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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Freedom in Science and Teaching., by 
+Ernst Haeckel and T. H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Freedom in Science and Teaching.
+       from the German of Ernst Haeckel
+
+Author: Ernst Haeckel
+        T. H. Huxley
+
+Release Date: June 6, 2008 [EBook #25711]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING. ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Roberta Staehlin, Joseph Cooper
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  FREEDOM
+  IN
+  SCIENCE AND TEACHING.
+
+
+  FROM THE GERMAN OF
+  ERNST HAECKEL.
+
+
+  _WITH A PREFATORY NOTE_
+  By T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S.
+
+  DER TELEOLOG
+  "Welche Verehrung verdient der Weltenschöpfer der gnädig.
+  Als er den Korkbaum schuf, gleich auch die Stöpfel erfand."
+      XENIEN.
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
+  549 AND 551 BROADWAY.
+  1879.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE.
+
+
+In complying with the wish of the publishers of Professor Haeckel's
+reply to Professor Virchow, that I should furnish a prefatory note
+expressing my own opinion in respect of the subject-matter of the
+controversy, Gay's homely lines, prophetic of the fate of those "who
+in quarrels interpose," emerge from some brain-cupboard in which they
+have been hidden since my childish days. In fact, the hard-hitting
+with which both the attack and the defence abound, makes me think with
+a shudder upon the probable sufferings of the unhappy man whose
+intervention should lead two such gladiators to turn their weapons
+from one another upon him. In my youth, I once attempted to stop a
+street fight, and I have never forgotten the brief but impressive
+lesson on the value of the policy of non-intervention which I then
+received.
+
+But there is, happily, no need for me to place myself in a position
+which, besides being fraught with danger, would savour of presumption:
+Careful study of both the attack and the reply leaves me without the
+inclination to become either a partisan or a peacemaker: not a
+partisan, for there is a great deal with which I fully agree said on
+both sides; not a peacemaker, because I think it is highly desirable
+that the important questions which underlie the discussion, apart from
+the more personal phases of the dispute, should be thoroughly
+discussed. And if it were possible to have controversy without
+bitterness in human affairs, I should be disposed, for the general
+good, to use to both of the eminent antagonists the famous phrase of a
+late President of the French Chamber--"_Tape dessus._"
+
+No profound acquaintance with the history of science is needed to
+produce the conviction, that the advancement of natural knowledge has
+been effected by the successive or concurrent efforts of men, whose
+minds are characterised by tendencies so opposite that they are forced
+into conflict with one another. The one intellect is imaginative and
+synthetic; its chief aim is to arrive at a broad and coherent
+conception of the relations of phenomena; the other is positive,
+critical, analytic, and sets the highest value upon the exact
+determination and statement of the phenomena themselves.
+
+If the man of the critical school takes the pithy aphorism "Melius
+autem est naturam secare quam abstrahere"[1] for his motto, the
+champion of free speculation may retort with another from the same
+hand, "Citius enim emergit veritas e falsitate quam e confusione;"[2]
+and each may adduce abundant historical proof that his method has
+contributed as much to the progress of knowledge as that of his rival.
+Every science has been largely indebted to bold, nay, even to wild
+hypotheses, for the power of ordering and grasping the endless details
+of natural fact which they confer; for the moral stimulus which arises
+out of the desire to confirm or to confute them; and last, but not
+least, for the suggestion of paths of fruitful inquiry, which, without
+them, would never have been followed. From the days of Columbus and
+Kepler to those of Oken, Lamarck, and Boucher de Perthes, Saul, who,
+seeking his father's asses, found a kingdom, is the prototype of many
+a renowned discoverer who has lighted upon verities while following
+illusions, which, had they deluded lesser men, might possibly have
+been considered more or less asinine.
+
+On the other hand, there is no branch of science which does not owe at
+least an equal obligation to those cool heads, which are not to be
+seduced into the acceptance of symmetrical formulæ and bold
+generalisations for solid truths because of their brilliancy and
+grandeur; to the men who cannot overlook those small exceptions and
+insignificant residual phenomena which, when tracked to their causes,
+are so often the death of brilliant hypotheses; to the men, finally,
+who, by demonstrating the limits to human knowledge which are set by
+the very conditions of thought, have warned mankind against fruitless
+efforts to overstep those limits.
+
+Neither of the eminent men of science, whose opinions are at present
+under consideration, can be said to be a one-sided representative
+either of the synthetic or of the analytic school. Haeckel, no less
+than Virchow, is distinguished by the number, variety, and laborious
+accuracy of his contributions to positive knowledge; while Virchow, no
+less than Haeckel, has dealt in wide generalisations, and, until the
+obscurantists thought they could turn his recent utterances to
+account, no one was better abused by them as a typical free-thinker
+and materialist. But, as happened to the two women grinding at the
+same mill, one has been taken and the other left. Since the
+publication of his famous oration, Virchow has been received into the
+bosom of orthodoxy and respectability, while Haeckel remains an
+outcast!
+
+To those who pay attention to the actual facts of the case, this is a
+very surprising event; and I confess that nothing has ever perplexed
+me more than the reception which Professor Virchow's oration has met
+with, in his own and in this country; for it owes that reception, not
+to the undoubted literary and scientific merits which it possesses,
+but to an imputed righteousness for which, so far as I can discern, it
+offers no foundation. It is supposed to be a recantation; I can find
+no word in it which, if strictly construed, is inconsistent with the
+most extreme of those opinions which are commonly attributed to its
+author. It is supposed to be a deadly blow to the doctrine of
+evolution; but, though I certainly hold by that doctrine with some
+tenacity, I am able, _ex animo_, to subscribe to every important
+general proposition which its author lays down.
+
+In commencing his address, Virchow adverts to the complete freedom of
+investigation and publication in regard to scientific questions which
+obtains in Germany; he points out the obligation which lies upon men
+of science, even if for no better reason than the maintenance of this
+state of things, to exhibit a due sense of the responsibility which
+attaches to their speaking and writing, and he dwells on the necessity
+of drawing a clear line of demarcation between those propositions
+which they have a fair right to regard as established truths, and
+those which they know to be only more or less well-founded
+speculations. Is any one prepared to deny that this is the first great
+commandment of the ethics of teaching? Would any responsible
+scientific teacher like to admit that he had not done his best to
+separate facts from hypotheses in the minds of his hearers; and that
+he had not made it his chief business to enable those whom he
+instructs to judge the latter by their knowledge of the former?
+
+More particularly does this obligation weigh upon those who address
+the general public. It is indubitable, as Professor Virchow observes,
+that "he who speaks to, or writes for, the public is doubly bound to
+test the objective truth of that which he says." There is a sect of
+scientific pharisees who thank God that they are not as those
+publicans who address the public. If this sect includes anybody who
+has attempted the business without failing in it, I suspect that he
+must have given up keeping a conscience. For assuredly if a man of
+science, addressing the public, bethinks him, as he ought to do, that
+the obligation to be accurate--to say no more than he has warranty
+for, without clearly marking off so much as is hypothetical--is far
+heavier than if he were dealing with experts, he will find his task a
+very admirable mental exercise. For my own part, I am inclined to
+doubt whether there is any method of self-discipline better calculated
+to clear up one's own ideas about a difficult subject, than that which
+arises out of the effort to put them forth, with fulness and
+precision, in language which all the world can understand. Sheridan
+is said to have replied to some one who remarked on the easy flow of
+his style, "Easy reading, sir, is--hard writing;" and any one who is
+above the level of a scientific charlatan will know that easy speaking
+is "----hard thinking."
+
+Again, when Professor Virchow enlarges on the extreme incompleteness
+of every man's knowledge beyond those provinces which he has made
+his own (and he might well have added within these also), and when
+he dilates on the inexpediency, in the interests of science, of
+putting forth as ascertained truths propositions which the progress
+of knowledge soon upsets--who will be disposed to gainsay him? Nor
+have I, for one, anything but cordial assent to give to his
+declaration, that the modern development of science is essentially
+due to the constant encroachment of experiment and observation on
+the domain of hypothetical dogma; and that the most difficult, as
+well as the most important, object of every honest worker is "_sich
+ent-subjectiviren_"--to get rid of his preconceived notions, and to
+keep his hypotheses well in hand, as the good servants and bad masters
+that they are.
+
+I do not think I have omitted any one of Professor Virchow's main
+theses in this brief enumeration. I do not find that they are disputed
+by Haeckel, and I should be profoundly astonished if they were. What,
+then, is all the coil about, if we leave aside various irritating
+sarcasms, which need not concern peaceable Englishmen? Certainly about
+nothing that touches the present main issues of scientific thought.
+The "plastidule-soul" and the potentialities of carbon may be sound
+scientific conceptions, or they may be the reverse, but they are no
+necessary part of the doctrine of evolution, and I leave their defence
+to Professor Haeckel.
+
+On the question of equivocal generation, I have been compelled, more
+conspicuously and frequently than I could wish, during the last ten
+years, to enunciate exactly the same views as those put forward by
+Professor Virchow; so that, to my mind, at any rate, the denial that
+any such process has as yet been proved to take place in the existing
+state of nature, as little affects the general doctrine.[3]
+
+With respect to another side issue, raised by Professor Virchow, he
+appears to me to be entirely in the wrong. He is careful to say that
+he has no unwillingness to accept the descent of man from some lower
+form of vertebrate life; but, reminding us of the special attention
+which, of late years, he has given to anthropology, he affirms that
+such evidence as exists is not only insufficient to support that
+hypothesis, but is contrary to it. "Every positive progress which we
+have made in the region of prehistoric anthropology has removed us
+further from the demonstration of this relation."
+
+Well, I also have studied anthropological questions in my time; and I
+feel bound to remark, that this assertion of Professor Virchow's
+appears to me to be a typical example of the kind of incautious
+over-statement which he so justly reprehends.
+
+For, unless I greatly err, all the real knowledge which we possess of
+the fossil remains of man goes no farther back than the Quaternary
+epoch; and the most that can be asserted on Professor Virchow's side
+respecting these remains is, that none of them present us with more
+marked pithecoid characters than such as are to be found among the
+existing races of mankind.[4] But, if this be so, then the only just
+conclusion to be drawn from the evidence as it stands is, that the men
+of the Quaternary epoch may have proceeded from a lower type of
+humanity, though their remains hitherto discovered show no definite
+approach towards that type. The evidence is not inconsistent with the
+doctrine of evolution, though it does not help it. If Professor
+Virchow had paid as much attention to comparative anatomy and
+palæontology as he has to anthropology, he would, I doubt not, be
+aware that the equine quadrupeds of the Quaternary period do not
+differ from existing _Equidæ_ in any more important respect than these
+last differ from one another; and he would know that it is,
+nevertheless, a well-established fact that, in the course of the
+Tertiary period, the equine quadrupeds have undergone a series of
+changes exactly such as the doctrine of evolution requires. Hence
+sound analogical reasoning justifies the expectation that, when we
+obtain the remains of Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene _Anthropidæ_, they
+will present us with the like series of gradations, notwithstanding
+the fact, if it be a fact, that the Quaternary men, like the
+Quaternary horses, differ in no essential respect from those which now
+live.
+
+I believe that the state of our knowledge on this question is still
+justly summed up in words written some seventeen years ago:--
+
+"In conclusion, I may say, that the fossil remains of man hitherto
+discovered do not seem to me to take us appreciably nearer to that
+lower pithecoid form by the modification of which he has probably
+become what he is. And considering what is now known of the most
+ancient races of men; seeing that they fashioned flint axes, and flint
+knives, and bone skewers of much the same pattern as those fabricated
+by the lowest savages at the present day, and that we have every
+reason to believe the habits and modes of living of such people to
+have remained the same from the time of the mammoth and the tichorhine
+rhinoceros till now, I do not know that the result is other than might
+be expected."[5]
+
+I have seen no reason to change the opinion here expressed, and so far
+from the fact being in the slightest degree opposed to a belief in the
+evolution of man, all that has been learned of late years respecting
+the relation of the Recent and Quaternary to the Tertiary mammalia
+appears to me to be in striking harmony with what we know respecting
+Quaternary man, supposing man to have followed the general law of
+evolution.
+
+The only other collateral question of importance raised by Professor
+Virchow is, whether the doctrine of evolution should be generally
+taught in schools or not. Now I cannot find that Professor Virchow
+anywhere distinctly repudiates the doctrine; all that he distinctly
+says is that it is not proven, and that things which are not proven
+should not be authoritatively instilled into the minds of young
+people.
+
+If Professor Virchow will agree to make this excellent rule absolute,
+and applicable to all subjects that are taught in schools, I should be
+disposed heartily to concur with him.
+
+But what will his orthodox allies say to this? If "not provenness" is
+susceptible of the comparative degree, by what factor must we multiply
+the imperfection of the evidence for evolution in order to express
+that of the evidence for special creation; or to what fraction must
+the value of the evidence in favour of the uninterrupted succession of
+life be reduced in order to express that in support of the deluge?
+Nay, surely even Professor Virchow's "dearest foes," the "plastidule
+soul" and "Carbon & Co.," have more to say for themselves, than the
+linguistic accomplishments of Balaam's ass and the obedience of the
+sun and moon to the commander of a horde of bloodthirsty Hebrews! But
+the high principles of which Professor Virchow is so admirable an
+exponent do not admit of the application of two weights and two
+measures in education; and it is surely to be regretted that a man of
+science of great eminence should advocate the stern bridling of that
+teaching which, at any rate, never outrages common sense, nor refuses
+to submit to criticism, while he has no whisper of remonstrance to
+offer to the authoritative propagation of the preposterous fables by
+which the minds of children are dazed and their sense of truth and
+falsehood perverted. Professor Virchow solemnly warns us against the
+danger of attempting to displace the Church by the religion of
+evolution. What this last confession of faith may be I do not know,
+but it must be bad indeed if it inculcates more falsities than are at
+present foisted upon the young in the name of the Church.
+
+I make these remarks simply in the interests of fair play. Far be it
+from me to suggest that it is desirable that the inculcation of the
+doctrine of evolution should be made a prominent feature of general
+education. I agree with Professor Virchow so far, but for very
+different reasons. It is not that I think the evidence of that
+doctrine insufficient, but that I doubt whether it is the business of
+a teacher to plunge the young mind into difficult problems concerning
+the origin of the existing condition of things. I am disposed to think
+that the brief period of school-life would be better spent in
+obtaining an acquaintance with nature, as it is; in fact, in laying a
+firm foundation for the further knowledge Which is needed for the
+critical examination of the dogmas, whether scientific or
+anti-scientific, which are presented to the adult mind. At present,
+education proceeds in the reverse way; the teacher makes the most
+confident assertions on precisely those subjects of which he knows
+least; while the habit of weighing evidence is discouraged, and the
+means of forming a sound judgment are carefully withheld from the
+pupil.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Professor Virchow is known to me only as he is known to the world in
+general--by his high and well-earned scientific reputation. With
+Professor Haeckel, on the other hand, I have the good fortune to be on
+terms of personal friendship. But in making the preceding
+observations, I should be sorry to have it supposed that I am holding
+a brief for my friend, or that I am disposed to adopt all the opinions
+which he has expressed in his reply. Nevertheless, I do desire to
+express my hearty sympathy with his vigorous defence of the freedom of
+learning and teaching; and I think I shall have all fair-minded men
+with me when I also give vent to my reprobation of the introduction of
+the sinister arts of unscrupulous political warfare into scientific
+controversy, manifested in the attempt to connect the doctrines he
+advocates with those of a political party which is, at present, the
+object of hatred and persecution in his native land. The one blot, so
+far as I know, on the fair fame of Edmund Burke is his attempt to
+involve Price and Priestley in the furious hatred of the English
+masses against the authors and favourers of the revolution of 1789.
+Burke, however, was too great a man to be absurd, even in his errors;
+and it is not upon record that he asked uninformed persons to consider
+what might be the effect of such an innovation as the discovery of
+oxygen on the minds of members of the Jacobin Club.
+
+Professor Virchow is a politician--maybe a German Burke, for anything
+that I know to the contrary; at any rate, he knows the political value
+of words; and, as a man of science, he is devoid of the excuses that
+might be made for Burke. Nevertheless, he gravely charges his hearers
+to "imagine what shape the theory of descent takes in the head of a
+Socialist."
+
+I have tried to comply with this request, but I have utterly failed to
+call up the dread image; I suppose because I do not sufficiently
+sympathise with Socialists. All the greater is my regret that
+Professor Virchow did not himself unfold the links of the hidden bonds
+which unite evolution with revolution, and bind together the community
+of descent with the community of goods.
+
+Professor Virchow is, I doubt not, an accomplished English scholar.
+Let me commend the "Rejected Addresses" to his attention. For since
+the brothers Smith sang--
+
+  "Who makes the quartern loaf and Luddites rise,"--
+  Who fills the butchers' shops with large blue flies,
+
+there has been nothing in literature at all comparable to the attempt
+to frighten sober people by the suggestion that evolutionary
+speculations generate revolutionary schemes in Socialist brains. But
+then the authors of the "Rejected Addresses" were joking, while
+Professor Virchow is in grim earnest; and that makes a great
+difference in the moral aspect of the two achievements.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Novum Organon, li.
+
+[2] Partis instaurationis secundæ delineatio.
+
+[3] I may remark parenthetically that Professor Virchow's statement of
+the attitude of Harvey towards equivocal generation is strangely
+misleading. For Harvey, as every student of his works knows, believed in
+equivocal generation; and, in the sense in which he uses the word ovum,
+"nempe substantiam quandam corpoream vitam habentem potentia," the truth
+of the axiom "omne vivum ex ovo," popularly ascribed to him, has in no
+wise been affected by the discoveries of later days in the manner
+asserted by Professor Virchow.
+
+[4] I do not admit that so much can be said; for the like of the
+Neanderthal skull has yet to be produced from among the crania of
+existing men.
+
+[5] Man's Place in Nature, p. 159.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+When the address delivered by Rudolph Virchow on the 22d of September
+last year, at the fiftieth meeting of German Naturalists and
+Physicians at Munich, on "Freedom of Science in the Modern State,"
+appeared in print in the following October, I was called upon, on many
+sides, to prepare a reply. And such a reply on my part seemed, in
+fact, justified by the severe strictures which Virchow in his
+discourse had directed against one delivered by me only four days
+previously, before the same meeting, on "The Modern Doctrine of
+Evolution in its Relation to General Science." The general views which
+Virchow then unfolded proved such a fundamental opposition in our
+principles, and touched our dearest moral convictions so nearly, that
+any reconciliation of such antagonistic views was no longer to be
+thought of. Nevertheless I forbore publishing the ready reply for two
+reasons: one relating to the matter itself, the other a personal one.
+
+With regard to the matter itself, I believed I might confidently leave
+it to futurity to decide in the contention that has declared itself
+between us. For on one hand the doctrine of evolution which Virchow
+attacks has already so far become a sure basis of biological science
+and part of the most precious mental-stock of cultivated humanity,
+that neither the anathemas of the Church nor the contradiction of the
+greatest scientific authority--and such an one is Virchow--can prevail
+against it; and on the other hand most of the arguments which he
+specially adduces against the theory of descent have been so often
+discussed and so thoroughly refuted that any renewed discussion seems
+in fact superfluous.
+
+Personally, it was in the highest degree repugnant to me to come
+forward as the opponent of a man whom I learned, a quarter of a
+century ago, to acknowledge and to honour as the reformer of medical
+science; a man whose most ardent disciple and most enthusiastic
+follower I at that time was, with whom I subsequently stood in the
+closest relation as his assistant, and with whom I long after
+continued in the most friendly intercourse. The more keenly I lamented
+Virchow's position, for some years past, as the antagonist of our
+modern doctrine of evolution, and the more I felt myself challenged to
+a reply by his repeated attacks upon it, the less inclination I felt,
+nevertheless, to come forward publicly as the opponent of this
+distinguished and highly-honoured man.
+
+And if I find myself, after all, forced to reply, it is in the
+persuasion that a longer silence will add to the erroneous conclusions
+which my hitherto resigned attitude has already given rise to; at the
+same time I believe that, precisely by reason of the peculiar interest
+with which I have throughout followed Virchow's scientific
+achievements, I am specially qualified to answer the question, a
+hundred times repeated by letter or by word of mouth--"How is it
+possible that a man who so long stood at the head of a party of
+progress in science as in politics, who in political life indeed, has
+outwardly maintained this position, has in science become an
+instrument of the most perilous reaction?"
+
+A verbal answer, which I incidentally gave in March of last year at
+the Concordia Banquet at Vienna, was reported in the daily papers in
+such a different sense, and was in part so misunderstood or so
+intentionally misrepresented, that I am forced at last, on that
+account, to publish a clear and unambiguous reply. The "Augsburger
+Allgemeine Zeitung," which eagerly seizes every opportunity of
+expressing its unconquerable aversion to the evolution theory, accused
+me, in one of its hostile articles, of a virulent and undignified
+attack on Virchow. In contradiction of this misrepresentation in the
+Augsburg paper--which was copied by other journals--I must expressly
+assert that not Virchow but I myself am the person attacked, and
+that, therefore, the matter in question is not an unjustifiable attack
+by me on a formerly revered friend, but a defence to which I am
+compelled by repeated and sharp attacks on his part.
+
+Another reason which urges me at last to break silence consists in the
+continual and ample advantage that all the clerical and reactionary
+organs have been taking of Virchow's address, during the last
+three-quarters of a year, in favour of mental retrogression. The
+shouts of triumph with which they at once hailed Virchow's "grand
+moral action," that is to say, his perversion from a Free-thinker to
+the side of mental darkness, was the first signal for that persistent
+utilisation of his authority of which the pernicious consequences can
+by no means be escaped. Friedrich von Hellwald, in his discussion on
+the speeches made at Munich, has already strikingly pointed out[6] the
+grave danger that exists when just such an one as Virchow, standing
+under the banner of political liberalism and wrapped in the mantle of
+severe science, decisively combats against the freedom of science and
+of its doctrines. This serious danger has never shown so threatening
+an aspect as at the present moment, when our political and religious
+life appears to be encountering such a reaction as has not occurred
+for a long time. The two insane attempts which, within a few weeks,
+have been made by Social-democracy against the revered and reverend
+person of the German Emperor have raised a storm of righteous
+indignation of such violence that calm judgment is entirely
+overthrown, and that many even of the most liberal of liberal
+politicians not only impetuously urge us to the severest measures
+against the Utopian doctrines of social democracy but, far
+over-shooting the mark, demand that free-doctrine and free-thought,
+that freedom of the press and even freedom of conscience shall be
+thrown into the narrowest fetters. Can this reaction, lurking in the
+background, find any more welcome support than is afforded by the mere
+demand of such a man as Virchow for restriction of liberty in
+teaching? And if he makes our present doctrines of evolution in
+general and the theory of descent in particular responsible for the
+mad doctrines of social-democracy, it is but a natural and just
+consequence when the famous New-Prussian "Kreuz-Zeitung" throws all
+the blame of these treasonable attempts of the democrats Hödel and
+Nobiling--as in fact it quite lately did--directly on the theory of
+descent, and especially on the hated doctrine of the "descent of man
+from apes." And the danger which threatens us shows a still graver
+aspect when we consider how great an influence Virchow has at the
+present day as an advanced liberal, and how he is regarded in the
+Prussian diet as the highest practical authority, and at the same time
+as the most liberal critic when educational questions are under
+consideration. Now it is well known that one of the most important
+problems lying before the Prussian parliament is the consideration of
+a new education-law, which will probably exercise its restricting
+influence for a long time to come, not in Prussia only, but throughout
+Germany; what can we expect of such an education-law if in the course
+of the deliberations, among the small number of those specialists who
+are generally listened to, Virchow raises his voice as a leading
+authority, and brings forward the principles that he proclaimed in his
+speech at Munich as the surest guarantees for the freedom of science
+in the modern polity? Article XX. of the Prussian Charter, and § 152
+of the Code of the German Empire, say, "Science and its doctrines are
+free." And Virchow's first step, according to the principles he now
+declares, must be a motion to abrogate this paragraph.
+
+In the face of this imminent danger, I dare no longer hesitate about
+my answer. _Amicus Socrates, amicus Plato, magis amica Veritas._ An
+unreserved and public opposition can be no longer postponed. As a
+matter of fact, at the Munich meeting, neither did Virchow hear my
+speech nor I his. I read my paper, as it is printed, on the 18th
+September 1877, and left on the 19th. Virchow came to Munich only on
+the 20th, and delivered his speech on the 22d.
+
+Bearing in mind the gratitude which I owe to Virchow as my former
+master and friend at Würzburg--a gratitude which I have at all times
+striven to prove by the further development of his mechanical
+theory--I shall confine myself, as far as possible, to an objective
+and special confutation of his assertions. Certainly the temptation on
+this occasion was a strong one to pay the debt in like kind. In my
+Munich lecture, among the few names to which I alluded, I particularly
+mentioned that of Virchow as the distinguished founder of
+cellular-pathology (p. 12).[7] Virchow's return for this was to heap
+scorn and ridicule on the doctrine of evolution in his usual manner.
+The critic in the "National-Zeitung," Herr Isidor Kastan, says of this
+with particular satisfaction, "The ridicule with which Herr Virchow
+treated this side of Haeckel's visions was indeed caustic enough, but
+this is ever Virchow's way; only in this case, if in any, he was fully
+justified."
