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Ling Roth. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + a {text-decoration: none;} + + img {border: none;} + + em {font-style: italic;} + + ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + /* replace default underline with delicate gray line */ + + ins.greek {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted red;} + /* replace default underline with delicate red line */ + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-style: normal; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .listblock{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .amends {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .bbox {border: solid 2px; padding: 1em;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .dropcap {float: left; padding-right: 3px; font-size: 350%; line-height: 83%;} + /* Plain dropcaps */ + + .caption {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .captionpara {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;} + .captionpad {text-align: center; padding-bottom: 2em;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 2em;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: .2em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .tdl {text-align: left;} /* left align cell */ + .tdc {text-align: center;} /* center align cell */ + +/* tables, thick top border */ + .tdctbt {text-align: center; border-top: 2px black solid;} + .tdctbtbr {text-align: center; border-top: 2px black solid; border-right: 1px black solid;} + .tdctbtdbr {text-align: center; border-top: 2px black solid; border-right: double black;} + +/* tables, double top border */ + .tdcdbt {text-align: center; border-top: double black;} + .tdcdbtbr {text-align: center; border-top: double black; border-right: 1px black solid;} + .tdcdbtdbr {text-align: center; border-top: double black; border-right: double black;} + .tdrdbtbr {text-align: right; border-top: double black; border-right: 1px black solid;} + +/* tables, top border */ + .tdcbt {text-align: center; border-top: 1px black solid;} + .tdcbtbr {text-align: center; border-top: 1px black solid; border-right: 1px black solid;} + .tdcbtdbr {text-align: center; border-top: 1px black solid; border-right: double black;} + +/* tables, border right */ + .tdcbr {text-align: center; border-right: 1px black solid;} + .tdcdbr {text-align: center; border-right: double black;} + .tdrbr {text-align: right; border-right: 1px black solid;} + +/* tables, thick bottom border */ + .tdctbb {text-align: center; border-bottom: 2px black solid;} + .tdctbbbr {text-align: center; border-bottom: 2px black solid; border-right: 1px black solid;} + .tdctbbdbr {text-align: center; border-bottom: 2px black solid; border-right: double black;} + .tdrtbbbr {text-align: right; border-bottom: 2px black solid; border-right: 1px black solid;} + +/* tables, bottom border */ + .tdcbb {text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px black solid;} + + .sig {text-align: right; margin-right: 4em;} /* signature aligned right */ + .address {margin-left: 4em;} /* address aligned left */ + + .centerpad {text-align: center; padding-top: 3em;} /* for padded centered material */ + + .tfrac {vertical-align: .4em; font-size: .6em;} /* upper digit in fraction */ + .bfrac {font-size: .6em;} /* lower digit in fraction */ + + .spacer {padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} /* small spacer for lining up dittoes */ + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms + +Author: H. Ling Roth + +Release Date: June 8, 2008 [EBook #25731] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS *** + + + + +Produced by Julie Barkley, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="bbox"> +<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>There is a small amount of Greek in this text, which may require adjustment +of your browser settings to display correctly. A transliteration of +each word is included. Hover your mouse over words underlined with a +<ins class="greek" title="like this">faint red dotted line</ins> to see +them.</p> + +<p>Text underlined with a <ins class="correction" title="like this">faint grey dotted line</ins> +has been amended; a list is also provided at the end of the text.</p> +</div> + + + +<h1 class="centerpad">Ancient Egyptian and<br /> +Greek Looms</h1> + + +<p class="centerpad">BY</p> + +<h2>H. LING ROTH</h2> +<p class="center">(<span class="smcap">Keeper</span>).</p> + + +<p class="centerpad">WITH 38 LINE BLOCK AND ONE COLLOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p class="centerpad">BANKFIELD MUSEUM, HALIFAX<br /> +APRIL 1913</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="center"> +<a href="#PREFACE"><b>Preface.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#I_Egyptian_Looms"><b>I. Egyptian Looms.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#II_The_Greek_Loom"><b>II. The Greek Loom.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#III_Conclusion"><b>III. Conclusion.</b></a><br /> +</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>Halifax, which is situated in the heart of the great textile trade +of Lancashire and Yorkshire, has been a home of the woollen manufacture +since the earliest time, and it is only meet, therefore, that its +museum should possess specimens of the tools used in the early days +of spinning, weaving, and cloth making generally. In spite of the +considerable progress made towards that end, many typical specimens +are still wanting, and, while we have plenty of material for the +study of weaving in various parts of the world, we are lacking in +everything relating to the industry in Ancient Egypt and Greece. +Failing specimens I have had recourse to illustrations, but the +Egyptian ones published by Cailliaud, Rosellini, Sir J. G. Wilkinson +and Lepsius, contradict each other in many important points, so that +those who study them find them practically useless for an understanding +of the art as carried on in the Nile lands. Fortunately, last +year, Mr. N. de G. Davies, the well-known Egyptologist, hearing of +my difficulty, very generously placed some of his copies of tomb +drawings at my disposal, and with this invaluable help I have been +enabled to complete the present paper, and to lay before Halifax +students some new details of manufacture bearing upon their staple +industry.</p> + +<p class="sig"><span class="smcap">H. Ling Roth.</span></p> + +<p class="address">Bankfield Museum, Halifax.<br /> +April 1913.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="I_Egyptian_Looms" id="I_Egyptian_Looms"></a><span class="smcap">I. Egyptian Looms.</span></h2> + +<h3>HORIZONTAL LOOMS.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></h3> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">I</span>N the tomb of Chnem-hotep, at Beni Hasan, there is a wall painting +of a horizontal loom with two weavers, women, squatting on +either side, and at the right in the background is drawn the figure of +the taskmaster. There are also figures represented in the act of +spinning, etc. For the present we are concerned with the weaving +only.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a> +<img src="images/aegl01.png" width="600" height="437" alt=""/> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 1.—Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the illustration in Cailliaud’s +<i>Recherches</i>, etc. Same size as published.</p> + +<p>Of this illustration, there appear to be six reproductions. We +have first of all, <a href="#Fig_1"><b>Fig. 1</b></a>, that of Fred. Cailliaud (<i>Recherches sur les +Arts et Métiers</i>, etc., Paris, 1831) with illustrations of drawings made +by himself in the years 1819 to 1822. His publication was followed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"><!-- Figures 2 and 3 in original --></a></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +by <a href="#Fig_2"><b>Fig. 2</b></a>, that of Sir J. G. Wilkinson (<i>Manners and Customs</i>, etc., London, +1837). Mr. John Murray, whose house has published Wilkinson’s +work from the first edition to the last, informs me that a few of the +drawings were made by George Scharf, afterwards Sir George Scharf, +Keeper of the National Portrait Gallery, but that most of them seem +to have been made by Joseph Bonomi, the well known Egyptologist. +Wilkinson’s woodcut, although clearly and neatly done, is on a very +small scale; nevertheless it admits of a fair comparison with those +reproduced on a larger scale.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a> +<img src="images/aegl02.png" width="600" height="243" alt="" /> +</div> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Key to image"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figs. 1 & 3. Weaving.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fig. 4. Male Overseer.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fig. 2. Loom.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="spacer">”</span> 5. Hackling.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="spacer">”</span> 3. Putting in the woof, but not by a shuttle thrown with the hand.</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="spacer">”</span> 6. Twisting the double threads for the warp.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>a</i> Weaving.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>b</i> Chief of Loom.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>c</i> Facing.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>d</i> Pulling out.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 2.—Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Sir J. G. Wilkinson’s <i>Manners and +Customs</i>, London, John Murray, 1878, Vol. I., p. 317. Same size as published.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a> +<img src="images/aegl03.png" width="600" height="428" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 3.—Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the illustration in Rosellini’s +<i>Monumenti</i> (Monumenti Civili), Plate XLI. Reduced one-fifth lineal of size published.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a> +<img src="images/aegl04.png" width="600" height="362" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 4.—Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Lepsius’ <i>Denkmäler</i>. Same size as +published.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a> +<img src="images/aegl05.png" width="400" height="256" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 5.—Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, +from Prof. Percy Newberry’s <i>Beni Hasan</i>, I. Plate +29. Same size as published.</p> + +<p>After him, <a href="#Fig_3"><b>Fig. 3</b></a>, N. F. J. B. Rosellini began the publication of +his great work (<i>I Monumenti dell’ Egitto</i>, Pisa, 1832-1844). The +similarity between the comparatively few drawings published by +Cailliaud and the very large number published by Rosellini is very +great. It is of course quite possible Rosellini may have made use of +some of Cailliaud’s drawings. Five years after Rosellini’s publication +came that of C. R. Lepsius (<i>Denkmäler</i>, Leipzig, 1849), <a href="#Fig_4"><b>Fig. +4</b></a>, his drawings having been made in the years 1842 to 1845. +Since the time of Lepsius until quite recent years I can trace +no further copying until we get the illustration, <a href="#Fig_5"><b>Fig. 5</b></a>, in Prof. +Percy Newberry’s <i>Beni Hasan</i>, London, 1910. In this work +the reproduction is about one twentieth of the original, or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"><!-- Figure 6 in original --></a></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +about three fifths of the size of that of Wilkinson, and unfortunately +so crude as not to be available for our present purpose.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> Lastly we +have the reproduction, <a href="#Fig_6"><b>Fig. 6</b></a>, from Mr. N. de Garis Davies’ drawing +made in 1903, and now first published by kind permission of Mr. +F. Ll. Griffith.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a> +<img src="images/aegl06.png" width="600" height="437" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 6.—Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep. Size of original: Height of the figures +9¼" = 24·4 cm. Drawn by Mr. N. de G. Davies, and now published for the first time by +permission of Mr. F. Ll. Griffith.</p> + +<p>In the various reproductions by the above explorers, the only three +which agree very closely are those of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. +The others vary considerably and in essentials do not agree with the +above nor with one another. The differences may in the first instance +be due to difficulties in copying the original in the tomb. Others may +be due to ignorance of detail on the part of the secondary copyist—the +man who prepared them for publication—so that he was unable to +follow up the clues on the drawings laid before him. The differences +may also be due to careless copying and to “touching up” of the +copies when made; they may be slightly due to deterioration and +obliteration of the original in the course of time.</p> + +<p>The <i>Encyclopædia Biblica</i> gives a variant from all six illustrations, +but approaching nearest to that of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. It +is misleading in so far that the drawing has been made to suit +Professor Kennedy’s idea as to what it should be.</p> + +<p>Some of the differences are of minor importance, but a comparison +will help materially to our understanding of the method of weaving +adopted by the Egyptians from the XIIth to the XIXth Dynasties, or +about B.C. 2000 to 1200. To go into details, and taking Mr. N. de G. +Davies’ illustration as our basis, we find slight differences in the shape +of the pegs B, B1, which are immaterial. A more pronounced difference +is seen in the way in which the threads are attached to the warp beam A. +Neither Wilkinson nor Lepsius carry these threads over the beam, the +former carrying them only as far as the laze threads C, while the latter +carries them up to a line drawn parallel to and below the beam; Cailliaud +and Rosellini carry them over the beam while Mr. Davies carries them +half way only. The object of this half carrying over is not clear. The +threads in chain-form at C are probably laze threads, apparently placed +there so that in case of any disarrangement of the warp threads the +weaver can from that point run her fingers along them and get them +disentangled. It has been suggested to me that this chain-form might +be a tension chain for taking up slack warp, but the former explanation +seems the more likely.</p> + +<p>All the drawings but Wilkinson’s show the warp threads converging +towards the breast beam; Wilkinson shows them parallel and +in Lepsius their convergence is excessive. There should be a slight +convergence shown, as in the course of weaving the threads get drawn +in, and in later forms of looms in semi-civilised countries we find an +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +endeavour to counteract this tendency by the use of a tool known as a +“temple.”