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+Project Gutenberg's The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust', by H. B. Cotterill
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust'
+
+Author: H. B. Cotterill
+
+Release Date: June 9, 2008 [EBook #25732]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAUST-LEGEND AND GOETHE'S FAUST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, Henry Craig and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                                        |
+  |                                                            |
+  | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in        |
+  | this text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of   |
+  | this document.                                             |
+  | The symbol for a trochee on page 134 is shown like this:   |
+  | - U                                                        |
+  | Text printed using the Greek alphabet in the original book |
+  | is shown as follows: [Greek: logos]                        |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAUST-LEGEND
+AND GOETHE'S 'FAUST'
+
+BY
+
+H. B. COTTERILL
+
+EDITOR OF GOETHE'S 'IPHIGENIE'
+SCHILLER'S 'LAGER' 'REFLECTIONS
+FROM THE NIBELUNGENLIED' DANTE'S
+'INFERNO' ETC.
+
+LONDON
+GEORGE G. HARRAP & COMPANY
+9 PORTSMOUTH STREET KINGSWAY W.C.
+1912
+
+BALLANTYNE & COMPANY, LTD.
+TAVISTOCK STREET, COVENT GARDEN
+LONDON
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+These lectures have been given perhaps half a dozen times, in England,
+in Switzerland and in Germany. On allowing them to appear in print I
+should perhaps apologize to my readers for the somewhat free and
+familiar style in which parts of them are written; but even if I had the
+time to recast them into a more serious form I should be unwilling to do
+so, for there is surely enough ponderous literature on the subject, and
+although some may resent in a book what often helps to make a lecture
+attractive, I think I can rely on the fact that many people agree with
+the dictum of Horace:
+
+                       Ridiculum aeri
+    Fortius et melius magnas plerumque secat res,
+
+or, as Milton has it:
+
+                   Joking decides great things
+    Stronger and better oft than earnest can.
+
+Almost the only change that I have made in my MS. has been the
+substitution or addition of an English translation in numerous places
+where I had formerly quoted the German original. On some occasions, when
+first writing the lectures, I very probably used the English version of
+_Faust_ by Bayard Taylor, but I have not the book at present at hand and
+cannot feel quite certain whether any of the verse translations are not
+my own. The little book makes of course no pretence to be a contribution
+to critical or biographical literature. It is meant especially for those
+who wish to know something more about the story of Faust and about
+Goethe's play, and who, because their knowledge of German does not
+suffice or for other reasons, are unable to study the subject in any
+more satisfactory way.
+
+H. B. C.
+
+FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
+_August 1912_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                               PAGE
+
+THE OLD FAUST LEGEND                              9
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST' (PART I.)                       56
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST' (PART II.)                     109
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE OLD FAUST-LEGEND
+
+
+All of us have probably experienced the fact that it is possible to have
+been familiar for a long time with some great work of imagination--some
+poem or picture--to have learnt to love it almost as if it were a living
+person, to imagine that we understand it and appreciate it fully, even
+to fancy that it has a special message, a deeper meaning, for us than
+for almost any one else, and then to come across somebody--some
+commentator perhaps--who informs us that our uncritical appreciation is
+quite worthless, mere shallow sentiment, and that until we can
+accurately analyze and formulate the Idea which the artist endeavoured
+to incorporate in his work, and classify the diverse manifestations of
+this Idea as subjective, objective, symbolical, allegorical,
+dramatical-psychological or psychological-dramatical, we are not
+entitled to hold, far less to express, any opinion on the subject.
+
+When I realised that I had undertaken to lecture on _Faust_, I thought
+it my duty to study Goethe's German commentators--some of them at least;
+for to study all would consume a lifetime. A few of the works of these
+commentators I already possessed--some, I am sorry to say, with their
+pages yet uncut. Others I procured, following the advice of German
+friends well versed in the matter. I set to work on what was presumably
+the best of these commentaries. As I laboured onwards, page after page,
+I found myself from time to time turning back to the title of the book.
+Sure enough, it was _Ueber Goethe's Faust_. I laboured on--the suspicion
+deepening at every turn of the page that perhaps the binder might have
+bound up the wrong text under the title _Ueber Goethe's Faust_. At the
+fifty-third page I came to a dead stop. Except quite incidentally
+neither Goethe nor Faust had as yet been mentioned. These fifty-three
+pages had been entirely devoted to what seemed to my rather
+unmetaphysical mind a not very luminous or edifying dissertation on the
+difference between _Ansicht_ and _Einsicht_--between mere Opinion and
+true critical Insight; and, as far as I could discover, the only
+conclusion as yet arrived at was that the writer possessed an exclusive
+monopoly in the last-mentioned article.
+
+But I will not inflict upon you any further description of my tusslings
+with Teutonic interpreters of _Faust_--with their _egos_ and _non-egos_,
+their moral-æsthetic symbolisms and so on. Let us leave them to the
+tender mercies of Goethe himself, who was not sparing of his ridicule in
+regard to his commentators, nor, alas, at times in regard to his
+countrymen. 'Of all nations,' he says, 'the Germans understand me
+least.... Such people make life a burden by their abstruse thoughts and
+their _Ideas_, which they hunt up in all directions and insist on
+discovering in everything.... They come and ask _me_ what "Ideas" _I_
+have incorporated in my _Faust_. Just as if I myself knew!--or could
+describe it, even if I did know!' Of course Goethe's great poem contains
+an Idea, if by that word we mean in a poem what we mean by _life_ in
+anything living; but it is not by dissection and analysis that we shall
+discover it. 'He who wishes,' says Goethe in _Faust_, 'to examine and
+describe anything living first does his best to expel the life. Then he
+has got the dead parts in his hand; but what is wanting is just the
+spiritual bond.' It is my purpose--a purpose not easy of fulfilment--to
+avoid this method of dissection and to place before you living
+realities, not anatomical specimens.
+
+But before we plunge _in medias res_ and grapple our present subject,
+namely the old Faust-legend, I should like to say just a few words in
+order to show from what standpoint I think we should regard Goethe as a
+poet and a thinker--for that he is great both as a poet and as a thinker
+cannot be denied.
+
+Goethe describes his own philosophy as the philosophy of action. He
+believed in impulse, in inspiration, in action, rather than in
+reflexion, analysis and logic. 'Reflect not!' he makes Iphigenie
+exclaim--'Reflect not! Grant freely, as thou feel'st!' And in one of his
+Epigrams he says:
+
+    Yes, that's the right way,
+    When we cannot say
+    How we think. True thought
+    Comes as a gift, unsought.
+
+Such theory of inspiration is thoroughly Greek, reminding one of
+Plato's 'muse-inspired madman' and of what Sophocles is related to have
+said to Aeschylus; 'Thou, Aeschylus, always dost the right thing--but
+unconsciously ([Greek: all' ouk eidôs ge]).' Thus it was also with
+Goethe. All intellectual hobbies and shibboleths, all this endless
+wearisome discussion and dissection and analysis and criticism and
+bandying about of _opinion_, which is the very life-breath of modern
+intellectual existence and modern journalistic literature, Goethe
+rejected, as Plato had done in his _Phaedrus_, where he makes Socrates
+call such things 'rotten soul-fodder.'
+
+'The whole! The whole!' was Goethe's frequent exclamation--'life!
+action! being!--the living whole, not the dead parts!' He was for ever
+decrying mere thought, mere intellect, mere cleverness. And yet of all
+moderns what greater intellect, what greater thinker, can we name than
+Goethe himself? Seldom, perhaps never, has there existed a mortal so
+many-sided. 'In such manifold directions'--he wrote to his friend
+Jacobi--'does my nature move, that I cannot be satisfied with _one_
+single mode of thought. As poet and artist I am polytheist; as a
+student of Nature I am pantheist. When I need a God for my personal
+nature, as a moral and spiritual human being, He also exists for me.
+Heaven and earth are such an immense realm that it can only be grasped
+by the collective intelligence of all intelligent beings.' Such
+'collective intelligence' Goethe perhaps more nearly possessed than any
+other human being has done. The lordly pleasure-house which he built for
+his soul was such as Tennyson describes (and his words refer of course
+to Goethe):
+
+    Full of great rooms and small the palace stood,
+      All various, each a perfect whole
+    From living Nature, fit for every mood
+      And change of my still soul.
+
+And wonderfully true are those other lines of Tennyson--but rather
+bitter, as perhaps was to be expected of Tennyson when he was describing
+a great character with which he had so little sympathy:
+
+    I take possession of man's mind and deed.
+      I care not what the sects may brawl.
+    I sit as God holding no form of creed,
+      But contemplating all.
+
+To Goethe all things, both in Nature and in Art were but transitory
+reflexions of the real and eternal. 'Alles vergängliche ist nur ein
+Gleichnis'--all things transitory are but a parable, an allegory of
+truth and reality--such are some of the last words of his great Poem;
+and thus too he regarded his own poetry. 'I have,' he said, 'always
+regarded all that I have produced as merely symbolic, and I did not much
+care whether what I made were pots or dishes.' Even that life-poem of
+his, _Faust_, which he planned and began as a young man of about
+twenty-five, and the last lines of which he wrote a few months before
+his death, aged eighty-two, only represents (as indeed do all great
+works of art) _one_ aspect of belief--or perhaps I should rather say a
+certain number of truth's innumerable aspects, none of them claiming to
+afford a full vision, and not a few of them apparently contradictory;
+for, as both Plato and Shakespeare tell us, truth cannot be directly
+stated: it lies, as it were, in equipoise between contradictory
+statements:
+
+    For no thought is contented. The better sort,
+    As thoughts of things divine ... do set the word
+    Against the word.
+
+_Faust_ does not claim to be a universal Gospel, nor to offer a final
+solution of the riddle of existence. It makes no attempt to pile up
+Pelions on Ossas--to scale heaven with the Babel-towers of the human
+reason. It merely holds up a mirror in which we see reflected certain
+views of truth, such as presented themselves to Goethe from some of his
+intellectual heights. To regard it and judge it otherwise--to analyse
+its Idea--to insist on discovering its Moral--to compare it with some
+little self-contained system of theory or dogma which we ourselves may
+have finally accepted--and to condemn Goethe as a prophet of lies
+because, viewing truth from such diverse standpoints (many of them
+perhaps quite inaccessible for us) he may seem at times to ignore some
+of our pet formulæ--this, I think, would convict us of a lamentable lack
+of wisdom and humility. And if at times we feel pained by what may seem
+irreverent, let us remember that Goethe wrote also these words: 'With
+many people who have God constantly on their tongues He becomes a
+phrase, a mere name uttered without any accompanying idea. If they were
+penetrated by God's greatness, they would rather be dumb and for very
+reverence not dare to name Him.'
+
+Goethe accepted not without a certain amount of pride the title given
+him by some of his contemporaries--that of 'the last of the Heathen.'
+But which of us will doubt the sincerity or fail to be touched by the
+humility of his words: 'And yet perhaps I am such a Christian as Christ
+Himself would wish me to be.'
+
+There are doubtless but very few (and I confess that I am not one of
+these select few) who can accept Goethe in all his many-sidedness. We
+ordinary mortals are incapable of such Protean versatility and are sure
+to find points, often many and important points, where we are strongly
+repelled by his teachings and his personality. The idealist is
+scandalized by his vigorous realism, the realist and materialist by his
+idealism, the dogmatist by his free thought, the free-thinker by his
+reverence towards religion, while the scientific expert is apt to regard
+him as a mere poet, oblivious or ignorant of the fact that, although
+without scientific training, besides propounding theories on Colour
+which were for a time accepted by leading authorities on that subject
+and besides making a discovery which had escaped the investigations of
+professional Anatomists (that of the intermaxillary bone), Goethe was
+the discoverer of a law, that of the metamorphosis of leaves and
+flowers, which may be said to have almost revolutionised the science of
+Botany.
+
+Let us now turn to our subject and attempt to trace to its first sources
+this strange and suggestive legend of Faust, the great Magician.
+
+And first, we shall see our way more clearly if we consider what is
+really the nature of that magic, or black art, which played such an
+important part in the medieval imagination.
+
+Perhaps we may say that by 'magic' was denoted that art by which one was
+supposed to gain a knowledge of, and a power over, the prime elements of
+Nature and its cosmic potencies, so as to be able to combine and use
+them independently of natural laws. It is this power that Faust in
+Goethe's play longs to attain:
+
+                  ... To find the force
+    That binds the world and guides its course,
+    Its germs and vital powers explore
+    And peddle with worthless words no more.
+
+In almost every age and nation we find a vital Power, an ordering
+Force, recognised as present in the natural world, and the human mind
+seems ever prone to believe such Power to have affinity to human nature
+and to be, so to speak, open to a bargain. The fetish priest, the rain
+doctor, the medicine-man, the Hindu yogi, the Persian Mage, the medieval
+saint, and countless miracle-workers in every age, have ever believed
+themselves to be, whether by force of will, or by ecstatic
+contemplation, or by potent charms, in communion with the great Spirit
+of Nature, or with mighty cosmic influences--with Powers of Light or of
+Darkness; with Oromasdes or Arimanes, Brahma or Siva, Jehovah or Baal;
+with Zoroastrian Devs, Persian Genii, guardian angels or attendant
+demons; with the Virgin Queen of heaven--whether as Selene, Astarte,
+Hecate, or the Madonna; with the Prince of the powers of this
+world--with or without his horns and his cloven foot.
+
+Not only among the heathen--the orientals and Egyptians--but also among
+the Chosen People we find the priests attesting their favour with the
+Deity, and asserting the truth of their religion, by what we may call
+orthodox magic. We all remember how Aaron's rod, in the form of an
+orthodox snake, swallowed up the unorthodox rod-snakes of the Egyptian
+sorcerers, and how Elijah attested the power of the true God by calling
+down fire from heaven in his contest with the priests of the Sun-god
+Baal. King Solomon too was for many ages credited with magic powers and
+was regarded in medieval times as the great authority in matters of
+wizardry.
+
+Among the Greeks, although mysteries and witches played no small part in
+the old religion and survived long in popular superstition, magic was
+thrust into the background by the poetic and philosophic Hellenic
+imagination. The powers of Nature were incorporated in the grand and
+beautiful human forms of the Olympian gods, or in the dread shapes of
+the Infernal deities. But even among those of the Greeks who were raised
+far above the ordinary superstitions of the populace we find many traces
+of mysticism and magic, as for example in connexion with oracles, with
+divine healing, with the efficacy of images and other sacred objects,
+and especially in connexion with Orphic and other Mysteries. And, while
+for the most part Greek philosophy was rather imaginative than mystic,
+still we encounter the genuine mystic element in such Greek sages as
+Empedocles and Pythagoras, both of whom assumed the priestly character
+and seem to have laid claim to supernatural powers. Empedocles indeed,
+it is said, gave himself out to be a deity exiled from heaven, and was
+apparently worshipped as such. According to a not very trustworthy
+legend he threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna--perhaps in order
+thus to solve the mystery of existence. Pythagoras is said by some to
+have met his death at the hands of the people of Crotona, who set fire
+to his house and burnt him alive with many of his disciples. Goethe
+evidently alludes to Pythagoras (as well perhaps as to John Huss and
+others who found their death at the stake) in some well-known lines,
+which may be roughly thus translated:
+
+    The few that truth's deep mystery have learned
+      And could not keep it in their hearts concealed,
+      But to the mob their inner faith revealed,
+    Have evermore been crucified and burned.
+
+We now come to Christianity. In the early ages of the Church the final
+appeal seems to have been an appeal to miracles, and we find the
+apostles and their followers claiming the sole right of working miracles
+in the name of the one true God and anathematizing all other
+wonder-workers as in league with Satan. We all remember Elymas the
+Sorcerer struck blind by St. Paul, and the adversary of St. Peter, Simon
+the Mage, around whom first gathered the myths which lived so long in
+the popular imagination and many of which we shall meet with in the
+legend of Dr. Faust.
+
+This Simon, the Magus or Sorcerer, who bewitched the people of Samaria,
+and was looked upon as 'the great power of God,' is said in the _Acts of
+the Apostles_ to have been converted by St. Philip and to have brought
+upon himself a severe rebuke from St. Peter for offering to purchase
+with money the gift of wonder-working. In about the third century the
+legend of Simon Magus, as related by Clement of Alexandria, seems to
+have already incorporated in a mythical form the discords of the early
+Church, and especially the feud between the Jewish Christians, followers
+of St. Peter, and the Gentile proselytes, followers of St. Paul. Indeed
+Simon the Sorcerer was in course of time regarded by some as having been
+identical with St. Paul--that is to say, it was believed that St. Paul
+had been none other but Simon Magus in disguise. The voice heard at St.
+Paul's conversion and the light by which for a season he was struck
+blind were alleged to have been feats of wizardry by which he, a wolf in
+sheep's clothing, stole his way into the true fold in order to introduce
+discord and to betray the Church to the Gentiles.
+
+St. Peter, the true Simon, is said to have followed the false Simon from
+city to city, out-rivalling his Satanic miracles by orthodox miracles,
+until at length they reached Rome. Here Simon Magus by his magic arts
+succeeded in flying up into the sky in the presence of the Emperor and
+his court, but at the word of Peter the charm was broken and the wizard
+fell to earth and was killed.
+
+But, besides this, the so-called Gnostic heresy introduced other
+elements into the legend. These Gnostics were a sect that arose in the
+early times of Christianity. They pretended to a special insight into
+the divine nature, and combined Platonic and oriental theories with
+Christian dogmas. They tried to convert the story of the Redemption into
+a cosmological myth, and regarded the human person of Christ as a kind
+of phantom--a magic apparition. Some of these Gnostics seem to have
+accepted Simon Magus as the 'Power of God'--as the Logos, or divine
+Reason, by which the world was created (or reduced from chaos to an
+ordered Cosmos). From this a curious myth arose. This Logos, or creative
+Power, was identified with the Sun-god, as the source of life, and as
+Sun-god was united to the Moon-goddess, Selene. Now the words Helen and
+Selene are connected in Greek, and Helen of Troy was accepted by these
+Gnostics as a mythical form of the goddess of the moon. Hence it came
+that in the Gnostic form of the Simon Magus legend he was married to
+Helen of Troy, and this notion found its way into the old Faust-legend,
+and is used by Goethe in that exceedingly wonderful and beautiful part
+of his great poem which is called the _Helena_.
+
+After the suppression of Gnostic and other early heresies came the
+contest of the now united and politically powerful Church against the
+outer world of heathendom. While retaining for herself what we may call
+a monopoly in orthodox magic the Church condemned as in league with the
+devil _all_ speculation, whether theological or scientific--the one as
+leading to heresy, the other to sensual ends, such as riches, fame, and
+those lusts of the flesh and that pride of intellect which were fatal to
+the contemplative and ascetic ideals of medieval Christianity.
+
+It was not among Teuton and Celtic savages but among the learned
+adherents of the old Greek philosophy that the Church in those earlier
+days found her most dangerous and obstinate adversaries. Plato and
+Aristotle (whose tenets the Christian Schoolmen afterwards endeavoured
+to harmonize with the teaching of the Gospel) were at first brought
+forward to oppose the new religion, these doctrines of Greek philosophy
+being largely supplemented by mystic ideas derived from oriental
+sources. It was however Pythagoras, the great Greek-Italian philosopher
+of the sixth century B.C., the predecessor and to some extent the
+inspirer of Socrates and Plato, who was most generally accepted as the
+rival of St. Paul. It was his mystical doctrines of Number and Harmony,
+of the Unit and the Triad, which were most often marshalled against the
+Christian doctrine of the Unity and Trinity of the Godhead. Indeed it
+even seems that Pythagoras was believed by some of these adversaries of
+Christianity to be the incarnation of Deity (as had been believed in his
+lifetime) and to be the friend and saviour of mankind, like Prometheus
+of old, who was said to have given his life for the human race devoted
+to destruction by the anger of an offended God.
+
+No wonder that, embittered by such opponents, the Church launched her
+anathema against all the profane learning of the day--all study of the
+ancient heathen philosophers and poets. The gods of Olympus became
+synonymous with demons and monsters of the Christian hell, as we see in
+Dante and in such old legends as that of the Hill of Venus. Plato and
+Aristotle, and even Homer, were put on the index. Virgil especially was
+regarded as a dangerous wizard--although in another age he was honoured
+almost as a prophet and a foreteller of the Messiah. I remember that
+many years ago, when I was searching for Virgil's tomb on Posilipo near
+Naples, I was informed by a contadino, of whom I had asked my way, that
+Virgil ('Marone,' as he called him) was a great magician. The man knew
+nothing of Virgil as poet. Probably Virgil's account of the descent of
+Aeneas into the lower world, and that strange _Eclogue_ of his, the
+_Pollio_, in which possibly a Sibylline prophecy of the coming of a
+Messiah is reproduced, may have credited him with magic lore, and may
+also have invested him for a time with almost the dignity of a canonical
+Minor Prophet.
+
+Now, during these ante-Reformation ages the Roman Church claimed, as I
+have said, a monopoly in orthodox magic. She could send a soul to hell,
+or by rites and exorcism she could save the sinner from his compact with
+Satan, as one sees in such legends as those of Merlin, of Tannhäuser, of
+Robert the Devil, and of that Theophilus who was converted by flowers
+sent him from Paradise by the Virgin-Martyr St. Dorothea. Of another
+Theophilus, an eastern monk of perhaps the sixth century, we are told
+that, like Faust, he made a written compact with the devil, but
+repented and was saved by the Virgin Mary, who snatched the fatal
+document from the devil's claws and gave it back to the penitent.
+
+But there is one early example of the wizard-legend where the magician
+is saved from his pact with Satan not so much by the counter-charms of
+the Church as by the purity and steadfastness of Christian maidenhood,
+and for this reason I think the poet Shelley is right in regarding this
+legend as 'the true germ of Goethe's _Faust_.' It is the story of
+Cyprian and Justina, who were among the many victims of the persecution
+of the Christians by Diocletian, about 300 A.D. Cyprian was a sorcerer
+of Antioch whose diabolical arts failed to overcome the sanctity of
+Justina. He confessed himself conquered and withdrew into the desert as
+a Christian hermit. The story has been dramatized by the Spanish poet
+Calderon in his _Magico Prodigioso_, a part of which has been finely
+translated by Shelley. The beautiful picture of St. Justina by Moretto,
+where Cyprian is kneeling before her and a white unicorn, the symbol of
+chastity, is crouching in the foreground, is well known.
+
+With the Reformation another spirit arose and legends took a different
+form. In the Protestant world the orthodox magic of the Roman Church
+lost its saving power and was regarded as no less diabolic than all
+other black art. He was irretrievably lost who had once given over his
+soul to magic and the devil (and the devil was at this time, as we know,
+a very real personage--real enough to have an inkpot hurled at his head
+by Luther). The revival at the Renaissance of speculation and research,
+combined as it was with all kinds of fantastic hopes of discovering
+prime matter, the 'Philosopher's stone,' and elixirs of life, bred in
+the popular superstition a mysterious awe and attached to almost all
+scientific investigation the epithet 'black,' or diabolic, as opposed to
+the 'white art' of holding communion with good spirits. Alchemy and
+astrology (words meaning merely what we call chemistry and astronomy)
+became words of hellish import, and he who practised these arts was in
+league with Satan. Thus were regarded such men as Lully, Roger Bacon,
+the Abbot Tritheim, and (perhaps best known of all, at least to all
+readers of Browning) Bombastes Paracelsus, the contemporary of Faust,
+born at Einsiedeln, between Brunnen and the lake of Zürich, in the year
+1493.
+
+Thus the sixteenth-century form of our legend is of the most tragic
+character. In the oldest Faust-legend, which first took shape in this
+century, there is no hint of his being saved. And another of its
+characteristics is its strong anti-papal tendency. The devil appears in
+the guise of a monk, and even as Mahomet or Antichrist in the guise of
+the Pope himself.
+
+But the Renaissance (if not the Reformation) introduced another,
+entirely new and most important, element into the legend--one which
+enabled Goethe to use the sulphurous old myth as the subject for a great
+poem. Not only was there a renaissance of learning, but also of art--an
+intense longing for both Knowledge and Beauty. To _know_ everything--to
+learn the inner secret of Nature--to understand, as Faust longed to
+understand,
+
+                      The inmost force
+    That binds the world and guides its course--
+
+this yearning after perfection by Knowledge was one of the fruits of the
+Renaissance. The other was the yearning to gain perfection by means of
+_feeling_, by the ecstatic contemplation of and communion with perfect
+Beauty--'to love infinitely and be loved,' as Aprile says in Browning's
+_Paracelsus_. These two impulses, the one toward Knowledge and the other
+toward Love, were doubtless awakened by the study of Aristotle, that
+'master of those who know,' and of Plato's doctrine of the soul's
+love-inspired yearnings for Truth and Beauty and for communion with the
+Perfect and the Eternal.
+
+I have called them _two_ impulses, and to the mind they must ever appear
+distinct, nay sometimes contrary; but I need not remind you how
+Christianity teaches us to reconcile the ancient feud between the mind
+and the heart--between Knowledge and Love. You may perhaps remember how
+Dante, to intimate to us that there can be no true knowledge without
+love and no true love without knowledge, speaks of the Cherubim and the
+Seraphim as ideally the same, and tells us that the Seraphs, who love
+most, also know most.
+
+Both these impulses are noble and awaken our sympathy.
+
+Now, in order that _tragic_ art may have its effect it must possess what
+Aristotle calls [Greek: pathos], so that we may be able to sympathize
+with the sufferer. Thus, for instance, Milton enlists our sympathies
+even with his Satan, and it is perhaps because we cannot sympathize in
+any way with Dante's Lucifer that many feel repelled by the terrible
+creation. But even in the oldest of the Faust-legends, and far more of
+course in Goethe's _Faust_, we are attracted by a 'pathetic' element,
+viz., the unsatisfied and insatiable longing of a human soul for
+Knowledge--for Truth--and its still intenser yearnings after ideal
+Beauty.
+
+Thus, even the Faust of the older sixteenth-century legend, although he
+ultimately falls a victim to the devil, has noble and high impulses by
+which we feel strongly attracted. He is lost, not through these
+impulses, these yearnings for knowledge, but through his magic, and his
+sensual life. In spite of more than one fit of remorse he is unable to
+free himself from the lusts of the flesh; he is obliged to sign a second
+bond with Mephisto and is dragged down ever lower into the abyss, until
+the jaws of hell open and swallow him up--while the Faust of Goethe's
+poem gains strength through many an error and many a grievous fall,
+gradually shakes off the diabolic influence and rising on the
+stepping-stones of his dead self is finally rescued by God's mercy and
+reaches the higher spheres of another life.
+
+How infinitely grander--how illimitable in its vistas--the subject
+becomes when thus treated by a great poet we all must feel. And even if
+we cannot with a whole heart accept as a true Gospel what (in spite of
+Goethe's admission that God's mercy was a necessary factor) seems to be
+a gospel of _self-salvation_, we should not forget that this picture of
+a man pressing on in his own strength amidst the lusts of the flesh and
+the errors of the mind is perhaps the noblest and grandest kind of
+picture that dramatic art can offer us--that of the human will in its
+struggle against destiny. In any case, I think, we cannot refuse our
+sympathy for these yearnings and searchings for truth amidst error. Do
+you remember what Lessing said about such longings? 'If God'--he
+said--'should hold Truth itself in His right hand, and in His left the
+longing for Truth, and should say to me _Choose!_ I would humbly fall
+down before His left hand and say: _Father, pure Truth is for Thee
+alone. Give me the longing for Truth, though it be attended with
+never-ending error._'
+
+There seems no doubt that a man named Johann Faust, renowned for his
+learning and credited with magical powers, actually did exist--probably
+about 1490 to 1540. (He was therefore a contemporary of Paracelsus, and
+also of Luther, Charles V., Henry VIII. and Raphael.) Several notices of
+this Dr. Johann Faust occur in writers of the period. One of the most
+circumstantial is by the friend and biographer of Melanchthon, who
+himself seems to have met Faust. But the various myths that gathered
+round the magician were, it seems, first published in a continuous
+narrative in 1587, that is about fifty years after his death. This is
+the old _Frankfurter Faustbuch_, of which only one perfect specimen is
+now known to exist. It is, I believe, in Leipzig. A mutilated copy is in
+the Vienna Library.
+
+One day, when to escape for a time from the German commentators above
+mentioned I had gone out for a walk, I found my way to the old
+Wasserkirche--now the Free Library of the city of Zürich, and here I
+discovered a facsimile reprint of this old Frankfurt Faust-book. As this
+is the oldest and most authentic basis of all later forms of the story
+and is doubtless the one which (as well as the puppet-play on the
+subject) Goethe used as the ground-plan for his poem, I perhaps cannot
+do better than give a brief abstract of its contents.
+
+It is written in quaint old German and is interspersed with many pious
+comments, biblical quotations and Latin words and phrases, and now and
+then it breaks out into doggerel verse. The editor (Spiess by name)
+tells us that he publishes the book 'as a warning to all Christians and
+sensible people to avoid the terrible example of Doctor Faustus.' He
+evidently takes the thing very seriously and has purposely (as he says)
+omitted all 'magic formulæ,' lest 'any should by this Historia be
+incited to inquisitiveness and imitation.' Johann Faust, according to
+this version, was born at Roda, a village near Weimar. (Other versions
+say at Knittlingen in Würtemberg.) His parents were honest God-fearing
+peasants. His great abilities induced a rich relation in Wittenberg to
+adopt and educate him. He studied theology at Wittenberg (known to us
+all through Hamlet and Luther) and also at Cracow, outrivalling all
+competitors and gaining the title of Doctor of Theology. But he had not
+only a 'teachable and quick' but also a 'foolish, silly, inquisitive'
+head, and neglecting the Bible became a 'Speculator' and prided himself
+more on being an Astrologus and a Mathematicus than a Theologus. As the
+old chronicler expresses it, he 'took to himself eagle's wings and
+desired to search out the reasons of all in heaven and on earth.'
+
+He now takes to 'Zauberei'--magic. Where four roads meet in the Spessart
+Wald, a forest near Wittenberg, he inscribes mystic circles and performs
+incantations for the purpose of summoning the devil. After all kinds of
+fearful apparitions and noises, by which Faust is almost terrified to
+death, a demon appears in the shape of a 'grey monk.' Faust invites him
+to visit him at his house in Wittenberg. The demon visits him there and
+tells him of all the horrors of hell. But Faust persists in his plan and
+makes a second rendezvous with the demon, who has now procured leave
+from his lord and master Lucifer to offer his services and attendance.
+The compact is made. The demon is to serve him for twenty-four years.
+Faust is to renounce Christianity and to hate all Christians, and at the
+end of twenty-four years he is to belong to the demon 'to have power,
+rule and dominion over his soul, body, flesh, blood, and possessions,
+and that for all eternity.' This compact has to be signed with blood.
+Faust pierces his hand, and the blood flows out and forms the words 'O
+homo fuge!'--'O man, escape!'--but Faust, though alarmed, is not
+deterred. It is now agreed that the demon shall appear, whenever
+summoned, in the form of a Franciscan monk. He then reveals his name:
+Mephistopheles, or, as the old legend gives it, Meph_o_stoph_i_les--the
+meaning of which is probably 'not loving the light'--[Greek: mê phôs
+philôn]--a compound which you may rightly remark must have been
+concocted by a rather second-rate Greek scholar.
+
+After a season of dissipation, during which Faust is supplied with all
+the luxuries that he desires--wine stolen from ducal, electoral, and
+episcopal cellars, soft and costly raiment from the draperies and
+naperies of Nürnberg and Frankfurt and so on (he had, for instance, only
+to open his window and call any bird, goose, turkey, or capon, and it
+would at once fly in, ready roasted)--getting tired of this kind of
+thing he falls in love and wishes to marry. But Mephisto angrily tells
+him that marriage is a thing pleasing to God and against the terms of
+the compact. You will notice here the Lutheran and anti-papal
+tendency--marriage being a thing pleasing to God in itself, and any
+compact being devilish which forbade it, as in the case of priests and
+monks.
+
+Then follow long discussions and disputations between Faust and Mephisto
+on the creation of the world, on hell and heaven, and on black art and
+astrology. None of us may be in a position to question a demon's
+accuracy with regard to how affairs stand in Hades, but Mephisto gives a
+very unorthodox account of the creation--or rather he denies that there
+was any creation. Matter according to his theory (and it is a theory of
+some modern scientists and not only of medieval demons)--matter is
+eternal and self-existent--uncreated, or self-created, whatever that may
+mean. Incited by these descriptions, and by his 'foolish silly
+inquisitive head,' Faust demands that he should pay a visit to both hell
+and heaven.
+
+For the journey to Hell the services of Beelzebub have to be
+requisitioned. The devilish worm, as the old writer calls Beelzebub,
+places Faust in a chair or pannier made of bones, hoists the chair on to
+his back and plunges (like Empedocles) into a volcano. Faust is nearly
+stifled to death. He sees all kinds of griffins and monsters and great
+multitudes of spirits tormented in the flames--among them emperors,
+kings and princes. Then in a deep sleep he is brought home and laid on
+his bed. 'This Historia and recount of what he saw in hell,' says the
+old chronicler, 'hath Doctor Faustus himself written down with his own
+hand, and after his death it was found lying in a sealed book.' After
+this (about ten years of the twenty-four having already elapsed) he is
+taken up to heaven by Mephisto in a chariot drawn by dragons--not of
+course to the Empyrean, the abode of God, but up as far as the fixed
+stars (the eighth sphere). He finds the sun, which before he had
+believed to be only as big as the bottom of a cask, to be far larger
+than the earth, and the planets to be as large as the earth, and the
+clouds of the upper sky to be as dense and hard as rocks of crystal.
+From these regions the earth looks as small as the 'yolk in an egg.' He
+sees all the kingdoms of the earth--Europe, Asia, and Africa (not
+America, although America was discovered by Columbus in 1492, about the
+date of Faust's birth).
+
+In the sixteenth year Faust wishes to pay a visit to the chief cities
+and countries of the world. Mephisto changes himself into a horse--'with
+wings like a dromedary.' It is, I believe, not generally supposed that a
+dromedary has wings; but I suppose the old chronicler must have confused
+a camel and an ostrich, thinking of the name which some Greek authors
+give to the ostrich, namely _stroutho-camelos_ or 'sparrow-camel.'
+
+On the back of his sparrow-camel horse Faust is carried through the air
+to many lands and cities and at length reaches Rome, and visits the
+Pope, on whom he and Mephisto (both being invisible) play various
+practical jokes, blowing in his face, snatching his food away at meals
+and so on, till the Supreme Pontiff orders all the bells in Rome to be
+rung in order to exorcise the evil spirits by whom he is haunted. At
+Constantinople they befool the Sultan with magic tricks. Mephisto
+disguises himself in the official robes of the Pope and persuades the
+Sultan that he is Mahomet (another cut at the Pope, as Antichrist),
+while Faust installs himself in the Sultan's palace and enjoys life and
+finally floats up into the air and disappears. They then visit Egypt,
+India, Africa, and other places, including the Garden of Eden and
+Britain.
+
+Britain is described (rightly perhaps) as 'very damp--abounding in water
+and in metals....' 'Here also is to be found,' adds our chronicler, 'the
+stone of God, which Doctor Faustus brought thence.' What he means by the
+stone of God is, I suppose, the so-called Philosopher's stone--used for
+the manufacture of money out of any worthless substance. Faust might
+have found a good deal of this stone of God without leaving Germany and
+seems to have left a considerable amount of it behind in Britain.
+
+Part III of the Faust-book relates his 'feats of nigromancy at the
+courts of Potentates' and elsewhere, and his 'terrible end and
+departure.' At Innsbruck, in the presence of Charles V. and his court he
+summons up the shades of Alexander the Great and his consort, I suppose
+Roxana, the beautiful Bactrian princess. You may be interested to learn
+that Alexander the Great was a 'well-built stout little man with a thick
+yellow-red beard, red cheeks, and eyes like a basilisk,' and that the
+old chronicler, quite after the fashion of the modern purveyor for
+ladies' journals, informs us that Roxana wore a dress entirely of blue
+velvet trimmed with gold pieces and pearls.
+
+The following chapters strike one as hardly in the same key with the
+rest of the book. They relate feats which remind one rather of Baron
+Münchhausen. Faust swallows up a wagon of hay and a team of horses that
+get in his way. He makes stag-antlers grow on the head of a
+nobleman--saws off his own foot to give it as security for a loan
+borrowed from a Jew (reminding one of Shylock and his 'pound of
+flesh')--treats students to wine magically procured (as in the scene in
+Auerbach's cellar in Goethe's poem)--cuts off people's heads and sends
+them to the barber to be shaved, and then replaces them (a most useful
+invention)--makes flowers appear in vases (like modern spiritualists or
+Indian jugglers)--and lets flowers and grapes flourish in his garden at
+Christmas-time. His most important feat is summoning up (as he does in
+Goethe's poem) the shade of Helen of Troy. You will wish for a
+description of Helen--at least of her dress. She appeared in a splendid
+robe of black-purple ... her hair, of a glorious golden hue, hung down
+to her knees--she had coal-black eyes, a lovely face, and a round head,
+her lips red as cherries, with a little mouth and a neck like a white
+swan, cheeks red as a rosebud, and a tall straight figure.
+
+A fit of remorse now seizes our magician. He is visited by a pious old
+man who nearly persuades him to repent and break his bond with the
+devil. But Mephisto is too cunning for him, and induces him to sign a
+new compact with his blood, promising to procure him Helen. For (as is
+also the case in Goethe's poem) Faust himself has fallen violently in
+love with the phantom that he had raised. By the help of Mephistopheles
+Helen herself--or one of her 'doubles' which play a part in Greek
+mythology--is summoned up, and lives with Faust as his wife. (At his
+death she, and their son, Justus Faust, disappear.)
+
+In the last year he is overwhelmed with terrible despair, which is
+deepened by the mockeries of the demon. On the last evening he invites
+his friends to supper at the village Rimlich, near Wittenberg. After the
+supper, he addresses his companions in a speech of intense and pathetic
+remorse, praying that God will save his soul though his body is forfeit
+to the devil. He tells them that at the stroke of twelve the demon will
+come to fetch him. He begs them to go quietly to bed, and not to be
+alarmed if they hear a great uproar. At midnight a mighty wind sweeps
+over the house, and a terrible hissing is heard as of innumerable
+serpents. Faust's cries for help gradually die away. They rush into the
+supper room and find him torn to pieces--eyes, brains, and teeth
+scattered in all directions. 'After this,' says our chronicler, 'it was
+so uncanny in the house that no man dared live in it. Doctor Faust also
+appeared in person to his Famulus (assistant) Wagner by night, and
+related to him many still more weird and mysterious things.... And thus
+endeth the whole and truthful Historia and Magic of Dr. Faust, from
+which every Christian man should take warning, and specially those who
+are of a presumptuous, proud, curious and obstinate mind and head, that
+they may flee from all Magic, Incantation, and other works of the devil.
+Amen! This I wish for each and every one from the ground of my heart.
+Amen! Amen!'
+
+The great popularity of this original Faust-book led to the publication
+of many other versions of the story. In the very next year a Faust-book
+in rime appeared. In some of these versions Mephisto has a very bad time
+of it, Faust setting him all kinds of impossible tasks--such as writing
+the name of Christ or painting a crucifix, or taking him on Good Friday
+to Jerusalem--until the demon begs for his release, offering to give
+back the written compact. In Strassburg at a shooting competition
+Faust's magic bullet strikes Mephisto, who 'yells out again and again'
+in pain. In a Dutch version, where the demon has the name 'Jost,' Faust
+amuses himself by throwing a bushel of corn into a thorn hedge late at
+night, when poor 'Jost' is tired to death, and bids him pick up every
+grain in the same way as in the old story Venus vents her malice on
+Psyche. The most important German version was that by Widmann--an
+amplification of the old Faust-book. There also appeared a life of
+Faust's Famulus (assistant), Christopher Wagner, whom the devil attends
+in the form of an ape. Of one of these versions (I think Widmann's)
+there appeared about 1590 an English translation, which was
+supplemented by various English ballads on the same subject, and it was
+an Englishman--Shakespeare's great contemporary, the poet Christopher
+Marlowe--who was himself, as you know, a man of Faust-like temperament,
+and not unlike him in his fate--being killed in a drunken brawl--who
+first _dramatized_ the story. His brilliant and lurid play, 'The
+Tragical History of Dr. Faustus' follows very closely most of the
+details given in the German Faust-books. Its poetical beauties (and they
+are many) are unfortunately, as Hallam rightly remarks, intermingled
+with a great deal of coarse buffoonery. Possibly he had to consult the
+taste of his public in introducing such a large ingredient of this
+buffoon element--taken from what I called the Münchhausen portion of the
+old legend. Patriotic German commentators sometimes deny that Goethe
+knew Marlowe's play (though he knew Shakespeare well), but I think there
+is no doubt that the opening monologue of Marlowe's play inspired the
+more famous, though scarcely finer, opening scene of Goethe's drama.
+'Theology, adieu!' Faustus exclaims, taking up a book of magic--
+
+    These metaphysics of magicians,
+    And necromantic books are heavenly ...
+    All things that move between the quiet poles
+    Shall be at my command--Emperors and kings
+    Are but obey'd in their several provinces,...
+    But _his_ dominion that excels in _this_
+    Stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man.
+    A sound magician is a mighty god.
+    Here, Faustus, tire thy brains to gain a deity.
+
+His agony of despair at the last moment is very finely depicted, and
+there are not a few passages in the play which, for beauty of expression
+and thought, are truly Shakespearean. Some of you possibly know the
+magnificent lines addressed to Helen of Troy, which begin thus:
+
+    Was this the face that launched a thousand ships,
+    And burnt the topless towers of Ilium--
+
+and the lines which seem to allude to the identification of Helen with
+Selene, the Moon-goddess--
+
+    O thou art fairer than the evening air
+    Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars.
+    Brighter art thou than flaming Jupiter
+    When he appeared to hapless Semele;
+    More lovely than the monarch of the sky,
+    In wanton Arethusa's azur'd arms.
+
+Marlowe's play was written about 1590. Now it is asserted that about
+this time English travelling players visited Germany, and perhaps
+introduced there Marlowe's drama; and possibly _this_ was the beginning
+of the German 'puppet-plays' on the subject of Faust. I do not feel
+quite sure about it. Faust puppet-plays seem to have existed almost
+simultaneously with the old Faust-books, and there is even the trace of
+one _before_ the oldest Faust-book; at least in the archives of the
+University of Tübingen an entry has been unearthed in which in 1587 two
+students were condemned to the 'Karzer,' or 'Black hole,' for composing
+a 'Puppenspiel' on the subject of Dr. Faust.
+
+In these Puppenspiele (puppet-shows) the comic element largely prevails
+and is kept up by the comic figure Kasperle, a buffoon or 'Hanswurst' of
+the same character as the Italian Pulcinella, the progenitor of our
+English 'Punch.' As might be expected, these puppet-shows introduced a
+great many variations of the story, most of them a mixture of tragedy
+and comedy. In one a raven brings the contract from the devil for Faust
+to sign. One of the conditions is that for twenty-four years Faust is
+not to _wash_, or comb his hair or cut his nails--like Struwwelpeter.
+When Faust attempts to embrace Helen she turns into a snake--and when
+he is finally carried off by the demon, Kasperle gives (what Euripides
+is accused of sometimes giving) a comic turn to the tragic catastrophe
+by cracking jokes.
+
+For about 150 years after Marlowe no attempt was made by any German
+writer to use the subject artistically. Indeed during this period
+Germany, devastated by the Thirty Years War and afterwards by French
+literary influence, produced no literature worthy of mention, and what
+writers it possessed were not such as would be likely to perceive the
+poetic material contained in a popular puppet-show.
+
+But the legend had taken firm hold on the popular imagination and when
+Goethe was a boy (he was born in 1749) he saw a Faust-puppenspiel at
+Frankfurt, and afterwards at Strassburg, when he was a young man of
+about twenty. He was at this time evidently also familiar with the old
+_Faustbuch_ itself, and it was then (about 1770) that he seems to have
+first conceived the idea of the drama which he sealed up as finished
+sixty years later (1831), a few months before his death.
+
+Goethe's early manhood coincided with that period in German thought and
+literature which is called the 'Sturm und Drang'--that is the Storm and
+Stress--period. The subject of Faust, the attraction of which had for so
+long lain dormant, appealed powerfully to the adherents of this new
+school, with their gospel of the divine rights of the human heart and of
+genius, with their wild passionate graspings after omniscience, their
+Titanic heaven-storming aspirations after the unattainable and
+indescribable. Lessing himself, though never a genuine Sturm und Drang
+writer, began a _Faust_, and when Goethe began his drama a new _Faust_,
+it is said, was being announced in almost every quarter of Germany.
+Someone (I think it was Bayard Taylor) has reckoned up _twenty-nine
+Fausts_ that were actually published in Germany while Goethe was working
+at his. Some one else (I think Ludwig von Arnim) has said: 'Not enough
+_Fausts_ are yet written. Every one should write one. There is as much
+room for them as for straight lines in the circumference of a
+circle'--which, as you know, is conceived by geometricians to consist of
+an infinite number of infinitely small straight lines.
+
+None of these twenty-nine _Fausts_ are, as far as I know, of any value
+or interest except the unfinished play by Lessing, which, as it was
+written while Goethe was still a lad, and seems to have been only
+printed in fragments at some later date, can hardly come under Bayard
+Taylor's list. From these fragments it is clear that Lessing meant to
+save Faust's soul, if not his body. Toward the end of the last act, when
+the devils are triumphing over their apparent victory and the possession
+of Faust's body, a voice from heaven is heard: 'Triumph not! Ye have not
+won the battle over human nature and human knowledge. The Deity has not
+given to man the noblest impulses in order to bring him to eternal
+misery. What you imagine you possess is only a phantom.'
+
+Although we cannot tell for certain how Lessing meant to solve the
+problem, I think it is almost certain that Faust was to work out his own
+salvation amidst error and sin much as Goethe's Faust does. Before
+attempting (as I shall do on other occasions) to give a description of
+the two parts of Goethe's poem--in attempting which I shall keep as
+closely as I can to the original and to questions arising directly out
+of Goethe's own words--it will be useful and interesting to consider the
+most striking points in which his _Faust_ differs essentially from all
+its predecessors, except perhaps Lessing's--and Lessing, although he
+struck the new chord, did not resolve it. But this is a subject
+involving many and far-reaching questions, which, if they are to be
+solved at all, are not to be solved by theory and dogma. I shall
+therefore endeavour to state the case as simply and as objectively as
+possible, avoiding metaphysical cobwebs and giving the _ego_ and
+_non-ego_ a wide berth. I shall content myself in most cases with merely
+pointing out the doctrine apparently preached by Goethe (reminding you
+now and then that even his own seemingly categorical dogmas were to him
+merely temporary forms of thought) and shall prefer to let much justify
+its existence as an integral part of the living whole rather than to
+expel the life by dissection and to examine the dead parts through the
+spectacles of a commentator.
+
+In my next lecture, after a brief consideration of these preliminary
+questions, I shall try to describe the first Part of the drama--a task
+of more than common difficulty, for the story is familiar to many of
+you, and a bare rehearsal of the action of the play would prove
+wearisome, while any attempt to communicate by means of translation the
+wonderful beauty and force of Goethe's words is almost bound to prove a
+failure.
+
+In my third lecture I shall treat the second Part of the play, the
+action of which is far less generally known. It is not often read and is
+seldom seen on the stage. Indeed it was not written for the stage and
+does not lend itself to ordinary dramatic and operatic purposes, as the
+first Part does with its Gretchen episode. It embraces too huge a
+circle--a circle within which lie all the possibilities of human life.
+It is a kind of framework for all the tragedies and comedies and epics
+and lyrics ever conceived, or conceivable. What unity it has is not of
+the stage or the dramatic Unities. But nevertheless on the stage it
+produces effects which impress one with the sense of an imaginative
+power of an extraordinary kind.
+
+Many years ago, when it was being given in the Dresden theatre, I saw it
+performed four or five times and I remember noticing the wonderful
+attraction that it had for minds of a certain class (and no very limited
+class), while for others it was just such an unintelligible farrago of
+wearisome 'Zeug' as Dante's _Paradiso_ and Beethoven's _Ninth Symphony_
+are sometimes said to be.
+
+I believe it is the fashion with certain critics (especially with those
+who have read it superficially) to speak of the Second Part of Goethe's
+_Faust_, as they do of _Paradise Regained_, with a certain
+superciliousness, as a superfluous excrescence, the artistically almost
+worthless product of a mind that had worked itself out and had exhausted
+its 'Idea.'
+
+The truth is that the _first_ Part is only the merest fragment, and
+although the subject of Faust is endless and can never be fully treated
+in any one work of art (the whole poem 'necessarily remaining a
+fragment,' as Goethe himself said), nevertheless the _second_ Part does
+solve in one of many possible ways the problem left unsolved by the
+first half of the poem, namely the final attainment of peace and
+happiness by the human soul, and it is one of the noblest monuments of
+the human intellect existing in the literature of the world.
+
+Indeed it is, I think, still more than this. It is not merely a monument
+of intellect but of poetic imagination, and I am much inclined to
+believe that the _Paradiso_ of Dante and the Second Part of Goethe's
+_Faust_ are perhaps two of the best, the most infallible, touchstones
+for discovering whether we really possess what Tennyson calls the
+'poetic heart'--not a trumpery æsthetic imitation but the genuine
+article.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST'
+
+PART I
+
+
+When Goethe wrote to Schiller announcing his intention of once more
+taking up his unfinished _Faust_, Schiller replied: 'My head grows dizzy
+when I think of it. The subject of Faust appears to supply such an
+infinity of material.... I find no circle large enough to contain it.'
+Goethe answered: 'I expect to make my work at this barbarous
+composition, this _Fratze_ [_i.e._ caricature, as he often called it]
+less difficult than you imagine. I shall throw a sop to exorbitant
+demands rather than try to satisfy them. The whole will always remain a
+fragment'--a fragment, perhaps we may add, in the same sense as even the
+grandest Gothic building may be said to be only a part of the infinitely
+great ideal Gothic structure which will never be seen on earth, whereas
+in the Parthenon we have, or rather the Athenians in the days of
+Pericles had, something final and complete, something which will
+tolerate no addition.
+
+If Schiller's head grew dizzy at the thought of a Faust-drama, I fear
+that one who has no Schiller head on his shoulders may prove a poor
+guide among the precipices and ravines of Goethe's life-poem, where the
+path is often very steep and slippery. But I will do my best; and
+perhaps I had better treat our subject as I proposed. At first I shall
+point out a little more distinctly some of the characteristics which
+distinguish Goethe's drama from the earlier versions of the story. Then
+I shall try to guide you steadily and rapidly through the action of the
+first Part, offering whatever comment may seem useful, and now and then
+perhaps asking you to step aside from the track in order to get a peep
+over some of the aforementioned precipices.
+
+As we have already seen, one great difference between Goethe's _Faust_
+and many older versions of the story (including Marlowe's play, but
+excluding Lessing's fragment) is the fact that the sinner is saved.
+
+Shortly before his death, in 1832, Goethe wrote to Wilhelm v. Humboldt:
+'Sixty years ago, when as a young man I first conceived the idea of my
+_Faust_, the whole plan of it lay clearly before me.' From the first
+therefore Goethe had conceived the second Part as integral to his poem.
+He knew that, if he were to write a _Faust_ at all, Faust must be saved.
+
+We have already arrived at the edge of one of those precipices of which
+I spoke--Faust must be saved. But what did Goethe mean, or, to ask a
+fairer question, what do we ourselves mean, by being _saved_? No formula
+of words seems able to provide us with a satisfactory answer. We can
+indeed use metaphors drawn from the universe of Time and Space--we can
+speak of 'another world' and of a 'future life'--but as soon as we
+attempt to conceive such existence _sub specie aeternitatis_ our
+imagination fails: to use the metaphor of Socrates, we are dazzled by
+the insupportable radiance of the eternal and infinite, and seek to rest
+our eyes by turning them toward shadows, reflexions, images: we accept
+the beautiful image--the enigma (as St. Paul calls it) or allegory--of
+a heaven in some far interspace of world and world.
+
+As a poet, and especially as a dramatic poet, Goethe, if he treated the
+subject at all, was compelled to accept some imaginative conception of a
+future life, and he could scarcely accept any other but that which was
+in keeping with the old legend--that heaven of angels and saints and
+penitents which was the converse of the legendary hell and its fiends.
+Whether however he was justified by the principles of true dramatic art
+in his attempt to depict his imaginative conception and to place on the
+stage a representation of heaven may be doubted. Certainly the effect of
+Goethe's picture, especially when seen on the stage, is such that one
+cannot but wish some other solution might have been devised, and one
+feels as if one understood better than before why it was that
+Shakespeare's dramatic instinct allowed no such lifting of the veil. You
+remember the last words of the dying Hamlet: 'The rest is silence.'
+
+Thus far therefore we have come: by Faust being saved it is meant that
+he escapes from the fiend and reaches heaven, reaches the 'higher
+spheres' of existence, as Goethe expresses it.
+
+But the mere fact of his being saved does not form the essential
+difference between this drama and earlier versions of the story. The
+point of real importance is that he is not saved in a downward course by
+the intervention of some _deus ex machina_, some orthodox counter-charm.
+His course is not downward. His yearnings are not for bodily ease and
+sensual enjoyment but for truth--truth, not to be attained by
+speculation or scientific research but by action and feeling--by
+struggling onward through error and sin, and by gaining purification and
+strength from trial and suffering and resistance to evil; so that evil
+itself is a means to his salvation and Mephistopheles an instrument of
+good. Rising on the stepping-stones of his dead self he finds at last a
+certain measure of peace and is in the end reunited to her whose earthly
+happiness he had indeed ruined but whose love his heart has never
+forgotten. Indeed it is her love that is allowed to guide him ever
+aright and to draw him up to higher spheres.
+
+When we once realize this we also realize how meaningless, or how
+indescribably less full of meaning, the poem would be without its second
+Part. And yet many, when they speak of Goethe's _Faust_, mean merely the
+first Part--or perhaps merely the little episode of Gretchen given in
+Gounod's opera.
+
+I spoke of Goethe's gospel of self-salvation. Since doing so I have
+recalled to memory some words of his which may seem to refute me. In
+reference to the song of the angels at the end of the poem he wrote as
+follows: 'These verses contain the key of Faust's salvation: namely, in
+Faust himself an ever higher and purer aspiration, and from above
+eternal love coming to his help; and they are in harmony with our
+religious conceptions, according to which we cannot attain to heaven by
+our own strength unless it is helped by divine grace.'
+
+It is true that _after death_ Faust's soul is saved from the demons and
+is carried up to heaven by God's angels, but Goethe's drama is mainly
+the drama of Faust's earthly life, and from the 'Prologue in Heaven,'
+where, as it seems, the Deity undertakes _not_ to help him, but leaves
+him to fight the battle entirely in his own strength, until the last
+moment of his earthly existence there is no hint whatever, I think, of
+anything but self-salvation. On no occasion does he show the slightest
+sense of his own helplessness or of dependence on God's mercy. As for
+_remorse_, Goethe regarded it as a false emotion and as unworthy of a
+man. Although the perfect balance of his mind and his respect for much
+that he could not himself accept saved him from the almost brutal
+insouciance of such a form of expression he would probably have agreed
+with Walt Whitman, who tells us that animals should serve us as an
+example because 'they do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their
+sins; they do not make me sick discussing their duty to God.'
+
+Let us however dismiss criticism and turn to what Goethe as poet has
+given us--perhaps the noblest picture that dramatic art can give: that
+of a man striving onward and upward in his own strength, confronting (as
+Goethe says in reference to Shakespeare's plays) the inexorable course
+of the universe with the might of human will. We might take as the Alpha
+and Omega of _Faust_ these two lines from the poem:
+
+    Es irrt der Mensch so lang er strebt,
+
+and
+
+    Nur rastlos betätigt sich der Mann,
+
+the sense of which is that human nature must ever err as long as it
+strives, but that true manhood is incessant striving.
+
+It is a noble picture--perhaps the noblest conceivable. You remember
+Browning's lines:
+
+    One who never turned his back but marched breast forward,
+      Never doubted clouds would break,
+    Never dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would triumph,
+    Held we fall to rise, are baffled to fight better,
+                        Sleep to wake.
+
+It will have already become evident what abstruse and insoluble
+questions present themselves--rise, as it were, like ghosts of many an
+ancient creed, on every side, as soon as we have crossed the threshold
+of this great Mausoleum of human thought and imagination. There is the
+spectre of the great Mystery of existence--of Life and Death and
+Eternity; and that of the Knowledge of Good and Evil; and that of Evil
+itself--a phantom assuming at times such a visible and substantial shape
+and then dissolving into thin air as mere negation. And this
+Mephistopheles--are we to regard him as a self-existent genuine demon of
+a genuine Hell, or as our own mind's shadow? Is he something external,
+something that we can avoid, something that we can put to flight by
+resisting and get entirely free of--or has each one of us signed with
+the blood of his human nature a compact with some such spiritual power,
+with the demonic element within him, with that spirit of negation, of
+cynicism, of cold unideal utilitarian worldly-wisdom which mocks at
+faith and love and every high and tender impulse--that part of our
+nature which, when some poor girl is sinking in the abyss, prompts us to
+answer our heart's appeal with the sneer of Mephistopheles: 'She isn't
+the first!'? Surely we can well understand the scorn and contempt which
+Faust feels for this demon companion of his. 'What canst thou, poor
+devil, give me?' he exclaims--'Was the human spirit's aspiration Ever
+understood by such as thou!'
+
+The real action of the play begins with the celebrated monologue of
+Faust. But this is preceded by a _Dedication_, by the _Prelude in the
+theatre_, and by the _Prologue in Heaven_, added at various periods of
+Goethe's life. The _Prelude_ consists of a scene between a poet, a
+theatrical director and a 'comic person.' It is merely a clever skit in
+which Goethe has a hit at the public and those who supply it with
+so-called drama. It has no organic connexion with the play. The
+_Prologue in Heaven_ begins with the songs of the three
+Archangels--sonorous verses of majestic harmony, like some grand
+overture by Bach or Handel. These verses are, I think, meant to intimate
+the great harmonious order and procession of the natural and moral
+universe, as Pythagoras intimated them by his 'Music of the
+Spheres'--those eternal laws against which man, that tiny microcosm, so
+vainly strives.
+
+Mephistopheles now enters, as in the Book of Job Satan is described
+entering God's presence, and, just as it happens in the Bible, the Lord
+asks him if he knows Faust, and, as in the case of Job, it is God
+himself who not only allows but seems even to challenge the demon to try
+his powers, foretelling his failure although promising no help to Faust.
+'It is left to thee,' says the Lord to Mephistopheles. 'Draw this
+aspiring spirit from his fountain-head and lead him downward on thy
+path, if thou canst gain a hold upon him, and stand ashamed when thou
+shalt have to confess that a good man amidst his dim impulses is well
+conscious of the right way.'