+
+I could less easily ignore Virchow's denunciation of me than his
+satire--a denunciation which gibbeted me as a confederate in the
+social-democratic cause, and which made the theory of descent
+answerable for the horrors of the Paris Commune. The opinion is now
+widely spread that by this intentional connection of the theory of
+descent with Social Democracy he has hit the hardest blow at that
+theory, and that he aimed at nothing less than the removal of all
+"Darwinists" from their academic chairs and professorships. This is
+the inevitable consequence of his demands; for if Virchow insists with
+the utmost determination that the theory of descent must not be taught
+(because he does not regard it as true), what is to become of the
+supporters of that theory who, like myself, regard it as
+incontrovertibly true, and teach it as a perfectly sound theory? And
+at least nine-tenths of all the teachers of zoology and botany in
+Europe are among its supporters from immutable conviction of its
+truth, as well as all morphologists without exception. Virchow cannot
+expect that these teachers should collectively renounce that which
+they believe to be immutable truth, and in its place set up the dogma
+of the Church as the basis of their teaching, in accordance with his
+wish! Nothing remains for them but to vacate their professors' chairs,
+and--according to Virchow and the "Germania"--the "Modern Polity"
+would be in duty bound to deprive them of their liberty of teaching if
+they did not voluntarily renounce it.
+
+If this be indeed Virchow's purpose, as it is generally supposed to
+be, with regard to me, at least, he may spare himself the trouble.
+Amongst us in Jena quite other ideas prevail as to the "Freedom of
+science in the modern Polity" than those which obtain in the capital,
+Berlin. And among us the Berlin students' rhyme has no meaning,
+
+  "Who knows the truth and freely speaks,
+  On him the law its vengeance wreaks."[8]
+
+The Jena students, on the contrary, sing the rhyme in its original
+form--
+
+  "Who knows the truth and speaks it not,
+  A feeble wretch is he, God wot."[9]
+
+The Rector Magnificentissimus of the University of Jena, the Grand
+Duke of Saxony, who has proved himself the protector of the arts and
+sciences, has besides far more liberal views as to the liberty of
+scientific investigation and teaching than the illustrious head of the
+party of progress at Berlin. The enlightened and liberal Prince at
+Weimar, under whose particular protection we in Jena find ourselves,
+has never conceived it necessary to limit in any way the unbounded
+freedom of my teaching and my writing; not even when in 1866 my
+"General Morphology," and 1868 my "History of Creation" first
+appeared, and when many people attempted to make the youthful
+extravagances which were to be found in those works the ground of a
+serious accusation. And what farther mischief have these extravagances
+done, though I now sincerely lament them?
+
+Faithful to the glorious traditions of a past extending over three
+centuries, the little Thuringian university of Jena will find a way to
+preserve her perfect and unlimited freedom. She will ever bear in mind
+that she is the first Protestant university of Germany, protesting
+against every strait-waistcoat which hierarchical obstinacy would
+force upon human reason, against every dogma by which the arrogance of
+the learned may try to suppress all freedom of teaching. She will
+freely seek and freely teach in accordance with her highest
+convictions, untroubled by the fact that in the "great" university of
+Berlin nothing may be taught, as Virchow insists, but what is
+objectively ascertained, absolutely sure; that is to say, nothing that
+rises above individual, indubitable, and intelligible facts; not an
+idea, not a conception, not a theory, in fact not any real science;
+mathematics, at most, excepted. It is our conviction that Jena will
+continue to be an independent city of refuge for free science and free
+teaching as long as it remains under the faithful nurture and liberal
+protection of the princely house of Sax Weimar, that enlightened race
+which is linked with the history of German intellect through the
+matchless traditions of its glorious past. What the Wartburg was to
+Martin Luther, what Weimar has been to the foremost heroes of German
+literature, what Jena herself has been during three hundred years to a
+vast number of illustrious investigators, that will the tried and
+tested Jena of to-day undoubtedly continue to be to the modern
+doctrine of evolution, as to every other doctrine which asks free
+development; a strong-hold of free thought, free investigation, and
+free doctrine.
+
+    ERNST HAECKEL.
+
+JENA, _June 24th_, 1878.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] Kosmos, Vol. II. p. 172.
+
+[7] Of the German.
+
+[8]
+
+  "Wer die Wahrheit kennet und saget sie frei,
+   Der kommt in Berlin auf die Stadt-Vogtei."
+
+[9]
+
+  "Wer die Wahrheit kennet und saget sie nicht
+  Der ist für wahr ein erbärmlicher Wicht."
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                                         PAGE
+
+       PREFATORY NOTE                                            v
+
+       PREFACE                                                 xxi
+
+  CHAP.
+
+    I. DEVELOPMENT AND CREATION                             1
+
+   II. CERTAIN PROOFS OF THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT           10
+
+  III. THE SKULL THEORY AND THE APE THEORY                 29
+
+   IV. THE CELL-SOUL AND CELLULAR PSYCHOLOGY               46
+
+    V. THE GENETIC AND DOGMATIC METHODS OF TEACHING        61
+
+   VI. THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY        88
+
+  VII. IGNORABIMUS ET RESTRINGAMUR                         99
+
+
+
+
+FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEVELOPMENT AND CREATION.
+
+
+Nothing is more helpful for the understanding of scientific
+controversies, or for the clearing of confused conceptions, than a
+contrasted statement, as defined and clear as possible, of the
+simplest leading propositions of the contending doctrines. Hence it is
+highly favourable to the victory of our modern doctrine of evolution
+that its chief problem, the question as to the origin of species, is
+being more and more pressed by these opposite alternatives: Either all
+organisms are naturally evolved, and must in that case be all
+descended from the simplest common parent-forms--or: That is not the
+case, and the distinct species of organisms have originated
+independently of each other, and in that case can only have been
+created in a supernatural way, by a miracle. Natural evolution, or
+supernatural creation of species--we must choose one of these two
+possibilities, for a third there is not.
+
+But as Virchow, like many other opponents of the doctrine of
+evolution, constantly confounds this latter proposition with the
+doctrine of descent, and that again with Darwinism, it will not be
+superfluous to indicate here, in a few words, the limitation and
+subordination of these three great theories.
+
+I. The general doctrine of development, the progenesis-theory or
+evolution-hypothesis (in the widest sense), as a comprehensive
+philosophical view of the universe, assumes that a vast, uniform,
+uninterrupted and eternal process of development obtains throughout
+all nature; and that all natural phenomena without exception, from the
+motions of the heavenly bodies and the fall of a rolling stone to the
+growth of plants and the consciousness of men, obey one and the same
+great law of causation; that all may be ultimately referred to the
+mechanics of atoms--the mechanical or mechanistic, homogeneous or
+monistic view of the universe; in one word, Monism.
+
+II. The doctrine of derivation, or theory of descent, as a
+comprehensive theory of the natural origin of all organisms, assumes
+that all compound organisms are derived from simple ones, all
+many-celled animals and plants from single-celled ones, and these last
+from quite simple primary organisms--from monads. As we see the
+organic species, the multiform varieties of animals and plants, vary
+under our eyes through adaptation, while the similarity of their
+internal structure is reasonably explicable only by inheritance from
+common parent-forms, we are forced to assume common parent-forms for
+at least the great main divisions of the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms, and for the classes, orders, and so forth. Thus the number
+of these will be very limited, and the primitive archigonian
+parent-forms can be nothing else than monads. Whether we finally
+assume a single common parent-form (the monophyletic hypothesis), or
+several (the polyphyletic hypothesis), is wholly immaterial to the
+essence of the theory of descent; and it is equally immaterial to its
+fundamental idea what mechanical causes are assumed for the
+transformation of the varieties. This assumption of a transformation
+or metamorphosis of species is, however, indispensable, and the theory
+of descent is very properly called also the "metamorphosis
+hypothesis," or "doctrine of transmutation;" as well as Lamarckism,
+after Jean Lamarck, who first founded it in 1809.
+
+III. The doctrine of elimination, or the selection theory, as the
+doctrine especially of "choice of breed or selection," assumes that
+almost all, or at any rate most, organic species have originated by a
+process of selection; the artificial varieties under conditions of
+domestication--as the races of domestic animals and cultivated
+plants--through artificial choice of breeds; and the natural varieties
+of animals and plants in their wild state by natural choice of breeds:
+in the first case, the will of man effects the selection to suit a
+purpose; in the second, it is effected in a purposeless way by the
+"struggle for existence." In both cases the transformation of the
+organic forms takes place through the reciprocal action of the laws of
+inheritance and of adaptation; in both cases it depends on the
+survival or selection of the better-qualified minority. This theory of
+elimination was first clearly recognised and appreciated in its full
+significance by Charles Darwin in 1859, and the selection-hypothesis
+which he founded on it is Darwinism properly so called.
+
+The relation that these three great theories, which are frequently
+confounded, bear to one another may, according to the present position
+of science, be simply defined as follows:--I. Monism, the universal
+theory of development, or the monistic progenesis-hypothesis, is the
+one only scientific theory which affords a rational interpretation of
+the whole universe and satisfies the craving of our human reason for
+causality, by bringing all natural phenomena into a mechanical
+causal-connection as parts of a great uniform process of evolution.
+II. The theory of transmutation, or descent, is an essential and
+indispensable element in the monistic development hypothesis, because
+it is the one only scientific theory which rationally explains the
+origin of organic species--that is to say, by transformation--and
+reduces it to mechanical principles. III. The theory of Selection or
+Darwinism is, up to the present time, the most important of the
+various theories which seek to explain the transformation of species
+by mechanical principles, but it is by no means the only one. If we
+assume that most species have originated through natural elimination,
+we also now know, on the other hand, that many forms distinguished as
+varieties are hybrids between two different varieties, and can be
+propagated as such; and it is equally well worthy of consideration
+that other causes are in activity in the formation of species of
+which, up to the present time, we have no conception. Thus it is left
+to the judgment of individual naturalists to decide what share is to
+be attributed to natural selection in the origin of species, and even
+at the present day authorities differ widely on the subject. Some give
+it a large share, and some a very small one in the result. Moritz
+Wagner, for instance, would substitute his own migration-hypothesis
+for Darwin's theory of selection; while I regard the action of
+migration, which acts as isolation or separation, as merely a special
+mode of selection. But these differing estimates of Darwinism are
+quite independent of the absolute import of the doctrine of descent
+or of transformation, for the latter is as yet the only theory which
+rationally explains the origin of species. If we discard it, nothing
+remains but the irrational assumption of a miracle, a supernatural
+creation.
+
+In this crucial and unavoidable dilemma, Virchow has declared himself
+publicly in favour of the latter, and against the former hypothesis.
+Every one who has attentively followed his occasional utterances on
+the theory of descent during the last decade with an unprejudiced eye
+and an unbiassed judgment, must be convinced that he fundamentally
+rejects it. Still, his dissent has always been so obscured, and his
+judgment on Darwinism in particular so wrapped in ambiguities, that an
+opportune conversion to the opposite side seemed not impossible; and
+many, even among those who stood near to Virchow--his friends and
+disciples--did not know to what point he was in fact an opponent of
+the evolution hypothesis in general. Virchow took the last step
+towards clearing up this matter at Munich; for after his Munich
+address there can be no farther doubt that he belongs to the most
+decided opponents of the whole theory of evolution, including those of
+inheritance and selection.
+
+If any one still has doubts on the matter, let him read the jubilant
+hymns of triumph with which Virchow's friend and collaborator, Adolf
+Bastian, greeted his Munich discourse. This "enfant terrible" of the
+school--this well-nicknamed "Acting privy counsellor of the board of
+confusion"[10]--whose merits in involuntarily advancing the cause of
+metamorphism I have already done justice to in the preface to the
+third edition of my "Natural History of Creation"[11]--expresses
+himself in the "Zeitschrift für Ethnologie," which is edited by him
+and Virchow (tenth yearly part, X. 1878, p. 66) as follows:--"At the
+Munich meeting of naturalists, Virchow by a few weighty words cleared
+the atmosphere, which was heavy and stifling under the pressure of the
+incubus called Descent, and once more freed science from that
+nightmare which it has so long--in many opinions so much too
+long--allowed to weigh upon it; freed it, let us hope, once and for
+ever. The forecasts of this storm were discernible many years since,
+and its whole course has been a strictly normal one. When the germs
+planted by Darwin, and that promised so much, were forced into growth
+by a feverish, hot-house heat, and began to sprout into sterile weeds,
+their small vitality was plain to our eyes. So long as the waves run
+too high under the pressure of a psychical storm, it is almost useless
+to protest against it, for every ear is too much deafened by the
+noise all round to hear the voice of individuals. It is best to leave
+things to go their own way, deeper and deeper into the mire, till they
+come to a stand-still there of their own accord; for 'Quos deus vult
+perdere prius dementat.' Thus it is in this case. When the
+extravagances of the descent hypothesis, encouraged as they were by
+mutual incitement, had reached their highest pitch in the ravings that
+were uttered at Munich, the too pointed point broke in this
+superabundance of absurdity almost by its own pointedness, and so we
+were quit of it with one blow. Now, happily, all is over with the
+theory of descent, or ascent, but natural science will not on that
+account fare any the worse, for many of its adherents belong to her
+ablest youth, and as they now need no longer waste their best time on
+romantic schemes, they will have it to use at the orders and for the
+advancement of science, so as to enrich her through real and solid
+contributions."
+
+Furthermore, Bastian quotes Virchow's maxim:--"The plan of
+organisation is immutable within the limits of the species; species is
+not produced from species." The fundamental teleological idea of that
+school, that each species has its constant and specific plan of
+structure, certainly cannot be more emphatically expressed. Thus it is
+undoubtedly certain that Virchow has become a Dualist, and is as
+thoroughly penetrated by the truth of his principles as I, as a
+Monist, am of mine. This is undoubtedly the upshot of his Munich
+address, though he is throughout careful to avoid acknowledging his
+chief standpoint in all its nakedness. On the contrary, even now he
+still veils his antagonism under the phrase, which is also a favourite
+with the clerical papers, that the theory of descent is an "unproved
+hypothesis." Now it is clear that this theory never will be "proved"
+if the proofs that already lie before us are not sufficient. How often
+has it been repeated that the scientific certainty of the hypothesis
+of descent is not grounded in this or that isolated experiment, but in
+the collective sum of biological phenomena; in the causal nexus of
+evolution. Then what are the new proofs of the theory of descent which
+Virchow demands of us?
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] "Wirkliche Geheime Ober-Confusionsrath."
+
+[11] Translated under the supervision of E. Ray Lankester. London: C.
+Kegan Paul & Co.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CERTAIN PROOFS OF THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT.
+
+
+All the common phenomena of Morphology and Physiology, of Chorology
+and Oekology, of Ontology and Paleontology, can be explained by the
+theory of descent, and referred to simple mechanical causes. It is
+precisely in this, viz., that the primary simple causes of all these
+complex aggregates of phenomena are common to them all, and that other
+mechanical causes for them are unthinkable--it is in this that, to us,
+the guarantee of their certainty consists. For this reason all these
+vast and manifold aggregates of facts are so many evidences of the
+doctrine of descent. This fundamental relation of facts has been so
+often expounded that I need dwell no farther on it in this place;
+those who wish for any closer discussion of it are referred to my
+"General Morphology" (vol. ii. chap. xix.), or "The History of
+Creation,"[12] or "The Evolution of Man" (vol. i. p. 93).[13]
+
+And where is yet farther proof of the truth of the theory of descent
+to be found? Neither Virchow, nor any one of the clerical opponents
+and the dualistic philosophers who are perpetually reiterating this
+cry for more certain evidence, anywhere indicate where possibly such
+evidence is to be sought. Where in all the world can we discover
+"facts" which will speak more plainly or significantly for the truth
+of transmutation than the facts of comparative morphology and
+physiology; than the facts of the rudimentary organs and of embryonic
+development; than the facts revealed by fossils and the geographical
+distribution of organisms--in short, than the collective recognised
+facts of the most diverse provinces of biological science?
+
+But I am in error--the certain proof that Virchow demands in order to
+be perfectly satisfied with the evidence, is to be supplied by
+"experiment, the test as well as the highest means of evidence." This
+demand, that the doctrine of descent should be grounded on experiment,
+is so perverse and shows such ignorance of the very essence of our
+theory, that though we have never been surprised at hearing it
+continually repeated by ignorant laymen, from the lips of a Virchow it
+has positively astounded us. What can in this case be proved by
+experiment, and what can experiment prove?
+
+"The variability of species, the transformation of species, the
+transition of a species into one or more new varieties," is the
+answer. Now, so far as these facts can be proved by experiment, they
+actually have long since been experimentally proved in the completest
+manner. For what are the numberless trials of artificial selection for
+breeding purposes which men have practised for thousand of years in
+breeding domestic animals and cultivated plants, but physiological
+experiments which prove the transformation of species? As an example
+we may refer to the different races of horses and pigeons. The swift
+race-horse and the heavy pack-horse, the graceful carriage-horse and
+the sturdy cart-horse, the huge dray-horse and the dwarfed pony--these
+and many other "races" are so different from each other, that if we
+had found them wild we should certainly have described them as quite
+different varieties of one species, or even representatives of
+different species. Undoubtedly, these so-called "races" and "sports"
+of the horse tribe differ from each other in a much greater degree
+than do the zebra, the quagga, the mountain horse, and the other wild
+varieties of the horse, which every zoologist distinguishes as "bonæ
+species." And yet all these artificial varieties, which man has
+designedly produced by selection, are descended from a single common
+parent-form, from one wild "true variety." The same is the case with
+the numerous and highly differing varieties of pigeons. Domestic
+pigeons and carrier-pigeons, turbits and cropper-pigeons, fantail
+pigeons and owls, tumblers and pouters, trumpeters and laughing
+pigeons (or Indian doves), and the rest, are all, as Darwin has
+convincingly proved, descendants of a single wild variety, the
+rock-pigeon (_Columba livia_). And how wonderfully various they are,
+not only in general form, size, and colouring, but in the particular
+form of the skull, the beak, the feet, and so forth! They differ much
+more in every respect each from the others than the numerous wild
+varieties which, in systems of ornithology, are recognised as true
+varieties, and even as true species. It is the same with the different
+artificial varieties of apples, pears, pansies, dahlias, and so on; in
+short, of almost all the domestic varieties of animals and plants. We
+would lay particular stress on the fact that these artificial species
+which man has produced or created by artificial breeding and through
+experimental transformation out of one original species, differ far
+more one from another in physiological as well as in morphological
+conditions than the natural species in a wild state. With these it is
+self-evident that any proof by experiment of a common origin is wholly
+impossible. For, so soon as we subject any wild variety of animal or
+plant to such an experiment, we bring it under the conditions of
+artificial breeding.
+
+That the morphological conception of a Species is not a positive but
+only a relative conception, and that it has no other absolute or
+positive value than those other similar system-categories--sports,
+varieties, races, tribes, families, classes--is now acknowledged by
+every systematiser who forms an honest and unprejudiced judgment of
+the practical systematic distinction of species. From the very nature
+of the case there are no limits to arbitrary discretion in this
+department, and there are no two systematists who are at one in every
+instance; this one separating forms as true varieties which that one
+does not. (Compare on this point "History of Creation," vol. i., p.
+273.) The conception of variety or species has a different value in
+every small or large department of systematic Zoology and Botany.
+
+But the conception of species has just as little any fixed
+physiological value. In respect to this we must especially insist that
+the question of hybrid offspring, the last corner of refuge of all the
+defenders of the constancy of species, has at present lost all
+significance as bearing on the conception of species. For we know now,
+through numerous and reliable experiences and experiments, that two
+different true varieties can frequently unite and produce fertile
+hybrids (as the hare and rabbit, lion and tiger, many different kinds
+of the carp and trout tribes, of willows, brambles, and others); and
+in the second place, the fact is equally certain that descendants of
+one and the same species which, according to the dogma of the old
+schools, could always effect a fertile union under certain
+circumstances, either cannot effect such a union or produce only
+barren hybrids (the Porto-Santo rabbit, the different races of horses,
+dogs, roses, hyacinths, &c.; see "History of Creation," vol. i., p.
+146).
+
+For a certain proof that the conception of species rests on a
+subjective abstraction and has a merely relative value--like the
+conception of genus, family, order, class, &c.--no class of animals is
+of so much importance as that of the Sponges. In it the fluctuating
+forms vary with such unexampled indefiniteness and variability as to
+make all distinction of species quite illusory. Oscar Schmidt has
+already pointed this out in the siliceous sponges and keratose
+sponges; and I, in my monograph, in three volumes, on the Calcareous
+Sponges (the result of five years of most accurate investigations of
+this small animal group), have pointed out that we may at pleasure
+distinguish 3, or 21, or 111, or 289, or 591 different species. I also
+believe that I have thus convincingly demonstrated how all these
+different forms of the calcareous sponges may quite naturally, and
+without any forcing, be traced to a single common parent-form, the
+simple--and not hypothetical, but existing at this present day--the
+simple Olynthus. Hence I think I have here produced the most positive
+analytical evidence of the transformation of species, and of the unity
+of the derivation of all the species of a given group of animals, that
+is generally possible.
+
+Properly, I might spare myself these disquisitions on the question of
+species, for Virchow does not go into this main question of the theory
+of descent--but this is very characteristic of his attitude. And just
+as he nowhere thoroughly discusses the doctrine of transformation,
+neither does he enter generally on the refutation of any of the other
+certain proofs of the doctrine of descent which we in fact possess at
+the present day. Neither the morphological nor the physiological
+arguments for the theory of descent, neither the rudimentary organs
+nor the embryonic forms, neither the paleontological nor the
+chronological argument are anywhere closely examined and tested as to
+their worth or their worthlessness as "certain proofs." On the
+contrary, Virchow takes them quite easily, sets them aside, and
+declares that "certain proofs" of the doctrine of descent do not
+exist, but remain to be discovered. To be sure, he does not indicate
+where they are to be sought, nor can he indicate it. How is this
+strange conduct to be explained? How is it possible that a
+distinguished naturalist should resist the most important step forward
+of modern natural science without in any way specially investigating
+it, without even practically testing and refuting the most weighty
+arguments in its favour? To this question there is but one answer.
+Virchow is not generally intimate with the modern doctrine of
+evolution, and does not possess that knowledge of natural science
+which is indispensable for any well-grounded judgment on it.
+
+After collecting and carefully reading all that Virchow, during many
+years, had written against evolution, I arrived at the conviction that
+he had not thoroughly read either Darwin's great work on the Origin of
+Species, nor any other work on the theory of descent, nor had he
+thought the matter out with such attention as so serious and intricate
+a subject absolutely demands. Virchow did with these works as it has
+been his well-known custom to do with many others--he hastily turned
+over the pages, caught at a few leading words, and without any farther
+trouble he has discoursed upon them, and, which is worst of all, has
+perpetuated these discourses through the press.
+
+To excuse this conduct, and to account for Virchow's enigmatical
+position in the battle of evolution, we must consider what changes
+this highly-gifted and meritorious man has gone through in the course
+of the last thirty years. The most important and fruitful part of his
+life and labours was indisputably during the eight years when he
+resided in Würzburg, from 1848 to 1856. There Virchow, with all the
+keenness of his youthful intellect, with a sacred enthusiasm for
+scientific truth, with indefatigable powers of work and the rarest
+insight, worked out that glorious reform of scientific medicine which
+will shine through all time as a star of the first magnitude in the
+history of medical science. In Würzburg, Virchow elaborated that
+comprehensive application of the cellular theory to pathology which
+culminates in the conception that the cell is an independent living
+elementary organism, and that our human organism, like that of all the
+higher animals, is merely a congeries of cells--a highly fertile
+conception, which Virchow now denies as resolutely as he then
+supported it. In Würzburg, twenty-five years since, I sat devoutly at
+his feet, and received from him with enthusiasm that clear and simple
+doctrine of the mechanics of all vital activity--a truly monistic
+doctrine, which Virchow now undoubtedly opposes where formerly he
+defended it. In Würzburg, finally, he wrote those incomparable
+critical and historical leading articles which are the ornament of the
+first ten yearly series of his "Archives" of pathological anatomy. All
+that Virchow effected as the great pioneer of reform in medicine, and
+by which he won imperishable honour in the scientific treatment of
+disease,--all this was either carried out or preconceived in Würzburg;
+and even the celebrated "Cellular Pathology," a course of lectures
+which he delivered during the first year and a half after quitting
+Würzburg for Berlin, consists only of the collected and matured fruits
+of which the blossoms are due to Würzburg.
+
+In the autumn of 1856 Virchow left Würzburg to settle in Berlin. The
+exchange of a narrow sphere of labours for a wider one, of small means
+and appliances for greater ones, proved unfavourable in this case, as
+in many similar cases. Since he has been in Berlin, in a "great
+Institution," and with luxurious appliances, all the scientific
+results which Virchow has as yet brought to light are not to be
+compared, either as to quality or quantity, to the grand and immortal
+achievements which he himself effected in the little institute of
+Würzburg with the scantiest means--a new proof of the maxim enunciated
+by me, and hitherto never confuted, that "the scientific results of an
+institute are in inverse proportion to its size." (See "The Aim and
+Methods of Modern Evolution."[14])
+
+Still more grave is the circumstance that, since settling in Berlin,
+Virchow has more and more exchanged his theoretical scientific
+activity for practical political life. It is well known how prominent
+a part he plays there in the Prussian Chamber of Representatives, how
+he raised himself to be the leader of the party of progress, and, to
+give this political position a broader basis, took part in the
+representation of the citizens of the capital; how he has taken a most
+active interest, as city commissioner, in all the petty anxieties and
+concerns which the charge of such a city as Berlin entails. I am far
+from blaming, as many have blamed, the political and civic activity to
+which Virchow has indefatigably devoted his best powers. If a man
+feels in himself the inclination and vocation with strength and talent
+enough, to play a conspicuous political part, by all means let him do
+so; but verily I do not envy him; for the satisfaction which is
+derived from the most successful and fruitful political activity is
+not, to my taste, to be compared with that pure and disinterested
+satisfaction of the mind which results from absorption in serious and
+difficult scientific labours. In the turmoil of the political and
+social struggle, even the most splendid civic crown will be dulled by
+the stifling dust of practical life, which never reaches the ethereal
+heights of pure science and never rests on the laurels of the
+thoughtful investigator. However, as I have said, that is a matter of
+taste. If Virchow really believes that he is doing a greater service
+to humanity by his practical political life in Berlin than he
+formerly did by his theoretical scientific work in Würzburg, that is
+his affair; but for all that, in his former sphere he was
+incomparable, and cannot be replaced; in the latter this is not the
+case.