</p> + +<p>The cross sticks D1, D2, look like laze rods. It may not be out +of place here to point out that in primitive weaving laze rods serve +two purposes, or one more than in the later somewhat more advanced +looms. They serve throughout to keep the warp threads in place, and +they serve to separate the odd threads from the even (1, 3, 5, 7 from +2, 4, 6, 8, &c.), and in so doing take the place of the fingers in making +the “shed,” <i>i.e.</i>, the opening through which the “weft (or woof)” +is passed, a function which in turn is usurped by the “heald (or +heddle).” The heddle therefore becomes a very important factor, and +Dr. H. G. Harrison by no means overstates the case when he says that +the development of the heddle is the most important step in the +evolution of the loom (Horniman Museum Handbooks, No. 10, pp. +47-49). We may now return to the drawing. Wilkinson shows the rod +D1 indistinctly and the left hand end only of D2. Lepsius’ artist +seems to have taken a liberty with D1 but in the right direction, by +making it more definitely into an early form of heddle—the loop and +rod—but he shows D2 the same as Cailliaud and Rosellini. Prof. +Kennedy argues that these rods are in the wrong position and that +D1 which is a heddle should be in the place of D2. Mr. Davies’ +drawing as well as those of <ins class="correction" title="Calliaud in original">Cailliaud</ins> and Rosellini show that D1 is a +heddle while D2 is shown to be a laze rod. Asiatic primitive looms, +like those from Borneo and Bhutan, have two laze rods but no heddle; +on the other hand many primitive African looms have one laze rod +and one heddle as is the case with this Egyptian loom. More threads +are shown on the left hand end of D2 than on the right hand end. +Mr. Davies informs me that the same quantity should be shown from +end to end across the warp, but on the right hand side they are so +indistinct that he was just able to detect but not to trace them and +so he omitted them.</p> + +<p>We now come to the rod E. Cailliaud and Rosellini show an +undulation at the one end <i>a</i>, but do not make the other end clear. +Wilkinson shows a small hook at the end <i>a</i>, which appears to me to be +a transcriber’s development of the curved end of his two predecessors; +in the text Wilkinson says there is a hook at each end of this stick, +but he does not show any at the end opposite to <i>a</i>; he refers to these +hooks more than once (1st ed., III., p. 126 footnote). Lepsius has +altered the shape of the curve and transferred it from the end <i>a</i> to the +opposite end. In Mr. de G. Davies’ drawing, it has been inserted in +dotted lines, as the original is in such a state that tracing is almost +impossible. Wilkinson, Erman, v. Cohausen (<i>Das Spinnen u. Weben +bei den Alten</i>, in <i>Ann. Ver. Nassau. Altherthumsk.</i>, Wiesbaden, 1879, +p. 29), and others call it a shuttle, but I am more inclined to consider +it a slashing stick (“sword” or “beater-in”) for pushing the +weft into position. A tool which appears to be a beater-in and of +similar end shape is seen held in the hand of a woman on a wall +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"><!--Figure 7 in original --></a></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +painting at El Bersheh—see <a href="#Fig_11"><b>Fig. 11</b></a>, top right-hand corner. We have +in another illustration, <a href="#Fig_7"><b>Fig. 7</b></a>, an article which appears to be a spool, +which I think confirms the view that E is not the shuttle but the +beater-in. In all the illustrations, too, the pose of the hands of the +women bearing on this stick is indicative of a downward pressure and +not of a grasp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;"> +<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a> +<img src="images/aegl07.png" width="437" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionpara">Fig. 7.—Tomb of the Vizier Daga. Date about end XI. Dynasty, B.C. 2000. Mr. N. de G. +Davies’ <i>Five Theban Tombs</i>, Plate XXXVII.</p> + +<p class="captionpara">The upper illustration indicates a woman warping or beaming, probably warping.</p> + +<p class="caption">In the lower illustration note the left hand figure holding the spool in her hand. At first +sight this small black line looks like a continuation of the “beater-in” in the hands of the +other weaver, but Mr. Davies informs me that it is quite a distinct article, and that there can +be no doubt about it. Just above the breast beam there are 8 or 9 threads of weft but they +are too faint to be included.</p> + +<p>The selvedge F on the one side of the cloth and not on both sides +is also interesting from the fact that selvedges do not appear on the +Egyptian cloths until the XVIII. Dynasty <i>circa</i> B.C. 1600.</p> + +<p>The breast beam:—It appears to me that the three portions +marked G1, G2 and G3 joined up are intended to represent the breast +beam and its holding pegs, similar to the warp beam A and its pegs +B1, B2, but the portion K is not clearly drawn in any of the reproductions. +Wilkinson omits this altogether, but in its place has two +black pieces which also are still less clear. Lepsius has omitted G2 +altogether and appears to have made G1 and K and G3 into treadles, +by raising G1 above the level of G3, and to support the view that +these are treadles, he makes use of the overseer’s foot by placing it on +the supposed treadle, and the casual observer thinks it is the foot of +the woman weaver. However, Mr. Davies’ copy seems to offer a solution. +He agrees with Cailliaud and Rosellini in so far as G1, G2 and G3 are +concerned. With him K takes quite a different form, in fact it looks very +similar to an article which an attendant woman in another panel has close +by her, see <a href="#Fig_8"><b>Fig. 8</b></a>. It might perhaps be a rest to prevent the +beater-in being driven home too forcibly—this, however, is still +only a surmise—as the length of the beater-in makes it heavy at the +far end.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a> +<img src="images/aegl08.png" width="300" height="157" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 8.—Weaver with the support K, +<a href="#Fig_6"><b>Fig. 6</b></a>; the woman appears to hold a +beater-in in the right hand and a ball of +thread in the left hand. Rosellini.</p> + +<p>In Cailliaud the warp threads are coloured in pale blue and red +on top of the black lines of the drawing; he has painted the selvedge +and finished cloth a pale blue, as well as that portion of G2 which is +covered by the cloth indicating that this is the breast beam, G3 and +G1 are painted a dark red. Rosellini colours A, B1, B2, D1, D2, G3 +orange; G1 and K dark red, but E from end to end light ochre. This +shows that K is distinct from E.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a> +<img src="images/aegl09.png" width="600" height="551" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">Fig. 9.</p> + +<p class="caption">Upright or Vertical Looms from the +Tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, XVIII. +Dynasty, <i>circa</i> B.C. 1425. From a +drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies. Size +of original: Height from Base Line to +top of frame at A, 11½" = 29 cm.</p> + +<p>In consequence of this loom being represented as upright it is +often spoken of as an upright or vertical loom. But it is drawn upright +because the Egyptian artist did not understand perspective, and +it was only by making the loom upright that he was enabled to show +the details we have just been examining. For the same reason mat +making is illustrated edgeways. If the loom were an upright one the +two women weavers would have had their backs turned towards the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +onlooker as can be seen in <a href="#Fig_9"><b>Fig. 9</b></a>. Any doubt on the matter has however +been set aside by Prof. John Garstang’s extremely interesting +discovery of a wooden model depicting a group of women spinning +and weaving which he illustrates in his work, <i>The Burial Customs +of Ancient Egypt</i>, London, 1907. After referring to the woman +spinning, he continues: “The other seated figures apparently +represent women at work upon a horizontal loom; the frame +and the woof [<i>sic</i>, should be <em>warp</em>] threads are faintly represented +upon the board. It is possible that they are making mats or, +perhaps, weaving (p. 132).” He gives an illustration of the group +taken from a photograph, but as it does not show the lines +which indicate the loom lying horizontally on the ground nor +the warp threads, I have asked him to let me have a drawing +made of it and, with his kind permission, it is now reproduced +here, <a href="#Fig_10"><b>Fig. 10</b></a>. The threads of the warp and the +finished piece of cloth at the breast beam end are clearly +indicated. The whole model supports conclusively the well +founded supposition that the loom we have been considering +is a <em>horizontal</em> one. Curiously enough, Prof. Garstang does +not appear to appreciate the important bearing of his discovery, +for on a later page (p. 134) in speaking of Lepsius’ illustration, +discussed above, he says: “the weavers are seen at work at an upright +loom.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a> +<img src="images/aegl10.png" width="400" height="362" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 10.—Horizontal Loom. Outline sketch by +Miss Davey of the original model of a group of one +woman spinning and two women weaving, found by +Dr. John Garstang at Beni Hasan. The model is in +the Museum of the Liverpool Institute of Archæology.</p> + +<p>It must not be thought that the Beni Hasan representation is the +only one which illustrates a horizontal loom. A second one is +reproduced by Prof. Percy Newberry from the tomb of <ins class="correction" title="Tehuti-hotep in original">Tehuti-hetep</ins> +<i>circa</i> 1938-1849 B.C., see <a href="#Fig_11"><b>Fig. 11</b></a>. In the upper portion the women +are seen spinning and preparing the thread generally, while in the +lower portion two women on the left are warping, and in the centre +three apparently are “beaming,” <i>i.e.</i> putting the warp on to the +beams preparatory to commencing to weave, the warp threads being +apparently drawn over pegs to ensure the proper tension. This +illustration shows the warp flat against the wall like the mat making +shown at Beni Hasan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a> +<img src="images/aegl11.png" width="600" height="288" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionpara">Fig. 11.—Tomb of Tehuti-hetep. Date about 1939-1849 B.C. From Professor Percy +Newberry’s <i>El Bersheh</i> I. Pl. 26.</p> + +<p class="caption">Note the woman on the top right hand corner holding a “beater-in.”</p> + +<p>A third representation of a horizontal loom is reproduced from +the forthcoming volume of the Egypt Exploration Fund by kind +permission of Mr. N. de G. Davies, who made the copy. In this, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"><!-- Figure 11 in original --></a></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +<a href="#Fig_7"><b>Fig. 7</b></a>, already referred to, the lower portion is all that has come +down to us. The cloth is not shown contracted as in the Beni +Hasan representation, the two laze rods are drawn close to each other +and here also an attempt appears to have been made to show the over +and under lapping warp threads; the laze rods appear each with a +hook, the hook on the upper rod turned upwards and the hook (if it +be one) on the lower rod turned downwards. It is possible these +hooks may be pegs to prevent the shifting of the laze rods. It +may be that one of the two rods is a heddle rod the indication being +the fine double lines, but this may not be compatible with the hook +at the end of the rod. The weaver on the left holds a spool +in her hand, evidently a piece of stick with the weft thread wound +round it, which she is pushing through with her fingers. The weaver +on the right holds a beater-in as shown in the Beni Hasan drawing. +The breast beam is held in position by two pegs near the right one +of which there is a curved article of indeterminate use.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a> +<img src="images/aegl12.png" width="600" height="275" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 12.—Study of a Bedawin Arab weaving, from a sketch taken in the Forties of last +Century, by Frank Goodall, R.A. The original sketch is in Bankfield Museum. The weaver +appears to be provided with one heddle and a beater-in.</p> + +<p>There is no very clear evidence as to how the finished cloth was +“taken up” unless we accept it that the bulging out of the part G2 +means that it was wound round the breast beam as is done on hand +and power looms of the present day. Some very long pieces of cloth +have come down to us and unless they were “taken up” in this way +a long stretch of ground would have been necessary. A modified form +of this horizontal loom has been met with in recent years among the +Bedawin Arabs, as shown in the illustration of a study sketch, <a href="#Fig_12"><b>Fig. +12</b></a>, made by Frank Goodall, R.A., in the forties of last century. The +loom was provided with pegs like the old Egyptian loom but it was +supplied with a primitive heddle resting on a stone at each side of the +warp and it would appear that the weaver, to a certain extent, did not +take up the woven cloth by winding it round the breast beam and by +that means retaining his position, but, as the weaving progressed and +the line of finished cloth got beyond his reach, he crept up to it +and so got farther and farther away from the breast beam until +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +in the end he arrived at the warp beam. Similar looms are still used +for mat making by the Egyptian fellah.</p> + + +<h3>VERTICAL LOOMS.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a> +<img src="images/aegl13.png" width="400" height="303" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 13.—Upright or vertical loom. Wilkinson’s +<i>Ancient Egyptians</i>, London, John Murray. 1st ed., Vol. +III., p. 135.</p> + +<p>Apart from the horizontal loom Wilkinson and Robert Hay<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> also +recorded the existence of an illustration of an upright loom, said in +error to be at Eileithyias (El Kab). Wilkinson’s copy, <a href="#Fig_13"><b>Fig. 13</b></a>, is +more elaborate than that of Hay. Mr. Davies informs me that the +original is not at Eileithyias, but in the tomb of Nefer-hotep at +Thebes. Wilkinson in regard to this illustration quotes the oft-repeated +statement of Herodotus (<i>circa</i> 460-455 B.C.) in reference +to looms in general:—“Other nations make cloth by pushing the +woof upwards, the Egyptians on the contrary, press it down.” On +this statement Wilkinson remarks: “This is confirmed by the +paintings which represent the process of making cloth; but at Thebes, +a man who is engaged in making a piece of cloth with a coloured +border or selvedge, appears to push the woof upwards, the cloth being +fixed above him, to the upper part of the frame” [<a href="#Fig_13"><b>Fig. 13</b></a>]. But I +am unable to follow Wilkinson in this, for I can find no indication +in his illustration which shows how the beating-in of the weft is +accomplished. From the illustration all one can say is that it +might have been done either way. Wilkinson’s illustration is lettered +from <i>a</i> to <i>p</i> but this lettering is not explained by him at all, +excepting in the case of the letter <i>k</i>, of which he says: “<i>k</i> is a +shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +end ...” and he proceeds to refer to the drawing elsewhere of the +horizontal loom. He does not show the hooks in his illustration. In +<a href="#Fig_14"><b>Fig. 14</b></a>, I give the sketch made by Mr. N. de G. Davies of the remains +of the original from which Wilkinson made his illustration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;"> +<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a> +<img src="images/aegl14.png" width="432" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 14.