one with cockle and nimbus; an
+angel must look like an angel on the ground, as well as in the air; and
+the much-denounced pre-Raphaelite faith that a saint cannot look
+saintly unless he has thin legs, is not more absurd than Michael
+Angelo's, that a Sybil cannot look Sibylline unless she has thick ones.
+
+238. All that shadowing, storming, and coiling of his, when you look
+into it, is mere stage decoration, and that of a vulgar kind. Light is,
+in reality, more awful than darkness--modesty more majestic than
+strength; and there is truer sublimity in the sweet joy of a child, or
+the sweet virtue of a maiden, than in the strength of Antaeus, or
+thunder-clouds of AEtna.
+
+Now, though in nearly all his greater pictures, Tintoret is entirely
+carried away by his sympathy with Michael Angelo, and conquers him in
+his own field;--outflies him in motion, outnumbers him in multitude,
+outwits him in fancy, and outflames him in rage,--he can be just as
+gentle as he is strong: and that Paradise, though it is the largest
+picture in the world, without any question, is also the thoughtfulest,
+and most precious.
+
+The Thoughtfulest!--it would be saying but little, as far as Michael
+Angelo is concerned.
+
+239. For consider of it yourselves. You have heard, from your youth up
+(and all educated persons have heard for three centuries), of this Last
+Judgment of his, as the most sublime picture in existence.
+
+The subject of it is one which should certainly be interesting to you,
+in one of two ways.
+
+If you never expect to be judged for any of your own doings, and the
+tradition of the coming of Christ is to you as an idle tale--still,
+think what a wonderful tale it would be, were it well told. You are at
+liberty, disbelieving it, to range the fields--Elysian and Tartarean--of
+all imagination. You may play with it, since it is false; and what a
+play would it not be, well written? Do you think the tragedy, or the
+miracle play, or the infinitely Divina Commedia of the Judgment of the
+astonished living who were dead;--the undeceiving of the sight of every
+human soul, understanding in an instant all the shallow, and depth of
+past life and future,--face to face with both,--and with God:--this
+apocalypse to all intellect, and completion to all passion, this minute
+and individual drama of the perfected history of separate spirits, and
+of their finally accomplished affections!--think you, I say, all this
+was well told by mere heaps of dark bodies curled and convulsed in
+space, and fall as of a crowd from a scaffolding, in writhed concretions
+of muscular pain?
+
+But take it the other way. Suppose you believe, be it never so dimly or
+feebly, in some kind of Judgment that is to be;--that you admit even the
+faint contingency of retribution, and can imagine, with vivacity enough
+to fear, that in this life, at all events, if not in another--there may
+be for you a Visitation of God, and a questioning--What hast thou done?
+The picture, if it is a good one, should have a deeper interest, surely
+on _this_ postulate? Thrilling enough, as a mere imagination of what is
+never to be--now, as a conjecture of what _is_ to be, held the best that
+in eighteen centuries of Christianity has for men's eyes been
+made;--Think of it so!
+
+240. And then, tell me, whether you yourselves, or any one you have
+known, did ever at any time receive from this picture any, the smallest
+vital thought, warning, quickening, or help? It may have appalled, or
+impressed you for a time, as a thunder-cloud might: but has it ever
+taught you anything--chastised in you anything--confirmed a
+purpose--fortified a resistance--purified a passion? I know that, for
+you, it has done none of these things; and I know also that, for others,
+it has done very different things. In every vain and proud designer who
+has since lived, that dark carnality of Michael Angelo's has fostered
+insolent science, and fleshly imagination. Daubers and blockheads think
+themselves painters, and are received by the public as such, if they
+know how to foreshorten bones and decipher entrails; and men with
+capacity of art either shrink away (the best of them always do) into
+petty felicities and innocencies of genre painting--landscapes, cattle,
+family breakfasts, village schoolings, and the like; or else, if they
+have the full sensuous art-faculty that would have made true painters
+of them, being taught, from their youth up, to look for and learn the
+body instead of the spirit, have learned it, and taught it to such
+purpose, that at this hour, when I speak to you, the rooms of the Royal
+Academy of England, receiving also what of best can be sent there by the
+masters of France, contain _not one_ picture honorable to the arts of
+their age; and contain many which are shameful in their record of its
+manners.