+
+If a distinguished man, be he never so remarkable for uncommon power
+of work and universal gifts, passes the whole day in the friction of
+political party-struggles, and throws himself as well into all the
+petty and wearisome details of daily civic life, it is impossible for
+him to maintain the requisite feeling for the progress of
+science--particularly when it advances so rapidly and incessantly as
+is the case in our day. It is therefore quite intelligible that
+Virchow should soon have lost this feeling, and in the course of the
+last two decades have become more and more estranged from science. And
+this estrangement has at last led to so complete a change in his
+fundamental views, to such a metapsychosis, that the present Virchow
+of 1878 is hardly in a position to understand the youthful Virchow of
+1848.
+
+We have seen a similar mental change occur contemporaneously in our
+greatest naturalist, Carl Ernst von Baer. This gifted and profound
+thinker and biologist, whose name marks a new epoch in the history of
+evolution, had in his later years become wholly incompetent even to
+understand those most important problems of his youthful labours
+which opened up new paths of inquiry. While in his early years he laid
+down principles of the greatest value to our modern doctrine of
+evolution, and even went very near to adopting this hypothesis into
+his system, at a later period he utterly denied it, and by his
+writings on Darwinism proved that he was no longer generally capable
+of mastering this difficult problem. As I am one of Von Baer's warmest
+admirers, and in my "Evolution of Man," as well as in the "History of
+Creation," and in other places, have most emphatically expressed that
+sincere esteem, I thought I might venture to forbear from calling
+attention to the discrepancy between the lucid, monistic principles of
+Von Baer in his youth, and the confused dualistic views of his old
+age. But as many opponents of Darwinism--and among them particularly
+the Old Catholic philosopher of Munich, Huber, who has written a
+series of articles in the "Augsburger Zeitung"--have made constant
+capital out of the harmless talk of the feeble old Von Baer, I must in
+this place explicitly declare that this dualistic prating of the old
+man is quite incapable of shaking the monistic principles of the young
+and enterprising pioneers of science, or of giving them the lie.
+
+In his autobiography Von Baer gives us the explanation of this
+striking contradiction. In 1834 he entirely and for ever abandoned
+the province of the history of development, at which for twenty years
+he had laboured incessantly, and where he had earned splendid laurels.
+To escape from the haunting and importunate ideas of the science which
+had so wholly absorbed him, he fled from Königsberg to Petersburg, and
+subsequently busied himself in scientific inquiries of a quite
+different character. Twenty-five long years passed by, and when
+Darwin's work appeared in 1859, Von Baer had too long undergone a
+metapsychosis to be able to understand it. In Von Baer, as in Virchow,
+the course of this remarkable metapsychosis is highly instructive, and
+will itself afford to the thoughtful psychologist an interesting
+evidence of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+However, the lack of comprehension of our modern evolution-hypothesis
+is easier to explain in Virchow's case than in Von Baer's, for this
+reason: morphological knowledge was greatly lacking to Virchow, while
+Von Baer possessed it in the highest degree. Now morphology is
+precisely that very department of inquiry in which our theory of
+descent has its deepest and strongest roots, and has matured the most
+glorious fruits of knowledge. The study of organic forms, or
+morphology, is thus, more than any other science, interested in the
+doctrine of descent, because through this doctrine it first obtained a
+practical knowledge of effective causes, and was able to raise itself
+from the humble rank of a descriptive study of _forms_ to the high
+position of an analytical science of _form_. It is true that by the
+beginning of this century the most comprehensive branch of
+morphology--_i.e._, comparative anatomy--which was founded by Cuvier
+and splendidly developed by Johannes Müller, had laid the foundations
+on which to build a truly philosophical science of form. The enormous
+mass of various empirical material, which had been accumulated by
+descriptive systematists and by the dissections of zootomists since
+the time of Linnæus and Pallas, had already been abundantly matured
+and utilised in many ways for philosophic purposes by the synthetic
+principles of comparative anatomy. But even the most important
+universal laws of organisation--of which the old system of comparative
+anatomy was one--had to take refuge in mystical ideas of a plan of
+structure and of creative final causes (_causæ finales_); they were
+incapable of arriving at a true and clear perception of effective
+mechanical causes (_causæ efficientes_). This last, most difficult,
+and grandest problem, Charles Darwin was the first to solve in 1859,
+by setting Lamarck's theory of descent, which was already fifty years
+old, on a firm footing by his own theory of selection. By this
+hypothesis it was first made possible to fit together the rich
+materials which had been previously amassed, into the splendid
+edifice of the mechanical science of form. (See my "General
+Morphology," vol. i. chap. iv.)
+
+The immeasurable step which Darwin thus made in organic morphology can
+be adequately appreciated only by those who, like myself, were brought
+up in the school of the old teleological morphology, and whose eyes
+were suddenly opened by the theory of selection to a comprehension of
+that greatest of all biological riddles, the creation of specific
+forms. The dogma of creation, the mystic and dualistic doctrine of the
+isolated creation of each separate variety, was annihilated at one
+blow; the belief in transmutation has now for ever taken its
+place--the mechanistic and monistic doctrine of the metamorphosis of
+organic forms, of the descent of all the species of one natural class
+from a common parent-form. How complete a change the science of
+mechanical morphology has by this means been compelled to undergo, I
+have endeavoured to point out in my "General Morphology;" and any one
+who wishes to convince himself clearly of what an enormous revolution
+has been brought about, particularly in comparative anatomy, may
+compare the "Outlines of Comparative Anatomy" (Grundzüge der
+vergleichenden Anatomie), by Carl Gegenbaur, 1870, and the latest
+edition of his "Elements" (Grundrisses), with the old text-books of
+that science.
+
+Virchow has no suspicion even of all these immeasurable strides in
+morphology, for this department always lay out of his ken. His great
+reforms in pathology were founded in the province of physiology, and
+more especially in cellular physiology. But within the last twenty
+years these two main branches of biological inquiry have grown more
+and more apart. The great Johannes Müller was the last biologist who
+was able to keep these departments of organic inquiry together, and
+who won equally immortal honours in both divisions of the subject.
+After Müller's death in 1858 they fell asunder. Physiology, as the
+science especially of the functions or living activity of the
+organism, addressed itself more and more to exact and experimental
+methods: morphology, on the contrary, as the science of the forms and
+structure of animals and plants, could naturally make but very small
+use of this method; it must take refuge more and more in the history
+of evolution, and so constitute an historical natural science. It was
+on this very historical and genetic method of morphology, in
+contradistinction to the exact and experimental method of physiology,
+that I based my Munich address; and if Virchow in his answer had
+really and thoroughly refuted this position, instead of fighting with
+mere phrases and denunciations, this radical opposition would have
+been well worthy of the fullest discussion. At the same time I have
+no wish to reproach Virchow for being wholly fettered by the one-sided
+views of the modern school-physiology, nor because morphology lies so
+far out of his ken that he has not been able to form an independent
+judgment of its aims and methods; but when, in spite of all this, he
+on every occasion lets fall a disparaging judgment of it, we must
+dispute his competence. It is true that in his Munich address he
+emphasises the statement, "That which graces me best is that I know my
+ignorance," by printing it in italics. I only regret that I am forced
+to deny his possession of this very grace. Virchow does not know how
+ignorant he is of morphology, else he would never have uttered his
+annihilating verdict on it, else he would not continually designate
+the study of the theory of descent as dilettanteism and vain dreaming,
+as "a fanciful private speculation which is now making its way in
+several departments of natural science." In truth, Virchow does me
+greatly too much honour when he designates as my "personal crotchet"
+an idea which for the last ten years has been the most precious common
+possession of all morphological science. If Virchow were not so
+unfamiliar with the literature of morphology, he must have known that
+it is penetrated throughout by this principle of descent, that every
+morphological inquiry which conscientiously pursues a well-considered
+problem now assumes the doctrine of descent as granted and
+indisputable. Of all this he is ignorant, and so it is intelligible
+that he should continue to demand "certain proofs" of this hypothesis,
+although those proofs have long since been produced.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] Vol. ii., p. 334 of translation.
+
+[13] London: C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1879.
+
+[14] Jena, Zeitschriften für Naturwissenschaft, 1875. Vol. x.
+Supplement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SKULL THEORY AND THE APE THEORY.
+
+
+Inasmuch as Virchow persists in treating the theory of descent as an
+"unproved hypothesis," inasmuch as he ignores all the forcible
+evidences of that hypothesis, he deprives himself of the right of
+speaking a decisive word in this, the most important scientific
+dispute of the present day. Virchow is, in fact, simply incompetent in
+the great question of evolution, as he is deficient in the greater
+part of that knowledge--more especially morphological knowledge--which
+is indispensable to forming a judgment upon it. Hence on the
+turning-point of the whole matter--viz., the problem as to the origin
+of species--he can have no opinion, as he has never turned his
+attention to the systematic treatment of species: those transitions of
+one species into another, which he asks to see, abound on all sides,
+as is well known to every systematic naturalist. Only consider, for
+example, the genera of Rubus and Salix among the living plants of the
+present period, and the Ammonites and Brachiopoda among extinct
+animals. Hence, too, Virchow can have no independent views as to the
+historical development of the higher from the lower animals, because
+the abundant living forms of the lower animals are almost unknown to
+him, and because he has hardly any conception of the marvellous
+strides which hundreds of industrious workers have made in this very
+department within the last twenty years. But there can be no doubt,
+indeed it is already universally acknowledged, that it is precisely
+the comparative anatomy of the lower--nay, of the very lowest
+animals--that has solved the greatest riddles of life, and removed the
+greatest obstacles from the path of the doctrine of descent. He simply
+ignores the fact that true Monads actually exist, and have been
+positively identified by many different observers as structureless
+"organisms without organs," and he turns out the poor Bathybius with a
+kick. And yet I believe that in "Kosmos"[15] I have conclusively proved
+that Monads must retain their vast elementary importance whether the
+Bathybius actually exists or not.
+
+But even as regards the higher animals--nay, even as to the
+comparative anatomy of the highest next to man, the apes--Virchow
+stands apart, not understanding the views of modern morphology.
+
+We must here examine more closely into this, because it is precisely
+in this department that Virchow's only morphological experiments have
+been made; viz., his investigations as to the skulls of apes and of
+men. This is precisely the one only point on which he has sought a
+closer acquaintance with morphology, and precisely here it is most
+clearly to be seen how little he is acquainted with the recent
+advances our science has made, and that he has hardly any conception
+of the extraordinary importance to that science of the theory of
+descent.
+
+The skull theory, as is well known, has for a long time been a very
+favourite theme, not only with prominent naturalists, but also with
+talented amateurs. Undoubtedly the skull, viewed as the bony capsule
+which encloses our most important organ of sense, our brain, has a
+special claim to morphological importance; for the general
+conformation of the skull corresponds on the whole to the development
+of the brain, and its inner surface gives an approximate idea of the
+outer surface of the brain. In this correspondence lies the only sound
+kernel of the sickly, overgrown fancies of phrenology. The various
+development of the skull allows of an approximate inference as to the
+various degrees of development of the brain and of the mental
+faculties. The comparative study of the skulls of the vertebrate
+animals had excited the lively interest of morphologists by the end of
+the last century, when comparative anatomy was beginning to
+constitute a special science; and the genetic inquiry as to the
+morphological significance and development of the skull soon grew out
+of it. It was no less a man than our greatest German poet who first
+answered this question, and propounded the theory that the skull was
+neither more nor less than the modified foremost end of the vertebral
+column, and that the separate groups of bones which lie behind one
+another in the human skull, as in that of all the higher vertebrata,
+answer to the separate modified vertebræ. This "vertebral theory" of
+the skull, which Von Goethe and Oken simultaneously and independently
+attempted to prove, aroused universal interest and maintained its
+ground for seventy years, while many attempts were made to improve and
+enlarge upon it in detail.
+
+A quite new light was thrown on this, as on every other morphological
+question, as soon as Darwin in 1859 had once more put into our hands
+the torch of the doctrine of descent. The inquiry as to the origin of
+the skull now assumed a real and tangible form. Since all vertebrate
+animals, from fishes up to man, agree so completely as to their
+essential internal structure that they can be rationally conceived of
+no otherwise than as branches of one stock and as descendants of one
+parent-form, the distinctly formulated question as to the skull
+theory which now started into prominence was this: "How, historically,
+has the skull of man and of the higher animals originated from that of
+the lower animals? How is the development of the bones of the skull
+from the vertebræ to be proved?" The answer to these difficult
+questions was supplied by the first comparative anatomist of the
+present day, by Carl Gegenbaur. After Huxley had pointed out that the
+ontogenesis or individual development of the skull by no means
+favoured the older hypothesis of Goethe and Oken, Gegenbaur brought
+forward evidence that the fundamental idea of that theory was correct;
+that the skull does in fact correspond to a series of coalescent
+vertebræ, but that the separate bones of the skull are not to be
+regarded as representing parts of such modified vertebræ. The
+skull-bones of all recent vertebrate animals are rather, for the most
+part, dermal bones, which have come into closer connection as
+supplementary to the cartilaginous primitive skull. We can even now
+trace the number and position of the original vertebræ, from which
+this primitive skull originated, by the number of the vertebral arches
+(gill-arches) which are attached to it, as well as by the number and
+position of those vertebræ, from nine to ten. Of all the recent
+vertebrata, the cartilaginous fishes, or Selachians, have most nearly
+preserved the form and structure of this primordial skull. These
+Selachians, the Rays and Sharks, are on the whole the creatures which
+throw the clearest light on the history of the lineage of the
+vertebrata and on the organisation of our primeval fish-natured
+ancestors. It is one of the particular merits of Gegenbaur that he
+clearly and firmly established the place in nature of the Selachians
+as the common ancestors of all vertebrate animals from fish up to man.
+
+None but those who have thoroughly studied the comparative morphology
+of the vertebrata, who have sought the genetic issue from that
+labyrinth of intricate morphological problems at the hands of the
+theory of descent, can duly value the immeasurable service which
+Gegenbaur has done by this and other "Investigations into the
+Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrata." These investigations are as
+much distinguished by a profound knowledge and careful working out of
+the wonderfully-extensive empirical materials for the subject, as by
+their critical acumen and philosophic grasp. At the same time they set
+in the clearest light the immeasurable value of the theory of descent
+in the causal explanation of the most difficult morphological
+problems. Gegenbaur might, therefore, with perfect right, enunciate
+this axiom in the Introduction to his "Comparative Anatomy." "The
+theory of descent will at once find a touchstone of proof in
+comparative anatomy. Up to this time no experience in comparative
+anatomy has transpired which contradicts that theory; on the
+contrary, they all lead up to it. Thus it will receive back from
+science that which it has given to scientific method: clearness and
+certainty." In point of fact we can adduce no morphological
+investigations which better support this declaration than those very
+phylogenetic researches "as to the cranium of the Selachians, as a
+basis for the critical examination of the genesis of the cranium of
+the vertebrata," 1872. As Virchow had formerly thoroughly studied the
+old skull-hypothesis, and in his admirable discourse on "Goethe as a
+Naturalist," 1861, had given an excellent exposition of it; as
+moreover he had produced most valuable contributions to the normal and
+pathological anatomy of the human skull, we might have expected that
+he would have received Gegenbaur's grand reform of the theory of the
+skull, and historical solution of the skull-problem, with the greatest
+interest, and have made it the clue to his own further researches. But
+we seek in vain through Virchow's latest contributions to the study of
+the human skull, for any indication of his knowing or appreciating
+Gegenbaur's investigations. On the contrary, we see him persistently
+moving, without any clear goal in view, on that trodden and devious
+path of investigation which finds the highest aim of craniological
+science in the measuring of skulls, or craniometry.
+
+We are far from undervaluing the full significance of the results of
+exact and careful descriptions and measurements of various
+conformations of the skull as an empirical basis for a true and
+scientific study of the skull--_i.e._, for comparative and genetic
+craniology. But still we must say that the way and method by which
+this skull measurement has, for ten years now, been pursued by
+numerous craniologists can never yield corresponding scientific
+results; on the contrary, though it is cried up as the "exact
+morphology" of the skull, it simply loses itself in the domains of
+harmless trifling. A large amount of time has in the last ten years
+been squandered in disputes as to the best method of measuring skulls,
+while the craniologists concerned have not, in the first place,
+answered the obviously most important question: What end they propose
+to gain by this specialist measuring, what proposition they mean to
+prove by it? Most of those numerous skull measurers know nothing
+beyond the perfect human skull, or at most the skulls of a few other
+mammalia, while the comparative morphology and historical development
+of the crania of the lower vertebrata are wholly unknown to them; and
+yet these last contain the true key to the comprehension of the
+others. One single month devoted by these "exact skull measurers" to
+the study of Gegenbaur's theory of the skull, and to testing the
+hypothesis by the skulls of Selachians, would have yielded them more
+fruit and have given them more light than long years of describing and
+measuring human skulls, however various.
+
+Virchow himself affords the most striking example of the usual results
+of this so-called "exact method" of studying skulls. In his popular
+essay on "The Skulls of Men and Apes," 1870, he concludes with this
+notable proposition:--"It is therefore self-evident that Man can never
+by any progressive development have originated from the Apes." Every
+evolutionist who is familiar with the surprising facts of comparative
+morphology will draw from them the opposite conclusion: "It is
+self-evident that Man could only have originated from the progressive
+development of the Ape (organism)."
+
+This brings us to that question which, in the popular treatment of the
+theory of descent, is justly considered as its most important outcome
+and as the keystone of the evolutionist edifice--to the well-known
+proposition, "Man is descended from the Ape." While we simply ignore
+all the misrepresentation, distortion, and misinterpretation which
+this ape, or pithecoid hypothesis, has met with on all sides, we will
+only remark that this fundamental proposition, in the sense of our
+modern doctrine of evolution, can rationally have only this plain
+meaning: that the human species as a whole was long since developed
+from the order of apes, indeed actually from one (or perhaps more)
+long since extinct form of ape; the immediate progenitors of man in
+the long series of his vertebrate ancestry were apes or ape-like
+animals. Of course none of the now surviving species of apes is to be
+regarded as the unaltered posterity of that primeval parent-form.
+Virchow, however, understanding the "ape question" in this sense,
+answers it, as Bastian also does, with the most positive
+contradiction. "We cannot teach the doctrine that man is descended
+from apes or from any other animal, for we cannot regard it as a real
+acquisition of science" (p. 31). Although I myself, in direct
+opposition to this view, and in agreement with almost all my
+professional colleagues, look upon the descent of man from apes as one
+of the surest of phylogenetic hypotheses, I will here expressly admit
+that the _relative_ certainty of this, as of all other historical
+hypotheses of descent, is not comparable with the _absolute_ certainty
+of the general theory of descent. It is now ten years since I first
+explicitly stated (in my "Natural History of Creation," vol. ii. p.
+358): "The pedigree of the human race, like that of every animal or
+plant, remains in detail a more or less approximate general
+hypothesis. This, however, in no way affects the application of the
+theory of descent to man. In this, as in all researches into the
+derivation of our organism, we must distinguish between the _general
+theory_ of descent and the _specific hypothesis_ of descent. The
+general theory of descent claims full and permanent value, because it
+is inductively based on the whole range of common biological phenomena
+and on their internal causal connection. Each special hypothesis of
+descent, on the other hand, is conditional as to its specific value on
+the existing state of our biological information, and on the extent of
+those objective empirical grounds on which we deductively found the
+hypothesis, by our subjective inferences." And I must here
+emphatically add that I have on every opportunity repeated that
+reservation, and have always insisted on the difference which exists
+between the absolute certainty of transmutation in general and the
+relative certainty of each individual specific pedigree. So that when
+Semper and others of my opponents assert that I teach my specific
+genealogies as "infallible dogmas," it is simply false. I have, on the
+contrary, pointed out on all occasions that I regard them only as
+_heuristic or provisional hypotheses_, and as a means of investigating
+the actual relations of cognate races of organic forms more and more
+approximately.
+
+Since the conception of the natural animal system as a hypothetical
+genealogical tree, and the phylogenetic interpretation of
+morphological affinity which that conception involves, afford in fact
+the only rational interpretation of that affinity in general, my first
+genealogical attempts soon found many imitators, and at the present
+time numerous industrious labourers in the different departments of
+systematic zoology are endeavouring to find in the construction of
+such hypothetical genealogies the shortest and completest expression
+of the modern conception of structural affinity. If Virchow had not
+been as ignorant of the true significance and method of systematic
+morphology as he is of its progress and scientific contents, he must
+certainly have known this, and then he would surely have withheld his
+mockery of all these grave phylogenetic studies as "personal
+crotchets" and worthless dreams.
+
+What mighty strides towards a mechanical morphology we have made by
+this phylogenetic working out of the system, and how much light and
+life it has at once thrown into the system that before was dead and
+cold, can only be known to those who have long and deeply studied
+specific systematisation and the grouping of species; Virchow has not
+the remotest suspicion of it. Moreover, these attempts have now
+proceeded so far, that a large proportion of the phylogenetic
+hypotheses are regarded as very nearly certain, and can hardly
+undergo any further essential modifications; while the greater number
+of them are still in an unfixed state, and one systematist tries to
+improve them in this direction, and another in that.
+
+The following phylogenetic hypotheses are held to be almost
+certain:----The descent of many-celled animals from single-celled, of
+the Medusæ from the hydroid Polyps, of the jointed from the unjointed
+worms, of the sucking from the gnawing insects, of amphibious animals
+from fishes, of birds from reptiles, of the placental mammalia from
+the marsupials, and so forth. I personally consider the descent of man
+from the apes as equally certain; nay, I regard this most important
+and pregnant genealogical hypothesis as one of those which, up to the
+present time, rest on the best empirical basis.
+
+Huxley, in particular, fifteen years ago, in his celebrated "Man's
+Place in Nature," 1863, so admirably proved the undoubted "descent of
+man from apes," and so clearly discussed all the relations that had to
+be taken into consideration, that very little was left to others to
+do. The result of his comparative morphological investigations is
+contained in this proposition----" If we take up a system of organs,
+be it which we will, the comparison of its modifications throughout
+the series of apes leads us to the same conclusion: that in every
+single visible character man differs less from the higher apes than
+these do from the lower members of the same order." It is therefore
+impossible for any objective zoologist, according to the principles of
+comparative systematisation, to ascribe to man any other place in the
+animal world than in the order of apes; and it is quite immaterial
+whether we designate this individual group as the Order of Apes, or,
+with Linnæus, as the Primates. For the phylogenetic construction of
+the system, the common descent of man and of apes from one common
+parent-form, necessarily follows from this inevitable grouping,
+and on this proposition only all the general inferences of the
+"ape-hypothesis" depend. As to what that common parent-form of men and
+apes may have been, very different views might probably be brought on
+opposite sides; but any one who knows the collected facts that bear
+upon the matter, and estimates them impartially, must, in conclusion,
+arrive at the certain conviction that that hypothetical and long-since
+extinct parent-form can only have been genuine apes; that is to say,
+of the placental mammalian type, such as when we see them now living
+before our eyes we unhesitatingly class, on the ground of their
+zoological characters, as true apes, in the order of Apes or Primates.
+
+In this, and all other sound phylogenetic hypotheses, we may most
+easily attain to a conviction of their truth by taking into
+consideration and comparison the other possible hypotheses. But in
+fact no single opponent of the ape-hypothesis has been able to combat
+it with any other phylogenetic hypothesis that has the faintest
+glimmer of probability. Not one opponent has suggested, or can
+suggest, any other animal form that can serve as our nearest ancestor
+than the ape. No one has ever reproached me by saying that Mother
+Nature has endowed me with too little imagination; on the contrary, I
+am often accused of having a superfluity of that gift of the gods; but
+I have often and repeatedly exerted my imagination to picture to
+myself any known or unknown animal-form as the nearest parent-form to
+man in the place of the apes, and have always found myself under the
+necessity of falling back upon the stock of apes. Let me conceive of
+the outward conformation and the internal structure of the nearest
+mammalian ancestors of men as I will, I am always forced to
+acknowledge that this hypothetical parent-form ranges under the
+zoologically-conceived order of apes, and cannot possibly be separated
+from the Simiadoe or Primates. If, in spite of this, any one chooses,
+out of a "personal crotchet," to accept some other series of unknown
+animal ancestors of man that have nothing to do with apes, that is but
+a mere empty hypothesis floating in the air. Our ape-hypothesis, on
+the other hand, is objectively and thoroughly proved by the essential
+agreement of the internal bodily structure of man and of apes, and by
+the identity of their embryonic development, as I have fully shown in
+my "Evolution of Man" (chaps. xix. and xxvi.) The mode and manner in
+which he here puts palæontology in the foreground, and throws on the
+theory of descent the task of producing an unbroken gradation of
+fossil transitional forms between the apes and man, is very indicative
+of Virchow's ignorance of this zoological question--in which I, as a
+professional zoologist, must decisively declare his incompetence. The
+reasons why such a solution of the problem is not to be expected, the
+extraordinary imperfection of the palæontological record, the natural
+impediments to the palæontological evidence of the genealogical table,
+have been so lucidly unfolded by Darwin himself (chaps. ix. and x. of
+the "Origin of Species") that I am obliged once more to come to the
+conclusion that Virchow has never read it with any attention.