+
+That which distinguishes this scene from the similar scene in _Job_ is
+its irreverence. Indeed one might almost call it flippancy, and few
+would deny that at times this flippancy is painful to them. The only
+excuse that I can find for it is that, rightly or wrongly, Goethe meant
+us to be pained. I believe that here Mephistopheles represents
+especially that element in human nature which is perhaps the meanest and
+most disgusting of all, namely flippant and vulgar irreverence, and
+although we may not agree with John Wesley's definition of man as 'half
+brute, half devil,' most of us will probably allow that a certain part
+of our nature (that part which Mephistopheles seems to represent) is
+capable of an irreverence and a vulgarity of which the devil himself
+might almost be ashamed.
+
+The monologue with which the action of the play begins strikes at once
+the new chord and gives us the leading motive--one so entirely different
+from that of the old legend--so indescribably nobler than that which is
+given in the opening monologue of Marlowe's play. But the old framework
+is still there. Faust renounces book-learning and betakes himself to
+magic.
+
+    I've studied now philosophy,
+    Jurisprudence and medicine,
+    And e'en, alas, theology
+    From end to end with toil and teen,
+    And here I stand with all my lore,
+    Poor fool, no wiser than before.
+    No dog would live thus any more!
+    Therefore to magic I have turned,
+    If that through spirit-word and power
+    Many a secret may be learned
+    That I may find the inner force
+    Which binds the world and guides its course,
+    Its germs and vital powers explore
+    And peddle with worthless words no more.
+
+Disgusted with the useless quest after that science which deals only
+with phenomena and their material causes, he turns to magic, as he does
+in the old legend; but it is here no diabolic medieval wizardry which
+shall enable him to summon the devil, for, as we shall see, Faust does
+not summon the devil; Mephistopheles comes to him uncalled. Goethe has
+merely used this motive of magic to intimate attainment of perfect
+knowledge of Nature through the might of genius--that revelation of the
+inner secrets of the universe which he himself, in what he calls the
+'Titanic, heaven-storming' period of his life, believed to be attainable
+by human genius in communion with Nature.
+
+'Nature and Genius' was the watchword of the followers of Rousseau and
+the apostles of the Sturm und Drang gospel--a return to and communion
+with Nature, such as Wordsworth preached and practised, and such as
+Byron also preached but did not practise. Only to the human spirit in
+full communion with the spirit of Nature, of which it is a part, are
+revealed her mysteries. All other means, as Faust tells us, are useless.
+
+    Mysterious even in the open day
+    Nature within her veil withdraws from view.
+    What to thy spirit she will not display
+    Cannot be wrenched from her with crowbar or with screw.
+
+Faust turns from his dreary little world of books and charts and retorts
+and skeletons. He opens the window and gazes at the moon floating in her
+full glory through the heaven. His heart is filled with a yearning to be
+'made one with Nature,' and in words which remind one of certain lines
+of Wordsworth he exclaims:
+
+    O might I on some mountain height,
+    Encircled in thy holy light,
+    With spirits hover round crags and caves,
+    O'er the meadows float on the moonlight's waves.
+
+Then, turning from Nature, he casts once more a look around his dreary
+cell:
+
+    Ah me, this dungeon still I see,
+    This drear accursèd masonry,
+    Where e'en the welcome daylight strains
+    But duskly through the painted panes,
+    Hemmed in by many a toppling heap
+    Of books worm-eaten, grey with dust,
+    Which to the vaultèd ceiling creep
+    Against the smoky paper thrust,
+    With glasses, boxes, round me stacked
+    And instruments together hurled,
+    Ancestral lumber stuffed and packed--
+    Such is my world! And what a world!...
+    Alas! In living Nature's stead,
+    Where God his human creatures set,
+    In smoke and mould the fleshless dead
+    And bones of beasts surround me yet.
+
+He takes up the book of the Mystic astrologer Nostradamus and sees in it
+the sign, or cipher, of the universe. As he gazes a wondrous vision
+reveals itself: the mystic lines of the cipher seem to live and move and
+to form one living whole; and in spirit he beholds the Powers of Nature
+ascending and descending and reaching to each other golden vessels
+filled with the waters of life and wafting with their wings blessing and
+harmony through the universe.
+
+And yet from this vision he turns away dissatisfied:
+
+    What wondrous vision! yet a vision only!
+    Where shall I grasp thee, Nature infinite?
+
+And from this cipher of the material universe, this vision of
+inconceivable immensity and infinite diversity, the human spirit which
+is not content with the dead bones of science and has entered into
+communion with Nature cannot but turn away dissatisfied--and even with
+despair. Let me try to illustrate this in a more matter-of-fact way.
+
+The human mind discovers, let us say, that the earth is not the centre
+of the universe; that the sun is larger than the 'bottom of a cask,' as
+in the old legend Faust discovered it to be; that there are other worlds
+quite as large as ours; that this earth of ours is a good deal smaller
+than the sun and actually revolves round it; that even the sun itself is
+not the centre of the universe but one of many suns--one of the
+countless stars in that enormous starry wreath that surrounds us, and
+which we call the Milky Way. And we direct our telescopes to this Milky
+Way and find that what we took for nebula is for the most part an
+accumulation of countless millions of suns, each perhaps with its
+planets. Then, as we sweep the sky with our glass, we discover
+numberless little wreath-like spiral cloudlets, and find that they also
+are just such wreaths of countless millions of suns and solar systems,
+and that these seemingly tiny wreaths are revolving round some central
+body or system, which itself must revolve round some other, and that
+again round another ... until imagination fails. Is there, we ask, some
+final centre of all? some unmoved source of motion? Or is the material
+universe infinite?
+
+Then we turn our gaze in another direction and we find in the tiniest
+grain of sand countless millions of molecules whose atoms (or
+electrons), it is said, are in perpetual motion, revolving like the
+stars. Are then (we ask) the stars themselves nothing but molecules? Is
+the whole material universe nothing but some grain of sand on the shore
+of the ocean of eternity?
+
+We turn away dazzled, and we rest our eyes, as Socrates was wont to say,
+on images, on reflexions. We try to make the mystery intelligible, or
+at least to pacify the reason by throwing it some such sop as the theory
+that 'Size is only relative,' or that 'Space is only a mode of
+consciousness' and therefore nothing real in itself. Or we lull the mind
+to sleep with imaginative metaphors and speak (as Plato did) of the
+Central Fire of Hestia, the Hearth and Home of the Universe, or we call
+that mysterious unmoved centre of all motion the Throne of God. Thus we
+try to lay the spectre of infinite Space.
+
+Or consider Time instead of Space. In a single second how many waves of
+light are supposed to enter the eye? About 500 billions I believe. And
+of these waves some 500 would not exceed the breadth of a hair. Now any
+being to whom these tiny waves were as slow as the ripples on a pond are
+to us would live our human life of three score years and ten in the
+hundredth part of _his_ second, while a being on one of those great
+worlds of space revolving but once in long æons around its centre would
+live--if his life were measured as ours--millions of our years. Here
+again, in our dazzlement, we have recourse to metaphor and theory: we
+lay the spectre of Time by explaining it away as merely a 'mode' and as
+therefore of no objective reality. In other words, dazed and outworn by
+the incomprehensible infinities of Time and Space we console ourselves
+with the theory that it is all a mere phenomenon, a projection of our
+own mind, and with Faust we exclaim
+
+    What wondrous vision! yet a vision only!
+
+and in the words of a still greater master of magic than Faust himself
+we despairingly add that
+
+           like the baseless fabric of this vision,
+    The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,
+    The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
+    Yea all that it inherit, shall dissolve
+    And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
+    Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff
+    As dreams are made of.
+
+From the cipher of the vast material universe, the Macrocosm, we turn
+away, as Faust did, with unsatisfied yearnings. Whither then shall we
+turn? Where shall we grasp Nature--not the empty vision, but the warm
+living form? It is in our own heart that we find a refuge from the
+infinities of Space and Time--in that human heart by which we live, in
+its tenderness, its joys, its fears. Here, and here alone, we find those
+ultimate facts of existence which need no explanation, and which we
+accept just as they are, without any questionings. Here we find an
+infinite universe--no less infinite than that of Space and Time--the
+universe of feeling.
+
+From the cipher of the Macrocosm Faust turns to that of the
+Earth-spirit, the spirit of human life and feeling. He is filled with a
+sudden, passionate yearning to share in the joys and the sorrows and the
+aspirations and the strivings of humanity:
+
+    Thou, Spirit of the Earth, art nearer.
+    I feel my powers loftier, clearer,
+    I glow, as drunk with new-made wine;
+    New strength I feel out in the world to dare,
+    The woes of earth, the bliss of earth to bear,
+    To fight my way, though storms around me lash,
+    Nor know dismay amid the shipwreck's crash.
+
+He calls upon this Earth-spirit, the Spirit of human life. He bends all
+the might of his human will to draw him down from his sphere. 'Come!' he
+exclaims. 'Thou must! Thou must!--e'en should it cost my life!'
+Enveloped in blinding flame the Spirit of life appears. At the
+apparition Faust cowers back terrified and turns his face away. But it
+is only for the moment. Stung by the contemptuous words of the phantom
+he answers: 'Shall I yield to _thee_, Spectre of flame? 'Tis I, 'tis
+Faust, thine equal!' The human Mind claims equality with the Spirit of
+earthly life. But the phantom exclaims: 'Thou art akin to the spirit
+that thou comprehendest--not to me!'--and disappears. Faust has yet to
+learn a lesson that the mind of man can never learn of itself, the real
+nature and meaning of human life. But he has beheld the vision of life,
+he has received the baptism of fire. Henceforth he is to fight his way
+through the storms of life and passion--to pass onward and upward and at
+last to rise to 'higher spheres'; and amidst the fierce and insidious
+assaults of flesh and devil we shall see that he looks for strength and
+guidance to this Spirit that appeared to him in the blinding vision of
+living empyreal flame.
+
+Scarcely has the Earth-spirit vanished when, with a timid knock, there
+enters Faust's _famulus_, or assistant, Wagner. He has heard Faust's
+voice and from its excited tones has concluded that he is practising
+declamation--reciting perhaps a Greek play. The poor amiable dryasdust
+literary and scientific worm-grubber, whose maxim of life is _Zwar weiss
+ich viel, doch möcht' ich Alles wissen_ (I know indeed a good deal, but
+I want to know _Everything_), wishes to profit from a lesson in
+elocution. A scene follows in which the contrast is graphically depicted
+between this half lovable, half contemptible scientific bookworm and
+Faust's Titanic heaven-storming aspirations after absolute truth. When
+he is once more left alone, longing to face the mystery of life but
+crushed by the contempt of the Earth-spirit, Faust is seized by despair.
+He shrinks from encountering life, with its delusive joys, its pitiless
+injustice and its arbitrary fate. He resolves to seek certainty--to
+solve the riddle of life by death. As he moves the cup of poison to his
+lips there comes floating through the air the chime of bells and,
+perhaps from some near chapel, the hymn of Easter morn:
+
+    Joy unto mortals! Christ is arisen!
+
+He pauses. Memories of childhood sweep over him, and he yields to the
+sweet voices that call him back from the threshold of the unseen.
+
+    Sound on sweet hymns of heaven! As gentle rain
+    My tears are falling. Earth hath me again.
+
+Thus Faust escapes the cowardly act of suicide and gains new strength
+through the awakening, for a time at least, of the consciousness, which
+had slumbered within him since the unreasoning days of childhood, that
+there is that beyond life which alone makes life worth having.
+
+The next scene shows us Faust already in contact with human nature, as
+represented by holiday crowds flocking out of the town into the woods
+and adjacent villages at Eastertide. Those who know Germany well will
+feel the art with which Goethe at once transports us into the midst of a
+Germanic Feiertag in spring-time, with its bright sunlight, its throngs
+of townspeople streaming into the country--happy and merry without
+vulgar rowdyism; the smugly dressed apprentice and the servant-girl in
+her Sonntagsputz; the pert student and the demure Bürgermädchen with her
+new Easter hat and her voluminous-waisted Frau Mama; the sedate
+school-master or shopkeeper, leading his toddling child; sour-faced
+officials; grey-locked and spectacled professors and 'town-fathers'
+discussing the world's news or some local grievance--all flocking
+countryward, with some Waldhaus or Forsthaus Restaurant as their
+ultimate goal. And those who know Frankfurt will recognize the scene at
+once: up there above Sachsenhausen, on the road to the pine-woods and
+the Jägerhaus, from which one sees the whole city lying below one, with
+its great Dom and its medieval gates--the river Main gliding through its
+midst and glittering away westward toward the Rhine; and in the far
+background the Taunus range and the dark Feldberg.
+
+Amidst this scene, externally still the more than middle-aged German
+professor (he must be fifty-seven or so) but with a heart full of newly
+wakened yearnings for human life with all its joys and passions, Faust
+wanders, trying to feel sympathy with all these multitudinous human
+beings, attracted perhaps here and there, but evidently for the most
+part repelled and discouraged. He has yet to learn that a love for and a
+knowledge of humanity, such as he finally reaches, must begin with love
+for and knowledge of _one_ human heart.
+
+As he and Wagner return toward the city Faust gives vent to his pent-up
+feelings--pours contempt on his own book-learning and wasted life and
+expresses his yearnings for Nature, and the longing of his spirit for
+wings to fly away into the infinite:
+
+    For in each soul is born the rapture
+    Of yearning upward, and away,
+    When o'er our heads, lost in the azure,
+    The lark sends down her thrilling lay,
+    When over crags and pine-clad highlands
+    The poising eagle slowly soars,
+    And over plains and lakes and islands
+    The crane sails by to other shores.
+
+Whereat Wagner exclaims:
+
+    I've had myself at times an odd caprice,
+    But never yet such impulses as these.
+    The woods and fields soon get intensely flat,
+    And as for flight--I never longed for that!
+
+Poor dear Wagner, how well one seems to know thee, with thy purblind
+spectacled eyes peering into fusty books and parchments, or bending over
+thy crucibles and retorts! Truly a novel and interesting sight it would
+be to see _thee_ assuming wings. In thy philosophy there is naught but
+dreams of elixirs of life or homunculi. Thy highest aspiration nowadays
+would be to find the mechanical equivalent of thought--to prove that
+Shakespeare's and Dante's imagination was due only to a slightly
+abnormal movement of brain-molecules--to find some method of measuring
+faith, hope and charity in foot-pounds and thine own genius in electric
+volts. Thou wouldst live and die, as other eminent scientists of these
+latter days have done, in the certain hope and faith of demonstrating
+irrefutably that this curious phenomenon which we call 'life' is nothing
+but the chemical action set up by the carbonic acid and ammonia of the
+protoplasm.
+
+As they walk and talk there appears a black dog ranging to and fro
+through a field, as if on the track of game. Ever nearer and nearer he
+circles, and in his wake, as it appears to Faust, trails a flickering
+phosphorescent gleam. But Wagner ridicules the idea as an optical
+delusion. _He_ sees nothing but an ordinary black poodle. 'Call him,' he
+says, 'and he'll come fawning on you, or sit up and do his tricks, or
+jump into the water after sticks.' The poodle follows them--and makes
+himself at home by the stove in Faust's study.
+
+Faust has thus, after his first contact with the outer world of
+humanity, returned once more to his cell--to the little world of his own
+thoughts and feelings. He finds himself once more amidst his piled-up
+books, his crucibles and retorts, his bones and skulls. He lights his
+lamp and feels the old familiar glow of intellectual satisfaction. _But
+the poodle is there._ Faust has brought home with him something that
+will now haunt him to the last moment of his life. There has been
+awakened in his nature the germ of that acorn (to use Goethe's metaphor
+with regard to Hamlet) that will soon strike root and shatter the vase
+in which it is planted.
+
+At present he is almost unconscious of this new presence. He is buried
+in thought, and his thoughts lead him toward the question of Revelation.
+He is drawn to take up a Bible and turns, with a mind full of
+metaphysical curiosity, to the passage 'In the beginning was the [Greek:
+logos]--the Word.' More than once there comes from the poodle a growl of
+disapprobation. Faust threatens to turn him out, and proceeds with his
+biblical criticism.... 'In the beginning was the [Greek: logos].' How
+shall he translate [Greek: logos]? It cannot mean merely a 'word.' ... A
+word must have meaning, _thought_--and thought is nothing without
+_act_.... So this 'Word,' this 'Logos,' must be translated as Act or
+Deed.
+
+These speculations are interrupted by horrible growlings, barks, and
+howlings. As Faust looks towards the poodle he sees it rapidly swelling
+up into a monstrous form--huger than an elephant or hippopotamus, with
+fiery eyes and enormous tusks in its gaping mouth. He tries to exorcise
+the phantom with 'Solomon's key' and other magic formulæ, and at length,
+when he threatens it with the mystic formula of the Trinity, it
+dissolves into mist, and out of the mist steps forth Mephistopheles,
+dressed as a 'travelling scholar'--an itinerant professor, or quack
+doctor.
+
+I find that some commentators accuse Goethe of dramatic inconsistency
+and of interrupting the sequence of the action, because he makes Faust
+for a time return to his old speculations, and because Mephistopheles
+does not at once appear in the shape with which we are so familiar--with
+his 'red gold-trimmed dress and mantle of stiff silk and the
+cock-feathers in his hat,' the type of the dissolute man-about-town of
+the period. To me it seems very natural that, dispirited by his first
+contact with the outer world--unable to feel any real sympathy with the
+rollicking and sleek self-sufficiency of that holiday crowd, Faust
+should turn again to reflexion and speculation, and that when he is in
+this depressed and metaphysical mood the demonic element in his nature
+should first present itself--and that too in the disguise of an
+itinerant professor. For is it not the case that to many of us the devil
+_has_ come first just at such a time and in just such disguise?
+
+Questioned as to his name and personality, Mephisto defines himself (he
+too being in a metaphysical mood) as 'the spirit of negation,' and as 'a
+part of that power which always wills evil and always works good'--'a
+part of that darkness which alone existed before the creation of
+light'--and he expresses the hope that, as light is dependent for its
+existence on the material world, both it and the world will ere long
+return to chaos and darkness. I have already touched upon this question
+of Evil as merely negative--merely a part of the whole--and will not
+detain you further over it.
+
+Mephistopheles now wishes to take his leave, promising to visit Faust
+again. 'Visit me as you like,' says Faust, 'and now--there is the
+window! there's the door! or the chimney is at your service.' But the
+devil must go out by the same way as he has entered, and on the
+threshold to keep out evil spirits Faust has painted a mystic pentagram,
+a figure with five points, the outer angle of which, being inaccurately
+drawn, had left a gap through which Mephisto had slipped in; but being
+once in, as in a mouse-trap, he cannot get out again.
+
+As Faust now seems inclined to keep him prisoner, Mephistopheles summons
+spirits, who sing Faust to sleep. Then he calls a rat to gnaw a gap in
+the pentagram, and escapes.
+
+When, in the next scene, Mephistopheles again appears, Faust is in a
+very different state of mind, and Mephistopheles is also in a different
+shape. He is decked out with silken mantle and with cock-feathers in his
+hat, ready for any devilry. Faust is in the depths of morbid despair and
+bitterness at the thought of life:
+
+    'What from the world have I to gain?--
+     _Thou must renounce! renounce! refrain!_
+     Such is the everlasting song
+     That fills our ears our whole life long ...
+     With horror day by day I wake
+     And weeping watch the morning break
+     To think that each returning sun
+     Shall see fulfilled no wish of mine--not one.'
+
+He vows he would rather die. 'And yet,' sarcastically remarks Mephisto,
+'some one a night or two ago did not drink a certain brown liquid.'
+Stung by the sarcasm, Faust breaks out into curses against life, against
+love and hope, and faith ... and 'cursed be patience most of all!'
+
+Here is the devil's opportunity. 'Life is yours yet, and all its
+pleasures. Of what's beyond you nothing know. Give up all this morbid
+thinking, these dreams and self-delusions! Be a man! Enjoy life! Plunge
+into pleasures of the senses! I will be your guide and show you the life
+worth living!'
+
+In an ecstasy of embitterment and despair, though fully conscious that
+such a life can never bring him satisfaction and happiness, Faust
+exclaims: 'What wilt _thou_, poor devil, give me? Was the human spirit,
+in its aspirations, ever understood by such as _thou_?... And yet--hast
+thou the food that never satiates--hast thou red gold--hast thou love,
+passionate faithless love--hast thou the fruits that rot before one
+plucks them--hast thou the fruits of that tree of sensual pleasure which
+daily puts forth new blossoms--then done! I accept.' 'But if,' he adds
+(and, alas, I must give merely the sense of these noble verses--for all
+translation is so unutterably flat)--'if I ever lay myself on the bed of
+idle self-content, if ever thou canst fool me with these phantoms of the
+senses, if ever I say to the passing moment, _Stay; thou art so
+fair!_--then let my life be ended. This wager I offer thee.' 'Topp!'
+('Done!') exclaims Mephistopheles; and, as you know, the compact is
+signed by Faust with his own blood.
+
+You will observe that here there is no mention, as in the old legend, of
+any term of years--the compact is _for life_. Of what may come after
+this life Faust makes no mention in his wager. He expressly says that
+all he cares about, all he can know, is _this_ life, and that he will
+hear nothing about any future life. This may be agnosticism or whatever
+else we like to call it, but it is not formally selling one's soul, with
+or without one's body, for a _future_ life and for all eternity.
+
+Moreover Faust has _not_ summoned the devil. The devil has come to
+him--is indeed a part of him. He does _not_ league himself with a
+hell-fiend for the sake of worldly power or fame or sensual enjoyment,
+of which he speaks with contempt. He only offers to come forward into
+the battle of life and of passions to test the nobler powers and the
+deeper beliefs and the yet dim aspirations of his better nature against
+the powers of evil, against what he calls the 'cold devil's-fist' of
+negation and cynicism and disbelief, against the brute within the man.
+
+    Thou hearest me! I do not speak of joy--
+    I dedicate myself to passion--pleasure--pain--
+    Enamour'd hate, and rapture of disdain.
+    What's highest or what's lowest I will know,
+    And heap upon my bosom weal and woe.
+
+Footsteps are now heard approaching. It is one of Faust's scholars.
+Faust 'has no heart to meet him'--and no wonder. He goes; and
+Mephistopheles, throwing around him Faust's professorial mantle and
+placing the professorial cap upon his head, awaits the scholar. The
+scene which ensues, in which Mephisto gives the young aspirant for
+knowledge his diabolic advice and his diabolic views on Science, Logic,
+Metaphysics, Medicine and even Theology--would offer ample material for
+a very long course of lectures; but as it is one which is not closely
+connected with the main action of the play it will have to be omitted.
+The scholar retires--his poor young head whirling round like a
+mill-wheel with the advice he has received and carrying away his album,
+in which the devil has inscribed his favourite text 'Ye shall be as
+gods, knowing good and evil.' Then Faust re-enters, Mephistopheles
+spreads out his silken cape, and on it the two fly away through the air
+on their adventures--first through the small and then the greater
+world--first the world of personal feelings and passions, then the
+greater world (is it really greater?) of art and politics and Humanity.
+
+Faust had said, as you remember,
+
+    What wilt thou, poor devil, give me?
+    Was the human spirit, in its aspirations
+    Ever understood by such as thou?
+
+This is the leading motive of all that follows. With ever-deepening
+disgust and contempt Faust, in his quest for truth through the jungles
+and quagmires of human passions, follows his guide. If ever Faust seems
+to catch sight of any far-off vision of eternal truth and beauty--as he
+does at times in his love for Gretchen, and again in his passion for
+ideal beauty in Helen, and once again in that devotion to the cause of
+Humanity which finally allows him to express a satisfaction in life, and
+thus causes his life to end--if ever Faust shows any sign of real
+interest or satisfaction, it is just _then_ that Mephistopheles displays
+most clearly his utter inability to understand the 'human spirit in its
+aspirations'; and it is _then_ that he shows most plainly his own
+diabolic nature, pouring out his cynical contempt and gnashing his teeth
+at what he deems Faust's irrational disgust for all those bestialities
+that seem to him (Mephistopheles) the sweetest joys of existence.
+
+His very first attempt is a dead failure. He has carried Faust off
+through the air to Leipzig, and here he brings him into what to the
+Mephisto-nature doubtless seems highly desirable and entertaining
+company--to the 'sing-song' (as I believe it is called in England) of
+tippling brawling students. The scene is Auerbach's Cellar, a well-known
+Leipzig 'Kneipe'--a kind of Wine taproom or Bodega. Among these brawling
+comic-songsters Mephistopheles is in his element, and he treats them to
+a comic ditty:
+
+    Of old there lived a king,
+      Who had a great big flea
+    As dear as any thing,
+      Or any son, could be ...
+
+and so on. We need not linger over the repulsive scene--so graphically
+described.
+
+Finally Mephistopheles bores holes in the table and draws wine from
+them.
+
+The students come to handicuffs over it; they spill the wine, and it
+turns into flame.
+
+Amidst their drunken uproar Faust and Mephistopheles disappear.
+
+During the whole of this scene Faust _speaks no single word_, except a
+curt but polite greeting on entering the Cellar and an appeal to
+Mephistopheles to take him away from this 'scene of swinish bestiality.'
+How different from the part that Faust plays in the old story where he
+himself, not Mephistopheles, joins in the revelry and buffoonery!
+
+Auerbach's Cellar existed till lately, though the house above it had
+been rebuilt. It was the original 'Keller' that is mentioned in the old
+legend. In it were to be seen two old pictures (with the date 1525). One
+represented Faust sitting at table with students; in the other he is
+flying off through the door astride on a wine cask.
+
+A weird scene now ensues: the Witches' Kitchen.
+
+Faust had asked how it was possible for him, the thought-worn
+grey-haired professor, to care for, or take part in, what Mephistopheles
+looked upon as 'life.' Mephistopheles therefore takes him to a witch,
+from whom he is to receive a magic draught that will 'strip off some
+thirty years from his body,' so that he becomes a young, man of, say,
+about twenty-seven. This scene in the Witches' Kitchen is sometimes said
+to represent allegorically a long course of dissipation through which
+Mephistopheles takes Faust, and which of course could not be represented
+otherwise without extending the action of the play beyond all reasonable
+limits. It is true that, after the draught Faust's character seems
+considerably changed for the worse. He develops a recklessness and a
+licentiousness which scandalize even Mephistopheles himself, who tells
+him that he is 'almost as bad as a Frenchman.'
+
+Whether we should understand it thus, or not, I do not feel quite sure,
+but anyhow we have in future--to the end of the first Part--to take into
+account the fact that, although loathing all such swinish sensuality as
+that of tippling students, and hating all forms of mean selfishness and
+cunning and hypocrisy, Faust is (as so often is the case with otherwise
+noble and lovable men) open to assault at that point where, as nowhere
+else, the sensuous and ideal in our human nature seem to touch and
+coalesce.
+
+When they enter the Witch is not at home. In the midst of the kitchen is
+a large cauldron, and at its side, skimming it and seeing that it does
+not run over is a Meerkatze--a kind of female ape. The Meerkater, or
+male ape, squats by the fire, warming himself, and near by are several
+young apes. Mephistopheles is enraptured at the sight of the 'tender
+pretty beasts,' but Faust finds them more disgusting than anything he
+has ever seen.
+
+The apes perform all kinds of antics and chatter a weird medley of half
+sense, half nonsense, in which one can dimly discern satirical allusions
+to various forms of the literary, political, and religious cant of
+Goethe's generation.
+
+The animals enthrone Mephistopheles in a chair, give him a feather brush
+for a sceptre, and offer him a broken crown, which he is to glue
+together with 'sweat and blood.' It is like some horrid nightmare. We
+feel as if we were going mad; and so does Faust himself. But suddenly he
+catches sight of a magic mirror, in which he sees a form of ravishing
+beauty--not that of Gretchen or Helen, but some form of ideal
+loveliness. He stands there entranced.
+
+But at this moment the cauldron boils over. A great flame shoots up the
+chimney. With a scream the witch comes clattering down, and launches
+curses at the intruders--not recognising the devil in his costume as
+modern roué. He abuses her roundly and tells her that his horns, tail
+and cloven hoof are gone out of fashion, modern culture having tabooed
+them; and he forbids her to address him as Satan. That name is not
+up-to-date: he is now 'der Herr Baron.'
+
+With a hocus-pocus of incantations she brews the magic draught, which
+Faust drinks. He is then hurried away by Mephistopheles back into the
+world of humanity.
+
+We have now come to the story of Margarete or Gretchen, which by many,
+perhaps by most, is looked upon as constituting the main subject of
+Goethe's _Faust_. It is doubtless the part which attracts one, which
+appeals to one's _heart_, more than any other, and it forms by itself a
+pathetic little tragedy. The story itself is merely the old sad story of
+passion, weakness and misery, which has been told thousands of times in
+all ages and all languages.
+
+It would be worse than useless to endeavour by any dissecting process to
+discover how by some act of creative power Goethe has inspired this
+little story with such wondrous vitality that there is probably in all
+literature scarcely any character that lives for us, that seems so real,
+as Gretchen. Possibly to feel this one needs a knowledge of the original
+poem and an acquaintance not only with that Germany which is generally
+known to the English visitor, but also with just that class of which
+Gretchen is typical, and with just those little ways and those forms of
+expression which are peculiar to that class and to the part of Germany
+to which Gretchen belonged. Every single word that she utters is so
+absolutely true to nature that we seem to hear the voice of some real
+living Gretchen, and can hardly believe that she merely exists in our
+imagination. This may perhaps be asserted of other poetic creations; but
+I confess that I know no other, not even in Shakespeare, that produces
+on me quite the same kind of illusion. Homer's Nausicaa, the Antigone
+and Electra of Sophocles, Rosalind, Miranda, Imogen, Portia,
+Cordelia--all these live for me, but not quite as Gretchen. Their
+presence I feel as something living, but a little visionary. Gretchen I
+can see, and hear and almost touch. I need not recount at length her
+story, for it is too well known. I need only recall to you memories of
+certain facts and scenes: that first meeting in the street; the
+mysterious presents from the unknown lover; the meeting in the
+neighbour's garden and Gretchen's innocent prattlings about her home
+life; Faust's growing passion, and the vain battlings of his higher
+nature; the insidious promptings and cynical ridicule of his demonic
+companion; the song of Gretchen at her spinning-wheel; her loving
+anxiety as to Faust's religious opinions, and his celebrated confession
+of faith; the sleeping draught by which Gretchen causes the death of her
+mother; her shame, remorse and despair; Gretchen kneeling with her gift
+of tear-sprent flowers before the Virgin's image; the return of her
+brother, the young soldier, Valentin, and _his_ death--stabbed by her
+lover (or rather by Mephisto) at night beneath her window, and cursing
+her as he dies; the scene in the Cathedral; the pealing organ and the
+solemn tones of the Dies Irae mingling with the terrible words of the
+accusing spirit, till Gretchen sinks fainting to the ground.
+
+And where is Faust? He has fled. The avengers of blood are on his track.
+His selfish passion has been the cause of death to Gretchen's mother and
+brother and has brought ruin on her--to end in madness, infanticide and
+the block.
+
+I have often wondered whether the limitations of art might not allow the
+possibility of some drama on the same lines as _Faust_ in which he might
+be saved by the purity and nobility of womanhood, as in the story of
+Cyprian and Justina, instead of, as here, using the ruin of a poor girl
+as a stepping-stone in his career of self-salvation. Or, what if he had
+felt such horror and remorse at her fate that he had broken his compact
+and freed himself from the demon? It will be said, perhaps, that this
+would have been undramatic and that such a view is merely sentimental
+and subversive of all true art. But, once more, what if he had bravely
+stood by Gretchen, or had even shared her fate when she refused to be
+saved by him?
+
+Anyhow, Goethe did not choose any of these methods; and if he had done
+so we should have had no second Part of _Faust_--nor indeed our next
+scene, the _Walpurgisnacht_.
+
+Pursued not only by the avengers of blood but by the avenging furies of
+his own conscience, Faust has plunged into a reckless life and
+experiences those after-dreams of intellectual and æsthetic extravagance
+which so often follow such riotous living. This period--that of sensual
+riot and æsthetic dalliance--Goethe has, I think, symbolized by two wild
+and curious scenes, the _Walpurgisnacht_ and Oberon's Wedding, a kind of
+'after-dream' of the _Walpurgisnacht_.
+
+The connexion of these scenes with the main action of the play has
+puzzled many critics, especially the curious Intermezzo which follows
+the _Walpurgisnacht_, the 'Golden Wedding of Oberon and Titania,' a kind
+of dream-vision, or rather nightmare, in which besides the fairies of
+Shakespeare's fairyland, besides will-o'-the-wisps and weather-cocks and
+shooting stars, numerous authors, philosophers and artists and other
+characters appear, including Goethe himself as the 'Welt-kind.' This
+scene was not originally written for _Faust_, but Goethe inserted it (I
+imagine) as an allegorical picture of over-indulgence in æstheticism and
+intellectualism (the 'opiate of the brain,' as Tennyson calls it)--a
+vice into which one is apt to be seduced by the hope of deadening pain
+of heart. Although not written for the play, this Intermezzo cannot be
+said to be superfluous, for the subject of _Faust_ is one that admits of
+almost any imaginative conception that is descriptive of the experiences
+of human nature in its quest of truth.
+
+But let us return to the _Walpurgisnacht_. On the 1st of May a great
+festival was held by the ancient Druids, who on the preceding night used
+to perform on the mountains their terrible sacrifices, setting ablaze
+huge wickerwork figures filled with human beings. Hence in later times
+the superstition arose that on this night witches ghouls and fiends held
+their revels on the Brocken, or Blocksberg, in the Harz mountains. The
+name of Saint Walpurga (an English nun, who came to Germany in the
+eighth century) became associated with this Witches' Sabbath, as the 1st
+of May was sacred to her. To this midnight orgy of the _Walpurgisnacht_
+Mephistopheles takes Faust.... They are lighted on their toilsome ascent
+of the Blocksberg by a will-o'-the-wisp. A vast multitude of witches and
+goblins are flocking to the summit; the midnight air resounds with their
+shrieks and jabberings; weird lights flash from every quarter, revealing
+thronging swarms of ghoulish shapes and dancing Hexen. The trees
+themselves are dancing. The mountains nod. The crags jut forth long
+snouts which snort and blow. Amid the crush and confusion Faust has to
+cling fast to his guide. Once the two get parted, and Mephistopheles is
+in anxiety lest he should lose Faust entirely, the idea being, I
+suppose, that sometimes a human being outruns the devil himself in the
+orgies of sensuality. At last they reach the dancers. Mephistopheles is
+here in his element and joins in the dances with eagerness, bandying
+jokes with the old hags and flirting with the younger witches. Nor does
+Faust seem at all disinclined to follow suit. He however desists
+dismayed when, as he is dancing with a witch of seductive loveliness, a
+red mouse jumps out of her mouth.
+
+At length, when Mephisto, who finds it getting too hot even for him,
+comes again to Faust, he discovers him silently gazing at a weird
+sight--one that might well have sobered him. 'Look!' says Faust:
+
+    'Look! seest thou not in the far distance there,
+     Standing alone, that child, so pale and fair?
+     She seems to move so slowly, and with pain,
+     As if her feet were fettered by a chain.
+     I must confess, I almost seem to trace
+     My poor good Gretchen in her form and face.'
+
+Mephistopheles answers:
+
+    'Let her alone! It's dangerous to look.
+     It's a mere lifeless ghoul, a spectre-spook.
+     Such bogeys to encounter is not good;
+     Their rigid stare freezes one's very blood,
+     And one is often almost turned to stone.
+     Medusa's head, methinks, to thee is known!'
+
+But Faust will not be convinced. It _is_ Gretchen--his 'poor good
+Gretchen' as he calls her. And what is that red bleeding gash around
+her neck? What terrible thought does it suggest!
+
+    'How strange that round her lovely neck,
+     That narrow band of red is laid
+     No broader than a knife's keen blade!'
+
+'Quite right!' answers Mephistopheles with a ghastly joke--
+
+    'Quite right! I plainly see it's so.
+     Perseus cut off her head, you know.
+     She often carries it beneath her arm.'
+
+He hurries Faust away. But soon these terrible presentiments are
+realized. Faust learns--how we are not told--that Gretchen is in prison,
+and condemned to death on the scaffold; for in her madness--yes, surely
+in madness--she has drowned her own child.
+
+Instead of attempting to describe what follows, I shall offer a literal
+prose translation of some parts of the concluding scene, asking you to
+supply by your imagination, as best you may, the power and harmony of
+Goethe's wonderful verse.
+
+
+
+_A gloomy day. Open country._
+
+_FAUST and MEPHISTOPHELES. FAUST is speaking._
+
+     FAUST. In misery! In despair! Piteously wandering day after
+     day o'er the face of the earth,--and now imprisoned! That
+     sweet unhappy being shut up in a dungeon, as a criminal, and
+     exposed to horrible torments! Has it come to _this_!--to
+     this!... Treacherous, villainous spirit! and _this_ thou
+     hast concealed from me!... Stand there, stand, and roll thy
+     devilish eyes in fury! Imprisoned! In hopeless misery!
+     Delivered over to evil spirits and the heartless verdict of
+     mankind!... And _thou_ meantime hast lulled me with
+     loathsome dissipation ... thou hast hidden from me her
+     ever-deepening despair, and hast suffered her to perish
+     helplessly.
+
+     MEPH. She isn't the first.
+
+     FAUST. Dog! Abominable monster! Turn him, O Infinite Spirit,
+     turn this reptile back into his dog-shape ... that he may
+     crawl on his belly before me ... that I may trample the
+     abandoned wretch underfoot. Not the first!... Woe! Woe not
+     to be grasped by any human soul, that _more_ than _one_
+     should sink into this abyss of misery--that the _first_, in
+     her writhing agony before the eyes of the All-merciful,
+     should not have made satisfaction for the guilt of all
+     others. The misery of this _one_ pierces with agony my
+     deepest soul--and _thou_ calmly grinnest at the fate of
+     thousands!
+
+     MEPH. Here we are again, at the end of our wits!--where the
+     common sense of you mortals loses its hold and snaps. Why
+     dost thou make fellowship with us, if thou canst not carry
+     it through? Wilt thou fly, and art not secure from
+     dizziness? Did we thrust ourselves upon thee, or thou
+     thyself upon us?
+
+     FAUST. Gnash not thy ravening teeth at me! I loathe thee!
+     Mighty, glorious Spirit--thou who didst deign to appear to
+     me, and knowest my heart and soul, why dost thou fetter me
+     to this satellite of shame, who revels in evil and gluts
+     himself on destruction?
+
+     MEPH. Hast thou done?
+
+     FAUST. Save her, or woe to thee! The most terrible curse on
+     thee for thousands of years!
+
+     MEPH. I cannot loose the bonds of the avenger--cannot undo
+     his bolts. _Save her!_... Who was it that ruined her ... I
+     or thou?
+
+[_FAUST glares wildly round him._
+
+     MEPH. Wilt thou grasp after a thunderbolt? 'Tis well that it
+     was not given to you miserable mortals!...
+
+     FAUST. Take me to her! She _shall_ be free!... Take me to
+     her, I say, and liberate her!
+
+     MEPH. I will take thee to her--and do what I _can_ do.
+     Listen! Have I all power in heaven and on earth?--I will
+     becloud the jailer's senses. Then do thou get possession of
+     the keys, and lead her forth with human hand. I will keep
+     watch.--The magic steeds will be at hand ... I will carry
+     you off. So much lies in my power.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *
+
+     _Night. The open country. FAUST and MEPHISTOPHELES
+     galloping past on black horses. They pass a group of
+     witches busy round their cauldron. They reach the prison.
+     Within is heard the voice of GRETCHEN singing an old
+     plaintive ballad. FAUST listens:_
+
+     'She dreams not' (he says) 'that her loved one is
+     listening, and hears her chains rattle and the straw as it
+     rustles.'
+
+[_He unlocks the prison door and steps in._
+
+     GRETCHEN (_crouching into her bed of straw_). Woe, woe--they
+     are coming! Bitter death!
+
+     FAUST. Hush! hush! I am come to free thee.
+
+     GRETCHEN (_grovelling before him_). If thou art a man, O
+     pity my distress!
+
+     FAUST. Thou wilt awaken the watchmen with thy cries. [_He
+     seizes her chain to unlock it._
+
+     GRETCHEN (_kneeling_). Who has given you, heads-man, this
+     power over me? You have come for me already at midnight.
+     Pity me, and let me live! Is to-morrow morning not soon
+     enough? And I am still so young--and I must die! Fair was I
+     too, and that was my ruin. Pity me! What harm have I ever
+     done to thee! I never saw thee before in all my life.
+
+     FAUST. Can I endure this misery?
+
+     GRETCHEN. I am wholly in your power. But let me first suckle
+     my child. I held it in my bosom all the night. They took it
+     from me, to vex me, and _now_ they say I've killed it....
+     And I shall never be happy any more!
+
+     FAUST (_kneels beside her_). He that loves thee kneels
+     before thee.
+
+     GRETCHEN. O let us kneel and call upon the saints. But ...
+     ah!... Look!... Under those steps, under the threshold, hell
+     is flaming. The Evil One is raging there so furiously.
+     Listen, how he roars and thunders!
+
+     FAUST. Gretchen! Gretchen!
+
+     GRETCHEN (_listening_). That was the voice of my friend!
+     Where is he? I heard him call.... Right through the howling
+     and uproar of hell, through the horrid laughter of the
+     devils, I recognized that sweet loving tone.
+
+     FAUST. It is I.
+
+     GRETCHEN. Thou!... O say it once more! (_Clasping him._) It
+     is! it is he! Where is now all my pain? Where is the anguish
+     of the dungeon and the chain?
+
+     FAUST. Come! Come with me!
+
+     GRETCHEN. O stay!... I am so happy at thy side.... What! not
+     one kiss!... Ah, woe, thy lips are cold. Where is all thy
+     love? Who has stolen it from me?
+
+     FAUST. Come! Follow!... Be courageous, loved one! Come with
+     me!
+
+     GRETCHEN. Thou art loosening my chain.... Know'st thou, my
+     friend, _whom_ thou art releasing?
+
+     FAUST. Come, come! Night is already on the wane.
+
+     GRETCHEN. My mother I have killed. I have drowned my child.
+     Was it not given to thee and to me? Yes, to thee too.... And
+     thou art really here! Thou! I can scarce believe it. Give me
+     thy hand--thy dear hand! _Ah_, but it is wet. Wipe it, wipe
+     it! It looks like blood upon it. O God, what hast thou done!
+     Put up thy sword, I beg thee! Put it away!
+
+     FAUST. Let the past be past. Thou art killing me.
+
+     GRETCHEN. No--_thou_ must live!... I will tell thee about
+     the graves that thou must provide to-morrow. Give mother
+     the best place, and brother close to her--and me a little on
+     one side ... only not too far away. And lay the little one
+     in my bosom.... No one else shall lie with me. To cling to
+     thy side, that was once such sweet blissful joy ... but I
+     seem no longer able ... as if I had to force myself, and as
+     if thou didst thrust me back.... And yet it _is_ thou, and
+     thou look'st so kind and good.
+
+     FAUST. If thou feel'st that it is I, then come!
+
+     GRETCHEN. Out _there_?
+
+     FAUST. To freedom!
+
+     GRETCHEN. I dare not. For me there is no hope more. What is
+     the use to flee? They are lurking after me.... It's so
+     wretched to have to beg, and that too with a bad conscience.
+     It's so wretched to wander about in strange lands ... and
+     they'll catch me all the same.
+
+     FAUST. I shall be with thee.
+
+     GRETCHEN. _Quick! Quick!_ Save it! Save my child!... Onward!
+     Right up that path alongside the stream ... over the bridge
+     ... there!... into the wood.... There! to the left! there,
+     where the plank lies--in the pond! Catch hold of it! Catch
+     it! It's rising!... It's struggling! Save it! save it!
+
+     FAUST. Bethink thyself! One step and thou art free!
+
+     GRETCHEN. If only we were over that hill!... There's mother
+     sitting there on a stone. (Ah! what was that, like an icy
+     hand, grasping my hair?) ... She sits and wags with her
+     head--she does not beckon or nod to us ... her head droops
+     so heavily. Yes, she slept so long, and she will wake no
+     more. She slept that we might have joy. Ah, those were happy
+     times!
+
+     FAUST. No entreaty avails--no words are of use. I shall have
+     to carry thee away. [_Seizes hold of her._
+
+     GRETCHEN. _Let me go!_ I will not suffer violence. Seize not
+     hold of me so murderously. All _else_ I did for _love_ of
+     thee.
+
+     FAUST. The day is dawning! Dearest! dearest!
+
+     GRETCHEN. _Day?_ Yes--the day is coming! The last day is
+     dawning! It was to have been my wedding day. Woe to my
+     wreath! But what is, must be! We shall see each other again
+     ... but not at the dance! The crowd is thronging.... One
+     hears no word.... The square, the streets, cannot contain
+     them.... The bell is tolling--the staff is broken.... They
+     seize me! They bind me fast! I am being dragged already to
+     the block! Each feels the axe at his own neck as its keen
+     blade flashes down on _mine_ ... and the world lies dark and
+     silent as the grave.
+
+     FAUST. O that I never had been born!
+
+     MEPH. (_appears at the door_). Come! or you are lost!...
+     Foolish, useless hesitation--delaying and gossiping! My
+     horses are shuddering and the morning twilight breaks.
+
+     GRETCHEN (_seeing MEPHISTOPHELES_). What is this that rises
+     from the ground? He! _He!_ Send him away! What does _he_
+     want at this holy spot?
+
+     MEPH. (_to FAUST_). Come! come! or I shall leave you in the
+     lurch.
+
+     GRETCHEN. I am thine, Father--save me! Ye angels, holy
+     cohorts, encamp around me and defend me! (_To FAUST._)
+     Heinrich, I shrink from thee in horror.
+
+     MEPH. She is judged.
+
+     VOICE FROM ABOVE. She is saved.
+
+     MEPH. _to_ FAUST. Here! to me!
+
+[_Disappears with FAUST._
+
+     [_A VOICE FROM WITHIN--the voice of GRETCHEN--calls on the
+     name of him she once loved--of him who has robbed her of
+     happiness and life itself. Fainter and fainter it calls,
+     then dies away into silence._
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST'
+
+
+PART II
+
+
+The picture which Goethe has given us in _Faust_ is in its main outlines
+the picture of Goethe's own life. The Faust of Part I is the Goethe of
+early days--of the Sturm und Drang period--the Goethe of _Werther's
+Leiden_, of _Götz_, of _Prometheus_, of Gretchen, Lotte, Annette,
+Friederike and Lili; the Faust of the earlier scenes of Part II is
+Goethe at the ducal court of Weimar; the Faust of the _Helena_ is Goethe
+in Italy, Goethe at Bologna, standing in ecstatic veneration before what
+was then believed to be Raphael's picture of St. Agatha, or wandering
+through the Colosseum at Rome, or writing his _Iphigenie_ on the shores
+of the Lago di Garda; and the Faust of the last act of all is Goethe
+reconciled to life and finding a certain measure of peace and happiness
+in his home, in the sympathy of his good-natured but unrefined wife and
+of others whom he loved, as well as in his scientific and philosophical
+studies--until he seals up the MS. of his great poem and (to use his own
+words) 'regards his life-work as ended and rests in the contemplation of
+the past,' and then, a few months later, passes away from earth,
+murmuring as he dies 'More light!'
+
+It will be remembered that at the end of Part I Faust is dragged away by
+Mephistopheles and leaves poor Gretchen to her doom. The fatal axe has
+now fallen. Gretchen is dead.
+
+In the opening scene of Part II we find him 'lying on a grassy bank,
+worn out and attempting to sleep.' A considerable time has evidently
+elapsed--a time doubtless of bitter grief and of the fiercest accusation
+against his evil counsellor, that part of his human nature which is
+represented by Mephistopheles and from which even in the last hour of
+his life (as we shall see) he confesses it to be impossible wholly to
+free himself:
+
+    Dämonen, weiss ich, wird man schwerlich los.
+    Das geistig-strenge Band is nicht zu trennen.
+
+'From demons it is, I know, scarce possible to free oneself. The
+spiritual bond is too strong to break.'
+
+But it is not from grief or self-accusation that Faust is to gain new
+inspiration. It is from the healing power of Nature--in which Goethe
+believed far more than in remorse.
+
+The scene amidst which Faust is now lying reminds one of some Swiss
+valley. The rising sun is pouring a flood of golden light over the
+snow-fields of the distant mountains and down from the edge of an
+overhanging precipice is falling a splendid cataract, such as the
+Reichenbach or the Staub-bach, amidst whose spray gradually forms
+itself, as the sunshine touches it, an iridescent bow, brightening and
+fading, but hanging there immovable. Through this scene are flitting
+elfin forms--Ariel and his fays--singing to the liquid tones of Aeolian
+harps and lapping Faust's world-worn senses in the sweet harmonies of
+Nature, tenderly effacing the memories of the past and inspiring him
+with new hopes and new strength to face once more the battle of life.
+
+He watches the rising sun, but blinded by excess of light he turns away,
+unable to gaze upon the flaming source of life, as erst he had turned
+from the apparition of the Earth-spirit. He seeks to rest his dazzled
+eyes in reflected light (a metaphor used, as you may remember, also by
+Socrates in the parable of the Cave)--in the sun-lit mountain slopes,
+the pine-woods and the glittering walls of rock, and in the colours of
+the foam-bow suspended amidst the spray of the swift down-thundering
+cataract. In the ever-changing colours but motionless form of this bow
+hanging over the downward rush of the torrent Faust finds a symbol of
+human life suspended with its ever-varying hues above the stream of
+time.
+
+It is one of the truest and the most beautiful of all similitudes, this
+of pure sunlight refracted and broken into colours, symbolizing the One
+and the Many, the perfect and the imperfect, the eternal and the
+temporal. Doubtless you are already thinking of Shelley's magnificent
+lines:
+
+    The One remains, the Many change and pass;
+      Heaven's light for ever shines, Earth's shadows fly,
+    Life, like a dome of many-coloured glass,
+      Stains the white radiance of eternity.
+
+Into such variegated scene of reflected and refracted light Faust is now
+entering. He has passed through the 'little world' of personal
+feeling--the world of the One, of the heart, and he is entering what
+Mephistopheles calls the 'greater world' (for greater it appears to be
+from the Mephistophelean standpoint)--the world of the 'many,' of
+politics and ethics and art and literature and society--the world whose
+highest ideal is success, or, at the best, the 'greatest good of the
+greatest number' and the evolution of that terrible ghoul the so-called
+Super-man.
+
+It is at the court of a German Kaiser that Faust first makes trial of
+this so-called greater world. The young monarch has lately returned from
+Italy, where, as was once customary, he had been crowned by the Pope
+with the iron Lombard crown. By his extravagances he has already emptied
+the imperial coffers. His Chancellor, his Treasurers, his Paymasters are
+all at the verge of despair, and the Empire is on the brink of
+bankruptcy. To add to these misfortunes (perhaps the greatest of them in
+the opinion of the young Kaiser) the court-fool has tumbled downstairs
+and has broken his neck; so at least it is believed; but cats and fools
+have a way of falling on their feet, and this fool turns up again later.
+Meanwhile however Mephistopheles presents himself and is accepted as a
+_locum tenens_. To him the Kaiser turns for advice, and Mephistopheles
+proposes a clever expedient--meant as a satire on modern systems of
+finance and State security. He suggests that, as the land belongs to the
+Kaiser, and as in the ground there are doubtless great quantities of
+hidden treasures, buried in olden times, the Kaiser should, on the
+security of these hidden and as yet undiscovered treasures, issue
+'promises to pay'--in other words paper money. This is done, and
+suddenly the imperial court, in spite of its empty coffers, finds itself
+in affluence. The young Kaiser, delighted at the opportunity of
+indulging his taste for display and extravagance, decides on holding a
+masquerade, such as he had lately witnessed at the Roman Carneval.
+
+The description of this great court masquerade occupies a considerable
+space in Goethe's drama, and is generally looked upon by the
+commentators as one of the least successful parts of _Faust_. The
+question is, how are we to estimate _success_ in such a matter? For
+myself I confess that I find this masquerade scene tedious and irksome,
+and can with difficulty read it through; but is not this just the effect
+that Goethe wished to produce? Is not this just the effect that society,
+with all its masquerades and mummeries, inevitably produces on any one
+who, like Faust and with Faust's ideals and aspirations, is making trial
+of life in order to discover under what conditions it is worth living?
+Instead of telling us in so many words that Faust makes trial of all the
+pomps and vanities of fashionable society and finds them utterly empty
+and ridiculous, fatal to all true life and disgusting to all true
+manliness, Goethe gives us a picture of this tiresome foolish scene,
+with all its absurdities and falsities and trumpery grandeurs, amidst
+which our friend Mephistopheles is so entirely in his element, and where
+Faust, with evident self-contempt and disgust, forces himself for a
+moment to play a part. The various elements of fashionable society--and,
+as a contrast, certain very unfashionable elements--are introduced under
+the disguise of these masked figures. Marketable belles and heiresses
+in the guise of flower-girls offer their charms and their fortunes in
+the form of flowers and fruits to the highest bidder. The anxious mother
+is there with her daughters, hoping that among so many fools _one_ may
+be at last secured. Idlers, parasites, toadies, club-frequenters and
+diners-out are there in the masks of court-fools, and buffoons. The
+working man, the trade-unionist and the striker, comes marching amidst
+this scene of revelry, forcing his way through the ranks of consternated
+society, roughly asserting the sole nobility of labour and demanding the
+overthrow of the aristocrat and the capitalist--no new cry, as you see!
+Indeed it is as old as Rome and Athens and Babylon--as old, almost, as
+humanity itself. Then appear the Graces, symbols of the refinements and
+elegancies of life, and the Fates, symbolizing the powers of Order and
+Law, and the Furies, the types of revolution and war, and a huge
+elephant, the incorporation of the unwieldy State or Public, reminding
+one of the 'Leviathan' of the philosopher Hobbes, and Thersites (that
+evil-tongued mischief-maker described by Homer) representing
+society-scandal and calumny. Then comes a chariot whose charioteer is a
+beautiful boy, representing art or poetry. He is the same Euphorion whom
+we shall meet later as the son of Faust and Helen, and identical with
+Byron. On the chariot is enthroned Faust as Plutus the God of Money, and
+behind him as groom or armour-bearer sits Mephisto, an emaciated
+hollow-eyed apparition denoting Avarice. Nymphs, Fauns, Satyrs and
+Gnomes--types of the powers of Nature--attend the car and do homage to
+the God of Money. The gnomes offer to show their master Plutus a
+subterranean treasure-horde of molten gold. He approaches too close and
+his beard catches fire. In a few moments an immense conflagration
+spreads through the crowds of revellers, which would have ended in a
+terrible catastrophe (such as had actually happened at the French court
+shortly before Goethe wrote this scene, and such as happened some
+fifteen years ago in Paris at some bazaar) had not Faust with the help
+of Mephistopheles extinguished the flames by the aid of magic.
+
+The young Kaiser now demands from Faust that he shall give the court a
+display of his magic arts. He commands him to raise the shades of Paris
+and Helen. Faust applies to Mephisto, but he professes himself unable to
+raise the shades of classical heroes and heroines. 'This heathen Greek
+folk,' he says, 'have their own hell and their own devils. _I_ have no
+power over them. Still--there _is_ a means.' He then tells Faust that he
+will have to descend to the 'Mothers,' 'die Mütter,' mysterious deities
+(mentioned by Greek authors) as worshipped in Sicily and dwelling in the
+inmost depths of the universe, at the very heart of Nature, beyond the
+conditions of Time and Space. He who will raise the shade of Helen, or
+ideal beauty, must descend first to the 'Mothers'--must enter the realm
+of the spiritual, the unconditioned, the ideal, to which there is no
+defined road, and to which even _thought_ cannot guide him. He must
+surrender himself in _contemplation_ and sink to the very centre of the
+world of appearances. Mephistopheles gives Faust a key, which glows and
+emits flames as he grasps it. Holding this key he will sink down to the
+realm of the Mothers, where he will find a glowing tripod (the symbol
+of that Triad or Trinity which plays so large a part in the old
+Pythagorean philosophy and in more than one religion). This tripod he is
+to touch with the key, and it will rise with him to the surface of the
+earth.
+
+The imperial court is assembled. A stage has been erected. The court
+astrologer announces the play and Mephistopheles is installed in the
+prompter's box. All is in expectation and excitement. Then on the stage
+is seen rising from the ground the form of Faust attended by the tripod.
+He touches the tripod with the glowing key. A dense mist of incense
+arises, and as it clears away is seen--Paris. His appearance is greeted
+by the enthusiastic comments of the court ladies, young and old, and
+criticized by the men courtiers--with evident jealousy. Helen then
+appears, and the comments and criticisms are reversed, female jealousy
+now having its turn. Faust stands entranced at the loveliness of Helen.
+In spite of the angry protests of Mephistopheles from the prompter's
+box, who tells him to keep to his rôle and not to be taken in by a mere
+phantom of his own raising. Faust, unable any longer to control himself
+when Paris attempts to carry off Helen, rushes forward to rescue her. A
+great explosion takes place and all is darkness. Faust has fallen
+senseless to the ground. Mephistopheles picks him up and carries him
+away--with contemptuous remarks.
+
+At the beginning of the next act we find Faust lying, still insensible,
+on his bed in his old room, where we first met him--his professor's
+study. His daring attempt to grasp ideal beauty has ended, as it often
+does end, and as it ended in Goethe's own case, in failure of a sudden
+and explosive nature. He is now to have an experience of a different
+nature. During the years while he has been making his first trial of the
+outer world, his old Famulus, Wagner, now professor in Faust's place,
+has been devoting _his_ whole time and energies to realising that dream
+of science--the chemical production of life.
+
+It is, says Professor Romanes, 'the dream of modern science that a
+machine _may_ finally be constructed so elaborate in its multiple play
+of forces that it would begin to show evidences of consciousness and
+mind'--mind and motion being, according to certain modern scientists,
+identical. Curiously enough a scientist of the same name--Wagner--who
+lived in the last century, did, like Faust's Famulus Wagner, in the same
+way devote his life to the production of a living organism--a
+'homunculus'--in the conviction, as he asserted, that 'in course of time
+chemistry is bound to succeed in producing organic bodies and in
+creating a human being by means of crystallization'--an assertion not
+very different from that of a still more trustworthy scientist, for
+Professor Huxley himself has told us that he lived in 'the hope and the
+faith that in course of time we shall see our way from the constituents
+of the protoplasm to its properties,' _i.e._ from carbonic acid, water,
+and ammonia to that mysterious thing which we call vitality or
+life--from the molecular motion of the brain to Socratic wisdom,
+Shakespearean genius, and Christian faith, hope and charity.