+
+241. Of that, hereafter. I will close to-day giving you some brief
+account of the scheme of Tintoret's Paradise, in justification of my
+assertion that it is the thoughtfulest as well as mightiest picture in
+the world.
+
+In the highest center is Christ, leaning on the globe of the earth,
+which is of dark crystal. Christ is crowned with a glory as of the sun,
+and all the picture is lighted by that glory, descending through circle
+beneath circle of cloud, and of flying or throned spirits.
+
+The Madonna, beneath Christ, and at some interval from Him, kneels to
+Him. She is crowned with the Seven stars, and kneels on a cloud of
+angels, whose wings change into ruby fire, where they are near her.
+
+The three great Archangels meeting from three sides, fly towards Christ.
+Michael delivers up his scales and sword. He is followed by the Thrones
+and Principalities of the Earth; so inscribed--Throni--Principatus. The
+Spirits of the Thrones bear scales in their hands; and of the
+Princedoms, shining globes: beneath the wings of the last of these are
+the four great teachers and lawgivers, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St.
+Gregory, St. Augustine, and behind St. Augustine stands his mother,
+watching him, her chief joy in Paradise.
+
+Under the Thrones, are set the Apostles, St. Paul separated a little
+from the rest, and put lowest, yet principal; under St. Paul, is St.
+Christopher, bearing a massive globe, with a cross upon it; but to mark
+him as the Christ-bearer, since here in Paradise he cannot have the
+Child on his shoulders, Tintoret has thrown on the globe a flashing
+stellar reflection of the sun the head of Christ.
+
+All this side of the picture is kept in glowing color,--the four Doctors
+of the church have golden miters and mantles; except the Cardinal, St.
+Jerome, who is in burning scarlet, his naked breast glowing, warm with
+noble life,--the darker red of his robe relieved against a white glory.
+
+242. Opposite to Michael, Gabriel flies towards the Madonna, having in
+his hand the Annunciation lily, large, and triple-blossomed. Above him,
+and above Michael, equally, extends a cloud of white angels, inscribed
+"Serafini;" but the group following Gabriel, and corresponding to the
+Throni following Michael, is inscribed "Cherubini." Under these are the
+great prophets, and singers and foretellers of the happiness or of the
+sorrow of time. David, and Solomon, and Isaiah, and Amos of the
+herdsmen. David has a colossal golden psaltery laid horizontally across
+his knees;--two angels behind him dictate to him as he sings, looking up
+towards Christ; but one strong angel sweeps down to Solomon from among
+the cherubs, and opens a book, resting it on the head of Solomon, who
+looks down earnestly unconscious of it;--to the left of David, separate
+from the group of prophets, as Paul from the apostles, is Moses,
+dark-robed; in the full light, withdrawn far behind him, Abraham,
+embracing Isaac with his left arm, and near him, pale St. Agnes. In
+front, nearer, dark and colossal, stands the glorious figure of Santa
+Giustina of Padua; then a little subordinate to her, St. Catherine, and,
+far on the left, and high, St. Barbara leaning on her tower. In front,
+nearer, flies Raphael; and under him is the four-square group of the
+Evangelists. Beneath them, on the left, Noah; on the right, Adam and
+Eve, both floating unsupported by cloud or angel; Noah buoyed by the
+Ark, which he holds above him, and it is _this_ into which Solomon gazes
+down, so earnestly. Eve's face is, perhaps, the most beautiful ever
+painted by Tintoret--full in light, but dark-eyed. Adam floats beside
+her, his figure fading into a winged gloom, edged in the outline of
+fig-leaves. Far down, under these, central in the lowest part of the
+picture, rises the Angel of the Sea, praying for Venice; for Tintoret
+conceives his Paradise as existing now, not as in the future. I at
+first mistook this soft Angel of the Sea for the Magdalen, for he is
+sustained by other three angels on either side, as the Magdalen is, in
+designs of earlier time, because of the verse, "There is joy in the
+presence of the angels over one sinner that repenteth." But the Magdalen
+is on the right, behind St. Monica; and on the same side, but lowest of
+all, Rachel, among the angels of her children, gathered now again to her
+forever.