+
+Besides, long before Darwin, the gifted Lyell, the great originator of
+modern geology, showed clearly and convincingly how, for many reasons,
+the greater part of the fossil series must remain most imperfect, and
+these reasons were at a later period so often and so fully discussed
+(by myself among others, in chap. xv. of the "History of Creation,"
+vol. ii. pp. 24-32) that it is wholly superfluous once more and in
+this place to state these well-known and time-worn questions. It only
+shows how little Virchow was acquainted with geology and palæontology,
+and what a limited judgment he can form of these historical causal
+relations.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[15] Vol. i. p. 293.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE CELL-SOUL AND CELLULAR PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+No attack in Virchow's Munich address surprised me so much, and none
+so plainly betrayed the subversion of his most important scientific
+views, as that which he directed against my observations on psychology
+and cellular physiology. A mystic dualism in his fundamental views is
+here revealed, which stands in the sharpest contrast to the mechanical
+monism formerly upheld by the famous pathologist of Würzburg.
+
+In my Munich discourse (p. 12), I had alluded to the "grand and
+fruitful application which Virchow had made, in his system of cellular
+pathology, of the cell-theory to the general province of theoretic
+medicine;" and as a logical amplification of that idea, I asserted
+emphatically that we must ascribe an independent soul-life to every
+individual organic cell. "This conception is validly proved by the
+study of infusoria, amoebæ, and other one-celled organisms; for, in
+these individual, isolated, living cells we find the same
+manifestations of soul-life--feelings, and ideas (mental images),
+will and motion, as is in the higher animals compounded of many cells"
+(p. 13). Virchow now rises up in the strongest protest against this
+theory of a cellular sensibility, which I regard as the inevitable
+consequence of his early views of cellular physiology; it is to him
+"mere trifling with words." He combats with equal decisiveness "the
+scientific necessity of extending the province of psychical processes
+beyond the circle of those bodies in and by which we actually see them
+exhibited." He further says, "If I explain attraction and repulsion as
+psychical phenomena, I simply throw the psyche out of the window; the
+psyche ceases to be a psyche." Finally he says, "I assert without any
+hesitation that for us the sum total of psychical phenomena is
+connected with certain animals only, and not with the collective mass
+of all organic beings; nay, not even with all animals in general. We
+have no ground as yet for speaking of the lowest animals as possessing
+psychical properties; we find such properties only in the higher
+grades, and with perfect certainty only in the very highest."
+
+When I first read this and other astounding statements in Virchow's
+paper, I involuntarily asked myself, "Can this be the same Virchow
+from whom, twenty-five years ago, I learnt in Würzburg that the
+soul-functions of man and animals depend on mechanical processes in
+the soul-organs; that these organs are, like all other organs,
+composed of cells, and that the functional activity of an organ is
+nothing more than the sum of the activity of all the cells which
+compose it? Is this the same Virchow whose most vital doctrine it was
+that all the physical and psychical processes of the human organism
+were to be referred to the mechanics of cell life; who supported the
+view of the unity of all the phenomena of life with the same emphasis
+with which we are now obliged to defend it against his attacks?"
+
+In fact, and beyond a doubt, we have here a new proof of Virchow's
+complete change in all fundamental scientific principles. For the
+cellular psychology which I advance is only a necessary consequence of
+the cellular physiology promulgated by Virchow. His present opposition
+to the former is either a renunciation of the latter or an untenable
+and inconsequent position. To explain this astonishing metapsychosis,
+we shall do well first to glance at the soul in general, and then give
+particular consideration to the cell-soul.
+
+What is the Soul or Psyche? The innumerable different answers which
+have been given to this crowning question of psychology, may
+collectively, when freed from all extraneous matter, be brought
+under two groups which we may shortly designate as the dualistic and
+the monistic soul-hypothesis. According to the monistic (or
+realistic) soul-hypothesis, the "soul" is nothing more than the sum
+or aggregate of a multitude of special cell-activities, among which
+sensation and volition--sensual perception and voluntary
+movement--are the most important, the most common, and the most
+widely diffused; associated with these in the higher animals and in
+man, we find the more developed activities of the ganglionic cells
+which are included under the conceptions of Thought, Consciousness,
+Intellect, and Reason. Like all the other functional-activities of
+the organic cells, these soul-functions depend ultimately on
+material phenomena of motion, and more particularly on the motions
+of the plasson-molecules or plastidules, the ultimate atoms of the
+protoplasma, and perhaps of the nucleus also; therefore we should be
+able actually to grasp and explain them, as well as every other
+cognisable natural process, if we were in a position to refer them
+to the mechanics of atoms. This monistic soul-hypothesis, then, is
+at bottom mechanistic. If psychical mechanics--psychophysics--were
+not so infinitely complex and involved, if we were in a position to
+take a complete view of the historical evolution of the psychic
+functions, we could reduce the whole of them (including
+consciousness) to a mathematical "soul-formula."
+
+According to the opposite, or dualistic (or spiritualistic)
+soul-hypothesis, the soul is, on the contrary, a peculiar substance,
+which most people somewhat grossly conceive of as a gaseous body,
+while others picture it with more subtlety, as an immaterial essence.
+This "soul-substance" subsists independently of the animal-body, and
+stands in only a temporary connection with certain organs of that
+body--the soul-, or mental-organs. It has been imagined that this
+soul-matter, which resembles that imponderable ether which is the
+medium of light, is diffused between the ponderable molecules of the
+soul-organs and especially of the nerve-cells, and that this
+connection of the imponderable "soul" with the ponderable body
+subsists only so long as the individual life lasts. At the instant of
+the first beginning of the individual organism, at the moment of
+generation, this imponderable "soul" passes into the body, and at the
+instant of death, at the annihilation of the living individual, it
+again quits the body. This mystical or dualistic soul-hypothesis,
+which, as is well known, is to this day universally accepted, is
+fundamentally vitalistic, inasmuch as it regards the force which is
+bound up with the soul-substance, like the "vital force" of a past
+time, as a peculiar force quite independent of mechanical forces. This
+force does not depend on the material phenomena of motion, and is
+quite independent of the mechanics of atoms. The highest law of modern
+natural science, the law of the conservation of force, has,
+therefore, no application in the region of soul-life, and that
+mechanical causality which prevails throughout all the processes of
+nature does not exist for the soul. The Psyche, in a word, is a
+supernatural phenomenon, and the supernatural department of the
+spiritual world stands free and independent of the natural department
+of the material world.
+
+If we now compare the psychological views of the youthful and
+unprejudiced Virchow of Würzburg with those of the older and mystical
+Virchow of Berlin, there can be no doubt in the minds of the impartial
+that the former, a quarter of a century ago, was as decided and
+logical a monist as the latter is at present a confessed and convicted
+dualist. The distinguished position which Virchow, twenty-five years
+since, won by his natural conception of the nature of man, and the
+great fame which he then earned in the fight for the truth, rest
+precisely on this, that on every occasion he maintained with his
+utmost vigour the unity of all vital phenomena, and asserted their
+mechanical character. All organic life, even the soul-life, rests on
+mechanical principles, on that causal mechanism of which Kant said
+that "it alone contained a practical interpretation of nature," and
+that "without it no natural science can exist." On this point Virchow
+says well in his discourse on "Efforts at Unity in Scientific
+Medicine," 1849:--"Life is only a peculiar sort of mechanics, though
+it is indeed the most complex form of mechanics; that in which the
+usual mechanical laws fall under the most unusual and manifold
+conditions. Thus life, compared with the universal processes of motion
+in nature, is a thing peculiar in itself; but it does not constitute a
+diametrical, dualistic opposition to those laws; it is only a peculiar
+species of motion. The motion itself is a mechanical one, for how
+should we become cognisant of it if it were not based on the sensible
+properties of bodies? The media of the motion are certain chemical
+matters, for we recognise none but chemical matter in bodies. The
+individual acts of motion reduce themselves to mechanical, or
+physico-chemical, modifications of the constituent elements of the
+organic unities, the cells and their equivalents." These and many
+similar utterances in Virchow's earlier writings, and especially in
+the essay I have mentioned, "On the Mechanical Conception of Life,"
+leave no doubt that he formerly supported, with a clear conscience and
+his utmost energy, in psychology as in the other collected departments
+of physiology, that very mechanical standpoint which we to-day accept
+as the essential basis of our monism, and which stands in
+irreconcilable antagonism to the dualism of the vitalistic doctrine.
+To none of my teachers am I so deeply indebted for my emancipation
+from all the prejudices of the dualistic doctrine, and for my
+conversion to the monistic, as to Rudolf Virchow; for it was his
+superior guidance which most firmly convinced me, and many others, of
+the exclusive importance of the mechanical view of nature. He led me
+to a clear recognition of the fact that the nature of man, like every
+other organism, can only be rightly understood as a united whole, that
+this spiritual and corporeal being are inseparable, and that the
+phenomena of the soul-life depend, like all other vital phenomena, on
+material motion only--on mechanical (or physico-chemical)
+modifications of cells. And it was in perfect agreement with my most
+honoured master that I subscribed then, and at this day still
+subscribe, to the proposition with which he, in September 1849, closed
+the preface to the above-mentioned "Efforts at Unity." "It is possible
+that I may have erred in details; in the future I shall be ready and
+willing to acknowledge my mistakes and to rectify them, but I enjoy
+this conviction, that I shall never find myself in the position of
+denying the principle of the unity of the human nature with all its
+consequences!"
+
+To err is human! Who can say to what diametrical contradiction to his
+firmest convictions man may not in the future be driven by his
+adaptation to new relations in life? If we compare these stout
+monistic declarations of 1849 and 1858 with the equally decided
+dualistic utterances in Virchow's Munich address of 1877, we perceive
+that he could not give the lie more fiercely to his former fundamental
+opinions than he has there done. Not quite twenty years have passed
+by, and yet, in the course of that time, in Virchow's views of the
+universe, in his conception of human nature, and of the soul-life, a
+change has been effected than which we can conceive of no greater. We
+learn to our surprise that psychical and corporeal processes are
+wholly different phenomena; that no scientific necessity whatever
+exists for extending the province of psychical processes beyond the
+circle of those bodies in which, and by which, we see them actually
+exhibited. "We may ultimately explain the processes of the human mind
+as chemical, but at any rate, it is not yet our business to amalgamate
+these two subjects!"
+
+From the whole psychological discussion which is involved in Virchow's
+Munich address, it is made clear that at the present time he regards
+the "soul" in a purely dualistic sense as a substance, an immaterial
+essence which only temporarily takes up its abode in the body. Highly
+characteristic of this is the remarkable sentence, "If I explain
+attraction and repulsion as psychical phenomena, I simply throw the
+psyche out of the window; the psyche ceases to be a psyche." If we
+substitute for the word "psyche" the word which corresponds to
+Virchow's earlier mechanistic view--the word "motion" (or peculiar
+mode of motion)--the sentence runs thus: "If I explain attraction and
+repulsion as phenomena of motion, I simply throw motion out of the
+window."
+
+Almost more remarkable is Virchow's assertion that the lowest animals
+have no psychic properties; that, on the contrary, "these are only to
+be found in the higher, and, with perfect certainty, only in the
+highest animals." It is only to be regretted that Virchow has not here
+stated what he understands by the higher and the highest animals;
+where that remarkable dividing line is, beyond which the soul suddenly
+appears in the hitherto soulless body. Every zoologist who is in some
+degree familiar with the results of comparative morphology and
+physiology will here clasp his hands in astonishment, for by this
+proposition Virchow seems to mean that we must ascribe a soul-life
+only to those animals in which special soul-organs, in the form of a
+central and peripheral nerve-system, are developed from sense-organs
+and muscles. But it is admitted that all these different soul-organs
+with their characteristic properties have originated from single cells
+through the division of labour (differentiation); and the nerves and
+muscles especially have been developed by differentiation from the
+neuro-muscular cells. The cells from which all these different
+nerve-cells, muscle-cells, mind-cells, and so forth, are derived, are
+originally the simple neutral cells of the epithelium of the ectoderm
+or exterior germ-layer, and these cells, again, like all the cells of
+many-celled animal bodies, originated in the repeated division of one
+single original cell, the ovum-cell.
+
+The individual development or ontogenesis of each of these many-celled
+animal-forms, brings this histological process of development so
+clearly and evidently before our eyes that we can but directly infer
+from it the truth of the phylogenesis, or gradual historical evolution
+of the soul-organs. The association of cells and the division of
+labour among them are the modes by which, in the first instance, the
+compound many-celled organism has originated, historically, from the
+simple one-celled organism. And an impartial comparative consideration
+teaches us in the clearest way that a functional-activity of the
+soul-cells exists in the lowest one-celled animals as well as in the
+highest and many-celled; in the infusoria as well as in man. Volition
+and sensation, the universal and unmistakable signs of soul-life, may
+be observed among the former as well as in the latter. Voluntary
+motion and conscious sensation (of pressure, light, warmth, &c.) come
+under our observation so undoubtedly in the commonest forms of
+infusorial animals--for instance the Ciliata, that one of their most
+persevering observers, Ehrenberg, asserted undeviatingly to the day of
+his death that all Infusoria must possess nerves and muscles, organs
+of sense and of soul, as well as the higher animals.
+
+It is well known that the enormous advance which our science has lately
+made in the natural history of these lowest organisms culminates in the
+statement--clearly made by Siebold thirty years since, but only recently
+"ascertained as proved"--that these minute creatures are _one-celled_,
+and that in the case of these infusoria one single cell is capable of
+all the various vital functions--including soul-functions--which in the
+zoophytes (plant-animals), as the hydra and the sponges, are distributed
+among the cells of the two germ-layers, and in all the higher animals
+among the different tissues, organs, and apparatus of a highly developed
+and constructed organism. The psychic functions of sensation and
+voluntary motion, which are here distributed to such very various organs
+and tissues, are in the infusoria fulfilled by the neutral plasson
+material of the cell, by the protoplasma, and possibly also by the
+nucleus (compare my treatise "The Morphology of the Infusoria." Jena,
+Zeitschriften, 1873, vol. vii. p. 516). And just as we must attribute to
+these primary animal forms an independent "soul," just as we must
+plainly be convinced that the single independent cell has a "psyche," we
+must as decidedly attribute a soul to every other cell; for the most
+important active constituent of the cell, the protoplasm, everywhere
+exhibits the same psychic properties of sensibility or irritability, and
+motive power or will. The only difference is this, that in the organism
+of the higher animals and plants the numerous collected cells, to a
+great extent, give up their individual independence, and are subject,
+like good citizens, to the soul-polity which represents the unity of the
+will and sensations in the cell community. We here also must distinguish
+clearly between the central soul of the whole many-celled organism or
+the personal psyche (the person-soul), and the particular individual
+soul or elementary soul of the individual cells constituting that
+organism (the cell-soul). Their relations are strikingly illustrated in
+the instructive group of Siphonophora, as I have briefly shown in my
+article on "The Cell-soul and Soul-cells" (Deutsche Rundschau, July
+1878). Beyond a doubt the whole stock or polity of Siphonophora has a
+very definite united will and a united sensibility, and yet each of the
+individual persons of which this stock (or Cormus) is composed has its
+own personal will and its own particular sensations. Each of these
+persons indeed was originally a separate Medusa, and the individual
+Siphonophora stock originated, by association and division of labour,
+out of these united Medusa communities.
+
+When I developed this theory of the cell-soul and designated it in my
+Munich address as the "surest foundation of empirical psychology," I
+believed I was drawing an inference quite to Virchow's mind, from his
+own views of mechanical and cellular-physiology; and for that reason I
+took the same occasion specially to celebrate his very great services
+to the cell theory. How astonished then was I when in his reply this
+very theory was violently attacked and satirised as "mere trifling
+with words." It never could have occurred to me that Virchow had long
+since become unfaithful to his most important biological principles,
+and had deserted his own mechanical "theory of cells;" it never had
+occurred to me that Virchow could be in great measure wanting in that
+zoological knowledge which is requisite for a practical comprehension
+of the cell-soul theory. He has never thoroughly studied either the
+one-celled Protozoa, the Infusoria and Lobosa, nor the Coelenterata,
+the highly instructive Sponges, Hydroids, Medusæ, or Siphonophora; and
+thus he is wanting in those genetic principles of comparative zoology
+on which our theory rests. It is in no other way conceivable that
+Virchow should contemn the most important consequences of the cell
+theory as "mere trifling with words."
+
+Next to the one-celled infusoria no phenomenon throws such direct
+light on our cellular psychology as the fact that the human ovum, like
+the ova of all other animals, is a single, simple cell. In accordance
+with our monistic conception of the cell-soul, we must conclude that
+the fertilised ovum-cell already virtually possesses those psychical
+properties which, by the special combination of the peculiarities
+inherited from both parents, characterise the individual soul of the
+new person; in the course of the development of the germ, the
+cell-soul of the fertilised ovum naturally is developed simultaneously
+with its material substratum, and subsequently, after birth, it
+appears in full activity.
+
+According to Virchow's dualistic conception of the psyche, we must, on
+the contrary, assume that this immaterial essence at some period of
+its embryonic development (apparently when the spine separates itself
+from the external germ-layer) informs the soulless germ. Of course,
+the bare miracle is thus complete, and the natural and unbroken
+continuity of development is superfluous.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE GENETIC AND DOGMATIC METHODS OF TEACHING.
+
+
+The very justifiable surprise which Virchow's Munich address has
+excited in many circles is due only in part to his opposition to the
+theory of descent; for the rest, and in much greater part, it is due
+to the astounding arguments which he has connected with it,
+particularly as to freedom for instruction. These arguments so closely
+resemble those of the Jesuits that they might have been inspired
+direct from the Vatican, or, which is the same thing, the notorious
+"court-chaplain party" in Berlin. No wonder, then, that these
+propositions, which would undermine the whole liberty of science, have
+met with the loudest approbation from the "Germania," the "New
+Evangelical Church Times" ("Neue Evangelischen Kirchenzeitung"), and
+other leading, equivocating organs of the Church militant. On the
+other hand, these odious principles are already so extensively
+discussed, and have been so clearly laid down in all their
+indefensibility, that I may here deal with them briefly.
+
+Virchow's politics as a pedagogue reach their highest pitch in this
+demand: "that in all schools, from the poor schools to the
+universities, nothing shall be taught that is not absolutely certain.
+None but objective and absolutely ascertained knowledge is to be
+imparted by the teacher to the learner; nothing subjective, no
+knowledge that is open to correction, only facts, no hypotheses." The
+investigation of such problems as the whole nation may be interested
+in must not be restricted; that is liberty of inquiry; but the problem
+ought not, without anything farther, to be the subject of _teaching_.
+"When we teach we must restrict ourselves to the smaller, and yet how
+great, departments which we are actually masters of."
+
+Rarely indeed has such a treasonable attempt on liberty of doctrine
+been made by a prominent representative of science, and a leader of
+the intellectual movement too, as this by Virchow. Only inquiry is to
+be free and not teaching! And where in the whole history of science is
+there one single scientific inquirer to be found who would not have
+felt himself quite justified in teaching his own subjective
+convictions with as much right as he had to construct them from
+inquiry into objective facts. And where, generally speaking, is the
+limit to be found between objective and subjective knowledge? Is
+there, in fact, any objective science?
+
+This question Virchow answers in the affirmative, for he goes on to
+say: "We must not forget that there is a boundary line between the
+speculative departments of natural science and those that are actually
+conquered and firmly established" (p. 8). In my opinion, there is no
+such boundary line; on the contrary, all human knowledge as such is
+subjective. An objective science which consists merely of facts
+without any subjective theories is inconceivable. For evidence in
+favour of this view we must take a rapid survey of the whole domain of
+human science, and test the chief departments of it to see how far
+they contain, on the one hand, objective knowledge and facts, and on
+the other, subjective knowledge and hypotheses. We may begin directly
+with Kant's assertion that in every science only so much true--that is
+objective--knowledge is to be found as it contains of mathematics.
+Unquestionably mathematics stand at the head of all the sciences as
+regards the certainty of its teaching. But how as to those deepest and
+simplest fundamental axioms which constitute the firm basis on which
+the proud edifice of mathematical teaching rests? Are these certain
+and proved? Certainly not. The bases of its teaching are simply
+"axioms" which are incapable of proof. To give only one example of how
+the very first principles of mathematics might be attacked by
+scepticism and shaken by philosophical speculation, we may remember
+the recent discussions as to the three dimensions of space and the
+possibility of a fourth dimension; disputes which are carried on even
+at the present day by the most eminent mathematicians, physicists, and
+philosophers. So much as this is certain, that mathematics as little
+constitute an absolutely objective science as any other, but by the
+very nature of man are subjectively conditioned. A man's subjective
+power of knowing can only discern the objective facts of the outer
+world in general so far as his organs of sense and his brain admit in
+his own individual degree of cultivation.
+
+However, granting that mathematics practically constitute an
+absolutely certain and objective science, how is it with the rest of
+the sciences? Undoubtedly the most certain among them are those "exact
+sciences" whose principles are to be directly proved by mathematics;
+thus, in the first place, a great part of physics. We say, "a great
+part," for another large part--to speak accurately, by far the
+greatest--is incapable of any exact mathematical proof. For what do we
+know for certain of the essential nature of matter, or the essential
+nature of force? What do we know for certain of gravitation, of the
+attraction of mass, of its effects at great distances, and so on?
+Newton's theory of gravitation is regarded as the most important and
+certain theory of physics, and yet gravitation itself is a hypothesis.
+Then, as to the other branches of physics--electricity and magnetism.
+The whole scheme of these important sciences rests on the hypothesis
+of "electric fluidity," or of imponderable matter of which the
+existence is nothing less than proved. Or optics? Optics certainly
+appertain to the most important and completest branch of physics, and
+yet the undulatory theory of light, which we accept now as the
+indispensable basis of optics, rests on an unproved hypothesis, on the
+subjective assumption of an ethereal medium, whose existence no one is
+in a position to prove objectively in any way. Nay, further, before
+Young set up the undulatory theory of light, for a hundred years the
+emanation theory as taught by Newton obtained exclusively in physics;
+a theory which at the present day is universally regarded as
+untenable. In our opinion the mighty Newton won the greatest honours
+in the development of the science of optics, inasmuch as he was the
+first to connect and explain the vast mass of objective optical facts
+by a subjective and pregnant hypothesis. But, according to Virchow's
+view, Newton on the contrary transgressed greatly by teaching this
+erroneous hypothesis; for even in "exact" physics none but
+"independent and certain facts" are to be taught and established by
+"experiment as the highest means of proof." Physics as a whole, as
+resting on mere unproved hypotheses, may be indeed an object of
+inquiry but not of teaching.
+
+Of course the same is true of chemistry; nay, this stands on much
+weaker feet, and is even less proved than physics. The whole
+theoretical side of chemistry is an airy structure of hypotheses such
+as does not exist in any other science. In the last three decades we
+have seen a whole series of the most different theories rapidly
+succeed each other, none of which can be positively proved, though at
+least one of them is taught by every professor of chemistry. But what
+is worst of all, the common basis of all the most dissimilar chemical
+theories, viz., the atomic theory, is as unproved and unprovable as
+any hypothesis can be. No chemist has ever seen an atom, but he
+nevertheless considers the mechanism of atoms as the highest term of
+his science, he nevertheless describes and constructs the connection
+of atoms in their various combinations as though he had them before
+him on the dissecting-table! All the conceptions which we possess as
+to chemical structure and the affinities of matter, are subjective
+hypotheses, mere conceptions as to the position and changes of
+position of the various atoms, whose very existence is incapable of
+proof. Away, then, with chemistry from our schools! The chemist must
+only describe the properties of the different elements and those
+combinations which can be put before the pupil as ascertained facts
+founded in experiment, "the highest means of proof." Everything that
+goes beyond this is mischievous, particularly every suggestion as to
+the essence and chemical constituents of bodies; matters as to which,
+in the nature of things, we can only form uncertain hypotheses. For as
+all chemistry, viewed as a system of doctrine, rests solely on such
+hypotheses, it may be indeed a subject of investigation but not of
+teaching.
+
+Having thus convinced ourselves that chemistry as well as physics,
+those "exact sciences," those "mechanical" bases of all other
+sciences, rest on mere unproved hypotheses, and so must not be taught,
+we may make short work of the other faculties. For they collectively
+are more or less historical sciences and dispense wholly or in part
+with even those half-exact, fundamental principles on which physics
+and chemistry are based. In the first place, there is that grand,
+historical, natural science, geology; the great doctrine of the
+structure and composition, the origin and development of our globe.
+According to Virchow this too must be limited to the description of
+ascertained facts, such as the structure of mountain masses, the
+character of the fossils they contain, the formation of crystals, and
+so forth. But not for the world must anything be taught as to the
+evolution of this globe; for this rests from beginning to end on
+unproved hypotheses. For even to the present day the Plutonic and
+Neptunic theories are disputing the field, and to this day we know not
+as to many of the most important rocks, whether they originated by the
+agency of fire or of water. The new and remarkable discoveries of the
+great Challenger-expedition threaten to subvert a great many
+geological notions which had long been regarded as certain. Then
+again, as to fossils. Who can prove with any certainty that these
+petrifactions are in truth the fossilised remains of extinct
+organisms? They may be--as many distinguished naturalists of even the
+last century maintained--marvellous sports of nature, mysterious
+"Lusus naturæ," or mere rough, inorganic models of the labouring
+Creator into which He subsequently "breathed the breath of life;" or
+perhaps "stone-flesh" (caro fossilis) brought into existence, on the
+dead rocks by the "fertilising air" (aura seminalis), and so forth.