+
+In the background of the stage we see Faust still lying insensible on
+his bed. Mephistopheles comes forward muttering sarcastic comments on
+Faust's foolish infatuation. 'He whom Helen paralyzes,' he says,
+'doesn't come to his wits again so soon.' He then pulls the bell. The
+windows rattle and the walls shake, as with earthquake. Wagner's
+terrified Famulus appears. He says that his master, the Herr Professor,
+has locked himself up for days and nights together in his laboratory;
+that he is engaged in a most delicate and important operation, namely
+that of manufacturing a human being, and he really cannot be disturbed.
+Mephistopheles however sends him back to demand admittance. Meanwhile he
+dons Faust's professorial costume, which he finds hanging in its old
+place but infested with legions of moths, which buzz around him piping
+welcome to their old mate. Then he takes his seat in Faust's
+professorial chair, and the same scholar enters to whom as a timid
+'Fuchs,' or freshman, Mephistopheles had in the first Part of the play
+given his diabolic advice as to the choice of a profession. The scholar
+is _now_, after a course of University education, a match for the devil
+himself. He flouts poor Mephisto as a dried-up old pedant, not up to
+date with the new generation's æsthetic and literary self-conceits, or
+with its contempt for its elders--and for everything else except its own
+precious self. 'Youth and its genius,' he exclaims, 'are the only things
+of value; as soon as one is thirty years of age he's just as good as
+dead ... and it would be far better if all people at thirty were knocked
+on the head'; and he storms out of the room. Mephistopheles consoles
+himself with the fact that the devil is old enough to have seen a good
+many such new generations, with all their absurdities, their up-to-date
+fads and follies, pass away and give place to other forms of still more
+up-to-date and self-conceited absurdity.
+
+Mephisto now enters the laboratory, where Wagner is intently engaged in
+watching his chemical compound gradually crystallizing within a huge
+glass retort. As he watches, the outlines of a diminutive human being--a
+mannikin or 'homunculus'--become visible and rapidly gain distinct form.
+A tiny voice is heard issuing from the glass retort and addressing
+Wagner as 'Daddy' and Mephistopheles as 'Cousin'; and it is to the
+presence of this 'Cousin,' we may infer, rather than to his scientific
+'Daddy' that the Homunculus really owes his existence. With the
+connivance of Mephistopheles, the Mannikin, still in his glass retort,
+slips from the enamoured paternal grasp of Wagner, and floats through
+the air into the adjacent room, hovering above Faust, who is still
+asleep on his couch.
+
+As it hovers above the sleeper it begins to sing--to describe ravishing
+dreamland scenery--inspiring Faust with visions of sensuous loveliness.
+It then bids Mephistopheles wrap Faust in his magic mantle and prepare
+for an aerial flight.... 'Whither?' asks Mephistopheles. '_To Greece!_'
+is the answer: to the Pharsalian plain in Thessaly; and in spite of the
+protests of Mephistopheles (who has no taste for the land of classic
+art) he is forced to obey. The sleeping form of Faust is borne aloft,
+the Mannikin leading the way like a will-o'-the-wisp, gleaming within
+his glass retort. '_Und ich?_' exclaims poor old Wagner in piteous
+accents. '_Ach, du!_' says Homunculus, '_Du bleibst zu Hause--!_' 'You
+just stop at home, and grub away among your musty manuscripts, and work
+away at your protoplasms and your elixirs of life.' Thus, guided by the
+Homunculus, Faust and Mephistopheles set forth on their aerial journey
+to ancient Greece--to the land where the ideals of art have found their
+highest realization--in quest of Helen, the supreme type of all that the
+human mind has conceived as beautiful.
+
+It is often asked, and I think _we_ may fairly ask, what Goethe meant to
+symbolize by his Homunculus. You will have noticed that his material
+components (as the carbonic acid and ammonia of Professor Huxley's
+protoplasm) are supplied by his scientific 'Daddy,' but that the 'tertia
+vis,' that third power or 'spiritual bond' which combines his material
+components, is supplied by the supernatural presence of Mephistopheles.
+I believe this Homunculus to be a symbol of poetic genius or
+imagination, which uses the material supplied by plodding pedantry--by
+critical research, antiquarianism, scholarship, and science--slips from
+the hands of its poor enamoured Daddy, and flies off to the land of
+idealism. Here, as we shall see, the Mannikin breaks free from his glass
+retort and is poured out like phosphorescent light on the waves of the
+great ocean.
+
+But the quest for Helen, for ideal beauty, leads through scenes haunted
+by forms of weird and terrible nature--those forms in which the human
+imagination, as it gradually gains a sense of the supernatural and a
+sense of art, first incorporated its conceptions--forms, first, of
+hideous and terrific character: monstrous idols of Eastern and Egyptian
+superstition, Griffins, and Sphinxes, and bull-headed Molochs, and
+horned Astartes, and many-breasted Cybeles, till in the Hellenic race it
+rose to the recognition of the beautiful and bodied forth divinity in
+the human form divine, and found its highest ideal of beauty in Helen,
+divinely fair of women. This phase in Faust's development--this stage in
+his quest for beauty and truth--this delirium of his 'divine madness,'
+as Plato calls our ecstasy of yearning after ideal beauty, is symbolized
+by the classical _Walpurgisnacht_. (You remember the other
+_Walpurgisnacht_--that on the Blocksberg--which I described before.)
+
+Guided by the Mannikin, Faust and Mephistopheles arrive at the
+Pharsalian fields--the great plain of Thessaly, renowned for the battle
+of Pharsalus, in which Caesar conquered Pompey--renowned too as the
+classic ground of witches and wizards. Griffins, Sphinxes and Sirens
+meet them. They can tell Faust nothing about Helen, but they direct him
+to Cheiron the Centaur (a link, as it were, between the monstrous forms
+of barbarous oriental imagination and Hellenic art). Cheiron the Centaur
+has himself borne Helen on his back, and excites Faust's passion by the
+description of her beauty. He takes Faust to the prophetess Manto,
+daughter of the old blind Theban prophet Teiresias, and she conducts him
+to a dark fissure--a Bocca dell' Inferno--at the foot of Mount Olympus,
+such as that which you may have seen in the Sibyl's cave on Lake
+Avernus; and here (as once Orpheus did in search of Eurydice) he
+descends to the realms of the dead to seek the help of Persephone, Queen
+of Hades, in his quest for Helen. Meanwhile Mephisto has found that in
+spite of his distaste for classic art and beauty there are elements in
+the classical witches' sabbath not less congenial to him than those of
+the Blocksberg with its northern and more modern types of devilry and
+bestiality. He is enchanted with the ghoulish vampire Empusa and the
+monster Lamia, half-snake half-woman, and at length finds _his_ ideal of
+beauty in the loathsome and terrible Phorkyads, daughters of Phorkys, an
+old god of the sea. The Phorkyads are sometimes described as identical
+with, sometimes as sisters of, the Gorgons, and represent the climax of
+all that Greek imagination has created of the horrible. The three
+sisters are pictured in Greek mythology as possessing between them only
+one eye and one tooth, which they pass round for use. They dwelt in
+outer darkness, being too terrible for sun or moon to look upon. Even
+Mephistopheles is at first a little staggered by the sight, but he soon
+finds himself on familiar terms with them and ends by borrowing the form
+of one of them (she becoming for the time absorbed into her two
+sisters)--for as medieval devil he has no right of entrée into that
+classical scene in which he and Faust are now to play their parts. It is
+therefore in the form of a Phorkyad or Gorgon that Mephisto will appear
+when we next meet him.
+
+Meanwhile the Homunculus has found congenial spirits among the
+sea-nymphs and sirens on the shores of the Aegean. He longs to gain
+freedom from his glass, in which he is still imprisoned. Nereus the
+sea-god is unable to help him, but sends him to his father Proteus, the
+great ocean prophet, who bears him out into the midst of the ocean. Here
+Galatea the sea-goddess (identical with Aphrodite, the sea-born symbol
+of the beauty of the natural-world) passes by in her chariot drawn by
+dolphins and surrounded by Nereids. The Homunculus in an ecstasy of
+love dashes himself against her chariot. The glass is shattered and he
+is poured forth in a stream of phosphorescent light over the waves--thus
+being once more made one with Nature.
+
+The theory that _water_ was the prime element, a theory advocated
+especially by the old Ionic philosopher Thales, was held by Goethe, who
+was a 'sedimentarist' in geological matters, and in this classical
+_Walpurgisnacht_ he has introduced, much to the annoyance of many
+critics, a dispute between Thales and other sages on the question
+whether the formation of the world was due to fire or water.
+
+We have now reached that part of _Faust_ which is known as the _Helena_.
+It was written before the rest of Part II, though doubtless when he
+wrote it Goethe had already conceived the general outline of the whole
+poem. Of the wonderful versatility of Goethe's genius no more striking
+example can be given than the sudden and complete change of scene, and
+not only scene but ideas and feelings, by which we are transported from
+the age of Luther and the court of a German Kaiser and the laboratory of
+a modern scientist back--some 3500 years or so--to the age of the
+Trojan war.
+
+Instead of extravagance and grotesqueness, instead of the diversity, the
+rich ornamentation, the heaven-soaring pinnacles and spires of Gothic
+imagination--we have in the _Helena_ sculpturesque repose, simplicity,
+dignity and proportion. It is as if we had been suddenly transported
+from some Gothic cathedral to the Parthenon, or to Paestum.
+
+I know no poet who in any modern language has reproduced as Goethe has
+done in his _Iphigenie_ and in the _Helena_ not only the external form
+but also the spirit of Hellenic literature. While reading the _Helena_
+we feel ourselves under the cloudless Grecian sky; we breathe the
+Grecian air with Helen herself.
+
+The scene is laid before the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. Helen,
+accompanied by a band of captive Trojan maidens, has been disembarked at
+the mouth of the river Eurotas by Menelaus, on his return from Troy, and
+has been sent forward to Sparta to make preparation for the arrival of
+her husband and his warriors. Once more after those long eventful years
+since she had fled to Troy with Paris she stands as in a dream before
+her own palace-home, dazed and wearied, her mind distraught with anxious
+thoughts; for during the long wearisome return across the Aegean sea her
+husband Menelaus has addressed no friendly word to her, but seemed
+gloomily revolving in his heart some deed of vengeance. She knows not if
+she is returning as queen, or as captive, doomed perhaps to the fate of
+a slave.
+
+She enters the palace alone. After a few moments she reappears,
+horror-struck and scarce able to tell what she has seen. Crouching
+beside the central hearth she has found a terrible shape--a ghastly
+haggard thing, like some phantom of hell. It has followed her. It stands
+there before her on the threshold of her palace. In terrible accents
+this Gorgon-like monster denounces her, recounting all the ruin that by
+her fatal beauty she had wrought, interweaving into the story the
+various legends connected with her past life--those mysterious legends
+that connect Helen not only with Paris and Menelaus but with Theseus and
+Achilles and with Egypt--legends of a second phantom-Helen, the 'double'
+of that Helen whom Menelaus has carried home from Troy--until alarmed
+and distracted, doubting her own identity, overwhelmed by anxiety about
+the future and by terror at the grisly apparition, she seems herself to
+be in truth fading away into a mere phantom, and sinks senseless to the
+ground. After a fierce altercation between the chorus of captive maidens
+and the Gorgon-shape (in whom you will have recognized our old friend
+Mephistopheles) Helen returns to consciousness. Then the
+Phorkyad-Mephistopheles tells her that the preparations which she has
+been ordered to make are in view of a sacrifice to be performed on the
+arrival of Menelaus and that she herself (Helen) is the destined victim.
+
+In despair Helen appeals to the Gorgon for advice, who bids her take
+refuge in the neighbouring mountains of Arcadia, where a robber
+chieftain has his stronghold. Under the guidance of Mephisto, who raises
+a thick mist, she and her maidens escape. They climb the mountain; the
+mists rise and they find themselves before the castle of a medieval
+bandit-prince, and it is Faust himself who comes forth to greet her and
+to welcome her as his queen and mistress. Faust, the symbol of the
+Renaissance and modern art, welcomes to his castle the ideal of Greek
+art and beauty.
+
+The stately Greek measures now give way to the love-songs of Chivalry
+and Romance--to the measures of the Minnesinger and the Troubadour.
+Faust kneels in homage before the impersonation of ideal beauty, and
+Helen feels that she is _now_ no longer a mere ideal, a mere phantom.
+She clings to her new, unknown lover, as to one who will make her
+realize her own existence. It is an allegory of modern art--the art of
+Dante, Giotto, Raphael, Shakespeare and Goethe--receiving as its queen
+the ideal of Greek imagination and inspiring, as it were, the cold
+statue with the warm vitality of a higher conception of chivalrous love
+and perfect womanhood.
+
+I have mentioned how the stately Greek measures in the _Helena_ give way
+to the metres of Romance and Chivalry. Perhaps it may be well to explain
+some of these various metres.
+
+The scene opens, as you know, with Helen's dignified and beautiful
+speech:
+
+    Bewundert viel und viel gescholten Helena.
+
+That is the well-known _iambic trimeter_, _i.e._ the metre of six feet
+(twelve syllables) used in all the speeches in Greek tragedy.
+
+Thus the _Oedipus Tyrannos_ of Sophocles begins:
+
+    [Greek: Ô tekna, Kadmou tou palai nea trophê]
+
+and so on. It has twelve syllables, mostly (iambics) as in our blank
+verse. But blank verse has only ten syllables: 'I cannot tell what you
+and other men.' If one adds two syllables one gets the Greek iambic
+verse, thus: 'I cannot tell what you and other men believe.' The Chorus
+in the _Helena_ uses various rhythms such as are found in the choruses
+of Greek tragedy:
+
+        Schweige, schweige,
+    Missblickende, missredende du!
+    Aus so grässlichen, einzahnigen
+    Lippen was enthaucht wohl
+    Solchem furchtbaren Greuelschlund!
+
+Then Mephistopheles, as the Phorkyad, when Helen falls fainting,
+addresses her suddenly in another measure--a longer verse, such as is
+sometimes used by the Greek tragedians and comedians when something new
+occurs in the play. It is called a _tetrameter_, and consists of fifteen
+syllables (mostly - U, called trochees). Thus, in Greek, [Greek: oi
+gerontes oi palaioi memphomestha tê polei]--and in German:
+
+    Tritt hervor aus flüchtigen Wolken hohe Sonne dieses Tags--
+
+or the fine lines spoken by Helen:
+
+    Doch es ziemet Königinnen, allen Menschen ziemt es wohl,
+    Sich zu fassen, zu ermannen, was auch drohend überrascht.
+
+When Faust appears he begins to speak at once in modern blank verse of
+ten syllables, such as we know in Milton and Shakespeare and Schiller.
+One might have expected him to speak in some earlier romantic measure,
+to have used perhaps the metre of the old Nibelungenlied, as in
+
+    Es ist in alten Mähren wunders viel geseit,
+    Von Heleden lobebären, von grosser Arebeit,
+
+which is supposed to date from about 1150; or in Dante's _terza rima_,
+of about 1300, as
+
+    Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita.
+
+But blank verse is after all the metre _par excellence_ of the
+Renaissance, that is of the revival of Greek influence, and Goethe chose
+it for this reason.
+
+Now the Watchman Lynceus ('the keen-eyed,' as the word means--and you
+perhaps remember him as the watchman of the Argonauts on the good ship
+Argo) represents here the early pre-Renaissance poets of Italy and
+Provence and Germany--the Troubadours and Trouvères and Minnesinger, who
+were so surprised and dazzled by the sudden sunrise of the Renaissance
+with its wonderful new apparition of Greek art that they (as Lynceus in
+_Faust_) failed to announce its coming; and therefore Lynceus here
+speaks in a kind of early Troubadour metre, with _rime_. In classical
+poetry there is no rime. They did not like it; they even ridiculed it.
+For instance Cicero, the great orator, once tried to write poetry, and
+produced a line that said 'O fortunate Rome, when I was consul!' This
+was not only conceited of him but unfortunately the line contained a
+rime and this rime brought down an avalanche of ridicule on his head. 'O
+fortunatam natam me consule Romam' was this unfortunate line. Rime was
+probably first adopted by the monks in their medieval Latin hymns and
+was used by the Troubadours and early Italian poets when they began to
+write in the vulgar tongue. Dante uses it in his canzoni and sonnets
+and ballads, as well of course as in his great poem. So it is quite
+right to make Lynceus speak in rime. Helen of course has never heard
+rime before, and she turns to Faust and asks him what it is that sounds
+so strange and beautiful in this song of Lynceus; and she wants to know
+how _she_ too can learn the art. So Faust tells her just to try and the
+rimes will come of their own accord. But I will quote the passage, for
+it is very pretty; and I will add a rough translation.
+
+       Doch wünscht' ich Unterricht warum die Rede
+       Des Manns mir seltsam klang, seltsam und freundlich--
+       Ein Ton scheint sich dem and'ren zu bequemen;
+       Und hat ein Wort zum Ohre sich gesellt,
+       Ein andres kommt, dem ersten liebzukosen....
+       So sage denn, wie spräch' ich auch so schön.
+
+FAUST. Das ist gar leicht--es muss vom Herzen geh'n.
+       Und wenn die Brust von Sehnsucht überfliesst
+       Man sieht sich um, und fragt....
+
+HELEN.                    wer mitgeniesst.
+
+FAUST. Nun schaut der Geist nicht vorwärts, nicht zurück--
+       Die Gegenwart allein ...
+
+HELEN.                ist unser Glück--
+
+FAUST. Schatz ist sie, Hochgewinn, Besitz und Pfand.
+       Bestätigung, wer gibt sie?
+
+HELEN.                     Meine Hand.
+
+(HELEN. I fain would ask thee why the watchman's song
+       So strangely sounded--strange but beautiful.
+       Tones seemed to link themselves in harmony.
+       One word would come and nestle in the ear,
+       Then came another and caressed it there.
+       But say--how can I also learn the art?
+
+FAUST. Quite easily--one listens to one's heart,
+       And when its longings seem too great to bear
+       We look around for one ...
+
+HELEN.             our joy to share.
+
+FAUST. Not past nor future loving hearts can bless,
+       The _present_--
+
+HELEN.        is alone our happiness.
+
+FAUST. Before the prize of beauty, lo I stand,
+       But who assures the prize to me?
+
+HELEN.                     My hand!)
+
+In the midst of this life of chivalrous love and romance Faust and Helen
+pass a period of ecstatic bliss. But, as Goethe himself found, such
+ecstasies are only a passing phase. The end comes inevitably and
+suddenly. A son is born to them, Euphorion by name (the name of the
+winged son of Helen and Achilles, according to one legend). He is no
+common human child. As a butterfly from its chrysalis he bursts at once
+into fully developed existence. He is of enchanting beauty but wild and
+capricious; spurning the common earth he climbs ever higher and higher
+amidst the mountain crags, singing ravishing melodies to his lyre. He
+reaches the topmost crag and casts himself into the air. A flame
+flickers upwards, and the body of a beautiful youth 'in which one seems
+to recognize a well-known form' falls to the ground, at the feet of
+Faust and Helen.
+
+Euphorion symbolizes modern poetry, and the well-known form is that of
+Byron. For a moment the body lies there; it then dissolves in flame,
+which ascends to heaven, and a voice is heard calling on Helen to
+follow.
+
+Yes, she must follow. As flame she must return to her home in the
+Empyrean--the home of ideal beauty and all other ideals. However much we
+strive to realize ideal beauty in art or in our lives, however we may
+hold it to our hearts as a warm and living possession, it always escapes
+our grasp. The short-lived winged child of poetic inspiration gleams but
+for a moment and disappears, as a flame flickering back to its native
+empyrean. And she, the mother, she too must follow, leaving us alone to
+face the stern reality of life and of death.
+
+In the embrace of Faust Helen melts away into thin air, leaving in his
+arms her robe and veil. These change into a cloud, which envelops him,
+raises him into the air and bears him also away. The Phorkyad picks up
+Euphorion's lyre and mantle; he steps forward and addresses the
+audience, assuring them that in the leavings of poetic genius he has got
+enough to fit out any number of modern poets, and is open to a bargain.
+He then swells up to a gigantic height, removes the Gorgon-mask, and
+reveals himself as Mephistopheles once more the northern modern devil;
+and the curtain falls.
+
+When it rises for the Fourth Act we see a craggy mountain peak before
+us. A cloud approaches, and deposits Faust on the topmost crag. It
+lingers for a time, assuming wondrous shapes and then gradually melts
+away into the blue. Faust gazes at it. In its changing outlines he seems
+to discern first the regal forms of Olympian goddesses, of Juno, of
+Leda--then of Helen. But they fade away and, ere it disappears, the
+cloud assumes the likeness of that other half-forgotten human form which
+once had aroused in his heart that which he now feels to have been a
+love far truer and deeper than all his passion for ideal beauty--that
+'swiftly felt and scarcely comprehended' love for a human heart which,
+as he now confesses to himself, 'had it been retained would have been
+his most precious possession.'
+
+A seven-league boot now passes by--followed in hot haste by another. Out
+of the boots steps forth Mephistopheles. He asks contemptuously if Faust
+has had enough of heroines and all such ideal folly. He cannot
+understand why Faust is still dissatisfied with life. Surely he has seen
+enough of its pleasures. He advises him, if he is weary of court life,
+to build himself a Sultan's palace and harem and live in retirement--as
+Tiberius did on the island of Capri. 'Not so,' answers Faust. 'This
+world of earthly soil Still gives me room for greater action. I feel new
+strength for nobler toil--Toil that at length shall bring me
+satisfaction.'
+
+He has determined to devote the rest of his life to humanity, to the
+good of the human race. It is a project with which Mephistopheles
+naturally has little sympathy. But he is forced to acquiesce, and, being
+bound to serve Faust even in this, he suggests a plan. The young Kaiser
+is at present in great difficulties. He is hard pressed by a rival
+Emperor--a pretender to the Imperial crown. Mephisto will by his magic
+arts secure the Kaiser the victory over this pretender, and then Faust
+will claim as recompense a tract of country bordering on the ocean. Here
+by means of canals and dykes, dug and built by demonic powers, Faust is
+to reclaim from the sea a large region of fertile country and to found a
+kind of model republic, where peace and prosperity and every social and
+political blessing shall find a home. The plan is carried out. At the
+summons of Mephistopheles appear three gigantic warriors by whose help
+the battle is won, and Faust gains his reward--the stretch of land on
+the shore of the ocean. And he is not the only gainer. The Archbishop
+takes the opportunity of extracting far more valuable concessions of
+land from the young Kaiser as penance for his having associated himself
+with powers of darkness. The prelate even extracts the promise of tithes
+and dues from all the land still unclaimed by Faust. As Mephistopheles
+aptly remarks, the Church seems to have a good digestion.
+
+Many years are now supposed to elapse. Faust has nearly completed his
+task of expelling the sea and founding his ideal state. What had been a
+watery waste is now like the garden of Eden in its luxuriant fertility.
+Thousands of industrious happy mortals have found in this new country a
+refuge and a home. Ships, laden with costly wares, throng the ports. On
+an eminence overlooking the scene stands the castle of Faust, and not
+far off are a cottage and a chapel. On this scene the last act opens. A
+wanderer enters. He is seeking the cottage which once used to stand
+here, on the very brink of the ocean. It was here that he was
+shipwrecked: here, on this very spot, the waves had cast him ashore:
+here stands still the cottage of the poor old peasant and his wife who
+had rescued him from death. But now the sea is sparkling in the blue
+distance and beneath him spreads the new country with its waving
+cornfields. He enters the cottage and is welcomed by the poor old
+couple (to whom Goethe has given the names Philemon and Baucis, the old
+peasant and his wife who, according to the Greek legend, were the only
+Phrygians who offered hospitality to Zeus, the King of the Gods, as he
+was wandering about in disguise among mortals).
+
+Faust comes out on to the garden terrace of his castle. He is now an old
+man--close upon a hundred years of age. He gazes with a feeling of
+happiness and satisfaction at the scene that lies below him--the wide
+expanse of fertile land, the harbours and canals filled with shipping.
+Suddenly the bell in the little chapel begins to ring for Vespers.
+
+Faust's happiness is in a moment changed into bitterness and anger. This
+cottage, this chapel, this little plot of land are as thorns in his
+side: they are the Naboth's vineyard which he covets and which alone
+interferes with his territorial rights. He has offered large sums of
+money, but the peasant will not give up his home.
+
+Mephistopheles and his helpers (the same three gigantic supernatural
+beings who took part in the battle) appear. Faust vents his anger and
+chagrin with regard to the peasant and the irritating ding-dong-dell of
+the vesper bell. He commissions Mephistopheles to persuade the peasant
+to take the money and to make him turn out of his wretched hut.
+Mephistopheles and his mates go to carry out the order. A few moments
+later flames are seen to rise from the cottage and chapel.
+Mephistopheles returns to relate that the peasant and the wanderer
+proved obstinate: in the scuffle the wanderer had been killed; the
+cottage had caught fire, and old Philemon and his wife had both died of
+terror.
+
+Faust turns upon Mephistopheles with fierce anger and curses him. 'I
+meant exchange!' he exclaims. 'I meant to _make it good with money_! I
+meant not robbery and murder. I curse the deed. Thou, not I, shalt bear
+the guilt.'
+
+Here I do not find it easy to follow Faust's line of argument. Fair
+exchange is certainly said to be no robbery--but this theory of 'making
+everything good with money' is one which the average foreigner is apt to
+attribute especially to the average Britisher, and it does not raise
+Faust in one's estimation. I suppose he thinks he is doing the poor old
+couple a blessing in disguise by ejecting them out of their wretched
+hovel and presenting them with a sum of money of perhaps ten times its
+value.
+
+Possibly Goethe means it to be a specimen of the kind of mistake that
+well-meaning theoretical philanthropists are apt to commit with their
+Juggernaut of Human Progress. Faust is filled with great philanthropic
+ideas--but perhaps he is a little apt to ignore the individual. Anyhow
+his better self 'meant not robbery and murder' and is perhaps quite
+justified in cursing its demonic companion and giving him the whole of
+the guilt.
+
+The scene changes. It is midnight. Faust, sleepless and restless, is
+pacing the hall in his castle. Outside, on the castle terrace, appear
+four phantom shapes clothed as women in dusky robes. They are Want,
+Guilt, Care, and Need. The four grey sisters make halt before the
+castle. In hollow, awe-inspiring tones they recite in turn their
+dirge-like strains: they chant of gathering clouds and darkness, and of
+their brother--Death. They approach the door of the castle hall. It is
+shut. Within lives a rich man, and none of them may enter, not even
+Guilt--none save only Care. She slips through the keyhole. Faust feels
+her unseen presence.
+
+'Is any one here?' he asks.
+
+'The question demandeth _Yes_!'
+
+'And thou ... who art thou?'
+
+''Tis enough that I am here.'
+
+'Avaunt!'
+
+'I am where I should be.'
+
+Faust defies the phantom. She, standing there invisible, recites in
+tones like the knell of a passing-bell the fate of a man haunted by
+Care: how he gradually loses sight of his high ideals and wanders
+blindly amid the maze of worldly illusions--how he loses faith and
+joy--how he starves amidst plenty--has no certain aim in life--burdening
+himself and others, breathing air that chokes him, living a phantom
+life--a dead thing, a death-in-life--supporting himself on a hope that
+is no hope, but despair--never content, never resigned, never knowing
+what he should do, or what he himself wishes.
+
+'Accursed spectres!' exclaims Faust. 'Thus ye ever treat the human race.
+From demons, I know, it is scarce possible to free oneself. But _thy_
+power, O Care--so great and so insidious though it be, I will _not_
+recognize it!'
+
+'So _feel_ it now!' answers the phantom. 'Throughout their whole
+existence men are mostly _blind_--So let it be at last with thee!'
+
+She approaches, breathes in Faust's face, and he is struck blind.
+
+He stands there dazed and astounded. Thick darkness has fallen upon him.
+At last he speaks:
+
+    Still deeper seems the night to surge around me,
+    But in my inmost spirit all is light.
+    I'll rest not till the finished work has crown'd me.
+    God's promise--that alone doth give me might.
+
+He hastens forth, groping his way in blindness, to call up his workmen.
+His life is ending and he must end his work. It is midnight, but the
+light within him makes him think the day has dawned. In the courtyard
+there are awaiting him Mephistopheles and a band of Lemurs--horrible
+skeleton-figures with shovels and torches. They are digging his grave.
+Faust mistakes the sound for that of his workmen, and incites them to
+labour. He orders the overseer, Mephistopheles, to press on with the
+work ... to finish the last great moat--or 'Graben.'
+
+'_Man spricht_,' answers Mephistopheles _sotto voce_,
+
+    'Man spricht, wie man mir Nachricht gab,
+     Von keinem _Graben_--doch vom Grab.'
+
+It is no moat, no Graben, that is now being dug, but a grave--a Grab.
+
+Standing on the very verge of his grave, Faust, reviewing the memories
+of his long life, feels that _at last_, though old and blind, with no
+more hopes in earthly existence, he has won peace and happiness in
+having worked for others and in having given other human beings a
+measure of independence and of that true liberty and happiness which are
+gained only by honest toil. He alone truly _possesses_ and can _enjoy_
+who has made a thing his own by earning it.
+
+    Yes, to this thought I hold with firm persistence;
+    The last result of wisdom stamps it true;
+    He only earns his freedom and existence
+    Who daily conquers them anew.
+    And such a throng I fain would see--
+    Would stand on a free soil, with people free.
+
+Standing there, on the very edge of his new-dug grave he blesses the
+present moment and bids it stay. The fatal words are spoken and
+according to the compact his life must end.
+
+He sinks lifeless to the ground. The Lemurs lay him in the open grave.
+Mephistopheles, triumphant, looks on and exclaims:
+
+    No joy could sate him, no delight suffice.
+    To grasp at empty shades was his endeavour.
+    The latest, poorest emptiest moment--this--
+    Poor fool, he tried to hold it fast for ever.
+    Me he resisted in such vigorous wise;
+    But Time is lord--and there the old man lies!
+    The clock stands still.
+
+'Stands still,' repeats a voice from heaven, 'still, silent, as the
+midnight.' 'It is finished,' says Mephistopheles. 'Nay. 'Tis but past,'
+answers the voice. 'Past!' exclaims Mephistopheles; 'how _past_ and yet
+not _finished_?' ... He is enraged at the suspicion that life, though
+past, may not be _finished_--that Faust's human soul may _yet_ elude
+that hell to which he destines it ... that of annihilation.
+
+The Lemurs group themselves round the grave and chant with hollow
+voices, such as skeletons may be supposed to have, a funeral dirge.
+Meantime Mephistopheles is busy summoning his demons to keep watch over
+the dead body, lest the soul should escape like a mouse, or flicker up
+to heaven in a little flamelet. Hideous forms of demons, fat and thin,
+with straight and crooked horns, tusked like boars and with claws like
+vultures, come thronging in, while the jaw of hell opens itself, showing
+in the distance the fiery city of Satan.
+
+At this moment a celestial glory is seen descending from heaven and
+voices of angels are heard singing a song of triumph and salvation. They
+approach ever nearer--Mephistopheles rages and curses, but in vain. They
+come ever onward, casting before them roses, the flowers of Paradise,
+which burst in flame and scorch the demons, who, rushing at their
+angelic adversaries with their hellish prongs and forks and launching
+vainly their missiles of hell-fire, are hurled back by an invisible
+power and gradually driven off the stage, plunging in hideous ruin and
+combustion down headlong into the jaws of hell.
+
+Mephistopheles alone remains, foaming in impotent rage. He is surrounded
+by the choir of white-robed angels. He stands powerless there, while
+they gather to themselves Faust's immortal part and ascend amidst songs
+of triumph to heaven.
+
+Some of us, perhaps most of us--in certain moods at least--feel
+inclined to close the book here, as we do with _Hamlet_ at the words
+'the rest is silence.' And this feeling is all the stronger when we have
+witnessed the stage decorator's pasteboard heaven, where Apostles and
+Fathers are posed artistically in rather perilous situations amid rocks
+and pine-trees, or balance themselves with evident anxiety mid-air on
+pendent platforms representing clouds. Altogether this stage-heaven is a
+very uncomfortable and depressing kind of place.
+
+But when read in Goethe's poem and regarded as an allegorical vision the
+scene has a certain impressive grandeur, and some of the hymns of
+adoration and triumph are of exceeding beauty.
+
+This Scene in Heaven opens with the songs of the three great Fathers,
+the Pater Ecstaticus, Pater Profundus, and Pater Seraphicus, symbolizing
+the three stages of human aspiration, namely ecstasy, contemplation and
+seraphic love. The Seraphic Father is of course St. Francis of Assisi.
+In heaven, as he did on earth, he sings of the revelation of Eternal
+Love.
+
+Angels are now seen ascending and bearing Faust's immortal part, and as
+they rise they sing:
+
+    The noble spirit now is free
+      And saved from evil scheming.
+    Whoe'er aspires unweariedly
+      Is not beyond redeeming,
+    And if he feels the grace of Love
+      That from on high is given
+    The blessed hosts that wait above
+      Shall welcome him to heaven.
+
+His yet unawakened soul is greeted by the heavenly choirs and by the
+three penitents, the Magdalene, the woman of Samaria and St. Mary of
+Egypt.
+
+Then appears 'timidly stealing forth' the glorified form of her who on
+earth was called Gretchen. In words that remind one of her former prayer
+of remorse and despair in the Cathedral she offers her petition to the
+Virgin:
+
+        O Mary, hear me!
+        From realms supernal
+        Of light eternal
+    Incline thy countenance upon my bliss!
+        My loved, my lover,
+        His trials over
+    In yonder world, returns to me in this.
+
+The Virgin in her glory appears. She addresses Gretchen:
+
+    Come, raise thyself to higher spheres!
+    For he will follow when he feels thee near.
+
+Gretchen soars up to the higher heaven, and the soul of Faust, now
+awakening to consciousness, rises also heavenward following her, while
+the chorus of angels sings, in words the beauty and power of which I
+dare not mar by translation, telling how all things earthly are but a
+vision, and how in heaven the imperfect is made perfect and the
+inconceivable wins attainment, and how that which leads us upward and
+heavenward is immortal love.
+
+    Alles Vergängliche
+    Ist nur ein Gleichnis;
+    Das Unzulängliche,
+    Hier wird's Ereignis;
+    Das Unbeschreibliche,
+    Hier ist's getan;
+    Das Ewig-weibliche
+    Zieht uns hinan.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes:                                         |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Page 15: Full stop added after "dishes"                      |
+  | Page 117: "happended" amended to "happened"                  |
+  | Page 128: closing quote mark added after 'double'            |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Hyphenation has generally been standardized. However, when   |
+  | hyphenated and unhyphenated versions of a word each occur    |
+  | an equal number of times, both versions have been retained   |
+  | (out-rivalling/outrivalling; up to date/up-to-date).         |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust', by 
+H. B. Cotterill
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+Project Gutenberg's The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust', by H. B. Cotterill
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
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+Title: The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust'
+
+Author: H. B. Cotterill
+
+Release Date: June 9, 2008 [EBook #25732]
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+Language: English
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAUST-LEGEND AND GOETHE'S FAUST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, Henry Craig and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in
+this text. For a complete list, please see <a href="#tnote">the bottom of
+this document.</a></p>
+
+<p>The symbol for a trochee on page <a href="#Page_134">134</a> is shown like this: &mdash;&#8746;</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>THE FAUST-LEGEND<br />
+AND GOETHE'S 'FAUST'</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>H. B. COTTERILL</h2>
+
+<p class='center'>EDITOR OF GOETHE'S 'IPHIGENIE'<br />
+SCHILLER'S 'LAGER' 'REFLECTIONS<br />
+FROM THE NIBELUNGENLIED' DANTE'S<br />
+'INFERNO' ETC.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>LONDON<br />
+GEORGE G. HARRAP &amp; COMPANY<br />
+9 PORTSMOUTH STREET KINGSWAY W.C.<br />
+1912</p>
+
+<p class='frontend'>BALLANTYNE &amp; COMPANY, LTD.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tavistock Street, Covent Garden</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">London</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>These lectures have been given perhaps
+half a dozen times, in England, in Switzerland
+and in Germany. On allowing them to
+appear in print I should perhaps apologize
+to my readers for the somewhat free and
+familiar style in which parts of them are
+written; but even if I had the time to recast
+them into a more serious form I should be
+unwilling to do so, for there is surely enough
+ponderous literature on the subject, and
+although some may resent in a book what
+often helps to make a lecture attractive, I
+think I can rely on the fact that many
+people agree with the dictum of Horace:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i10"><i>Ridiculum aeri</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Fortius et melius magnas plerumque secat res,</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>or, as Milton has it:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8"><i>Joking decides great things</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Stronger and better oft than earnest can.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Almost the only change that I have made
+in my MS. has been the substitution or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+addition of an English translation in
+numerous places where I had formerly
+quoted the German original. On some
+occasions, when first writing the lectures,
+I very probably used the English version
+of <i>Faust</i> by Bayard Taylor, but I have not
+the book at present at hand and cannot feel
+quite certain whether any of the verse
+translations are not my own. The little
+book makes of course no pretence to be
+a contribution to critical or biographical
+literature. It is meant especially for those
+who wish to know something more about
+the story of Faust and about Goethe's
+play, and who, because their knowledge of
+German does not suffice or for other reasons,
+are unable to study the subject in any more
+satisfactory way.</p>
+
+
+<p class='right'>H. B. C.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class='smcap'>freiburg im breisgau</span><br />
+<i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;August 1912</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toc">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">PAGE</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>THE OLD FAUST LEGEND</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>GOETHE'S 'FAUST' (<span class="smcap">Part I.</span>)</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>GOETHE'S 'FAUST' (<span class="smcap">Part II.</span>)</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE OLD FAUST-LEGEND</h3>
+
+
+<p>All of us have probably experienced the
+fact that it is possible to have been familiar
+for a long time with some great work of
+imagination&mdash;some poem or picture&mdash;to
+have learnt to love it almost as if it were a
+living person, to imagine that we understand
+it and appreciate it fully, even to fancy that
+it has a special message, a deeper meaning,
+for us than for almost any one else, and
+then to come across somebody&mdash;some commentator
+perhaps&mdash;who informs us that our
+uncritical appreciation is quite worthless,
+mere shallow sentiment, and that until we
+can accurately analyze and formulate the
+Idea which the artist endeavoured to incorporate
+in his work, and classify the diverse
+manifestations of this Idea as subjective,
+objective, symbolical, allegorical, dramatical-psychological
+or psychological-dramatical,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+we are not entitled to hold, far less to express,
+any opinion on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>When I realised that I had undertaken
+to lecture on <i>Faust</i>, I thought it my duty to
+study Goethe's German commentators&mdash;some
+of them at least; for to study all
+would consume a lifetime. A few of the
+works of these commentators I already
+possessed&mdash;some, I am sorry to say, with
+their pages yet uncut. Others I procured,
+following the advice of German friends well
+versed in the matter. I set to work on what
+was presumably the best of these commentaries.
+As I laboured onwards, page after
+page, I found myself from time to time
+turning back to the title of the book. Sure
+enough, it was <i>Ueber Goethe's Faust</i>. I
+laboured on&mdash;the suspicion deepening at
+every turn of the page that perhaps the
+binder might have bound up the wrong text
+under the title <i>Ueber Goethe's Faust</i>. At
+the fifty-third page I came to a dead stop.
+Except quite incidentally neither Goethe
+nor Faust had as yet been mentioned. These
+fifty-three pages had been entirely devoted
+to what seemed to my rather unmetaphysical
+mind a not very luminous or edifying dissertation
+on the difference between <i>Ansicht</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+and <i>Einsicht</i>&mdash;between mere Opinion and
+true critical Insight; and, as far as I could
+discover, the only conclusion as yet arrived
+at was that the writer possessed an exclusive
+monopoly in the last-mentioned article.</p>
+
+<p>But I will not inflict upon you any
+further description of my tusslings with
+Teutonic interpreters of <i>Faust</i>&mdash;with their
+<i>egos</i> and <i>non-egos</i>, their moral-&aelig;sthetic
+symbolisms and so on. Let us leave them
+to the tender mercies of Goethe himself,
+who was not sparing of his ridicule in regard
+to his commentators, nor, alas, at times in
+regard to his countrymen. 'Of all nations,'
+he says, 'the Germans understand me least.... Such
+people make life a burden by their
+abstruse thoughts and their <i>Ideas</i>, which
+they hunt up in all directions and insist on
+discovering in everything.... They come
+and ask <i>me</i> what "Ideas" <i>I</i> have incorporated
+in my <i>Faust</i>. Just as if I myself
+knew!&mdash;or could describe it, even if I did
+know!' Of course Goethe's great poem
+contains an Idea, if by that word we mean in
+a poem what we mean by <i>life</i> in anything
+living; but it is not by dissection and
+analysis that we shall discover it. 'He who
+wishes,' says Goethe in <i>Faust</i>, 'to examine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+and describe anything living first does his
+best to expel the life. Then he has got the
+dead parts in his hand; but what is wanting
+is just the spiritual bond.' It is my purpose&mdash;a
+purpose not easy of fulfilment&mdash;to avoid
+this method of dissection and to place
+before you living realities, not anatomical
+specimens.</p>
+
+<p>But before we plunge <i>in medias res</i> and
+grapple our present subject, namely the old
+Faust-legend, I should like to say just a few
+words in order to show from what standpoint
+I think we should regard Goethe as a
+poet and a thinker&mdash;for that he is great both
+as a poet and as a thinker cannot be denied.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe describes his own philosophy as
+the philosophy of action. He believed in
+impulse, in inspiration, in action, rather
+than in reflexion, analysis and logic. 'Reflect
+not!' he makes Iphigenie exclaim&mdash;'Reflect
+not! Grant freely, as thou feel'st!' And
+in one of his Epigrams he says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Yes, that's the right way,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>When we cannot say</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>How we think. True thought</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Comes as a gift, unsought.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such theory of inspiration is thoroughly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+Greek, reminding one of Plato's 'muse-inspired
+madman' and of what Sophocles is
+related to have said to Aeschylus; 'Thou,
+Aeschylus, always dost the right thing&mdash;but
+unconsciously (<span class='correction' title='all ouk eid&ocirc;s ge'>&#7936;&#955;&#955;&#900; &#959;&#8016;&#954; &#949;&#7984;&#948;&#974;&#987; &#947;&#949;</span>).' Thus
+it was also with Goethe. All intellectual
+hobbies and shibboleths, all this endless
+wearisome discussion and dissection and
+analysis and criticism and bandying about of
+<i>opinion</i>, which is the very life-breath of
+modern intellectual existence and modern
+journalistic literature, Goethe rejected, as
+Plato had done in his <i>Phaedrus</i>, where he
+makes Socrates call such things 'rotten
+soul-fodder.'</p>
+
+<p>'The whole! The whole!' was Goethe's
+frequent exclamation&mdash;'life! action! being!&mdash;the
+living whole, not the dead parts!' He
+was for ever decrying mere thought, mere
+intellect, mere cleverness. And yet of all
+moderns what greater intellect, what greater
+thinker, can we name than Goethe himself?
+Seldom, perhaps never, has there existed a
+mortal so many-sided. 'In such manifold
+directions'&mdash;he wrote to his friend Jacobi&mdash;'does
+my nature move, that I cannot be
+satisfied with <i>one</i> single mode of thought.
+As poet and artist I am polytheist; as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+student of Nature I am pantheist. When I
+need a God for my personal nature, as a
+moral and spiritual human being, He also
+exists for me. Heaven and earth are such
+an immense realm that it can only be
+grasped by the collective intelligence of all
+intelligent beings.' Such 'collective intelligence'
+Goethe perhaps more nearly possessed
+than any other human being has
+done. The lordly pleasure-house which he
+built for his soul was such as Tennyson
+describes (and his words refer of course to
+Goethe):</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Full of great rooms and small the palace stood,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>All various, each a perfect whole</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>From living Nature, fit for every mood</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>And change of my still soul.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>And wonderfully true are those other
+lines of Tennyson&mdash;but rather bitter, as
+perhaps was to be expected of Tennyson
+when he was describing a great character
+with which he had so little sympathy:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>I take possession of man's mind and deed.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>I care not what the sects may brawl.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>I sit as God holding no form of creed,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>But contemplating all.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To Goethe all things, both in Nature and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+Art were but transitory reflexions of the
+real and eternal. 'Alles verg&auml;ngliche ist
+nur ein Gleichnis'&mdash;all things transitory
+are but a parable, an allegory of truth and
+reality&mdash;such are some of the last words of
+his great Poem; and thus too he regarded
+his own poetry. 'I have,' he said, 'always
+regarded all that I have produced as merely
+symbolic, and I did not much care whether
+what I made were pots or dishes.' Even
+that life-poem of his, <i>Faust</i>, which he
+planned and began as a young man of about
+twenty-five, and the last lines of which he
+wrote a few months before his death, aged
+eighty-two, only represents (as indeed do all
+great works of art) <i>one</i> aspect of belief&mdash;or
+perhaps I should rather say a certain number
+of truth's innumerable aspects, none of them
+claiming to afford a full vision, and not a few
+of them apparently contradictory; for, as
+both Plato and Shakespeare tell us, truth
+cannot be directly stated: it lies, as it were, in
+equipoise between contradictory statements:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>For no thought is contented. The better sort,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>As thoughts of things divine ... do set the word</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Against the word.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>Faust</i> does not claim to be a universal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+Gospel, nor to offer a final solution of the
+riddle of existence. It makes no attempt
+to pile up Pelions on Ossas&mdash;to scale heaven
+with the Babel-towers of the human reason.
+It merely holds up a mirror in which we see
+reflected certain views of truth, such as
+presented themselves to Goethe from some
+of his intellectual heights. To regard it
+and judge it otherwise&mdash;to analyse its Idea&mdash;to
+insist on discovering its Moral&mdash;to
+compare it with some little self-contained
+system of theory or dogma which we ourselves
+may have finally accepted&mdash;and to
+condemn Goethe as a prophet of lies because,
+viewing truth from such diverse standpoints
+(many of them perhaps quite inaccessible for
+us) he may seem at times to ignore some
+of our pet formul&aelig;&mdash;this, I think, would
+convict us of a lamentable lack of wisdom and
+humility. And if at times we feel pained by
+what may seem irreverent, let us remember
+that Goethe wrote also these words: 'With
+many people who have God constantly on
+their tongues He becomes a phrase, a mere
+name uttered without any accompanying
+idea. If they were penetrated by God's
+greatness, they would rather be dumb and
+for very reverence not dare to name Him.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Goethe accepted not without a certain
+amount of pride the title given him by some
+of his contemporaries&mdash;that of 'the last of
+the Heathen.' But which of us will doubt
+the sincerity or fail to be touched by the
+humility of his words: 'And yet perhaps
+I am such a Christian as Christ Himself
+would wish me to be.'</p>
+
+<p>There are doubtless but very few (and I
+confess that I am not one of these select
+few) who can accept Goethe in all his many-sidedness.
+We ordinary mortals are incapable
+of such Protean versatility and are
+sure to find points, often many and important
+points, where we are strongly repelled
+by his teachings and his personality.
+The idealist is scandalized by his vigorous
+realism, the realist and materialist by his
+idealism, the dogmatist by his free thought,
+the free-thinker by his reverence towards
+religion, while the scientific expert is apt
+to regard him as a mere poet, oblivious or
+ignorant of the fact that, although without
+scientific training, besides propounding
+theories on Colour which were for a time
+accepted by leading authorities on that subject
+and besides making a discovery which
+had escaped the investigations of professional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+Anatomists (that of the intermaxillary
+bone), Goethe was the discoverer of a law,
+that of the metamorphosis of leaves and
+flowers, which may be said to have almost
+revolutionised the science of Botany.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now turn to our subject and
+attempt to trace to its first sources this
+strange and suggestive legend of Faust,
+the great Magician.</p>
+
+<p>And first, we shall see our way more
+clearly if we consider what is really the
+nature of that magic, or black art, which
+played such an important part in the
+medieval imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps we may say that by 'magic'
+was denoted that art by which one was
+supposed to gain a knowledge of, and a
+power over, the prime elements of Nature
+and its cosmic potencies, so as to be able to
+combine and use them independently of
+natural laws. It is this power that Faust
+in Goethe's play longs to attain:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8"><i>... To find the force</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>That binds the world and guides its course,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Its germs and vital powers explore</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And peddle with worthless words no more.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In almost every age and nation we find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+a vital Power, an ordering Force, recognised
+as present in the natural world, and the
+human mind seems ever prone to believe
+such Power to have affinity to human
+nature and to be, so to speak, open to a
+bargain. The fetish priest, the rain doctor,
+the medicine-man, the Hindu yogi, the
+Persian Mage, the medieval saint, and countless
+miracle-workers in every age, have ever
+believed themselves to be, whether by force
+of will, or by ecstatic contemplation, or by
+potent charms, in communion with the
+great Spirit of Nature, or with mighty
+cosmic influences&mdash;with Powers of Light
+or of Darkness; with Oromasdes or Arimanes,
+Brahma or Siva, Jehovah or Baal;
+with Zoroastrian Devs, Persian Genii,
+guardian angels or attendant demons; with
+the Virgin Queen of heaven&mdash;whether as
+Selene, Astarte, Hecate, or the Madonna;
+with the Prince of the powers of this world&mdash;with
+or without his horns and his cloven
+foot.</p>
+
+<p>Not only among the heathen&mdash;the orientals
+and Egyptians&mdash;but also among the
+Chosen People we find the priests attesting
+their favour with the Deity, and asserting
+the truth of their religion, by what we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+may call orthodox magic. We all remember
+how Aaron's rod, in the form of
+an orthodox snake, swallowed up the
+unorthodox rod-snakes of the Egyptian
+sorcerers, and how Elijah attested the
+power of the true God by calling down fire
+from heaven in his contest with the priests
+of the Sun-god Baal. King Solomon too
+was for many ages credited with magic
+powers and was regarded in medieval
+times as the great authority in matters of
+wizardry.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Greeks, although mysteries
+and witches played no small part in the old
+religion and survived long in popular superstition,
+magic was thrust into the background
+by the poetic and philosophic
+Hellenic imagination. The powers of
+Nature were incorporated in the grand and
+beautiful human forms of the Olympian
+gods, or in the dread shapes of the Infernal
+deities. But even among those of the
+Greeks who were raised far above the
+ordinary superstitions of the populace we
+find many traces of mysticism and magic,
+as for example in connexion with oracles,
+with divine healing, with the efficacy of
+images and other sacred objects, and especially
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>in connexion with Orphic and other
+Mysteries. And, while for the most part
+Greek philosophy was rather imaginative
+than mystic, still we encounter the genuine
+mystic element in such Greek sages as
+Empedocles and Pythagoras, both of whom
+assumed the priestly character and seem to
+have laid claim to supernatural powers.
+Empedocles indeed, it is said, gave himself
+out to be a deity exiled from heaven, and
+was apparently worshipped as such. According
+to a not very trustworthy legend
+he threw himself into the crater of Mount
+Etna&mdash;perhaps in order thus to solve the
+mystery of existence. Pythagoras is said
+by some to have met his death at the
+hands of the people of Crotona, who set
+fire to his house and burnt him alive
+with many of his disciples. Goethe evidently
+alludes to Pythagoras (as well perhaps
+as to John Huss and others who
+found their death at the stake) in some
+well-known lines, which may be roughly
+thus translated:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>The few that truth's deep mystery have learned</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>And could not keep it in their hearts concealed,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>But to the mob their inner faith revealed,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Have evermore been crucified and burned.</i><br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>We now come to Christianity. In the
+early ages of the Church the final appeal
+seems to have been an appeal to miracles,
+and we find the apostles and their followers
+claiming the sole right of working miracles
+in the name of the one true God and anathematizing
+all other wonder-workers as in
+league with Satan. We all remember
+Elymas the Sorcerer struck blind by St.
+Paul, and the adversary of St. Peter, Simon
+the Mage, around whom first gathered the
+myths which lived so long in the popular
+imagination and many of which we shall
+meet with in the legend of Dr. Faust.</p>
+
+<p>This Simon, the Magus or Sorcerer, who
+bewitched the people of Samaria, and was
+looked upon as 'the great power of God,' is
+said in the <i>Acts of the Apostles</i> to have been
+converted by St. Philip and to have
+brought upon himself a severe rebuke from
+St. Peter for offering to purchase with
+money the gift of wonder-working. In
+about the third century the legend of
+Simon Magus, as related by Clement of
+Alexandria, seems to have already incorporated
+in a mythical form the discords of
+the early Church, and especially the feud
+between the Jewish Christians, followers of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+St. Peter, and the Gentile proselytes,
+followers of St. Paul. Indeed Simon the
+Sorcerer was in course of time regarded by
+some as having been identical with St.
+Paul&mdash;that is to say, it was believed that
+St. Paul had been none other but Simon
+Magus in disguise. The voice heard at St.
+Paul's conversion and the light by which
+for a season he was struck blind were alleged
+to have been feats of wizardry by which he,
+a wolf in sheep's clothing, stole his way into
+the true fold in order to introduce discord
+and to betray the Church to the Gentiles.</p>
+
+<p>St. Peter, the true Simon, is said to have
+followed the false Simon from city to city,
+out-rivalling his Satanic miracles by orthodox
+miracles, until at length they reached
+Rome. Here Simon Magus by his magic
+arts succeeded in flying up into the sky in
+the presence of the Emperor and his court,
+but at the word of Peter the charm was
+broken and the wizard fell to earth and was
+killed.</p>
+
+<p>But, besides this, the so-called Gnostic
+heresy introduced other elements into the
+legend. These Gnostics were a sect that
+arose in the early times of Christianity.
+They pretended to a special insight into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+the divine nature, and combined Platonic
+and oriental theories with Christian dogmas.
+They tried to convert the story of the
+Redemption into a cosmological myth, and
+regarded the human person of Christ as
+a kind of phantom&mdash;a magic apparition.
+Some of these Gnostics seem to have
+accepted Simon Magus as the 'Power of
+God'&mdash;as the Logos, or divine Reason, by
+which the world was created (or reduced
+from chaos to an ordered Cosmos). From
+this a curious myth arose. This Logos, or
+creative Power, was identified with the
+Sun-god, as the source of life, and as Sun-god
+was united to the Moon-goddess,
+Selene. Now the words Helen and Selene
+are connected in Greek, and Helen of Troy
+was accepted by these Gnostics as a
+mythical form of the goddess of the moon.
+Hence it came that in the Gnostic form of
+the Simon Magus legend he was married to
+Helen of Troy, and this notion found its
+way into the old Faust-legend, and is used
+by Goethe in that exceedingly wonderful
+and beautiful part of his great poem which
+is called the <i>Helena</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After the suppression of Gnostic and
+other early heresies came the contest of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+now united and politically powerful Church
+against the outer world of heathendom.
+While retaining for herself what we may
+call a monopoly in orthodox magic the
+Church condemned as in league with the
+devil <i>all</i> speculation, whether theological or
+scientific&mdash;the one as leading to heresy, the
+other to sensual ends, such as riches, fame,
+and those lusts of the flesh and that pride
+of intellect which were fatal to the contemplative
+and ascetic ideals of medieval
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>It was not among Teuton and Celtic
+savages but among the learned adherents of
+the old Greek philosophy that the Church
+in those earlier days found her most dangerous
+and obstinate adversaries. Plato and
+Aristotle (whose tenets the Christian
+Schoolmen afterwards endeavoured to harmonize
+with the teaching of the Gospel)
+were at first brought forward to oppose the
+new religion, these doctrines of Greek
+philosophy being largely supplemented by
+mystic ideas derived from oriental sources.
+It was however Pythagoras, the great
+Greek-Italian philosopher of the sixth
+century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, the predecessor and to some
+extent the inspirer of Socrates and Plato,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+who was most generally accepted as the
+rival of St. Paul. It was his mystical
+doctrines of Number and Harmony, of the
+Unit and the Triad, which were most often
+marshalled against the Christian doctrine of
+the Unity and Trinity of the Godhead.
+Indeed it even seems that Pythagoras was
+believed by some of these adversaries of
+Christianity to be the incarnation of Deity
+(as had been believed in his lifetime) and to
+be the friend and saviour of mankind, like
+Prometheus of old, who was said to have
+given his life for the human race devoted to
+destruction by the anger of an offended
+God.</p>
+
+<p>No wonder that, embittered by such
+opponents, the Church launched her anathema
+against all the profane learning of
+the day&mdash;all study of the ancient heathen
+philosophers and poets. The gods of
+Olympus became synonymous with demons
+and monsters of the Christian hell, as we
+see in Dante and in such old legends as
+that of the Hill of Venus. Plato and
+Aristotle, and even Homer, were put on
+the index. Virgil especially was regarded
+as a dangerous wizard&mdash;although in another
+age he was honoured almost as a prophet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+and a foreteller of the Messiah. I remember
+that many years ago, when I was
+searching for Virgil's tomb on Posilipo near
+Naples, I was informed by a contadino,
+of whom I had asked my way, that Virgil
+('Marone,' as he called him) was a great
+magician. The man knew nothing of
+Virgil as poet. Probably Virgil's account
+of the descent of Aeneas into the lower
+world, and that strange <i>Eclogue</i> of his, the
+<i>Pollio</i>, in which possibly a Sibylline
+prophecy of the coming of a Messiah is
+reproduced, may have credited him with
+magic lore, and may also have invested him
+for a time with almost the dignity of a
+canonical Minor Prophet.</p>
+
+<p>Now, during these ante-Reformation ages
+the Roman Church claimed, as I have said,
+a monopoly in orthodox magic. She could
+send a soul to hell, or by rites and exorcism
+she could save the sinner from his compact
+with Satan, as one sees in such legends as
+those of Merlin, of Tannh&auml;user, of Robert
+the Devil, and of that Theophilus who was
+converted by flowers sent him from Paradise
+by the Virgin-Martyr St. Dorothea. Of
+another Theophilus, an eastern monk of
+perhaps the sixth century, we are told that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+like Faust, he made a written compact with
+the devil, but repented and was saved by the
+Virgin Mary, who snatched the fatal document
+from the devil's claws and gave it back
+to the penitent.</p>
+
+<p>But there is one early example of the
+wizard-legend where the magician is saved
+from his pact with Satan not so much by the
+counter-charms of the Church as by the
+purity and steadfastness of Christian maidenhood,
+and for this reason I think the poet
+Shelley is right in regarding this legend as
+'the true germ of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>.' It is the
+story of Cyprian and Justina, who were
+among the many victims of the persecution of
+the Christians by Diocletian, about 300 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+Cyprian was a sorcerer of Antioch whose
+diabolical arts failed to overcome the sanctity
+of Justina. He confessed himself conquered
+and withdrew into the desert as a Christian
+hermit. The story has been dramatized by
+the Spanish poet Calderon in his <i>Magico
+Prodigioso</i>, a part of which has been finely
+translated by Shelley. The beautiful picture
+of St. Justina by Moretto, where Cyprian is
+kneeling before her and a white unicorn, the
+symbol of chastity, is crouching in the foreground,
+is well known.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With the Reformation another spirit arose
+and legends took a different form. In the
+Protestant world the orthodox magic of the
+Roman Church lost its saving power and was
+regarded as no less diabolic than all other
+black art. He was irretrievably lost who
+had once given over his soul to magic and
+the devil (and the devil was at this time, as
+we know, a very real personage&mdash;real enough
+to have an inkpot hurled at his head by
+Luther). The revival at the Renaissance of
+speculation and research, combined as it was
+with all kinds of fantastic hopes of discovering
+prime matter, the 'Philosopher's stone,'
+and elixirs of life, bred in the popular superstition
+a mysterious awe and attached to
+almost all scientific investigation the epithet
+'black,' or diabolic, as opposed to the 'white
+art' of holding communion with good spirits.