—Drawing by Mr. N. de G. +Davies, Jan. 1913, of an Upright Loom +in Tomb 49 at Thebes, belonging to Nefer-hotep, +at end of XVIII. Dynasty, B.C. +1330. Drawn when in a better state by +Wilkinson, <a href="#Fig_13"><b>Fig. 13</b></a>, and Hay.</p> + +<p>A more satisfactory drawing of upright looms is that which Mr. +N. de G. Davies has placed at my disposal for reproduction here. I +append his description, <a href="#Fig_9"><b>Fig. 9</b></a>. “The picture of men working at +two looms is taken from the tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, who was a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +royal scribe in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, <i>circa</i> 1425 B.C. In +his tomb his house is shown. He himself sits in the hall, while inside +some servants spin and weave, make bread, store the grain, etc. The +roof of the chambers is supported on pillars, and between two of these +the looms are set up which are here depicted. They are not attached +however, either to the roof or the pillars. Faint sketching lines are +mixed up with the darker reds in which the picture was re-drawn, and +the whole very simply and carelessly executed. I have found it difficult +to make it clear. In my sketch the first faint sketching outlines appear +as lines. The more solid red lines which replaced these I have ‘hatched,’ +and certain portions including the men’s flesh colour, the stools, the +discs I have put in solid black, partly because they are for the most +part more solid and dark red in the original, and partly to distinguish +the portions more clearly from one another. The horizontal lines +which cross the web are very faintly drawn and almost as good as +obliterated by the white paint which had been put on the web. I +have put them in just to show that the bars were <em>conceived</em> of as passing +behind or under the web and concealed by it.</p> + +<p>“The larger loom is worked by two men, the smaller by one man +only. The looms consist of an oblong frame A set up on two stones B. +The warp is attached to the warp beam C on top and the breast beam +D at the bottom. The threads of the warp are not shown, no difference +being made between any woven part and the warp threads; to +all is given one smear of white paint. Two discs E are seen hanging +against the frame posts, one on each side, the earlier sketch showing +a larger disc than the final drawing in dark red.</p> + +<p>“Two slender laze rods F are shown on the large loom and heavy +bars G, H, lower down; a somewhat similar laze rod and beams are +also shown on the smaller loom.</p> + +<p>“The weavers sit on benches with their backs to the spectator. +The artist has not dared to draw a back view of their heads, but has +turned each man’s head to the right to show a profile. They are +holding a heavy looking rod which looks like a ‘beater-in.’ One would +expect to see a shuttle but perhaps this was too small an object for so +rough a picture—perhaps the man at the smaller loom holds an +exaggerated shuttle L in his right hand.</p> + +<p>“The lines M seen alongside the framework are the faint red +sketch lines <em>not</em> cords. The diagonal line N on the left I do not +understand, it does not seem an accidental one.</p> + +<p>“On the left hand of the two looms the original shows a man +spinning coarse thread into finer(?) using two spindles at once; the +threads pass through rings fixed in the ceiling as in a picture at Beni +Hasan. Behind him two girls are breaking up the flax and two others +are making coarse threads of the fibres, almost exactly like those in +the tomb of Daga (No. 103) a couple of hundred yards away.”</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +To this description of Mr. Davies I would like to add a word about +the discs E. Wilkinson indicates these as rings apparently joining +the horizontal beam to the post of the frame, the form of the ring +being arrived at as explained by Mr. Davies by the original outline +of the sketch having been made larger than the final drawing of +the circle, or disc, and not obliterated. In Mr. Davies’ drawing these +discs hang on or are fixed on to the uprights only, and I am inclined to +think they represent balls of weft thread hanging up in the same way +as we see whole rows of coloured balls hanging on the looms of Persian +rugmakers, and as can be seen on an Indian rug loom in Bankfield +Museum.</p> + +<p>It is also very clear that these Egyptian vertical looms are very +different from the Greek looms in so far as we know anything about +them. The Greek looms had an upper beam only and the warp +threads were bunched at the lower end and weighted with metal or clay balls to +keep them taut, <a href="#Fig_15"><b>Fig. 15</b></a>. The <em>individual</em> warp threads were not weighted; they +were bunched and then weighted. The pyramidal shaped clay warp weights +found in Egypt are I understand considered by Egyptologists to belong to +the Roman period, but in the Manchester University Museum there is a +mud article which Miss M. A. Murray describes as a warp weight, <a href="#Fig_17"><b>Fig. 17</b></a>, so +that it is possible vertical looms with warp weights may yet be forthcoming +as an Egyptian and not a foreign industrial tool. But Dr. H. R. Hall +informs me this weight was probably found in the ruins of houses where +Ægean pottery was found and hence it is probably a temporary warp +weight of those people and not an Egyptian article.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;"> +<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a> +<img src="images/aegl15.png" width="256" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 15.—Greek loom with spool +and warp weights. Illustration on a +skyphos (van Branteghem vase in the +Ashmolean Museum, Oxford). From +H. B. Walters’ paper on <i>Odysseus & +Kirke</i> on a Boeotian vase, Jour. Hellenic +Studies, 1892-3 XIII. p. 81.</p> + +<p>Since writing the above Mr. N. de G. Davies has very kindly sent me +on a new set of illustrations, <a href="#Fig_16a"><b>Fig. 16</b></a>, of which he says; “My attention +was called to the scene by Dr. Alan Gardiner. The scenes which represent +the preparation of the flax and the stretching of the warp are almost +replicas of those in the tomb of Daga of the Middle Kingdom, so far +as we can judge, while the pictures of the looms resemble closely those +in the tombs of Thot-nefer and Nefer-hotep. The work is done by +both men and women. Men prepare the flax while women stretch the +warp. Men mostly work the loom, either singly or with a companion. +But in one case a woman is seen at work at one of the upright looms. +She is shewn sitting sideways on the low bench and is not pictured +in a back view with widely spread legs like the men. Unfortunately +the work is so slovenly and so much injured that few exact outlines +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +can be secured, and hence all detail is insecure. There are also superfluous +lines in red colour which confuse the picture. The tomb is +Ramesside in date (<i>circa</i> 1200 B.C.) The inscription over the seated +man is too broken to be read.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_16a" id="Fig_16a"></a> +<img src="images/aegl16.png" width="600" height="345" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 16<small>A</small>.—Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of +Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200 B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_16b" id="Fig_16b"></a> +<img src="images/aegl17.png" width="600" height="298" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 16<small>B</small>.—Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of +Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200 B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.</p> + +<p>The drawings appear to confirm generally what we have gathered +from Mr. Davies’ previous illustration, <a href="#Fig_9"><b>Fig. 9</b></a>.</p> + + +<h3>PORTIONS OF LOOMS WHICH HAVE COME DOWN TO US.</h3> + +<p>In so far as I know, not many loom parts have yet been discovered, +and those which I have had an opportunity of studying do not assist +us to much knowledge beyond that which we have gained by a study +of the wall paintings. We have the article from Kahun already +mentioned, which may possibly be a warp weight, as it somewhat +resembles the later warp weights found elsewhere. It is of hardened +mud with a perforation at the thin end through which a piece of +string has been passed and knotted (<a href="#Fig_17"><b>Fig. 17</b></a>), but so far no illustration +of a loom with weights has been found, either for the period to which +this article belongs or to any other period. On the other hand the +material is not suitable for a <ins class="correction" title="netsinker in original">net-sinker</ins>, nor is it intended to be made +to stand up. As mentioned above it is probably Ægean.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a> +<img src="images/aegl18.png" width="400" height="284" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 17.—Piece of perforated hardened mud. +Possibly a warp weight, 10 cm. × 8·7 × 4·2 +(3<span class="tfrac">15</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in. × +2<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in. × +1<span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) Weight 470 gramms (1 lb. ½ oz.) Probably +of Ægean origin. <i>Kahun.</i> Manchester Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;"> +<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a> +<img src="images/aegl19.png" width="175" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 18.—Burnt-clay warp +weight. Height 11·4 cm. (4¼ in.) +Weight 260 gramms (9¼ oz.) +Probably Roman. Bankfield +Museum. (Received from Prof. +Flinders Petrie).</p> + +<p>Another form of warp weight, of burnt clay, is somewhat frequently +met with, <a href="#Fig_18"><b>Fig. 18</b></a>, but it is described as appertaining to Roman times, +and may therefore be either a Greek or Roman article. Similar +weights from Cyprus and North Africa, &c., can be seen in the +British Museum.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +Wooden pegs have been found at Gurob, which may possibly have +been used for holding the warp and breast beams in position, <a href="#Fig_19"><b>Fig. 19</b></a>. +These pegs may appear to be rather short for the purpose, but in very +primitive looms the warp is not kept so taut as might and should be, +and hence there is not the same heavy strain on the pegs as we should +deem necessary. The way to settle their use would be to fix them in +solid ground and test them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 83px;"> +<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a> +<img src="images/aegl20.png" width="83" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 19.—Wooden Peg, possibly +used for holding the warp and +breast beams. Length 13·5 to +10·2 cm. (5<span class="tfrac">13</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in. to 4 in.) <i>Gurob</i> +XVIII.-XIX. Dyn. (about 1580-1205 +B.C.) Manchester Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a> +<img src="images/aegl21.png" width="600" height="44" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 20.—Long straight lath with notches at each end, probably a laze +rod. Length 1 m. 24 (4 ft. <span class="tfrac">13</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in.) +Breadth 5·2 cm. (2 in.) Thickness 2·2 cm. +(<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) <i>Kahun.</i> Manchester Museum.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Sections of Figs. 20 and 21"> + <tr> + <td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/aegl22.png" width="93" height="200" alt="" /> +</div></td> + <td class="spacer"> </td> + <td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/aegl23.png" width="43" height="200" alt="" /> +</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="caption">½ size section of <a href="#Fig_20"><b>Fig. 20</b></a>.</td> + <td class="spacer"> </td> + <td class="caption">½ size section of <a href="#Fig_21"><b>Fig. 21</b></a>.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a> +<img src="images/aegl24.png" width="600" height="51" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 21.—Long curved lath. Probably a “beater-in.” Length 1 m. 20 +(3 ft. 11¼ in.) Breadth 6·5 cm. (1<span class="tfrac">11</span>/<span class="bfrac">32</span> +<ins class="correction" title="cm. in original">in.</ins>). Thickness 1 cm. (<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) <i>Kahun.</i> +XII. Dynasty about 2000-1788 B.C. Manchester Museum.</p> + +<p>At Kahun a long straight lath, <a href="#Fig_20"><b>Fig. 20</b></a>, was found which is probably +a laze rod, the notches being apparently for a nooze to slip into +and so prevent the rod working towards the weaver which it has a +tendency to do.</p> + +<p>Another long but curved lath, <a href="#Fig_21"><b>Fig. 21</b></a>, also found at Kahun is +probably a beater-in.</p> + +<p>Most large Egyptian collections contain one or more specimens of +wooden combs, which are generally called weavers combs, and ascribed +to Roman times. But one at least, <a href="#Fig_22"><b>Fig. 22</b></a>, has been found with +XVIIIth to XIXth Dynasty articles at Gurob, that is belonging to +the period 1580-1150 B.C., which is long before Rome existed. None +of these so-called combs, for they are really embryo reeds, are shown +on the wall illustrations so that they no doubt belong to a later date +than that of the XIIth Dynasty. If, as I take it, these “combs” are +the forerunners of the reed and were used to drive the weft threads +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +home, and if also the Romans had upright looms provided with warp +weights instead of the breast beam, then I think the “comb” may not +be Roman but may be a late Egyptian invention. For, on trying to +use such a comb on a <em>replica</em> of a Scandinavian upright loom provided +with warp weights (instead of with the breast beam) I can get no good +result, in fact rather the opposite, but tried on a primitive horizontal +loom provided with a breast beam the comb is found to be of some +assistance, especially if the warp is not very taut as is generally the +case with primitive looms. At Bankfield we have an Indian rug loom, +already referred to, with warp and breast beam on which a somewhat +similar instrument, but of iron, was used.