+
+But I am wrong! for with regard to petrifactions, Virchow is in the
+highest degree speculative, and accepts without any hesitation the
+rash hypothesis that fossils are actually the remains of extinct
+organisms, although no "certain proof" whatever can be offered in its
+favour, and although experiment, the "highest means of proof," has
+never yet produced a single fossil. According to him these are actual
+"objective, material evidences," only here we must go no further than
+certain experience teaches us, and base no subjective conclusions on
+these objective facts. Thus, for instance, in the long series of the
+mesozoic formations, in the different strata of the Trias, Jurassic,
+and Chalk formations, for the deposition of which a lapse of many
+millions of years has been required, we find absolutely no remains of
+fossil mammalia beyond lower jaws; seek where we will, nothing is
+anywhere to be found but lower jaws, and no other bones whatever. The
+simple reasons of this striking imperfection of the palæontological
+record have been clearly expounded by Lyell, Huxley, and others.
+(Comp. my "History of Creation," vol. ii. p. 32.) These great
+investigators, in accordance with all other palæontologists, have
+demonstrated that these jaw-bones of the mesozoic period are the
+remains of mammalia, accurately speaking of marsupials, on the simple
+ground that the nether jaws of the extant recent marsupials show a
+similar characteristic form with the fossil ones. They therefore
+unhesitatingly assume that the rest of the bones in the bodies of
+these extinct animals corresponded to those of living mammals. But
+this is a quite inadmissible hypothesis devoid of any "certain proof!"
+Where, then, are the other bones? Let us see them! till then we
+decline to believe in them. According to Virchow, we ought rather to
+assume that the lower jaw was the only bone in the body of these
+extraordinary beasts. Are there not, in fact, snails, in which an
+upper jaw is the only representation of a skeleton.
+
+We cannot omit taking this opportunity of casting a side glance at the
+very hazardous position which Virchow, in total opposition to his
+boasted cool scepticism, has taken up in anthropology as it is called,
+now his favourite branch of science. In his Munich address he tells us
+that he is pursuing the study of anthropology with delight, and then
+asserts that "the quarternary man" is an universally-accepted fact.
+Quite apart from this statement, we have seen that Virchow can never
+attain to a profound and really scientific study of anthropology
+simply for this reason, that he is lacking in that comprehensive
+knowledge of comparative morphology which is indispensable to it; nay,
+comparative anatomy and ontogenesis must be, according to him,
+unpermitted speculations and the phylogenesis of man, the key to all
+the most important questions of anthropology, being based upon these,
+is devoid of all certain proof. All the more must we wonder at the
+speculative levity with which even the sceptic Virchow in the
+"Primeval History of Man" and "Fossil Anthropology," embarks in the
+most hazardous conjectures, and gives out uncertain, subjective
+hypotheses as certain, objective facts.
+
+There is, in fact, at the present day no department of science in
+which the wildest and most untenable hypotheses have blossomed out so
+freely as in anthropology and ethnology, so-called. All the
+phylogenetic hypotheses which I myself have put forward in my
+"Evolution of Man" as to the animal ancestry of man, or in my "Natural
+History of Creation" as to the affinities of animal races--all the
+other genealogical hypotheses which are now advanced by numerous
+zoologists and botanists as to the phylogenetic evolution of the
+animal and plant worlds--all these hypotheses together, which Virchow
+rejects in a lump, are, critically considered as hypotheses, far
+better grounded in facts, far better supported by facts, than the
+majority of those innumerable airy and fanciful hypotheses with which,
+for the last twelve years, the "Archiv für Anthropologie" and
+"Zeitschrift für Ethnologie," edited by Virchow and Bastian, have
+filled their columns. This last periodical has at least the merit of
+being a tolerably consistent opponent of the doctrine of evolution,
+while in the former, during twelve years, essays on both sides have
+been mixed up in cheerful confusion. And how fanciful are the
+short-sighted hypotheses which there blossom forth from the mixed mass
+of facts, chaotically flung together. Only think of the disputes over
+the stone age, bronze age, and iron age; think of the motley
+discussions as to the varieties of skull-conformation and their
+significance; on the races of man, the migrations of peoples and the
+like. Most of these very intricate historical problems are far more
+buried in obscurity, and the hypotheses to explain them dispense far
+more largely with any basis of facts, than is the case with our
+phylogenetic hypotheses; for these are more or less "objectively"
+based on the facts of comparative anatomy and ontogenesis.
+
+But no one of these historical hypotheses is so daring, so little
+"certainly proved," as the group of very various and contradictory
+hypotheses which have been put forward as to the antiquity and first
+appearance of the human species; and Virchow asserts positively "The
+pleistocene man is an universally accepted fact. The tertiary man is,
+on the other hand, a problem, though indeed a problem which is already
+under substantial discussion!" As if the distinction between the
+tertiary and quarternary periods were not itself a geological
+hypothesis, and as if the significance of the fossil animal-remains,
+which play the largest part in it, did not also rest on mere
+hypotheses which escape all certain proof! Where, then, is the actual
+experiment "as the highest means of proof," which gives evidence for
+these "certain facts"? The whole discussion in general about
+prehistoric man, which Virchow has mixed up with his Munich address
+(pp. 30, 31), is the clearest evidence of the uncritical spirit in
+which he deals with these historical problems as "exact natural
+sciences." He assures us that "not one single ape's skull, nor skull
+of an anthropoid ape, has ever been found which could actually have
+belonged to a human owner!" and he adds this sentence, in italics, "We
+cannot teach, for we cannot regard it as a real acquisition of
+science, that man is descended from the ape or from any other animal!"
+Then evidently no alternative remains but that he is descended from a
+god, or from a clod!
+
+But let us go over the rest of the sciences to see what, according to
+Virchow, may be taught in each without endangering the safety of
+science. In the whole department of biology, as well as in
+zoology--including anthropology--and in botany, instruction must be
+limited to imparting those trifling fragments of knowledge which
+either consist of mere descriptions of dry facts, or which supply an
+explanation of them by mathematical formulas. Morphology must be
+taught as mere descriptive anatomy and systematising, the history of
+development as mere descriptive ontogenesis. Comparative anatomy and
+phylogenesis, which by their explanatory hypotheses raise those dead
+masses of facts to the place of true and living sciences--these must
+not be taught at all. And how then do matters stand with regard to the
+cell-theory, that fundamental theory on which every element of our
+morphology and physiology depends, and by applying which Virchow
+himself reached his grandest results?
+
+Since Schleiden in Jena, forty years ago, first put forward the
+cell-theory, and Schwann immediately after applied it to the animal
+kingdom and so to the whole organic world, this fundamental doctrine
+has undergone very important modifications, for it is indeed a
+biological theory, but not a fact. We may recollect under what
+different aspects its main principles have appeared in the course of
+these four decades: what changes have taken place in the conception of
+the cell itself. After the organic cell had originally been conceived
+of as a vesicle, consisting of a firm capsule and a fluid content, we
+subsequently discerned it to be composed of a glutinous semi-fluid
+cell-substance, the protoplasm, and convinced ourselves that this
+protoplasm and the cell-core or nucleus enclosed in it are the most
+important and indispensable constituent parts of the cell, while the
+external firm capsule, the cell-membrane, is not essential and very
+frequently wanting. But even now opinions widely differ as to how the
+conception of a cell should be precisely defined, and what
+consequences must be inferred from the cell-theory, and attempts have
+not been wanting to upset it altogether and to treat it as worthless.
+The anatomist Henle, of Göttingen, in particular, has repeatedly made
+such an attempt, that "gifted" anatomist who, in the preface to his
+bulky text-book of human anatomy, declared that scientific ideas are
+mere worthless paper money, and that the noble metal of facts, on the
+contrary, is the only genuine article. Not long since a bulky volume
+in quarto appeared, by one Herr Nathusius-Königsborn, in which the
+cell is explained to be a subordinate plastic element, and the
+cell-theory is eliminated as superfluous; and this monstrous volume,
+full of the most amusing nonsense, is dedicated to Herr Henle. Virchow
+formerly was one of the victorious opponents of the Göttingen
+physician, and wrote brilliant articles against the "rational
+pathology" of "irrational Herr Henle;" now apparently he agrees with
+him that the paper money of ideas is worthless as compared with the
+noble metal of facts. Of course the cell-theory then loses all its
+value, and cannot be a subject of instruction; for the cell itself is
+not a certain and undoubted fact, but only an abstraction, a
+philosophical idea.
+
+Nothing more clearly shows what a complete change Virchow has
+undergone in his most important principles, and what an utter
+metapsychosis in this special province, than his famous axiom,
+uttered in 1855--"Omnis cellula e cellula." That is unquestionably the
+boldest generalisation to which the youthful, independent Virchow ever
+attained, and one on which he justly prided himself not a little. He
+himself repeatedly compared it with Harvey's saying, which marked an
+epoch--"Omne vivum ex ovo." But neither of these axioms is universally
+correct. On the contrary, we now know that every cell does not
+necessarily originate from a cell, any more than that every organic
+individual originates from an ovum. In many cases true nucleated cells
+proceed from un-nucleated cytods, as in the Gregarinæ, Myxomycetæ and
+others. Nay more, the primordial organic cells could only have
+originated in the first instance from non-cellular plastides or monads
+by their homogeneous plasson resolving itself into an internal nucleus
+and an external protoplasm. Thus, as we subsequently learnt to know
+most of the exceptions to this generalisation of Virchow, it appeared
+all the bolder; the more so as we were at that time far from being
+able to refer all the different tissues of the higher animals with any
+certainty to cells, and as not a few experiments seemed to point to
+the hypothesis of free cell-formation. That guiding axiom, which so
+powerfully furthered the cell-theory, Virchow, from his present
+standpoint, must wholly condemn as a crime against exact science, and
+he surely can never forgive himself for having propounded this
+hypothesis--which was afterwards found to be not universally true--as
+an important doctrinal axiom.
+
+We shall indeed find much worse sins against his own principles of
+to-day if we turn to Virchow's own special department of science,
+namely, pathological anatomy and physiology, the most important
+division of theoretic medicine. The great and incomparable services
+which Virchow here effected do not depend on the numerous independent
+new facts which he discovered, but on the theories and hypotheses by
+which, like an inspired pioneer, he sought to open a way through the
+dead waste of pathological knowledge and to form it into a living
+science. These new theories and the hypotheses on which they were
+founded, Virchow then propounded to us, his disciples, with such
+incisive assurance that every one of us was convinced of their truth;
+and yet later experience has shown that they were in part
+insufficiently proved and in part wholly false. For example, I will
+only here recall his famous theory of the connective-tissue, for which
+I myself in several of my early works (1856 to 1858) broke a lance.
+His theory seemed to explain a host of the most important
+physiological and pathological phenomena in the simplest manner, and
+yet it was afterwards proved to be false. In spite of this, I declare
+to this day that it was of the greatest service for the development of
+our acquaintance with the formation of the connective-tissue; as a
+guiding hypothesis and as a provisional clue to our investigations.
+Virchow, on the contrary, if he impartially reflects on the part he
+took in the diffusion of this misleading doctrine, must reproach
+himself severely for it. For "we must draw a hard and fast line
+between what we are to teach and what we are to investigate. What we
+investigate are problems," but "the problem ought not to be the
+subject of teaching." That Virchow, in his course of instruction,
+every day belied this, his present view of teaching, that he every
+hour taught his disciples some unproved theory and problematical
+hypothesis, every one knows who, like myself, for years and with the
+deepest interest, enjoyed his distinguished instruction. Still the
+captivating charm of this instruction--in spite of the defective
+method of unprepared lectures--lay precisely in this, that Virchow as
+a teacher constantly let us, his pupils, enter into those problems
+with which he himself at the moment was occupied; that he propounded
+to us his personal hypothesis for the elucidation of the given facts.
+And what really gifted teacher who lives in his science would not do
+the same? Where is there, or where has there ever been, a great master
+who in his teaching has confined himself to only imparting certain
+and undoubtedly ascertained facts? Who has not, on the contrary, found
+that the charm and value of his instruction lay precisely in
+propounding the problems which link themselves with those facts, and
+in teaching the uncertain theories and fluctuating hypotheses which
+may serve to solve these problems? Or is there for the young and
+struggling mind anything better, or more conducive to culture, than to
+exercise the intelligence in problems of investigation?
+
+How unpractical and how absurd is Virchow's demand--that only
+ascertained facts and no problematic theories shall be admitted in
+teaching--will be still more strikingly shown by a glance over the
+remaining provinces of human knowledge. What, indeed, will be left of
+history, of philology, of political science, of jurisprudence, if we
+restrict the teaching of them to absolutely-ascertained and
+established facts. What of "science" will remain to them if the idea
+which endeavours to discern the causes of the facts is banished? if
+the problems, the theories, the hypotheses, which seek these causes
+may not be generally taught? And that philosophy--the science of
+knowing--by which all the common results of human knowledge are to be
+bound up into one grand and harmonious whole--that philosophy, I say,
+must not be generally taught, is, according to Virchow, quite
+self-evident.
+
+Finally, there remains nothing but theology. Theology alone is the one
+true science, and its dogmas alone may be taught as certain. Of
+course! for it proceeds directly from revelation, and only divine
+revelation can be "quite certain;" it alone can never err. Yes,
+incredible as it sounds, Virchow, the sceptical opponent of dogma, the
+leader of the fight for "liberty of science," Virchow now finds the
+only sure basis for instruction in the dogmas of the Church. After all
+that has gone before, the following memorable sentence leaves no doubt
+on this score:--"Every attempt to transform our problems into dogmas,
+to introduce our conjectures as a basis of instruction, particularly
+any attempt simply to dispossess the Church and to supplant her dogma
+by a creed of descent--ay, gentlemen--this attempt must fail, and in
+its ruin will entail the greatest peril on the position of science in
+general."
+
+The shouts of triumph of the whole clerical press over Virchow's
+Munich address is thus rendered perfectly intelligible, for it is well
+known that "there is more joy in heaven over one sinner that repenteth
+than over ten just men." When Rudolf Virchow, the "notorious
+materialist," the "advanced radical," the "great supporter of the
+atheism of science," is so suddenly converted, when he proclaims
+loudly and publicly that the dogmas of the Church are the only sure
+basis of instruction, then the Church militant may well sing "Hosanna
+in the highest!" Only one thing is to be regretted, that Virchow has
+not more clearly defined which of the many different church-religions
+is the only true one, and which of the innumerable and contradictory
+dogmas are to form the sure basis of instruction. We all know that
+each Church regards itself as the only truly saving one, and her own
+dogma as the only true one. But as to whether it is to be
+Protestantism or Catholicism, the Reformed or the Lutheran confession,
+whether the Anglican or the Presbyterian dogma, whether the Roman or
+the Greek Church, the Mosaic or the Mohammedan dispensation, whether
+Buddhism or Brahmanism, whether, finally, it is to be one of the many
+fetish-religions of the Indians and Negroes that is to form the
+permanent and sure basis of instruction, let us hope that Virchow will
+at the next meeting of German naturalists and physicians divulge his
+opinion.
+
+At any rate, the "instruction of the future, according to Virchow," will
+be greatly simplified if he will do this. For the dogma of the Trinity
+in Unity as a basis of mathematics, the dogma of the resurrection of the
+body as a basis of medicine, the dogma of infallibility as a basis of
+psychology, the dogma of the immaculate conception as a basis of genetic
+science, the dogma of the staying of the sun as a basis of astronomy, the
+dogma of the creation of the earth, animals, and plants as a basis of
+geology and phylogenesis--these or any other dogma, at pleasure, from any
+other church will make all other doctrine quite superfluous. Virchow,
+"that critical spirit," knows as well as I, and as every other naturalist,
+that these dogmas are not true, and nevertheless, in his opinion, they
+are not to be supplanted as the "basis of instruction" by those theories
+and hypotheses of modern natural science of which Virchow himself says
+that they may be true, that in a great measure they probably are true,
+but are not yet "quite certainly proved."
+
+At pages 15, 24, 26, 28, and elsewhere in his Munich address, Virchow
+strongly insists that only that objective knowledge may be taught
+which we possess as absolutely certain fact! and then at page 29 he
+requires us to conclude that the basis of instruction shall continue
+to be the purely subjective dogmas of the Church; revelations and
+dogmas which not only are not proved by any facts whatever, but on the
+contrary, stand in the most trenchant contradiction to the most
+obvious facts of natural experience and fly in the face of all human
+reason. These contradictions, to be sure, are no greater than some
+others which stand out conspicuous and incomprehensible in Virchow's
+discourse. Thus at the beginning of his address he glorifies Lorenz
+Oken and deeply laments "that he, that highly-valued and honoured
+master, that ornament of the high school of Munich, had been forced
+to die in exile! That cruel exile which oppressed Oken's latter years,
+which left him to perish far from those cities to which he had
+sacrificed the best powers of his life, that exile will be remembered
+as the note of the time which we have passed through. And so long as
+there continue to be meetings of German naturalists, so long may we
+gratefully remember that this man to his death bore upon him all the
+signs of a martyr, so long shall we point to him as one of the
+witnesses who have fought for us and for the liberty of science."
+Verily these words from Virchow's lips sound like the bitterest irony;
+for was not Lorenz Oken one of the foremost and most zealous champions
+of that monistic doctrine of development against which Rudolf Virchow
+at this day is most violently striving? Did not Oken himself proceed
+farther in the construction of bold hypotheses and comprehensive
+theories than any supporter of the doctrine of evolution at the
+present time? Is not Oken justly considered as the one typical
+representative of that older period of natural philosophy who rose to
+much higher and bolder flights of fancy, and left the solid ground of
+facts much farther behind him than any tyro of the new philosophy? And
+this makes the irony seem all the greater with which Virchow at the
+beginning of his address glorifies Oken the free teacher, as a martyr
+to the freedom of science, and at the end of it insists that this
+freedom applies only to inquiry and not to teaching, and that the
+master must teach no problem, no theory, no hypothesis.
+
+While this unheard-of demand sets Virchow's views of teaching in the
+most extraordinary light, and while every unprejudiced and experienced
+teacher must most emphatically protest against this strait-waistcoat
+for instruction, he will feel no less bound to resist Virchow's other
+strange demand, that every ascertained truth shall forthwith be taught
+in all schools, down to the elementary schools. I myself, in my Munich
+address, sought the instructional value of our monistic evolution
+theory above all in the genetic method, in the inquiry, that is to
+say, for the effective causes of the facts taught; and I added these
+words--"How far the principles of the doctrine of universal evolution
+ought to be at once introduced into our schools, and in what
+succession its most important branches ought to be taught in the
+different classes--cosmogony, geology, the phylogenesis of animals and
+plants, and anthropology--this we must leave to practical teachers to
+settle. But we believe that an extensive reform of instruction in this
+direction is inevitable, and will be crowned by the fairest results."
+I purposely avoided any closer discussion of this specialist
+question, as I felt not even approximately capable of solving it, and
+I believe, in fact, that none but skilled and experienced practical
+teachers can undertake the solution of it with any success.
+
+For Virchow these specialist difficulties seem not to exist; he
+regards my reticence as a mere "postponement of the task," and he
+answers in the following astonishing sentences:--"If the theory of
+descent is as certain as Herr Haeckel assumes, then we must
+demand--for it is a necessary consequence--that it shall be taught in
+schools. How is it conceivable that a doctrine of such importance,
+which must effect such a total revolution in all our mental
+consciousness, which directly tends to create a new kind of religion,
+should not be included in the school scheme of instruction? How is it
+possible that such a--revelation, shall I say--should be in any
+measure suppressed, or that the promulgation of the greatest and most
+important advance which has been made in our views during the present
+century should be left to the discretion of schoolmasters? Ay,
+gentlemen, that would indeed be a renunciation of the hardest kind,
+and practically it could never be carried out! Every schoolmaster who
+assumes this doctrine for himself will involuntarily teach it, how can
+it be otherwise?"
+
+I must here be permitted to take Virchow exactly at his word. I
+endorse almost all that he has said in these and the following
+sentences. The only difference in our views is this, that Virchow
+regards the theory of descent as an unproved and unproveable
+hypothesis; I, on the contrary, as a fully established and
+indispensable theory. How then will it be if the teachers of whom
+Virchow speaks agree with my views, if--apart, of course, from all
+special theories of descent--they, like me, consider the general
+theory of descent as the indispensable basis of all biological
+teaching? And that that is actually the case Virchow may easily
+convince himself if he looks over the recent literature of zoology and
+botany! Our whole morphological literature in particular is already so
+deeply and completely penetrated by the doctrine of descent,
+phylogenetic principles already prevail so universally as a certain
+and indispensable instrument of inquiry, that no man for the future
+would deprive himself of their help. As Oscar Schmidt justly
+observes--"Perhaps ninety-nine per cent. of all living, or rather of
+all working zoologists, are convinced by inductive methods of the
+truth of the doctrine of descent." And Virchow with his magisterial
+requirements will attain only the very reverse of what he aims at. How
+often has it not been said already that science must either have
+perfect freedom or else none at all? This is as true of teaching as
+it is of inquiry, for the two are intrinsically and inseparably
+connected. And so it is not in vain that it is written in section 152
+of the German Code, and in section 20 of the Prussian Charter,
+"Science and her teaching shall be free!"
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY.
+
+
+Every great and comprehensive theory which affects the foundations of
+human science, and which, consequently, influences the systems of
+philosophy, will, in the first place, not only further our theoretical
+views of the universe, but will also react on practical philosophy,
+ethics, and the correlated provinces of religion and politics. In my
+paper read at Munich I only briefly pointed out the happy results
+which, in my opinion, the modern doctrine of evolution will entail
+when the true, natural religion, founded on reason, takes the place of
+the dogmatic religion of the Church, and its leading principle derives
+the human sense of duty from the social instincts of animals.
+
+The references to the social instincts which I, in common with Darwin
+and many others, regard as the proper source and origin of all moral
+development, appear to have afforded Virchow an opportunity in his
+reply for designating the doctrine of inheritance as a "socialist
+theory," and for attributing to it the most dangerous and
+objectionable character which, at the present time, any political
+theory can have; and these startling denunciations so soon as they
+were known called forth such just indignation and such comprehensive
+refutation that I might very properly pass them over here. Still we
+must at least shortly examine them, in so far as they supply a further
+proof that Virchow is unacquainted with the most important principles
+of the development-theory of the day, and therefore is incompetent to
+judge it. Moreover, Virchow, as a politician, manifestly attributed
+special importance to this political application of his paper, for he
+gave it the title, which otherwise would have been hardly suitable, of
+"The Freedom of Science in the Modern Polity." Unfortunately he forgot
+to add to this title the two words in which the special tendency of
+his discourse culminates; the two pregnant words, "must cease!"
+
+The surprising disclosures in which Virchow denounces the doctrine of
+evolution, and particularly the doctrine of descent, as socialist
+theories and dangerous to the community, run as follows:--"Now,
+picture to yourself the theory of descent as it already exists in the
+brain of a socialist. Ay, gentlemen, it may seem laughable to many,
+but it is in truth very serious, and I only hope that the theory of
+descent may not entail on us all the horrors which similar theories
+have actually brought upon neighbouring countries. At all times this
+theory, if it is logically carried out to the end, has an uncommonly
+suspicious aspect, and the fact that it has gained the sympathy of
+socialism has not, it is to be hoped, escaped your notice. We must
+make that quite clear to ourselves."
+
+On reading this statement, which seems extracted from the Berlin
+"Kreuz-Zeitung," or the Vienna "Vaterland," I ask myself in surprise,
+"What in the world has the doctrine of descent to do with socialism?"
+It has already been abundantly proved on many sides, and long since,
+that these two theories are about as compatible as fire and water.
+Oscar Schmidt might with justice retort, "If the socialists would
+think clearly they would feel that they must do all they can to choke
+the doctrine of descent, for it declares with express distinctness
+that socialist ideas are impracticable." And he proceeds to add, "And
+why has not Virchow made the gentle doctrines of Christianity
+responsible for the excesses of socialism? That would have had some
+sense. His denunciation flung so mysteriously and so confidently
+before the great public, as though it concerned 'a sure and attested
+scientific truth,' is, at the same time, so hollow that it cannot be
+brought into harmony with the dignity of science."
+
+With all these empty accusations, as with all the empty reproaches and
+groundless objections which Virchow brings against the doctrine of
+evolution, he takes good care in no way to touch the kernel of the
+matter. How, indeed, would it have been possible without arriving at
+conclusions wholly opposed to those which he has declared? For the
+theory of descent proclaims more clearly than any other scientific
+theory, that that equality of individuals which socialism strives
+after is an impossibility, that it stands, in fact, in irreconcilable
+contradiction to the inevitable inequality of individuals which
+actually and everywhere subsists. Socialism demands equal rights,
+equal duties, equal possessions, equal enjoyments for every citizen
+alike; the theory of descent proves, in exact opposition to this,
+that the realisation of this demand is a pure impossibility, and
+that in the constitutionally organised communities of men, as of
+the lower animals, neither rights nor duties, neither possessions
+nor enjoyments have ever been equal for all the members alike nor
+ever can be. Throughout the evolutionist theory, as in its biological
+branch, the theory of descent--the great law of specialisation or
+differentiation--teaches us that a multiplicity of phenomena is
+developed from original unity, heterogeneity from original similarity,
+and the composite organism from original simplicity. The conditions of
+existence are dissimilar for each individual from the beginning of its
+existence; even the inherited qualities, the natural "disposition,"
+are more or less unlike; how, then, can the problems of life and
+their solution be alike for all? The more highly political life is
+organised, the more prominent is the great principle of the division
+of labour, and the more requisite it becomes for the lasting security
+of the whole state that its members should be variously distributed in
+the manifold tasks of life; and as the work to be performed by
+different individuals is of the most various kind, as well as the
+corresponding outlay of strength, skill, property, &c., the reward of
+the work must naturally be also extremely various. These are such
+simple and tangible facts that one would suppose that every reasonable
+and unprejudiced politician would recommend the theory of descent, and
+the evolution hypothesis in general, as the best antidote to the
+fathomless absurdity of extravagant socialist levelling.