+Alchemy and astrology (words meaning
+merely what we call chemistry and astronomy)
+became words of hellish import, and
+he who practised these arts was in league
+with Satan. Thus were regarded such men
+as Lully, Roger Bacon, the Abbot Tritheim,
+and (perhaps best known of all, at least to all
+readers of Browning) Bombastes Paracelsus,
+the contemporary of Faust, born at Einsiedeln,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>between Brunnen and the lake of
+Z&uuml;rich, in the year 1493.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the sixteenth-century form of our
+legend is of the most tragic character. In the
+oldest Faust-legend, which first took shape
+in this century, there is no hint of his being
+saved. And another of its characteristics is its
+strong anti-papal tendency. The devil appears
+in the guise of a monk, and even as Mahomet
+or Antichrist in the guise of the Pope himself.</p>
+
+<p>But the Renaissance (if not the Reformation)
+introduced another, entirely new and
+most important, element into the legend&mdash;one
+which enabled Goethe to use the
+sulphurous old myth as the subject for a
+great poem. Not only was there a renaissance
+of learning, but also of art&mdash;an intense
+longing for both Knowledge and Beauty. To
+<i>know</i> everything&mdash;to learn the inner secret
+of Nature&mdash;to understand, as Faust longed to
+understand,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8"><i>The inmost force</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>That binds the world and guides its course&mdash;</i></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>this yearning after perfection by Knowledge
+was one of the fruits of the Renaissance.
+The other was the yearning to gain perfection
+by means of <i>feeling</i>, by the ecstatic contemplation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>of and communion with perfect
+Beauty&mdash;'to love infinitely and be loved,' as
+Aprile says in Browning's <i>Paracelsus</i>. These
+two impulses, the one toward Knowledge
+and the other toward Love, were doubtless
+awakened by the study of Aristotle, that
+'master of those who know,' and of Plato's
+doctrine of the soul's love-inspired yearnings
+for Truth and Beauty and for communion
+with the Perfect and the Eternal.</p>
+
+<p>I have called them <i>two</i> impulses, and
+to the mind they must ever appear distinct,
+nay sometimes contrary; but I need
+not remind you how Christianity teaches us
+to reconcile the ancient feud between the
+mind and the heart&mdash;between Knowledge
+and Love. You may perhaps remember
+how Dante, to intimate to us that there can
+be no true knowledge without love and no
+true love without knowledge, speaks of the
+Cherubim and the Seraphim as ideally the
+same, and tells us that the Seraphs, who love
+most, also know most.</p>
+
+<p>Both these impulses are noble and awaken
+our sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in order that <i>tragic</i> art may have its
+effect it must possess what Aristotle calls
+<span class='correction' title='pathos'>&#960;&#8049;&#952;&#959;&#963;</span>, so that we may be able to sympathize<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+with the sufferer. Thus, for instance, Milton
+enlists our sympathies even with his Satan,
+and it is perhaps because we cannot sympathize
+in any way with Dante's Lucifer that
+many feel repelled by the terrible creation.
+But even in the oldest of the Faust-legends,
+and far more of course in Goethe's <i>Faust</i>, we
+are attracted by a 'pathetic' element, viz.,
+the unsatisfied and insatiable longing of a
+human soul for Knowledge&mdash;for Truth&mdash;and
+its still intenser yearnings after ideal Beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, even the Faust of the older sixteenth-century
+legend, although he ultimately falls
+a victim to the devil, has noble and high
+impulses by which we feel strongly attracted.
+He is lost, not through these impulses, these
+yearnings for knowledge, but through his
+magic, and his sensual life. In spite of more
+than one fit of remorse he is unable to free
+himself from the lusts of the flesh; he is
+obliged to sign a second bond with Mephisto
+and is dragged down ever lower into the
+abyss, until the jaws of hell open and swallow
+him up&mdash;while the Faust of Goethe's poem
+gains strength through many an error and
+many a grievous fall, gradually shakes off
+the diabolic influence and rising on the stepping-stones
+of his dead self is finally rescued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+by God's mercy and reaches the higher
+spheres of another life.</p>
+
+<p>How infinitely grander&mdash;how illimitable
+in its vistas&mdash;the subject becomes when thus
+treated by a great poet we all must feel.
+And even if we cannot with a whole heart
+accept as a true Gospel what (in spite of
+Goethe's admission that God's mercy was a
+necessary factor) seems to be a gospel of
+<i>self-salvation</i>, we should not forget that this
+picture of a man pressing on in his own
+strength amidst the lusts of the flesh and the
+errors of the mind is perhaps the noblest and
+grandest kind of picture that dramatic art
+can offer us&mdash;that of the human will in
+its struggle against destiny. In any case, I
+think, we cannot refuse our sympathy for
+these yearnings and searchings for truth
+amidst error. Do you remember what
+Lessing said about such longings? 'If God'&mdash;he
+said&mdash;'should hold Truth itself in His
+right hand, and in His left the longing for
+Truth, and should say to me <i>Choose!</i> I
+would humbly fall down before His left hand
+and say: <i>Father, pure Truth is for Thee
+alone. Give me the longing for Truth, though
+it be attended with never-ending error.</i>'</p>
+
+<p>There seems no doubt that a man named<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+Johann Faust, renowned for his learning
+and credited with magical powers, actually
+did exist&mdash;probably about 1490 to 1540.
+(He was therefore a contemporary of Paracelsus,
+and also of Luther, Charles V.,
+Henry VIII. and Raphael.) Several notices
+of this Dr. Johann Faust occur in writers of
+the period. One of the most circumstantial
+is by the friend and biographer of Melanchthon,
+who himself seems to have met Faust.
+But the various myths that gathered round
+the magician were, it seems, first published
+in a continuous narrative in 1587, that is
+about fifty years after his death. This is the
+old <i>Frankfurter Faustbuch</i>, of which only
+one perfect specimen is now known to exist.
+It is, I believe, in Leipzig. A mutilated
+copy is in the Vienna Library.</p>
+
+<p>One day, when to escape for a time from
+the German commentators above mentioned
+I had gone out for a walk, I found my way to
+the old Wasserkirche&mdash;now the Free Library
+of the city of Z&uuml;rich, and here I discovered
+a facsimile reprint of this old Frankfurt
+Faust-book. As this is the oldest and most
+authentic basis of all later forms of the story
+and is doubtless the one which (as well as
+the puppet-play on the subject) Goethe used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+as the ground-plan for his poem, I perhaps
+cannot do better than give a brief abstract
+of its contents.</p>
+
+<p>It is written in quaint old German and is
+interspersed with many pious comments,
+biblical quotations and Latin words and
+phrases, and now and then it breaks out
+into doggerel verse. The editor (Spiess by
+name) tells us that he publishes the book
+'as a warning to all Christians and sensible
+people to avoid the terrible example of
+Doctor Faustus.' He evidently takes the
+thing very seriously and has purposely (as
+he says) omitted all 'magic formul&aelig;,' lest
+'any should by this Historia be incited to
+inquisitiveness and imitation.' Johann Faust,
+according to this version, was born at Roda,
+a village near Weimar. (Other versions say
+at Knittlingen in W&uuml;rtemberg.) His parents
+were honest God-fearing peasants. His
+great abilities induced a rich relation in
+Wittenberg to adopt and educate him. He
+studied theology at Wittenberg (known to
+us all through Hamlet and Luther) and also
+at Cracow, outrivalling all competitors and
+gaining the title of Doctor of Theology.
+But he had not only a 'teachable and quick'
+but also a 'foolish, silly, inquisitive' head,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+and neglecting the Bible became a 'Speculator'
+and prided himself more on being an
+Astrologus and a Mathematicus than a
+Theologus. As the old chronicler expresses
+it, he 'took to himself eagle's wings and
+desired to search out the reasons of all in
+heaven and on earth.'</p>
+
+<p>He now takes to 'Zauberei'&mdash;magic.
+Where four roads meet in the Spessart
+Wald, a forest near Wittenberg, he inscribes
+mystic circles and performs incantations for
+the purpose of summoning the devil. After
+all kinds of fearful apparitions and noises, by
+which Faust is almost terrified to death, a
+demon appears in the shape of a 'grey
+monk.' Faust invites him to visit him at
+his house in Wittenberg. The demon visits
+him there and tells him of all the horrors of
+hell. But Faust persists in his plan and
+makes a second rendezvous with the demon,
+who has now procured leave from his lord
+and master Lucifer to offer his services and
+attendance. The compact is made. The
+demon is to serve him for twenty-four years.
+Faust is to renounce Christianity and to
+hate all Christians, and at the end of twenty-four
+years he is to belong to the demon 'to
+have power, rule and dominion over his soul,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+body, flesh, blood, and possessions, and that
+for all eternity.' This compact has to be
+signed with blood. Faust pierces his hand,
+and the blood flows out and forms the words
+'O homo fuge!'&mdash;'O man, escape!'&mdash;but
+Faust, though alarmed, is not deterred. It
+is now agreed that the demon shall appear,
+whenever summoned, in the form of a
+Franciscan monk. He then reveals his name:
+Mephistopheles, or, as the old legend gives
+it, Meph<i>o</i>stoph<i>i</i>les&mdash;the meaning of which
+is probably 'not loving the light'&mdash;<span class='correction' title='m&ecirc; ph&ocirc;s phil&ocirc;n'>&#956;&#x1f74; &#981;&#8182;&#987; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#8182;&#957;</span>&mdash;a
+compound which you may rightly
+remark must have been concocted by a
+rather second-rate Greek scholar.</p>
+
+<p>After a season of dissipation, during which
+Faust is supplied with all the luxuries that
+he desires&mdash;wine stolen from ducal, electoral,
+and episcopal cellars, soft and costly raiment
+from the draperies and naperies of N&uuml;rnberg
+and Frankfurt and so on (he had, for
+instance, only to open his window and call
+any bird, goose, turkey, or capon, and it
+would at once fly in, ready roasted)&mdash;getting
+tired of this kind of thing he falls
+in love and wishes to marry. But Mephisto
+angrily tells him that marriage is a thing
+pleasing to God and against the terms of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+the compact. You will notice here the
+Lutheran and anti-papal tendency&mdash;marriage
+being a thing pleasing to God in itself, and
+any compact being devilish which forbade it,
+as in the case of priests and monks.</p>
+
+<p>Then follow long discussions and disputations
+between Faust and Mephisto on the
+creation of the world, on hell and heaven,
+and on black art and astrology. None of us
+may be in a position to question a demon's
+accuracy with regard to how affairs stand in
+Hades, but Mephisto gives a very unorthodox
+account of the creation&mdash;or rather he
+denies that there was any creation. Matter
+according to his theory (and it is a theory
+of some modern scientists and not only of
+medieval demons)&mdash;matter is eternal and self-existent&mdash;uncreated,
+or self-created, whatever
+that may mean. Incited by these
+descriptions, and by his 'foolish silly inquisitive
+head,' Faust demands that he should
+pay a visit to both hell and heaven.</p>
+
+<p>For the journey to Hell the services of
+Beelzebub have to be requisitioned. The
+devilish worm, as the old writer calls
+Beelzebub, places Faust in a chair or
+pannier made of bones, hoists the chair
+on to his back and plunges (like Empedocles)
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>into a volcano. Faust is nearly
+stifled to death. He sees all kinds of
+griffins and monsters and great multitudes
+of spirits tormented in the flames&mdash;among
+them emperors, kings and princes. Then
+in a deep sleep he is brought home and laid
+on his bed. 'This Historia and recount of
+what he saw in hell,' says the old chronicler,
+'hath Doctor Faustus himself written down
+with his own hand, and after his death it
+was found lying in a sealed book.' After this
+(about ten years of the twenty-four having
+already elapsed) he is taken up to heaven
+by Mephisto in a chariot drawn by
+dragons&mdash;not of course to the Empyrean,
+the abode of God, but up as far as the fixed
+stars (the eighth sphere). He finds the sun,
+which before he had believed to be only as
+big as the bottom of a cask, to be far
+larger than the earth, and the planets to be
+as large as the earth, and the clouds of the
+upper sky to be as dense and hard as rocks
+of crystal. From these regions the earth
+looks as small as the 'yolk in an egg.' He
+sees all the kingdoms of the earth&mdash;Europe,
+Asia, and Africa (not America, although
+America was discovered by Columbus in
+1492, about the date of Faust's birth).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth year Faust wishes to
+pay a visit to the chief cities and countries
+of the world. Mephisto changes himself
+into a horse&mdash;'with wings like a dromedary.'
+It is, I believe, not generally supposed
+that a dromedary has wings; but I
+suppose the old chronicler must have
+confused a camel and an ostrich, thinking
+of the name which some Greek authors
+give to the ostrich, namely <i>stroutho-camelos</i>
+or 'sparrow-camel.'</p>
+
+<p>On the back of his sparrow-camel horse
+Faust is carried through the air to many
+lands and cities and at length reaches
+Rome, and visits the Pope, on whom he
+and Mephisto (both being invisible) play
+various practical jokes, blowing in his face,
+snatching his food away at meals and so on,
+till the Supreme Pontiff orders all the bells
+in Rome to be rung in order to exorcise
+the evil spirits by whom he is haunted. At
+Constantinople they befool the Sultan with
+magic tricks. Mephisto disguises himself in
+the official robes of the Pope and persuades
+the Sultan that he is Mahomet (another
+cut at the Pope, as Antichrist), while
+Faust installs himself in the Sultan's
+palace and enjoys life and finally floats up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+into the air and disappears. They then visit
+Egypt, India, Africa, and other places, including
+the Garden of Eden and Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Britain is described (rightly perhaps) as
+'very damp&mdash;abounding in water and in
+metals....' 'Here also is to be found,' adds
+our chronicler, 'the stone of God, which
+Doctor Faustus brought thence.' What he
+means by the stone of God is, I suppose,
+the so-called Philosopher's stone&mdash;used for
+the manufacture of money out of any worthless
+substance. Faust might have found a
+good deal of this stone of God without
+leaving Germany and seems to have left a
+considerable amount of it behind in Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Part III of the Faust-book relates his
+'feats of nigromancy at the courts of
+Potentates' and elsewhere, and his 'terrible
+end and departure.' At Innsbruck, in the
+presence of Charles V. and his court
+he summons up the shades of Alexander
+the Great and his consort, I suppose
+Roxana, the beautiful Bactrian princess.
+You may be interested to learn that
+Alexander the Great was a 'well-built stout
+little man with a thick yellow-red beard,
+red cheeks, and eyes like a basilisk,' and
+that the old chronicler, quite after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+fashion of the modern purveyor for ladies'
+journals, informs us that Roxana wore a
+dress entirely of blue velvet trimmed with
+gold pieces and pearls.</p>
+
+<p>The following chapters strike one as hardly
+in the same key with the rest of the book.
+They relate feats which remind one rather of
+Baron M&uuml;nchhausen. Faust swallows up a
+wagon of hay and a team of horses that get
+in his way. He makes stag-antlers grow on
+the head of a nobleman&mdash;saws off his own
+foot to give it as security for a loan
+borrowed from a Jew (reminding one of
+Shylock and his 'pound of flesh')&mdash;treats
+students to wine magically procured (as in
+the scene in Auerbach's cellar in Goethe's
+poem)&mdash;cuts off people's heads and sends
+them to the barber to be shaved, and then
+replaces them (a most useful invention)&mdash;makes
+flowers appear in vases (like modern
+spiritualists or Indian jugglers)&mdash;and lets
+flowers and grapes flourish in his garden at
+Christmas-time. His most important feat
+is summoning up (as he does in Goethe's
+poem) the shade of Helen of Troy. You
+will wish for a description of Helen&mdash;at
+least of her dress. She appeared in a
+splendid robe of black-purple ... her hair,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+of a glorious golden hue, hung down to her
+knees&mdash;she had coal-black eyes, a lovely
+face, and a round head, her lips red as
+cherries, with a little mouth and a neck like
+a white swan, cheeks red as a rosebud, and
+a tall straight figure.</p>
+
+<p>A fit of remorse now seizes our magician.
+He is visited by a pious old man who nearly
+persuades him to repent and break his bond
+with the devil. But Mephisto is too
+cunning for him, and induces him to sign a
+new compact with his blood, promising to
+procure him Helen. For (as is also the
+case in Goethe's poem) Faust himself has
+fallen violently in love with the phantom
+that he had raised. By the help of
+Mephistopheles Helen herself&mdash;or one of
+her 'doubles' which play a part in Greek
+mythology&mdash;is summoned up, and lives
+with Faust as his wife. (At his death she,
+and their son, Justus Faust, disappear.)</p>
+
+<p>In the last year he is overwhelmed with
+terrible despair, which is deepened by the
+mockeries of the demon. On the last
+evening he invites his friends to supper
+at the village Rimlich, near Wittenberg.
+After the supper, he addresses his companions
+in a speech of intense and pathetic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+remorse, praying that God will save his soul
+though his body is forfeit to the devil. He
+tells them that at the stroke of twelve the
+demon will come to fetch him. He begs
+them to go quietly to bed, and not to
+be alarmed if they hear a great uproar. At
+midnight a mighty wind sweeps over the
+house, and a terrible hissing is heard as
+of innumerable serpents. Faust's cries for
+help gradually die away. They rush into
+the supper room and find him torn to pieces&mdash;eyes,
+brains, and teeth scattered in all
+directions. 'After this,' says our chronicler,
+'it was so uncanny in the house that no
+man dared live in it. Doctor Faust also
+appeared in person to his Famulus (assistant)
+Wagner by night, and related to him
+many still more weird and mysterious
+things.... And thus endeth the whole and
+truthful Historia and Magic of Dr. Faust,
+from which every Christian man should
+take warning, and specially those who are
+of a presumptuous, proud, curious and
+obstinate mind and head, that they may flee
+from all Magic, Incantation, and other
+works of the devil. Amen! This I wish
+for each and every one from the ground
+of my heart. Amen! Amen!'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The great popularity of this original
+Faust-book led to the publication of many
+other versions of the story. In the very next
+year a Faust-book in rime appeared. In some
+of these versions Mephisto has a very bad
+time of it, Faust setting him all kinds of
+impossible tasks&mdash;such as writing the name
+of Christ or painting a crucifix, or taking him
+on Good Friday to Jerusalem&mdash;until the
+demon begs for his release, offering to give
+back the written compact. In Strassburg at
+a shooting competition Faust's magic bullet
+strikes Mephisto, who 'yells out again and
+again' in pain. In a Dutch version, where
+the demon has the name 'Jost,' Faust
+amuses himself by throwing a bushel of corn
+into a thorn hedge late at night, when poor
+'Jost' is tired to death, and bids him pick up
+every grain in the same way as in the old
+story Venus vents her malice on Psyche.
+The most important German version was
+that by Widmann&mdash;an amplification of the
+old Faust-book. There also appeared a life
+of Faust's Famulus (assistant), Christopher
+Wagner, whom the devil attends in the
+form of an ape. Of one of these versions
+(I think Widmann's) there appeared about
+1590 an English translation, which was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+supplemented by various English ballads on
+the same subject, and it was an Englishman&mdash;Shakespeare's
+great contemporary, the
+poet Christopher Marlowe&mdash;who was himself,
+as you know, a man of Faust-like
+temperament, and not unlike him in his fate&mdash;being
+killed in a drunken brawl&mdash;who
+first <i>dramatized</i> the story. His brilliant and
+lurid play, 'The Tragical History of Dr.
+Faustus' follows very closely most of the
+details given in the German Faust-books.
+Its poetical beauties (and they are many)
+are unfortunately, as Hallam rightly remarks,
+intermingled with a great deal of coarse
+buffoonery. Possibly he had to consult the
+taste of his public in introducing such a large
+ingredient of this buffoon element&mdash;taken
+from what I called the M&uuml;nchhausen portion
+of the old legend. Patriotic German commentators
+sometimes deny that Goethe knew
+Marlowe's play (though he knew Shakespeare
+well), but I think there is no doubt
+that the opening monologue of Marlowe's
+play inspired the more famous, though
+scarcely finer, opening scene of Goethe's
+drama. 'Theology, adieu!' Faustus exclaims,
+taking up a book of magic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>These metaphysics of magicians,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And necromantic books are heavenly ...</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>All things that move between the quiet poles</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Shall be at my command&mdash;Emperors and kings</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Are but obey'd in their several provinces,...</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>But</i> his <i>dominion that excels in</i> this<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>A sound magician is a mighty god.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Here, Faustus, tire thy brains to gain a deity.</i></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>His agony of despair at the last moment
+is very finely depicted, and there are not a
+few passages in the play which, for beauty of
+expression and thought, are truly Shakespearean.
+Some of you possibly know the
+magnificent lines addressed to Helen of
+Troy, which begin thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Was this the face that launched a thousand ships,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And burnt the topless towers of Ilium&mdash;</i></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and the lines which seem to allude to the
+identification of Helen with Selene, the
+Moon-goddess&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>O thou art fairer than the evening air</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Brighter art thou than flaming Jupiter</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>When he appeared to hapless Semele;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>More lovely than the monarch of the sky,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>In wanton Arethusa's azur'd arms.</i></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Marlowe's play was written about 1590.
+Now it is asserted that about this time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+English travelling players visited Germany,
+and perhaps introduced there Marlowe's
+drama; and possibly <i>this</i> was the beginning
+of the German 'puppet-plays' on the subject
+of Faust. I do not feel quite sure about it.
+Faust puppet-plays seem to have existed
+almost simultaneously with the old Faust-books,
+and there is even the trace of one
+<i>before</i> the oldest Faust-book; at least in the
+archives of the University of T&uuml;bingen an
+entry has been unearthed in which in 1587
+two students were condemned to the 'Karzer,'
+or 'Black hole,' for composing a 'Puppenspiel'
+on the subject of Dr. Faust.</p>
+
+<p>In these Puppenspiele (puppet-shows) the
+comic element largely prevails and is kept
+up by the comic figure Kasperle, a buffoon or
+'Hanswurst' of the same character as the
+Italian Pulcinella, the progenitor of our
+English 'Punch.' As might be expected,
+these puppet-shows introduced a great many
+variations of the story, most of them a
+mixture of tragedy and comedy. In one a
+raven brings the contract from the devil for
+Faust to sign. One of the conditions is that
+for twenty-four years Faust is not to <i>wash</i>, or
+comb his hair or cut his nails&mdash;like Struwwelpeter.
+When Faust attempts to embrace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+Helen she turns into a snake&mdash;and when he
+is finally carried off by the demon, Kasperle
+gives (what Euripides is accused of sometimes
+giving) a comic turn to the tragic
+catastrophe by cracking jokes.</p>
+
+<p>For about 150 years after Marlowe no
+attempt was made by any German writer
+to use the subject artistically. Indeed
+during this period Germany, devastated by
+the Thirty Years War and afterwards by
+French literary influence, produced no
+literature worthy of mention, and what
+writers it possessed were not such as would
+be likely to perceive the poetic material
+contained in a popular puppet-show.</p>
+
+<p>But the legend had taken firm hold on
+the popular imagination and when Goethe
+was a boy (he was born in 1749) he saw a
+Faust-puppenspiel at Frankfurt, and afterwards
+at Strassburg, when he was a young
+man of about twenty. He was at this time
+evidently also familiar with the old <i>Faustbuch</i>
+itself, and it was then (about 1770) that he
+seems to have first conceived the idea of the
+drama which he sealed up as finished sixty
+years later (1831), a few months before his
+death.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe's early manhood coincided with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+that period in German thought and literature
+which is called the 'Sturm und Drang'&mdash;that
+is the Storm and Stress&mdash;period.
+The subject of Faust, the attraction of
+which had for so long lain dormant, appealed
+powerfully to the adherents of this
+new school, with their gospel of the divine
+rights of the human heart and of genius,
+with their wild passionate graspings after
+omniscience, their Titanic heaven-storming
+aspirations after the unattainable and indescribable.
+Lessing himself, though never
+a genuine Sturm und Drang writer, began
+a <i>Faust</i>, and when Goethe began his drama
+a new <i>Faust</i>, it is said, was being announced
+in almost every quarter of Germany. Someone
+(I think it was Bayard Taylor) has
+reckoned up <i>twenty-nine Fausts</i> that were
+actually published in Germany while Goethe
+was working at his. Some one else (I think
+Ludwig von Arnim) has said: 'Not enough
+<i>Fausts</i> are yet written. Every one should
+write one. There is as much room for
+them as for straight lines in the circumference
+of a circle'&mdash;which, as you know,
+is conceived by geometricians to consist of
+an infinite number of infinitely small straight
+lines.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>None of these twenty-nine <i>Fausts</i> are,
+as far as I know, of any value or interest
+except the unfinished play by Lessing,
+which, as it was written while Goethe was
+still a lad, and seems to have been only
+printed in fragments at some later date,
+can hardly come under Bayard Taylor's
+list. From these fragments it is clear that
+Lessing meant to save Faust's soul, if not
+his body. Toward the end of the last
+act, when the devils are triumphing over
+their apparent victory and the possession of
+Faust's body, a voice from heaven is heard:
+'Triumph not! Ye have not won the
+battle over human nature and human knowledge.
+The Deity has not given to man
+the noblest impulses in order to bring him
+to eternal misery. What you imagine you
+possess is only a phantom.'</p>
+
+<p>Although we cannot tell for certain how
+Lessing meant to solve the problem, I think
+it is almost certain that Faust was to work out
+his own salvation amidst error and sin much
+as Goethe's Faust does. Before attempting
+(as I shall do on other occasions) to give a
+description of the two parts of Goethe's
+poem&mdash;in attempting which I shall keep as
+closely as I can to the original and to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+questions arising directly out of Goethe's
+own words&mdash;it will be useful and interesting
+to consider the most striking points in which
+his <i>Faust</i> differs essentially from all its predecessors,
+except perhaps Lessing's&mdash;and
+Lessing, although he struck the new chord,
+did not resolve it. But this is a subject
+involving many and far-reaching questions,
+which, if they are to be solved at all, are
+not to be solved by theory and dogma. I
+shall therefore endeavour to state the case
+as simply and as objectively as possible,
+avoiding metaphysical cobwebs and giving
+the <i>ego</i> and <i>non-ego</i> a wide berth. I shall
+content myself in most cases with merely
+pointing out the doctrine apparently
+preached by Goethe (reminding you now
+and then that even his own seemingly
+categorical dogmas were to him merely
+temporary forms of thought) and shall prefer
+to let much justify its existence as an
+integral part of the living whole rather
+than to expel the life by dissection and
+to examine the dead parts through the
+spectacles of a commentator.</p>
+
+<p>In my next lecture, after a brief consideration
+of these preliminary questions,
+I shall try to describe the first Part of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+drama&mdash;a task of more than common difficulty,
+for the story is familiar to many of
+you, and a bare rehearsal of the action of
+the play would prove wearisome, while any
+attempt to communicate by means of translation
+the wonderful beauty and force of
+Goethe's words is almost bound to prove a
+failure.</p>
+
+<p>In my third lecture I shall treat the second
+Part of the play, the action of which is far
+less generally known. It is not often read
+and is seldom seen on the stage. Indeed it
+was not written for the stage and does not
+lend itself to ordinary dramatic and operatic
+purposes, as the first Part does with its
+Gretchen episode. It embraces too huge
+a circle&mdash;a circle within which lie all the
+possibilities of human life. It is a kind of
+framework for all the tragedies and comedies
+and epics and lyrics ever conceived, or conceivable.
+What unity it has is not of the
+stage or the dramatic Unities. But nevertheless
+on the stage it produces effects
+which impress one with the sense of an
+imaginative power of an extraordinary kind.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago, when it was being given
+in the Dresden theatre, I saw it performed
+four or five times and I remember noticing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+the wonderful attraction that it had for
+minds of a certain class (and no very limited
+class), while for others it was just such an
+unintelligible farrago of wearisome 'Zeug'
+as Dante's <i>Paradiso</i> and Beethoven's <i>Ninth
+Symphony</i> are sometimes said to be.</p>
+
+<p>I believe it is the fashion with certain
+critics (especially with those who have read
+it superficially) to speak of the Second Part
+of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>, as they do of <i>Paradise
+Regained</i>, with a certain superciliousness,
+as a superfluous excrescence, the artistically
+almost worthless product of a mind that
+had worked itself out and had exhausted
+its 'Idea.'</p>
+
+<p>The truth is that the <i>first</i> Part is only
+the merest fragment, and although the
+subject of Faust is endless and can never
+be fully treated in any one work of art (the
+whole poem 'necessarily remaining a fragment,'
+as Goethe himself said), nevertheless
+the <i>second</i> Part does solve in one of many
+possible ways the problem left unsolved by
+the first half of the poem, namely the final
+attainment of peace and happiness by the
+human soul, and it is one of the noblest
+monuments of the human intellect existing
+in the literature of the world.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Indeed it is, I think, still more than this.
+It is not merely a monument of intellect
+but of poetic imagination, and I am much
+inclined to believe that the <i>Paradiso</i> of
+Dante and the Second Part of Goethe's
+<i>Faust</i> are perhaps two of the best, the
+most infallible, touchstones for discovering
+whether we really possess what Tennyson
+calls the 'poetic heart'&mdash;not a trumpery
+&aelig;sthetic imitation but the genuine article.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+<h2>II</h2>
+
+<h3>GOETHE'S 'FAUST'</h3>
+
+<h3>PART I</h3>
+
+
+<p>When Goethe wrote to Schiller announcing
+his intention of once more taking up his
+unfinished <i>Faust</i>, Schiller replied: 'My
+head grows dizzy when I think of it. The
+subject of Faust appears to supply such an
+infinity of material.... I find no circle
+large enough to contain it.' Goethe
+answered: 'I expect to make my work at
+this barbarous composition, this <i>Fratze</i> [<i>i.e.</i>
+caricature, as he often called it] less difficult
+than you imagine. I shall throw a sop
+to exorbitant demands rather than try to
+satisfy them. The whole will always remain
+a fragment'&mdash;a fragment, perhaps we may
+add, in the same sense as even the grandest
+Gothic building may be said to be only a
+part of the infinitely great ideal Gothic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+structure which will never be seen on earth,
+whereas in the Parthenon we have, or rather
+the Athenians in the days of Pericles had,
+something final and complete, something
+which will tolerate no addition.</p>
+
+<p>If Schiller's head grew dizzy at the thought
+of a Faust-drama, I fear that one who has
+no Schiller head on his shoulders may prove
+a poor guide among the precipices and
+ravines of Goethe's life-poem, where the
+path is often very steep and slippery. But
+I will do my best; and perhaps I had better
+treat our subject as I proposed. At first I
+shall point out a little more distinctly some
+of the characteristics which distinguish
+Goethe's drama from the earlier versions
+of the story. Then I shall try to guide you
+steadily and rapidly through the action of
+the first Part, offering whatever comment
+may seem useful, and now and then perhaps
+asking you to step aside from the track in
+order to get a peep over some of the aforementioned
+precipices.</p>
+
+<p>As we have already seen, one great difference
+between Goethe's <i>Faust</i> and many
+older versions of the story (including Marlowe's
+play, but excluding Lessing's fragment)
+is the fact that the sinner is saved.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Shortly before his death, in 1832, Goethe
+wrote to Wilhelm v. Humboldt: 'Sixty
+years ago, when as a young man I first
+conceived the idea of my <i>Faust</i>, the whole
+plan of it lay clearly before me.' From the
+first therefore Goethe had conceived the
+second Part as integral to his poem. He
+knew that, if he were to write a <i>Faust</i> at
+all, Faust must be saved.</p>
+
+<p>We have already arrived at the edge of
+one of those precipices of which I spoke&mdash;Faust
+must be saved. But what did
+Goethe mean, or, to ask a fairer question,
+what do we ourselves mean, by being <i>saved</i>?
+No formula of words seems able to provide
+us with a satisfactory answer. We can
+indeed use metaphors drawn from the
+universe of Time and Space&mdash;we can speak
+of 'another world' and of a 'future life'&mdash;but
+as soon as we attempt to conceive
+such existence <i>sub specie aeternitatis</i> our
+imagination fails: to use the metaphor
+of Socrates, we are dazzled by the insupportable
+radiance of the eternal and
+infinite, and seek to rest our eyes by
+turning them toward shadows, reflexions,
+images: we accept the beautiful image&mdash;the
+enigma (as St. Paul calls it) or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+allegory&mdash;of a heaven in some far interspace
+of world and world.</p>
+
+<p>As a poet, and especially as a dramatic
+poet, Goethe, if he treated the subject at
+all, was compelled to accept some imaginative
+conception of a future life, and he
+could scarcely accept any other but that
+which was in keeping with the old legend&mdash;that
+heaven of angels and saints and
+penitents which was the converse of the
+legendary hell and its fiends. Whether
+however he was justified by the principles
+of true dramatic art in his attempt to
+depict his imaginative conception and to
+place on the stage a representation of
+heaven may be doubted. Certainly the
+effect of Goethe's picture, especially when
+seen on the stage, is such that one cannot
+but wish some other solution might have
+been devised, and one feels as if one understood
+better than before why it was that
+Shakespeare's dramatic instinct allowed no
+such lifting of the veil. You remember
+the last words of the dying Hamlet: 'The
+rest is silence.'</p>
+
+<p>Thus far therefore we have come: by
+Faust being saved it is meant that he escapes
+from the fiend and reaches heaven,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+reaches the 'higher spheres' of existence, as
+Goethe expresses it.</p>
+
+<p>But the mere fact of his being saved does
+not form the essential difference between
+this drama and earlier versions of the story.
+The point of real importance is that he is
+not saved in a downward course by the
+intervention of some <i>deus ex machina</i>, some
+orthodox counter-charm. His course is not
+downward. His yearnings are not for
+bodily ease and sensual enjoyment but for
+truth&mdash;truth, not to be attained by speculation
+or scientific research but by action
+and feeling&mdash;by struggling onward through
+error and sin, and by gaining purification
+and strength from trial and suffering and
+resistance to evil; so that evil itself is a
+means to his salvation and Mephistopheles
+an instrument of good. Rising on the
+stepping-stones of his dead self he finds at
+last a certain measure of peace and is in the
+end reunited to her whose earthly happiness
+he had indeed ruined but whose love his
+heart has never forgotten. Indeed it is her
+love that is allowed to guide him ever
+aright and to draw him up to higher
+spheres.</p>
+
+<p>When we once realize this we also realize<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+how meaningless, or how indescribably less
+full of meaning, the poem would be without
+its second Part. And yet many, when they
+speak of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>, mean merely the
+first Part&mdash;or perhaps merely the little
+episode of Gretchen given in Gounod's
+opera.</p>
+
+<p>I spoke of Goethe's gospel of self-salvation.
+Since doing so I have recalled to
+memory some words of his which may seem
+to refute me. In reference to the song of
+the angels at the end of the poem he wrote
+as follows: 'These verses contain the key
+of Faust's salvation: namely, in Faust himself
+an ever higher and purer aspiration,
+and from above eternal love coming to his
+help; and they are in harmony with our
+religious conceptions, according to which
+we cannot attain to heaven by our own
+strength unless it is helped by divine grace.'</p>
+
+<p>It is true that <i>after death</i> Faust's soul is
+saved from the demons and is carried up to
+heaven by God's angels, but Goethe's drama
+is mainly the drama of Faust's earthly life,
+and from the 'Prologue in Heaven,' where,
+as it seems, the Deity undertakes <i>not</i> to
+help him, but leaves him to fight the battle
+entirely in his own strength, until the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+moment of his earthly existence there is no
+hint whatever, I think, of anything but self-salvation.
+On no occasion does he show
+the slightest sense of his own helplessness
+or of dependence on God's mercy. As for
+<i>remorse</i>, Goethe regarded it as a false
+emotion and as unworthy of a man.
+Although the perfect balance of his mind
+and his respect for much that he could not
+himself accept saved him from the almost
+brutal insouciance of such a form of expression
+he would probably have agreed
+with Walt Whitman, who tells us that
+animals should serve us as an example
+because 'they do not lie awake in the dark
+and weep for their sins; they do not make
+me sick discussing their duty to God.'</p>
+
+<p>Let us however dismiss criticism and turn
+to what Goethe as poet has given us&mdash;perhaps
+the noblest picture that dramatic
+art can give: that of a man striving onward
+and upward in his own strength, confronting
+(as Goethe says in reference to
+Shakespeare's plays) the inexorable course
+of the universe with the might of human
+will. We might take as the Alpha and
+Omega of <i>Faust</i> these two lines from the
+poem:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Es irrt der Mensch so lang er strebt,</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Nur rastlos bet&auml;tigt sich der Mann,</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>the sense of which is that human nature
+must ever err as long as it strives, but that
+true manhood is incessant striving.</p>
+
+<p>It is a noble picture&mdash;perhaps the noblest
+conceivable. You remember Browning's
+lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>One who never turned his back but marched breast forward,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Never doubted clouds would break,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Never dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would triumph,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Held we fall to rise, are baffled to fight better,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i8"><i>Sleep to wake.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It will have already become evident what
+abstruse and insoluble questions present
+themselves&mdash;rise, as it were, like ghosts of
+many an ancient creed, on every side, as
+soon as we have crossed the threshold of
+this great Mausoleum of human thought
+and imagination. There is the spectre of
+the great Mystery of existence&mdash;of Life and
+Death and Eternity; and that of the Knowledge
+of Good and Evil; and that of Evil
+itself&mdash;a phantom assuming at times such a
+visible and substantial shape and then dissolving
+into thin air as mere negation. And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+this Mephistopheles&mdash;are we to regard him
+as a self-existent genuine demon of a genuine
+Hell, or as our own mind's shadow? Is he
+something external, something that we can
+avoid, something that we can put to flight
+by resisting and get entirely free of&mdash;or has
+each one of us signed with the blood of his
+human nature a compact with some such
+spiritual power, with the demonic element
+within him, with that spirit of negation, of
+cynicism, of cold unideal utilitarian worldly-wisdom
+which mocks at faith and love and
+every high and tender impulse&mdash;that part
+of our nature which, when some poor
+girl is sinking in the abyss, prompts us to
+answer our heart's appeal with the sneer of
+Mephistopheles: 'She isn't the first!'? Surely
+we can well understand the scorn and
+contempt which Faust feels for this demon
+companion of his. 'What canst thou, poor
+devil, give me?' he exclaims&mdash;'Was the
+human spirit's aspiration Ever understood
+by such as thou!'</p>
+
+<p>The real action of the play begins with
+the celebrated monologue of Faust. But
+this is preceded by a <i>Dedication</i>, by the
+<i>Prelude in the theatre</i>, and by the <i>Prologue in
+Heaven</i>, added at various periods of Goethe's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+life. The <i>Prelude</i> consists of a scene between
+a poet, a theatrical director and a 'comic
+person.' It is merely a clever skit in which
+Goethe has a hit at the public and those
+who supply it with so-called drama. It has
+no organic connexion with the play. The
+<i>Prologue in Heaven</i> begins with the songs
+of the three Archangels&mdash;sonorous verses of
+majestic harmony, like some grand overture
+by Bach or Handel. These verses are, I
+think, meant to intimate the great harmonious
+order and procession of the natural and
+moral universe, as Pythagoras intimated
+them by his 'Music of the Spheres'&mdash;those
+eternal laws against which man, that tiny
+microcosm, so vainly strives.</p>
+
+<p>Mephistopheles now enters, as in the Book
+of Job Satan is described entering God's
+presence, and, just as it happens in the
+Bible, the Lord asks him if he knows Faust,
+and, as in the case of Job, it is God himself
+who not only allows but seems even to
+challenge the demon to try his powers,
+foretelling his failure although promising no
+help to Faust. 'It is left to thee,' says the
+Lord to Mephistopheles. 'Draw this aspiring
+spirit from his fountain-head and lead him
+downward on thy path, if thou canst gain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+a hold upon him, and stand ashamed when
+thou shalt have to confess that a good man
+amidst his dim impulses is well conscious of
+the right way.'</p>
+
+<p>That which distinguishes this scene from
+the similar scene in <i>Job</i> is its irreverence.
+Indeed one might almost call it flippancy,
+and few would deny that at times this
+flippancy is painful to them. The only
+excuse that I can find for it is that, rightly
+or wrongly, Goethe meant us to be pained.
+I believe that here Mephistopheles represents
+especially that element in human nature
+which is perhaps the meanest and most
+disgusting of all, namely flippant and vulgar
+irreverence, and although we may not agree
+with John Wesley's definition of man as
+'half brute, half devil,' most of us will
+probably allow that a certain part of our
+nature (that part which Mephistopheles
+seems to represent) is capable of an irreverence
+and a vulgarity of which the devil
+himself might almost be ashamed.</p>
+
+<p>The monologue with which the action of
+the play begins strikes at once the new chord
+and gives us the leading motive&mdash;one so
+entirely different from that of the old legend&mdash;so
+indescribably nobler than that which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+is given in the opening monologue of
+Marlowe's play. But the old framework is
+still there. Faust renounces book-learning
+and betakes himself to magic.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>I've studied now philosophy,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Jurisprudence and medicine,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And e'en, alas, theology</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>From end to end with toil and teen,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And here I stand with all my lore,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Poor fool, no wiser than before.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>No dog would live thus any more!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Therefore to magic I have turned,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>If that through spirit-word and power</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Many a secret may be learned</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>That I may find the inner force</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Which binds the world and guides its course,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Its germs and vital powers explore</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And peddle with worthless words no more.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Disgusted with the useless quest after that
+science which deals only with phenomena
+and their material causes, he turns to magic,
+as he does in the old legend; but it is here no
+diabolic medieval wizardry which shall enable
+him to summon the devil, for, as we shall see,
+Faust does not summon the devil; Mephistopheles
+comes to him uncalled. Goethe has
+merely used this motive of magic to intimate
+attainment of perfect knowledge of Nature
+through the might of genius&mdash;that revelation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+of the inner secrets of the universe which he
+himself, in what he calls the 'Titanic,
+heaven-storming' period of his life, believed
+to be attainable by human genius in communion
+with Nature.</p>
+
+<p>'Nature and Genius' was the watchword
+of the followers of Rousseau and the apostles
+of the Sturm und Drang gospel&mdash;a return to
+and communion with Nature, such as Wordsworth
+preached and practised, and such as
+Byron also preached but did not practise.
+Only to the human spirit in full communion
+with the spirit of Nature, of which it is a
+part, are revealed her mysteries. All other
+means, as Faust tells us, are useless.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Mysterious even in the open day</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Nature within her veil withdraws from view.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>What to thy spirit she will not display</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Cannot be wrenched from her with crowbar or with screw.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Faust turns from his dreary little world of
+books and charts and retorts and skeletons.
+He opens the window and gazes at the
+moon floating in her full glory through the
+heaven. His heart is filled with a yearning
+to be 'made one with Nature,' and in words
+which remind one of certain lines of Wordsworth
+he exclaims:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>O might I on some mountain height,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Encircled in thy holy light,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>With spirits hover round crags and caves,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>O'er the meadows float on the moonlight's waves.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Then, turning from Nature, he casts once
+more a look around his dreary cell:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Ah me, this dungeon still I see,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>This drear accurs&egrave;d masonry,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Where e'en the welcome daylight strains</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>But duskly through the painted panes,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Hemmed in by many a toppling heap</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Of books worm-eaten, grey with dust,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Which to the vault&egrave;d ceiling creep</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Against the smoky paper thrust,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>With glasses, boxes, round me stacked</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And instruments together hurled,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Ancestral lumber stuffed and packed&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Such is my world! And what a world!...</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Alas! In living Nature's stead,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Where God his human creatures set,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>In smoke and mould the fleshless dead</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And bones of beasts surround me yet.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He takes up the book of the Mystic
+astrologer Nostradamus and sees in it the
+sign, or cipher, of the universe. As he
+gazes a wondrous vision reveals itself: the
+mystic lines of the cipher seem to live and
+move and to form one living whole; and in
+spirit he beholds the Powers of Nature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+ascending and descending and reaching to
+each other golden vessels filled with the
+waters of life and wafting with their wings
+blessing and harmony through the universe.</p>
+
+<p>And yet from this vision he turns away
+dissatisfied:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>What wondrous vision! yet a vision only!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Where shall I grasp thee, Nature infinite?</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>And from this cipher of the material universe,
+this vision of inconceivable immensity
+and infinite diversity, the human spirit which
+is not content with the dead bones of science
+and has entered into communion with Nature
+cannot but turn away dissatisfied&mdash;and even
+with despair. Let me try to illustrate this
+in a more matter-of-fact way.</p>
+
+<p>The human mind discovers, let us say,
+that the earth is not the centre of the
+universe; that the sun is larger than the
+'bottom of a cask,' as in the old legend Faust
+discovered it to be; that there are other
+worlds quite as large as ours; that this earth
+of ours is a good deal smaller than the sun
+and actually revolves round it; that even
+the sun itself is not the centre of the universe
+but one of many suns&mdash;one of the countless
+stars in that enormous starry wreath that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+surrounds us, and which we call the Milky
+Way. And we direct our telescopes to this
+Milky Way and find that what we took for
+nebula is for the most part an accumulation
+of countless millions of suns, each perhaps
+with its planets. Then, as we sweep the
+sky with our glass, we discover numberless
+little wreath-like spiral cloudlets, and find
+that they also are just such wreaths of countless
+millions of suns and solar systems, and
+that these seemingly tiny wreaths are revolving
+round some central body or system,
+which itself must revolve round some other,
+and that again round another ... until
+imagination fails. Is there, we ask, some
+final centre of all? some unmoved source of
+motion? Or is the material universe infinite?</p>
+
+<p>Then we turn our gaze in another direction
+and we find in the tiniest grain of sand
+countless millions of molecules whose atoms
+(or electrons), it is said, are in perpetual
+motion, revolving like the stars. Are then
+(we ask) the stars themselves nothing but
+molecules? Is the whole material universe
+nothing but some grain of sand on the shore
+of the ocean of eternity?</p>
+
+<p>We turn away dazzled, and we rest our
+eyes, as Socrates was wont to say, on images,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+on reflexions. We try to make the mystery
+intelligible, or at least to pacify the reason
+by throwing it some such sop as the theory
+that 'Size is only relative,' or that 'Space is
+only a mode of consciousness' and therefore
+nothing real in itself. Or we lull the mind
+to sleep with imaginative metaphors and
+speak (as Plato did) of the Central Fire of
+Hestia, the Hearth and Home of the Universe,
+or we call that mysterious unmoved
+centre of all motion the Throne of God.
+Thus we try to lay the spectre of infinite
+Space.</p>
+
+<p>Or consider Time instead of Space. In a
+single second how many waves of light
+are supposed to enter the eye? About
+500 billions I believe. And of these waves
+some 500 would not exceed the breadth of
+a hair. Now any being to whom these
+tiny waves were as slow as the ripples
+on a pond are to us would live our human
+life of three score years and ten in the
+hundredth part of <i>his</i> second, while a being
+on one of those great worlds of space revolving
+but once in long &aelig;ons around its
+centre would live&mdash;if his life were measured
+as ours&mdash;millions of our years. Here again,
+in our dazzlement, we have recourse to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+metaphor and theory: we lay the spectre of
+Time by explaining it away as merely a
+'mode' and as therefore of no objective
+reality. In other words, dazed and outworn
+by the incomprehensible infinities of Time
+and Space we console ourselves with the
+theory that it is all a mere phenomenon, a
+projection of our own mind, and with Faust
+we exclaim</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>What wondrous vision! yet a vision only!</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and in the words of a still greater master of
+magic than Faust himself we despairingly
+add that</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4"><i>like the baseless fabric of this vision,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The solemn temples, the great globe itself,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Yea all that it inherit, shall dissolve</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>As dreams are made of.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>From the cipher of the vast material
+universe, the Macrocosm, we turn away,
+as Faust did, with unsatisfied yearnings.
+Whither then shall we turn? Where shall
+we grasp Nature&mdash;not the empty vision, but
+the warm living form? It is in our own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+heart that we find a refuge from the infinities
+of Space and Time&mdash;in that human heart
+by which we live, in its tenderness, its joys,
+its fears. Here, and here alone, we find
+those ultimate facts of existence which need
+no explanation, and which we accept just as
+they are, without any questionings. Here
+we find an infinite universe&mdash;no less infinite
+than that of Space and Time&mdash;the universe
+of feeling.</p>
+
+<p>From the cipher of the Macrocosm Faust
+turns to that of the Earth-spirit, the spirit of
+human life and feeling. He is filled with a
+sudden, passionate yearning to share in the
+joys and the sorrows and the aspirations and
+the strivings of humanity:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Thou, Spirit of the Earth, art nearer.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>I feel my powers loftier, clearer,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>I glow, as drunk with new-made wine;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>New strength I feel out in the world to dare,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The woes of earth, the bliss of earth to bear,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>To fight my way, though storms around me lash,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Nor know dismay amid the shipwreck's crash.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He calls upon this Earth-spirit, the Spirit
+of human life. He bends all the might of
+his human will to draw him down from his
+sphere. 'Come!' he exclaims. 'Thou
+must! Thou must!&mdash;e'en should it cost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+my life!' Enveloped in blinding flame the
+Spirit of life appears. At the apparition
+Faust cowers back terrified and turns his
+face away. But it is only for the moment.
+Stung by the contemptuous words of the
+phantom he answers: 'Shall I yield to <i>thee</i>,
+Spectre of flame? 'Tis I, 'tis Faust, thine
+equal!' The human Mind claims equality
+with the Spirit of earthly life. But the
+phantom exclaims: 'Thou art akin to the
+spirit that thou comprehendest&mdash;not to me!'&mdash;and
+disappears. Faust has yet to learn
+a lesson that the mind of man can never
+learn of itself, the real nature and meaning
+of human life. But he has beheld the
+vision of life, he has received the baptism of
+fire. Henceforth he is to fight his way
+through the storms of life and passion&mdash;to
+pass onward and upward and at last to rise
+to 'higher spheres'; and amidst the fierce and
+insidious assaults of flesh and devil we shall
+see that he looks for strength and guidance
+to this Spirit that appeared to him in the
+blinding vision of living empyreal flame.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely has the Earth-spirit vanished
+when, with a timid knock, there enters
+Faust's <i>famulus</i>, or assistant, Wagner. He
+has heard Faust's voice and from its excited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+tones has concluded that he is practising
+declamation&mdash;reciting perhaps a Greek play.
+The poor amiable dryasdust literary and
+scientific worm-grubber, whose maxim of
+life is <i>Zwar weiss ich viel, doch m&ouml;cht' ich
+Alles wissen</i> (I know indeed a good deal,
+but I want to know <i>Everything</i>), wishes to
+profit from a lesson in elocution. A scene
+follows in which the contrast is graphically
+depicted between this half lovable, half contemptible
+scientific bookworm and Faust's
+Titanic heaven-storming aspirations after
+absolute truth. When he is once more
+left alone, longing to face the mystery of
+life but crushed by the contempt of the
+Earth-spirit, Faust is seized by despair. He
+shrinks from encountering life, with its
+delusive joys, its pitiless injustice and its
+arbitrary fate. He resolves to seek certainty&mdash;to
+solve the riddle of life by death. As
+he moves the cup of poison to his lips there
+comes floating through the air the chime of
+bells and, perhaps from some near chapel,
+the hymn of Easter morn:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Joy unto mortals! Christ is arisen!</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He pauses. Memories of childhood sweep
+over him, and he yields to the sweet voices<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+that call him back from the threshold of the
+unseen.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Sound on sweet hymns of heaven! As gentle rain</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>My tears are falling. Earth hath me again.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Thus Faust escapes the cowardly act of
+suicide and gains new strength through the
+awakening, for a time at least, of the consciousness,
+which had slumbered within him
+since the unreasoning days of childhood,
+that there is that beyond life which alone
+makes life worth having.</p>
+
+<p>The next scene shows us Faust already
+in contact with human nature, as represented
+by holiday crowds flocking out of
+the town into the woods and adjacent
+villages at Eastertide. Those who know
+Germany well will feel the art with which
+Goethe at once transports us into the
+midst of a Germanic Feiertag in spring-time,
+with its bright sunlight, its throngs
+of townspeople streaming into the country&mdash;happy
+and merry without vulgar rowdyism;
+the smugly dressed apprentice and
+the servant-girl in her Sonntagsputz; the
+pert student and the demure B&uuml;rgerm&auml;dchen
+with her new Easter hat and her voluminous-waisted
+Frau Mama; the sedate school-master
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>or shopkeeper, leading his toddling
+child; sour-faced officials; grey-locked and
+spectacled professors and 'town-fathers'
+discussing the world's news or some local
+grievance&mdash;all flocking countryward, with
+some Waldhaus or Forsthaus Restaurant
+as their ultimate goal. And those who
+know Frankfurt will recognize the scene
+at once: up there above Sachsenhausen,
+on the road to the pine-woods and the
+J&auml;gerhaus, from which one sees the whole
+city lying below one, with its great Dom
+and its medieval gates&mdash;the river Main
+gliding through its midst and glittering away
+westward toward the Rhine; and in the
+far background the Taunus range and the
+dark Feldberg.</p>
+
+<p>Amidst this scene, externally still the
+more than middle-aged German professor
+(he must be fifty-seven or so) but with a
+heart full of newly wakened yearnings for
+human life with all its joys and passions,
+Faust wanders, trying to feel sympathy
+with all these multitudinous human beings,
+attracted perhaps here and there, but evidently
+for the most part repelled and discouraged.
+He has yet to learn that a love
+for and a knowledge of humanity, such as he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+finally reaches, must begin with love for
+and knowledge of <i>one</i> human heart.</p>
+
+<p>As he and Wagner return toward the
+city Faust gives vent to his pent-up feelings&mdash;pours
+contempt on his own book-learning
+and wasted life and expresses his yearnings
+for Nature, and the longing of his spirit for
+wings to fly away into the infinite:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>For in each soul is born the rapture</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Of yearning upward, and away,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>When o'er our heads, lost in the azure,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The lark sends down her thrilling lay,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>When over crags and pine-clad highlands</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The poising eagle slowly soars,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And over plains and lakes and islands</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The crane sails by to other shores.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Whereat Wagner exclaims:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>I've had myself at times an odd caprice,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>But never yet such impulses as these.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The woods and fields soon get intensely flat,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And as for flight&mdash;I never longed for that!</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Poor dear Wagner, how well one seems to
+know thee, with thy purblind spectacled
+eyes peering into fusty books and parchments,
+or bending over thy crucibles and
+retorts! Truly a novel and interesting sight
+it would be to see <i>thee</i> assuming wings. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+thy philosophy there is naught but dreams
+of elixirs of life or homunculi. Thy highest
+aspiration nowadays would be to find the
+mechanical equivalent of thought&mdash;to prove
+that Shakespeare's and Dante's imagination
+was due only to a slightly abnormal movement
+of brain-molecules&mdash;to find some
+method of measuring faith, hope and charity
+in foot-pounds and thine own genius in
+electric volts. Thou wouldst live and die,
+as other eminent scientists of these latter
+days have done, in the certain hope and
+faith of demonstrating irrefutably that this
+curious phenomenon which we call 'life'
+is nothing but the chemical action set
+up by the carbonic acid and ammonia
+of the protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p>As they walk and talk there appears a
+black dog ranging to and fro through a field,
+as if on the track of game. Ever nearer and
+nearer he circles, and in his wake, as it
+appears to Faust, trails a flickering phosphorescent
+gleam. But Wagner ridicules
+the idea as an optical delusion. <i>He</i> sees
+nothing but an ordinary black poodle.
+'Call him,' he says, 'and he'll come fawning
+on you, or sit up and do his tricks, or jump
+into the water after sticks.' The poodle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+follows them&mdash;and makes himself at home
+by the stove in Faust's study.</p>
+
+<p>Faust has thus, after his first contact with
+the outer world of humanity, returned once
+more to his cell&mdash;to the little world of his
+own thoughts and feelings. He finds himself
+once more amidst his piled-up books, his
+crucibles and retorts, his bones and skulls.
+He lights his lamp and feels the old familiar
+glow of intellectual satisfaction. <i>But the
+poodle is there.</i> Faust has brought home
+with him something that will now haunt him
+to the last moment of his life. There has
+been awakened in his nature the germ of that
+acorn (to use Goethe's metaphor with regard
+to Hamlet) that will soon strike root and
+shatter the vase in which it is planted.</p>
+
+<p>At present he is almost unconscious of this
+new presence. He is buried in thought, and
+his thoughts lead him toward the question
+of Revelation. He is drawn to take up a
+Bible and turns, with a mind full of metaphysical
+curiosity, to the passage 'In the
+beginning was the <span class='correction' title='logos'>&#955;&#x1f79;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>&mdash;the Word.' More
+than once there comes from the poodle a
+growl of disapprobation. Faust threatens to
+turn him out, and proceeds with his biblical
+criticism.... 'In the beginning was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+<span class='correction' title='logos'>&#955;&#x1f79;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>.' How shall he translate <span class='correction' title='logos'>&#955;&#x1f79;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>? It
+cannot mean merely a 'word.' ... A word
+must have meaning, <i>thought</i>&mdash;and thought
+is nothing without <i>act</i>.... So this 'Word,'
+this 'Logos,' must be translated as Act or
+Deed.</p>
+
+<p>These speculations are interrupted by
+horrible growlings, barks, and howlings. As
+Faust looks towards the poodle he sees it
+rapidly swelling up into a monstrous form&mdash;huger
+than an elephant or hippopotamus, with
+fiery eyes and enormous tusks in its gaping
+mouth. He tries to exorcise the phantom
+with 'Solomon's key' and other magic
+formul&aelig;, and at length, when he threatens it
+with the mystic formula of the Trinity, it
+dissolves into mist, and out of the mist steps
+forth Mephistopheles, dressed as a 'travelling
+scholar'&mdash;an itinerant professor, or quack
+doctor.</p>
+
+<p>I find that some commentators accuse
+Goethe of dramatic inconsistency and of
+interrupting the sequence of the action,
+because he makes Faust for a time return to
+his old speculations, and because Mephistopheles
+does not at once appear in the shape
+with which we are so familiar&mdash;with his 'red
+gold-trimmed dress and mantle of stiff silk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+and the cock-feathers in his hat,' the type of
+the dissolute man-about-town of the period.