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;"> +<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a> +<img src="images/aegl25.png" width="204" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 22.—Weaver’s Comb—a Beater-in. +19·5 cm. × 9·8 × 4·2 (7¾ in. × +3<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in. × +1<span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) +<i>Gurob.</i> Manchester Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a> +<img src="images/aegl26.png" width="400" height="122" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 23.—Possibly a warp spacer, somewhat +similar in object to the raddle of +modern hand loom weaving. Height 2·8 cm. +Width 2·5 cm. (1<span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> +in. × 1 in.) The slots are +6 mm. (¼ in.) apart, 3 mm. (<span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> +in.) wide, and about 10 mm. (<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) +deep. From <i>Gurob</i> but probably Roman. Bankfield Museum. +(Received from Prof. Flinders Petrie).</p> + +<p>An article which Prof. Flinders Petrie describes as a “warp spacer” +is shown in <a href="#Fig_23"><b>Fig. 23</b></a>. From fragments in the Egyptian Collection, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +University College, London, it would appear to have been originally +more than a meter (three feet) long. It may have been used as a sort +of a “raddle,” a tool used for assisting to keep the warp threads in +position when being beamed, <i>i.e.</i> put on to the loom. At Bankfield we +have an old local hand loom the warp beam of which is provided with +a series of holes in which pegs were once inserted to keep the coloured +warp threads in position.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a> +<img src="images/aegl27.png" width="600" height="62" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">Fig. 24.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/aegl28.png" width="400" height="253" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">½ size of end of <a href="#Fig_24"><b>Fig. 24</b></a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 88px;"> +<img src="images/aegl29.png" width="88" height="250" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">½ size section of <a href="#Fig_24"><b>Fig. 24</b></a>.</p> + +<p class="caption">A long piece of perforated wood described by Prof. Flinders Petrie, <i>Kahun</i>, p. 29, as a +Weaver’s Beam for making rush mats. Length 96·8 cm. × 8·0 × 3·0 (3 ft. 1¼ in. × 3¼ in. +× 1<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in.) From Manchester Museum.</p> + +<p>A piece of frame, <a href="#Fig_24"><b>Fig. 24</b></a>, has been described as a “weaver’s beam” +for making rush mats like the modern <i>hasira</i>. It is provided with 28 +holes which are arranged about 27 to 40 mm. apart. The holes may +have been more or less circular originally, and worn into present shape +by threads, etc., and look more irregular inside than they really are, +as the inside surface of the holes is fairly smooth; the holes are slightly +larger, on an average about 4 mm., on the face shown than on the other +face. Prof. Flinders Petrie seems to think it resembles the frame on +which the modern Egyptian mat is made.</p> + +<p>We now come to the two reeds in the Museum of the Liverpool +Institute of Archæology, which Dr. John Garstang discovered near +Abu Kirkas, tomb No. 693, of which he tells us: “They are 27 +and 29 inches (68·6 and 73·7 cm.) in length respectively, and are +precisely similar in general form. They are constructed on a system +of nineteen or twenty reeds to the inch, and they may be seen to be +exactly similar to the modern reed taken from a loom in the village of +Abu Kirkas. It is not possible, unfortunately, to assign a precise date +to these objects. They were found in a tomb which contained no +other remains; this tomb was surrounded by others, all of them likewise +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +very much disturbed, but equally characteristic of the general +nature of the Middle Empire tombs, and containing nothing but +Middle Empire objects. Since, in general, few tombs of this site show +signs of intrusive burial of a later age, there is no reason to suppose +that these objects are of any date later than the XII. Dynasty (<i>The +Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt</i>, London, 1907, pp. 134-136).”</p> + +<p>The horizontal looms we have been describing belong to this +period, and the artists have not shown any reeds with them. My +studies of primitive looms lead me to think that these Egyptian looms +are of a date far anterior to the invention or the application of a reed. +It has also, I believe, been remarked by those who have examined +cloths of this date, that the irregular array of the warp threads is +good proof that reeds could not have been in use. I have already +pointed out that in the evolution of the loom the reed puts in a late +appearance, but apart from this fact, I do not think the artist would +have omitted such an important tool had it been in use in his time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a> +<img src="images/aegl30.png" width="600" height="301" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 25.—Reed in Cairo Museum. Length 66 cm. (26 in.) It consists of two wooden +frames fitted with flat iron wires. String is wound round the frames binding them +together. Then a kind of canvas(?) cover in placed over the frames to cover up the +projecting ends of the wires, but this has disappeared in places.</p> + +<p>Dr. Garstang points out that although the surrounding tombs +contained Middle Empire objects, the reeds were found in a tomb <em>without</em> +any other remains. This can hardly be considered evidence tending +to prove that they belonged to the period named, and it is certainly +weakened by the accompanying statement that the reeds are <em>exactly</em> +similar to the modern reed, for that is almost sufficient to prove that +they are <em>not</em> 3900-3700 years old. To me they seem comparatively +modern and very similar to one in the Cairo Museum which MM. +Brugsch and Quibell are inclined to think is Coptic with this difference, +that in Dr. Garstang’s reeds the divisions appear to be of cane or +wood, while in the Cairo reed they are of iron (?steel). The sketch of +this Coptic reed, <a href="#Fig_25"><b>Fig. 25</b></a>, has been drawn specially for me, and Miss +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +W. M. Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology in the Manchester +University Museum, has kindly examined the sketch with the article +and pronounced it correct. We may, I think, safely conclude that the +reed found by Dr. Garstang is Coptic and not Ancient Egyptian.</p> + +<p>As regards the actual work of weaving, balls of thread have been +found and so have very flat bobbins and pieces of stick with thread +wound round which may have been spools as indicated in the drawing, +<a href="#Fig_7"><b>Fig. 7</b></a>. There is no reason why balls of thread should not have been +used as they are in uncivilised countries at the present day, as, for +instance, in Tibet, as reported by W. W. Rockhill in <i>Diary of a +Journey through Mongolia and Thibet</i>, Washington, 1894, p. 41.</p> + + +<h3>“DIAGONAL WEAVING.”</h3> + +<p>I am unable to agree with a recently made statement published +in <i>The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Marghuneh</i>, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, +E. A. Wainwright and E. Mackey, p. 6, which runs: “The fact of +the weft not being at right angles to the warp, if one may conclude +by the fabrics, does not, I think, imply that such weaving is of +inferior quality. When I noticed the <ins class="correction" title="pecularity in original">peculiarity</ins> first, I thought it +might have arisen through distortion by stretching over the body, +but repeated examples of the same fact have led me to consider +other causes. We know how closely <ins class="correction" title="analagous in original">analogous</ins> to ‘darning’ was +the early weaving; and in our days it is not unusual to find +stockings not darned at right angles, and it may be the women +weavers of old sometimes put in the weft more or less out of true +right angle. In the childhood of weaving we should expect different +methods, and it may be, seeing that we have no selvedged cloth until +very long after this time, that they experimented with a diagonal +weft to see if it would not reduce the tendency to fray out at the +sides.” The amount the warp and weft are out of the right angle +is stated to be about 20°. The specimen shown me under the +microscope indicated clearly that the warp and weft were not at right +angles and that the interstices were not square but diamond shaped.</p> + +<p>It is possible to arrange the warp threads diagonally from beam +to beam, but with continuous weft (that is in weaving so as to get +selvedges) the weft has the tendency to slip up on one side and down +on the other, hence the weaving is made laborious. With a separate +weft for each pick, <i>i.e.</i>, for every once the shed is opened, there is +naturally not this tendency, but this alleged diagonally woven cloth +frays just as easily as any other piece of cloth without selvedge, so in +either case there is not only no advantage but distinct disadvantage +taking the diagonal “beaming” into consideration. We must give +the Egyptians credit for using the least laborious of two methods, that +is <em>if</em> the second one were known to them.</p> + +<p>Apparent diagonal weaving can be produced by anyone taking an +ordinary piece of linen or cotton cloth, cutting off the selvedge and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +stretching the cloth in a direction diagonally to the direction of the +warp and weft, and a piece of diagonally woven cloth is the result!</p> + +<p>The probability is that the specimen of cloth, without a selvedge, +having been stretched over the body for a long period of time, has, in +the course of that time lost its nature and when removed it has +retained its altered form and gives us the impression of having been +woven diagonally.</p> + + +<h3>“THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III.”</h3> + +<p>In the foregoing I have shown how extremely simple was the +whole apparatus for weaving in use by the Ancient Egyptians, and one +is rather surprised to be told that about B.C. 1200, in the time of +Rameses III., the Egyptians “built and used looms very much more +complicated than has hitherto been believed to be the case,” or to be +referred to “the really complicated form of loom used.” Yet this is +what Mr. Thorold D. Lee tells us (pp. 84 and 86) in his paper on <i>The +Linen Girdle of Rameses III.</i> (<i>Ann. of Archæology and Anthropology of +the Liverpool Institute of Archæology</i>, July, 1912, V.)</p> + +<p>The characteristics of this girdle are its great length, 17 feet +(5 m. 2), its even taper diminishing from 5 in. (12·7 cm.) in width to +1<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in. (4·8 cm.) in width, its elaborate design and excellent workmanship. +Perhaps the chief of these characteristics is the taper. It is +most probable, as Mr. Lee points out, that in the weaving the warp +threads have been gradually dropped out to make the taper, rather +than that additional warp threads have been added. As it is easy to +drop a warp thread, and almost impossible to add one while weaving is +in progress, Mr. Lee’s view is confirmed by this. It would also be +almost impossible to keep the warp taut if the number of warp threads +were increased as the work went on. This means that the girdle was +commenced at the wide end and finished at the narrow end.</p> + +<p>It is common knowledge that when a warp thread drops out, its +place is indicated by a thinness or fine opening for the whole length +of the missing warp, and this is so because the reed, besides pushing +the weft into position, also acts as a warp spacer, that is to say it keeps +the warp threads properly apart, every one being properly aligned. +When no reed is used the warp threads are not so evenly placed—they +are not so parallel to one another for there is nothing but their +tautness to keep them in position. Hence there is every reason to +conclude that when, on a loom provided with a reed, warp threads have +been removed their position must be indicated, and <i>vice versa</i> if no +reed has been used the position of the removed threads will not be so +clearly indicated, but there will be a more marked shrinkage in the +width of the cloth as well as in the pattern, and this is what has taken +place in the girdle giving us the diminishing taper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"> +<img src="images/aegl31.jpg" width="422" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">“THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III.”</p> + +<p class="captionpad"><i>Reproduced by kind permission of Dr. Clubb, Director, The Museums, Liverpool.</i></p> + +<p>If this diminishing taper were indicated by a decrease in the width +of the pattern commencing at the selvedges, then it might be presumed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +that a reed had been used for the central portion only—a very clumsy +even if feasible arrangement, but the pattern begins to decrease along +the middle and hence no reed could have been used.</p> + +<p>It does not follow that because a loom was not provided with a reed +it was without heddles. Anyone who will examine the large series of +primitive looms at Bankfield Museum, will observe that heddles preceded +reeds; this must necessarily be so as the making of the shed is the +first step in weaving, while the reed’s work is more that of a finisher. +But the heddles are all extremely primitive, and in my experience do +not exceed four in number where there is no reed. Such a quantity +of heddles with its complicated harness as Mr. Lee considers necessary +is quite out of the question with a loom so undeveloped as not to be +provided with a reed. Hence the indication is that the girdle was +woven on a loom of a primitive character.</p> + +<p>In carrying out the work the weaver has made many mistakes. +On the left hand side of the right hand row of red crosses (they come +out black in the photograph) there is an “end down” for a considerable +distance—that is a thread has been missed.</p> + +<p>On the same row of crosses three white threads show above and +below, while on the left hand row of crosses there are five white threads +above and below. The crosses are neither the same size nor shape in +the two columns and curiously their white hafts in both columns point +to the left instead of one row pointing to the left and the other to the +right. Then again the white point at the right apex of the zigzag on +the left corresponds to a red point at the left apex of the right hand +zigzag, but if the girdle had been woven on an advanced loom with +dobby and harness these points would have been red in both places.