+
+Besides, Darwinism, the theory of natural selection--which Virchow
+aimed at in his denunciation, much more especially than at
+transformation, the theory of descent--which is often confounded with
+it--Darwinism, I say, is anything rather than socialist! If this
+English hypothesis is to be compared to any definite political
+tendency--as is, no doubt, possible--that tendency can only be
+aristocratic, certainly not democratic, and least of all socialist.
+The theory of selection teaches that in human life, as in animal and
+plant life everywhere, and at all times, only a small and chosen
+minority can exist and flourish, while the enormous majority starve
+and perish miserably and more or less prematurely. The germs of every
+species of animal and plant and the young individuals which spring
+from them are innumerable, while the number of those fortunate
+individuals which develop to maturity and actually reach their
+hardly-won life's goal is out of all proportion trifling. The cruel
+and merciless struggle for existence which rages throughout all living
+nature, and in the course of nature _must_ rage, this unceasing and
+inexorable competition of all living creatures, is an incontestable
+fact; only the picked minority of the qualified "fittest" is in a
+position to resist it successfully, while the great majority of the
+competitors must necessarily perish miserably. We may profoundly
+lament this tragical state of things, but we can neither controvert it
+nor alter it. "Many are called but few are chosen." The selection, the
+picking out of these "chosen ones," is inevitably connected with the
+arrest and destruction of the remaining majority. Another English
+naturalist, therefore, designates the kernel of Darwinism very frankly
+as the "survival of the fittest," as the "victory of the best." At any
+rate, this principle of selection is nothing less than democratic, on
+the contrary, it is aristocratic in the strictest sense of the word.
+If, therefore, Darwinism, logically carried out, has, according to
+Virchow, "an uncommonly suspicious aspect," this can only be found in
+the idea that it offers a helping hand to the efforts of the
+aristocrats. But how the socialism of the day can find any
+encouragement in these efforts, and how the horrors of the Paris
+Commune can be traced to them, is to me, I must frankly confess,
+absolutely incomprehensible.
+
+Moreover, we must not omit this opportunity of pointing out how
+dangerous such a direct and unqualified transfer of the theories of
+natural science to the domain of practical politics must be. The
+highly elaborate conditions of our modern civilised life require from
+the practical politician such circumspect and impartial consideration,
+such thorough historical training and powers of critical comparison,
+that he will not venture to make such an application of a "natural
+law" to the practice of civilised life, but with the greatest caution
+and reserve. How, then, is it possible that Virchow, the experienced
+and skilled politician, who, above all things, preaches caution and
+reserve in theory, suddenly makes just such an application of
+transformation and Darwinism--an application so radically perverse
+that it actually flies in the face of the fundamental ideas of these
+doctrines? I myself am nothing less than a politician. In direct
+contrast with Virchow, I lack alike the gift and the training for it,
+as well as taste and vocation. Hence I neither shall play any
+political part in the future, nor have I hitherto made any attempt of
+the kind. Though here and there I have occasionally uttered a
+political opinion, or have made a political application of some theory
+of natural science, these subjective opinions have no objective value.
+In point of fact I have by so doing overstepped the limits of my
+competence, just as Virchow has by going into questions of zoology and
+particularly that of the transformation of apes: I am a layman in
+political practice, as Virchow is in the province of zoological
+hypothesis. Moreover, such success as Virchow has attained during the
+twenty years of his painful, wearisome, and exhausting activity as a
+politician does not, in truth, make me pine for such laurels.
+
+But this at least I, as a theoretical naturalist, may demand of
+practical politicians, that in utilising our theories for political
+ends they should first make themselves exactly acquainted with them;
+they then, for the future, would forbear drawing conclusions from
+them, the very opposite to those which ought reasonably to be
+inferred. Misunderstandings would never thus be wholly avoided,
+it is true, but what doctrine is universally secure against
+misunderstanding? And from what theory, however sound and true, may
+not the most unsound and frantic inferences be drawn?
+
+Nothing, perhaps, shows so plainly as the history of Christianity how
+little theory and practice harmonise in human life; how little pains
+are taken, even by those whose calling it is to uphold established
+doctrines, to apply their natural consequences to practical life. The
+Christian religion, no doubt, as well as the Buddhist, when stripped
+of all dogmatic and fabulous nonsense, contains an admirable human
+kernel, and precisely that human portion of Christian teaching--in the
+best sense social-democratic--which preaches the equality of all men
+before God, the loving of your neighbour as yourself, love in general
+in the noblest sense, a fellow-feeling with the poor and wretched, and
+so forth--precisely, those truly human sides of the Christian doctrine
+are so natural, so noble, so pure, that we unhesitatingly adopt them
+into the moral doctrine of our monistic natural religion. Nay, the
+social instincts of the higher animals on which we found this religion
+(for instance the marvellous sense of duty of ants, &c.) are in this
+best sense strictly Christian.
+
+And what--we may ask--what have the professed supporters, the "learned
+divines" of this religion of love done? Their deeds are written in
+letters of blood in the history of the civilisation of mankind during
+the last 1800 years. All else that differing church-religions have
+accomplished for the forcible extension of their doctrines and for the
+extirpation of heretics of other creeds, all that the Jews have been
+guilty of towards the heathen, the Roman emperors towards the
+Christians, the Mohammedans towards Christians and Jews alike--all
+this is outdone by the hecatombs of human victims which Christianity
+has demanded for the spread of her doctrines. And these were
+Christians against Christians--orthodox Christians against heterodox
+Christians! think only of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, of the
+inconceivable and inhuman barbarities committed by the "most Christian
+kings" of Spain, by their worthy colleagues in Frankfort, in Italy,
+and elsewhere. Hundreds of thousands then died that most horrible
+death by fire, simply because they would not bend their reason to pass
+under the yoke of the grossest superstition, and because their loyalty
+to their convictions forbade them to deny the natural truth that they
+clearly discerned. There are no deeds more hideous, base, and inhuman
+than those that at that time were committed--nay, are still
+committed--in the name and on account of "true Christianity."
+
+And finally, how do matters stand with regard to the morality of the
+priests who announce themselves as the ministers of God's Word, and
+whose duty is therefore above all others to carry out the saving
+doctrines of Christianity in their own lives? The long, unbroken, and
+horrible series of crimes of every kind which is offered by the
+history of the Roman Popes is the best answer to this question. And
+just as these "Vicars of God on earth" did, so did their subordinates
+and accomplices, so, too, have the orthodox priests of other sects
+done; never failing to set the practice of their own course of life in
+the strongest possible contrast to those noble doctrines of Christian
+love which were constantly on their lips.
+
+And as with Christianity so it is with every other religious and moral
+doctrine which ought to have proved its power in the wide domain of
+practical philosophy, in the education of youth, in the civilisation
+of nations. The theoretic kernel of this doctrine may always and
+everywhere stand in the most glaring contradiction to its practical
+working-out, testifying to the endless inconsistency of human nature:
+but what can all this matter to the scientific inquirer? His sole and
+only task is to seek for truth and to teach what he has discerned to
+be the truth, indifferent as to what consequences the various parties
+of state or church may happen to draw from it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+IGNORABIMUS ET RESTRINGAMUR.
+
+
+The dangerous attempt which Virchow made in Munich against the
+freedom of science is not the first of its kind. On the contrary,
+five years before, it experienced a similar attack which is most
+intimately connected with this later one, so that, in conclusion,
+we must here add a few words on the subject. Undoubtedly the famous
+"Ignorabimus-speech" of Du Bois-Reymond, which he delivered in 1872 at
+the forty-fifth meeting of German naturalists and physicians in
+Leipzig, forms only the first portion of that same crusade against the
+freedom of science of which Virchow's "Restringamur speech" of 1877,
+at the fiftieth meeting of the same society, forms the second part.
+
+That brilliant and powerful essay by Du Bois-Reymond "on the
+Limitation of Natural Knowledge" has already been discussed so often,
+and from such different sides, that it might seem superfluous to say
+another word about it. It seems to me, nevertheless, that by most
+people the centre-of-gravity of its contents was overlooked in
+admiration of the brilliant accessories of the essay. Indeed this
+frequently happens with Du Bois-Reymond's articles, for he knows too
+well how to conceal the weakness of his argument and evidence, and the
+shallowness of his thought, by striking images and flowery metaphors,
+and by all the phraseology of rhetoric in which the versatile French
+nature is so superior to our sober German one. It is all the more
+important that we should not let ourselves be dazzled by these
+seductive tricks, and particularly by adduced facts which bear upon
+the most important and fundamental questions of human science, but
+that we should extract the hard kernel from the savoury and fragrant
+fruit. In the preface to my "Evolution of Man," and in the notes 22
+and 23 of my Munich address, I have already incidentally alluded to
+the chief weaknesses of the "Ignorabimus-speech;" but I must here
+return somewhat more fully to the subject.
+
+There are, as is well known, two problems which Du Bois-Reymond
+propounds as the impassable boundary of human knowledge of nature;
+limits which indeed the human mind is not only incapable of passing at
+the present stage of its development, but which it never can be
+capable of passing in any more advanced stage. The first problem is
+the nature and connection of matter and force; the second is human
+consciousness. Now, first of all, as has already been said in the
+preface to the "Evolution of Man," we must raise a decided protest
+against the air of infallibility with which Du Bois-Reymond pronounces
+that these two problems are insoluble, not only at the present time
+but to all futurity. The power of development inherent in science and
+knowledge is hereby simply swept away with a word. Almost every great
+and difficult problem of knowledge seems to most or all contemporary
+thinkers insoluble, and every path to the solution of it seems closed,
+till at last the bold genius appears whose clear sight detects the
+right path which till then was hidden, and which leads to the required
+knowledge. We need only call to mind our present doctrine of
+evolution. The problem of creation--the question as to the origin of
+animal and vegetable species--was universally looked upon as
+transcendental and perfectly insoluble, till the genius of Lamarck
+established the principles of the theory of descent in his admirable
+"Philosophie Zoologique" in 1809. Nay, even then most--and among them
+the most distinguished--biologists thought the problem of creation a
+quite insoluble mystery, and Darwin was the first to solve it, fifty
+years later, by his theory of selection in 1859. Hence we venture to
+assert that there is no scientific problem of which we may dare to say
+that the mind of man will never solve it even in the remotest future.
+Well does Darwin say, in the introduction to his "Descent of Man,"
+"Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it
+is those who know little and not those who know much who so positively
+assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science." As
+far as concerns the two separate limits which Du Bois-Reymond fixes
+for human knowledge, in my opinion they are undoubtedly identical. The
+problem of the origin and nature of consciousness is only a special
+case of the general problem of the connection of matter and force. Du
+Bois-Reymond himself indicates that this is possible at the close of
+his paper; for he says, "Finally, the question arises whether the two
+limitations to our natural knowledge may not perhaps be identical;
+that is to say, whether if we could conceive of the true essence of
+matter and force, we should not also understand how the substance
+which lies at their root can, under certain given conditions, feel,
+desire, and think. This conception is, no doubt, the simplest, and
+according to admitted principles of inquiry it is to be preferred to
+that other which it confutes, and according to which, as has been
+said, the world appears doubly incomprehensible. But it is in the very
+nature of things that we cannot on this point come to any clear
+conclusion, and all further words on the subject are idle--and so,
+'Ignorabimus.'"
+
+The light way in which Du Bois-Reymond here passes over the most
+important part of his subject is truly surprising; as if it were
+ultimately indifferent whether we have before us one single insoluble
+fundamental problem or two quite different ones; and as if mature
+reflection did not lead to the conviction that, in fact, the second
+problem is only a special case of the first general problem. I, for my
+part, cannot conceive of them in any other relation; I think, too,
+that all further words are by no means superfluous, but on the
+contrary conduce to a very strong conviction of the unity of the
+problem. That Du Bois-Reymond also has not come to any clear
+conclusion on this point lies, not alone in the "nature of things,"
+but, as in Virchow's case, in the nature of the investigator himself;
+in his lack of knowledge of the history of evolution, and in his
+neglect of those comparative and genetic methods of study, without
+which, in my opinion, not even an approximate solution of this highest
+and most difficult question is to be looked for.
+
+Nothing appears to me to be of more importance for the mechanical
+explanation of consciousness than the comparative consideration of its
+development. We know that a new-born child has no consciousness, but
+that it is slowly and gradually acquired and developed. We perceive
+for ourselves how unconscious actions become conscious, and _vice
+versa_. Innumerable actions which at first are troublesome and have
+to be learnt with consciousness and reflection--as for instance
+walking, swimming, singing, and so forth--become unconscious only by
+repetition, practice, and the habit of using the organs. On the
+contrary, unconscious actions become conscious as soon as we direct
+our attention to them or our self-observation is attracted to them; as
+for instance when we miss a step in going up stairs or touch a wrong
+note on the piano; and beyond a doubt, conscious and unconscious
+actions pass into each other without any distinct line of demarcation.
+Finally, we see no less plainly by a comparative consideration of the
+soul-life of animals, that their consciousness is slowly, gradually,
+and serially developed, and that a long unbroken series of steps leads
+from unconscious to conscious existence. From these comparative and
+genetic experiences we may draw the conclusion that consciousness,
+like sensation and volition, like all the other soul-activities, is a
+function of the organism, a mechanical activity of the cells; and, as
+such, is referable to chemical and physical processes. Hence, if we
+were in a position to understand force as a necessary function of
+matter, we could explain consciousness, as well as the soul in
+general, as a necessary function of certain cells.
+
+How little Du Bois-Reymond is acquainted with the facts of comparative
+and genetic psychology, nothing shows more strikingly than the
+following astounding proposition in the "Ignorabimus-speech:"--"Where
+the material conditions for psychical activity, in the form of a
+nervous system, are wanting, as in plants, the naturalist cannot
+recognise a soul-life, and, on this point, he but seldom meets with
+contradiction." Begging your pardon! Every naturalist who is familiar
+with the comparative morphology and physiology of the lower animals
+will here put in a decided contradiction, for he can no more refuse to
+admit the undoubted sensation and voluntary motion of the one-celled
+Infusoria than of the many-celled hydroid polyps. The body of the true
+Infusoria (Ciliata, Acineta, &c.), and many other Protista, remain
+throughout life one single cell, and, nevertheless, this cell is as
+fully furnished with all the most important attributes of the soul,
+with sensation and volition, as any one of the higher animals with a
+nervous system. The same obtains of the Hydra and the related hydroid
+polyps, in which the neuro-muscular cells, or other distributed cells
+of the outer germ-layer, fulfil the soul-functions. But as these
+cells, besides this, exercise motor and other functions as well, we
+cannot as yet designate them as nerve-cells, at any rate there can be
+no idea of a special nervous-system. The characteristic soul-organs of
+the higher animals, which we include under the conception of a
+nervous-system, in fact originated by the division of labour of the
+cells out of those neutral cell-groups in their lower-typed ancestors.
+
+In the great Soul-question Du Bois-Reymond, like Virchow, still keeps
+his position on the standpoint of neural-psychology, according to
+which no personal soul-life is conceivable without a nervous system.
+We look upon this standpoint as left far behind, and set up in
+opposition to it Cellular-psychology, the doctrine that every animal
+cell has a soul; that is to say, that its protoplasm is endowed with
+sensation and motion. In the one-celled Infusoria, which are so highly
+sensitive and have such an energetic will, this conception will be
+clear without any farther explanation. But we cannot refuse to allow
+that plant-cells as well as animal-cells have psychic functions, since
+we know that the phenomena of irritability, and of "automatic motion,"
+are the universal attributes of all protoplasm. No doubt the specific
+mechanism, the cause of motion, in the irritable Mimosa and other
+"sensitive" plants, is quite different from the muscular motions of
+animals; but these, like those, are only specifically different forms
+of development of the "cell-soul," and both proceed from the
+"mechanical energy of the protoplasm." The sensibility of the
+irritable protoplasm is the same in the vegetable-cell of the Mimosa
+as in the animal-cell of the Hydra. How far Du Bois-Reymond is from
+discerning this, and how deeply he is still entangled in
+neuro-psychological views is shown most clearly in the astonishing
+sentence which he has thought good to append to his above-quoted,
+erroneous assertion. "And what could we reply to the naturalist if,
+before he could agree to the assumption of a World-soul he required
+that we should show him--bedded in neuroglia and nourished by warm
+arterial blood--anywhere in the world a convolution of ganglionic
+centres co-extensive with the psychic capacity of such a Soul" (!)
+
+In other respects we will not deny that Du Bois-Reymond stands far
+nearer to our recent evolution-theory than Virchow; nay, that from
+year to year he has always pronounced more and more emphatically in
+favour of the theory of descent as the one possible explanation of
+morphological phenomena; indeed, Du Bois-Reymond has lately counted
+himself as one of those naturalists who were convinced of the truth of
+evolution even before Darwin! Then it is only to be wondered why so
+acute and gifted an inquirer, who is certainly not lacking in
+scientific ambition, left it to Charles Darwin to place the egg of
+Columbus on the ring and to point out to biological science a new
+method of unlimited capacity by giving the theory of descent a
+definite and reliable basis!
+
+It is clear from some remarks in his discourse bearing the title
+"Darwin versus Galiani" (1876), that Du Bois-Reymond is still far
+from understanding the full significance of transmutation as affording
+a mechanical explanation of morphological problems. In this paper the
+"History of Creation" is treated simply as a romance, and the
+genealogies of phylogenesis are in his eyes "of about as much value as
+the pedigrees of the Homeric heroes are in the eyes of historical
+critics." Geologists may be extremely grateful for this estimate of
+their science, for undoubtedly geology, as a structure of hypotheses,
+is neither more nor less justifiable than phylogenesis, as I have
+already pointed out in my Munich address: "Our phylogenetic hypotheses
+may claim to have equal value with the universally-admitted hypotheses
+of geology; the only difference is this, that the mighty structure of
+hypotheses called geology is incomparably more complete, simpler, and
+easier to grasp than that more youthful one called phylogenesis." But
+as to the much-talked-of "genealogies," though they are nothing more
+than the simplest, barest, and most superficial expression of the
+hypotheses of phylogenesis, as provisional hypotheses they are just as
+indispensable to specific phylogenesis as the theoretical
+section-tables of the strata of the earth's crust are to geology.
+
+If Du Bois-Reymond is so convinced of the truth of transmutation as he
+has lately given himself out to be, why does not he make at least one
+earnest attempt to test the interpreting power of the theory of
+descent in physiology--his own most special province of inquiry? Why
+does he not labour at that hitherto quite unworked-out branch,
+physiogenesis, at the history of the evolution of functions, at the
+ontogenesis and phylogenesis of vital processes? The one idea which
+has lately been often spoken of as an important discovery of Du
+Bois-Reymond's--[the idea which had already been anticipated by
+Leibnitz, that the "innate ideas,"--intuitions _à priori_--have
+originated by transmission from primordial experience, _i.e._,
+empirical, _à posteriori_ convictions], was distinctly enunciated by
+me long before Du Bois-Reymond (as he omits to mention), in 1866, in
+my "General Morphology" (vol. ii. p. 446), and in 1868 in the "History
+of Creation" (vol. i. p. 31, vol. ii. p. 344). If Du Bois-Reymond had
+practically busied himself with these problems he would certainly have
+thought a little about the development of consciousness, and not have
+set down as an eternally insoluble problem, "How is it possible that
+matter can think?"--a form of words, be it observed, which has about
+as much sense as "how matter runs," or "how matter strikes the hours."
+Surely he would have guarded himself in that case from uttering the
+ponderous "Ignorabimus."
+
+The question has been repeatedly asked why two such prominent Berlin
+biologists as Virchow and Du Bois-Reymond availed themselves of the
+particularly solemn occasions of the fiftieth anniversary and of the
+fiftieth meeting of the German naturalists and physicians to lay lance
+in rest against the progress and freedom of science. The eager
+approbation which they both promptly met with from the party of the
+clergy and of all other enemies of free thought--Virchow, indeed, in
+much greater measure than Du Bois-Reymond--appears to justify this
+inquiry. I believe I can contribute something towards answering it,
+and as I am not fettered by any reverence for the Berlin tribunal of
+science or by any anxiety as to vexing influential Berlin connections,
+as most of my colleagues are who think as I do, I do not hesitate,
+here as elsewhere, to express my honest conviction in the freest and
+frankest manner, not troubling myself about the wrath which may be
+roused in many actual--and not actual--officials in Berlin at this
+exposition of the unvarnished truth.
+
+The primary cause of their "misunderstanding," and the best excuse
+that can be offered for it, in Virchow and Du Bois-Reymond alike, lies
+in their unacquaintance with the advance of modern morphology. As has
+been repeatedly stated, no natural science is so directly to be
+referred to the doctrine of evolution--and more particularly to the
+theory of descent--as morphology. It is because we morphologists can
+neither explain nor comprehend all the manifold and infinitely complex
+form-phenomena of the animal and plant worlds without this theory,
+because to us transmutation contains the only possible, rational
+explanation of organic types, that we all regard it as the
+indispensable basis of the scientific doctrine of form, and as
+demanding no further proofs of its certainty than those which now lie
+in abundance before us.
+
+Du Bois-Reymond, and still more Virchow, ignore these proofs, because
+they are to a great extent ignorant alike of the inquiries and
+results, of the methods and the aims of our modern morphology, and
+this ignorance may be accounted for partly by the one-sided direction
+which their biological studies have taken, partly by the fact that
+there are few universities where the study of morphology is so
+behindhand as at the University of Berlin. Fully twenty years have now
+elapsed since the great Johannes Müller died, the last naturalist who
+could command all the departments of biology. The three great
+provinces of science which had been reunited into a triune kingdom
+under his powerful sceptre, were then divided among three professors'
+chairs: Du Bois-Reymond took that of physiology, Virchow, theoretical
+pathology (pathological anatomy and physiology), and the third, and
+most important chair, that of morphology (human and comparative
+anatomy, including the history of evolution) fell to Boguslaus
+Reichert. This choice was, as is now universally admitted, an
+incomprehensible mistake. Instead of calling Carl Gegenbaur, or Max
+Schultze, or some one else of youthful capacity and vigour to the
+chair of morphology--a science which is the first foundation of
+zoology as well as of medicine--in Reichert they selected an elderly
+school anatomist cramped by strong old-fashioned notions, who had done
+some good and useful specialist work, but whose general views had
+developed all awry, and who for the unexampled obscurity of his
+conceptions and the confusion of his ideas, was outdone by none save
+only Adolf Bastian. For twenty years this man has represented animal
+morphology in the second university of Germany, and in these twenty
+years hardly any work worth mentioning has been done there in the
+whole of this vast department--neither by the master nor by his
+pupils. We have only to compare the many worthless anatomical
+productions of Berlin during these two decades (for instance, the
+recent confused work by Fritsch on the brain of fishes) with the rich
+mine of invaluable work produced during the preceding twenty years by
+Johannes Müller and his crowd of disciples.
+
+But, as if this were not enough, Reichert took advantage of his
+influential position to hinder as far as possible all scientific study
+of morphology. For example, he, with the co-operation of his
+colleagues, carried through that pretended "reform" of medical
+examination which puts the so-called _Tentamen physicum_ in the place
+of the _philosophicum_; philosophy was entirely eliminated. Zoology
+and botany, which for centuries have been very justly regarded as the
+indispensable foundation of all instruction in natural science for the
+young medical student, disappeared from the curriculum. Only, as if in
+scorn of these sciences, in each examination a small place was
+reserved for comparative anatomy--for that most difficult and
+philosophical part of animal morphology which cannot be at all
+understood without some previous knowledge of the other branches of
+zoology. And yet comparative anatomy and the history of development
+are the indispensable preliminary steps to a true scientific
+comprehension of human anatomy, that most essential foundation of all
+medical knowledge. Without the vivifying idea of development, mere
+anatomical knowledge is an empty and lifeless cramming of the memory.
+
+In the place of morphology, thus degraded from its office, a detailed
+study of physiology was introduced, but always in a one-sided
+direction. Now these two great branches of biology, which are equally
+important and have an equal claim on our attention, are so dependent
+the one on the other, that a real scientific understanding of organic
+life can never be obtained without due relative study of both. The
+masterly and incomparable teaching of Johannes Müller owed a great
+part of its captivating charm to his equitable regard for morphology
+and physiology, as well as to his comprehensive treatment, from the
+broadest point of view, of the enormous mass of details to be dealt
+with. I therefore have not the smallest doubt that the morphological
+training of medical students, as at present conducted at Berlin under
+the influence of Reichert and his colleagues, is as far behind that of
+Müller's day, twenty or thirty years ago, in all general comprehension
+of the typical organism, as it is in advance of it in specialist
+acquirements.
+
+In medical, as in all other scientific learning, the highest aim does
+not consist in seeking to accumulate a vast chaotic mass of isolated
+items of knowledge, but in a general comprehension of the science, its
+aims and problems. The teacher should, above everything, guide the
+pupil to this general knowledge, and then it will be easy to him, by
+the aid of proper methods, to acquire mastery in each individual and
+special branch. Thus in medicine, as in every other science, he is not
+the best qualified who, on Bastian's method, has loaded his memory
+with a confused mass of undigested facts, and has flung them all
+together into his brain without any order; but, on the contrary, he
+who has practically digested a considerable number of the most
+important facts, and has critically co-ordinated them to a harmonious
+whole. It is precisely under this aspect that transmutation is of such
+inestimable value to morphology; it enables us to rise from the bare
+empirical knowledge of numberless isolated facts to a philosophical
+conception of their efficient causes.