+To me it seems very natural that, dispirited
+by his first contact with the outer world&mdash;unable
+to feel any real sympathy with the
+rollicking and sleek self-sufficiency of that
+holiday crowd, Faust should turn again to
+reflexion and speculation, and that when he
+is in this depressed and metaphysical mood
+the demonic element in his nature should first
+present itself&mdash;and that too in the disguise of
+an itinerant professor. For is it not the case
+that to many of us the devil <i>has</i> come first
+just at such a time and in just such disguise?</p>
+
+<p>Questioned as to his name and personality,
+Mephisto defines himself (he too being in a
+metaphysical mood) as 'the spirit of negation,'
+and as 'a part of that power which
+always wills evil and always works good'&mdash;'a
+part of that darkness which alone existed
+before the creation of light'&mdash;and he expresses
+the hope that, as light is dependent for its
+existence on the material world, both it and
+the world will ere long return to chaos and
+darkness. I have already touched upon this
+question of Evil as merely negative&mdash;merely
+a part of the whole&mdash;and will not detain you
+further over it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mephistopheles now wishes to take his
+leave, promising to visit Faust again. 'Visit
+me as you like,' says Faust, 'and now&mdash;there is
+the window! there's the door! or the chimney
+is at your service.' But the devil must go
+out by the same way as he has entered, and on
+the threshold to keep out evil spirits Faust has
+painted a mystic pentagram, a figure with five
+points, the outer angle of which, being inaccurately
+drawn, had left a gap through which
+Mephisto had slipped in; but being once in,
+as in a mouse-trap, he cannot get out again.</p>
+
+<p>As Faust now seems inclined to keep him
+prisoner, Mephistopheles summons spirits,
+who sing Faust to sleep. Then he calls a rat
+to gnaw a gap in the pentagram, and escapes.</p>
+
+<p>When, in the next scene, Mephistopheles
+again appears, Faust is in a very different
+state of mind, and Mephistopheles is also in a
+different shape. He is decked out with silken
+mantle and with cock-feathers in his hat,
+ready for any devilry. Faust is in the depths
+of morbid despair and bitterness at the
+thought of life:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>'What from the world have I to gain?&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thou must renounce! renounce! refrain!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Such is the everlasting song</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>That fills our ears our whole life long ...</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>With horror day by day I wake</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And weeping watch the morning break</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>To think that each returning sun</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Shall see fulfilled no wish of mine&mdash;not one.'</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He vows he would rather die. 'And yet,'
+sarcastically remarks Mephisto, 'some one a
+night or two ago did not drink a certain
+brown liquid.' Stung by the sarcasm, Faust
+breaks out into curses against life, against
+love and hope, and faith ... and 'cursed be
+patience most of all!'</p>
+
+<p>Here is the devil's opportunity. 'Life is
+yours yet, and all its pleasures. Of what's
+beyond you nothing know. Give up all this
+morbid thinking, these dreams and self-delusions!
+Be a man! Enjoy life! Plunge
+into pleasures of the senses! I will be
+your guide and show you the life worth
+living!'</p>
+
+<p>In an ecstasy of embitterment and
+despair, though fully conscious that such
+a life can never bring him satisfaction
+and happiness, Faust exclaims: 'What
+wilt <i>thou</i>, poor devil, give me? Was
+the human spirit, in its aspirations, ever
+understood by such as <i>thou</i>?... And
+yet&mdash;hast thou the food that never satiates&mdash;hast
+thou red gold&mdash;hast thou love,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+passionate faithless love&mdash;hast thou the
+fruits that rot before one plucks them&mdash;hast
+thou the fruits of that tree of
+sensual pleasure which daily puts forth new
+blossoms&mdash;then done! I accept.' 'But if,'
+he adds (and, alas, I must give merely the
+sense of these noble verses&mdash;for all translation
+is so unutterably flat)&mdash;'if I ever lay
+myself on the bed of idle self-content, if
+ever thou canst fool me with these
+phantoms of the senses, if ever I say to the
+passing moment, <i>Stay; thou art so fair!</i>&mdash;then
+let my life be ended. This wager I
+offer thee.' 'Topp!' ('Done!') exclaims
+Mephistopheles; and, as you know, the compact
+is signed by Faust with his own blood.</p>
+
+<p>You will observe that here there is no
+mention, as in the old legend, of any term
+of years&mdash;the compact is <i>for life</i>. Of what
+may come after this life Faust makes no
+mention in his wager. He expressly says
+that all he cares about, all he can know, is
+<i>this</i> life, and that he will hear nothing about
+any future life. This may be agnosticism
+or whatever else we like to call it, but it is
+not formally selling one's soul, with or
+without one's body, for a <i>future</i> life and
+for all eternity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Moreover Faust has <i>not</i> summoned the
+devil. The devil has come to him&mdash;is
+indeed a part of him. He does <i>not</i> league
+himself with a hell-fiend for the sake of
+worldly power or fame or sensual enjoyment,
+of which he speaks with contempt.
+He only offers to come forward into the
+battle of life and of passions to test the
+nobler powers and the deeper beliefs and
+the yet dim aspirations of his better nature
+against the powers of evil, against what he
+calls the 'cold devil's-fist' of negation and
+cynicism and disbelief, against the brute
+within the man.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Thou hearest me! I do not speak of joy&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>I dedicate myself to passion&mdash;pleasure&mdash;pain&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Enamour'd hate, and rapture of disdain.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>What's highest or what's lowest I will know,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And heap upon my bosom weal and woe.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Footsteps are now heard approaching.
+It is one of Faust's scholars. Faust 'has
+no heart to meet him'&mdash;and no wonder. He
+goes; and Mephistopheles, throwing around
+him Faust's professorial mantle and placing
+the professorial cap upon his head, awaits
+the scholar. The scene which ensues, in
+which Mephisto gives the young aspirant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+for knowledge his diabolic advice and his
+diabolic views on Science, Logic, Metaphysics,
+Medicine and even Theology&mdash;would
+offer ample material for a very long
+course of lectures; but as it is one which is
+not closely connected with the main action
+of the play it will have to be omitted.
+The scholar retires&mdash;his poor young head
+whirling round like a mill-wheel with the
+advice he has received and carrying away
+his album, in which the devil has inscribed
+his favourite text 'Ye shall be as gods,
+knowing good and evil.' Then Faust
+re-enters, Mephistopheles spreads out his
+silken cape, and on it the two fly away
+through the air on their adventures&mdash;first
+through the small and then the greater
+world&mdash;first the world of personal feelings
+and passions, then the greater world (is it
+really greater?) of art and politics and
+Humanity.</p>
+
+<p>Faust had said, as you remember,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>What wilt thou, poor devil, give me?</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Was the human spirit, in its aspirations</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Ever understood by such as thou?</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This is the leading motive of all that
+follows. With ever-deepening disgust and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+contempt Faust, in his quest for truth
+through the jungles and quagmires of
+human passions, follows his guide. If ever
+Faust seems to catch sight of any far-off
+vision of eternal truth and beauty&mdash;as he
+does at times in his love for Gretchen, and
+again in his passion for ideal beauty in
+Helen, and once again in that devotion to
+the cause of Humanity which finally allows
+him to express a satisfaction in life, and
+thus causes his life to end&mdash;if ever Faust
+shows any sign of real interest or satisfaction,
+it is just <i>then</i> that Mephistopheles
+displays most clearly his utter inability
+to understand the 'human spirit in its
+aspirations'; and it is <i>then</i> that he shows
+most plainly his own diabolic nature, pouring
+out his cynical contempt and gnashing
+his teeth at what he deems Faust's
+irrational disgust for all those bestialities
+that seem to him (Mephistopheles) the
+sweetest joys of existence.</p>
+
+<p>His very first attempt is a dead failure.
+He has carried Faust off through the air to
+Leipzig, and here he brings him into what
+to the Mephisto-nature doubtless seems
+highly desirable and entertaining company&mdash;to
+the 'sing-song' (as I believe it is called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+in England) of tippling brawling students.
+The scene is Auerbach's Cellar, a well-known
+Leipzig 'Kneipe'&mdash;a kind of Wine
+taproom or Bodega. Among these brawling
+comic-songsters Mephistopheles is in his
+element, and he treats them to a comic ditty:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Of old there lived a king,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Who had a great big flea</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>As dear as any thing,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Or any son, could be ...</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and so on. We need not linger over the
+repulsive scene&mdash;so graphically described.</p>
+
+<p>Finally Mephistopheles bores holes in the
+table and draws wine from them.</p>
+
+<p>The students come to handicuffs over
+it; they spill the wine, and it turns into
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>Amidst their drunken uproar Faust and
+Mephistopheles disappear.</p>
+
+<p>During the whole of this scene Faust
+<i>speaks no single word</i>, except a curt but polite
+greeting on entering the Cellar and an appeal
+to Mephistopheles to take him away from
+this 'scene of swinish bestiality.' How
+different from the part that Faust plays in
+the old story where he himself, not Mephistopheles,
+joins in the revelry and buffoonery!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Auerbach's Cellar existed till lately,
+though the house above it had been rebuilt.
+It was the original 'Keller' that is mentioned
+in the old legend. In it were to be seen two
+old pictures (with the date 1525). One
+represented Faust sitting at table with
+students; in the other he is flying off
+through the door astride on a wine cask.</p>
+
+<p>A weird scene now ensues: the Witches'
+Kitchen.</p>
+
+<p>Faust had asked how it was possible for
+him, the thought-worn grey-haired professor,
+to care for, or take part in, what
+Mephistopheles looked upon as 'life.'
+Mephistopheles therefore takes him to a
+witch, from whom he is to receive a magic
+draught that will 'strip off some thirty
+years from his body,' so that he becomes a
+young, man of, say, about twenty-seven.
+This scene in the Witches' Kitchen is sometimes
+said to represent allegorically a long
+course of dissipation through which Mephistopheles
+takes Faust, and which of course
+could not be represented otherwise without
+extending the action of the play beyond all
+reasonable limits. It is true that, after the
+draught Faust's character seems considerably
+changed for the worse. He develops a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+recklessness and a licentiousness which
+scandalize even Mephistopheles himself,
+who tells him that he is 'almost as bad as a
+Frenchman.'</p>
+
+<p>Whether we should understand it thus,
+or not, I do not feel quite sure, but anyhow
+we have in future&mdash;to the end of the first
+Part&mdash;to take into account the fact that,
+although loathing all such swinish sensuality
+as that of tippling students, and hating
+all forms of mean selfishness and cunning
+and hypocrisy, Faust is (as so often is the
+case with otherwise noble and lovable men)
+open to assault at that point where, as
+nowhere else, the sensuous and ideal in our
+human nature seem to touch and coalesce.</p>
+
+<p>When they enter the Witch is not at
+home. In the midst of the kitchen is a
+large cauldron, and at its side, skimming
+it and seeing that it does not run over is
+a Meerkatze&mdash;a kind of female ape. The
+Meerkater, or male ape, squats by the fire,
+warming himself, and near by are several
+young apes. Mephistopheles is enraptured
+at the sight of the 'tender pretty beasts,'
+but Faust finds them more disgusting than
+anything he has ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>The apes perform all kinds of antics and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+chatter a weird medley of half sense, half
+nonsense, in which one can dimly discern
+satirical allusions to various forms of the
+literary, political, and religious cant of
+Goethe's generation.</p>
+
+<p>The animals enthrone Mephistopheles in a
+chair, give him a feather brush for a sceptre,
+and offer him a broken crown, which he is to
+glue together with 'sweat and blood.' It is
+like some horrid nightmare. We feel as if
+we were going mad; and so does Faust himself.
+But suddenly he catches sight of a
+magic mirror, in which he sees a form of
+ravishing beauty&mdash;not that of Gretchen or
+Helen, but some form of ideal loveliness. He
+stands there entranced.</p>
+
+<p>But at this moment the cauldron boils
+over. A great flame shoots up the chimney.
+With a scream the witch comes clattering
+down, and launches curses at the intruders&mdash;not
+recognising the devil in his costume as
+modern rou&eacute;. He abuses her roundly and
+tells her that his horns, tail and cloven hoof
+are gone out of fashion, modern culture
+having tabooed them; and he forbids her to
+address him as Satan. That name is not up-to-date:
+he is now 'der Herr Baron.'</p>
+
+<p>With a hocus-pocus of incantations she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+brews the magic draught, which Faust drinks.
+He is then hurried away by Mephistopheles
+back into the world of humanity.</p>
+
+<p>We have now come to the story of Margarete
+or Gretchen, which by many, perhaps
+by most, is looked upon as constituting the
+main subject of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>. It is doubtless
+the part which attracts one, which appeals
+to one's <i>heart</i>, more than any other, and it
+forms by itself a pathetic little tragedy. The
+story itself is merely the old sad story of
+passion, weakness and misery, which has
+been told thousands of times in all ages and
+all languages.</p>
+
+<p>It would be worse than useless to endeavour
+by any dissecting process to discover
+how by some act of creative power Goethe
+has inspired this little story with such
+wondrous vitality that there is probably in
+all literature scarcely any character that lives
+for us, that seems so real, as Gretchen.
+Possibly to feel this one needs a knowledge
+of the original poem and an acquaintance
+not only with that Germany which is
+generally known to the English visitor, but
+also with just that class of which Gretchen
+is typical, and with just those little ways
+and those forms of expression which are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+peculiar to that class and to the part of
+Germany to which Gretchen belonged.
+Every single word that she utters is so absolutely
+true to nature that we seem to hear the
+voice of some real living Gretchen, and can
+hardly believe that she merely exists in our
+imagination. This may perhaps be asserted
+of other poetic creations; but I confess that
+I know no other, not even in Shakespeare,
+that produces on me quite the same kind of
+illusion. Homer's Nausicaa, the Antigone
+and Electra of Sophocles, Rosalind, Miranda,
+Imogen, Portia, Cordelia&mdash;all these live for
+me, but not quite as Gretchen. Their
+presence I feel as something living, but a
+little visionary. Gretchen I can see, and
+hear and almost touch. I need not recount
+at length her story, for it is too well known.
+I need only recall to you memories of certain
+facts and scenes: that first meeting in the
+street; the mysterious presents from the unknown
+lover; the meeting in the neighbour's
+garden and Gretchen's innocent prattlings
+about her home life; Faust's growing passion,
+and the vain battlings of his higher nature;
+the insidious promptings and cynical ridicule
+of his demonic companion; the song of
+Gretchen at her spinning-wheel; her loving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+anxiety as to Faust's religious opinions, and
+his celebrated confession of faith; the sleeping
+draught by which Gretchen causes the
+death of her mother; her shame, remorse
+and despair; Gretchen kneeling with her
+gift of tear-sprent flowers before the Virgin's
+image; the return of her brother, the young
+soldier, Valentin, and <i>his</i> death&mdash;stabbed by
+her lover (or rather by Mephisto) at night
+beneath her window, and cursing her as he
+dies; the scene in the Cathedral; the pealing
+organ and the solemn tones of the Dies Irae
+mingling with the terrible words of the
+accusing spirit, till Gretchen sinks fainting to
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p>And where is Faust? He has fled. The
+avengers of blood are on his track. His selfish
+passion has been the cause of death to
+Gretchen's mother and brother and has
+brought ruin on her&mdash;to end in madness,
+infanticide and the block.</p>
+
+<p>I have often wondered whether the limitations
+of art might not allow the possibility of
+some drama on the same lines as <i>Faust</i> in
+which he might be saved by the purity and
+nobility of womanhood, as in the story of
+Cyprian and Justina, instead of, as here,
+using the ruin of a poor girl as a stepping-stone
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>in his career of self-salvation. Or, what
+if he had felt such horror and remorse at her
+fate that he had broken his compact and freed
+himself from the demon? It will be said,
+perhaps, that this would have been undramatic
+and that such a view is merely
+sentimental and subversive of all true art.
+But, once more, what if he had bravely stood
+by Gretchen, or had even shared her fate
+when she refused to be saved by him?</p>
+
+<p>Anyhow, Goethe did not choose any of
+these methods; and if he had done so we
+should have had no second Part of <i>Faust</i>&mdash;nor
+indeed our next scene, the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Pursued not only by the avengers of blood
+but by the avenging furies of his own conscience,
+Faust has plunged into a reckless
+life and experiences those after-dreams of
+intellectual and &aelig;sthetic extravagance which
+so often follow such riotous living. This
+period&mdash;that of sensual riot and &aelig;sthetic
+dalliance&mdash;Goethe has, I think, symbolized
+by two wild and curious scenes, the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>
+and Oberon's Wedding, a kind
+of 'after-dream' of the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The connexion of these scenes with the
+main action of the play has puzzled many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+critics, especially the curious Intermezzo
+which follows the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>, the
+'Golden Wedding of Oberon and Titania,' a
+kind of dream-vision, or rather nightmare, in
+which besides the fairies of Shakespeare's
+fairyland, besides will-o'-the-wisps and
+weather-cocks and shooting stars, numerous
+authors, philosophers and artists and other
+characters appear, including Goethe himself
+as the 'Welt-kind.' This scene was not
+originally written for <i>Faust</i>, but Goethe
+inserted it (I imagine) as an allegorical
+picture of over-indulgence in &aelig;stheticism and
+intellectualism (the 'opiate of the brain,' as
+Tennyson calls it)&mdash;a vice into which one is
+apt to be seduced by the hope of deadening
+pain of heart. Although not written for the
+play, this Intermezzo cannot be said to be
+superfluous, for the subject of <i>Faust</i> is one
+that admits of almost any imaginative conception
+that is descriptive of the experiences
+of human nature in its quest of truth.</p>
+
+<p>But let us return to the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>.
+On the 1st of May a great festival was held
+by the ancient Druids, who on the preceding
+night used to perform on the mountains their
+terrible sacrifices, setting ablaze huge wickerwork
+figures filled with human beings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+Hence in later times the superstition arose
+that on this night witches ghouls and fiends
+held their revels on the Brocken, or Blocksberg,
+in the Harz mountains. The name of
+Saint Walpurga (an English nun, who came
+to Germany in the eighth century) became
+associated with this Witches' Sabbath, as the
+1st of May was sacred to her. To this midnight
+orgy of the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i> Mephistopheles
+takes Faust.... They are lighted on
+their toilsome ascent of the Blocksberg by a
+will-o'-the-wisp. A vast multitude of witches
+and goblins are flocking to the summit; the
+midnight air resounds with their shrieks and
+jabberings; weird lights flash from every
+quarter, revealing thronging swarms of
+ghoulish shapes and dancing Hexen. The
+trees themselves are dancing. The mountains
+nod. The crags jut forth long snouts
+which snort and blow. Amid the crush and
+confusion Faust has to cling fast to his guide.
+Once the two get parted, and Mephistopheles
+is in anxiety lest he should lose Faust entirely,
+the idea being, I suppose, that sometimes
+a human being outruns the devil
+himself in the orgies of sensuality. At last
+they reach the dancers. Mephistopheles is
+here in his element and joins in the dances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+with eagerness, bandying jokes with the old
+hags and flirting with the younger witches.
+Nor does Faust seem at all disinclined to
+follow suit. He however desists dismayed
+when, as he is dancing with a witch of seductive
+loveliness, a red mouse jumps out of her
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>At length, when Mephisto, who finds it
+getting too hot even for him, comes again
+to Faust, he discovers him silently gazing
+at a weird sight&mdash;one that might well
+have sobered him. 'Look!' says Faust:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>'Look! seest thou not in the far distance there,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Standing alone, that child, so pale and fair?</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>She seems to move so slowly, and with pain,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>As if her feet were fettered by a chain.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>I must confess, I almost seem to trace</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>My poor good Gretchen in her form and face.'</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Mephistopheles answers:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>'Let her alone! It's dangerous to look.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>It's a mere lifeless ghoul, a spectre-spook.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Such bogeys to encounter is not good;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Their rigid stare freezes one's very blood,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And one is often almost turned to stone.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Medusa's head, methinks, to thee is known!'</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But Faust will not be convinced. It <i>is</i>
+Gretchen&mdash;his 'poor good Gretchen' as he
+calls her. And what is that red bleeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+gash around her neck? What terrible
+thought does it suggest!</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>'How strange that round her lovely neck,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>That narrow band of red is laid</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>No broader than a knife's keen blade!'</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>'Quite right!' answers Mephistopheles
+with a ghastly joke&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>'Quite right! I plainly see it's so.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Perseus cut off her head, you know.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>She often carries it beneath her arm.'</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He hurries Faust away. But soon these
+terrible presentiments are realized. Faust
+learns&mdash;how we are not told&mdash;that Gretchen
+is in prison, and condemned to death on the
+scaffold; for in her madness&mdash;yes, surely
+in madness&mdash;she has drowned her own
+child.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of attempting to describe what
+follows, I shall offer a literal prose translation
+of some parts of the concluding scene, asking
+you to supply by your imagination, as best
+you may, the power and harmony of Goethe's
+wonderful verse.</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class='center'><i>A gloomy day. Open country.</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">Mephistopheles</span>. <span class="smcap">Faust</span> <i>is speaking</i>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. In misery! In despair! Piteously
+wandering day after day o'er the face of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+earth,&mdash;and now imprisoned! That sweet unhappy
+being shut up in a dungeon, as a criminal, and
+exposed to horrible torments! Has it come to
+<i>this</i>!&mdash;to this!... Treacherous, villainous spirit!
+and <i>this</i> thou hast concealed from me!... Stand
+there, stand, and roll thy devilish eyes in fury!
+Imprisoned! In hopeless misery! Delivered over
+to evil spirits and the heartless verdict of mankind!... And
+<i>thou</i> meantime hast lulled me
+with loathsome dissipation ... thou hast hidden
+from me her ever-deepening despair, and hast
+suffered her to perish helplessly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. She isn't the first.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Dog! Abominable monster! Turn him,
+O Infinite Spirit, turn this reptile back into his dog-shape ... that
+he may crawl on his belly before
+me ... that I may trample the abandoned wretch
+underfoot. Not the first!... Woe! Woe not to be
+grasped by any human soul, that <i>more</i> than <i>one</i>
+should sink into this abyss of misery&mdash;that the <i>first</i>,
+in her writhing agony before the eyes of the All-merciful,
+should not have made satisfaction for the
+guilt of all others. The misery of this <i>one</i> pierces
+with agony my deepest soul&mdash;and <i>thou</i> calmly
+grinnest at the fate of thousands!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. Here we are again, at the end of our wits!&mdash;where
+the common sense of you mortals loses its
+hold and snaps. Why dost thou make fellowship
+with us, if thou canst not carry it through? Wilt
+thou fly, and art not secure from dizziness? Did we
+thrust ourselves upon thee, or thou thyself upon us?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Gnash not thy ravening teeth at me! I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+loathe thee! Mighty, glorious Spirit&mdash;thou who
+didst deign to appear to me, and knowest my heart
+and soul, why dost thou fetter me to this satellite of
+shame, who revels in evil and gluts himself on
+destruction?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. Hast thou done?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Save her, or woe to thee! The most
+terrible curse on thee for thousands of years!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. I cannot loose the bonds of the avenger&mdash;cannot
+undo his bolts. <i>Save her!</i>... Who was
+it that ruined her ... I or thou?</p>
+
+<p class='right'>[<span class="smcap">Faust</span> <i>glares wildly round him.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. Wilt thou grasp after a thunderbolt?
+'Tis well that it was not given to you miserable
+mortals!...</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Take me to her! She <i>shall</i> be free!... Take
+me to her, I say, and liberate her!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. I will take thee to her&mdash;and do what
+I <i>can</i> do. Listen! Have I all power in heaven
+and on earth?&mdash;I will becloud the jailer's senses.
+Then do thou get possession of the keys, and lead
+her forth with human hand. I will keep watch.&mdash;The
+magic steeds will be at hand ... I will carry
+you off. So much lies in my power.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 35%;' />
+
+<p class='hang'><i>Night. The open country</i>. <span class="smcap">Faust</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">Mephistopheles</span>
+<i>galloping past on black horses. They
+pass a group of witches busy round their
+cauldron. They reach the prison. Within is
+heard the voice of</i> <span class="smcap">Gretchen</span> <i>singing an old
+plaintive ballad.</i> <span class="smcap">Faust</span> <i>listens:</i></p>
+
+<p>'She dreams not' (he says) 'that her loved one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+is listening, and hears her chains rattle and the
+straw as it rustles.'</p>
+
+<p class='right'>[<i>He unlocks the prison door and steps in.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span> (<i>crouching into her bed of straw</i>). Woe,
+woe&mdash;they are coming! Bitter death!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Hush! hush! I am come to free thee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span> (<i>grovelling before him</i>). If thou art a
+man, O pity my distress!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Thou wilt awaken the watchmen with
+thy cries. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[<i>He seizes her chain to unlock it.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span> (<i>kneeling</i>). Who has given you, heads-man,
+this power over me? You have come for me
+already at midnight. Pity me, and let me live!
+Is to-morrow morning not soon enough? And I am
+still so young&mdash;and I must die! Fair was I too,
+and that was my ruin. Pity me! What harm
+have I ever done to thee! I never saw thee before
+in all my life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Can I endure this misery?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. I am wholly in your power. But let
+me first suckle my child. I held it in my bosom all
+the night. They took it from me, to vex me, and
+<i>now</i> they say I've killed it.... And I shall never
+be happy any more!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span> (<i>kneels beside her</i>). He that loves thee
+kneels before thee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. O let us kneel and call upon the
+saints. But ... ah!... Look!... Under those
+steps, under the threshold, hell is flaming. The
+Evil One is raging there so furiously. Listen, how
+he roars and thunders!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Gretchen! Gretchen!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span> (<i>listening</i>). That was the voice of my
+friend! Where is he? I heard him call.... Right
+through the howling and uproar of hell,
+through the horrid laughter of the devils, I
+recognized that sweet loving tone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. It is I.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. Thou!... O say it once more!
+(<i>Clasping him.</i>) It is! it is he! Where is now
+all my pain? Where is the anguish of the dungeon
+and the chain?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Come! Come with me!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. O stay!... I am so happy at thy
+side.... What! not one kiss!... Ah, woe,
+thy lips are cold. Where is all thy love? Who
+has stolen it from me?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Come! Follow!... Be courageous,
+loved one! Come with me!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. Thou art loosening my chain.... Know'st
+thou, my friend, <i>whom</i> thou art releasing?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Come, come! Night is already on the
+wane.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. My mother I have killed. I have
+drowned my child. Was it not given to thee and
+to me? Yes, to thee too.... And thou art really
+here! Thou! I can scarce believe it. Give me thy
+hand&mdash;thy dear hand! <i>Ah</i>, but it is wet. Wipe
+it, wipe it! It looks like blood upon it. O God,
+what hast thou done! Put up thy sword, I beg
+thee! Put it away!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Let the past be past. Thou art killing me.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. No&mdash;<i>thou</i> must live!... I will tell
+thee about the graves that thou must provide<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> to-morrow.
+Give mother the best place, and brother
+close to her&mdash;and me a little on one side ... only
+not too far away. And lay the little one in my
+bosom.... No one else shall lie with me. To
+cling to thy side, that was once such sweet blissful
+joy ... but I seem no longer able ... as if I
+had to force myself, and as if thou didst thrust me
+back.... And yet it <i>is</i> thou, and thou look'st so
+kind and good.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. If thou feel'st that it is I, then come!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. Out <i>there</i>?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. To freedom!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. I dare not. For me there is no hope
+more. What is the use to flee? They are lurking
+after me.... It's so wretched to have to beg, and
+that too with a bad conscience. It's so wretched to
+wander about in strange lands ... and they'll
+catch me all the same.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. I shall be with thee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. <i>Quick! Quick!</i> Save it! Save my
+child!... Onward! Right up that path alongside
+the stream ... over the bridge ... there!... into
+the wood.... There! to the left! there,
+where the plank lies&mdash;in the pond! Catch hold of
+it! Catch it! It's rising!... It's struggling!
+Save it! save it!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Bethink thyself! One step and thou art
+free!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. If only we were over that hill!... There's
+mother sitting there on a stone. (Ah!
+what was that, like an icy hand, grasping my hair?) ... She
+sits and wags with her head&mdash;she does not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+beckon or nod to us ... her head droops so heavily.
+Yes, she slept so long, and she will wake no more.
+She slept that we might have joy. Ah, those were
+happy times!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. No entreaty avails&mdash;no words are of use.
+I shall have to carry thee away. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[<i>Seizes hold of her.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. <i>Let me go!</i> I will not suffer violence.
+Seize not hold of me so murderously. All <i>else</i> I did
+for <i>love</i> of thee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. The day is dawning! Dearest! dearest!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. <i>Day?</i> Yes&mdash;the day is coming! The
+last day is dawning! It was to have been my wedding
+day. Woe to my wreath! But what is, must be!
+We shall see each other again ... but not at the
+dance! The crowd is thronging.... One hears
+no word.... The square, the streets, cannot
+contain them.... The bell is tolling&mdash;the staff is
+broken.... They seize me! They bind me fast!
+I am being dragged already to the block! Each
+feels the axe at his own neck as its keen blade
+flashes down on <i>mine</i> ... and the world lies dark
+and silent as the grave.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust</span>. O that I never had been born!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. (<i>appears at the door</i>). Come! or you are
+lost!... Foolish, useless hesitation&mdash;delaying and
+gossiping! My horses are shuddering and the
+morning twilight breaks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span> (<i>seeing</i> <span class="smcap">Mephistopheles</span>). What is this
+that rises from the ground? He! <i>He!</i> Send him
+away! What does <i>he</i> want at this holy spot?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. (<i>to</i> <span class="smcap">Faust</span>). Come! come! or I shall leave
+you in the lurch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>. I am thine, Father&mdash;save me! Ye
+angels, holy cohorts, encamp around me and defend
+me! (<i>To</i> <span class="smcap">Faust</span>.) Heinrich, I shrink from thee in
+horror.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. She is judged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Voice from Above</span>. She is saved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meph</span>. <i>to</i> <span class="smcap">Faust</span>. Here! to me!</p>
+
+<p class='right'>[<i>Disappears with</i> <span class="smcap">Faust</span>.</p>
+
+<p class='hang'>[<span class="smcap">A Voice from Within</span>&mdash;<i>the voice of</i> <span class="smcap">Gretchen</span>&mdash;<i>calls
+on the name of him she once loved&mdash;of
+him who has robbed her of happiness and
+life itself. Fainter and fainter it calls, then
+dies away into silence.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+<h2>III</h2>
+
+<h3>GOETHE'S 'FAUST'</h3>
+
+
+<h3>PART II</h3>
+
+
+<p>The picture which Goethe has given us in
+<i>Faust</i> is in its main outlines the picture of
+Goethe's own life. The Faust of Part I is
+the Goethe of early days&mdash;of the Sturm
+und Drang period&mdash;the Goethe of <i>Werther's
+Leiden</i>, of <i>G&ouml;tz</i>, of <i>Prometheus</i>, of
+Gretchen, Lotte, Annette, Friederike and
+Lili; the Faust of the earlier scenes of
+Part II is Goethe at the ducal court of
+Weimar; the Faust of the <i>Helena</i> is
+Goethe in Italy, Goethe at Bologna, standing
+in ecstatic veneration before what was
+then believed to be Raphael's picture of
+St. Agatha, or wandering through the Colosseum
+at Rome, or writing his <i>Iphigenie</i> on
+the shores of the Lago di Garda; and the
+Faust of the last act of all is Goethe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+reconciled to life and finding a certain
+measure of peace and happiness in his
+home, in the sympathy of his good-natured
+but unrefined wife and of others whom he
+loved, as well as in his scientific and
+philosophical studies&mdash;until he seals up the
+<span class="smcap">ms.</span> of his great poem and (to use his
+own words) 'regards his life-work as ended
+and rests in the contemplation of the past,'
+and then, a few months later, passes away
+from earth, murmuring as he dies 'More
+light!'</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that at the end of
+Part I Faust is dragged away by Mephistopheles
+and leaves poor Gretchen to her
+doom. The fatal axe has now fallen.
+Gretchen is dead.</p>
+
+<p>In the opening scene of Part II we find
+him 'lying on a grassy bank, worn out
+and attempting to sleep.' A considerable
+time has evidently elapsed&mdash;a time doubtless
+of bitter grief and of the fiercest
+accusation against his evil counsellor, that
+part of his human nature which is represented
+by Mephistopheles and from which
+even in the last hour of his life (as we shall
+see) he confesses it to be impossible wholly
+to free himself:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>D&auml;monen, weiss ich, wird man schwerlich los.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Das geistig-strenge Band is nicht zu trennen.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>'From demons it is, I know, scarce
+possible to free oneself. The spiritual bond
+is too strong to break.'</p>
+
+<p>But it is not from grief or self-accusation
+that Faust is to gain new inspiration. It is
+from the healing power of Nature&mdash;in which
+Goethe believed far more than in remorse.</p>
+
+<p>The scene amidst which Faust is now
+lying reminds one of some Swiss valley.
+The rising sun is pouring a flood of golden
+light over the snow-fields of the distant
+mountains and down from the edge of an
+overhanging precipice is falling a splendid
+cataract, such as the Reichenbach or the
+Staub-bach, amidst whose spray gradually
+forms itself, as the sunshine touches it, an
+iridescent bow, brightening and fading, but
+hanging there immovable. Through this
+scene are flitting elfin forms&mdash;Ariel and his
+fays&mdash;singing to the liquid tones of Aeolian
+harps and lapping Faust's world-worn
+senses in the sweet harmonies of Nature,
+tenderly effacing the memories of the past
+and inspiring him with new hopes and new
+strength to face once more the battle of
+life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He watches the rising sun, but blinded
+by excess of light he turns away, unable to
+gaze upon the flaming source of life, as erst
+he had turned from the apparition of the
+Earth-spirit. He seeks to rest his dazzled
+eyes in reflected light (a metaphor used, as
+you may remember, also by Socrates in the
+parable of the Cave)&mdash;in the sun-lit mountain
+slopes, the pine-woods and the glittering
+walls of rock, and in the colours of the
+foam-bow suspended amidst the spray of the
+swift down-thundering cataract. In the
+ever-changing colours but motionless form
+of this bow hanging over the downward
+rush of the torrent Faust finds a symbol
+of human life suspended with its ever-varying
+hues above the stream of time.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the truest and the most
+beautiful of all similitudes, this of pure
+sunlight refracted and broken into colours,
+symbolizing the One and the Many, the
+perfect and the imperfect, the eternal and
+the temporal. Doubtless you are already
+thinking of Shelley's magnificent lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>The One remains, the Many change and pass;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Heaven's light for ever shines, Earth's shadows fly,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Life, like a dome of many-coloured glass,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Stains the white radiance of eternity.</i><br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>Into such variegated scene of reflected
+and refracted light Faust is now entering.
+He has passed through the 'little world' of
+personal feeling&mdash;the world of the One,
+of the heart, and he is entering what
+Mephistopheles calls the 'greater world'
+(for greater it appears to be from the
+Mephistophelean standpoint)&mdash;the world of
+the 'many,' of politics and ethics and art
+and literature and society&mdash;the world whose
+highest ideal is success, or, at the best, the
+'greatest good of the greatest number' and
+the evolution of that terrible ghoul the
+so-called Super-man.</p>
+
+<p>It is at the court of a German Kaiser
+that Faust first makes trial of this so-called
+greater world. The young monarch has
+lately returned from Italy, where, as was
+once customary, he had been crowned by
+the Pope with the iron Lombard crown.
+By his extravagances he has already
+emptied the imperial coffers. His Chancellor,
+his Treasurers, his Paymasters are all
+at the verge of despair, and the Empire is
+on the brink of bankruptcy. To add to
+these misfortunes (perhaps the greatest of
+them in the opinion of the young Kaiser)
+the court-fool has tumbled downstairs and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+has broken his neck; so at least it is
+believed; but cats and fools have a way of
+falling on their feet, and this fool turns up
+again later. Meanwhile however Mephistopheles
+presents himself and is accepted as
+a <i>locum tenens</i>. To him the Kaiser turns
+for advice, and Mephistopheles proposes a
+clever expedient&mdash;meant as a satire on
+modern systems of finance and State
+security. He suggests that, as the land
+belongs to the Kaiser, and as in the ground
+there are doubtless great quantities of
+hidden treasures, buried in olden times, the
+Kaiser should, on the security of these
+hidden and as yet undiscovered treasures,
+issue 'promises to pay'&mdash;in other words
+paper money. This is done, and suddenly
+the imperial court, in spite of its empty
+coffers, finds itself in affluence. The young
+Kaiser, delighted at the opportunity of
+indulging his taste for display and extravagance,
+decides on holding a masquerade,
+such as he had lately witnessed at the
+Roman Carneval.</p>
+
+<p>The description of this great court
+masquerade occupies a considerable space in
+Goethe's drama, and is generally looked upon
+by the commentators as one of the least<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+successful parts of <i>Faust</i>. The question is,
+how are we to estimate <i>success</i> in such a
+matter? For myself I confess that I
+find this masquerade scene tedious and
+irksome, and can with difficulty read it
+through; but is not this just the effect that
+Goethe wished to produce? Is not this
+just the effect that society, with all its
+masquerades and mummeries, inevitably
+produces on any one who, like Faust and
+with Faust's ideals and aspirations, is
+making trial of life in order to discover
+under what conditions it is worth living?
+Instead of telling us in so many words that
+Faust makes trial of all the pomps and
+vanities of fashionable society and finds
+them utterly empty and ridiculous, fatal to
+all true life and disgusting to all true manliness,
+Goethe gives us a picture of this
+tiresome foolish scene, with all its absurdities
+and falsities and trumpery grandeurs,
+amidst which our friend Mephistopheles is so
+entirely in his element, and where Faust, with
+evident self-contempt and disgust, forces
+himself for a moment to play a part. The
+various elements of fashionable society&mdash;and,
+as a contrast, certain very unfashionable
+elements&mdash;are introduced under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+disguise of these masked figures. Marketable
+belles and heiresses in the guise of
+flower-girls offer their charms and their
+fortunes in the form of flowers and fruits to
+the highest bidder. The anxious mother is
+there with her daughters, hoping that
+among so many fools <i>one</i> may be at last
+secured. Idlers, parasites, toadies, club-frequenters
+and diners-out are there in the
+masks of court-fools, and buffoons. The
+working man, the trade-unionist and the
+striker, comes marching amidst this scene
+of revelry, forcing his way through the
+ranks of consternated society, roughly
+asserting the sole nobility of labour and
+demanding the overthrow of the aristocrat
+and the capitalist&mdash;no new cry, as you see!
+Indeed it is as old as Rome and Athens
+and Babylon&mdash;as old, almost, as humanity
+itself. Then appear the Graces, symbols of
+the refinements and elegancies of life, and
+the Fates, symbolizing the powers of Order
+and Law, and the Furies, the types of revolution
+and war, and a huge elephant, the
+incorporation of the unwieldy State or
+Public, reminding one of the 'Leviathan'
+of the philosopher Hobbes, and
+Thersites (that evil-tongued mischief-maker<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+described by Homer) representing society-scandal
+and calumny. Then comes a
+chariot whose charioteer is a beautiful boy,
+representing art or poetry. He is the
+same Euphorion whom we shall meet later
+as the son of Faust and Helen, and
+identical with Byron. On the chariot is
+enthroned Faust as Plutus the God of
+Money, and behind him as groom or
+armour-bearer sits Mephisto, an emaciated
+hollow-eyed apparition denoting Avarice.
+Nymphs, Fauns, Satyrs and Gnomes&mdash;types
+of the powers of Nature&mdash;attend the
+car and do homage to the God of Money.
+The gnomes offer to show their master
+Plutus a subterranean treasure-horde of
+molten gold. He approaches too close and
+his beard catches fire. In a few moments
+an immense conflagration spreads through
+the crowds of revellers, which would have
+ended in a terrible catastrophe (such as
+had actually happened at the French court
+shortly before Goethe wrote this scene, and
+such as happened some fifteen years ago
+in Paris at some bazaar) had not Faust with
+the help of Mephistopheles extinguished the
+flames by the aid of magic.</p>
+
+<p>The young Kaiser now demands from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+Faust that he shall give the court a display
+of his magic arts. He commands him to
+raise the shades of Paris and Helen.
+Faust applies to Mephisto, but he professes
+himself unable to raise the shades of
+classical heroes and heroines. 'This heathen
+Greek folk,' he says, 'have their own hell
+and their own devils. <i>I</i> have no power
+over them. Still&mdash;there <i>is</i> a means.'
+He then tells Faust that he will have to
+descend to the 'Mothers,' 'die M&uuml;tter,'
+mysterious deities (mentioned by Greek
+authors) as worshipped in Sicily and
+dwelling in the inmost depths of the
+universe, at the very heart of Nature,
+beyond the conditions of Time and Space.
+He who will raise the shade of Helen, or
+ideal beauty, must descend first to the
+'Mothers'&mdash;must enter the realm of the
+spiritual, the unconditioned, the ideal, to
+which there is no defined road, and to
+which even <i>thought</i> cannot guide him. He
+must surrender himself in <i>contemplation</i> and
+sink to the very centre of the world of
+appearances. Mephistopheles gives Faust a
+key, which glows and emits flames as he
+grasps it. Holding this key he will sink
+down to the realm of the Mothers, where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+he will find a glowing tripod (the symbol of
+that Triad or Trinity which plays so large a
+part in the old Pythagorean philosophy and
+in more than one religion). This tripod he
+is to touch with the key, and it will rise with
+him to the surface of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial court is assembled. A
+stage has been erected. The court astrologer
+announces the play and Mephistopheles
+is installed in the prompter's box.
+All is in expectation and excitement.
+Then on the stage is seen rising from the
+ground the form of Faust attended by the
+tripod. He touches the tripod with the
+glowing key. A dense mist of incense
+arises, and as it clears away is seen&mdash;Paris.
+His appearance is greeted by the enthusiastic
+comments of the court ladies, young
+and old, and criticized by the men courtiers&mdash;with
+evident jealousy. Helen then appears,
+and the comments and criticisms are reversed,
+female jealousy now having its turn.
+Faust stands entranced at the loveliness of
+Helen. In spite of the angry protests of
+Mephistopheles from the prompter's box,
+who tells him to keep to his r&ocirc;le and not to
+be taken in by a mere phantom of his own
+raising. Faust, unable any longer to control
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>himself when Paris attempts to carry
+off Helen, rushes forward to rescue her. A
+great explosion takes place and all is
+darkness. Faust has fallen senseless to the
+ground. Mephistopheles picks him up
+and carries him away&mdash;with contemptuous
+remarks.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the next act we find
+Faust lying, still insensible, on his bed in his
+old room, where we first met him&mdash;his professor's
+study. His daring attempt to grasp
+ideal beauty has ended, as it often does end,
+and as it ended in Goethe's own case, in
+failure of a sudden and explosive nature. He
+is now to have an experience of a different
+nature. During the years while he has been
+making his first trial of the outer world, his
+old Famulus, Wagner, now professor in
+Faust's place, has been devoting <i>his</i> whole
+time and energies to realising that dream of
+science&mdash;the chemical production of life.</p>
+
+<p>It is, says Professor Romanes, 'the dream
+of modern science that a machine <i>may</i> finally
+be constructed so elaborate in its multiple
+play of forces that it would begin to show
+evidences of consciousness and mind'&mdash;mind
+and motion being, according to certain
+modern scientists, identical. Curiously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+enough a scientist of the same name&mdash;Wagner&mdash;who
+lived in the last century, did,
+like Faust's Famulus Wagner, in the same
+way devote his life to the production of a
+living organism&mdash;a 'homunculus'&mdash;in the
+conviction, as he asserted, that 'in course of
+time chemistry is bound to succeed in producing
+organic bodies and in creating a human
+being by means of crystallization'&mdash;an assertion
+not very different from that of a still more
+trustworthy scientist, for Professor Huxley
+himself has told us that he lived in 'the hope
+and the faith that in course of time we shall
+see our way from the constituents of the
+protoplasm to its properties,' <i>i.e.</i> from
+carbonic acid, water, and ammonia to that
+mysterious thing which we call vitality or
+life&mdash;from the molecular motion of the brain
+to Socratic wisdom, Shakespearean genius,
+and Christian faith, hope and charity.</p>
+
+<p>In the background of the stage we see
+Faust still lying insensible on his bed.
+Mephistopheles comes forward muttering
+sarcastic comments on Faust's foolish
+infatuation. 'He whom Helen paralyzes,' he
+says, 'doesn't come to his wits again so soon.'
+He then pulls the bell. The windows rattle
+and the walls shake, as with earthquake.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+Wagner's terrified Famulus appears. He
+says that his master, the Herr Professor, has
+locked himself up for days and nights together
+in his laboratory; that he is engaged
+in a most delicate and important operation,
+namely that of manufacturing a human
+being, and he really cannot be disturbed.
+Mephistopheles however sends him back to
+demand admittance. Meanwhile he dons
+Faust's professorial costume, which he finds
+hanging in its old place but infested with
+legions of moths, which buzz around him
+piping welcome to their old mate. Then he
+takes his seat in Faust's professorial chair,
+and the same scholar enters to whom as a
+timid 'Fuchs,' or freshman, Mephistopheles
+had in the first Part of the play given his
+diabolic advice as to the choice of a profession.
+The scholar is <i>now</i>, after a course of
+University education, a match for the devil
+himself. He flouts poor Mephisto as a dried-up
+old pedant, not up to date with the new
+generation's &aelig;sthetic and literary self-conceits,
+or with its contempt for its elders&mdash;and
+for everything else except its own precious
+self. 'Youth and its genius,' he exclaims,
+'are the only things of value; as soon as one
+is thirty years of age he's just as good as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+dead ... and it would be far better if all
+people at thirty were knocked on the head';
+and he storms out of the room. Mephistopheles
+consoles himself with the fact that the
+devil is old enough to have seen a good many
+such new generations, with all their absurdities,
+their up-to-date fads and follies, pass
+away and give place to other forms of still
+more up-to-date and self-conceited absurdity.</p>
+
+<p>Mephisto now enters the laboratory,
+where Wagner is intently engaged in watching
+his chemical compound gradually crystallizing
+within a huge glass retort. As he
+watches, the outlines of a diminutive human
+being&mdash;a mannikin or 'homunculus'&mdash;become
+visible and rapidly gain distinct form.
+A tiny voice is heard issuing from the glass
+retort and addressing Wagner as 'Daddy'
+and Mephistopheles as 'Cousin'; and it is to
+the presence of this 'Cousin,' we may infer,
+rather than to his scientific 'Daddy' that the
+Homunculus really owes his existence. With
+the connivance of Mephistopheles, the Mannikin,
+still in his glass retort, slips from the
+enamoured paternal grasp of Wagner, and
+floats through the air into the adjacent room,
+hovering above Faust, who is still asleep on
+his couch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As it hovers above the sleeper it begins to
+sing&mdash;to describe ravishing dreamland scenery&mdash;inspiring
+Faust with visions of sensuous
+loveliness. It then bids Mephistopheles
+wrap Faust in his magic mantle and prepare
+for an aerial flight.... 'Whither?' asks
+Mephistopheles. '<i>To Greece!</i>' is the
+answer: to the Pharsalian plain in Thessaly;
+and in spite of the protests of Mephistopheles
+(who has no taste for the land of classic art)
+he is forced to obey. The sleeping form of
+Faust is borne aloft, the Mannikin leading
+the way like a will-o'-the-wisp, gleaming
+within his glass retort. '<i>Und ich?</i>' exclaims
+poor old Wagner in piteous accents. '<i>Ach,
+du!</i>' says Homunculus, '<i>Du bleibst zu
+Hause&mdash;!</i>' 'You just stop at home, and grub
+away among your musty manuscripts, and
+work away at your protoplasms and your
+elixirs of life.' Thus, guided by the Homunculus,
+Faust and Mephistopheles set forth on
+their aerial journey to ancient Greece&mdash;to
+the land where the ideals of art have found
+their highest realization&mdash;in quest of Helen,
+the supreme type of all that the human mind
+has conceived as beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>It is often asked, and I think <i>we</i> may
+fairly ask, what Goethe meant to symbolize<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+by his Homunculus. You will have noticed
+that his material components (as the carbonic
+acid and ammonia of Professor
+Huxley's protoplasm) are supplied by his
+scientific 'Daddy,' but that the 'tertia vis,'
+that third power or 'spiritual bond' which
+combines his material components, is supplied
+by the supernatural presence of
+Mephistopheles. I believe this Homunculus
+to be a symbol of poetic genius or
+imagination, which uses the material supplied
+by plodding pedantry&mdash;by critical
+research, antiquarianism, scholarship, and
+science&mdash;slips from the hands of its poor
+enamoured Daddy, and flies off to the land
+of idealism. Here, as we shall see, the
+Mannikin breaks free from his glass retort
+and is poured out like phosphorescent light
+on the waves of the great ocean.</p>
+
+<p>But the quest for Helen, for ideal beauty,
+leads through scenes haunted by forms of
+weird and terrible nature&mdash;those forms in
+which the human imagination, as it gradually
+gains a sense of the supernatural and a sense
+of art, first incorporated its conceptions&mdash;forms,
+first, of hideous and terrific character:
+monstrous idols of Eastern and Egyptian
+superstition, Griffins, and Sphinxes, and bull-headed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>Molochs, and horned Astartes, and
+many-breasted Cybeles, till in the Hellenic
+race it rose to the recognition of the beautiful
+and bodied forth divinity in the human form
+divine, and found its highest ideal of beauty
+in Helen, divinely fair of women. This
+phase in Faust's development&mdash;this stage in
+his quest for beauty and truth&mdash;this delirium
+of his 'divine madness,' as Plato calls our
+ecstasy of yearning after ideal beauty, is
+symbolized by the classical <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>.
+(You remember the other <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>&mdash;that
+on the Blocksberg&mdash;which I described
+before.)</p>
+
+<p>Guided by the Mannikin, Faust and
+Mephistopheles arrive at the Pharsalian
+fields&mdash;the great plain of Thessaly, renowned
+for the battle of Pharsalus, in
+which Caesar conquered Pompey&mdash;renowned
+too as the classic ground of witches and
+wizards. Griffins, Sphinxes and Sirens meet
+them. They can tell Faust nothing about
+Helen, but they direct him to Cheiron the
+Centaur (a link, as it were, between the
+monstrous forms of barbarous oriental
+imagination and Hellenic art). Cheiron the
+Centaur has himself borne Helen on his
+back, and excites Faust's passion by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+description of her beauty. He takes Faust
+to the prophetess Manto, daughter of the
+old blind Theban prophet Teiresias, and she
+conducts him to a dark fissure&mdash;a Bocca
+dell' Inferno&mdash;at the foot of Mount Olympus,
+such as that which you may have seen in
+the Sibyl's cave on Lake Avernus; and
+here (as once Orpheus did in search of
+Eurydice) he descends to the realms of the
+dead to seek the help of Persephone, Queen
+of Hades, in his quest for Helen. Meanwhile
+Mephisto has found that in spite of
+his distaste for classic art and beauty there
+are elements in the classical witches' sabbath
+not less congenial to him than those of the
+Blocksberg with its northern and more
+modern types of devilry and bestiality.
+He is enchanted with the ghoulish vampire
+Empusa and the monster Lamia, half-snake
+half-woman, and at length finds <i>his</i> ideal
+of beauty in the loathsome and terrible
+Phorkyads, daughters of Phorkys, an old
+god of the sea. The Phorkyads are sometimes
+described as identical with, sometimes
+as sisters of, the Gorgons, and represent the
+climax of all that Greek imagination has
+created of the horrible. The three sisters
+are pictured in Greek mythology as possessing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>between them only one eye and one
+tooth, which they pass round for use. They
+dwelt in outer darkness, being too terrible
+for sun or moon to look upon. Even
+Mephistopheles is at first a little staggered
+by the sight, but he soon finds himself on
+familiar terms with them and ends by
+borrowing the form of one of them (she
+becoming for the time absorbed into her
+two sisters)&mdash;for as medieval devil he has no
+right of entr&eacute;e into that classical scene in
+which he and Faust are now to play their
+parts. It is therefore in the form of a
+Phorkyad or Gorgon that Mephisto will
+appear when we next meet him.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Homunculus has found
+congenial spirits among the sea-nymphs and
+sirens on the shores of the Aegean. He
+longs to gain freedom from his glass, in
+which he is still imprisoned. Nereus the
+sea-god is unable to help him, but sends
+him to his father Proteus, the great ocean
+prophet, who bears him out into the midst
+of the ocean. Here Galatea the sea-goddess
+(identical with Aphrodite, the sea-born
+symbol of the beauty of the natural-world)
+passes by in her chariot drawn by dolphins
+and surrounded by Nereids. The Homunculus
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>in an ecstasy of love dashes himself
+against her chariot. The glass is shattered
+and he is poured forth in a stream of phosphorescent
+light over the waves&mdash;thus being
+once more made one with Nature.</p>
+
+<p>The theory that <i>water</i> was the prime
+element, a theory advocated especially by
+the old Ionic philosopher Thales, was held
+by Goethe, who was a 'sedimentarist' in
+geological matters, and in this classical
+<i>Walpurgisnacht</i> he has introduced, much to
+the annoyance of many critics, a dispute
+between Thales and other sages on the
+question whether the formation of the world
+was due to fire or water.</p>
+
+<p>We have now reached that part of <i>Faust</i>
+which is known as the <i>Helena</i>. It was
+written before the rest of Part II, though
+doubtless when he wrote it Goethe had
+already conceived the general outline of the
+whole poem. Of the wonderful versatility
+of Goethe's genius no more striking example
+can be given than the sudden and
+complete change of scene, and not only
+scene but ideas and feelings, by which
+we are transported from the age of Luther
+and the court of a German Kaiser and
+the laboratory of a modern scientist back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>&mdash;some
+3500 years or so&mdash;to the age of
+the Trojan war.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of extravagance and grotesqueness,
+instead of the diversity, the rich
+ornamentation, the heaven-soaring pinnacles
+and spires of Gothic imagination&mdash;we
+have in the <i>Helena</i> sculpturesque
+repose, simplicity, dignity and proportion.
+It is as if we had been suddenly transported
+from some Gothic cathedral to the
+Parthenon, or to Paestum.</p>
+
+<p>I know no poet who in any modern
+language has reproduced as Goethe has
+done in his <i>Iphigenie</i> and in the <i>Helena</i>
+not only the external form but also the
+spirit of Hellenic literature. While reading
+the <i>Helena</i> we feel ourselves under the
+cloudless Grecian sky; we breathe the
+Grecian air with Helen herself.</p>
+
+<p>The scene is laid before the palace of
+Menelaus at Sparta. Helen, accompanied
+by a band of captive Trojan maidens, has
+been disembarked at the mouth of the river
+Eurotas by Menelaus, on his return from
+Troy, and has been sent forward to Sparta
+to make preparation for the arrival of her
+husband and his warriors. Once more after
+those long eventful years since she had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+fled to Troy with Paris she stands as in a
+dream before her own palace-home, dazed
+and wearied, her mind distraught with
+anxious thoughts; for during the long
+wearisome return across the Aegean sea her
+husband Menelaus has addressed no friendly
+word to her, but seemed gloomily revolving
+in his heart some deed of vengeance. She
+knows not if she is returning as queen, or as
+captive, doomed perhaps to the fate of a
+slave.</p>
+
+<p>She enters the palace alone. After a few
+moments she reappears, horror-struck and
+scarce able to tell what she has seen.
+Crouching beside the central hearth she has
+found a terrible shape&mdash;a ghastly haggard
+thing, like some phantom of hell. It has
+followed her. It stands there before her on
+the threshold of her palace. In terrible
+accents this Gorgon-like monster denounces
+her, recounting all the ruin that by her fatal
+beauty she had wrought, interweaving into
+the story the various legends connected with
+her past life&mdash;those mysterious legends that
+connect Helen not only with Paris and
+Menelaus but with Theseus and Achilles
+and with Egypt&mdash;legends of a second
+phantom-Helen, the 'double' of that Helen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+whom Menelaus has carried home from
+Troy&mdash;until alarmed and distracted, doubting
+her own identity, overwhelmed by
+anxiety about the future and by terror at
+the grisly apparition, she seems herself to be
+in truth fading away into a mere phantom,
+and sinks senseless to the ground. After a
+fierce altercation between the chorus of
+captive maidens and the Gorgon-shape (in
+whom you will have recognized our old
+friend Mephistopheles) Helen returns to
+consciousness. Then the Phorkyad-Mephistopheles
+tells her that the preparations
+which she has been ordered to make are in
+view of a sacrifice to be performed on the
+arrival of Menelaus and that she herself
+(Helen) is the destined victim.</p>
+
+<p>In despair Helen appeals to the Gorgon
+for advice, who bids her take refuge in the
+neighbouring mountains of Arcadia, where
+a robber chieftain has his stronghold. Under
+the guidance of Mephisto, who raises a thick
+mist, she and her maidens escape. They
+climb the mountain; the mists rise and
+they find themselves before the castle of a
+medieval bandit-prince, and it is Faust
+himself who comes forth to greet her and to
+welcome her as his queen and mistress.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+Faust, the symbol of the Renaissance and
+modern art, welcomes to his castle the ideal
+of Greek art and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The stately Greek measures now give way
+to the love-songs of Chivalry and Romance&mdash;to
+the measures of the Minnesinger and the
+Troubadour. Faust kneels in homage before
+the impersonation of ideal beauty, and Helen
+feels that she is <i>now</i> no longer a mere ideal,
+a mere phantom. She clings to her new,
+unknown lover, as to one who will make her
+realize her own existence. It is an allegory
+of modern art&mdash;the art of Dante, Giotto,
+Raphael, Shakespeare and Goethe&mdash;receiving
+as its queen the ideal of Greek imagination
+and inspiring, as it were, the cold statue
+with the warm vitality of a higher conception
+of chivalrous love and perfect womanhood.</p>
+
+<p>I have mentioned how the stately Greek
+measures in the <i>Helena</i> give way to the
+metres of Romance and Chivalry. Perhaps
+it may be well to explain some of these
+various metres.</p>
+
+<p>The scene opens, as you know, with
+Helen's dignified and beautiful speech:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Bewundert viel und viel gescholten Helena.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>That is the well-known <i>iambic trimeter</i>, <i>i.e.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+the metre of six feet (twelve syllables) used
+in all the speeches in Greek tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the <i>Oedipus Tyrannos</i> of Sophocles
+begins:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><span class='correction' title='O tekna, Kadmou tou palai nea troph&ecirc;'>&#x1f6e; &#964;&#8051;&#954;&#957;&#945;&#885; &#922;&#945;&#948;&#956;&#959;&#965; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#960;&#8049;&#955;&#945;&#953; &#957;&#941;&#945; &#964;&#961;&#959;&#981;&#8052;</span><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and so on. It has twelve syllables, mostly
+(iambics) as in our blank verse. But blank
+verse has only ten syllables: 'I cannot tell
+what you and other men.' If one adds two
+syllables one gets the Greek iambic verse,
+thus: 'I cannot tell what you and other
+men believe.' The Chorus in the <i>Helena</i>
+uses various rhythms such as are found in
+the choruses of Greek tragedy:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4"><i>Schweige, schweige,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Missblickende, missredende du!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Aus so gr&auml;sslichen, einzahnigen</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Lippen was enthaucht wohl</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Solchem furchtbaren Greuelschlund!</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Then Mephistopheles, as the Phorkyad, when
+Helen falls fainting, addresses her suddenly
+in another measure&mdash;a longer verse, such as
+is sometimes used by the Greek tragedians
+and comedians when something new occurs
+in the play. It is called a <i>tetrameter</i>, and
+consists of fifteen syllables (mostly &mdash;&#8746;, called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+trochees). Thus, in Greek, <span class='correction' title='oi gerontes oi palaioi memphomestha t&ecirc; polei'>&#959;&#7985; &#947;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;
+&#959;&#7985; &#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#8054; &#956;&#949;&#956;&#934;&#8004;&#956;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945; &#964;&#8135; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#953;</span>&mdash;and in German:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Tritt hervor aus fl&uuml;chtigen Wolken hohe Sonne dieses Tags&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>or the fine lines spoken by Helen:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Doch es ziemet K&ouml;niginnen, allen Menschen ziemt es wohl,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Sich zu fassen, zu ermannen, was auch drohend &uuml;berrascht.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>When Faust appears he begins to speak
+at once in modern blank verse of ten
+syllables, such as we know in Milton and
+Shakespeare and Schiller. One might have
+expected him to speak in some earlier
+romantic measure, to have used perhaps the
+metre of the old Nibelungenlied, as in</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Es ist in alten M&auml;hren wunders viel geseit,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Von Heleden lobeb&auml;ren, von grosser Arebeit,</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>which is supposed to date from about 1150;
+or in Dante's <i>terza rima</i>, of about 1300, as</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2"><i>Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But blank verse is after all the metre <i>par
+excellence</i> of the Renaissance, that is of the
+revival of Greek influence, and Goethe
+chose it for this reason.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now the Watchman Lynceus ('the keen-eyed,'
+as the word means&mdash;and you perhaps
+remember him as the watchman of the
+Argonauts on the good ship Argo) represents
+here the early pre-Renaissance poets
+of Italy and Provence and Germany&mdash;the
+Troubadours and Trouv&egrave;res and Minnesinger,
+who were so surprised and dazzled
+by the sudden sunrise of the Renaissance
+with its wonderful new apparition of Greek
+art that they (as Lynceus in <i>Faust</i>) failed
+to announce its coming; and therefore
+Lynceus here speaks in a kind of early
+Troubadour metre, with <i>rime</i>. In classical
+poetry there is no rime. They did not like
+it; they even ridiculed it. For instance
+Cicero, the great orator, once tried to write
+poetry, and produced a line that said
+'O fortunate Rome, when I was consul!'