+
+243. I have no hesitation in asserting this picture to be by far the
+most precious work of art of any kind whatsoever, now existing in the
+world; and it is, I believe, on the eve of final destruction; for it is
+said that the angle of the great council-chamber is soon to be rebuilt;
+and that process will involve the destruction of the picture by removal,
+and, far more, by repainting. I had thought of making some effort to
+save it by an appeal in London to persons generally interested in the
+arts; but the recent desolation of Paris has familiarized us with
+destruction, and I have no doubt the answer to me would be, that Venice
+must take care of her own. But remember, at least, that I have borne
+witness to you to-day of the treasures that we forget, while we amuse
+ourselves with the poor toys, and the petty or vile arts, of our own
+time.
+
+The years of that time have perhaps come, when we are to be taught to
+look no more to the dreams of painters, either for knowledge of
+Judgment, or of Paradise. The anger of Heaven will not longer, I think,
+be mocked for our amusement; and perhaps its love may not always be
+despised by our pride. Believe me, all the arts, and all the treasures
+of men, are fulfilled and preserved to them only, so far as they have
+chosen first, with their hearts, not the curse of God, but His blessing.
+Our Earth is now incumbered with ruin, our Heaven is clouded by Death.
+May we not wisely judge ourselves in some things now, instead of amusing
+ourselves with the painting of judgments to come?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] NOTE.--The separate edition of this lecture was prefaced by the
+following note:--
+
+"I have printed this Lecture separately, that strangers visiting the
+Galleries may be able to use it for reference to the drawings. But they
+must observe that its business is only to point out what is to be blamed
+in Michael Angelo, and that it assumes the facts of his power to be
+generally known. Mr. Tyrwhitt's statement of these, in his 'Lectures on
+Christian Art,' will put the reader into possession of all that may
+justly be alleged in honor of him.
+
+"_Corpus Christi College, 1st May, 1872._"
+
+[42] If you like to have it with perfect exactitude, recollect that
+Bellini died at true ninety,--Tintoret at eighty-two; that Bellini's
+death was four years before Raphael's, and that Tintoret was born four
+years before Bellini's death.
+
+[43] Julian, rather. _See_ Mr. Tyrwhitt's notice of the lately
+discovered error, in his _Lectures on Christian Art_.
+
+[44] From the invaluable series of documents relating to Titian and his
+times, extricated by Mr. Rawdon Brown from the archives of Venice, and
+arranged and translated by him.
+
+[45] Fondaco de Tedeschi. I saw the last wrecks of Giorgione's frescoes
+on the outside of it in 1845.
+
+[46] I beg that this statement may be observed with attention. It is of
+great importance, as in opposition to the views usually held respecting
+the grave schools of painting.
+
+[47] The upper photograph in S. 50 is, however, not taken from the great
+Paradise, which is in too dark a position to be photographed, but from a
+study of it existing in a private gallery, and every way inferior. I
+have vainly tried to photograph portions of the picture itself.
+
+[48] He had, indeed, other and more solemn thoughts of the Night than
+Correggio; and these he tried to express by distorting form, and making
+her partly Medusa-like. In this lecture, as above stated, I am only
+dwelling on points hitherto unnoticed of dangerous evil in the too much
+admired master.
+
+[49] Tintoret dissected, and used clay models, in the true academical
+manner, and produced academical results thereby; but all his fine work
+is done from life, like that of the Greeks.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aratra Pentelici, Seven Lectures on
+the Elements of Sculpture, by John Ruskin
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