</p> + +<p>As regards the large number of warp threads to the inch which +Mr. Lee puts down as 272-340 (107-134 per cm.), this does not by any +means indicate a complicated piece of machinery for the weaving of +this belt or any other fabric. The greater the number of threads to +the inch the finer must the threads be in order to get them into the +allotted space, and in the weaving there will be so many more threads +to raise and lower in order to make the shed opening. It means +multiplying the work but does not necessarily mean that a more complicated +loom must be used in the weaving.</p> + +<p>It is not possible without opening the fabric to be quite positive +on the many points which are raised, but there seems nothing about it +which should prevent its having been made on a simple loom. Although +superior to most, but not all, of the well known Coptic cloths in Bankfield +and in many other museums, it very closely resembles some of +them in many respects excepting in the taper.</p> + +<p>I should add that in making my examination of this girdle I was +kindly assisted by Mr. C. A. Trigg, a well known Halifax mill +manager and designer. We made the examination independently +and on comparing notes afterwards found that we agreed in all +essential points.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> + +<h3>AN EXAMINATION OF FIFTEEN SPECIMENS OF MUMMY +WRAPPINGS.</h3> + +<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">W. W. Midgley</span>, Curator, retired, The Museums, Bolton.</p> + +<p>“So far back as 1834, Mummy cloths occupied the attention of +James Thompson, F.R.S., who, after researches into their characteristics +and structure wrote a paper on the subject, which appears in the +London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V., page 355. +From that time until quite recently, little additional knowledge on the +subject has appeared. In the early part of 1910, Prof. W. M. Flinders +Petrie, F.R.S., expressed a desire that the writer should undertake +microscopic investigation of the body-wrappings of cloths of the III. +and early IV. Dynasties (<i>circa</i> 2980-2750 B.C.) which he had brought +home from excavations made at a cemetery near Meydum, Upper +Egypt. The report upon them forms part of the “<i>Historical Studies</i>,” +Vol. II., of the <i>British School of Archæology in Egypt</i>.</p> + +<p>When Mr. Ling Roth suggested that some of the examples of +Egyptian Mummy cloths in Bankfield Museum should be examined on +similar lines, describing the construction of the fabrics and yarns, +together with the characteristics of the fibres used, I undertook to +carry out the work and forward to him the results for permanent +reference.</p> + +<p>Each of the fifteen cloths submitted was first examined by mounting +about ¾" × <span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>" (20 mm. × 16 mm.) of the cloth on 3" × 1" (76 mm. +× 25 mm.) glass slips, and covering with thin glass, so as to find out +its plan of composition and the number of warp and weft threads per +linear inch. Afterwards, a little of the warp threads as well as of the +weft, was untwisted and the fibres separated, and these mounted apart +on another 3" × 1" slip (76 × 25 mm.), so that the kind of textile fibre +used and the diameter of the fibres could be measured. These microscopical +preparations will be kept in Bankfield Museum, as they may +be of interest to microscopists in the locality.</p> + +<p>The cloths are from three sources:—Nos. 1 and 2 being from the +private collection of Dr. Wallis-Budge, who has given the specimens to +Bankfield Museum; Nos. 3 to 8 are from the old Meyer collection in +the Liverpool Museum (unfortunately the origin of them is unknown); +and those marked 9 to 15 were taken from a mummy of the XXVI. +Dynasty, brought to this country by Lord Denbigh, and now also in +the Liverpool Museum.</p> + +<p>A.—Specimens of Mummy cloths from Theban Tombs date about +B.C. 1400, presented by Dr. Wallis-Budge.</p> + +<div class="listblock"> +<p>1. A plain “one-up-and-one-down” linen cloth. The yarns in +this example are more irregular in diameter than usual—the warp +strands varying from <span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">25</span>"th +to <span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">71</span>"st (1 mm. to +·<span class="tfrac">2</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> mm.) The warp +has about half its strands doubled (that is twined together), whereas +the weft has only about one in twenty doubled. See <a href="#Fig_26"><b>Fig. 26</b></a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +2. This is a coarser fabric, has been dyed with <ins class="correction" title="safron in original">saffron</ins>, and is somewhat +brittle to tease out the fibres. Both these cloths had evidently +absorbed some of the gums or balsams used in the process of embalming, +and hence the difficulty of separating the fibres for identification +is increased. The structure of the fabric is peculiar, and, indeed, the +only instance I have seen in Egyptian cloths. A portion, near the +middle of the piece sent, has the warp strands in pairs parallel to each +other, a few of them being double yarns, while all the remainder are +doubled. Of the weft, nearly half are double yarns. See <a href="#Fig_27"><b>Fig. 27</b></a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a> +<img src="images/aegl32.png" width="300" height="301" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionpad">Fig. 26.—Magnified 10 diameters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a> +<img src="images/aegl33.png" width="300" height="294" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionpad">Fig. 27.—Magnified 10 diameters, +showing the warp yarn in pairs.</p> + +<p>B.—Specimens from the Meyer Collection, marked No. 11088. +(Date of acquisition about 1856; date and place of origin unknown).</p> + +<div class="listblock"> +<p>3. This is a beautifully soft, fine <em>Wool</em> fabric, containing no size +or balsam. From the fineness of the yarn and of the individual fibres +I have no doubt that the wool has been imported from India, or, more +likely, that the cloth was made in Cashmere. The texture is a plain +weave, has a selvedge edge, the warp yarns are doubled, while the weft +is single yarn. It is much to be regretted that the particulars of +locality, of burial, and the period of time to which this interesting +fabric belongs has been lost. I assume from the general characteristics +that it is of a late period—probably not earlier than the Ptolemaic.</p> + +<p>4. This linen cloth has a plain selvedge, regular weave, and contains +no size. About 25% of both warp and weft yarns are doubled, +and all are very even in diameter.</p> + +<p>5. A coarse linen cloth with plain selvedge. All the yarns are +single and even in diameter.</p> + +<p>6. This is a coarse, highly-sized linen cloth. The yarns are +agglutinated, are brittle, and it is difficult to separate the fibres. The +sample submitted has been cut from the end of the piece and shows +the warp ends.</p> + +<p>7. A coarse linen cloth, sized and brittle. No selvedge on the +piece sent. Both warp and weft yarns are single, and even in diameter.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +8. This is a very coarse linen fabric heavily sized and brittle. +Both warp and weft yarns are single and very irregular in diameter.</p> +</div> + +<p>C.—Lord Denbigh’s: XXVI. Dynasty.</p> + +<div class="listblock"> +<p>9. A soft-spun linen cloth containing no size. Specimen has +been cut from the body of the fabric, showing no selvedge. About +half of the warp is composed of doubled yarns of irregular diameter; +the weft is of doubled yarns and more regular in diameter.</p> + +<p>10. The selvedge of this linen fabric is peculiar and somewhat +elaborate. The outer margin is composed of four sets of ten yarns +parallel to each other, forming one strand of warp; then comes a space +of 1<span class="tfrac">9</span>/<span class="bfrac">10</span>" (48 mm.) where the warp yarns are dyed red; then occurs +three more sets of ten parallel yarns (the object being to strengthen +the selvedge), followed by the general body of the fabric. The entire +selvedge is 2¼" (57 mm.) wide. About half the warp yarns are +doubled, while all the weft are composed of doubled yarns, both being +fairly even in diameter, and not sized.</p> + +<p>11. A fine, soft, linen cloth, with selvedge 1<span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>" (29 mm.) wide; +the three outer and the two inner strands of the warp are made up of +many parallel yarns, as in No. 10, with an interspace of <span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>" (10 mm.) +All the warp yarns are dyed red, about 25% of them being doubled; +the weft is peculiar in having five or six strands of single yarns +alternating with six or seven double yarns, giving a faint stripe in the +fabric.</p> + +<p>12. A linen cloth, with no selvedge edge. It has been dyed red, +probably <i>ferum</i>, a dye which I find uniformly associated with friable +or decomposing fibres.</p> + +<p>13. A peculiarly coloured fine linen cloth; the pattern is caused +by some of the warp yarns being dyed, and occurring sometimes of +four, two, or one red strands, with grey ones intermixed. A few of the +warp yarns are doubled. The weft is composed of single yarns and +are all in the grey.</p> + +<p>14. A coarse soft-woven linen fabric, containing no size. Lines +are indicated at irregular distances along the cloth, varying from +<span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span>" to +<span class="tfrac">9</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span>" (8 to 14 mm.); these are caused by the introduction of +three strands of doubled yarn in the warp while the remainder are +single yarns. The weft is all of doubled yarns; both warp and weft +are very regular in diameter.</p> + +<p>15. This is a variegated linen fabric with warps coloured something +like No. 13, but the red strands of warp are more irregular in +distribution. Like it, a few of the warp yarns are doubled, both the +red and the grey; while the weft is all of single yarns and in the grey.”</p> +</div> + +<p>[A considerable quantity of specimens of the cloths which were +woven by the Ancient Egyptians has been examined both in this +country and abroad. I may, however, call special attention to the +results of examination published in Miss M. A. Murray’s excellent +little work <i>The Tomb of Two Brothers</i>, Manchester Museum Publications, +No. 68, 1910.—H.L.R.]</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Details of the Composition of the Body Wrappings.</span></h4> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of the body wrappings"> + <tr> + <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3" colspan="4">Specimen No.</td> + <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Nature of Textile Fibre.</td> + <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Warp Ends per inch.</td> + <td class="tdctbtdbr" rowspan="3">Weft Picks per inch.</td> + <td class="tdctbt" colspan="6">Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Weft.</td> + <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Warp.</td> + <td class="tdcbt" colspan="2">Mean of</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td> + <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td> + <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td> + <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td> + <td class="tdcbtbr">Weft.</td> + <td class="tdcbt">Warp.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrdbtbr" colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbtdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">in.</td> + <td class="tdcdbtdbr">in.</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">in.</td> + <td class="tdcdbtdbr">in.</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">in.</td> + <td class="tdcdbt">in.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">A.</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbt"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">1</td> + <td class="tdcbr">Linen</td> + <td class="tdcbr">44</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">32</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1400</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1424</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3330</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1768</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1786</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbb"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">2</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">10</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">17</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1786</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3330</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1780</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2860</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2020</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1905</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="6">B.</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbt"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">3</td> + <td class="tdcbr">Wool</td> + <td class="tdcbr">224 </td> + <td class="tdcdbr">40</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2000</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1351</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">4</td> + <td class="tdcbr">Linen</td> + <td class="tdcbr">64</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">32</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">5000</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1818</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1754</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">5</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">56</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">20</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1754</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">6</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">48</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">24</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1000</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1640</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1594</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">7</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">48</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">20</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1000</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1408</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1428</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbb"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">8</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">36</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">16</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1456</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1613</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="7">C.