+
+The aversion and contempt which the theories of descent and selection
+have met with at Berlin, more than in any other place, is in great
+measure to be explained by the circumstance that, during the last two
+decades, morphological studies have been more neglected in that
+university than any others. In no other city of Germany has evolution
+in general, as well as Darwinism in particular, been so little valued,
+so utterly misunderstood, and treated with such sovereign disdain as
+in Berlin. Nay, Adolf Bastian, the most zealous of all the Berlin
+opponents of our doctrines, has insisted on these facts with peculiar
+satisfaction. Of all the conspicuous naturalists of Berlin only one
+accepted the doctrine of transmutation from the beginning with sincere
+warmth and full conviction, being, indeed, persuaded of its truth even
+before Darwin himself. This was the gifted botanist Alexander Braun,
+who is lately dead--a morphologist who was equally distinguished by
+the extent of his comprehensive knowledge of details, as by his
+philosophical mastery over them. His firm conviction of the truth of
+the theory of descent is all the more remarkable because he was at the
+same time a spotless character, a pious Christian in the best sense of
+the word, and an extremely conservative politician; a striking example
+that these convictions can dwell side by side with the principles of
+the recent doctrines of evolution in one and the same person. But in
+comparison with the powerful influence of the rest of the Berlin
+naturalists who, for the most part, are decided opponents of
+transmutation, and who have only lately--a few of them, to follow the
+fashion--become converts to it, a man like Alexander Braun could have
+no effect in procuring that it should be taught.
+
+However, this is not the first time that this very Berlin society of
+learned men has set itself with remarkable firmness against the most
+important advances of science. Virchow's former colleague, the
+deceased Stahl, with a similar purpose and with great success,
+preached this principle: "Science must turn back again." Just as at
+the present day the Berlin biologists have opposed the most obstinate
+and pertinacious resistance to the greatest scientific stride of this
+century, so did it happen in former times with regard to other
+doctrines of progress. We have only to recall Caspar Friedrich Wolff,
+the great inquirer, who in 1759 first detected the nature of the
+individual processes of development in the animal ovum, and founded
+on it his observations in his "Theoria Generationes," which marked
+an epoch in biological science. The Berlin savants, full of the
+prevailing prejudices, so contrived at that time that Wolff never once
+could obtain the permission which he craved, to lecture publicly, and
+in consequence found himself compelled to retire to St. Petersburg for
+the sake of peace. And yet in that instance there was no question
+of a "theory" properly so-called. For the fundamental theory of
+generation--the "theory of epigenesis"--as propounded by Wolff was
+nothing more than a simple, general exposition of embryological facts
+which he had been the first to recognise, and of whose truth every one
+might convince himself by direct observation. In spite of this, for
+another half century, the predominant error of the "Preformation-theory"
+continued to be universally accepted--the ludicrous and nonsensical
+doctrine, supported by the authority of Haller, that all the successive
+generations of animals exist preconceived and enclosed one within the
+other, and that no individual development ever takes place! _Nulla est
+epigenesis!_ (Compare my "Evolution of Man," vol. i. p. 31.)
+
+But it would appear that it is the fate of that most interesting of
+all sciences, the history of evolution, to find its most important
+steps and its greatest discoveries met by the firmest and most
+persistent opposition. For while Wolff's fundamental theory of
+epigenesis, which was promulgated in 1759, was not recognised until
+1812, Lamarck's theory of descent, founded in 1809, had to wait fully
+fifty years before Darwin, in 1859, showed it to be the greatest
+acquisition of modern science; and during that period, in spite of all
+the progress made in empirical science, how persistently this most
+comprehensive of all biological theories was combated. We need only
+recollect how, in 1830, the celebrated George Cuvier silenced its most
+eloquent supporter, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in the midst of the Paris
+Academy, and how almost at the same time its founder, the great
+Lamarck, ended his life in blindness, misery and want, while his
+opponent Cuvier was enjoying the highest honours and the greatest
+splendour. And yet we know now that the despised and contemned Lamarck
+and Geoffroy had already grasped truths of the highest significance,
+while Cuvier's much-admired and universally-accepted theory of
+creation is now on all hands neglected as an absurd and untenable
+delusion. But as neither Haller as against Wolff, nor Cuvier as
+against Lamarck, could permanently hinder the progress of free
+inquiry, neither will Virchow succeed in turning back the course of
+Darwin's admirable achievement; no, not even when he is supported by
+the discourses of his friend Bastian.
+
+While we cannot but earnestly lament Virchow's inimical attitude in
+this great struggle for truth, we must not overlook the effects of his
+well-founded authority in a yet wider sphere. For instance, the
+hostile attitude which the greater part of the Berlin press
+persistently maintains towards the doctrine of development
+(particularly the Liberal "National-Zeitung") is to be referred to the
+influence of his authority. But much as this reactionary vein, in this
+and in other intelligent circles at Berlin, must be regretted on the
+one hand, on the other we must observe that by this evil we have been
+preserved from a far greater one. This greater evil--the greatest, in
+fact, which German science could have to encounter--would be the
+monopoly of knowledge at Berlin; a Centralisation of Science. The
+injurious fruits of this system of centralisation in France, for
+instance, the continual deterioration of French science through the
+Parisian "Monopoly of Knowledge," and its steady decline during half a
+century from the sublimest heights--these are all well known. From
+such a centralisation of German science--which would be especially
+dangerous if it occurred in the capital, Berlin--we may hope to be
+preserved; in the first place by the manifold differences and the
+many-sided individuality of the German national spirit, the
+much-abused German provincialism (Particularismus). While these
+provincial modes of thought can never have any permanent political
+value, nor be productive of a desirable form of government, it is
+beyond a doubt that their outcome has been fruitful and happy for
+German science. For it owes its splendid pre-eminence over that of
+other countries precisely to the many centres of culture which were
+offered by those numerous petty capitals of the minor German States
+which strove to outdo each other in eager emulation. It is to be hoped
+that this happy decentralisation of science in our politically united
+fatherland may continue to subsist!
+
+And next to this centrifugal tendency of our German national mind
+nothing will so greatly contribute to it as a vigorous opposition to
+the free advance of science, such as is just now declaring itself in
+the metropolis. For by just so much as Berlin is dragged back by it in
+the mighty onward stream of free intellectual movement, by so much
+will it see itself outstripped by the other seats of culture in
+Germany, which follow the stream with enthusiasm, or at least without
+resistance. If Emil du Bois-Reymond raises the cry of "Ignorabimus,"
+and Rudolf Virchow his still more audacious one of "Restringamur," as
+the watchwords of science, then, from Jena, let the shout be raised
+and echoed from a hundred other universities--"Impavidi progrediamur!"
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+WORKS OF PROFESSOR ERNST HAECKEL.
+
+FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING. From the German of ERNST HAECKEL.
+With a Prefatory Note by T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. 1 vol., 12mo.
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MAN. A Popular Exposition of the Principal Points of
+Human Ontogeny and Phylogeny. From the German of ERNST HAECKEL,
+Professor in the University of Jena, author of "The History of
+Creation," etc. With numerous Illustrations. In two vols., 12mo.
+Cloth. Price, $5.00.
+
+_From the London Saturday Review._
+
+  "In this excellent translation of Professor Haeckel's
+  work, the English reader has access to the latest
+  doctrines of the Continental school of evolution, in its
+  application to the history of man. It is in Germany,
+  beyond any other European country, that the impulse given
+  by Darwin twenty years ago to the theory of evolution has
+  influenced the whole tenor of philosophical opinion. There
+  may be, and are, differences in the degree to which the
+  doctrine may be held capable of extension into the domain
+  of mind and morals; but there is no denying, in scientific
+  circles at least, that as regards the physical history of
+  organic nature much has been done toward making good a
+  continuous scheme of being."
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF CREATION; or, the Development of the Earth and its
+Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes. A Popular Exposition of
+the Doctrine of Evolution in general, and of that of Darwin, Goethe,
+and Lamarck in particular. From the German of ERNST HAECKEL, Professor
+in the University of Jena. The translation revised by Professor E. Ray
+Lankester, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Illustrated
+with Lithographic Plates. In 2 vols., 12mo. Cloth, $5.00.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+WORKS OF THOMAS H. HUXLEY, LL. D., F.R.S.
+
+
+MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.25.
+
+ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.
+
+MORE CRITICISMS ON DARWIN, AND ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM. 1 vol., 12mo.
+Limp cloth, 50 cents.
+
+A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Illustrated. 1 vol.,
+12mo. Cloth, $2.50.
+
+A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS. $2.50.
+
+LAY SERMONS, ADDRESSES, AND REVIEWS. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.75.
+
+CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.
+
+AMERICAN ADDRESSES; with a Lecture on the Study of Biology. 12mo.
+Cloth, $1.25.
+
+PHYSIOGRAPHY: an Introduction to the Study of Nature. With
+Illustrations and Colored Plates. 12mo. Cloth, $2.50.
+
+ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. By T. H. HUXLEY and W. J. YOUMANS.
+1 vol., 12mo. $1.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+RECENT EDUCATIONAL WORKS.
+
+=Principles and Practice of Teaching.=
+
+By JAMES JOHONNOT.
+
+1 volume, 12mo. Cloth. 396 pages. Price, $1.50.
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+     I. WHAT IS EDUCATION?
+
+    II. THE MENTAL POWERS: their Order of Development, and the
+        Methods most conducive to Normal Growth.
+
+   III. OBJECTIVE TEACHING: its Methods, Aims, and Principles.
+
+    IV. SUBJECTIVE TEACHING: its Aims and Place in the Course of
+        Instruction.
+
+     V. OBJECT-LESSONS: their Value and Limitations.
+
+    VI. RELATIVE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT STUDIES in a Course of
+        Instruction.
+
+   VII. PESTALOZZI, and his Contributions to Educational Science.
+
+  VIII. FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN.
+
+    IX. AGASSIZ; and SCIENCE IN ITS RELATION TO TEACHING.
+
+     X. CONTRASTED SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION.
+
+    XI. PHYSICAL CULTURE.
+
+   XII. ÆSTHETIC CULTURE.
+
+  XIII. MORAL CULTURE.
+
+   XIV. A COURSE OF STUDY.
+
+    XV. COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
+
+
+_Extract from Preface._
+
+  "Experience is beginning to show that teaching, like every
+  other department of human thought and activity, must
+  change with the changing conditions of society, or it will
+  fall in the rear of civilization, and become an obstacle
+  to improvement.... In this volume an endeavor has been
+  made to examine education from the standpoint of modern
+  thought, and to contribute something to the solution of
+  the problems that are forcing themselves upon the
+  attention of educators. To these ends, a concise statement
+  of the well-settled principles of psychology has been
+  made, and a connected view of the interdependence of the
+  sciences given, to serve as a guide to methods of
+  instruction, and to determine the subject-matter best
+  adapted to each stage of development. The systems of
+  several of the great educational reformers have been
+  analyzed, with a view to ascertain precisely what each has
+  contributed to the science of teaching, and how far their
+  ideas conform to psychological laws; and an endeavor has
+  been made to combine the principles derived from both
+  experience and philosophy into one coherent system."
+
+
+ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, containing Accidence
+and Word-Formation. By the Rev. RICHARD MORRIS, LL. D., President of
+the Philological Society, London. 18mo. Cloth, 254 pages. Price,
+$1.00.
+
+WORDS, and how to put them together. By HARLAN H. BALLARD, Principal
+of Lenox High-School, Lenox, Mass. 18mo. Cloth. Price, 40 cents.
+
+GENERAL HISTORY, from B. C. 800 to A. D. 1876. Outlined in Diagrams
+and Tables; with Index and Genealogies. For General Reference, and for
+Schools and Colleges. By SAMUEL WILLARD, A. M., M. D., Professor of
+History in Chicago High-School. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $2.00.
+
+HARKNESS'S PREPARATORY COURSE IN LATIN PROSE AUTHORS, comprising four
+books of Cæsar's Gallic War, Sallust's Catiline, and eight Orations of
+Cicero. With Notes, Illustrations, a Map of Gaul, and a Special
+Dictionary. 12mo. Cloth. Price, $1.75.
+
+HARKNESS'S SALLUST'S CATILINE, with Notes and a Special Vocabulary.
+12mo. Cloth. Price, $1.15.
+
+THE LATIN SPEAKER. Easy Dialogues, and other Selections for Memorizing
+and Declaiming in the Latin Language. By FRANK SEWALL, A. M. 12mo.
+Cloth. Price, $1.00.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+New Volume of "The International Scientific Series."
+
+EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE.
+
+BY
+
+ALEXANDER BAIN, LL. D.,
+
+PROFESSOR OF LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.
+
+1 _vol._, 12_mo. Cloth, price_, $1.75.
+
+"In the present work I have surveyed the Teaching Art, as far as
+possible, from a scientific point of view; which means, among other
+things, that the maxims of ordinary experience are tested and amended by
+bringing them under the best ascertained laws of the mind."--_From
+Preface._
+
+"Dr. Bain's _renovated curriculum_ is certainly extensive enough, even
+if it omits Greek and Latin. According to this, higher education should
+embrace--first, science; second, the humanities, including history and
+the social science, and some portions of the universal literature; and,
+third, English composition and literature."--_New York Evening Express._
+
+"The work should become a text-book for teachers, not to be followed
+servilely or thoughtlessly, but used for its suggestiveness."--_Boston
+Gazette._
+
+"Professor Bain is not a novice in this field. His work is admirable in
+many respects for teacher, parent, and pupil."--_Philadelphia North
+American._
+
+"A work of great value to all teachers who study it
+intelligently."--Boston Advertiser.__
+
+"At once speculative and practical, entering largely into the philosophy
+of teaching, and manfully handling facts."--_Philadelphia Press._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PRIMERS
+
+IN SCIENCE, HISTORY and LITERATURE.
+
+_18mo. Flexible cloth, 45 cents each._
+
+
+I.--Edited by Professors HUXLEY, ROSCOE, and BALFOUR STEWART.
+
+_SCIENCE PRIMERS._
+
+  Chemistry                    H. E. ROSCOE.
+  Physics                      BALFOUR STEWART.
+  Physical Geography           A. GEIKIE.
+  Geology                      A. GEIKIE.
+  Physiology                   M. FOSTER.
+  Astronomy                    J. N. LOCKYER.
+  Botany                       J. D. HOOKER.
+  Logic                        W. S. JEVONS.
+  Inventional Geometry         W. G. SPENCER.
+  Pianoforte                   FRANKLIN TAYLOR.
+  Political Economy            W. S. JEVONS.
+
+
+II.--Edited by J. R. GREEN, M.A., _Examiner in the School of Modern
+History at Oxford_.
+
+_HISTORY PRIMERS._
+
+  Greece                       C. A. FYFFE.
+  Rome                         M. CREIGHTON.
+  Europe                       E. A. FREEMAN.
+  Old Greek Life               J. P. MAHAFFY.
+  Roman Antiquities            A. S. WILKINS.
+  Geography                    GEORGE GROVE.
+
+
+III.--Edited by J. R. GREEN, M.A.
+
+_LITERATURE PRIMERS._
+
+  English Grammar              R. MORRIS.
+  English Literature           STOPFORD BROOKE.
+  Philology                    J. PEILE.
+  Classical Geography          M. F. TOZER
+  Shakespeare                  E. DOWDEN.
+  Studies in Bryant            J. ALDEN.
+  Greek Literature             R. C. JEBB.
+  English Grammar Exercises    R. MORRIS.
+  Homer                        W. E. GLADSTONE.
+
+
+_(Others in preparation.)_
+
+The object of these primers is to convey information in such a manner
+as to make it both intelligible and interesting to very young pupils,
+and so to discipline their minds as to incline them to more systematic
+after-studies. They are not only an aid to the pupil, but to the
+teacher, lightening the task of each by an agreeable, easy, and
+natural method of instruction. In the Science Series some simple
+experiments have been devised, leading up to the chief truths of each
+science. By this means the pupil's interest is excited, and the memory
+is impressed so as to retain without difficulty the facts brought
+under observation. The woodcuts which illustrate these primers serve
+the same purpose, embellishing and explaining the text at the same
+time.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+APPLETONS' SCHOOL READERS,
+
+CONSISTING OF FIVE BOOKS.
+
+BY
+
+    W. T. HARRIS, LL. D.,
+    _Superintendent of Schools,
+    St. Louis, Mo._
+
+    A. J. RICKOFF, A. M.,
+    _Superintendent of Instruction,
+    Cleveland, O._
+
+    MARK BAILEY, A. M.,
+    _Instructor in Elocution,
+    Yale College._
+
+
+                               RETAIL PRICES.
+
+    APPLETONS' FIRST READER        $0.25
+    APPLETONS' SECOND READER         .40
+    APPLETONS' THIRD READER          .52
+    APPLETONS' FOURTH READER         .70
+    APPLETONS' FIFTH READER         1.25
+
+
+CHIEF MERITS.
+
+These Readers, while avoiding extremes and one-sided tendencies,
+combine into one harmonious whole the several results desirable to be
+attained in a series of school reading-books. These include good
+pictorial illustrations, a combination of the word and phonic methods,
+careful grading, drill on the peculiar combinations of letters that
+represent vowel-sounds, correct spelling, exercises well arranged for
+the pupil's preparation by himself (so that he shall learn the great
+lessons of self-help, self-dependence, the habit of application),
+exercises that develop a practical command of correct forms of
+expression, good literary taste, close critical power of thought, and
+ability to interpret the entire meaning of the language of others.
+
+
+THE AUTHORS.
+
+The high rank which the authors have attained in the educational field
+and their long and successful experience in practical school-work
+especially fit them for the preparation of text-books that will embody
+all the best elements of modern educative ideas. In the schools of St.
+Louis and Cleveland, over which two of them have long presided, the
+subject of reading has received more than usual attention, and with
+results that have established for them a wide reputation for superior
+elocutionary discipline and accomplishments. Feeling the need of a
+series of reading-books harmonizing in all respects with the modes of
+instruction growing out of their long tentative work, they have
+carefully prepared these volumes in the belief that the special
+features enumerated will commend them to practical teachers
+everywhere.
+
+Of Professor Bailey, Instructor of Elocution in Yale College, it is
+needless to speak, for he is known throughout the Union as being
+without a peer in his profession. _His methods make natural, not
+mechanical readers._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+Natural Science and the Progress of Discovery,
+
+_FROM THE TIME OF THE GREEKS TO THE PRESENT DAY._
+
+FOR SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS.
+
+By ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY.
+
+With Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.
+
+
+"During many years the author acted as secretary to Sir Charles
+Lyell, and was brought in contact with many of the leading scientific
+men of the day, and felt very forcibly how many important facts and
+generalizations of science, which are of great value both in the
+formation of character and in giving a true estimate of life and
+its conditions, are totally unknown to the majority of otherwise
+well-educated persons. This work has been written for this purpose,
+and it is not too much to say that it will effect its
+purpose."--_European Mail_.
+
+"The volume is attractive as a book of anecdotes of men of science and
+their discoveries. Its remarkable features are the sound judgment with
+which the true landmarks of scientific history are selected, the
+conciseness of the information conveyed, and the interest with which
+the whole subject is nevertheless invested. Its style is strictly
+adapted to its avowed purpose of furnishing a text-book for the use of
+schools and young persons."--_London Daily News_.
+
+"Before we had read half-a-dozen pages of this book we laid it down
+with an expression of admiration of the wonderful powers of the
+writer. And our opinion has increased in intensity as we have gone on,
+till we have come to the conclusion that it is a book worthy of being
+ranked with Whewell's 'History of the Inductive Sciences'; it is one
+which should be first placed in the hands of every one who proposes to
+become a student of natural science, and it would be well if it were
+adopted as a standard volume in all our schools."--_Popular Science
+Review_.
+
+"A most admirable little volume. It is a classified résumé of the
+chief discoveries in physical science. To the young student it is a
+book to open up new worlds with every chapter."--_Graphic_.
+
+"We have nothing but praise for this interesting book. Miss Buckley
+has the rare faculty of being able to write for young
+people."--_London Spectator_.
+
+"The book will be a valuable aid in the study of the elements of
+natural science."--_Journal of Education_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
+
+BY ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY,
+
+Author of "A Short History of Natural Science," etc.
+
+WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+12mo Cloth, price, $1.50.
+
+
+"A child's reading-book admirably adapted to the purpose intended. The
+young reader is referred to nature itself rather than to books, and is
+taught to observe and investigate, and not to rest satisfied with a
+collection of dull definitions learned by rote and worthless to the
+possessor. The present work will be found a valuable and interesting
+addition to the somewhat overcrowded child's library."--_Boston
+Gazette._
+
+"Written in a style so simple and lucid as to be within the
+comprehension of an intelligent child, and yet it will be found
+entertaining to maturer minds."--_Baltimore Gazette._
+
+"It deserves to take a permanent place in the literature of
+youth."--_London Times._
+
+"The ease of her style, the charm of her illustrations, and the
+clearness with which she explains what is abstruse, are no doubt the
+result of much labor; but there is nothing labored in her pages, and
+the reader must be dull indeed who takes up this volume without
+finding much to attract attention and to stimulate inquiry."--_Pall
+Mall Gazette._
+
+"So interesting that having once opened it we do not know how to leave
+off reading."--_Saturday Review._
+
+"We are compelled to admit that there is indeed a fairy-land of
+science. This is the fairy-land upon which Miss Arabella Buckley
+lectured last year, and upon which she has now produced a child's
+reading-book, which is most charmingly illustrated, and which is in
+every way rendered especially interesting to the juvenile
+reader."--_London Athenæum._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE SERIES.
+
+In neat 12mo volumes, bound in cloth, fully illustrated. Price per
+volume, $1.00.
+
+This series of scientific books for boys, girls, and students of every
+age, was designed by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer, Ph. D., at the Stevens
+Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. Every book is addressed
+directly to the young student, and he is taught to construct his own
+apparatus out of the cheapest and most common materials to be found.
+Should the reader make all the apparatus described in the first book
+of this series, he will spend only $12.40.
+
+
+NOW READY:
+
+I.--LIGHT.
+
+A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Light, for Students of every Age.
+
+_By ALFRED M. MAYER and CHARLES BARNARD._
+
+
+II.--SOUND:
+
+A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Sound, for the Use of Students of every Age.
+
+_By ALFRED MARSHALL MAYER_,
+
+Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology; Member of
+the National Academy of Sciences; of the American Philosophical
+Society, Philadelphia; of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
+Boston; of the New York Academy of Sciences; of the German
+Astronomical Society; of the American Otological Society; and Honorary
+Member of the New York Ophthalmological Society.
+
+
+IN ACTIVE PREPARATION:
+
+III. Vision and the Nature of Light.
+
+IV. Electricity and Magnetism.
+
+V. Heat.
+
+VI. Mechanics.
+
+VII. Chemistry.
+
+VIII. The Art of experimenting with Cheap and Simple Instruments.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LIGHT:
+
+_A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Light, for the Use of Students of Every Age._
+
+BY ALFRED M. MAYER and CHARLES BARNARD.
+
+NEAT 12MO VOLUME, FULLY ILLUSTRATED. CLOTH, PRICE, $1.00.
+
+"Professor Mayer has invented a series of experiments in Light which
+are described by Mr. Barnard. Nothing is more necessary for
+sound-teaching than experiments made by the pupil, and this book, by
+considering the difficulty of costly apparatus, has rendered an
+important service to teacher and student alike. It deals with the
+sources of light, reflection, refraction, and decomposition of light.
+The experiments are extremely simple and well suited to young
+people."--_Westminster Review._
+
+"This work describes, in simple language, a number of experiments
+illustrating the principal properties of light, by means of a beam of
+sunlight admitted into a dark room, and various contrivances. The
+experiments are highly ingenious, and the young student can not fail
+to learn a great deal from the book. As an example of the effective
+experimental method employed, we may specially mention the device for
+illustrating the refraction of light. This book is specially designed
+'to give to every teacher and scholar the knowledge of the art of
+experimenting.'"--_The Quarterly Journal of Science_ (London).
+
+"A singularly excellent little hand-book for the use of teachers,
+parents, and children. The book is admirable both in design and
+execution. The experiments for which it provides are so simple that an
+intelligent boy or girl can easily make them, and so beautiful and
+interesting that even the youngest children must enjoy the exhibition.
+The experiments here described are abundantly worth all that they cost
+in money and time in any family where there are boys and girls to be
+entertained."--_New York Evening Post._
+
+"The experiments are capitally selected, and equally as well
+described. The book is conspicuously free from the multiplicity of
+confusing directions with which works of the kind too often abound.
+There is an abundance of excellent illustrations."--_New York
+Scientific American._
+
+"The experiments are for the most part new, and have the merit of
+combining precision in the methods with extreme simplicity and
+elegance of design. The value of the book is further enhanced by the
+numerous carefully-drawn cuts, which add greatly to its
+beauty."--_American Journal of Science and Arts._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SOUND:
+
+_A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Sound, for the Use of Students of Every Age._
+
+By ALFRED MARSHALL MAYER,
+
+Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology; Member of
+the National Academy of Sciences, etc.
+
+Uniform with "LIGHT," first volume of the Series.
+
+Neat 12mo volume, fully illustrated. Cloth, price, $1.00.
+
+"It would be difficult to find a better example of a series which is
+excellent throughout. This little work is accurate in detail, popular
+in style, and lucid in arrangement. Every statement is accompanied
+with ample illustrations. We can heartily recommend it, either as an
+introduction to the subject or as a satisfactory manual for those who
+have no time for perusing a larger work. It contains an excellent
+description, with diagrams, of Faber's Talking Machine and of Edison's
+Talking Phonograph, which can not fail to be interesting to any reader
+who takes an interest in the marvelous progress of natural
+science."--_British Quarterly._
+
+"The style of the book is very clear, and the experiments interesting.