+This was not only conceited of him but
+unfortunately the line contained a rime and
+this rime brought down an avalanche of
+ridicule on his head. 'O fortunatam natam
+me consule Romam' was this unfortunate
+line. Rime was probably first adopted by
+the monks in their medieval Latin hymns
+and was used by the Troubadours and early
+Italian poets when they began to write i<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>n
+the vulgar tongue. Dante uses it in his
+canzoni and sonnets and ballads, as well of
+course as in his great poem. So it is quite
+right to make Lynceus speak in rime.
+Helen of course has never heard rime
+before, and she turns to Faust and asks
+him what it is that sounds so strange and
+beautiful in this song of Lynceus; and she
+wants to know how <i>she</i> too can learn the art.
+So Faust tells her just to try and the rimes
+will come of their own accord. But I will
+quote the passage, for it is very pretty; and
+I will add a rough translation.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Doch w&uuml;nscht' ich Unterricht warum die Rede</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Des Manns mir seltsam klang, seltsam und freundlich&mdash;</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Ein Ton scheint sich dem and'ren zu bequemen;</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Und hat ein Wort zum Ohre sich gesellt,</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Ein andres kommt, dem ersten liebzukosen....</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>So sage denn, wie spr&auml;ch' ich auch so sch&ouml;n.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span>. <i>Das ist gar leicht&mdash;es muss vom Herzen geh'n.</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Und wenn die Brust von Sehnsucht &uuml;berfliesst</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Man sieht sich um, und fragt....</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Helen</span>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>wer mitgeniesst.</i><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span>. <i>Nun schaut der Geist nicht vorw&auml;rts, nicht zur&uuml;ck&mdash;</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Die Gegenwart allein ...</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span><span class="smcap">Helen</span>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>ist unser Gl&uuml;ck&mdash;</i><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span>. <i>Schatz ist sie, Hochgewinn, Besitz und Pfand.</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Best&auml;tigung, wer gibt sie?</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Helen</span>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Meine Hand.</i><br />
+<br />
+(<span class="smcap">Helen</span>. <i>I fain would ask thee why the watchman's song</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>So strangely sounded&mdash;strange but beautiful.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Tones seemed to link themselves in harmony.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>One word would come and nestle in the ear,</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Then came another and caressed it there.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>But say&mdash;how can I also learn the art?</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span>. <i>Quite easily&mdash;one listens to one's heart,</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And when its longings seem too great to bear</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>We look around for one ...</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Helen</span>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>our joy to share.</i><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span>. <i>Not past nor future loving hearts can bless,</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>The</i> present&mdash;</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Helen</span>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>is alone our happiness.</i><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Faust</span>. <i>Before the prize of beauty, lo I stand,</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>But who assures the prize to me?</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Helen</span>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>My hand!</i>)<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>In the midst of this life of chivalrous love
+and romance Faust and Helen pass a period
+of ecstatic bliss. But, as Goethe himself
+found, such ecstasies are only a passing phase.
+The end comes inevitably and suddenly.
+A son is born to them, Euphorion by name
+(the name of the winged son of Helen and
+Achilles, according to one legend). He is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+no common human child. As a butterfly
+from its chrysalis he bursts at once into
+fully developed existence. He is of enchanting
+beauty but wild and capricious; spurning
+the common earth he climbs ever higher
+and higher amidst the mountain crags, singing
+ravishing melodies to his lyre. He
+reaches the topmost crag and casts himself
+into the air. A flame flickers upwards, and
+the body of a beautiful youth 'in which one
+seems to recognize a well-known form' falls
+to the ground, at the feet of Faust and
+Helen.</p>
+
+<p>Euphorion symbolizes modern poetry,
+and the well-known form is that of Byron.
+For a moment the body lies there; it then
+dissolves in flame, which ascends to heaven,
+and a voice is heard calling on Helen to
+follow.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, she must follow. As flame she
+must return to her home in the Empyrean&mdash;the
+home of ideal beauty and all other
+ideals. However much we strive to realize
+ideal beauty in art or in our lives, however
+we may hold it to our hearts as a warm
+and living possession, it always escapes our
+grasp. The short-lived winged child of
+poetic inspiration gleams but for a moment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+and disappears, as a flame flickering back
+to its native empyrean. And she, the
+mother, she too must follow, leaving us
+alone to face the stern reality of life and of
+death.</p>
+
+<p>In the embrace of Faust Helen melts
+away into thin air, leaving in his arms her
+robe and veil. These change into a cloud,
+which envelops him, raises him into the air
+and bears him also away. The Phorkyad
+picks up Euphorion's lyre and mantle; he
+steps forward and addresses the audience,
+assuring them that in the leavings of poetic
+genius he has got enough to fit out any
+number of modern poets, and is open to a
+bargain. He then swells up to a gigantic
+height, removes the Gorgon-mask, and
+reveals himself as Mephistopheles once
+more the northern modern devil; and the
+curtain falls.</p>
+
+<p>When it rises for the Fourth Act we see
+a craggy mountain peak before us. A cloud
+approaches, and deposits Faust on the topmost
+crag. It lingers for a time, assuming
+wondrous shapes and then gradually melts
+away into the blue. Faust gazes at it. In
+its changing outlines he seems to discern
+first the regal forms of Olympian goddesses,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+of Juno, of Leda&mdash;then of Helen. But
+they fade away and, ere it disappears, the
+cloud assumes the likeness of that other
+half-forgotten human form which once had
+aroused in his heart that which he now feels
+to have been a love far truer and deeper than
+all his passion for ideal beauty&mdash;that 'swiftly
+felt and scarcely comprehended' love for a
+human heart which, as he now confesses to
+himself, 'had it been retained would have
+been his most precious possession.'</p>
+
+<p>A seven-league boot now passes by&mdash;followed
+in hot haste by another. Out of the
+boots steps forth Mephistopheles. He asks
+contemptuously if Faust has had enough of
+heroines and all such ideal folly. He cannot
+understand why Faust is still dissatisfied
+with life. Surely he has seen enough of its
+pleasures. He advises him, if he is weary
+of court life, to build himself a Sultan's
+palace and harem and live in retirement&mdash;as
+Tiberius did on the island of Capri.
+'Not so,' answers Faust. 'This world of
+earthly soil Still gives me room for greater
+action. I feel new strength for nobler
+toil&mdash;Toil that at length shall bring me
+satisfaction.'</p>
+
+<p>He has determined to devote the rest of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+life to humanity, to the good of the human
+race. It is a project with which Mephistopheles
+naturally has little sympathy. But
+he is forced to acquiesce, and, being bound
+to serve Faust even in this, he suggests a
+plan. The young Kaiser is at present in
+great difficulties. He is hard pressed by a
+rival Emperor&mdash;a pretender to the Imperial
+crown. Mephisto will by his magic arts
+secure the Kaiser the victory over this
+pretender, and then Faust will claim as
+recompense a tract of country bordering on
+the ocean. Here by means of canals and
+dykes, dug and built by demonic powers,
+Faust is to reclaim from the sea a large
+region of fertile country and to found a
+kind of model republic, where peace and
+prosperity and every social and political
+blessing shall find a home. The plan is
+carried out. At the summons of Mephistopheles
+appear three gigantic warriors by
+whose help the battle is won, and Faust
+gains his reward&mdash;the stretch of land on
+the shore of the ocean. And he is not the
+only gainer. The Archbishop takes the
+opportunity of extracting far more valuable
+concessions of land from the young Kaiser
+as penance for his having associated himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+with powers of darkness. The prelate even
+extracts the promise of tithes and dues from
+all the land still unclaimed by Faust. As
+Mephistopheles aptly remarks, the Church
+seems to have a good digestion.</p>
+
+<p>Many years are now supposed to elapse.
+Faust has nearly completed his task of
+expelling the sea and founding his ideal
+state. What had been a watery waste is
+now like the garden of Eden in its luxuriant
+fertility. Thousands of industrious happy
+mortals have found in this new country
+a refuge and a home. Ships, laden with
+costly wares, throng the ports. On an
+eminence overlooking the scene stands the
+castle of Faust, and not far off are a cottage
+and a chapel. On this scene the last act
+opens. A wanderer enters. He is seeking
+the cottage which once used to stand here,
+on the very brink of the ocean. It was here
+that he was shipwrecked: here, on this very
+spot, the waves had cast him ashore: here
+stands still the cottage of the poor old
+peasant and his wife who had rescued him
+from death. But now the sea is sparkling
+in the blue distance and beneath him
+spreads the new country with its waving
+cornfields. He enters the cottage and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+welcomed by the poor old couple (to whom
+Goethe has given the names Philemon and
+Baucis, the old peasant and his wife who,
+according to the Greek legend, were the
+only Phrygians who offered hospitality to
+Zeus, the King of the Gods, as he was
+wandering about in disguise among mortals).</p>
+
+<p>Faust comes out on to the garden terrace
+of his castle. He is now an old man&mdash;close
+upon a hundred years of age. He gazes
+with a feeling of happiness and satisfaction
+at the scene that lies below him&mdash;the wide
+expanse of fertile land, the harbours and
+canals filled with shipping. Suddenly the
+bell in the little chapel begins to ring for
+Vespers.</p>
+
+<p>Faust's happiness is in a moment changed
+into bitterness and anger. This cottage,
+this chapel, this little plot of land are as
+thorns in his side: they are the Naboth's
+vineyard which he covets and which alone
+interferes with his territorial rights. He
+has offered large sums of money, but the
+peasant will not give up his home.</p>
+
+<p>Mephistopheles and his helpers (the same
+three gigantic supernatural beings who took
+part in the battle) appear. Faust vents his
+anger and chagrin with regard to the peasant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+and the irritating ding-dong-dell of the
+vesper bell. He commissions Mephistopheles
+to persuade the peasant to take the money
+and to make him turn out of his wretched
+hut. Mephistopheles and his mates go to
+carry out the order. A few moments later
+flames are seen to rise from the cottage and
+chapel. Mephistopheles returns to relate
+that the peasant and the wanderer proved
+obstinate: in the scuffle the wanderer had
+been killed; the cottage had caught fire,
+and old Philemon and his wife had both
+died of terror.</p>
+
+<p>Faust turns upon Mephistopheles with
+fierce anger and curses him. 'I meant
+exchange!' he exclaims. 'I meant to <i>make
+it good with money</i>! I meant not robbery
+and murder. I curse the deed. Thou, not
+I, shalt bear the guilt.'</p>
+
+<p>Here I do not find it easy to follow
+Faust's line of argument. Fair exchange
+is certainly said to be no robbery&mdash;but this
+theory of 'making everything good with
+money' is one which the average foreigner
+is apt to attribute especially to the average
+Britisher, and it does not raise Faust in
+one's estimation. I suppose he thinks he
+is doing the poor old couple a blessing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+disguise by ejecting them out of their
+wretched hovel and presenting them with a
+sum of money of perhaps ten times its value.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly Goethe means it to be a specimen
+of the kind of mistake that well-meaning
+theoretical philanthropists are apt to commit
+with their Juggernaut of Human Progress.
+Faust is filled with great philanthropic ideas&mdash;but
+perhaps he is a little apt to ignore
+the individual. Anyhow his better self
+'meant not robbery and murder' and is
+perhaps quite justified in cursing its demonic
+companion and giving him the whole of
+the guilt.</p>
+
+<p>The scene changes. It is midnight. Faust,
+sleepless and restless, is pacing the hall in
+his castle. Outside, on the castle terrace,
+appear four phantom shapes clothed as
+women in dusky robes. They are Want,
+Guilt, Care, and Need. The four grey sisters
+make halt before the castle. In hollow,
+awe-inspiring tones they recite in turn their
+dirge-like strains: they chant of gathering
+clouds and darkness, and of their brother&mdash;Death.
+They approach the door of the
+castle hall. It is shut. Within lives a rich
+man, and none of them may enter, not even
+Guilt&mdash;none save only Care. She slips<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+through the keyhole. Faust feels her unseen
+presence.</p>
+
+<p>'Is any one here?' he asks.</p>
+
+<p>'The question demandeth <i>Yes</i>!'</p>
+
+<p>'And thou ... who art thou?'</p>
+
+<p>''Tis enough that I am here.'</p>
+
+<p>'Avaunt!'</p>
+
+<p>'I am where I should be.'</p>
+
+<p>Faust defies the phantom. She, standing
+there invisible, recites in tones like the knell
+of a passing-bell the fate of a man haunted
+by Care: how he gradually loses sight of his
+high ideals and wanders blindly amid the
+maze of worldly illusions&mdash;how he loses
+faith and joy&mdash;how he starves amidst plenty&mdash;has
+no certain aim in life&mdash;burdening himself
+and others, breathing air that chokes
+him, living a phantom life&mdash;a dead thing,
+a death-in-life&mdash;supporting himself on a hope
+that is no hope, but despair&mdash;never content,
+never resigned, never knowing what he
+should do, or what he himself wishes.</p>
+
+<p>'Accursed spectres!' exclaims Faust.
+'Thus ye ever treat the human race. From
+demons, I know, it is scarce possible to free
+oneself. But <i>thy</i> power, O Care&mdash;so great
+and so insidious though it be, I will <i>not</i>
+recognize it!'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>'So <i>feel</i> it now!' answers the phantom.
+'Throughout their whole existence men are
+mostly <i>blind</i>&mdash;So let it be at last with
+thee!'</p>
+
+<p>She approaches, breathes in Faust's face,
+and he is struck blind.</p>
+
+<p>He stands there dazed and astounded.
+Thick darkness has fallen upon him. At
+last he speaks:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Still deeper seems the night to surge around me,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>But in my inmost spirit all is light.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>I'll rest not till the finished work has crown'd me.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>God's promise&mdash;that alone doth give me might.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He hastens forth, groping his way in
+blindness, to call up his workmen. His life
+is ending and he must end his work. It is
+midnight, but the light within him makes
+him think the day has dawned. In the
+courtyard there are awaiting him Mephistopheles
+and a band of Lemurs&mdash;horrible
+skeleton-figures with shovels and torches.
+They are digging his grave. Faust mistakes
+the sound for that of his workmen,
+and incites them to labour. He orders the
+overseer, Mephistopheles, to press on with
+the work ... to finish the last great moat&mdash;or
+'Graben.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>'<i>Man spricht</i>,' answers Mephistopheles
+<i>sotto voce</i>,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>'Man spricht, wie man mir Nachricht gab,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Von keinem</i> Graben&mdash;<i>doch vom Grab.'</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is no moat, no Graben, that is now
+being dug, but a grave&mdash;a Grab.</p>
+
+<p>Standing on the very verge of his grave,
+Faust, reviewing the memories of his long
+life, feels that <i>at last</i>, though old and
+blind, with no more hopes in earthly existence,
+he has won peace and happiness in
+having worked for others and in having
+given other human beings a measure of
+independence and of that true liberty and
+happiness which are gained only by honest
+toil. He alone truly <i>possesses</i> and can <i>enjoy</i>
+who has made a thing his own by earning it.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Yes, to this thought I hold with firm persistence;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The last result of wisdom stamps it true;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>He only earns his freedom and existence</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Who daily conquers them anew.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And such a throng I fain would see&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Would stand on a free soil, with people free.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Standing there, on the very edge of his
+new-dug grave he blesses the present
+moment and bids it stay. The fatal words
+are spoken and according to the compact
+his life must end.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He sinks lifeless to the ground. The
+Lemurs lay him in the open grave.
+Mephistopheles, triumphant, looks on and
+exclaims:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>No joy could sate him, no delight suffice.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>To grasp at empty shades was his endeavour.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The latest, poorest emptiest moment&mdash;this&mdash;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Poor fool, he tried to hold it fast for ever.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Me he resisted in such vigorous wise;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>But Time is lord&mdash;and there the old man lies!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The clock stands still.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>'Stands still,' repeats a voice from heaven,
+'still, silent, as the midnight.' 'It is
+finished,' says Mephistopheles. 'Nay. 'Tis
+but past,' answers the voice. 'Past!' exclaims
+Mephistopheles; 'how <i>past</i> and yet
+not <i>finished</i>?' ... He is enraged at the
+suspicion that life, though past, may not
+be <i>finished</i>&mdash;that Faust's human soul may
+<i>yet</i> elude that hell to which he destines it ... that
+of annihilation.</p>
+
+<p>The Lemurs group themselves round the
+grave and chant with hollow voices, such as
+skeletons may be supposed to have, a funeral
+dirge. Meantime Mephistopheles is busy
+summoning his demons to keep watch over
+the dead body, lest the soul should escape like
+a mouse, or flicker up to heaven in a little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+flamelet. Hideous forms of demons, fat
+and thin, with straight and crooked horns,
+tusked like boars and with claws like
+vultures, come thronging in, while the jaw
+of hell opens itself, showing in the distance
+the fiery city of Satan.</p>
+
+<p>At this moment a celestial glory is seen
+descending from heaven and voices of
+angels are heard singing a song of triumph
+and salvation. They approach ever nearer&mdash;Mephistopheles
+rages and curses, but in
+vain. They come ever onward, casting
+before them roses, the flowers of Paradise,
+which burst in flame and scorch the demons,
+who, rushing at their angelic adversaries
+with their hellish prongs and forks and
+launching vainly their missiles of hell-fire,
+are hurled back by an invisible power and
+gradually driven off the stage, plunging in
+hideous ruin and combustion down headlong
+into the jaws of hell.</p>
+
+<p>Mephistopheles alone remains, foaming
+in impotent rage. He is surrounded by
+the choir of white-robed angels. He
+stands powerless there, while they gather
+to themselves Faust's immortal part and
+ascend amidst songs of triumph to heaven.</p>
+
+<p>Some of us, perhaps most of us&mdash;in certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+moods at least&mdash;feel inclined to close the
+book here, as we do with <i>Hamlet</i> at the
+words 'the rest is silence.' And this feeling
+is all the stronger when we have
+witnessed the stage decorator's pasteboard
+heaven, where Apostles and Fathers are
+posed artistically in rather perilous situations
+amid rocks and pine-trees, or balance
+themselves with evident anxiety mid-air
+on pendent platforms representing clouds.
+Altogether this stage-heaven is a very
+uncomfortable and depressing kind of
+place.</p>
+
+<p>But when read in Goethe's poem and
+regarded as an allegorical vision the scene
+has a certain impressive grandeur, and some
+of the hymns of adoration and triumph are
+of exceeding beauty.</p>
+
+<p>This Scene in Heaven opens with the
+songs of the three great Fathers, the Pater
+Ecstaticus, Pater Profundus, and Pater
+Seraphicus, symbolizing the three stages
+of human aspiration, namely ecstasy,
+contemplation and seraphic love. The
+Seraphic Father is of course St. Francis of
+Assisi. In heaven, as he did on earth, he
+sings of the revelation of Eternal Love.</p>
+
+<p>Angels are now seen ascending and bearing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>Faust's immortal part, and as they rise
+they sing:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>The noble spirit now is free</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>And saved from evil scheming.</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Whoe'er aspires unweariedly</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Is not beyond redeeming,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>And if he feels the grace of Love</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>That from on high is given</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>The blessed hosts that wait above</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Shall welcome him to heaven.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>His yet unawakened soul is greeted by the
+heavenly choirs and by the three penitents,
+the Magdalene, the woman of Samaria and
+St. Mary of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Then appears 'timidly stealing forth'
+the glorified form of her who on earth was
+called Gretchen. In words that remind one
+of her former prayer of remorse and despair
+in the Cathedral she offers her petition to the
+Virgin:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2"><i>O Mary, hear me!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>From realms supernal</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Of light eternal</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Incline thy countenance upon my bliss!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>My loved, my lover,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>His trials over</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>In yonder world, returns to me in this.</i><br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>The Virgin in her glory appears. She
+addresses Gretchen:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Come, raise thyself to higher spheres!</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>For he will follow when he feels thee near.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Gretchen soars up to the higher heaven,
+and the soul of Faust, now awakening to
+consciousness, rises also heavenward following
+her, while the chorus of angels sings, in
+words the beauty and power of which I
+dare not mar by translation, telling how all
+things earthly are but a vision, and how in
+heaven the imperfect is made perfect and
+the inconceivable wins attainment, and how
+that which leads us upward and heavenward
+is immortal love.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Alles Verg&auml;ngliche</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Ist nur ein Gleichnis;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Das Unzul&auml;ngliche,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Hier wird's Ereignis;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Das Unbeschreibliche,</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Hier ist's getan;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Das Ewig-weibliche</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Zieht uns hinan.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='transnote'>
+<a name="tnote" id="tnote"></a><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_15">15</a>: Full stop added after "dishes"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_117">117</a>: "happended" amended to "happened"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_128">128</a>: closing quote mark added after 'double'</p>
+
+<p>Hyphenation has generally been standardized. However, when
+hyphenated and unhyphenated versions of a word each occur
+an equal number of times, both versions have been retained
+(out-rivalling/outrivalling; up to date/up-to-date).</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust', by 
+H. B. Cotterill
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+Project Gutenberg's The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust', by H. B. Cotterill
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust'
+
+Author: H. B. Cotterill
+
+Release Date: June 9, 2008 [EBook #25732]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAUST-LEGEND AND GOETHE'S FAUST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, Henry Craig and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                                        |
+  |                                                            |
+  | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in        |
+  | this text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of   |
+  | this document.                                             |
+  | The symbol for a trochee on page 134 is shown like this:   |
+  | - U                                                        |
+  | Text printed using the Greek alphabet in the original book |
+  | is shown as follows: [Greek: logos]                        |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAUST-LEGEND
+AND GOETHE'S 'FAUST'
+
+BY
+
+H. B. COTTERILL
+
+EDITOR OF GOETHE'S 'IPHIGENIE'
+SCHILLER'S 'LAGER' 'REFLECTIONS
+FROM THE NIBELUNGENLIED' DANTE'S
+'INFERNO' ETC.
+
+LONDON
+GEORGE G. HARRAP & COMPANY
+9 PORTSMOUTH STREET KINGSWAY W.C.
+1912
+
+BALLANTYNE & COMPANY, LTD.
+TAVISTOCK STREET, COVENT GARDEN
+LONDON
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+These lectures have been given perhaps half a dozen times, in England,
+in Switzerland and in Germany. On allowing them to appear in print I
+should perhaps apologize to my readers for the somewhat free and
+familiar style in which parts of them are written; but even if I had the
+time to recast them into a more serious form I should be unwilling to do
+so, for there is surely enough ponderous literature on the subject, and
+although some may resent in a book what often helps to make a lecture
+attractive, I think I can rely on the fact that many people agree with
+the dictum of Horace:
+
+                       Ridiculum aeri
+    Fortius et melius magnas plerumque secat res,
+
+or, as Milton has it:
+
+                   Joking decides great things
+    Stronger and better oft than earnest can.
+
+Almost the only change that I have made in my MS. has been the
+substitution or addition of an English translation in numerous places
+where I had formerly quoted the German original. On some occasions, when
+first writing the lectures, I very probably used the English version of
+_Faust_ by Bayard Taylor, but I have not the book at present at hand and
+cannot feel quite certain whether any of the verse translations are not
+my own. The little book makes of course no pretence to be a contribution
+to critical or biographical literature. It is meant especially for those
+who wish to know something more about the story of Faust and about
+Goethe's play, and who, because their knowledge of German does not
+suffice or for other reasons, are unable to study the subject in any
+more satisfactory way.
+
+H. B. C.
+
+FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
+_August 1912_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                               PAGE
+
+THE OLD FAUST LEGEND                              9
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST' (PART I.)                       56
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST' (PART II.)                     109
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE OLD FAUST-LEGEND
+
+
+All of us have probably experienced the fact that it is possible to have
+been familiar for a long time with some great work of imagination--some
+poem or picture--to have learnt to love it almost as if it were a living
+person, to imagine that we understand it and appreciate it fully, even
+to fancy that it has a special message, a deeper meaning, for us than
+for almost any one else, and then to come across somebody--some
+commentator perhaps--who informs us that our uncritical appreciation is
+quite worthless, mere shallow sentiment, and that until we can
+accurately analyze and formulate the Idea which the artist endeavoured
+to incorporate in his work, and classify the diverse manifestations of
+this Idea as subjective, objective, symbolical, allegorical,
+dramatical-psychological or psychological-dramatical, we are not
+entitled to hold, far less to express, any opinion on the subject.
+
+When I realised that I had undertaken to lecture on _Faust_, I thought
+it my duty to study Goethe's German commentators--some of them at least;
+for to study all would consume a lifetime. A few of the works of these
+commentators I already possessed--some, I am sorry to say, with their
+pages yet uncut. Others I procured, following the advice of German
+friends well versed in the matter. I set to work on what was presumably
+the best of these commentaries. As I laboured onwards, page after page,
+I found myself from time to time turning back to the title of the book.
+Sure enough, it was _Ueber Goethe's Faust_. I laboured on--the suspicion
+deepening at every turn of the page that perhaps the binder might have
+bound up the wrong text under the title _Ueber Goethe's Faust_. At the
+fifty-third page I came to a dead stop. Except quite incidentally
+neither Goethe nor Faust had as yet been mentioned. These fifty-three
+pages had been entirely devoted to what seemed to my rather
+unmetaphysical mind a not very luminous or edifying dissertation on the
+difference between _Ansicht_ and _Einsicht_--between mere Opinion and
+true critical Insight; and, as far as I could discover, the only
+conclusion as yet arrived at was that the writer possessed an exclusive
+monopoly in the last-mentioned article.
+
+But I will not inflict upon you any further description of my tusslings
+with Teutonic interpreters of _Faust_--with their _egos_ and _non-egos_,
+their moral-aesthetic symbolisms and so on. Let us leave them to the
+tender mercies of Goethe himself, who was not sparing of his ridicule in
+regard to his commentators, nor, alas, at times in regard to his
+countrymen. 'Of all nations,' he says, 'the Germans understand me
+least.... Such people make life a burden by their abstruse thoughts and
+their _Ideas_, which they hunt up in all directions and insist on
+discovering in everything.... They come and ask _me_ what "Ideas" _I_
+have incorporated in my _Faust_. Just as if I myself knew!--or could
+describe it, even if I did know!' Of course Goethe's great poem contains
+an Idea, if by that word we mean in a poem what we mean by _life_ in
+anything living; but it is not by dissection and analysis that we shall
+discover it. 'He who wishes,' says Goethe in _Faust_, 'to examine and
+describe anything living first does his best to expel the life. Then he
+has got the dead parts in his hand; but what is wanting is just the
+spiritual bond.' It is my purpose--a purpose not easy of fulfilment--to
+avoid this method of dissection and to place before you living
+realities, not anatomical specimens.
+
+But before we plunge _in medias res_ and grapple our present subject,
+namely the old Faust-legend, I should like to say just a few words in
+order to show from what standpoint I think we should regard Goethe as a
+poet and a thinker--for that he is great both as a poet and as a thinker
+cannot be denied.
+
+Goethe describes his own philosophy as the philosophy of action. He
+believed in impulse, in inspiration, in action, rather than in
+reflexion, analysis and logic. 'Reflect not!' he makes Iphigenie
+exclaim--'Reflect not! Grant freely, as thou feel'st!' And in one of his
+Epigrams he says:
+
+    Yes, that's the right way,
+    When we cannot say
+    How we think. True thought
+    Comes as a gift, unsought.
+
+Such theory of inspiration is thoroughly Greek, reminding one of
+Plato's 'muse-inspired madman' and of what Sophocles is related to have
+said to Aeschylus; 'Thou, Aeschylus, always dost the right thing--but
+unconsciously ([Greek: all' ouk eidos ge]).' Thus it was also with
+Goethe. All intellectual hobbies and shibboleths, all this endless
+wearisome discussion and dissection and analysis and criticism and
+bandying about of _opinion_, which is the very life-breath of modern
+intellectual existence and modern journalistic literature, Goethe
+rejected, as Plato had done in his _Phaedrus_, where he makes Socrates
+call such things 'rotten soul-fodder.'
+
+'The whole! The whole!' was Goethe's frequent exclamation--'life!
+action! being!--the living whole, not the dead parts!' He was for ever
+decrying mere thought, mere intellect, mere cleverness. And yet of all
+moderns what greater intellect, what greater thinker, can we name than
+Goethe himself? Seldom, perhaps never, has there existed a mortal so
+many-sided. 'In such manifold directions'--he wrote to his friend
+Jacobi--'does my nature move, that I cannot be satisfied with _one_
+single mode of thought. As poet and artist I am polytheist; as a
+student of Nature I am pantheist. When I need a God for my personal
+nature, as a moral and spiritual human being, He also exists for me.
+Heaven and earth are such an immense realm that it can only be grasped
+by the collective intelligence of all intelligent beings.' Such
+'collective intelligence' Goethe perhaps more nearly possessed than any
+other human being has done. The lordly pleasure-house which he built for
+his soul was such as Tennyson describes (and his words refer of course
+to Goethe):
+
+    Full of great rooms and small the palace stood,
+      All various, each a perfect whole
+    From living Nature, fit for every mood
+      And change of my still soul.
+
+And wonderfully true are those other lines of Tennyson--but rather
+bitter, as perhaps was to be expected of Tennyson when he was describing
+a great character with which he had so little sympathy:
+
+    I take possession of man's mind and deed.
+      I care not what the sects may brawl.
+    I sit as God holding no form of creed,
+      But contemplating all.
+
+To Goethe all things, both in Nature and in Art were but transitory
+reflexions of the real and eternal. 'Alles vergaengliche ist nur ein
+Gleichnis'--all things transitory are but a parable, an allegory of
+truth and reality--such are some of the last words of his great Poem;
+and thus too he regarded his own poetry. 'I have,' he said, 'always
+regarded all that I have produced as merely symbolic, and I did not much
+care whether what I made were pots or dishes.' Even that life-poem of
+his, _Faust_, which he planned and began as a young man of about
+twenty-five, and the last lines of which he wrote a few months before
+his death, aged eighty-two, only represents (as indeed do all great
+works of art) _one_ aspect of belief--or perhaps I should rather say a
+certain number of truth's innumerable aspects, none of them claiming to
+afford a full vision, and not a few of them apparently contradictory;
+for, as both Plato and Shakespeare tell us, truth cannot be directly
+stated: it lies, as it were, in equipoise between contradictory
+statements:
+
+    For no thought is contented. The better sort,
+    As thoughts of things divine ... do set the word
+    Against the word.
+
+_Faust_ does not claim to be a universal Gospel, nor to offer a final
+solution of the riddle of existence. It makes no attempt to pile up
+Pelions on Ossas--to scale heaven with the Babel-towers of the human
+reason. It merely holds up a mirror in which we see reflected certain
+views of truth, such as presented themselves to Goethe from some of his
+intellectual heights. To regard it and judge it otherwise--to analyse
+its Idea--to insist on discovering its Moral--to compare it with some
+little self-contained system of theory or dogma which we ourselves may
+have finally accepted--and to condemn Goethe as a prophet of lies
+because, viewing truth from such diverse standpoints (many of them
+perhaps quite inaccessible for us) he may seem at times to ignore some
+of our pet formulae--this, I think, would convict us of a lamentable lack
+of wisdom and humility. And if at times we feel pained by what may seem
+irreverent, let us remember that Goethe wrote also these words: 'With
+many people who have God constantly on their tongues He becomes a
+phrase, a mere name uttered without any accompanying idea. If they were
+penetrated by God's greatness, they would rather be dumb and for very
+reverence not dare to name Him.'
+
+Goethe accepted not without a certain amount of pride the title given
+him by some of his contemporaries--that of 'the last of the Heathen.'
+But which of us will doubt the sincerity or fail to be touched by the
+humility of his words: 'And yet perhaps I am such a Christian as Christ
+Himself would wish me to be.'
+
+There are doubtless but very few (and I confess that I am not one of
+these select few) who can accept Goethe in all his many-sidedness. We
+ordinary mortals are incapable of such Protean versatility and are sure
+to find points, often many and important points, where we are strongly
+repelled by his teachings and his personality. The idealist is
+scandalized by his vigorous realism, the realist and materialist by his
+idealism, the dogmatist by his free thought, the free-thinker by his
+reverence towards religion, while the scientific expert is apt to regard
+him as a mere poet, oblivious or ignorant of the fact that, although
+without scientific training, besides propounding theories on Colour
+which were for a time accepted by leading authorities on that subject
+and besides making a discovery which had escaped the investigations of
+professional Anatomists (that of the intermaxillary bone), Goethe was
+the discoverer of a law, that of the metamorphosis of leaves and
+flowers, which may be said to have almost revolutionised the science of
+Botany.
+
+Let us now turn to our subject and attempt to trace to its first sources
+this strange and suggestive legend of Faust, the great Magician.
+
+And first, we shall see our way more clearly if we consider what is
+really the nature of that magic, or black art, which played such an
+important part in the medieval imagination.
+
+Perhaps we may say that by 'magic' was denoted that art by which one was
+supposed to gain a knowledge of, and a power over, the prime elements of
+Nature and its cosmic potencies, so as to be able to combine and use
+them independently of natural laws. It is this power that Faust in
+Goethe's play longs to attain:
+
+                  ... To find the force
+    That binds the world and guides its course,
+    Its germs and vital powers explore
+    And peddle with worthless words no more.
+
+In almost every age and nation we find a vital Power, an ordering
+Force, recognised as present in the natural world, and the human mind
+seems ever prone to believe such Power to have affinity to human nature
+and to be, so to speak, open to a bargain. The fetish priest, the rain
+doctor, the medicine-man, the Hindu yogi, the Persian Mage, the medieval
+saint, and countless miracle-workers in every age, have ever believed
+themselves to be, whether by force of will, or by ecstatic
+contemplation, or by potent charms, in communion with the great Spirit
+of Nature, or with mighty cosmic influences--with Powers of Light or of
+Darkness; with Oromasdes or Arimanes, Brahma or Siva, Jehovah or Baal;
+with Zoroastrian Devs, Persian Genii, guardian angels or attendant
+demons; with the Virgin Queen of heaven--whether as Selene, Astarte,
+Hecate, or the Madonna; with the Prince of the powers of this
+world--with or without his horns and his cloven foot.
+
+Not only among the heathen--the orientals and Egyptians--but also among
+the Chosen People we find the priests attesting their favour with the
+Deity, and asserting the truth of their religion, by what we may call
+orthodox magic. We all remember how Aaron's rod, in the form of an
+orthodox snake, swallowed up the unorthodox rod-snakes of the Egyptian
+sorcerers, and how Elijah attested the power of the true God by calling
+down fire from heaven in his contest with the priests of the Sun-god
+Baal. King Solomon too was for many ages credited with magic powers and
+was regarded in medieval times as the great authority in matters of
+wizardry.
+
+Among the Greeks, although mysteries and witches played no small part in
+the old religion and survived long in popular superstition, magic was
+thrust into the background by the poetic and philosophic Hellenic
+imagination. The powers of Nature were incorporated in the grand and
+beautiful human forms of the Olympian gods, or in the dread shapes of
+the Infernal deities. But even among those of the Greeks who were raised
+far above the ordinary superstitions of the populace we find many traces
+of mysticism and magic, as for example in connexion with oracles, with
+divine healing, with the efficacy of images and other sacred objects,
+and especially in connexion with Orphic and other Mysteries. And, while
+for the most part Greek philosophy was rather imaginative than mystic,
+still we encounter the genuine mystic element in such Greek sages as
+Empedocles and Pythagoras, both of whom assumed the priestly character
+and seem to have laid claim to supernatural powers. Empedocles indeed,
+it is said, gave himself out to be a deity exiled from heaven, and was
+apparently worshipped as such. According to a not very trustworthy
+legend he threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna--perhaps in order
+thus to solve the mystery of existence. Pythagoras is said by some to
+have met his death at the hands of the people of Crotona, who set fire
+to his house and burnt him alive with many of his disciples. Goethe
+evidently alludes to Pythagoras (as well perhaps as to John Huss and
+others who found their death at the stake) in some well-known lines,
+which may be roughly thus translated:
+
+    The few that truth's deep mystery have learned
+      And could not keep it in their hearts concealed,
+      But to the mob their inner faith revealed,
+    Have evermore been crucified and burned.
+
+We now come to Christianity. In the early ages of the Church the final
+appeal seems to have been an appeal to miracles, and we find the
+apostles and their followers claiming the sole right of working miracles
+in the name of the one true God and anathematizing all other
+wonder-workers as in league with Satan. We all remember Elymas the
+Sorcerer struck blind by St. Paul, and the adversary of St. Peter, Simon
+the Mage, around whom first gathered the myths which lived so long in
+the popular imagination and many of which we shall meet with in the
+legend of Dr. Faust.
+
+This Simon, the Magus or Sorcerer, who bewitched the people of Samaria,
+and was looked upon as 'the great power of God,' is said in the _Acts of
+the Apostles_ to have been converted by St. Philip and to have brought
+upon himself a severe rebuke from St. Peter for offering to purchase
+with money the gift of wonder-working. In about the third century the
+legend of Simon Magus, as related by Clement of Alexandria, seems to
+have already incorporated in a mythical form the discords of the early
+Church, and especially the feud between the Jewish Christians, followers
+of St. Peter, and the Gentile proselytes, followers of St. Paul. Indeed
+Simon the Sorcerer was in course of time regarded by some as having been
+identical with St. Paul--that is to say, it was believed that St. Paul
+had been none other but Simon Magus in disguise. The voice heard at St.
+Paul's conversion and the light by which for a season he was struck
+blind were alleged to have been feats of wizardry by which he, a wolf in
+sheep's clothing, stole his way into the true fold in order to introduce
+discord and to betray the Church to the Gentiles.
+
+St. Peter, the true Simon, is said to have followed the false Simon from
+city to city, out-rivalling his Satanic miracles by orthodox miracles,
+until at length they reached Rome. Here Simon Magus by his magic arts
+succeeded in flying up into the sky in the presence of the Emperor and
+his court, but at the word of Peter the charm was broken and the wizard
+fell to earth and was killed.
+
+But, besides this, the so-called Gnostic heresy introduced other
+elements into the legend. These Gnostics were a sect that arose in the
+early times of Christianity. They pretended to a special insight into
+the divine nature, and combined Platonic and oriental theories with
+Christian dogmas. They tried to convert the story of the Redemption into
+a cosmological myth, and regarded the human person of Christ as a kind
+of phantom--a magic apparition. Some of these Gnostics seem to have
+accepted Simon Magus as the 'Power of God'--as the Logos, or divine
+Reason, by which the world was created (or reduced from chaos to an
+ordered Cosmos). From this a curious myth arose. This Logos, or creative
+Power, was identified with the Sun-god, as the source of life, and as
+Sun-god was united to the Moon-goddess, Selene. Now the words Helen and
+Selene are connected in Greek, and Helen of Troy was accepted by these
+Gnostics as a mythical form of the goddess of the moon. Hence it came
+that in the Gnostic form of the Simon Magus legend he was married to
+Helen of Troy, and this notion found its way into the old Faust-legend,
+and is used by Goethe in that exceedingly wonderful and beautiful part
+of his great poem which is called the _Helena_.
+
+After the suppression of Gnostic and other early heresies came the
+contest of the now united and politically powerful Church against the
+outer world of heathendom. While retaining for herself what we may call
+a monopoly in orthodox magic the Church condemned as in league with the
+devil _all_ speculation, whether theological or scientific--the one as
+leading to heresy, the other to sensual ends, such as riches, fame, and
+those lusts of the flesh and that pride of intellect which were fatal to
+the contemplative and ascetic ideals of medieval Christianity.
+
+It was not among Teuton and Celtic savages but among the learned
+adherents of the old Greek philosophy that the Church in those earlier
+days found her most dangerous and obstinate adversaries. Plato and
+Aristotle (whose tenets the Christian Schoolmen afterwards endeavoured
+to harmonize with the teaching of the Gospel) were at first brought
+forward to oppose the new religion, these doctrines of Greek philosophy
+being largely supplemented by mystic ideas derived from oriental
+sources. It was however Pythagoras, the great Greek-Italian philosopher
+of the sixth century B.C., the predecessor and to some extent the
+inspirer of Socrates and Plato, who was most generally accepted as the
+rival of St. Paul. It was his mystical doctrines of Number and Harmony,
+of the Unit and the Triad, which were most often marshalled against the
+Christian doctrine of the Unity and Trinity of the Godhead. Indeed it
+even seems that Pythagoras was believed by some of these adversaries of
+Christianity to be the incarnation of Deity (as had been believed in his
+lifetime) and to be the friend and saviour of mankind, like Prometheus
+of old, who was said to have given his life for the human race devoted
+to destruction by the anger of an offended God.
+
+No wonder that, embittered by such opponents, the Church launched her
+anathema against all the profane learning of the day--all study of the
+ancient heathen philosophers and poets. The gods of Olympus became
+synonymous with demons and monsters of the Christian hell, as we see in
+Dante and in such old legends as that of the Hill of Venus. Plato and
+Aristotle, and even Homer, were put on the index. Virgil especially was
+regarded as a dangerous wizard--although in another age he was honoured
+almost as a prophet and a foreteller of the Messiah. I remember that
+many years ago, when I was searching for Virgil's tomb on Posilipo near
+Naples, I was informed by a contadino, of whom I had asked my way, that
+Virgil ('Marone,' as he called him) was a great magician. The man knew
+nothing of Virgil as poet. Probably Virgil's account of the descent of
+Aeneas into the lower world, and that strange _Eclogue_ of his, the
+_Pollio_, in which possibly a Sibylline prophecy of the coming of a
+Messiah is reproduced, may have credited him with magic lore, and may
+also have invested him for a time with almost the dignity of a canonical
+Minor Prophet.
+
+Now, during these ante-Reformation ages the Roman Church claimed, as I
+have said, a monopoly in orthodox magic. She could send a soul to hell,
+or by rites and exorcism she could save the sinner from his compact with
+Satan, as one sees in such legends as those of Merlin, of Tannhaeuser, of
+Robert the Devil, and of that Theophilus who was converted by flowers
+sent him from Paradise by the Virgin-Martyr St. Dorothea. Of another
+Theophilus, an eastern monk of perhaps the sixth century, we are told
+that, like Faust, he made a written compact with the devil, but
+repented and was saved by the Virgin Mary, who snatched the fatal
+document from the devil's claws and gave it back to the penitent.
+
+But there is one early example of the wizard-legend where the magician
+is saved from his pact with Satan not so much by the counter-charms of
+the Church as by the purity and steadfastness of Christian maidenhood,
+and for this reason I think the poet Shelley is right in regarding this
+legend as 'the true germ of Goethe's _Faust_.' It is the story of
+Cyprian and Justina, who were among the many victims of the persecution
+of the Christians by Diocletian, about 300 A.D. Cyprian was a sorcerer
+of Antioch whose diabolical arts failed to overcome the sanctity of
+Justina. He confessed himself conquered and withdrew into the desert as
+a Christian hermit. The story has been dramatized by the Spanish poet
+Calderon in his _Magico Prodigioso_, a part of which has been finely
+translated by Shelley. The beautiful picture of St. Justina by Moretto,
+where Cyprian is kneeling before her and a white unicorn, the symbol of
+chastity, is crouching in the foreground, is well known.
+
+With the Reformation another spirit arose and legends took a different
+form. In the Protestant world the orthodox magic of the Roman Church
+lost its saving power and was regarded as no less diabolic than all
+other black art. He was irretrievably lost who had once given over his
+soul to magic and the devil (and the devil was at this time, as we know,
+a very real personage--real enough to have an inkpot hurled at his head
+by Luther). The revival at the Renaissance of speculation and research,
+combined as it was with all kinds of fantastic hopes of discovering
+prime matter, the 'Philosopher's stone,' and elixirs of life, bred in
+the popular superstition a mysterious awe and attached to almost all
+scientific investigation the epithet 'black,' or diabolic, as opposed to
+the 'white art' of holding communion with good spirits. Alchemy and
+astrology (words meaning merely what we call chemistry and astronomy)
+became words of hellish import, and he who practised these arts was in
+league with Satan. Thus were regarded such men as Lully, Roger Bacon,
+the Abbot Tritheim, and (perhaps best known of all, at least to all
+readers of Browning) Bombastes Paracelsus, the contemporary of Faust,
+born at Einsiedeln, between Brunnen and the lake of Zuerich, in the year
+1493.
+
+Thus the sixteenth-century form of our legend is of the most tragic
+character. In the oldest Faust-legend, which first took shape in this
+century, there is no hint of his being saved. And another of its
+characteristics is its strong anti-papal tendency. The devil appears in
+the guise of a monk, and even as Mahomet or Antichrist in the guise of
+the Pope himself.
+
+But the Renaissance (if not the Reformation) introduced another,
+entirely new and most important, element into the legend--one which
+enabled Goethe to use the sulphurous old myth as the subject for a great
+poem. Not only was there a renaissance of learning, but also of art--an
+intense longing for both Knowledge and Beauty. To _know_ everything--to
+learn the inner secret of Nature--to understand, as Faust longed to
+understand,
+
+                      The inmost force
+    That binds the world and guides its course--
+
+this yearning after perfection by Knowledge was one of the fruits of the
+Renaissance. The other was the yearning to gain perfection by means of
+_feeling_, by the ecstatic contemplation of and communion with perfect
+Beauty--'to love infinitely and be loved,' as Aprile says in Browning's
+_Paracelsus_. These two impulses, the one toward Knowledge and the other
+toward Love, were doubtless awakened by the study of Aristotle, that
+'master of those who know,' and of Plato's doctrine of the soul's
+love-inspired yearnings for Truth and Beauty and for communion with the
+Perfect and the Eternal.
+
+I have called them _two_ impulses, and to the mind they must ever appear
+distinct, nay sometimes contrary; but I need not remind you how
+Christianity teaches us to reconcile the ancient feud between the mind
+and the heart--between Knowledge and Love. You may perhaps remember how
+Dante, to intimate to us that there can be no true knowledge without
+love and no true love without knowledge, speaks of the Cherubim and the
+Seraphim as ideally the same, and tells us that the Seraphs, who love
+most, also know most.
+
+Both these impulses are noble and awaken our sympathy.
+
+Now, in order that _tragic_ art may have its effect it must possess what
+Aristotle calls [Greek: pathos], so that we may be able to sympathize
+with the sufferer. Thus, for instance, Milton enlists our sympathies
+even with his Satan, and it is perhaps because we cannot sympathize in
+any way with Dante's Lucifer that many feel repelled by the terrible
+creation. But even in the oldest of the Faust-legends, and far more of
+course in Goethe's _Faust_, we are attracted by a 'pathetic' element,
+viz., the unsatisfied and insatiable longing of a human soul for
+Knowledge--for Truth--and its still intenser yearnings after ideal
+Beauty.
+
+Thus, even the Faust of the older sixteenth-century legend, although he
+ultimately falls a victim to the devil, has noble and high impulses by
+which we feel strongly attracted. He is lost, not through these
+impulses, these yearnings for knowledge, but through his magic, and his
+sensual life. In spite of more than one fit of remorse he is unable to
+free himself from the lusts of the flesh; he is obliged to sign a second
+bond with Mephisto and is dragged down ever lower into the abyss, until
+the jaws of hell open and swallow him up--while the Faust of Goethe's
+poem gains strength through many an error and many a grievous fall,
+gradually shakes off the diabolic influence and rising on the
+stepping-stones of his dead self is finally rescued by God's mercy and
+reaches the higher spheres of another life.
+
+How infinitely grander--how illimitable in its vistas--the subject
+becomes when thus treated by a great poet we all must feel. And even if
+we cannot with a whole heart accept as a true Gospel what (in spite of
+Goethe's admission that God's mercy was a necessary factor) seems to be
+a gospel of _self-salvation_, we should not forget that this picture of
+a man pressing on in his own strength amidst the lusts of the flesh and
+the errors of the mind is perhaps the noblest and grandest kind of
+picture that dramatic art can offer us--that of the human will in its
+struggle against destiny. In any case, I think, we cannot refuse our
+sympathy for these yearnings and searchings for truth amidst error. Do
+you remember what Lessing said about such longings? 'If God'--he
+said--'should hold Truth itself in His right hand, and in His left the
+longing for Truth, and should say to me _Choose!_ I would humbly fall
+down before His left hand and say: _Father, pure Truth is for Thee
+alone. Give me the longing for Truth, though it be attended with
+never-ending error._'
+
+There seems no doubt that a man named Johann Faust, renowned for his
+learning and credited with magical powers, actually did exist--probably
+about 1490 to 1540. (He was therefore a contemporary of Paracelsus, and
+also of Luther, Charles V., Henry VIII. and Raphael.) Several notices of
+this Dr. Johann Faust occur in writers of the period. One of the most
+circumstantial is by the friend and biographer of Melanchthon, who
+himself seems to have met Faust. But the various myths that gathered
+round the magician were, it seems, first published in a continuous
+narrative in 1587, that is about fifty years after his death. This is
+the old _Frankfurter Faustbuch_, of which only one perfect specimen is
+now known to exist. It is, I believe, in Leipzig. A mutilated copy is in
+the Vienna Library.
+
+One day, when to escape for a time from the German commentators above
+mentioned I had gone out for a walk, I found my way to the old
+Wasserkirche--now the Free Library of the city of Zuerich, and here I
+discovered a facsimile reprint of this old Frankfurt Faust-book. As this
+is the oldest and most authentic basis of all later forms of the story
+and is doubtless the one which (as well as the puppet-play on the
+subject) Goethe used as the ground-plan for his poem, I perhaps cannot
+do better than give a brief abstract of its contents.
+
+It is written in quaint old German and is interspersed with many pious
+comments, biblical quotations and Latin words and phrases, and now and
+then it breaks out into doggerel verse. The editor (Spiess by name)
+tells us that he publishes the book 'as a warning to all Christians and
+sensible people to avoid the terrible example of Doctor Faustus.' He
+evidently takes the thing very seriously and has purposely (as he says)
+omitted all 'magic formulae,' lest 'any should by this Historia be
+incited to inquisitiveness and imitation.' Johann Faust, according to
+this version, was born at Roda, a village near Weimar. (Other versions
+say at Knittlingen in Wuertemberg.) His parents were honest God-fearing
+peasants. His great abilities induced a rich relation in Wittenberg to
+adopt and educate him. He studied theology at Wittenberg (known to us
+all through Hamlet and Luther) and also at Cracow, outrivalling all
+competitors and gaining the title of Doctor of Theology. But he had not
+only a 'teachable and quick' but also a 'foolish, silly, inquisitive'
+head, and neglecting the Bible became a 'Speculator' and prided himself
+more on being an Astrologus and a Mathematicus than a Theologus. As the
+old chronicler expresses it, he 'took to himself eagle's wings and
+desired to search out the reasons of all in heaven and on earth.'
+
+He now takes to 'Zauberei'--magic. Where four roads meet in the Spessart
+Wald, a forest near Wittenberg, he inscribes mystic circles and performs
+incantations for the purpose of summoning the devil. After all kinds of
+fearful apparitions and noises, by which Faust is almost terrified to
+death, a demon appears in the shape of a 'grey monk.' Faust invites him
+to visit him at his house in Wittenberg. The demon visits him there and
+tells him of all the horrors of hell. But Faust persists in his plan and
+makes a second rendezvous with the demon, who has now procured leave
+from his lord and master Lucifer to offer his services and attendance.
+The compact is made. The demon is to serve him for twenty-four years.
+Faust is to renounce Christianity and to hate all Christians, and at the
+end of twenty-four years he is to belong to the demon 'to have power,
+rule and dominion over his soul, body, flesh, blood, and possessions,
+and that for all eternity.' This compact has to be signed with blood.
+Faust pierces his hand, and the blood flows out and forms the words 'O
+homo fuge!'--'O man, escape!'--but Faust, though alarmed, is not
+deterred. It is now agreed that the demon shall appear, whenever
+summoned, in the form of a Franciscan monk. He then reveals his name:
+Mephistopheles, or, as the old legend gives it, Meph_o_stoph_i_les--the
+meaning of which is probably 'not loving the light'--[Greek: me phos
+philon]--a compound which you may rightly remark must have been
+concocted by a rather second-rate Greek scholar.
+
+After a season of dissipation, during which Faust is supplied with all
+the luxuries that he desires--wine stolen from ducal, electoral, and
+episcopal cellars, soft and costly raiment from the draperies and
+naperies of Nuernberg and Frankfurt and so on (he had, for instance, only
+to open his window and call any bird, goose, turkey, or capon, and it
+would at once fly in, ready roasted)--getting tired of this kind of
+thing he falls in love and wishes to marry. But Mephisto angrily tells
+him that marriage is a thing pleasing to God and against the terms of
+the compact. You will notice here the Lutheran and anti-papal
+tendency--marriage being a thing pleasing to God in itself, and any
+compact being devilish which forbade it, as in the case of priests and
+monks.
+
+Then follow long discussions and disputations between Faust and Mephisto
+on the creation of the world, on hell and heaven, and on black art and
+astrology. None of us may be in a position to question a demon's
+accuracy with regard to how affairs stand in Hades, but Mephisto gives a
+very unorthodox account of the creation--or rather he denies that there
+was any creation. Matter according to his theory (and it is a theory of
+some modern scientists and not only of medieval demons)--matter is
+eternal and self-existent--uncreated, or self-created, whatever that may
+mean. Incited by these descriptions, and by his 'foolish silly
+inquisitive head,' Faust demands that he should pay a visit to both hell
+and heaven.
+
+For the journey to Hell the services of Beelzebub have to be
+requisitioned. The devilish worm, as the old writer calls Beelzebub,
+places Faust in a chair or pannier made of bones, hoists the chair on to
+his back and plunges (like Empedocles) into a volcano. Faust is nearly
+stifled to death. He sees all kinds of griffins and monsters and great
+multitudes of spirits tormented in the flames--among them emperors,
+kings and princes. Then in a deep sleep he is brought home and laid on
+his bed. 'This Historia and recount of what he saw in hell,' says the
+old chronicler, 'hath Doctor Faustus himself written down with his own
+hand, and after his death it was found lying in a sealed book.' After
+this (about ten years of the twenty-four having already elapsed) he is
+taken up to heaven by Mephisto in a chariot drawn by dragons--not of
+course to the Empyrean, the abode of God, but up as far as the fixed
+stars (the eighth sphere). He finds the sun, which before he had
+believed to be only as big as the bottom of a cask, to be far larger
+than the earth, and the planets to be as large as the earth, and the
+clouds of the upper sky to be as dense and hard as rocks of crystal.
+From these regions the earth looks as small as the 'yolk in an egg.' He
+sees all the kingdoms of the earth--Europe, Asia, and Africa (not
+America, although America was discovered by Columbus in 1492, about the
+date of Faust's birth).
+
+In the sixteenth year Faust wishes to pay a visit to the chief cities
+and countries of the world. Mephisto changes himself into a horse--'with
+wings like a dromedary.' It is, I believe, not generally supposed that a
+dromedary has wings; but I suppose the old chronicler must have confused
+a camel and an ostrich, thinking of the name which some Greek authors
+give to the ostrich, namely _stroutho-camelos_ or 'sparrow-camel.'
+
+On the back of his sparrow-camel horse Faust is carried through the air
+to many lands and cities and at length reaches Rome, and visits the
+Pope, on whom he and Mephisto (both being invisible) play various
+practical jokes, blowing in his face, snatching his food away at meals
+and so on, till the Supreme Pontiff orders all the bells in Rome to be
+rung in order to exorcise the evil spirits by whom he is haunted. At
+Constantinople they befool the Sultan with magic tricks. Mephisto
+disguises himself in the official robes of the Pope and persuades the
+Sultan that he is Mahomet (another cut at the Pope, as Antichrist),
+while Faust installs himself in the Sultan's palace and enjoys life and
+finally floats up into the air and disappears. They then visit Egypt,
+India, Africa, and other places, including the Garden of Eden and
+Britain.