</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbt"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">9</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">48</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">24</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1666</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1666</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2222</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1860</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">10</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">32</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">60</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">908</span> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1613</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">11</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">80</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">36</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1000</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1887</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1784</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">12</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">96</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">40</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1695</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">13</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">80</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">36</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1640</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2040</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">14</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">56</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">24</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">909</span> </td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1594</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1695</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbr"> </td> + <td class="tdcbb"> </td> + <td class="tdrbr">15</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">64</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">36</td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2000</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td> + <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td> + <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1818</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdltbb"> </td> + <td class="tdctbb" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrtbbbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbdbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbbbr"> </td> + <td class="tdctbb"> </td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">The above converted into Metrical Measurements.</span></h4> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Metrical measurement of body wrappings"> + <tr> + <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Specimen No.</td> + <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Nature of Textile Fibre.</td> + <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Warp Ends per Centim.</td> + <td class="tdctbtdbr" rowspan="3">Weft Picks per Centim.</td> + <td class="tdctbt" colspan="6">Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres in <ins class="correction" title="Millemetres in original">Millimetres</ins>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Weft.</td> + <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Warp.</td> + <td class="tdcbt" colspan="2">Mean of</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td> + <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td> + <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td> + <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td> + <td class="tdcbtbr">Weft.</td> + <td class="tdcbt">Warp.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrdbtbr">1</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">Linen</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">17</td> + <td class="tdcdbtdbr">12·6</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">·0181</td> + <td class="tdcdbtdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">·0178</td> + <td class="tdcdbtdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcdbtbr">·0144</td> + <td class="tdcdbt">·0142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">2</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> 4</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 6·7</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0142</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0143</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0089</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0126</td> + <td class="tdc">·0133</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">3</td> + <td class="tdcbr">Wool</td> + <td class="tdcbr">88</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">15·6</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0305</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0305</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0127</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0188</td> + <td class="tdc">·0178</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">4</td> + <td class="tdcbr">Linen</td> + <td class="tdcbr">25</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">12·6</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0178</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0050</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0140</td> + <td class="tdc">·0145</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">5</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">22</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 7·8 </td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0145</td> + <td class="tdc">·0147</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">6</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">19</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 9·5</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0254</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0155</td> + <td class="tdc">·0159</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">7</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">19</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 7·8</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0229</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0254</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0180</td> + <td class="tdc">·0178</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">8</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> 14·1</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 6·3</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0305</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0229</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0174</td> + <td class="tdc">·0157</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">9</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">19</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 9·5</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0152</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0152</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0208</td> + <td class="tdc">·0130</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">10</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> 12·6</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">23·6</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0305</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0278</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0147</td> + <td class="tdc">·0157</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">11</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> 31·5</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">14·1</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0178</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0254</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0135</td> + <td class="tdc">·0142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">12</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr"> 37·4</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">15·6</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0229</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0147</td> + <td class="tdc">·0149</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">13</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">19</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">14·1</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0229</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0178</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0155</td> + <td class="tdc">·0124</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrbr">14</td> + <td class="tdcbr">”</td> + <td class="tdcbr">22</td> + <td class="tdcdbr"> 9·5</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0278</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0076</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdcdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdcbr">·0159</td> + <td class="tdc">·0149</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrtbbbr">15</td> + <td class="tdctbbbr">”</td> + <td class="tdctbbbr">25</td> + <td class="tdctbbdbr">14·1</td> + <td class="tdctbbbr">·0203</td> + <td class="tdctbbdbr">·0127</td> + <td class="tdctbbbr">·0178</td> + <td class="tdctbbdbr">·0101</td> + <td class="tdctbbbr">·0147</td> + <td class="tdctbb">·0140</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>It is very obvious they had no scale to work to.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> To the uninitiated I may explain that in a horizontal loom the plane of the warp is more +or less parallel with that of the floor, while in an upright or vertical loom the plane of the warp +is at right angles to that of the floor.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> To avoid indistinctness through over reduction, I have endeavoured to keep all reproductions +in this paper as large as possible, and think I have succeeded in not losing any detail in the +necessary reduction.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Hay’s drawings are not published but can be seen in the Brit. Mus., Add. MSS. No. +29823, Fol. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Olafsson, to be referred to later on, remarks that while in Ovid’s time the <i>spathe</i> was used +for beating-in the weft, in Seneca’s time the weft was beaten in by a toothed instrument. In +other words a weaver’s comb—the embryo reed—had been introduced.</p></div> + +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="II_The_Greek_Loom" id="II_The_Greek_Loom"></a><span class="smcap">II. The Greek Loom.</span></h2> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a> +<img src="images/aegl34.png" width="600" height="403" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 28.—A Bushongo weaver at work. From Torday and Joyce, <i>Notes Ethnographiques</i>, +<i>Ann. du Congo</i>, p. 182.</p> + +<p>We have now to say a few words about an upright loom which +differs very materially from the Egyptian loom already described. +Whether the horizontal loom is a later product than the vertical loom, +or was evolved from it, or whether both were independent inventions cannot +be discussed here, but I may point out that there is an intermediate +form between the two. It is doubtful as to whether this is a transition +form. It was first brought to my notice by Mr. T. A. Joyce, as in use +amongst some negro peoples in Central Africa possessing an old, high +and possibly introduced civilisation, and is figured in Messrs. Torday +and Joyce’s Notes <i>Ethnographiques ... Bakuba ... et Bushongo</i> +(<i>Annales du Congo</i>) pp. 24 and 182. In this loom the warp is stretched +between an upper beam and a lower beam at an angle of about 90 +degrees, and the weaver sits underneath at his work, <a href="#Fig_28"><b>Fig. 28</b></a>. It is +not at all uncommon to meet with illustrations showing the warp +stretched at an incline, and apart from the fact that in many the +weavers are posing for illustration, and therefore, are most probably not +exactly in their natural positions, the tilted arrangement has this +advantage, namely, that the work of beating-in is improved by the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +fall given to the “sword” which, with less exertion by the weaver, +drives the weft home more effectively. In all these cases, however, +the weaver sits or stands in front of the loom, but in the case of the +Bushongo the loom is tilted to such an extent that the weaver finds it +more convenient to sit underneath the warp.</p> + +<p>The discovery by Messrs. Alan Gardiner and N. de G. Davies +of illustrations of Egyptian upright looms, confirms Wilkinson in his +statement and illustration that the Egyptians had this class of loom +as well as the horizontal one. The vertical loom is found in Europe, +Asia, Africa and America, and is, probably, ethnically as old if not +older than the horizontal loom.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> But this Egyptian upright loom +differs from another, the Greek, or Central European, or Scandinavian +form of the upright loom, in having an upper and a lower beam so that +the warp is made taut between two beams, while in the Greek loom there +is only <em>one</em> beam. The warp hangs from this beam, the warp threads +being made taut by means of weights attached at the lower ends.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"> +<a name="Fig_29a" id="Fig_29a"></a> +<img src="images/aegl35.png" width="332" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 29a.—Illustration on a small lekythos of an +Athenian girl at work on a tapestry loom, together +with a full size tracing of the tapestry loom. +British Museum. B.C. 500.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;"> +<a name="Fig_29b" id="Fig_29b"></a> +<img src="images/aegl36.png" width="246" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 29b.—Illustration of a Greek +woman with a tapestry loom. From +Stackelberg’s <i>Graeber der Hellenen</i>, +pl. xxxiii.</p> + +<p>The Greeks were, however, acquainted with the tapestry loom, +for there exists in the British Museum a small lekythos with an +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +illustration, <a href="#Fig_29a"><b>Fig. 29a</b></a>, of such an article resting on the knees of a lady +weaver.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;"> +<a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a> +<img src="images/aegl37.png" width="233" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 30.—Greek woman at +work on a loom. From C. Robert +<ins class="greek" title="Eph arch">Ἐφ ἀρχ</ins> 1892, pl. xiii., p. 247. +It is not possible to say from this +illustration whether this is a +warp weighted loom or not.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a> +<img src="images/aegl38.png" width="400" height="317" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 31.—Penelope at her loom. Illustration on an +Athenian skyphos found in an <ins class="correction" title="Etrusian in original">Etruscan</ins> tomb at Chiusi, +and at present in the museum there. The illustration +is taken from <i>Monumenti d. Inst. Archeologico</i>, IX., +pl. xlii.