+
+Britain is described (rightly perhaps) as 'very damp--abounding in water
+and in metals....' 'Here also is to be found,' adds our chronicler, 'the
+stone of God, which Doctor Faustus brought thence.' What he means by the
+stone of God is, I suppose, the so-called Philosopher's stone--used for
+the manufacture of money out of any worthless substance. Faust might
+have found a good deal of this stone of God without leaving Germany and
+seems to have left a considerable amount of it behind in Britain.
+
+Part III of the Faust-book relates his 'feats of nigromancy at the
+courts of Potentates' and elsewhere, and his 'terrible end and
+departure.' At Innsbruck, in the presence of Charles V. and his court he
+summons up the shades of Alexander the Great and his consort, I suppose
+Roxana, the beautiful Bactrian princess. You may be interested to learn
+that Alexander the Great was a 'well-built stout little man with a thick
+yellow-red beard, red cheeks, and eyes like a basilisk,' and that the
+old chronicler, quite after the fashion of the modern purveyor for
+ladies' journals, informs us that Roxana wore a dress entirely of blue
+velvet trimmed with gold pieces and pearls.
+
+The following chapters strike one as hardly in the same key with the
+rest of the book. They relate feats which remind one rather of Baron
+Muenchhausen. Faust swallows up a wagon of hay and a team of horses that
+get in his way. He makes stag-antlers grow on the head of a
+nobleman--saws off his own foot to give it as security for a loan
+borrowed from a Jew (reminding one of Shylock and his 'pound of
+flesh')--treats students to wine magically procured (as in the scene in
+Auerbach's cellar in Goethe's poem)--cuts off people's heads and sends
+them to the barber to be shaved, and then replaces them (a most useful
+invention)--makes flowers appear in vases (like modern spiritualists or
+Indian jugglers)--and lets flowers and grapes flourish in his garden at
+Christmas-time. His most important feat is summoning up (as he does in
+Goethe's poem) the shade of Helen of Troy. You will wish for a
+description of Helen--at least of her dress. She appeared in a splendid
+robe of black-purple ... her hair, of a glorious golden hue, hung down
+to her knees--she had coal-black eyes, a lovely face, and a round head,
+her lips red as cherries, with a little mouth and a neck like a white
+swan, cheeks red as a rosebud, and a tall straight figure.
+
+A fit of remorse now seizes our magician. He is visited by a pious old
+man who nearly persuades him to repent and break his bond with the
+devil. But Mephisto is too cunning for him, and induces him to sign a
+new compact with his blood, promising to procure him Helen. For (as is
+also the case in Goethe's poem) Faust himself has fallen violently in
+love with the phantom that he had raised. By the help of Mephistopheles
+Helen herself--or one of her 'doubles' which play a part in Greek
+mythology--is summoned up, and lives with Faust as his wife. (At his
+death she, and their son, Justus Faust, disappear.)
+
+In the last year he is overwhelmed with terrible despair, which is
+deepened by the mockeries of the demon. On the last evening he invites
+his friends to supper at the village Rimlich, near Wittenberg. After the
+supper, he addresses his companions in a speech of intense and pathetic
+remorse, praying that God will save his soul though his body is forfeit
+to the devil. He tells them that at the stroke of twelve the demon will
+come to fetch him. He begs them to go quietly to bed, and not to be
+alarmed if they hear a great uproar. At midnight a mighty wind sweeps
+over the house, and a terrible hissing is heard as of innumerable
+serpents. Faust's cries for help gradually die away. They rush into the
+supper room and find him torn to pieces--eyes, brains, and teeth
+scattered in all directions. 'After this,' says our chronicler, 'it was
+so uncanny in the house that no man dared live in it. Doctor Faust also
+appeared in person to his Famulus (assistant) Wagner by night, and
+related to him many still more weird and mysterious things.... And thus
+endeth the whole and truthful Historia and Magic of Dr. Faust, from
+which every Christian man should take warning, and specially those who
+are of a presumptuous, proud, curious and obstinate mind and head, that
+they may flee from all Magic, Incantation, and other works of the devil.
+Amen! This I wish for each and every one from the ground of my heart.
+Amen! Amen!'
+
+The great popularity of this original Faust-book led to the publication
+of many other versions of the story. In the very next year a Faust-book
+in rime appeared. In some of these versions Mephisto has a very bad time
+of it, Faust setting him all kinds of impossible tasks--such as writing
+the name of Christ or painting a crucifix, or taking him on Good Friday
+to Jerusalem--until the demon begs for his release, offering to give
+back the written compact. In Strassburg at a shooting competition
+Faust's magic bullet strikes Mephisto, who 'yells out again and again'
+in pain. In a Dutch version, where the demon has the name 'Jost,' Faust
+amuses himself by throwing a bushel of corn into a thorn hedge late at
+night, when poor 'Jost' is tired to death, and bids him pick up every
+grain in the same way as in the old story Venus vents her malice on
+Psyche. The most important German version was that by Widmann--an
+amplification of the old Faust-book. There also appeared a life of
+Faust's Famulus (assistant), Christopher Wagner, whom the devil attends
+in the form of an ape. Of one of these versions (I think Widmann's)
+there appeared about 1590 an English translation, which was
+supplemented by various English ballads on the same subject, and it was
+an Englishman--Shakespeare's great contemporary, the poet Christopher
+Marlowe--who was himself, as you know, a man of Faust-like temperament,
+and not unlike him in his fate--being killed in a drunken brawl--who
+first _dramatized_ the story. His brilliant and lurid play, 'The
+Tragical History of Dr. Faustus' follows very closely most of the
+details given in the German Faust-books. Its poetical beauties (and they
+are many) are unfortunately, as Hallam rightly remarks, intermingled
+with a great deal of coarse buffoonery. Possibly he had to consult the
+taste of his public in introducing such a large ingredient of this
+buffoon element--taken from what I called the Muenchhausen portion of the
+old legend. Patriotic German commentators sometimes deny that Goethe
+knew Marlowe's play (though he knew Shakespeare well), but I think there
+is no doubt that the opening monologue of Marlowe's play inspired the
+more famous, though scarcely finer, opening scene of Goethe's drama.
+'Theology, adieu!' Faustus exclaims, taking up a book of magic--
+
+    These metaphysics of magicians,
+    And necromantic books are heavenly ...
+    All things that move between the quiet poles
+    Shall be at my command--Emperors and kings
+    Are but obey'd in their several provinces,...
+    But _his_ dominion that excels in _this_
+    Stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man.
+    A sound magician is a mighty god.
+    Here, Faustus, tire thy brains to gain a deity.
+
+His agony of despair at the last moment is very finely depicted, and
+there are not a few passages in the play which, for beauty of expression
+and thought, are truly Shakespearean. Some of you possibly know the
+magnificent lines addressed to Helen of Troy, which begin thus:
+
+    Was this the face that launched a thousand ships,
+    And burnt the topless towers of Ilium--
+
+and the lines which seem to allude to the identification of Helen with
+Selene, the Moon-goddess--
+
+    O thou art fairer than the evening air
+    Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars.
+    Brighter art thou than flaming Jupiter
+    When he appeared to hapless Semele;
+    More lovely than the monarch of the sky,
+    In wanton Arethusa's azur'd arms.
+
+Marlowe's play was written about 1590. Now it is asserted that about
+this time English travelling players visited Germany, and perhaps
+introduced there Marlowe's drama; and possibly _this_ was the beginning
+of the German 'puppet-plays' on the subject of Faust. I do not feel
+quite sure about it. Faust puppet-plays seem to have existed almost
+simultaneously with the old Faust-books, and there is even the trace of
+one _before_ the oldest Faust-book; at least in the archives of the
+University of Tuebingen an entry has been unearthed in which in 1587 two
+students were condemned to the 'Karzer,' or 'Black hole,' for composing
+a 'Puppenspiel' on the subject of Dr. Faust.
+
+In these Puppenspiele (puppet-shows) the comic element largely prevails
+and is kept up by the comic figure Kasperle, a buffoon or 'Hanswurst' of
+the same character as the Italian Pulcinella, the progenitor of our
+English 'Punch.' As might be expected, these puppet-shows introduced a
+great many variations of the story, most of them a mixture of tragedy
+and comedy. In one a raven brings the contract from the devil for Faust
+to sign. One of the conditions is that for twenty-four years Faust is
+not to _wash_, or comb his hair or cut his nails--like Struwwelpeter.
+When Faust attempts to embrace Helen she turns into a snake--and when
+he is finally carried off by the demon, Kasperle gives (what Euripides
+is accused of sometimes giving) a comic turn to the tragic catastrophe
+by cracking jokes.
+
+For about 150 years after Marlowe no attempt was made by any German
+writer to use the subject artistically. Indeed during this period
+Germany, devastated by the Thirty Years War and afterwards by French
+literary influence, produced no literature worthy of mention, and what
+writers it possessed were not such as would be likely to perceive the
+poetic material contained in a popular puppet-show.
+
+But the legend had taken firm hold on the popular imagination and when
+Goethe was a boy (he was born in 1749) he saw a Faust-puppenspiel at
+Frankfurt, and afterwards at Strassburg, when he was a young man of
+about twenty. He was at this time evidently also familiar with the old
+_Faustbuch_ itself, and it was then (about 1770) that he seems to have
+first conceived the idea of the drama which he sealed up as finished
+sixty years later (1831), a few months before his death.
+
+Goethe's early manhood coincided with that period in German thought and
+literature which is called the 'Sturm und Drang'--that is the Storm and
+Stress--period. The subject of Faust, the attraction of which had for so
+long lain dormant, appealed powerfully to the adherents of this new
+school, with their gospel of the divine rights of the human heart and of
+genius, with their wild passionate graspings after omniscience, their
+Titanic heaven-storming aspirations after the unattainable and
+indescribable. Lessing himself, though never a genuine Sturm und Drang
+writer, began a _Faust_, and when Goethe began his drama a new _Faust_,
+it is said, was being announced in almost every quarter of Germany.
+Someone (I think it was Bayard Taylor) has reckoned up _twenty-nine
+Fausts_ that were actually published in Germany while Goethe was working
+at his. Some one else (I think Ludwig von Arnim) has said: 'Not enough
+_Fausts_ are yet written. Every one should write one. There is as much
+room for them as for straight lines in the circumference of a
+circle'--which, as you know, is conceived by geometricians to consist of
+an infinite number of infinitely small straight lines.
+
+None of these twenty-nine _Fausts_ are, as far as I know, of any value
+or interest except the unfinished play by Lessing, which, as it was
+written while Goethe was still a lad, and seems to have been only
+printed in fragments at some later date, can hardly come under Bayard
+Taylor's list. From these fragments it is clear that Lessing meant to
+save Faust's soul, if not his body. Toward the end of the last act, when
+the devils are triumphing over their apparent victory and the possession
+of Faust's body, a voice from heaven is heard: 'Triumph not! Ye have not
+won the battle over human nature and human knowledge. The Deity has not
+given to man the noblest impulses in order to bring him to eternal
+misery. What you imagine you possess is only a phantom.'
+
+Although we cannot tell for certain how Lessing meant to solve the
+problem, I think it is almost certain that Faust was to work out his own
+salvation amidst error and sin much as Goethe's Faust does. Before
+attempting (as I shall do on other occasions) to give a description of
+the two parts of Goethe's poem--in attempting which I shall keep as
+closely as I can to the original and to questions arising directly out
+of Goethe's own words--it will be useful and interesting to consider the
+most striking points in which his _Faust_ differs essentially from all
+its predecessors, except perhaps Lessing's--and Lessing, although he
+struck the new chord, did not resolve it. But this is a subject
+involving many and far-reaching questions, which, if they are to be
+solved at all, are not to be solved by theory and dogma. I shall
+therefore endeavour to state the case as simply and as objectively as
+possible, avoiding metaphysical cobwebs and giving the _ego_ and
+_non-ego_ a wide berth. I shall content myself in most cases with merely
+pointing out the doctrine apparently preached by Goethe (reminding you
+now and then that even his own seemingly categorical dogmas were to him
+merely temporary forms of thought) and shall prefer to let much justify
+its existence as an integral part of the living whole rather than to
+expel the life by dissection and to examine the dead parts through the
+spectacles of a commentator.
+
+In my next lecture, after a brief consideration of these preliminary
+questions, I shall try to describe the first Part of the drama--a task
+of more than common difficulty, for the story is familiar to many of
+you, and a bare rehearsal of the action of the play would prove
+wearisome, while any attempt to communicate by means of translation the
+wonderful beauty and force of Goethe's words is almost bound to prove a
+failure.
+
+In my third lecture I shall treat the second Part of the play, the
+action of which is far less generally known. It is not often read and is
+seldom seen on the stage. Indeed it was not written for the stage and
+does not lend itself to ordinary dramatic and operatic purposes, as the
+first Part does with its Gretchen episode. It embraces too huge a
+circle--a circle within which lie all the possibilities of human life.
+It is a kind of framework for all the tragedies and comedies and epics
+and lyrics ever conceived, or conceivable. What unity it has is not of
+the stage or the dramatic Unities. But nevertheless on the stage it
+produces effects which impress one with the sense of an imaginative
+power of an extraordinary kind.
+
+Many years ago, when it was being given in the Dresden theatre, I saw it
+performed four or five times and I remember noticing the wonderful
+attraction that it had for minds of a certain class (and no very limited
+class), while for others it was just such an unintelligible farrago of
+wearisome 'Zeug' as Dante's _Paradiso_ and Beethoven's _Ninth Symphony_
+are sometimes said to be.
+
+I believe it is the fashion with certain critics (especially with those
+who have read it superficially) to speak of the Second Part of Goethe's
+_Faust_, as they do of _Paradise Regained_, with a certain
+superciliousness, as a superfluous excrescence, the artistically almost
+worthless product of a mind that had worked itself out and had exhausted
+its 'Idea.'
+
+The truth is that the _first_ Part is only the merest fragment, and
+although the subject of Faust is endless and can never be fully treated
+in any one work of art (the whole poem 'necessarily remaining a
+fragment,' as Goethe himself said), nevertheless the _second_ Part does
+solve in one of many possible ways the problem left unsolved by the
+first half of the poem, namely the final attainment of peace and
+happiness by the human soul, and it is one of the noblest monuments of
+the human intellect existing in the literature of the world.
+
+Indeed it is, I think, still more than this. It is not merely a monument
+of intellect but of poetic imagination, and I am much inclined to
+believe that the _Paradiso_ of Dante and the Second Part of Goethe's
+_Faust_ are perhaps two of the best, the most infallible, touchstones
+for discovering whether we really possess what Tennyson calls the
+'poetic heart'--not a trumpery aesthetic imitation but the genuine
+article.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST'
+
+PART I
+
+
+When Goethe wrote to Schiller announcing his intention of once more
+taking up his unfinished _Faust_, Schiller replied: 'My head grows dizzy
+when I think of it. The subject of Faust appears to supply such an
+infinity of material.... I find no circle large enough to contain it.'
+Goethe answered: 'I expect to make my work at this barbarous
+composition, this _Fratze_ [_i.e._ caricature, as he often called it]
+less difficult than you imagine. I shall throw a sop to exorbitant
+demands rather than try to satisfy them. The whole will always remain a
+fragment'--a fragment, perhaps we may add, in the same sense as even the
+grandest Gothic building may be said to be only a part of the infinitely
+great ideal Gothic structure which will never be seen on earth, whereas
+in the Parthenon we have, or rather the Athenians in the days of
+Pericles had, something final and complete, something which will
+tolerate no addition.
+
+If Schiller's head grew dizzy at the thought of a Faust-drama, I fear
+that one who has no Schiller head on his shoulders may prove a poor
+guide among the precipices and ravines of Goethe's life-poem, where the
+path is often very steep and slippery. But I will do my best; and
+perhaps I had better treat our subject as I proposed. At first I shall
+point out a little more distinctly some of the characteristics which
+distinguish Goethe's drama from the earlier versions of the story. Then
+I shall try to guide you steadily and rapidly through the action of the
+first Part, offering whatever comment may seem useful, and now and then
+perhaps asking you to step aside from the track in order to get a peep
+over some of the aforementioned precipices.
+
+As we have already seen, one great difference between Goethe's _Faust_
+and many older versions of the story (including Marlowe's play, but
+excluding Lessing's fragment) is the fact that the sinner is saved.
+
+Shortly before his death, in 1832, Goethe wrote to Wilhelm v. Humboldt:
+'Sixty years ago, when as a young man I first conceived the idea of my
+_Faust_, the whole plan of it lay clearly before me.' From the first
+therefore Goethe had conceived the second Part as integral to his poem.
+He knew that, if he were to write a _Faust_ at all, Faust must be saved.
+
+We have already arrived at the edge of one of those precipices of which
+I spoke--Faust must be saved. But what did Goethe mean, or, to ask a
+fairer question, what do we ourselves mean, by being _saved_? No formula
+of words seems able to provide us with a satisfactory answer. We can
+indeed use metaphors drawn from the universe of Time and Space--we can
+speak of 'another world' and of a 'future life'--but as soon as we
+attempt to conceive such existence _sub specie aeternitatis_ our
+imagination fails: to use the metaphor of Socrates, we are dazzled by
+the insupportable radiance of the eternal and infinite, and seek to rest
+our eyes by turning them toward shadows, reflexions, images: we accept
+the beautiful image--the enigma (as St. Paul calls it) or allegory--of
+a heaven in some far interspace of world and world.
+
+As a poet, and especially as a dramatic poet, Goethe, if he treated the
+subject at all, was compelled to accept some imaginative conception of a
+future life, and he could scarcely accept any other but that which was
+in keeping with the old legend--that heaven of angels and saints and
+penitents which was the converse of the legendary hell and its fiends.
+Whether however he was justified by the principles of true dramatic art
+in his attempt to depict his imaginative conception and to place on the
+stage a representation of heaven may be doubted. Certainly the effect of
+Goethe's picture, especially when seen on the stage, is such that one
+cannot but wish some other solution might have been devised, and one
+feels as if one understood better than before why it was that
+Shakespeare's dramatic instinct allowed no such lifting of the veil. You
+remember the last words of the dying Hamlet: 'The rest is silence.'
+
+Thus far therefore we have come: by Faust being saved it is meant that
+he escapes from the fiend and reaches heaven, reaches the 'higher
+spheres' of existence, as Goethe expresses it.
+
+But the mere fact of his being saved does not form the essential
+difference between this drama and earlier versions of the story. The
+point of real importance is that he is not saved in a downward course by
+the intervention of some _deus ex machina_, some orthodox counter-charm.
+His course is not downward. His yearnings are not for bodily ease and
+sensual enjoyment but for truth--truth, not to be attained by
+speculation or scientific research but by action and feeling--by
+struggling onward through error and sin, and by gaining purification and
+strength from trial and suffering and resistance to evil; so that evil
+itself is a means to his salvation and Mephistopheles an instrument of
+good. Rising on the stepping-stones of his dead self he finds at last a
+certain measure of peace and is in the end reunited to her whose earthly
+happiness he had indeed ruined but whose love his heart has never
+forgotten. Indeed it is her love that is allowed to guide him ever
+aright and to draw him up to higher spheres.
+
+When we once realize this we also realize how meaningless, or how
+indescribably less full of meaning, the poem would be without its second
+Part. And yet many, when they speak of Goethe's _Faust_, mean merely the
+first Part--or perhaps merely the little episode of Gretchen given in
+Gounod's opera.
+
+I spoke of Goethe's gospel of self-salvation. Since doing so I have
+recalled to memory some words of his which may seem to refute me. In
+reference to the song of the angels at the end of the poem he wrote as
+follows: 'These verses contain the key of Faust's salvation: namely, in
+Faust himself an ever higher and purer aspiration, and from above
+eternal love coming to his help; and they are in harmony with our
+religious conceptions, according to which we cannot attain to heaven by
+our own strength unless it is helped by divine grace.'
+
+It is true that _after death_ Faust's soul is saved from the demons and
+is carried up to heaven by God's angels, but Goethe's drama is mainly
+the drama of Faust's earthly life, and from the 'Prologue in Heaven,'
+where, as it seems, the Deity undertakes _not_ to help him, but leaves
+him to fight the battle entirely in his own strength, until the last
+moment of his earthly existence there is no hint whatever, I think, of
+anything but self-salvation. On no occasion does he show the slightest
+sense of his own helplessness or of dependence on God's mercy. As for
+_remorse_, Goethe regarded it as a false emotion and as unworthy of a
+man. Although the perfect balance of his mind and his respect for much
+that he could not himself accept saved him from the almost brutal
+insouciance of such a form of expression he would probably have agreed
+with Walt Whitman, who tells us that animals should serve us as an
+example because 'they do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their
+sins; they do not make me sick discussing their duty to God.'
+
+Let us however dismiss criticism and turn to what Goethe as poet has
+given us--perhaps the noblest picture that dramatic art can give: that
+of a man striving onward and upward in his own strength, confronting (as
+Goethe says in reference to Shakespeare's plays) the inexorable course
+of the universe with the might of human will. We might take as the Alpha
+and Omega of _Faust_ these two lines from the poem:
+
+    Es irrt der Mensch so lang er strebt,
+
+and
+
+    Nur rastlos betaetigt sich der Mann,
+
+the sense of which is that human nature must ever err as long as it
+strives, but that true manhood is incessant striving.
+
+It is a noble picture--perhaps the noblest conceivable. You remember
+Browning's lines:
+
+    One who never turned his back but marched breast forward,
+      Never doubted clouds would break,
+    Never dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would triumph,
+    Held we fall to rise, are baffled to fight better,
+                        Sleep to wake.
+
+It will have already become evident what abstruse and insoluble
+questions present themselves--rise, as it were, like ghosts of many an
+ancient creed, on every side, as soon as we have crossed the threshold
+of this great Mausoleum of human thought and imagination. There is the
+spectre of the great Mystery of existence--of Life and Death and
+Eternity; and that of the Knowledge of Good and Evil; and that of Evil
+itself--a phantom assuming at times such a visible and substantial shape
+and then dissolving into thin air as mere negation. And this
+Mephistopheles--are we to regard him as a self-existent genuine demon of
+a genuine Hell, or as our own mind's shadow? Is he something external,
+something that we can avoid, something that we can put to flight by
+resisting and get entirely free of--or has each one of us signed with
+the blood of his human nature a compact with some such spiritual power,
+with the demonic element within him, with that spirit of negation, of
+cynicism, of cold unideal utilitarian worldly-wisdom which mocks at
+faith and love and every high and tender impulse--that part of our
+nature which, when some poor girl is sinking in the abyss, prompts us to
+answer our heart's appeal with the sneer of Mephistopheles: 'She isn't
+the first!'? Surely we can well understand the scorn and contempt which
+Faust feels for this demon companion of his. 'What canst thou, poor
+devil, give me?' he exclaims--'Was the human spirit's aspiration Ever
+understood by such as thou!'
+
+The real action of the play begins with the celebrated monologue of
+Faust. But this is preceded by a _Dedication_, by the _Prelude in the
+theatre_, and by the _Prologue in Heaven_, added at various periods of
+Goethe's life. The _Prelude_ consists of a scene between a poet, a
+theatrical director and a 'comic person.' It is merely a clever skit in
+which Goethe has a hit at the public and those who supply it with
+so-called drama. It has no organic connexion with the play. The
+_Prologue in Heaven_ begins with the songs of the three
+Archangels--sonorous verses of majestic harmony, like some grand
+overture by Bach or Handel. These verses are, I think, meant to intimate
+the great harmonious order and procession of the natural and moral
+universe, as Pythagoras intimated them by his 'Music of the
+Spheres'--those eternal laws against which man, that tiny microcosm, so
+vainly strives.
+
+Mephistopheles now enters, as in the Book of Job Satan is described
+entering God's presence, and, just as it happens in the Bible, the Lord
+asks him if he knows Faust, and, as in the case of Job, it is God
+himself who not only allows but seems even to challenge the demon to try
+his powers, foretelling his failure although promising no help to Faust.
+'It is left to thee,' says the Lord to Mephistopheles. 'Draw this
+aspiring spirit from his fountain-head and lead him downward on thy
+path, if thou canst gain a hold upon him, and stand ashamed when thou
+shalt have to confess that a good man amidst his dim impulses is well
+conscious of the right way.'
+
+That which distinguishes this scene from the similar scene in _Job_ is
+its irreverence. Indeed one might almost call it flippancy, and few
+would deny that at times this flippancy is painful to them. The only
+excuse that I can find for it is that, rightly or wrongly, Goethe meant
+us to be pained. I believe that here Mephistopheles represents
+especially that element in human nature which is perhaps the meanest and
+most disgusting of all, namely flippant and vulgar irreverence, and
+although we may not agree with John Wesley's definition of man as 'half
+brute, half devil,' most of us will probably allow that a certain part
+of our nature (that part which Mephistopheles seems to represent) is
+capable of an irreverence and a vulgarity of which the devil himself
+might almost be ashamed.
+
+The monologue with which the action of the play begins strikes at once
+the new chord and gives us the leading motive--one so entirely different
+from that of the old legend--so indescribably nobler than that which is
+given in the opening monologue of Marlowe's play. But the old framework
+is still there. Faust renounces book-learning and betakes himself to
+magic.
+
+    I've studied now philosophy,
+    Jurisprudence and medicine,
+    And e'en, alas, theology
+    From end to end with toil and teen,
+    And here I stand with all my lore,
+    Poor fool, no wiser than before.
+    No dog would live thus any more!
+    Therefore to magic I have turned,
+    If that through spirit-word and power
+    Many a secret may be learned
+    That I may find the inner force
+    Which binds the world and guides its course,
+    Its germs and vital powers explore
+    And peddle with worthless words no more.
+
+Disgusted with the useless quest after that science which deals only
+with phenomena and their material causes, he turns to magic, as he does
+in the old legend; but it is here no diabolic medieval wizardry which
+shall enable him to summon the devil, for, as we shall see, Faust does
+not summon the devil; Mephistopheles comes to him uncalled. Goethe has
+merely used this motive of magic to intimate attainment of perfect
+knowledge of Nature through the might of genius--that revelation of the
+inner secrets of the universe which he himself, in what he calls the
+'Titanic, heaven-storming' period of his life, believed to be attainable
+by human genius in communion with Nature.
+
+'Nature and Genius' was the watchword of the followers of Rousseau and
+the apostles of the Sturm und Drang gospel--a return to and communion
+with Nature, such as Wordsworth preached and practised, and such as
+Byron also preached but did not practise. Only to the human spirit in
+full communion with the spirit of Nature, of which it is a part, are
+revealed her mysteries. All other means, as Faust tells us, are useless.
+
+    Mysterious even in the open day
+    Nature within her veil withdraws from view.
+    What to thy spirit she will not display
+    Cannot be wrenched from her with crowbar or with screw.
+
+Faust turns from his dreary little world of books and charts and retorts
+and skeletons. He opens the window and gazes at the moon floating in her
+full glory through the heaven. His heart is filled with a yearning to be
+'made one with Nature,' and in words which remind one of certain lines
+of Wordsworth he exclaims:
+
+    O might I on some mountain height,
+    Encircled in thy holy light,
+    With spirits hover round crags and caves,
+    O'er the meadows float on the moonlight's waves.
+
+Then, turning from Nature, he casts once more a look around his dreary
+cell:
+
+    Ah me, this dungeon still I see,
+    This drear accursed masonry,
+    Where e'en the welcome daylight strains
+    But duskly through the painted panes,
+    Hemmed in by many a toppling heap
+    Of books worm-eaten, grey with dust,
+    Which to the vaulted ceiling creep
+    Against the smoky paper thrust,
+    With glasses, boxes, round me stacked
+    And instruments together hurled,
+    Ancestral lumber stuffed and packed--
+    Such is my world! And what a world!...
+    Alas! In living Nature's stead,
+    Where God his human creatures set,
+    In smoke and mould the fleshless dead
+    And bones of beasts surround me yet.
+
+He takes up the book of the Mystic astrologer Nostradamus and sees in it
+the sign, or cipher, of the universe. As he gazes a wondrous vision
+reveals itself: the mystic lines of the cipher seem to live and move and
+to form one living whole; and in spirit he beholds the Powers of Nature
+ascending and descending and reaching to each other golden vessels
+filled with the waters of life and wafting with their wings blessing and
+harmony through the universe.
+
+And yet from this vision he turns away dissatisfied:
+
+    What wondrous vision! yet a vision only!
+    Where shall I grasp thee, Nature infinite?
+
+And from this cipher of the material universe, this vision of
+inconceivable immensity and infinite diversity, the human spirit which
+is not content with the dead bones of science and has entered into
+communion with Nature cannot but turn away dissatisfied--and even with
+despair. Let me try to illustrate this in a more matter-of-fact way.
+
+The human mind discovers, let us say, that the earth is not the centre
+of the universe; that the sun is larger than the 'bottom of a cask,' as
+in the old legend Faust discovered it to be; that there are other worlds
+quite as large as ours; that this earth of ours is a good deal smaller
+than the sun and actually revolves round it; that even the sun itself is
+not the centre of the universe but one of many suns--one of the
+countless stars in that enormous starry wreath that surrounds us, and
+which we call the Milky Way. And we direct our telescopes to this Milky
+Way and find that what we took for nebula is for the most part an
+accumulation of countless millions of suns, each perhaps with its
+planets. Then, as we sweep the sky with our glass, we discover
+numberless little wreath-like spiral cloudlets, and find that they also
+are just such wreaths of countless millions of suns and solar systems,
+and that these seemingly tiny wreaths are revolving round some central
+body or system, which itself must revolve round some other, and that
+again round another ... until imagination fails. Is there, we ask, some
+final centre of all? some unmoved source of motion? Or is the material
+universe infinite?
+
+Then we turn our gaze in another direction and we find in the tiniest
+grain of sand countless millions of molecules whose atoms (or
+electrons), it is said, are in perpetual motion, revolving like the
+stars. Are then (we ask) the stars themselves nothing but molecules? Is
+the whole material universe nothing but some grain of sand on the shore
+of the ocean of eternity?
+
+We turn away dazzled, and we rest our eyes, as Socrates was wont to say,
+on images, on reflexions. We try to make the mystery intelligible, or
+at least to pacify the reason by throwing it some such sop as the theory
+that 'Size is only relative,' or that 'Space is only a mode of
+consciousness' and therefore nothing real in itself. Or we lull the mind
+to sleep with imaginative metaphors and speak (as Plato did) of the
+Central Fire of Hestia, the Hearth and Home of the Universe, or we call
+that mysterious unmoved centre of all motion the Throne of God. Thus we
+try to lay the spectre of infinite Space.
+
+Or consider Time instead of Space. In a single second how many waves of
+light are supposed to enter the eye? About 500 billions I believe. And
+of these waves some 500 would not exceed the breadth of a hair. Now any
+being to whom these tiny waves were as slow as the ripples on a pond are
+to us would live our human life of three score years and ten in the
+hundredth part of _his_ second, while a being on one of those great
+worlds of space revolving but once in long aeons around its centre would
+live--if his life were measured as ours--millions of our years. Here
+again, in our dazzlement, we have recourse to metaphor and theory: we
+lay the spectre of Time by explaining it away as merely a 'mode' and as
+therefore of no objective reality. In other words, dazed and outworn by
+the incomprehensible infinities of Time and Space we console ourselves
+with the theory that it is all a mere phenomenon, a projection of our
+own mind, and with Faust we exclaim
+
+    What wondrous vision! yet a vision only!
+
+and in the words of a still greater master of magic than Faust himself
+we despairingly add that
+
+           like the baseless fabric of this vision,
+    The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,
+    The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
+    Yea all that it inherit, shall dissolve
+    And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
+    Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff
+    As dreams are made of.
+
+From the cipher of the vast material universe, the Macrocosm, we turn
+away, as Faust did, with unsatisfied yearnings. Whither then shall we
+turn? Where shall we grasp Nature--not the empty vision, but the warm
+living form? It is in our own heart that we find a refuge from the
+infinities of Space and Time--in that human heart by which we live, in
+its tenderness, its joys, its fears. Here, and here alone, we find those
+ultimate facts of existence which need no explanation, and which we
+accept just as they are, without any questionings. Here we find an
+infinite universe--no less infinite than that of Space and Time--the
+universe of feeling.
+
+From the cipher of the Macrocosm Faust turns to that of the
+Earth-spirit, the spirit of human life and feeling. He is filled with a
+sudden, passionate yearning to share in the joys and the sorrows and the
+aspirations and the strivings of humanity:
+
+    Thou, Spirit of the Earth, art nearer.
+    I feel my powers loftier, clearer,
+    I glow, as drunk with new-made wine;
+    New strength I feel out in the world to dare,
+    The woes of earth, the bliss of earth to bear,
+    To fight my way, though storms around me lash,
+    Nor know dismay amid the shipwreck's crash.
+
+He calls upon this Earth-spirit, the Spirit of human life. He bends all
+the might of his human will to draw him down from his sphere. 'Come!' he
+exclaims. 'Thou must! Thou must!--e'en should it cost my life!'
+Enveloped in blinding flame the Spirit of life appears. At the
+apparition Faust cowers back terrified and turns his face away. But it
+is only for the moment. Stung by the contemptuous words of the phantom
+he answers: 'Shall I yield to _thee_, Spectre of flame? 'Tis I, 'tis
+Faust, thine equal!' The human Mind claims equality with the Spirit of
+earthly life. But the phantom exclaims: 'Thou art akin to the spirit
+that thou comprehendest--not to me!'--and disappears. Faust has yet to
+learn a lesson that the mind of man can never learn of itself, the real
+nature and meaning of human life. But he has beheld the vision of life,
+he has received the baptism of fire. Henceforth he is to fight his way
+through the storms of life and passion--to pass onward and upward and at
+last to rise to 'higher spheres'; and amidst the fierce and insidious
+assaults of flesh and devil we shall see that he looks for strength and
+guidance to this Spirit that appeared to him in the blinding vision of
+living empyreal flame.
+
+Scarcely has the Earth-spirit vanished when, with a timid knock, there
+enters Faust's _famulus_, or assistant, Wagner. He has heard Faust's
+voice and from its excited tones has concluded that he is practising
+declamation--reciting perhaps a Greek play. The poor amiable dryasdust
+literary and scientific worm-grubber, whose maxim of life is _Zwar weiss
+ich viel, doch moecht' ich Alles wissen_ (I know indeed a good deal, but
+I want to know _Everything_), wishes to profit from a lesson in
+elocution. A scene follows in which the contrast is graphically depicted
+between this half lovable, half contemptible scientific bookworm and
+Faust's Titanic heaven-storming aspirations after absolute truth. When
+he is once more left alone, longing to face the mystery of life but
+crushed by the contempt of the Earth-spirit, Faust is seized by despair.
+He shrinks from encountering life, with its delusive joys, its pitiless
+injustice and its arbitrary fate. He resolves to seek certainty--to
+solve the riddle of life by death. As he moves the cup of poison to his
+lips there comes floating through the air the chime of bells and,
+perhaps from some near chapel, the hymn of Easter morn:
+
+    Joy unto mortals! Christ is arisen!
+
+He pauses. Memories of childhood sweep over him, and he yields to the
+sweet voices that call him back from the threshold of the unseen.
+
+    Sound on sweet hymns of heaven! As gentle rain
+    My tears are falling. Earth hath me again.
+
+Thus Faust escapes the cowardly act of suicide and gains new strength
+through the awakening, for a time at least, of the consciousness, which
+had slumbered within him since the unreasoning days of childhood, that
+there is that beyond life which alone makes life worth having.
+
+The next scene shows us Faust already in contact with human nature, as
+represented by holiday crowds flocking out of the town into the woods
+and adjacent villages at Eastertide. Those who know Germany well will
+feel the art with which Goethe at once transports us into the midst of a
+Germanic Feiertag in spring-time, with its bright sunlight, its throngs
+of townspeople streaming into the country--happy and merry without
+vulgar rowdyism; the smugly dressed apprentice and the servant-girl in
+her Sonntagsputz; the pert student and the demure Buergermaedchen with her
+new Easter hat and her voluminous-waisted Frau Mama; the sedate
+school-master or shopkeeper, leading his toddling child; sour-faced
+officials; grey-locked and spectacled professors and 'town-fathers'
+discussing the world's news or some local grievance--all flocking
+countryward, with some Waldhaus or Forsthaus Restaurant as their
+ultimate goal. And those who know Frankfurt will recognize the scene at
+once: up there above Sachsenhausen, on the road to the pine-woods and
+the Jaegerhaus, from which one sees the whole city lying below one, with
+its great Dom and its medieval gates--the river Main gliding through its
+midst and glittering away westward toward the Rhine; and in the far
+background the Taunus range and the dark Feldberg.
+
+Amidst this scene, externally still the more than middle-aged German
+professor (he must be fifty-seven or so) but with a heart full of newly
+wakened yearnings for human life with all its joys and passions, Faust
+wanders, trying to feel sympathy with all these multitudinous human
+beings, attracted perhaps here and there, but evidently for the most
+part repelled and discouraged. He has yet to learn that a love for and a
+knowledge of humanity, such as he finally reaches, must begin with love
+for and knowledge of _one_ human heart.
+
+As he and Wagner return toward the city Faust gives vent to his pent-up
+feelings--pours contempt on his own book-learning and wasted life and
+expresses his yearnings for Nature, and the longing of his spirit for
+wings to fly away into the infinite:
+
+    For in each soul is born the rapture
+    Of yearning upward, and away,
+    When o'er our heads, lost in the azure,
+    The lark sends down her thrilling lay,
+    When over crags and pine-clad highlands
+    The poising eagle slowly soars,
+    And over plains and lakes and islands
+    The crane sails by to other shores.
+
+Whereat Wagner exclaims:
+
+    I've had myself at times an odd caprice,
+    But never yet such impulses as these.
+    The woods and fields soon get intensely flat,
+    And as for flight--I never longed for that!
+
+Poor dear Wagner, how well one seems to know thee, with thy purblind
+spectacled eyes peering into fusty books and parchments, or bending over
+thy crucibles and retorts! Truly a novel and interesting sight it would
+be to see _thee_ assuming wings. In thy philosophy there is naught but
+dreams of elixirs of life or homunculi. Thy highest aspiration nowadays
+would be to find the mechanical equivalent of thought--to prove that
+Shakespeare's and Dante's imagination was due only to a slightly
+abnormal movement of brain-molecules--to find some method of measuring
+faith, hope and charity in foot-pounds and thine own genius in electric
+volts. Thou wouldst live and die, as other eminent scientists of these
+latter days have done, in the certain hope and faith of demonstrating
+irrefutably that this curious phenomenon which we call 'life' is nothing
+but the chemical action set up by the carbonic acid and ammonia of the
+protoplasm.
+
+As they walk and talk there appears a black dog ranging to and fro
+through a field, as if on the track of game. Ever nearer and nearer he
+circles, and in his wake, as it appears to Faust, trails a flickering
+phosphorescent gleam. But Wagner ridicules the idea as an optical
+delusion. _He_ sees nothing but an ordinary black poodle. 'Call him,' he
+says, 'and he'll come fawning on you, or sit up and do his tricks, or
+jump into the water after sticks.' The poodle follows them--and makes
+himself at home by the stove in Faust's study.
+
+Faust has thus, after his first contact with the outer world of
+humanity, returned once more to his cell--to the little world of his own
+thoughts and feelings. He finds himself once more amidst his piled-up
+books, his crucibles and retorts, his bones and skulls. He lights his
+lamp and feels the old familiar glow of intellectual satisfaction. _But
+the poodle is there._ Faust has brought home with him something that
+will now haunt him to the last moment of his life. There has been
+awakened in his nature the germ of that acorn (to use Goethe's metaphor
+with regard to Hamlet) that will soon strike root and shatter the vase
+in which it is planted.
+
+At present he is almost unconscious of this new presence. He is buried
+in thought, and his thoughts lead him toward the question of Revelation.
+He is drawn to take up a Bible and turns, with a mind full of
+metaphysical curiosity, to the passage 'In the beginning was the [Greek:
+logos]--the Word.' More than once there comes from the poodle a growl of
+disapprobation. Faust threatens to turn him out, and proceeds with his
+biblical criticism.... 'In the beginning was the [Greek: logos].' How
+shall he translate [Greek: logos]? It cannot mean merely a 'word.' ... A
+word must have meaning, _thought_--and thought is nothing without
+_act_.... So this 'Word,' this 'Logos,' must be translated as Act or
+Deed.
+
+These speculations are interrupted by horrible growlings, barks, and
+howlings. As Faust looks towards the poodle he sees it rapidly swelling
+up into a monstrous form--huger than an elephant or hippopotamus, with
+fiery eyes and enormous tusks in its gaping mouth. He tries to exorcise
+the phantom with 'Solomon's key' and other magic formulae, and at length,
+when he threatens it with the mystic formula of the Trinity, it
+dissolves into mist, and out of the mist steps forth Mephistopheles,
+dressed as a 'travelling scholar'--an itinerant professor, or quack
+doctor.
+
+I find that some commentators accuse Goethe of dramatic inconsistency
+and of interrupting the sequence of the action, because he makes Faust
+for a time return to his old speculations, and because Mephistopheles
+does not at once appear in the shape with which we are so familiar--with
+his 'red gold-trimmed dress and mantle of stiff silk and the
+cock-feathers in his hat,' the type of the dissolute man-about-town of
+the period. To me it seems very natural that, dispirited by his first
+contact with the outer world--unable to feel any real sympathy with the
+rollicking and sleek self-sufficiency of that holiday crowd, Faust
+should turn again to reflexion and speculation, and that when he is in
+this depressed and metaphysical mood the demonic element in his nature
+should first present itself--and that too in the disguise of an
+itinerant professor. For is it not the case that to many of us the devil
+_has_ come first just at such a time and in just such disguise?
+
+Questioned as to his name and personality, Mephisto defines himself (he
+too being in a metaphysical mood) as 'the spirit of negation,' and as 'a
+part of that power which always wills evil and always works good'--'a
+part of that darkness which alone existed before the creation of
+light'--and he expresses the hope that, as light is dependent for its
+existence on the material world, both it and the world will ere long
+return to chaos and darkness. I have already touched upon this question
+of Evil as merely negative--merely a part of the whole--and will not
+detain you further over it.
+
+Mephistopheles now wishes to take his leave, promising to visit Faust
+again. 'Visit me as you like,' says Faust, 'and now--there is the
+window! there's the door! or the chimney is at your service.' But the
+devil must go out by the same way as he has entered, and on the
+threshold to keep out evil spirits Faust has painted a mystic pentagram,
+a figure with five points, the outer angle of which, being inaccurately
+drawn, had left a gap through which Mephisto had slipped in; but being
+once in, as in a mouse-trap, he cannot get out again.
+
+As Faust now seems inclined to keep him prisoner, Mephistopheles summons
+spirits, who sing Faust to sleep. Then he calls a rat to gnaw a gap in
+the pentagram, and escapes.
+
+When, in the next scene, Mephistopheles again appears, Faust is in a
+very different state of mind, and Mephistopheles is also in a different
+shape. He is decked out with silken mantle and with cock-feathers in his
+hat, ready for any devilry. Faust is in the depths of morbid despair and
+bitterness at the thought of life:
+
+    'What from the world have I to gain?--
+     _Thou must renounce! renounce! refrain!_
+     Such is the everlasting song
+     That fills our ears our whole life long ...
+     With horror day by day I wake
+     And weeping watch the morning break
+     To think that each returning sun
+     Shall see fulfilled no wish of mine--not one.'
+
+He vows he would rather die. 'And yet,' sarcastically remarks Mephisto,
+'some one a night or two ago did not drink a certain brown liquid.'
+Stung by the sarcasm, Faust breaks out into curses against life, against
+love and hope, and faith ... and 'cursed be patience most of all!'
+
+Here is the devil's opportunity. 'Life is yours yet, and all its
+pleasures. Of what's beyond you nothing know. Give up all this morbid
+thinking, these dreams and self-delusions! Be a man! Enjoy life! Plunge
+into pleasures of the senses! I will be your guide and show you the life
+worth living!'
+
+In an ecstasy of embitterment and despair, though fully conscious that
+such a life can never bring him satisfaction and happiness, Faust
+exclaims: 'What wilt _thou_, poor devil, give me? Was the human spirit,
+in its aspirations, ever understood by such as _thou_?... And yet--hast
+thou the food that never satiates--hast thou red gold--hast thou love,
+passionate faithless love--hast thou the fruits that rot before one
+plucks them--hast thou the fruits of that tree of sensual pleasure which
+daily puts forth new blossoms--then done! I accept.' 'But if,' he adds
+(and, alas, I must give merely the sense of these noble verses--for all
+translation is so unutterably flat)--'if I ever lay myself on the bed of
+idle self-content, if ever thou canst fool me with these phantoms of the
+senses, if ever I say to the passing moment, _Stay; thou art so
+fair!_--then let my life be ended. This wager I offer thee.' 'Topp!'
+('Done!') exclaims Mephistopheles; and, as you know, the compact is
+signed by Faust with his own blood.
+
+You will observe that here there is no mention, as in the old legend, of
+any term of years--the compact is _for life_. Of what may come after
+this life Faust makes no mention in his wager. He expressly says that
+all he cares about, all he can know, is _this_ life, and that he will
+hear nothing about any future life. This may be agnosticism or whatever
+else we like to call it, but it is not formally selling one's soul, with
+or without one's body, for a _future_ life and for all eternity.
+
+Moreover Faust has _not_ summoned the devil. The devil has come to
+him--is indeed a part of him. He does _not_ league himself with a
+hell-fiend for the sake of worldly power or fame or sensual enjoyment,
+of which he speaks with contempt. He only offers to come forward into
+the battle of life and of passions to test the nobler powers and the
+deeper beliefs and the yet dim aspirations of his better nature against
+the powers of evil, against what he calls the 'cold devil's-fist' of
+negation and cynicism and disbelief, against the brute within the man.
+
+    Thou hearest me! I do not speak of joy--
+    I dedicate myself to passion--pleasure--pain--
+    Enamour'd hate, and rapture of disdain.
+    What's highest or what's lowest I will know,
+    And heap upon my bosom weal and woe.
+
+Footsteps are now heard approaching. It is one of Faust's scholars.
+Faust 'has no heart to meet him'--and no wonder. He goes; and
+Mephistopheles, throwing around him Faust's professorial mantle and
+placing the professorial cap upon his head, awaits the scholar. The
+scene which ensues, in which Mephisto gives the young aspirant for
+knowledge his diabolic advice and his diabolic views on Science, Logic,
+Metaphysics, Medicine and even Theology--would offer ample material for
+a very long course of lectures; but as it is one which is not closely
+connected with the main action of the play it will have to be omitted.
+The scholar retires--his poor young head whirling round like a
+mill-wheel with the advice he has received and carrying away his album,
+in which the devil has inscribed his favourite text 'Ye shall be as
+gods, knowing good and evil.' Then Faust re-enters, Mephistopheles
+spreads out his silken cape, and on it the two fly away through the air
+on their adventures--first through the small and then the greater
+world--first the world of personal feelings and passions, then the
+greater world (is it really greater?) of art and politics and Humanity.
+
+Faust had said, as you remember,
+
+    What wilt thou, poor devil, give me?
+    Was the human spirit, in its aspirations
+    Ever understood by such as thou?
+
+This is the leading motive of all that follows. With ever-deepening
+disgust and contempt Faust, in his quest for truth through the jungles
+and quagmires of human passions, follows his guide. If ever Faust seems
+to catch sight of any far-off vision of eternal truth and beauty--as he
+does at times in his love for Gretchen, and again in his passion for
+ideal beauty in Helen, and once again in that devotion to the cause of
+Humanity which finally allows him to express a satisfaction in life, and
+thus causes his life to end--if ever Faust shows any sign of real
+interest or satisfaction, it is just _then_ that Mephistopheles displays
+most clearly his utter inability to understand the 'human spirit in its
+aspirations'; and it is _then_ that he shows most plainly his own
+diabolic nature, pouring out his cynical contempt and gnashing his teeth
+at what he deems Faust's irrational disgust for all those bestialities
+that seem to him (Mephistopheles) the sweetest joys of existence.
+
+His very first attempt is a dead failure. He has carried Faust off
+through the air to Leipzig, and here he brings him into what to the
+Mephisto-nature doubtless seems highly desirable and entertaining
+company--to the 'sing-song' (as I believe it is called in England) of
+tippling brawling students. The scene is Auerbach's Cellar, a well-known
+Leipzig 'Kneipe'--a kind of Wine taproom or Bodega. Among these brawling
+comic-songsters Mephistopheles is in his element, and he treats them to
+a comic ditty:
+
+    Of old there lived a king,
+      Who had a great big flea
+    As dear as any thing,
+      Or any son, could be ...
+
+and so on. We need not linger over the repulsive scene--so graphically
+described.
+
+Finally Mephistopheles bores holes in the table and draws wine from
+them.
+
+The students come to handicuffs over it; they spill the wine, and it
+turns into flame.
+
+Amidst their drunken uproar Faust and Mephistopheles disappear.
+
+During the whole of this scene Faust _speaks no single word_, except a
+curt but polite greeting on entering the Cellar and an appeal to
+Mephistopheles to take him away from this 'scene of swinish bestiality.'
+How different from the part that Faust plays in the old story where he
+himself, not Mephistopheles, joins in the revelry and buffoonery!
+
+Auerbach's Cellar existed till lately, though the house above it had
+been rebuilt. It was the original 'Keller' that is mentioned in the old
+legend. In it were to be seen two old pictures (with the date 1525). One
+represented Faust sitting at table with students; in the other he is
+flying off through the door astride on a wine cask.
+
+A weird scene now ensues: the Witches' Kitchen.
+
+Faust had asked how it was possible for him, the thought-worn
+grey-haired professor, to care for, or take part in, what Mephistopheles
+looked upon as 'life.' Mephistopheles therefore takes him to a witch,
+from whom he is to receive a magic draught that will 'strip off some
+thirty years from his body,' so that he becomes a young, man of, say,
+about twenty-seven. This scene in the Witches' Kitchen is sometimes said
+to represent allegorically a long course of dissipation through which
+Mephistopheles takes Faust, and which of course could not be represented
+otherwise without extending the action of the play beyond all reasonable
+limits. It is true that, after the draught Faust's character seems
+considerably changed for the worse. He develops a recklessness and a
+licentiousness which scandalize even Mephistopheles himself, who tells
+him that he is 'almost as bad as a Frenchman.'
+
+Whether we should understand it thus, or not, I do not feel quite sure,
+but anyhow we have in future--to the end of the first Part--to take into
+account the fact that, although loathing all such swinish sensuality as
+that of tippling students, and hating all forms of mean selfishness and
+cunning and hypocrisy, Faust is (as so often is the case with otherwise
+noble and lovable men) open to assault at that point where, as nowhere
+else, the sensuous and ideal in our human nature seem to touch and
+coalesce.
+
+When they enter the Witch is not at home. In the midst of the kitchen is
+a large cauldron, and at its side, skimming it and seeing that it does
+not run over is a Meerkatze--a kind of female ape. The Meerkater, or
+male ape, squats by the fire, warming himself, and near by are several
+young apes. Mephistopheles is enraptured at the sight of the 'tender
+pretty beasts,' but Faust finds them more disgusting than anything he
+has ever seen.
+
+The apes perform all kinds of antics and chatter a weird medley of half
+sense, half nonsense, in which one can dimly discern satirical allusions
+to various forms of the literary, political, and religious cant of
+Goethe's generation.
+
+The animals enthrone Mephistopheles in a chair, give him a feather brush
+for a sceptre, and offer him a broken crown, which he is to glue
+together with 'sweat and blood.' It is like some horrid nightmare. We
+feel as if we were going mad; and so does Faust himself. But suddenly he
+catches sight of a magic mirror, in which he sees a form of ravishing
+beauty--not that of Gretchen or Helen, but some form of ideal
+loveliness. He stands there entranced.
+
+But at this moment the cauldron boils over. A great flame shoots up the
+chimney. With a scream the witch comes clattering down, and launches
+curses at the intruders--not recognising the devil in his costume as
+modern roue. He abuses her roundly and tells her that his horns, tail
+and cloven hoof are gone out of fashion, modern culture having tabooed
+them; and he forbids her to address him as Satan. That name is not
+up-to-date: he is now 'der Herr Baron.'
+
+With a hocus-pocus of incantations she brews the magic draught, which
+Faust drinks. He is then hurried away by Mephistopheles back into the
+world of humanity.
+
+We have now come to the story of Margarete or Gretchen, which by many,
+perhaps by most, is looked upon as constituting the main subject of
+Goethe's _Faust_. It is doubtless the part which attracts one, which
+appeals to one's _heart_, more than any other, and it forms by itself a
+pathetic little tragedy. The story itself is merely the old sad story of
+passion, weakness and misery, which has been told thousands of times in
+all ages and all languages.
+
+It would be worse than useless to endeavour by any dissecting process to
+discover how by some act of creative power Goethe has inspired this
+little story with such wondrous vitality that there is probably in all
+literature scarcely any character that lives for us, that seems so real,
+as Gretchen. Possibly to feel this one needs a knowledge of the original
+poem and an acquaintance not only with that Germany which is generally
+known to the English visitor, but also with just that class of which
+Gretchen is typical, and with just those little ways and those forms of
+expression which are peculiar to that class and to the part of Germany
+to which Gretchen belonged. Every single word that she utters is so
+absolutely true to nature that we seem to hear the voice of some real
+living Gretchen, and can hardly believe that she merely exists in our
+imagination. This may perhaps be asserted of other poetic creations; but
+I confess that I know no other, not even in Shakespeare, that produces
+on me quite the same kind of illusion. Homer's Nausicaa, the Antigone
+and Electra of Sophocles, Rosalind, Miranda, Imogen, Portia,
+Cordelia--all these live for me, but not quite as Gretchen. Their
+presence I feel as something living, but a little visionary. Gretchen I
+can see, and hear and almost touch. I need not recount at length her
+story, for it is too well known. I need only recall to you memories of
+certain facts and scenes: that first meeting in the street; the
+mysterious presents from the unknown lover; the meeting in the
+neighbour's garden and Gretchen's innocent prattlings about her home
+life; Faust's growing passion, and the vain battlings of his higher
+nature; the insidious promptings and cynical ridicule of his demonic
+companion; the song of Gretchen at her spinning-wheel; her loving
+anxiety as to Faust's religious opinions, and his celebrated confession
+of faith; the sleeping draught by which Gretchen causes the death of her
+mother; her shame, remorse and despair; Gretchen kneeling with her gift
+of tear-sprent flowers before the Virgin's image; the return of her
+brother, the young soldier, Valentin, and _his_ death--stabbed by her
+lover (or rather by Mephisto) at night beneath her window, and cursing
+her as he dies; the scene in the Cathedral; the pealing organ and the
+solemn tones of the Dies Irae mingling with the terrible words of the
+accusing spirit, till Gretchen sinks fainting to the ground.
+
+And where is Faust? He has fled. The avengers of blood are on his track.
+His selfish passion has been the cause of death to Gretchen's mother and
+brother and has brought ruin on her--to end in madness, infanticide and
+the block.
+
+I have often wondered whether the limitations of art might not allow the
+possibility of some drama on the same lines as _Faust_ in which he might
+be saved by the purity and nobility of womanhood, as in the story of
+Cyprian and Justina, instead of, as here, using the ruin of a poor girl
+as a stepping-stone in his career of self-salvation. Or, what if he had
+felt such horror and remorse at her fate that he had broken his compact
+and freed himself from the demon? It will be said, perhaps, that this
+would have been undramatic and that such a view is merely sentimental
+and subversive of all true art. But, once more, what if he had bravely
+stood by Gretchen, or had even shared her fate when she refused to be
+saved by him?
+
+Anyhow, Goethe did not choose any of these methods; and if he had done
+so we should have had no second Part of _Faust_--nor indeed our next
+scene, the _Walpurgisnacht_.
+
+Pursued not only by the avengers of blood but by the avenging furies of
+his own conscience, Faust has plunged into a reckless life and
+experiences those after-dreams of intellectual and aesthetic extravagance
+which so often follow such riotous living. This period--that of sensual
+riot and aesthetic dalliance--Goethe has, I think, symbolized by two wild
+and curious scenes, the _Walpurgisnacht_ and Oberon's Wedding, a kind of
+'after-dream' of the _Walpurgisnacht_.
+
+The connexion of these scenes with the main action of the play has
+puzzled many critics, especially the curious Intermezzo which follows
+the _Walpurgisnacht_, the 'Golden Wedding of Oberon and Titania,' a kind
+of dream-vision, or rather nightmare, in which besides the fairies of
+Shakespeare's fairyland, besides will-o'-the-wisps and weather-cocks and
+shooting stars, numerous authors, philosophers and artists and other
+characters appear, including Goethe himself as the 'Welt-kind.' This
+scene was not originally written for _Faust_, but Goethe inserted it (I
+imagine) as an allegorical picture of over-indulgence in aestheticism and
+intellectualism (the 'opiate of the brain,' as Tennyson calls it)--a
+vice into which one is apt to be seduced by the hope of deadening pain
+of heart. Although not written for the play, this Intermezzo cannot be
+said to be superfluous, for the subject of _Faust_ is one that admits of
+almost any imaginative conception that is descriptive of the experiences
+of human nature in its quest of truth.
+
+But let us return to the _Walpurgisnacht_. On the 1st of May a great
+festival was held by the ancient Druids, who on the preceding night used
+to perform on the mountains their terrible sacrifices, setting ablaze
+huge wickerwork figures filled with human beings. Hence in later times
+the superstition arose that on this night witches ghouls and fiends held
+their revels on the Brocken, or Blocksberg, in the Harz mountains. The
+name of Saint Walpurga (an English nun, who came to Germany in the
+eighth century) became associated with this Witches' Sabbath, as the 1st
+of May was sacred to her. To this midnight orgy of the _Walpurgisnacht_
+Mephistopheles takes Faust.... They are lighted on their toilsome ascent
+of the Blocksberg by a will-o'-the-wisp. A vast multitude of witches and
+goblins are flocking to the summit; the midnight air resounds with their
+shrieks and jabberings; weird lights flash from every quarter, revealing
+thronging swarms of ghoulish shapes and dancing Hexen. The trees
+themselves are dancing. The mountains nod. The crags jut forth long
+snouts which snort and blow. Amid the crush and confusion Faust has to
+cling fast to his guide. Once the two get parted, and Mephistopheles is
+in anxiety lest he should lose Faust entirely, the idea being, I
+suppose, that sometimes a human being outruns the devil himself in the
+orgies of sensuality. At last they reach the dancers. Mephistopheles is
+here in his element and joins in the dances with eagerness, bandying
+jokes with the old hags and flirting with the younger witches. Nor does
+Faust seem at all disinclined to follow suit. He however desists
+dismayed when, as he is dancing with a witch of seductive loveliness, a
+red mouse jumps out of her mouth.