</p> + +<p>It has been described by Mr. H. B. Walters in <i>Jour. Hellenic +Studies</i>, XXXI., 1911, p. 15, who says: “In front of her, <a href="#Fig_29a"><b>Fig. 29a</b></a>, is +a white wool basket (<i>Kalathos</i>) and on her lap is a frame somewhat in +the form of a lyre, being formed by two upright pieces with knobs at +the top, diverging slightly towards the top, across between which are +stretched two threads at the top and two at the bottom, seven vertical +threads being also visible. Her hands are placed on the threads, +which she is engaged in manipulating. This object can only be +intended for a hand loom, though there is apparently no evidence for +the <ins class="correction" title="use use in original">use</ins> of such objects in ancient times or among Oriental races +either in the past or the present day. The only other parallel to the +representation on this vase is one published by Stackelberg, <a href="#Fig_29b"><b>Fig. 29b</b></a>, +where a woman holds a similar frame and is similarly occupied with +her hands. The writers of the articles <i>Sticken</i> in Baumeister and +<i>Phrygium Opus</i> in Daremberg and Saglio, misled by the likeness of the +object to the modern crewel-frame, interpret the process as embroidery. +But this kind of work implies cloth or other textile substance already +woven, on which patterns are worked in, whereas in both vase +paintings the textile is obviously in course of construction.” He is +right in so far as he goes, but both representations are those of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +<em>tapestry</em> looms which fact is indicated by the warp threads in both +cases, and by the design marked on the warp threads of <a href="#Fig_29b"><b>Fig. 29b</b></a>—a +method of preparing their work in use to this day by tapestry weavers. +Some authorities consider that tapestry weaving is more closely related +to mat making than to true weaving. In other words, I take it +tapestry is an early stage in the development of weaving. From this +we get some idea as to how far the Greeks had progressed in the +textile arts.</p> + +<p>As pointed out by MM. Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dic. des Antiquités +Grecques et Romaines</i> pt. 46, p. 164, “illustrations of Greek or Roman +methods of weaving are very rare, they are much reduced and in so +far as the art is concerned purely diagrammatic.” On the other hand +if there are numerous references in the texts of classic authors, these +references seem rather to obscure than elucidate the method of working. +However, there are three illustrations—the Penelope loom, +<a href="#Fig_31"><b>Fig. 31</b></a>, and two Boeotian looms, one of which is illustrated in <a href="#Fig_15"><b>Fig. 15</b></a>—quite +sufficient to explain the principle of the upright loom as used +with warp weights by the Greeks, and the discovery of numerous +articles, considered to be the warp weights, confirm the illustration.</p> + +<p>The principle is the same throughout, viz.: the looms are vertical, +there is a warp beam on top, there are two cross rods one of which is a +laze rod and <em>possibly</em> the other is a heddle; and the warp threads are all +kept taut by means of attached weights. On one of the Boeotian looms +a bobbin or spool is shown. Along the top of Penelope’s loom there are +indications of nine pegs, on six of which balls of coloured thread have +been placed, evidently for working out the designs, very much the +same as shown on the rug loom in Bankfield Museum already referred +to. The warp weights on this Athenian illustration are triangular in +shape, and perhaps resemble the pyramidic weights found in Egypt +and attributed to Roman times. Assuming these pyramids are +Roman warp weights it would appear that both Greeks and Romans +had vertical looms on which the warp threads were kept taut by +means of weights. In one of the few clearly expressed technical +classical references, Seneca speaks of the warp threads stretched by +hanging weights.</p> + +<p>In the above classical illustrations which are after all only rough +diagrams, the warp weights appear to hang from a <em>single</em> thread only, +but this can not have been correct. The warp threads must have been +bunched, because a single suspended thread with a tension weight +immediately begins to unravel, and so loses the advantage of its +having been spun, as any one can ascertain for oneself. As regards +the same point on the Lake Dwellers looms, Cohausen was the first to +surmise that the warp threads were bunched to receive the weight, +and Messikommer proved it by practical experiment.<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +As can be surmised with this class of loom the weaving begins at +the <em>top</em>, working <em>down</em>wards, and the beating-in of the weft is <em>up</em>wards—the +exact opposite to the method adopted with other looms—for the +pendant warp ends, although weighted to keep them taut, do not +appear to have been further fixed in position, so that to commence +weaving at the lower end made the operation so extremely difficult +as to be almost impossible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a> +<img src="images/aegl39.png" width="600" height="576" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionpara">Fig. 32.—Illustration of a Scandinavian warp weighted loom in the Copenhagen Museum. +The illustration is taken from Montelius’ <i>Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times</i>, translated by +the Rev. F. H. Woods, London, Macmillan & Co., 1888, p. 160.</p> + +<p class="caption">[In the illustration of this loom published by the Trustees of the British Museum, in their +<i>Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age</i>, London, 1905, p. 139, the shape of the warp +weights has been altered to suit the shape of such weights in the British Museum collections.]</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 455px;"> +<a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a> +<img src="images/aegl40.png" width="455" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">Fig. 33.—Icelandic Loom after Olafsson.</p> + +<p class="captionpara"><i>a a</i> Beam on which the warp is fixed. <i>b b</i> Weights to make the warp taut. <i>c c</i> Brackets +which support the beam and on which it can be revolved by means of the spoke <i>e</i> when the warp +has to be lengthened, on account of the weft <i>f</i> working downwards and so shortening the finished +portion of the woven cloth. <i>g</i> A sharp bone or tough piece of wood to beat the weft into proper +position. <i>h</i> The wound up weft which is pushed through the warp with the fingers. <i>i i</i> The +unbeamed warp. <i>k k</i> The heddles or shed openers. <i>l l</i> The supports on which the heddles rest +when the “pick” is made [<i>i.e.</i>, the pushing the weft through]. <i>m</i> The beater-in. <i>n</i> and <i>o</i> Laze +rods. <i>q</i> The <ins class="correction" title="templete in original">template</ins> for regulating the width of the cloth. <i>r r</i> and <i>s s</i> Beam on to which the +loom is fixed.</p> + +<p class="caption">Some of the descriptions are not as clear as could be wished. It is probable that <i>g</i> is a preliminary +to <i>m</i>. N. Annandale mentions that he obtained in the Faroes a beater-in made of a +whale’s jaw or rib; while in Iceland he saw some of the perforated stones to which the warp +threads were attached (<i>The Faroes and Iceland</i>, Oxford, 1905, pp. 195-6).</p> + +<p>The Scandinavian form of the “Greek” loom from the Faroes +<a href="#Fig_32"><b>Fig. 32</b></a>, is made known to us through the article itself in the +Copenhagen Museum, illustrated by Montelius, <i>Civilisation of Sweden +in Heathen Times</i>, Lond. 1888, p. 160, and through the very clear +illustration and description given us by Olafsson in his <i>Oeconomische +Reise durch Island</i>, 1787, translated from the Danish edition of +1780. The loom figured by Olafsson, <a href="#Fig_33"><b>Fig. 33</b></a>, shows an advance +on that of Montelius, in being provided with heddles.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> Upright +looms with a lower beam instead of with warp weights and furnished +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"><!-- Figure 33 in original --></a></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +with heddles, are not uncommon. There are the well known Indian +and Persian rug looms, and Du Chaillu figures one in his <i>Journey +to Ashango Land</i>, London, 1867, plate facing p. 291. Randall-Maciver +and Wilkin illustrate a vertical loom in use among the +Kabyles, <i>Libyan Notes</i>, London, 1901, Pl. IX., and although the +details of the illustration are not clear the text indicates the +existence of one heddle: “The warp is decussated by means of a +horizontal rod and leashes.” Dr. Washington Mathews figures several +Navajo looms with heddles, <i>Third Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology</i>, +p. 291; Ancient Peruvians also used them, as shown by Dr. Max +Schmidt, <i>Baessler Archiv, I. pt. 1</i>, and so on practically <i>ad. lib.</i> But +to work an upright warp-weighted loom with heddles is attended with +great practical inconvenience, and this difficulty has, no doubt, been +one of the chief causes of the complete discardance of this class of +loom.</p> + +<p>In spite of the evidence in favour of the existence of warp +weighted looms, the Director of the Hermannstadt Museum, Dr. v. +Kimakovicz-Winnicki, sees fit to deny their existence. He found that +in some parts of Transylvania the peasants use wooden pyramids (see +<a href="#Fig_18"><b>Fig. 18</b></a>) similar to the Roman warp weights for winding the thread from +the spindle on to the shuttle. For this purpose sockets are bored +into the thin or top end of two pyramids, which are placed just +so far apart that a spindle can rest horizontally with one end in the +socket of one pyramid, and the other end of the spindle in the socket +of the other pyramid, and the thread in being wound off on to the +shuttle causes the spindle to revolve in the sockets. From this he +argues that what we have hitherto taken to be warp weights are not +warp weights at all (<i>Spinn- u. Webewerkzeuge</i>, Wuerzburg, 1911), and +having denied these articles to be warp weights he gets over the +difficulty presented by the illustration of Penelope at her loom, by +attempting to prove that what we take to be a loom is no loom at all +but a <i>flechtrahm</i>, <i>i.e.</i> plaiting frame! He then attempts to pull to +pieces the idea that the Scandinavian loom in the Copenhagen Museum +is a loom and condemns it as unworkable. There can be no doubt +about his meaning as he defines his terms. The principle of weaving +(<i>Weben</i>) he describes “as the absorption of two groups of parallel +material elements (warp and weft) at right angles to each other, and the +principle of plaiting (<i>Flechten</i>) as the absorption by itself in one plane +of one group only of material element, (warp)” and he gives diagrammatic +illustrations showing clearly what he means (<i>op. cit.</i> p. 31).<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> Judging +from his remarks one must conclude he has not seen a primitive loom +of any sort, and were it not for the official position he holds, his +remarks would not need answering.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +It has, I believe, been suggested more than once that some of the +perforated stones, pieces of burnt clay, pieces of chalk and like objects +may be and are net-sinkers, and there is some justification for Dr. +Kimakovicz-Winnicki’s statement that the pyramidic forms are not +warp weights; but it does not follow that all the perforated articles +are either spindle-holders or net-sinkers, yet that is what his subsequent +statements lead one to infer. It is, however, difficult to prove +that these perforated articles are warp weights.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;"> +<a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a> +<img src="images/aegl41.png" width="313" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionpara">Fig. 34.—Side view and section of chalk +warp weight found at Great Driffield. Of +three of the weights the following dimensions +were taken:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Dimensions of weights"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">7¾"</td> + <td class="tdl">(19·7 cm.)</td> + <td class="tdl">long,</td> + <td class="tdl">2 lbs. 3 oz.</td> + <td class="tdl">(1·0 k)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">6"</td> + <td class="tdl">(15·2 ” )</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">1 lb. 8 oz.</td> + <td class="tdl">(0·7 k)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">6<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>"</td> + <td class="tdl">(16·2 ” )</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">1 lb. 3 oz.</td> + <td class="tdl">(0·6 k)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="caption">Hull Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 191px;"> +<a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a> +<img src="images/aegl42.png" width="191" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 35.—“Chalk weight, 6" × 4" × 2" +(15·2 cm. × 10·2 × 5·1), similar to those +found in pits, at Mount Caburn and Cissbury +near Worthing, Sussex. Found with eighteen +more in the <em>filling</em> of pit 7, Winkelbury Hill.” +<i>Excavations in Winkelbury Camp</i>, by Lieut.-Gen. +Pitt-Rivers (<i>Excavations in Cranbourne +Chase</i>, Vol. II., 1888). As Pitt-Rivers also +found at Winkelbury the fragment of a comb +and a chalk spindle <ins class="correction" title="whorle in original">whorl</ins>, which are textile +tools, we may safely presume these fashioned +pieces of chalk are warp weights.</p> + +<p>In 1875 several flat irregular oblong perforated pieces of soft +chalk were found in enlarging the cattle market in Great Driffield, +Yorkshire; they were found in a hole about three feet deep with +Anglo-Saxon potsherds, animal remains, and bits of iron. They can +now be seen in the Mortimer Collection in the Hull Museum. They +consist of pieces of chalk, similar to those which drop annually in +thousands upon thousands down the cliffs from the boulder clay +between Bridlington and Flamborough. On some a shoulder has been +cut, <a href="#Fig_34"><b>Fig. 34</b></a>, most have one perforation, but in a few specimens, where +the thin portion above the hole has been broken off, a second hole has +been made. None of them can stand unsupported. Owing to the +soluble nature of the chalk they could not have been used as net-sinkers +in the sea (about nine miles off) for they would quickly dissolve +in salt water, and the same holds good in regard to fresh water, +although in a lesser degree. But I do not think they were used even in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +fresh water as net-sinkers, for it was a characteristic of primitive peoples, +with whom time was of no account, to do their work thoroughly—what +they made was intended to last, and chalk net-sinkers would not have +lasted. That these were found in a limited quantity, I believe about +seventeen in number, tends to show that they are warp weights, for +only a few are required for every loom, in spite of the considerable +number shown in the non-technical illustration of Penelope’s loom. +Not being able to find any other use for these pieces of chalk, and +judging that they are suitable for the purpose, I should say they are +warp weights. In this case the weaver has made the most of what +nature has given him; in other parts of England he has had to +fashion the weight out of the rough chalk, <a href="#Fig_35"><b>Fig. 35</b></a>.</p> + +<p>In the Museum at Devizes there are several hard pieces of perforated +and fashioned chalk which offer more conclusive evidence. Of +these Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, the Curator, writes me: “All the +weights here have holes bored right through. Two large ones stand +easily on the floor. Others are more irregular in form and will not stand +upright. This latter type is, as far as I am aware, the more usual in +this part of the country. They are <ins class="correction" title="commonally in original">commonly</ins> cut out of the hard chalk, +and weigh about 3 or 4 lbs. (1·5-2 Kilos). We think these weights +are loom weights because we find them with Romano-British remains, +as at Westbury, and late Celtic remains on our chalk uplands, far +from water where fishing could have been carried on. With the same +remains we find weaving combs, numerous spindle whorls and other +tools of bone that were also probably used in weaving operations.” +The Westbury, in Wiltshire, referred to, is some thirty miles in a +straight line from the mouth of the Severn, and about forty miles from +the English Channel. These pieces of chalk cannot therefore have +been used as net-sinkers, leaving out of consideration their composition; +they were found with weaving tools and they fit the position. So far +the ingenuity of our ablest <ins class="correction" title="archaeologists in original">archæologists</ins> at home and abroad has not +succeeded in ascribing the use of these objects to anything else than +net-sinking or warp tension. The adaptability of the articles +for use as warp weights, the small groups in which they are found, +the discovery of weaving implements in the closest proximity, our +knowledge of the Greek representations of warp-weighted looms, the +Olafsson illustration, and the loom in the Copenhagen Museum +all tend to prove that these articles are really warp weights.</p> + +<p>As regards the practical possibility or <ins class="correction" title="impossibilty in original">impossibility</ins> of working a +“Greek” loom, I had a simple frame made in the Museum and showed +Mr. J. Smith, a mill “Overlooker” at Messrs. Wayman and Sons, Ld., +Halifax, the illustration in Montelius’ book already referred to, and +asked him to weave me a small piece of cloth on it. In the course of +a few hours he did the warping, beaming and weaving, making the +pick with his fingers and using a ball of weft thread instead of a spool +or shuttle. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration, +<a href="#Fig_36"><b>Fig. 36</b></a>, conclusively proving that weaving on such a frame is quite +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +feasible, and practically proving that Olafsson’s and the Copenhagen +warp weighted looms are properly constructed workable looms.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 257px;"> +<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a> +<img src="images/aegl43.png" width="257" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 36.—A warp weighted loom made at +Bankfield Museum, to show the possibility of +weaving by this method. There is no heddle +nor shuttle used. The weaver made the +“shed” and pushed the weft through with +his fingers. He naturally worked <em>down</em>wards.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a> +<img src="images/aegl44.png" width="400" height="244" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 37.—Diagram to show how the warp is kept taut on a +Syrian loom.</p> + +<p>Finally, it may not be out of place here to point out that there +are other looms, besides the Greek and Scandinavian, on which the +warp is made taut by means of warp weights. The Rev. Dr. <ins class="correction" title="Henry in original, noted as an erratum">Harvey</ins> +Porter, of the American College, Beyrout, Syria, writing about the +year 1901, thus describes the common loom of the country. He says: +“Two upright posts are fixed in the ground, which hold the roller to +which the threads of the warp are fastened, and upon which the cloth +is wound as it is woven. The threads of the warp are carried upward +towards the ceiling at the other end of the room, and pass over rollers, +and are gathered in hanks and weighted to keep them taut (<i>Dic. of +the Bible</i>, Edinburgh, 1902, IV., p. 901).” He has kindly sent me an +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +illustration of this loom, but unfortunately the weights are not clearly +shown, and the same is the case with an illustration of a loom from +Cyprus.<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a> +The diagram, <a href="#Fig_37"><b>Fig. 37</b></a>, shows the principle. In a Shan loom +illustrated by Mrs. Leslie Milne, in <i>The Shans at Home</i>, London, 1910, +p. 120, the warp makes a somewhat similar detour over the head of the +weaver, it is, however, not weighted but tied to a beam. The +point to be observed is that these warp-weighted looms are horizontal +and not perpendicular, and also that the weaving is the reverse of +that on the Greek loom but similar to that on our horizontal looms, +so that the present Syrian and Cyprian looms have nothing in +common with the old Greek loom.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;"> +<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a> +<img src="images/aegl45.png" width="273" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 38.—Hand of Penelope clutching her shuttle. From a corner of a piece of sculpture +discovered by O. Kern and described by C. Robert, (<i>The Feet Washing of Odysseus</i>, fifth Century +B.C., <i>Mitt. Kais. Deutsch. Arch. Inst.</i>, Athens, XXV., 1900, pp. 332-3). The author considers +Penelope to be in the act of unravelling what she has woven: “We see her holding the spool with +her right hand, while the left hand, half closed, is raised to about shoulder high, and the fingers, +if I read the traces correctly, are posed as though she held a thread.”</p> + +<p>The Greeks evidently used a spool in weaving, that is a piece of +stick round which was wound the thread that became the weft, as is +shown in the hand of Penelope, <a href="#Fig_38"><b>Fig. 38</b></a>, and in Kirke’s loom, <a href="#Fig_15"><b>Fig. 15</b></a>.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> I find frequent references, by various writers, to an upright loom mentioned by E. H. +Palmer as used by a Bedawin woman near Jebel Musa, but on looking up his description (<i>The +Desert of the Exodus</i>, I. p. 125), I find it to be so indifferent as to be quite useless for purposes of +comparison.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> My attention to this was kindly drawn by Mr. F. N. Pryce, Assistant in the Dept. of +Greek and Roman Antiquities.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The existence of warp weighted looms amongst the prehistoric Lake Dwellers of Switzerland +was first surmised by Pauer (<i>Keller’s Lake Dwellings</i>) from the discovery of the weights, and was +made practically certain by Messikommer and Jentsch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> Comparing the loom Olafsson saw with the description in the Nial Saga, he concludes this +sort of loom was in use A.D. 1014, in the North of Scotland.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> He criticises the detail of the illustration of Penelope’s loom. It must be remembered +this illustration is not a technical drawing, but an artist’s representation where correctness of +detail cannot be expected. In his own drawing of the Egyptian horizontal loom many of the +warp threads are shown over instead of under the laze rods, and yet this is supposed to be a +correct technical drawing!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> Since writing Dr. Porter has sent me photograph of another sort of loom in which weights +are used as counter balances to keep the heddles raised. The subject requires further elucidation.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2><a name="III_Conclusion" id="III_Conclusion"></a><span class="smcap">III. Conclusion.</span></h2> + + +<p>From the foregoing we gather that the Ancient Egyptians had +two forms of looms. The earlier or horizontal form, date about B.C. +2000, has in a modified way survived to the present day in desert +Egypt and is also found in Seistan. It required a large area of +ground for working and probably in earlier times when there was +plenty of space this did not much matter. But as the population in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +the towns increased and with the increase of civilisation and its concomitant +increased demand for cloth, probably out of proportion to the +increase of population, space would be begrudged and this may have +caused the invention or the introduction of the vertical form of +loom which we find in use some 500 years later. In Egypt therefore +the horizontal loom preceded the vertical loom but it does not +necessarily follow that such was the case elsewhere. In so far as we +can gather from the small amount of information at our disposal, in +the earlier days the women were the weavers, and later on with the +introduction of the upright loom the men were the weavers with an +occasional female weaver. In the Egyptian Desert and in Seistan in +the present day with horizontal looms the weavers appear to be males, +but among the nomads of Persia who likewise use horizontal looms +the weavers are females. In the use of either form of loom the +Egyptian weavers beat the weft downwards or towards themselves +and <em>not</em> upwards or away from themselves. They had the heddle in +one of its earliest forms and had consequently made the first great +step in the evolution of the loom as we now know it. In the beginning +they made no selvedges so that for every pick a separate length of +weft thread was used. The adoption of the selvedge was another +improvement and until it was introduced the weft would no doubt +have been put through with the fingers, later on a spool being +used. It is possible also that in very late times the weavers’ comb was +introduced. It is safe to say that the Egyptians had no knowledge of +the reed. Both forms of looms were simple, without harness or other +complicated pieces of mechanism. The Egyptians accomplished +fairly good work and judging these people from their looms alone +we must conclude they were a progressive race.</p> + +<p>The Greek form of loom was an upright one on which the warp +threads were kept taut by means of weights and similar to the form +which existed in Central and Northern Europe (in the latter until +recent times) but of which so far there is no trace to the east, or south, +or west. The Greek loom may have been furnished with a heddle but +the drawings are not clear on this point. A spool was used. The +weavers were women and the weft was beaten upwards or away from +the weaver. It was not a form of loom so capable of improvement as +the Egyptian forms and there appears to be no connection between +the forms used on either side of the Mediterranean. The Greek +tapestry loom could hardly have been more primitive. In respect to +the forms of looms used by the two peoples the Egyptians were +considerably in advance of the Greeks.</p> + + +<p class="centerpad" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">FINIS.</p> + + + +<div class="bbox"> +<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>A brief Table of Contents has been added for ease of navigation.</p> + +<p>Punctuation errors have been repaired.</p> + +<p>The author uses some archaic and alternative spelling, for example, nooze for noose, +gramms for grammes. These have been retained as printed.</p> + +<p>The original text contained an erratum, as follows:</p> + +<div class="amends"> +<p><span class="smcap">Erratum</span>:—Page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, Line 5, for Dr. Henry Porter, <i>read</i> +Dr. Harvey Porter.</p> +</div> + +<p>The error has been fixed in this e-text.</p> + +<p>The following amendments have been made:</p> + +<div class="amends"> +<p>Page <a href="#Page_8">8</a>—Calliaud amended to Cailliaud—"... as well as those of Cailliaud and +Rosellini show that ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_11">11</a>—Tehuti-hotep amended to Tehuti-hetep—"... from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep +<i>circa</i> 1938-1849 B.C., ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_18">18</a>—netsinker amended to net-sinker—"... the material is not suitable +for a net-sinker, ..."</p> + +<p>Page 19, <a href="#Fig_21"><b>Fig. 21</b></a> caption—cm. amended to in.—"... Breadth 6·5 cm. +(1<span class="tfrac">11</span>/<span class="bfrac">32</span> in.)."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_23">23</a>—pecularity amended to peculiarity—"When I noticed the peculiarity +first, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_23">23</a>—analagous amended to analogous—"We know how closely analogous to +‘darning’ was ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_27">27</a>—safron amended to saffron—"2. This is a coarser fabric, has been +dyed with saffron, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_29">29</a>—Millemetres amended to Millimetres—"Micro Measurements of Ten +Fibres in Millimetres."</p> + +<p>Page 32, <a href="#Fig_31"><b>Fig. 31</b></a> caption—Etrusian amended to Etruscan—"... an Athenian +skyphos found in an Etruscan tomb ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_32">32</a>—repeated instance of use deleted—"... there is apparently no +evidence for the use of such objects ..."</p> + +<p>Page 35, <a href="#Fig_33"><b>Fig. 33</b></a> caption—templete amended to template—"The template for +regulating the width of the cloth."</p> + +<p>Page 37, <a href="#Fig_35"><b>Fig. 35</b></a> caption—whorle amended to whorl—"... the fragment of a +comb and a chalk spindle whorl, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_38">38</a>—commonally amended to commonly—"They are commonly cut out of the +hard chalk, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_38">38</a>—archaeologists amended to archæologists—"... the ingenuity of our +ablest archæologists at home and abroad ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_38">38</a>—impossibilty amended to impossibility—"As regards the practical +possibility or impossibility ..."</p></div> + +<p>The Figures have been moved, where necessary, so that they are not in the +middle of a paragraph. Omitted page numbers occur where Figures have been moved.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS *** + +***** This file should be named 25731-h.htm or 25731-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/7/3/25731/ + +Produced by Julie Barkley, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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