+
+At length, when Mephisto, who finds it getting too hot even for him,
+comes again to Faust, he discovers him silently gazing at a weird
+sight--one that might well have sobered him. 'Look!' says Faust:
+
+    'Look! seest thou not in the far distance there,
+     Standing alone, that child, so pale and fair?
+     She seems to move so slowly, and with pain,
+     As if her feet were fettered by a chain.
+     I must confess, I almost seem to trace
+     My poor good Gretchen in her form and face.'
+
+Mephistopheles answers:
+
+    'Let her alone! It's dangerous to look.
+     It's a mere lifeless ghoul, a spectre-spook.
+     Such bogeys to encounter is not good;
+     Their rigid stare freezes one's very blood,
+     And one is often almost turned to stone.
+     Medusa's head, methinks, to thee is known!'
+
+But Faust will not be convinced. It _is_ Gretchen--his 'poor good
+Gretchen' as he calls her. And what is that red bleeding gash around
+her neck? What terrible thought does it suggest!
+
+    'How strange that round her lovely neck,
+     That narrow band of red is laid
+     No broader than a knife's keen blade!'
+
+'Quite right!' answers Mephistopheles with a ghastly joke--
+
+    'Quite right! I plainly see it's so.
+     Perseus cut off her head, you know.
+     She often carries it beneath her arm.'
+
+He hurries Faust away. But soon these terrible presentiments are
+realized. Faust learns--how we are not told--that Gretchen is in prison,
+and condemned to death on the scaffold; for in her madness--yes, surely
+in madness--she has drowned her own child.
+
+Instead of attempting to describe what follows, I shall offer a literal
+prose translation of some parts of the concluding scene, asking you to
+supply by your imagination, as best you may, the power and harmony of
+Goethe's wonderful verse.
+
+
+
+_A gloomy day. Open country._
+
+_FAUST and MEPHISTOPHELES. FAUST is speaking._
+
+     FAUST. In misery! In despair! Piteously wandering day after
+     day o'er the face of the earth,--and now imprisoned! That
+     sweet unhappy being shut up in a dungeon, as a criminal, and
+     exposed to horrible torments! Has it come to _this_!--to
+     this!... Treacherous, villainous spirit! and _this_ thou
+     hast concealed from me!... Stand there, stand, and roll thy
+     devilish eyes in fury! Imprisoned! In hopeless misery!
+     Delivered over to evil spirits and the heartless verdict of
+     mankind!... And _thou_ meantime hast lulled me with
+     loathsome dissipation ... thou hast hidden from me her
+     ever-deepening despair, and hast suffered her to perish
+     helplessly.
+
+     MEPH. She isn't the first.
+
+     FAUST. Dog! Abominable monster! Turn him, O Infinite Spirit,
+     turn this reptile back into his dog-shape ... that he may
+     crawl on his belly before me ... that I may trample the
+     abandoned wretch underfoot. Not the first!... Woe! Woe not
+     to be grasped by any human soul, that _more_ than _one_
+     should sink into this abyss of misery--that the _first_, in
+     her writhing agony before the eyes of the All-merciful,
+     should not have made satisfaction for the guilt of all
+     others. The misery of this _one_ pierces with agony my
+     deepest soul--and _thou_ calmly grinnest at the fate of
+     thousands!
+
+     MEPH. Here we are again, at the end of our wits!--where the
+     common sense of you mortals loses its hold and snaps. Why
+     dost thou make fellowship with us, if thou canst not carry
+     it through? Wilt thou fly, and art not secure from
+     dizziness? Did we thrust ourselves upon thee, or thou
+     thyself upon us?
+
+     FAUST. Gnash not thy ravening teeth at me! I loathe thee!
+     Mighty, glorious Spirit--thou who didst deign to appear to
+     me, and knowest my heart and soul, why dost thou fetter me
+     to this satellite of shame, who revels in evil and gluts
+     himself on destruction?
+
+     MEPH. Hast thou done?
+
+     FAUST. Save her, or woe to thee! The most terrible curse on
+     thee for thousands of years!
+
+     MEPH. I cannot loose the bonds of the avenger--cannot undo
+     his bolts. _Save her!_... Who was it that ruined her ... I
+     or thou?
+
+[_FAUST glares wildly round him._
+
+     MEPH. Wilt thou grasp after a thunderbolt? 'Tis well that it
+     was not given to you miserable mortals!...
+
+     FAUST. Take me to her! She _shall_ be free!... Take me to
+     her, I say, and liberate her!
+
+     MEPH. I will take thee to her--and do what I _can_ do.
+     Listen! Have I all power in heaven and on earth?--I will
+     becloud the jailer's senses. Then do thou get possession of
+     the keys, and lead her forth with human hand. I will keep
+     watch.--The magic steeds will be at hand ... I will carry
+     you off. So much lies in my power.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *
+
+     _Night. The open country. FAUST and MEPHISTOPHELES
+     galloping past on black horses. They pass a group of
+     witches busy round their cauldron. They reach the prison.
+     Within is heard the voice of GRETCHEN singing an old
+     plaintive ballad. FAUST listens:_
+
+     'She dreams not' (he says) 'that her loved one is
+     listening, and hears her chains rattle and the straw as it
+     rustles.'
+
+[_He unlocks the prison door and steps in._
+
+     GRETCHEN (_crouching into her bed of straw_). Woe, woe--they
+     are coming! Bitter death!
+
+     FAUST. Hush! hush! I am come to free thee.
+
+     GRETCHEN (_grovelling before him_). If thou art a man, O
+     pity my distress!
+
+     FAUST. Thou wilt awaken the watchmen with thy cries. [_He
+     seizes her chain to unlock it._
+
+     GRETCHEN (_kneeling_). Who has given you, heads-man, this
+     power over me? You have come for me already at midnight.
+     Pity me, and let me live! Is to-morrow morning not soon
+     enough? And I am still so young--and I must die! Fair was I
+     too, and that was my ruin. Pity me! What harm have I ever
+     done to thee! I never saw thee before in all my life.
+
+     FAUST. Can I endure this misery?
+
+     GRETCHEN. I am wholly in your power. But let me first suckle
+     my child. I held it in my bosom all the night. They took it
+     from me, to vex me, and _now_ they say I've killed it....
+     And I shall never be happy any more!
+
+     FAUST (_kneels beside her_). He that loves thee kneels
+     before thee.
+
+     GRETCHEN. O let us kneel and call upon the saints. But ...
+     ah!... Look!... Under those steps, under the threshold, hell
+     is flaming. The Evil One is raging there so furiously.
+     Listen, how he roars and thunders!
+
+     FAUST. Gretchen! Gretchen!
+
+     GRETCHEN (_listening_). That was the voice of my friend!
+     Where is he? I heard him call.... Right through the howling
+     and uproar of hell, through the horrid laughter of the
+     devils, I recognized that sweet loving tone.
+
+     FAUST. It is I.
+
+     GRETCHEN. Thou!... O say it once more! (_Clasping him._) It
+     is! it is he! Where is now all my pain? Where is the anguish
+     of the dungeon and the chain?
+
+     FAUST. Come! Come with me!
+
+     GRETCHEN. O stay!... I am so happy at thy side.... What! not
+     one kiss!... Ah, woe, thy lips are cold. Where is all thy
+     love? Who has stolen it from me?
+
+     FAUST. Come! Follow!... Be courageous, loved one! Come with
+     me!
+
+     GRETCHEN. Thou art loosening my chain.... Know'st thou, my
+     friend, _whom_ thou art releasing?
+
+     FAUST. Come, come! Night is already on the wane.
+
+     GRETCHEN. My mother I have killed. I have drowned my child.
+     Was it not given to thee and to me? Yes, to thee too.... And
+     thou art really here! Thou! I can scarce believe it. Give me
+     thy hand--thy dear hand! _Ah_, but it is wet. Wipe it, wipe
+     it! It looks like blood upon it. O God, what hast thou done!
+     Put up thy sword, I beg thee! Put it away!
+
+     FAUST. Let the past be past. Thou art killing me.
+
+     GRETCHEN. No--_thou_ must live!... I will tell thee about
+     the graves that thou must provide to-morrow. Give mother
+     the best place, and brother close to her--and me a little on
+     one side ... only not too far away. And lay the little one
+     in my bosom.... No one else shall lie with me. To cling to
+     thy side, that was once such sweet blissful joy ... but I
+     seem no longer able ... as if I had to force myself, and as
+     if thou didst thrust me back.... And yet it _is_ thou, and
+     thou look'st so kind and good.
+
+     FAUST. If thou feel'st that it is I, then come!
+
+     GRETCHEN. Out _there_?
+
+     FAUST. To freedom!
+
+     GRETCHEN. I dare not. For me there is no hope more. What is
+     the use to flee? They are lurking after me.... It's so
+     wretched to have to beg, and that too with a bad conscience.
+     It's so wretched to wander about in strange lands ... and
+     they'll catch me all the same.
+
+     FAUST. I shall be with thee.
+
+     GRETCHEN. _Quick! Quick!_ Save it! Save my child!... Onward!
+     Right up that path alongside the stream ... over the bridge
+     ... there!... into the wood.... There! to the left! there,
+     where the plank lies--in the pond! Catch hold of it! Catch
+     it! It's rising!... It's struggling! Save it! save it!
+
+     FAUST. Bethink thyself! One step and thou art free!
+
+     GRETCHEN. If only we were over that hill!... There's mother
+     sitting there on a stone. (Ah! what was that, like an icy
+     hand, grasping my hair?) ... She sits and wags with her
+     head--she does not beckon or nod to us ... her head droops
+     so heavily. Yes, she slept so long, and she will wake no
+     more. She slept that we might have joy. Ah, those were happy
+     times!
+
+     FAUST. No entreaty avails--no words are of use. I shall have
+     to carry thee away. [_Seizes hold of her._
+
+     GRETCHEN. _Let me go!_ I will not suffer violence. Seize not
+     hold of me so murderously. All _else_ I did for _love_ of
+     thee.
+
+     FAUST. The day is dawning! Dearest! dearest!
+
+     GRETCHEN. _Day?_ Yes--the day is coming! The last day is
+     dawning! It was to have been my wedding day. Woe to my
+     wreath! But what is, must be! We shall see each other again
+     ... but not at the dance! The crowd is thronging.... One
+     hears no word.... The square, the streets, cannot contain
+     them.... The bell is tolling--the staff is broken.... They
+     seize me! They bind me fast! I am being dragged already to
+     the block! Each feels the axe at his own neck as its keen
+     blade flashes down on _mine_ ... and the world lies dark and
+     silent as the grave.
+
+     FAUST. O that I never had been born!
+
+     MEPH. (_appears at the door_). Come! or you are lost!...
+     Foolish, useless hesitation--delaying and gossiping! My
+     horses are shuddering and the morning twilight breaks.
+
+     GRETCHEN (_seeing MEPHISTOPHELES_). What is this that rises
+     from the ground? He! _He!_ Send him away! What does _he_
+     want at this holy spot?
+
+     MEPH. (_to FAUST_). Come! come! or I shall leave you in the
+     lurch.
+
+     GRETCHEN. I am thine, Father--save me! Ye angels, holy
+     cohorts, encamp around me and defend me! (_To FAUST._)
+     Heinrich, I shrink from thee in horror.
+
+     MEPH. She is judged.
+
+     VOICE FROM ABOVE. She is saved.
+
+     MEPH. _to_ FAUST. Here! to me!
+
+[_Disappears with FAUST._
+
+     [_A VOICE FROM WITHIN--the voice of GRETCHEN--calls on the
+     name of him she once loved--of him who has robbed her of
+     happiness and life itself. Fainter and fainter it calls,
+     then dies away into silence._
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+GOETHE'S 'FAUST'
+
+
+PART II
+
+
+The picture which Goethe has given us in _Faust_ is in its main outlines
+the picture of Goethe's own life. The Faust of Part I is the Goethe of
+early days--of the Sturm und Drang period--the Goethe of _Werther's
+Leiden_, of _Goetz_, of _Prometheus_, of Gretchen, Lotte, Annette,
+Friederike and Lili; the Faust of the earlier scenes of Part II is
+Goethe at the ducal court of Weimar; the Faust of the _Helena_ is Goethe
+in Italy, Goethe at Bologna, standing in ecstatic veneration before what
+was then believed to be Raphael's picture of St. Agatha, or wandering
+through the Colosseum at Rome, or writing his _Iphigenie_ on the shores
+of the Lago di Garda; and the Faust of the last act of all is Goethe
+reconciled to life and finding a certain measure of peace and happiness
+in his home, in the sympathy of his good-natured but unrefined wife and
+of others whom he loved, as well as in his scientific and philosophical
+studies--until he seals up the MS. of his great poem and (to use his own
+words) 'regards his life-work as ended and rests in the contemplation of
+the past,' and then, a few months later, passes away from earth,
+murmuring as he dies 'More light!'
+
+It will be remembered that at the end of Part I Faust is dragged away by
+Mephistopheles and leaves poor Gretchen to her doom. The fatal axe has
+now fallen. Gretchen is dead.
+
+In the opening scene of Part II we find him 'lying on a grassy bank,
+worn out and attempting to sleep.' A considerable time has evidently
+elapsed--a time doubtless of bitter grief and of the fiercest accusation
+against his evil counsellor, that part of his human nature which is
+represented by Mephistopheles and from which even in the last hour of
+his life (as we shall see) he confesses it to be impossible wholly to
+free himself:
+
+    Daemonen, weiss ich, wird man schwerlich los.
+    Das geistig-strenge Band is nicht zu trennen.
+
+'From demons it is, I know, scarce possible to free oneself. The
+spiritual bond is too strong to break.'
+
+But it is not from grief or self-accusation that Faust is to gain new
+inspiration. It is from the healing power of Nature--in which Goethe
+believed far more than in remorse.
+
+The scene amidst which Faust is now lying reminds one of some Swiss
+valley. The rising sun is pouring a flood of golden light over the
+snow-fields of the distant mountains and down from the edge of an
+overhanging precipice is falling a splendid cataract, such as the
+Reichenbach or the Staub-bach, amidst whose spray gradually forms
+itself, as the sunshine touches it, an iridescent bow, brightening and
+fading, but hanging there immovable. Through this scene are flitting
+elfin forms--Ariel and his fays--singing to the liquid tones of Aeolian
+harps and lapping Faust's world-worn senses in the sweet harmonies of
+Nature, tenderly effacing the memories of the past and inspiring him
+with new hopes and new strength to face once more the battle of life.
+
+He watches the rising sun, but blinded by excess of light he turns away,
+unable to gaze upon the flaming source of life, as erst he had turned
+from the apparition of the Earth-spirit. He seeks to rest his dazzled
+eyes in reflected light (a metaphor used, as you may remember, also by
+Socrates in the parable of the Cave)--in the sun-lit mountain slopes,
+the pine-woods and the glittering walls of rock, and in the colours of
+the foam-bow suspended amidst the spray of the swift down-thundering
+cataract. In the ever-changing colours but motionless form of this bow
+hanging over the downward rush of the torrent Faust finds a symbol of
+human life suspended with its ever-varying hues above the stream of
+time.
+
+It is one of the truest and the most beautiful of all similitudes, this
+of pure sunlight refracted and broken into colours, symbolizing the One
+and the Many, the perfect and the imperfect, the eternal and the
+temporal. Doubtless you are already thinking of Shelley's magnificent
+lines:
+
+    The One remains, the Many change and pass;
+      Heaven's light for ever shines, Earth's shadows fly,
+    Life, like a dome of many-coloured glass,
+      Stains the white radiance of eternity.
+
+Into such variegated scene of reflected and refracted light Faust is now
+entering. He has passed through the 'little world' of personal
+feeling--the world of the One, of the heart, and he is entering what
+Mephistopheles calls the 'greater world' (for greater it appears to be
+from the Mephistophelean standpoint)--the world of the 'many,' of
+politics and ethics and art and literature and society--the world whose
+highest ideal is success, or, at the best, the 'greatest good of the
+greatest number' and the evolution of that terrible ghoul the so-called
+Super-man.
+
+It is at the court of a German Kaiser that Faust first makes trial of
+this so-called greater world. The young monarch has lately returned from
+Italy, where, as was once customary, he had been crowned by the Pope
+with the iron Lombard crown. By his extravagances he has already emptied
+the imperial coffers. His Chancellor, his Treasurers, his Paymasters are
+all at the verge of despair, and the Empire is on the brink of
+bankruptcy. To add to these misfortunes (perhaps the greatest of them in
+the opinion of the young Kaiser) the court-fool has tumbled downstairs
+and has broken his neck; so at least it is believed; but cats and fools
+have a way of falling on their feet, and this fool turns up again later.
+Meanwhile however Mephistopheles presents himself and is accepted as a
+_locum tenens_. To him the Kaiser turns for advice, and Mephistopheles
+proposes a clever expedient--meant as a satire on modern systems of
+finance and State security. He suggests that, as the land belongs to the
+Kaiser, and as in the ground there are doubtless great quantities of
+hidden treasures, buried in olden times, the Kaiser should, on the
+security of these hidden and as yet undiscovered treasures, issue
+'promises to pay'--in other words paper money. This is done, and
+suddenly the imperial court, in spite of its empty coffers, finds itself
+in affluence. The young Kaiser, delighted at the opportunity of
+indulging his taste for display and extravagance, decides on holding a
+masquerade, such as he had lately witnessed at the Roman Carneval.
+
+The description of this great court masquerade occupies a considerable
+space in Goethe's drama, and is generally looked upon by the
+commentators as one of the least successful parts of _Faust_. The
+question is, how are we to estimate _success_ in such a matter? For
+myself I confess that I find this masquerade scene tedious and irksome,
+and can with difficulty read it through; but is not this just the effect
+that Goethe wished to produce? Is not this just the effect that society,
+with all its masquerades and mummeries, inevitably produces on any one
+who, like Faust and with Faust's ideals and aspirations, is making trial
+of life in order to discover under what conditions it is worth living?
+Instead of telling us in so many words that Faust makes trial of all the
+pomps and vanities of fashionable society and finds them utterly empty
+and ridiculous, fatal to all true life and disgusting to all true
+manliness, Goethe gives us a picture of this tiresome foolish scene,
+with all its absurdities and falsities and trumpery grandeurs, amidst
+which our friend Mephistopheles is so entirely in his element, and where
+Faust, with evident self-contempt and disgust, forces himself for a
+moment to play a part. The various elements of fashionable society--and,
+as a contrast, certain very unfashionable elements--are introduced under
+the disguise of these masked figures. Marketable belles and heiresses
+in the guise of flower-girls offer their charms and their fortunes in
+the form of flowers and fruits to the highest bidder. The anxious mother
+is there with her daughters, hoping that among so many fools _one_ may
+be at last secured. Idlers, parasites, toadies, club-frequenters and
+diners-out are there in the masks of court-fools, and buffoons. The
+working man, the trade-unionist and the striker, comes marching amidst
+this scene of revelry, forcing his way through the ranks of consternated
+society, roughly asserting the sole nobility of labour and demanding the
+overthrow of the aristocrat and the capitalist--no new cry, as you see!
+Indeed it is as old as Rome and Athens and Babylon--as old, almost, as
+humanity itself. Then appear the Graces, symbols of the refinements and
+elegancies of life, and the Fates, symbolizing the powers of Order and
+Law, and the Furies, the types of revolution and war, and a huge
+elephant, the incorporation of the unwieldy State or Public, reminding
+one of the 'Leviathan' of the philosopher Hobbes, and Thersites (that
+evil-tongued mischief-maker described by Homer) representing
+society-scandal and calumny. Then comes a chariot whose charioteer is a
+beautiful boy, representing art or poetry. He is the same Euphorion whom
+we shall meet later as the son of Faust and Helen, and identical with
+Byron. On the chariot is enthroned Faust as Plutus the God of Money, and
+behind him as groom or armour-bearer sits Mephisto, an emaciated
+hollow-eyed apparition denoting Avarice. Nymphs, Fauns, Satyrs and
+Gnomes--types of the powers of Nature--attend the car and do homage to
+the God of Money. The gnomes offer to show their master Plutus a
+subterranean treasure-horde of molten gold. He approaches too close and
+his beard catches fire. In a few moments an immense conflagration
+spreads through the crowds of revellers, which would have ended in a
+terrible catastrophe (such as had actually happened at the French court
+shortly before Goethe wrote this scene, and such as happened some
+fifteen years ago in Paris at some bazaar) had not Faust with the help
+of Mephistopheles extinguished the flames by the aid of magic.
+
+The young Kaiser now demands from Faust that he shall give the court a
+display of his magic arts. He commands him to raise the shades of Paris
+and Helen. Faust applies to Mephisto, but he professes himself unable to
+raise the shades of classical heroes and heroines. 'This heathen Greek
+folk,' he says, 'have their own hell and their own devils. _I_ have no
+power over them. Still--there _is_ a means.' He then tells Faust that he
+will have to descend to the 'Mothers,' 'die Muetter,' mysterious deities
+(mentioned by Greek authors) as worshipped in Sicily and dwelling in the
+inmost depths of the universe, at the very heart of Nature, beyond the
+conditions of Time and Space. He who will raise the shade of Helen, or
+ideal beauty, must descend first to the 'Mothers'--must enter the realm
+of the spiritual, the unconditioned, the ideal, to which there is no
+defined road, and to which even _thought_ cannot guide him. He must
+surrender himself in _contemplation_ and sink to the very centre of the
+world of appearances. Mephistopheles gives Faust a key, which glows and
+emits flames as he grasps it. Holding this key he will sink down to the
+realm of the Mothers, where he will find a glowing tripod (the symbol
+of that Triad or Trinity which plays so large a part in the old
+Pythagorean philosophy and in more than one religion). This tripod he is
+to touch with the key, and it will rise with him to the surface of the
+earth.
+
+The imperial court is assembled. A stage has been erected. The court
+astrologer announces the play and Mephistopheles is installed in the
+prompter's box. All is in expectation and excitement. Then on the stage
+is seen rising from the ground the form of Faust attended by the tripod.
+He touches the tripod with the glowing key. A dense mist of incense
+arises, and as it clears away is seen--Paris. His appearance is greeted
+by the enthusiastic comments of the court ladies, young and old, and
+criticized by the men courtiers--with evident jealousy. Helen then
+appears, and the comments and criticisms are reversed, female jealousy
+now having its turn. Faust stands entranced at the loveliness of Helen.
+In spite of the angry protests of Mephistopheles from the prompter's
+box, who tells him to keep to his role and not to be taken in by a mere
+phantom of his own raising. Faust, unable any longer to control himself
+when Paris attempts to carry off Helen, rushes forward to rescue her. A
+great explosion takes place and all is darkness. Faust has fallen
+senseless to the ground. Mephistopheles picks him up and carries him
+away--with contemptuous remarks.
+
+At the beginning of the next act we find Faust lying, still insensible,
+on his bed in his old room, where we first met him--his professor's
+study. His daring attempt to grasp ideal beauty has ended, as it often
+does end, and as it ended in Goethe's own case, in failure of a sudden
+and explosive nature. He is now to have an experience of a different
+nature. During the years while he has been making his first trial of the
+outer world, his old Famulus, Wagner, now professor in Faust's place,
+has been devoting _his_ whole time and energies to realising that dream
+of science--the chemical production of life.
+
+It is, says Professor Romanes, 'the dream of modern science that a
+machine _may_ finally be constructed so elaborate in its multiple play
+of forces that it would begin to show evidences of consciousness and
+mind'--mind and motion being, according to certain modern scientists,
+identical. Curiously enough a scientist of the same name--Wagner--who
+lived in the last century, did, like Faust's Famulus Wagner, in the same
+way devote his life to the production of a living organism--a
+'homunculus'--in the conviction, as he asserted, that 'in course of time
+chemistry is bound to succeed in producing organic bodies and in
+creating a human being by means of crystallization'--an assertion not
+very different from that of a still more trustworthy scientist, for
+Professor Huxley himself has told us that he lived in 'the hope and the
+faith that in course of time we shall see our way from the constituents
+of the protoplasm to its properties,' _i.e._ from carbonic acid, water,
+and ammonia to that mysterious thing which we call vitality or
+life--from the molecular motion of the brain to Socratic wisdom,
+Shakespearean genius, and Christian faith, hope and charity.
+
+In the background of the stage we see Faust still lying insensible on
+his bed. Mephistopheles comes forward muttering sarcastic comments on
+Faust's foolish infatuation. 'He whom Helen paralyzes,' he says,
+'doesn't come to his wits again so soon.' He then pulls the bell. The
+windows rattle and the walls shake, as with earthquake. Wagner's
+terrified Famulus appears. He says that his master, the Herr Professor,
+has locked himself up for days and nights together in his laboratory;
+that he is engaged in a most delicate and important operation, namely
+that of manufacturing a human being, and he really cannot be disturbed.
+Mephistopheles however sends him back to demand admittance. Meanwhile he
+dons Faust's professorial costume, which he finds hanging in its old
+place but infested with legions of moths, which buzz around him piping
+welcome to their old mate. Then he takes his seat in Faust's
+professorial chair, and the same scholar enters to whom as a timid
+'Fuchs,' or freshman, Mephistopheles had in the first Part of the play
+given his diabolic advice as to the choice of a profession. The scholar
+is _now_, after a course of University education, a match for the devil
+himself. He flouts poor Mephisto as a dried-up old pedant, not up to
+date with the new generation's aesthetic and literary self-conceits, or
+with its contempt for its elders--and for everything else except its own
+precious self. 'Youth and its genius,' he exclaims, 'are the only things
+of value; as soon as one is thirty years of age he's just as good as
+dead ... and it would be far better if all people at thirty were knocked
+on the head'; and he storms out of the room. Mephistopheles consoles
+himself with the fact that the devil is old enough to have seen a good
+many such new generations, with all their absurdities, their up-to-date
+fads and follies, pass away and give place to other forms of still more
+up-to-date and self-conceited absurdity.
+
+Mephisto now enters the laboratory, where Wagner is intently engaged in
+watching his chemical compound gradually crystallizing within a huge
+glass retort. As he watches, the outlines of a diminutive human being--a
+mannikin or 'homunculus'--become visible and rapidly gain distinct form.
+A tiny voice is heard issuing from the glass retort and addressing
+Wagner as 'Daddy' and Mephistopheles as 'Cousin'; and it is to the
+presence of this 'Cousin,' we may infer, rather than to his scientific
+'Daddy' that the Homunculus really owes his existence. With the
+connivance of Mephistopheles, the Mannikin, still in his glass retort,
+slips from the enamoured paternal grasp of Wagner, and floats through
+the air into the adjacent room, hovering above Faust, who is still
+asleep on his couch.
+
+As it hovers above the sleeper it begins to sing--to describe ravishing
+dreamland scenery--inspiring Faust with visions of sensuous loveliness.
+It then bids Mephistopheles wrap Faust in his magic mantle and prepare
+for an aerial flight.... 'Whither?' asks Mephistopheles. '_To Greece!_'
+is the answer: to the Pharsalian plain in Thessaly; and in spite of the
+protests of Mephistopheles (who has no taste for the land of classic
+art) he is forced to obey. The sleeping form of Faust is borne aloft,
+the Mannikin leading the way like a will-o'-the-wisp, gleaming within
+his glass retort. '_Und ich?_' exclaims poor old Wagner in piteous
+accents. '_Ach, du!_' says Homunculus, '_Du bleibst zu Hause--!_' 'You
+just stop at home, and grub away among your musty manuscripts, and work
+away at your protoplasms and your elixirs of life.' Thus, guided by the
+Homunculus, Faust and Mephistopheles set forth on their aerial journey
+to ancient Greece--to the land where the ideals of art have found their
+highest realization--in quest of Helen, the supreme type of all that the
+human mind has conceived as beautiful.
+
+It is often asked, and I think _we_ may fairly ask, what Goethe meant to
+symbolize by his Homunculus. You will have noticed that his material
+components (as the carbonic acid and ammonia of Professor Huxley's
+protoplasm) are supplied by his scientific 'Daddy,' but that the 'tertia
+vis,' that third power or 'spiritual bond' which combines his material
+components, is supplied by the supernatural presence of Mephistopheles.
+I believe this Homunculus to be a symbol of poetic genius or
+imagination, which uses the material supplied by plodding pedantry--by
+critical research, antiquarianism, scholarship, and science--slips from
+the hands of its poor enamoured Daddy, and flies off to the land of
+idealism. Here, as we shall see, the Mannikin breaks free from his glass
+retort and is poured out like phosphorescent light on the waves of the
+great ocean.
+
+But the quest for Helen, for ideal beauty, leads through scenes haunted
+by forms of weird and terrible nature--those forms in which the human
+imagination, as it gradually gains a sense of the supernatural and a
+sense of art, first incorporated its conceptions--forms, first, of
+hideous and terrific character: monstrous idols of Eastern and Egyptian
+superstition, Griffins, and Sphinxes, and bull-headed Molochs, and
+horned Astartes, and many-breasted Cybeles, till in the Hellenic race it
+rose to the recognition of the beautiful and bodied forth divinity in
+the human form divine, and found its highest ideal of beauty in Helen,
+divinely fair of women. This phase in Faust's development--this stage in
+his quest for beauty and truth--this delirium of his 'divine madness,'
+as Plato calls our ecstasy of yearning after ideal beauty, is symbolized
+by the classical _Walpurgisnacht_. (You remember the other
+_Walpurgisnacht_--that on the Blocksberg--which I described before.)
+
+Guided by the Mannikin, Faust and Mephistopheles arrive at the
+Pharsalian fields--the great plain of Thessaly, renowned for the battle
+of Pharsalus, in which Caesar conquered Pompey--renowned too as the
+classic ground of witches and wizards. Griffins, Sphinxes and Sirens
+meet them. They can tell Faust nothing about Helen, but they direct him
+to Cheiron the Centaur (a link, as it were, between the monstrous forms
+of barbarous oriental imagination and Hellenic art). Cheiron the Centaur
+has himself borne Helen on his back, and excites Faust's passion by the
+description of her beauty. He takes Faust to the prophetess Manto,
+daughter of the old blind Theban prophet Teiresias, and she conducts him
+to a dark fissure--a Bocca dell' Inferno--at the foot of Mount Olympus,
+such as that which you may have seen in the Sibyl's cave on Lake
+Avernus; and here (as once Orpheus did in search of Eurydice) he
+descends to the realms of the dead to seek the help of Persephone, Queen
+of Hades, in his quest for Helen. Meanwhile Mephisto has found that in
+spite of his distaste for classic art and beauty there are elements in
+the classical witches' sabbath not less congenial to him than those of
+the Blocksberg with its northern and more modern types of devilry and
+bestiality. He is enchanted with the ghoulish vampire Empusa and the
+monster Lamia, half-snake half-woman, and at length finds _his_ ideal of
+beauty in the loathsome and terrible Phorkyads, daughters of Phorkys, an
+old god of the sea. The Phorkyads are sometimes described as identical
+with, sometimes as sisters of, the Gorgons, and represent the climax of
+all that Greek imagination has created of the horrible. The three
+sisters are pictured in Greek mythology as possessing between them only
+one eye and one tooth, which they pass round for use. They dwelt in
+outer darkness, being too terrible for sun or moon to look upon. Even
+Mephistopheles is at first a little staggered by the sight, but he soon
+finds himself on familiar terms with them and ends by borrowing the form
+of one of them (she becoming for the time absorbed into her two
+sisters)--for as medieval devil he has no right of entree into that
+classical scene in which he and Faust are now to play their parts. It is
+therefore in the form of a Phorkyad or Gorgon that Mephisto will appear
+when we next meet him.
+
+Meanwhile the Homunculus has found congenial spirits among the
+sea-nymphs and sirens on the shores of the Aegean. He longs to gain
+freedom from his glass, in which he is still imprisoned. Nereus the
+sea-god is unable to help him, but sends him to his father Proteus, the
+great ocean prophet, who bears him out into the midst of the ocean. Here
+Galatea the sea-goddess (identical with Aphrodite, the sea-born symbol
+of the beauty of the natural-world) passes by in her chariot drawn by
+dolphins and surrounded by Nereids. The Homunculus in an ecstasy of
+love dashes himself against her chariot. The glass is shattered and he
+is poured forth in a stream of phosphorescent light over the waves--thus
+being once more made one with Nature.
+
+The theory that _water_ was the prime element, a theory advocated
+especially by the old Ionic philosopher Thales, was held by Goethe, who
+was a 'sedimentarist' in geological matters, and in this classical
+_Walpurgisnacht_ he has introduced, much to the annoyance of many
+critics, a dispute between Thales and other sages on the question
+whether the formation of the world was due to fire or water.
+
+We have now reached that part of _Faust_ which is known as the _Helena_.
+It was written before the rest of Part II, though doubtless when he
+wrote it Goethe had already conceived the general outline of the whole
+poem. Of the wonderful versatility of Goethe's genius no more striking
+example can be given than the sudden and complete change of scene, and
+not only scene but ideas and feelings, by which we are transported from
+the age of Luther and the court of a German Kaiser and the laboratory of
+a modern scientist back--some 3500 years or so--to the age of the
+Trojan war.
+
+Instead of extravagance and grotesqueness, instead of the diversity, the
+rich ornamentation, the heaven-soaring pinnacles and spires of Gothic
+imagination--we have in the _Helena_ sculpturesque repose, simplicity,
+dignity and proportion. It is as if we had been suddenly transported
+from some Gothic cathedral to the Parthenon, or to Paestum.
+
+I know no poet who in any modern language has reproduced as Goethe has
+done in his _Iphigenie_ and in the _Helena_ not only the external form
+but also the spirit of Hellenic literature. While reading the _Helena_
+we feel ourselves under the cloudless Grecian sky; we breathe the
+Grecian air with Helen herself.
+
+The scene is laid before the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. Helen,
+accompanied by a band of captive Trojan maidens, has been disembarked at
+the mouth of the river Eurotas by Menelaus, on his return from Troy, and
+has been sent forward to Sparta to make preparation for the arrival of
+her husband and his warriors. Once more after those long eventful years
+since she had fled to Troy with Paris she stands as in a dream before
+her own palace-home, dazed and wearied, her mind distraught with anxious
+thoughts; for during the long wearisome return across the Aegean sea her
+husband Menelaus has addressed no friendly word to her, but seemed
+gloomily revolving in his heart some deed of vengeance. She knows not if
+she is returning as queen, or as captive, doomed perhaps to the fate of
+a slave.
+
+She enters the palace alone. After a few moments she reappears,
+horror-struck and scarce able to tell what she has seen. Crouching
+beside the central hearth she has found a terrible shape--a ghastly
+haggard thing, like some phantom of hell. It has followed her. It stands
+there before her on the threshold of her palace. In terrible accents
+this Gorgon-like monster denounces her, recounting all the ruin that by
+her fatal beauty she had wrought, interweaving into the story the
+various legends connected with her past life--those mysterious legends
+that connect Helen not only with Paris and Menelaus but with Theseus and
+Achilles and with Egypt--legends of a second phantom-Helen, the 'double'
+of that Helen whom Menelaus has carried home from Troy--until alarmed
+and distracted, doubting her own identity, overwhelmed by anxiety about
+the future and by terror at the grisly apparition, she seems herself to
+be in truth fading away into a mere phantom, and sinks senseless to the
+ground. After a fierce altercation between the chorus of captive maidens
+and the Gorgon-shape (in whom you will have recognized our old friend
+Mephistopheles) Helen returns to consciousness. Then the
+Phorkyad-Mephistopheles tells her that the preparations which she has
+been ordered to make are in view of a sacrifice to be performed on the
+arrival of Menelaus and that she herself (Helen) is the destined victim.
+
+In despair Helen appeals to the Gorgon for advice, who bids her take
+refuge in the neighbouring mountains of Arcadia, where a robber
+chieftain has his stronghold. Under the guidance of Mephisto, who raises
+a thick mist, she and her maidens escape. They climb the mountain; the
+mists rise and they find themselves before the castle of a medieval
+bandit-prince, and it is Faust himself who comes forth to greet her and
+to welcome her as his queen and mistress. Faust, the symbol of the
+Renaissance and modern art, welcomes to his castle the ideal of Greek
+art and beauty.
+
+The stately Greek measures now give way to the love-songs of Chivalry
+and Romance--to the measures of the Minnesinger and the Troubadour.
+Faust kneels in homage before the impersonation of ideal beauty, and
+Helen feels that she is _now_ no longer a mere ideal, a mere phantom.
+She clings to her new, unknown lover, as to one who will make her
+realize her own existence. It is an allegory of modern art--the art of
+Dante, Giotto, Raphael, Shakespeare and Goethe--receiving as its queen
+the ideal of Greek imagination and inspiring, as it were, the cold
+statue with the warm vitality of a higher conception of chivalrous love
+and perfect womanhood.
+
+I have mentioned how the stately Greek measures in the _Helena_ give way
+to the metres of Romance and Chivalry. Perhaps it may be well to explain
+some of these various metres.
+
+The scene opens, as you know, with Helen's dignified and beautiful
+speech:
+
+    Bewundert viel und viel gescholten Helena.
+
+That is the well-known _iambic trimeter_, _i.e._ the metre of six feet
+(twelve syllables) used in all the speeches in Greek tragedy.
+
+Thus the _Oedipus Tyrannos_ of Sophocles begins:
+
+    [Greek: O tekna, Kadmou tou palai nea trophe]
+
+and so on. It has twelve syllables, mostly (iambics) as in our blank
+verse. But blank verse has only ten syllables: 'I cannot tell what you
+and other men.' If one adds two syllables one gets the Greek iambic
+verse, thus: 'I cannot tell what you and other men believe.' The Chorus
+in the _Helena_ uses various rhythms such as are found in the choruses
+of Greek tragedy:
+
+        Schweige, schweige,
+    Missblickende, missredende du!
+    Aus so graesslichen, einzahnigen
+    Lippen was enthaucht wohl
+    Solchem furchtbaren Greuelschlund!
+
+Then Mephistopheles, as the Phorkyad, when Helen falls fainting,
+addresses her suddenly in another measure--a longer verse, such as is
+sometimes used by the Greek tragedians and comedians when something new
+occurs in the play. It is called a _tetrameter_, and consists of fifteen
+syllables (mostly - U, called trochees). Thus, in Greek, [Greek: oi
+gerontes oi palaioi memphomestha te polei]--and in German:
+
+    Tritt hervor aus fluechtigen Wolken hohe Sonne dieses Tags--
+
+or the fine lines spoken by Helen:
+
+    Doch es ziemet Koeniginnen, allen Menschen ziemt es wohl,
+    Sich zu fassen, zu ermannen, was auch drohend ueberrascht.
+
+When Faust appears he begins to speak at once in modern blank verse of
+ten syllables, such as we know in Milton and Shakespeare and Schiller.
+One might have expected him to speak in some earlier romantic measure,
+to have used perhaps the metre of the old Nibelungenlied, as in
+
+    Es ist in alten Maehren wunders viel geseit,
+    Von Heleden lobebaeren, von grosser Arebeit,
+
+which is supposed to date from about 1150; or in Dante's _terza rima_,
+of about 1300, as
+
+    Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita.
+
+But blank verse is after all the metre _par excellence_ of the
+Renaissance, that is of the revival of Greek influence, and Goethe chose
+it for this reason.
+
+Now the Watchman Lynceus ('the keen-eyed,' as the word means--and you
+perhaps remember him as the watchman of the Argonauts on the good ship
+Argo) represents here the early pre-Renaissance poets of Italy and
+Provence and Germany--the Troubadours and Trouveres and Minnesinger, who
+were so surprised and dazzled by the sudden sunrise of the Renaissance
+with its wonderful new apparition of Greek art that they (as Lynceus in
+_Faust_) failed to announce its coming; and therefore Lynceus here
+speaks in a kind of early Troubadour metre, with _rime_. In classical
+poetry there is no rime. They did not like it; they even ridiculed it.
+For instance Cicero, the great orator, once tried to write poetry, and
+produced a line that said 'O fortunate Rome, when I was consul!' This
+was not only conceited of him but unfortunately the line contained a
+rime and this rime brought down an avalanche of ridicule on his head. 'O
+fortunatam natam me consule Romam' was this unfortunate line. Rime was
+probably first adopted by the monks in their medieval Latin hymns and
+was used by the Troubadours and early Italian poets when they began to
+write in the vulgar tongue. Dante uses it in his canzoni and sonnets
+and ballads, as well of course as in his great poem. So it is quite
+right to make Lynceus speak in rime. Helen of course has never heard
+rime before, and she turns to Faust and asks him what it is that sounds
+so strange and beautiful in this song of Lynceus; and she wants to know
+how _she_ too can learn the art. So Faust tells her just to try and the
+rimes will come of their own accord. But I will quote the passage, for
+it is very pretty; and I will add a rough translation.
+
+       Doch wuenscht' ich Unterricht warum die Rede
+       Des Manns mir seltsam klang, seltsam und freundlich--
+       Ein Ton scheint sich dem and'ren zu bequemen;
+       Und hat ein Wort zum Ohre sich gesellt,
+       Ein andres kommt, dem ersten liebzukosen....
+       So sage denn, wie spraech' ich auch so schoen.
+
+FAUST. Das ist gar leicht--es muss vom Herzen geh'n.
+       Und wenn die Brust von Sehnsucht ueberfliesst
+       Man sieht sich um, und fragt....
+
+HELEN.                    wer mitgeniesst.
+
+FAUST. Nun schaut der Geist nicht vorwaerts, nicht zurueck--
+       Die Gegenwart allein ...
+
+HELEN.                ist unser Glueck--
+
+FAUST. Schatz ist sie, Hochgewinn, Besitz und Pfand.
+       Bestaetigung, wer gibt sie?
+
+HELEN.                     Meine Hand.
+
+(HELEN. I fain would ask thee why the watchman's song
+       So strangely sounded--strange but beautiful.
+       Tones seemed to link themselves in harmony.
+       One word would come and nestle in the ear,
+       Then came another and caressed it there.
+       But say--how can I also learn the art?
+
+FAUST. Quite easily--one listens to one's heart,
+       And when its longings seem too great to bear
+       We look around for one ...
+
+HELEN.             our joy to share.
+
+FAUST. Not past nor future loving hearts can bless,
+       The _present_--
+
+HELEN.        is alone our happiness.
+
+FAUST. Before the prize of beauty, lo I stand,
+       But who assures the prize to me?
+
+HELEN.                     My hand!)
+
+In the midst of this life of chivalrous love and romance Faust and Helen
+pass a period of ecstatic bliss. But, as Goethe himself found, such
+ecstasies are only a passing phase. The end comes inevitably and
+suddenly. A son is born to them, Euphorion by name (the name of the
+winged son of Helen and Achilles, according to one legend). He is no
+common human child. As a butterfly from its chrysalis he bursts at once
+into fully developed existence. He is of enchanting beauty but wild and
+capricious; spurning the common earth he climbs ever higher and higher
+amidst the mountain crags, singing ravishing melodies to his lyre. He
+reaches the topmost crag and casts himself into the air. A flame
+flickers upwards, and the body of a beautiful youth 'in which one seems
+to recognize a well-known form' falls to the ground, at the feet of
+Faust and Helen.
+
+Euphorion symbolizes modern poetry, and the well-known form is that of
+Byron. For a moment the body lies there; it then dissolves in flame,
+which ascends to heaven, and a voice is heard calling on Helen to
+follow.
+
+Yes, she must follow. As flame she must return to her home in the
+Empyrean--the home of ideal beauty and all other ideals. However much we
+strive to realize ideal beauty in art or in our lives, however we may
+hold it to our hearts as a warm and living possession, it always escapes
+our grasp. The short-lived winged child of poetic inspiration gleams but
+for a moment and disappears, as a flame flickering back to its native
+empyrean. And she, the mother, she too must follow, leaving us alone to
+face the stern reality of life and of death.
+
+In the embrace of Faust Helen melts away into thin air, leaving in his
+arms her robe and veil. These change into a cloud, which envelops him,
+raises him into the air and bears him also away. The Phorkyad picks up
+Euphorion's lyre and mantle; he steps forward and addresses the
+audience, assuring them that in the leavings of poetic genius he has got
+enough to fit out any number of modern poets, and is open to a bargain.
+He then swells up to a gigantic height, removes the Gorgon-mask, and
+reveals himself as Mephistopheles once more the northern modern devil;
+and the curtain falls.
+
+When it rises for the Fourth Act we see a craggy mountain peak before
+us. A cloud approaches, and deposits Faust on the topmost crag. It
+lingers for a time, assuming wondrous shapes and then gradually melts
+away into the blue. Faust gazes at it. In its changing outlines he seems
+to discern first the regal forms of Olympian goddesses, of Juno, of
+Leda--then of Helen. But they fade away and, ere it disappears, the
+cloud assumes the likeness of that other half-forgotten human form which
+once had aroused in his heart that which he now feels to have been a
+love far truer and deeper than all his passion for ideal beauty--that
+'swiftly felt and scarcely comprehended' love for a human heart which,
+as he now confesses to himself, 'had it been retained would have been
+his most precious possession.'
+
+A seven-league boot now passes by--followed in hot haste by another. Out
+of the boots steps forth Mephistopheles. He asks contemptuously if Faust
+has had enough of heroines and all such ideal folly. He cannot
+understand why Faust is still dissatisfied with life. Surely he has seen
+enough of its pleasures. He advises him, if he is weary of court life,
+to build himself a Sultan's palace and harem and live in retirement--as
+Tiberius did on the island of Capri. 'Not so,' answers Faust. 'This
+world of earthly soil Still gives me room for greater action. I feel new
+strength for nobler toil--Toil that at length shall bring me
+satisfaction.'
+
+He has determined to devote the rest of his life to humanity, to the
+good of the human race. It is a project with which Mephistopheles
+naturally has little sympathy. But he is forced to acquiesce, and, being
+bound to serve Faust even in this, he suggests a plan. The young Kaiser
+is at present in great difficulties. He is hard pressed by a rival
+Emperor--a pretender to the Imperial crown. Mephisto will by his magic
+arts secure the Kaiser the victory over this pretender, and then Faust
+will claim as recompense a tract of country bordering on the ocean. Here
+by means of canals and dykes, dug and built by demonic powers, Faust is
+to reclaim from the sea a large region of fertile country and to found a
+kind of model republic, where peace and prosperity and every social and
+political blessing shall find a home. The plan is carried out. At the
+summons of Mephistopheles appear three gigantic warriors by whose help
+the battle is won, and Faust gains his reward--the stretch of land on
+the shore of the ocean. And he is not the only gainer. The Archbishop
+takes the opportunity of extracting far more valuable concessions of
+land from the young Kaiser as penance for his having associated himself
+with powers of darkness. The prelate even extracts the promise of tithes
+and dues from all the land still unclaimed by Faust. As Mephistopheles
+aptly remarks, the Church seems to have a good digestion.
+
+Many years are now supposed to elapse. Faust has nearly completed his
+task of expelling the sea and founding his ideal state. What had been a
+watery waste is now like the garden of Eden in its luxuriant fertility.
+Thousands of industrious happy mortals have found in this new country a
+refuge and a home. Ships, laden with costly wares, throng the ports. On
+an eminence overlooking the scene stands the castle of Faust, and not
+far off are a cottage and a chapel. On this scene the last act opens. A
+wanderer enters. He is seeking the cottage which once used to stand
+here, on the very brink of the ocean. It was here that he was
+shipwrecked: here, on this very spot, the waves had cast him ashore:
+here stands still the cottage of the poor old peasant and his wife who
+had rescued him from death. But now the sea is sparkling in the blue
+distance and beneath him spreads the new country with its waving
+cornfields. He enters the cottage and is welcomed by the poor old
+couple (to whom Goethe has given the names Philemon and Baucis, the old
+peasant and his wife who, according to the Greek legend, were the only
+Phrygians who offered hospitality to Zeus, the King of the Gods, as he
+was wandering about in disguise among mortals).
+
+Faust comes out on to the garden terrace of his castle. He is now an old
+man--close upon a hundred years of age. He gazes with a feeling of
+happiness and satisfaction at the scene that lies below him--the wide
+expanse of fertile land, the harbours and canals filled with shipping.
+Suddenly the bell in the little chapel begins to ring for Vespers.
+
+Faust's happiness is in a moment changed into bitterness and anger. This
+cottage, this chapel, this little plot of land are as thorns in his
+side: they are the Naboth's vineyard which he covets and which alone
+interferes with his territorial rights. He has offered large sums of
+money, but the peasant will not give up his home.
+
+Mephistopheles and his helpers (the same three gigantic supernatural
+beings who took part in the battle) appear. Faust vents his anger and
+chagrin with regard to the peasant and the irritating ding-dong-dell of
+the vesper bell. He commissions Mephistopheles to persuade the peasant
+to take the money and to make him turn out of his wretched hut.
+Mephistopheles and his mates go to carry out the order. A few moments
+later flames are seen to rise from the cottage and chapel.
+Mephistopheles returns to relate that the peasant and the wanderer
+proved obstinate: in the scuffle the wanderer had been killed; the
+cottage had caught fire, and old Philemon and his wife had both died of
+terror.
+
+Faust turns upon Mephistopheles with fierce anger and curses him. 'I
+meant exchange!' he exclaims. 'I meant to _make it good with money_! I
+meant not robbery and murder. I curse the deed. Thou, not I, shalt bear
+the guilt.'
+
+Here I do not find it easy to follow Faust's line of argument. Fair
+exchange is certainly said to be no robbery--but this theory of 'making
+everything good with money' is one which the average foreigner is apt to
+attribute especially to the average Britisher, and it does not raise
+Faust in one's estimation. I suppose he thinks he is doing the poor old
+couple a blessing in disguise by ejecting them out of their wretched
+hovel and presenting them with a sum of money of perhaps ten times its
+value.
+
+Possibly Goethe means it to be a specimen of the kind of mistake that
+well-meaning theoretical philanthropists are apt to commit with their
+Juggernaut of Human Progress. Faust is filled with great philanthropic
+ideas--but perhaps he is a little apt to ignore the individual. Anyhow
+his better self 'meant not robbery and murder' and is perhaps quite
+justified in cursing its demonic companion and giving him the whole of
+the guilt.
+
+The scene changes. It is midnight. Faust, sleepless and restless, is
+pacing the hall in his castle. Outside, on the castle terrace, appear
+four phantom shapes clothed as women in dusky robes. They are Want,
+Guilt, Care, and Need. The four grey sisters make halt before the
+castle. In hollow, awe-inspiring tones they recite in turn their
+dirge-like strains: they chant of gathering clouds and darkness, and of
+their brother--Death. They approach the door of the castle hall. It is
+shut. Within lives a rich man, and none of them may enter, not even
+Guilt--none save only Care. She slips through the keyhole. Faust feels
+her unseen presence.
+
+'Is any one here?' he asks.
+
+'The question demandeth _Yes_!'
+
+'And thou ... who art thou?'
+
+''Tis enough that I am here.'
+
+'Avaunt!'
+
+'I am where I should be.'
+
+Faust defies the phantom. She, standing there invisible, recites in
+tones like the knell of a passing-bell the fate of a man haunted by
+Care: how he gradually loses sight of his high ideals and wanders
+blindly amid the maze of worldly illusions--how he loses faith and
+joy--how he starves amidst plenty--has no certain aim in life--burdening
+himself and others, breathing air that chokes him, living a phantom
+life--a dead thing, a death-in-life--supporting himself on a hope that
+is no hope, but despair--never content, never resigned, never knowing
+what he should do, or what he himself wishes.
+
+'Accursed spectres!' exclaims Faust. 'Thus ye ever treat the human race.
+From demons, I know, it is scarce possible to free oneself. But _thy_
+power, O Care--so great and so insidious though it be, I will _not_
+recognize it!'
+
+'So _feel_ it now!' answers the phantom. 'Throughout their whole
+existence men are mostly _blind_--So let it be at last with thee!'
+
+She approaches, breathes in Faust's face, and he is struck blind.
+
+He stands there dazed and astounded. Thick darkness has fallen upon him.
+At last he speaks:
+
+    Still deeper seems the night to surge around me,
+    But in my inmost spirit all is light.
+    I'll rest not till the finished work has crown'd me.
+    God's promise--that alone doth give me might.
+
+He hastens forth, groping his way in blindness, to call up his workmen.
+His life is ending and he must end his work. It is midnight, but the
+light within him makes him think the day has dawned. In the courtyard
+there are awaiting him Mephistopheles and a band of Lemurs--horrible
+skeleton-figures with shovels and torches. They are digging his grave.
+Faust mistakes the sound for that of his workmen, and incites them to
+labour. He orders the overseer, Mephistopheles, to press on with the
+work ... to finish the last great moat--or 'Graben.'
+
+'_Man spricht_,' answers Mephistopheles _sotto voce_,
+
+    'Man spricht, wie man mir Nachricht gab,
+     Von keinem _Graben_--doch vom Grab.'
+
+It is no moat, no Graben, that is now being dug, but a grave--a Grab.
+
+Standing on the very verge of his grave, Faust, reviewing the memories
+of his long life, feels that _at last_, though old and blind, with no
+more hopes in earthly existence, he has won peace and happiness in
+having worked for others and in having given other human beings a
+measure of independence and of that true liberty and happiness which are
+gained only by honest toil. He alone truly _possesses_ and can _enjoy_
+who has made a thing his own by earning it.
+
+    Yes, to this thought I hold with firm persistence;
+    The last result of wisdom stamps it true;
+    He only earns his freedom and existence
+    Who daily conquers them anew.
+    And such a throng I fain would see--
+    Would stand on a free soil, with people free.
+
+Standing there, on the very edge of his new-dug grave he blesses the
+present moment and bids it stay. The fatal words are spoken and
+according to the compact his life must end.
+
+He sinks lifeless to the ground. The Lemurs lay him in the open grave.
+Mephistopheles, triumphant, looks on and exclaims:
+
+    No joy could sate him, no delight suffice.
+    To grasp at empty shades was his endeavour.
+    The latest, poorest emptiest moment--this--
+    Poor fool, he tried to hold it fast for ever.
+    Me he resisted in such vigorous wise;
+    But Time is lord--and there the old man lies!
+    The clock stands still.
+
+'Stands still,' repeats a voice from heaven, 'still, silent, as the
+midnight.' 'It is finished,' says Mephistopheles. 'Nay. 'Tis but past,'
+answers the voice. 'Past!' exclaims Mephistopheles; 'how _past_ and yet
+not _finished_?' ... He is enraged at the suspicion that life, though
+past, may not be _finished_--that Faust's human soul may _yet_ elude
+that hell to which he destines it ... that of annihilation.
+
+The Lemurs group themselves round the grave and chant with hollow
+voices, such as skeletons may be supposed to have, a funeral dirge.
+Meantime Mephistopheles is busy summoning his demons to keep watch over
+the dead body, lest the soul should escape like a mouse, or flicker up
+to heaven in a little flamelet. Hideous forms of demons, fat and thin,
+with straight and crooked horns, tusked like boars and with claws like
+vultures, come thronging in, while the jaw of hell opens itself, showing
+in the distance the fiery city of Satan.
+
+At this moment a celestial glory is seen descending from heaven and
+voices of angels are heard singing a song of triumph and salvation. They
+approach ever nearer--Mephistopheles rages and curses, but in vain. They
+come ever onward, casting before them roses, the flowers of Paradise,
+which burst in flame and scorch the demons, who, rushing at their
+angelic adversaries with their hellish prongs and forks and launching
+vainly their missiles of hell-fire, are hurled back by an invisible
+power and gradually driven off the stage, plunging in hideous ruin and
+combustion down headlong into the jaws of hell.
+
+Mephistopheles alone remains, foaming in impotent rage. He is surrounded
+by the choir of white-robed angels. He stands powerless there, while
+they gather to themselves Faust's immortal part and ascend amidst songs
+of triumph to heaven.
+
+Some of us, perhaps most of us--in certain moods at least--feel
+inclined to close the book here, as we do with _Hamlet_ at the words
+'the rest is silence.' And this feeling is all the stronger when we have
+witnessed the stage decorator's pasteboard heaven, where Apostles and
+Fathers are posed artistically in rather perilous situations amid rocks
+and pine-trees, or balance themselves with evident anxiety mid-air on
+pendent platforms representing clouds. Altogether this stage-heaven is a
+very uncomfortable and depressing kind of place.
+
+But when read in Goethe's poem and regarded as an allegorical vision the
+scene has a certain impressive grandeur, and some of the hymns of
+adoration and triumph are of exceeding beauty.
+
+This Scene in Heaven opens with the songs of the three great Fathers,
+the Pater Ecstaticus, Pater Profundus, and Pater Seraphicus, symbolizing
+the three stages of human aspiration, namely ecstasy, contemplation and
+seraphic love. The Seraphic Father is of course St. Francis of Assisi.
+In heaven, as he did on earth, he sings of the revelation of Eternal
+Love.
+
+Angels are now seen ascending and bearing Faust's immortal part, and as
+they rise they sing:
+
+    The noble spirit now is free
+      And saved from evil scheming.
+    Whoe'er aspires unweariedly
+      Is not beyond redeeming,
+    And if he feels the grace of Love
+      That from on high is given
+    The blessed hosts that wait above
+      Shall welcome him to heaven.
+
+His yet unawakened soul is greeted by the heavenly choirs and by the
+three penitents, the Magdalene, the woman of Samaria and St. Mary of
+Egypt.
+
+Then appears 'timidly stealing forth' the glorified form of her who on
+earth was called Gretchen. In words that remind one of her former prayer
+of remorse and despair in the Cathedral she offers her petition to the
+Virgin:
+
+        O Mary, hear me!
+        From realms supernal
+        Of light eternal
+    Incline thy countenance upon my bliss!
+        My loved, my lover,
+        His trials over
+    In yonder world, returns to me in this.
+
+The Virgin in her glory appears. She addresses Gretchen:
+
+    Come, raise thyself to higher spheres!
+    For he will follow when he feels thee near.
+
+Gretchen soars up to the higher heaven, and the soul of Faust, now
+awakening to consciousness, rises also heavenward following her, while
+the chorus of angels sings, in words the beauty and power of which I
+dare not mar by translation, telling how all things earthly are but a
+vision, and how in heaven the imperfect is made perfect and the
+inconceivable wins attainment, and how that which leads us upward and
+heavenward is immortal love.
+
+    Alles Vergaengliche
+    Ist nur ein Gleichnis;
+    Das Unzulaengliche,
+    Hier wird's Ereignis;
+    Das Unbeschreibliche,
+    Hier ist's getan;
+    Das Ewig-weibliche
+    Zieht uns hinan.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes:                                         |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Page 15: Full stop added after "dishes"                      |
+  | Page 117: "happended" amended to "happened"                  |
+  | Page 128: closing quote mark added after 'double'            |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Hyphenation has generally been standardized. However, when   |
+  | hyphenated and unhyphenated versions of a word each occur    |
+  | an equal number of times, both versions have been retained   |
+  | (out-rivalling/outrivalling; up to date/up-to-date).         |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Faust-Legend and Goethe's 'Faust', by
+H. B. Cotterill
+
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