+It can not fail to have an important educational influence."--_Westminster
+Review._
+
+"It would really be difficult to exaggerate the merit, in the sense of
+consummate adaptation to its modest end, of this little treatise on
+'Sound.' It teaches the youthful student how to make experiments for
+himself, without the help of a trained operator, and at very little
+expense. These hand-books of Professor Mayer should be in the hands of
+every teacher of the young."--_New York Sun._
+
+"An admirably clear and interesting collection of experiments,
+described with just the right amount of abstract information and no
+more, and placed in progressive order. The recent inventions of the
+phonograph and microphone lend an extraordinary interest to this whole
+field of experiment, which makes Professor Mayer's manual especially
+opportune."--_Boston Courier._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+The Works of Professor E. L. YOUMANS, M. D.
+
+_Class-book of Chemistry._
+
+New edition. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.
+
+
+_The Hand-book of Household Science._
+
+A Popular Account of Heat, Light, Air, Aliment, and Cleansing, in
+their Scientific Principles and Domestic Applications. 12mo.
+Illustrated. Cloth, $1.75.
+
+
+_The Culture demanded by Modern Life._
+
+A Series of Addresses and Arguments on the Claims of Scientific
+Education. Edited, with an Introduction on Mental Discipline in
+Education. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.
+
+
+_Correlation and Conservation of Forces._
+
+A Series of Expositions by Professor Grove, Professor Helmholtz, Dr.
+Mayer, Dr. Faraday, Professor Liebig, and Dr. Carpenter. Edited, with
+an Introduction and Brief Biographical Notices of the Chief Promoters
+of the New Views, by EDWARD L. YOUMANS, M. D. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth,
+$2.00.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_The Popular Science Monthly._
+
+Conducted by E. L. and W. J. YOUMANS.
+
+Containing instructive and interesting articles and abstracts of
+articles, original, selected, and illustrated, from the pens of the
+leading scientific men of different countries;
+
+Accounts of important scientific discoveries;
+
+The application of science to the practical arts;
+
+The latest views put forth concerning natural phenomena, by savants of
+the highest authority.
+
+TERMS: Five dollars per annum; or fifty cents per number. A Club of
+five will be sent to any address for $20.00 per annum.
+
+The volumes begin May and November of each year. Subscriptions may
+begin at any time.
+
+THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY and APPLETONS' JOURNAL, together, for
+$7.00 per annum, postage prepaid.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_A New and Valuable Work for the Practical Mechanic and Engineer._
+
+APPLETONS' CYCLOPÆDIA OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
+
+A DICTIONARY OF
+
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND THE MECHANICAL ARTS.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY 5,000 ENGRAVINGS.
+
+Edited by PARK BENJAMIN, Ph. D.
+
+
+CONTRIBUTORS.
+
+  T. A. EDISON, PH. D.
+  RICHARD H. BULL, C. E.
+  SAMUEL WEBBER, C. E.
+  PROF. DE VOLSON WOOD.
+  CHARLES E. EMERY, C. E.
+  JOSHUA ROSE, M. E.
+  PIERRE DE P. RICKETTS, PH. D.
+  HON. ORESTES CLEVELAND.
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+  PROF. C. W. McCORD.
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+  F. A. MCDOWELL, C. E.
+  H. A. MOTT, JR., PH. D.
+  W. H. PAYNE, C. E.
+  GEORGE H. BENJAMIN, M. D.
+  THERON SKELL, C. E.
+  WILLIAM KENT, C. E.
+  W. E. KELLY, ESQ.
+  F. T. THURSTON, C. E.
+  JOHN HOLLINGSWORTH, ESQ.
+
+
+APPLETONS' CYCLOPÆDIA OF APPLIED MECHANICS of 1879 is a new work, and
+not a revision of the former Dictionary of Mechanics of 1850. It aims
+to present the best and latest American practice in the mechanical
+arts, and to compare the same with that of other nations. It also
+exhibits the extent to which American invention and discovery have
+contributed to the world's progress during the last quarter century.
+Its production is deemed timely in view of the existing popular
+interest in the labors of the mechanic and inventor which has been
+awakened by the great International Expositions of the last decade,
+and by the wonderful discoveries made by American inventors during the
+past three years.
+
+The CONTRIBUTORS whose names are given above number many of the most
+eminent American mechanical experts and engineers. Several of their
+contributions contain the results of original research and thought,
+never before published. Their efforts have in all cases tended to
+simplify the subjects treated, to avoid technicalities, and so to
+render all that is presented easily understood by the general reader
+as well as by the mechanical student. Examples are appended to all
+rules, explanations to all tables, and in such matters as the uses of
+tools and management of machines the instructions are unusually minute
+and accurate.
+
+In semi-monthly Parts, 50 cents each.
+
+Subscriptions received only for the entire work of Twenty-four Parts.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+D. APPLETON & CO., PUBLISHERS, 549 & 551 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Freedom in Science and Teaching., by 
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Freedom in Science and Teaching, by Ernst Haeckel
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Freedom in Science and Teaching., by 
+Ernst Haeckel and T. H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Freedom in Science and Teaching.
+       from the German of Ernst Haeckel
+
+Author: Ernst Haeckel
+        T. H. Huxley
+
+Release Date: June 6, 2008 [EBook #25711]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING. ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Roberta Staehlin, Joseph Cooper
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING.</h1>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>FREEDOM</h2>
+<h2>IN</h2>
+<h2>SCIENCE AND TEACHING.</h2>
+
+<h4>FROM THE GERMAN OF</h4>
+<h3>ERNST HAECKEL.</h3>
+
+<p class='center'><i>WITH A PREFATORY NOTE</i></p>
+<h3>By T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S.</h3>
+<p class='center'><br /><br /><br /><span class="smcap">Der Teleolog</span></p>
+<p class='center'>"Welche Verehrung verdient der Weltensch&ouml;pfer der gn&auml;dig.<br />
+Als er den Korkbaum schuf, gleich auch die St&ouml;pfel erfand."<br />
+<span style="padding-left: 24em;" class="smcap">Xenien.</span><br /><br /><br /></p>
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK:<br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,<br />
+549 AND 551 BROADWAY.<br />
+1879.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="PREFATORY_NOTE" id="PREFATORY_NOTE"></a>PREFATORY NOTE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In complying with the wish of the publishers of Professor Haeckel's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span>
+reply to Professor Virchow, that I should furnish a prefatory note
+expressing my own opinion in respect of the subject-matter of the
+controversy, Gay's homely lines, prophetic of the fate of those "who
+in quarrels interpose," emerge from some brain-cupboard in which they
+have been hidden since my childish days. In fact, the hard-hitting
+with which both the attack and the defence abound, makes me think with
+a shudder upon the probable sufferings of the unhappy man whose
+intervention should lead two such gladiators to turn their weapons
+from one another upon him. In my youth, I once attempted to stop a
+street fight, and I have never forgotten the brief but impressive
+lesson on the value of the policy of non-intervention which I then
+received.</p>
+
+<p>But there is, happily, no need for me to place myself in a position
+which, besides being fraught with danger, would savour of presumption:
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>Careful study of both the attack and the reply leaves me without the
+inclination to become either a partisan or a peacemaker: not a
+partisan, for there is a great deal with which I fully agree said on
+both sides; not a peacemaker, because I think it is highly desirable
+that the important questions which underlie the discussion, apart from
+the more personal phases of the dispute, should be thoroughly
+discussed. And if it were possible to have controversy without
+bitterness in human affairs, I should be disposed, for the general
+good, to use to both of the eminent antagonists the famous phrase of a
+late President of the French Chamber&mdash;"<i>Tape dessus.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>No profound acquaintance with the history of science is needed to
+produce the conviction, that the advancement of natural knowledge has
+been effected by the successive or concurrent efforts of men, whose
+minds are characterised by tendencies so opposite that they are forced
+into conflict with one another. The one intellect is imaginative and
+synthetic; its chief aim is to arrive at a broad and coherent
+conception of the relations of phenomena; the other is positive,
+critical, analytic, and sets the highest value upon the exact
+determination and statement of the phenomena themselves.</p>
+
+<p>If the man of the critical school takes the pithy aphorism "Melius
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>autem est naturam secare quam abstrahere"<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> for his motto, the
+champion of free speculation may retort with another from the same
+hand, "Citius enim emergit veritas e falsitate quam e confusione;"<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+and each may adduce abundant historical proof that his method has
+contributed as much to the progress of knowledge as that of his rival.
+Every science has been largely indebted to bold, nay, even to wild
+hypotheses, for the power of ordering and grasping the endless details
+of natural fact which they confer; for the moral stimulus which arises
+out of the desire to confirm or to confute them; and last, but not
+least, for the suggestion of paths of fruitful inquiry, which, without
+them, would never have been followed. From the days of Columbus and
+Kepler to those of Oken, Lamarck, and Boucher de Perthes, Saul, who,
+seeking his father's asses, found a kingdom, is the prototype of many
+a renowned discoverer who has lighted upon verities while following
+illusions, which, had they deluded lesser men, might possibly have
+been considered more or less asinine.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there is no branch of science which does not owe at
+least an equal obligation to those cool heads, which are not to be
+seduced into the acceptance of symmetrical formul&aelig; and bold
+generalisations for solid truths because of their brilliancy <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>and
+grandeur; to the men who cannot overlook those small exceptions and
+insignificant residual phenomena which, when tracked to their causes,
+are so often the death of brilliant hypotheses; to the men, finally,
+who, by demonstrating the limits to human knowledge which are set by
+the very conditions of thought, have warned mankind against fruitless
+efforts to overstep those limits.</p>
+
+<p>Neither of the eminent men of science, whose opinions are at present
+under consideration, can be said to be a one-sided representative
+either of the synthetic or of the analytic school. Haeckel, no less
+than Virchow, is distinguished by the number, variety, and laborious
+accuracy of his contributions to positive knowledge; while Virchow, no
+less than Haeckel, has dealt in wide generalisations, and, until the
+obscurantists thought they could turn his recent utterances to
+account, no one was better abused by them as a typical free-thinker
+and materialist. But, as happened to the two women grinding at the
+same mill, one has been taken and the other left. Since the
+publication of his famous oration, Virchow has been received into the
+bosom of orthodoxy and respectability, while Haeckel remains an
+outcast!</p>
+
+<p>To those who pay attention to the actual facts of the case, this is a
+very surprising event; and I confess that nothing has ever perplexed
+me more than the reception<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span> which Professor Virchow's oration has met
+with, in his own and in this country; for it owes that reception, not
+to the undoubted literary and scientific merits which it possesses,
+but to an imputed righteousness for which, so far as I can discern, it
+offers no foundation. It is supposed to be a recantation; I can find
+no word in it which, if strictly construed, is inconsistent with the
+most extreme of those opinions which are commonly attributed to its
+author. It is supposed to be a deadly blow to the doctrine of
+evolution; but, though I certainly hold by that doctrine with some
+tenacity, I am able, <i>ex animo</i>, to subscribe to every important
+general proposition which its author lays down.</p>
+
+<p>In commencing his address, Virchow adverts to the complete freedom of
+investigation and publication in regard to scientific questions which
+obtains in Germany; he points out the obligation which lies upon men
+of science, even if for no better reason than the maintenance of this
+state of things, to exhibit a due sense of the responsibility which
+attaches to their speaking and writing, and he dwells on the necessity
+of drawing a clear line of demarcation between those propositions
+which they have a fair right to regard as established truths, and
+those which they know to be only more or less well-founded
+speculations. Is any one prepared to deny that this is the first great
+commandment of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> ethics of teaching? Would any responsible
+scientific teacher like to admit that he had not done his best to
+separate facts from hypotheses in the minds of his hearers; and that
+he had not made it his chief business to enable those whom he
+instructs to judge the latter by their knowledge of the former?</p>
+
+<p>More particularly does this obligation weigh upon those who address
+the general public. It is indubitable, as Professor Virchow observes,
+that "he who speaks to, or writes for, the public is doubly bound to
+test the objective truth of that which he says." There is a sect of
+scientific pharisees who thank God that they are not as those
+publicans who address the public. If this sect includes anybody who
+has attempted the business without failing in it, I suspect that he
+must have given up keeping a conscience. For assuredly if a man of
+science, addressing the public, bethinks him, as he ought to do, that
+the obligation to be accurate&mdash;to say no more than he has warranty
+for, without clearly marking off so much as is hypothetical&mdash;is far
+heavier than if he were dealing with experts, he will find his task a
+very admirable mental exercise. For my own part, I am inclined to
+doubt whether there is any method of self-discipline better calculated
+to clear up one's own ideas about a difficult subject, than that which
+arises out of the effort to put them forth, with fulness and
+precision, in language<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> which all the world can understand. Sheridan
+is said to have replied to some one who remarked on the easy flow of
+his style, "Easy reading, sir, is&mdash;hard writing;" and any one who is
+above the level of a scientific charlatan will know that easy speaking
+is "&mdash;&mdash;hard thinking."</p>
+
+<p>Again, when Professor Virchow enlarges on the extreme incompleteness
+of every man's knowledge beyond those provinces which he has made his
+own (and he might well have added within these also), and when he
+dilates on the inexpediency, in the interests of science, of putting
+forth as ascertained truths propositions which the progress of
+knowledge soon upsets&mdash;who will be disposed to gainsay him? Nor have
+I, for one, anything but cordial assent to give to his declaration,
+that the modern development of science is essentially due to the
+constant encroachment of experiment and observation on the domain of
+hypothetical dogma; and that the most difficult, as well as the most
+important, object of every honest worker is "<i>sich
+ent-subjectiviren</i>"&mdash;to get rid of his preconceived notions, and to
+keep his hypotheses well in hand, as the good servants and bad masters
+that they are.</p>
+
+<p>I do not think I have omitted any one of Professor Virchow's main
+theses in this brief enumeration. I do not find that they are disputed
+by Haeckel, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> I should be profoundly astonished if they were. What,
+then, is all the coil about, if we leave aside various irritating
+sarcasms, which need not concern peaceable Englishmen? Certainly about
+nothing that touches the present main issues of scientific thought.
+The "plastidule-soul" and the potentialities of carbon may be sound
+scientific conceptions, or they may be the reverse, but they are no
+necessary part of the doctrine of evolution, and I leave their defence
+to Professor Haeckel.</p>
+
+<p>On the question of equivocal generation, I have been compelled, more
+conspicuously and frequently than I could wish, during the last ten
+years, to enunciate exactly the same views as those put forward by
+Professor Virchow; so that, to my mind, at any rate, the denial that
+any such process has as yet been proved to take place in the existing
+state of nature, as little affects the general doctrine.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>With respect to another side issue, raised by Professor Virchow, he
+appears to me to be entirely in the wrong. He is careful to say that
+he has no <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>unwillingness to accept the descent of man from some lower
+form of vertebrate life; but, reminding us of the special attention
+which, of late years, he has given to anthropology, he affirms that
+such evidence as exists is not only insufficient to support that
+hypothesis, but is contrary to it. "Every positive progress which we
+have made in the region of prehistoric anthropology has removed us
+further from the demonstration of this relation."</p>
+
+<p>Well, I also have studied anthropological questions in my time; and I
+feel bound to remark, that this assertion of Professor Virchow's
+appears to me to be a typical example of the kind of incautious
+over-statement which he so justly reprehends.</p>
+
+<p>For, unless I greatly err, all the real knowledge which we possess of
+the fossil remains of man goes no farther back than the Quaternary
+epoch; and the most that can be asserted on Professor Virchow's side
+respecting these remains is, that none of them present us with more
+marked pithecoid characters than such as are to be found among the
+existing races of mankind.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> But, if this be so, then the only just
+conclusion to be drawn from the evidence as it stands is, that the men
+of the Quaternary epoch may have proceeded <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>from a lower type of
+humanity, though their remains hitherto discovered show no definite
+approach towards that type. The evidence is not inconsistent with the
+doctrine of evolution, though it does not help it. If Professor
+Virchow had paid as much attention to comparative anatomy and
+pal&aelig;ontology as he has to anthropology, he would, I doubt not, be
+aware that the equine quadrupeds of the Quaternary period do not
+differ from existing <i>Equid&aelig;</i> in any more important respect than these
+last differ from one another; and he would know that it is,
+nevertheless, a well-established fact that, in the course of the
+Tertiary period, the equine quadrupeds have undergone a series of
+changes exactly such as the doctrine of evolution requires. Hence
+sound analogical reasoning justifies the expectation that, when we
+obtain the remains of Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene <i>Anthropid&aelig;</i>, they
+will present us with the like series of gradations, notwithstanding
+the fact, if it be a fact, that the Quaternary men, like the
+Quaternary horses, differ in no essential respect from those which now
+live.</p>
+
+<p>I believe that the state of our knowledge on this question is still
+justly summed up in words written some seventeen years ago:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"In conclusion, I may say, that the fossil remains of man hitherto
+discovered do not seem to me to take us appreciably nearer to that
+lower pithecoid form by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span> the modification of which he has probably
+become what he is. And considering what is now known of the most
+ancient races of men; seeing that they fashioned flint axes, and flint
+knives, and bone skewers of much the same pattern as those fabricated
+by the lowest savages at the present day, and that we have every
+reason to believe the habits and modes of living of such people to
+have remained the same from the time of the mammoth and the tichorhine
+rhinoceros till now, I do not know that the result is other than might
+be expected."<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>I have seen no reason to change the opinion here expressed, and so far
+from the fact being in the slightest degree opposed to a belief in the
+evolution of man, all that has been learned of late years respecting
+the relation of the Recent and Quaternary to the Tertiary mammalia
+appears to me to be in striking harmony with what we know respecting
+Quaternary man, supposing man to have followed the general law of
+evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The only other collateral question of importance raised by Professor
+Virchow is, whether the doctrine of evolution should be generally
+taught in schools or not. Now I cannot find that Professor Virchow
+anywhere distinctly repudiates the doctrine; all that he distinctly
+says is that it is not proven, and that things which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>are not proven
+should not be authoritatively instilled into the minds of young
+people.</p>
+
+<p>If Professor Virchow will agree to make this excellent rule absolute,
+and applicable to all subjects that are taught in schools, I should be
+disposed heartily to concur with him.</p>
+
+<p>But what will his orthodox allies say to this? If "not provenness" is
+susceptible of the comparative degree, by what factor must we multiply
+the imperfection of the evidence for evolution in order to express
+that of the evidence for special creation; or to what fraction must
+the value of the evidence in favour of the uninterrupted succession of
+life be reduced in order to express that in support of the deluge?
+Nay, surely even Professor Virchow's "dearest foes," the "plastidule
+soul" and "Carbon &amp; Co.," have more to say for themselves, than the
+linguistic accomplishments of Balaam's ass and the obedience of the
+sun and moon to the commander of a horde of bloodthirsty Hebrews! But
+the high principles of which Professor Virchow is so admirable an
+exponent do not admit of the application of two weights and two
+measures in education; and it is surely to be regretted that a man of
+science of great eminence should advocate the stern bridling of that
+teaching which, at any rate, never outrages common sense, nor refuses
+to submit to criticism, while he has no whisper of remonstrance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span> to
+offer to the authoritative propagation of the preposterous fables by
+which the minds of children are dazed and their sense of truth and
+falsehood perverted. Professor Virchow solemnly warns us against the
+danger of attempting to displace the Church by the religion of
+evolution. What this last confession of faith may be I do not know,
+but it must be bad indeed if it inculcates more falsities than are at
+present foisted upon the young in the name of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>I make these remarks simply in the interests of fair play. Far be it
+from me to suggest that it is desirable that the inculcation of the
+doctrine of evolution should be made a prominent feature of general
+education. I agree with Professor Virchow so far, but for very
+different reasons. It is not that I think the evidence of that
+doctrine insufficient, but that I doubt whether it is the business of
+a teacher to plunge the young mind into difficult problems concerning
+the origin of the existing condition of things. I am disposed to think
+that the brief period of school-life would be better spent in
+obtaining an acquaintance with nature, as it is; in fact, in laying a
+firm foundation for the further knowledge Which is needed for the
+critical examination of the dogmas, whether scientific or
+anti-scientific, which are presented to the adult mind. At present,
+education proceeds in the reverse way; the teacher makes the most
+confident assertions on precisely those subjects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span> of which he knows
+least; while the habit of weighing evidence is discouraged, and the
+means of forming a sound judgment are carefully withheld from the
+pupil.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<p>Professor Virchow is known to me only as he is known to the world in
+general&mdash;by his high and well-earned scientific reputation. With
+Professor Haeckel, on the other hand, I have the good fortune to be on
+terms of personal friendship. But in making the preceding
+observations, I should be sorry to have it supposed that I am holding
+a brief for my friend, or that I am disposed to adopt all the opinions
+which he has expressed in his reply. Nevertheless, I do desire to
+express my hearty sympathy with his vigorous defence of the freedom of
+learning and teaching; and I think I shall have all fair-minded men
+with me when I also give vent to my reprobation of the introduction of
+the sinister arts of unscrupulous political warfare into scientific
+controversy, manifested in the attempt to connect the doctrines he
+advocates with those of a political party which is, at present, the
+object of hatred and persecution in his native land. The one blot, so
+far as I know, on the fair fame of Edmund Burke is his attempt to
+involve Price and Priestley in the furious hatred of the English
+masses against the authors and favourers of the revolution of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span> 1789.
+Burke, however, was too great a man to be absurd, even in his errors;
+and it is not upon record that he asked uninformed persons to consider
+what might be the effect of such an innovation as the discovery of
+oxygen on the minds of members of the Jacobin Club.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Virchow is a politician&mdash;maybe a German Burke, for anything
+that I know to the contrary; at any rate, he knows the political value
+of words; and, as a man of science, he is devoid of the excuses that
+might be made for Burke. Nevertheless, he gravely charges his hearers
+to "imagine what shape the theory of descent takes in the head of a
+Socialist."</p>
+
+<p>I have tried to comply with this request, but I have utterly failed to
+call up the dread image; I suppose because I do not sufficiently
+sympathise with Socialists. All the greater is my regret that
+Professor Virchow did not himself unfold the links of the hidden bonds
+which unite evolution with revolution, and bind together the community
+of descent with the community of goods.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Virchow is, I doubt not, an accomplished English scholar.
+Let me commend the "Rejected Addresses" to his attention. For since
+the brothers Smith sang&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Who makes the quartern loaf and Luddites rise,"&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Who fills the butchers' shops with large blue flies,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>there has been nothing in literature at all comparable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span> to the attempt
+to frighten sober people by the suggestion that evolutionary
+speculations generate revolutionary schemes in Socialist brains. But
+then the authors of the "Rejected Addresses" were joking, while
+Professor Virchow is in grim earnest; and that makes a great
+difference in the moral aspect of the two achievements.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Novum Organon, li.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Partis instaurationis secund&aelig; delineatio.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> I may remark parenthetically that Professor Virchow's
+statement of the attitude of Harvey towards equivocal generation is
+strangely misleading. For Harvey, as every student of his works knows,
+believed in equivocal generation; and, in the sense in which he uses
+the word ovum, "nempe substantiam quandam corpoream vitam habentem
+potentia," the truth of the axiom "omne vivum ex ovo," popularly
+ascribed to him, has in no wise been affected by the discoveries of
+later days in the manner asserted by Professor Virchow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> I do not admit that so much can be said; for the like of
+the Neanderthal skull has yet to be produced from among the crania of
+existing men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Man's Place in Nature, p. 159.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>When the address delivered by Rudolph Virchow on the 22d of September
+last year, at the fiftieth meeting of German Naturalists and
+Physicians at Munich, on "Freedom of Science in the Modern State,"
+appeared in print in the following October, I was called upon, on many
+sides, to prepare a reply. And such a reply on my part seemed, in
+fact, justified by the severe strictures which Virchow in his
+discourse had directed against one delivered by me only four days
+previously, before the same meeting, on "The Modern Doctrine of
+Evolution in its Relation to General Science." The general views which
+Virchow then unfolded proved such a fundamental opposition in our
+principles, and touched our dearest moral convictions so nearly, that
+any reconciliation of such antagonistic views was no longer to be
+thought of. Nevertheless I forbore publishing the ready reply for two
+reasons: one relating to the matter itself, the other a personal one.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the matter itself, I believed I might confidently leave
+it to futurity to decide in the contention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span> that has declared itself
+between us. For on one hand the doctrine of evolution which Virchow
+attacks has already so far become a sure basis of biological science
+and part of the most precious mental-stock of cultivated humanity,
+that neither the anathemas of the Church nor the contradiction of the
+greatest scientific authority&mdash;and such an one is Virchow&mdash;can prevail
+against it; and on the other hand most of the arguments which he
+specially adduces against the theory of descent have been so often
+discussed and so thoroughly refuted that any renewed discussion seems
+in fact superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>Personally, it was in the highest degree repugnant to me to come
+forward as the opponent of a man whom I learned, a quarter of a
+century ago, to acknowledge and to honour as the reformer of medical
+science; a man whose most ardent disciple and most enthusiastic
+follower I at that time was, with whom I subsequently stood in the
+closest relation as his assistant, and with whom I long after
+continued in the most friendly intercourse. The more keenly I lamented
+Virchow's position, for some years past, as the antagonist of our
+modern doctrine of evolution, and the more I felt myself challenged to
+a reply by his repeated attacks upon it, the less inclination I felt,
+nevertheless, to come forward publicly as the opponent of this
+distinguished and highly-honoured man.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And if I find myself, after all, forced to reply, it is in the
+persuasion that a longer silence will add to the erroneous conclusions
+which my hitherto resigned attitude has already given rise to; at the
+same time I believe that, precisely by reason of the peculiar interest
+with which I have throughout followed Virchow's scientific
+achievements, I am specially qualified to answer the question, a
+hundred times repeated by letter or by word of mouth&mdash;"How is it
+possible that a man who so long stood at the head of a party of
+progress in science as in politics, who in political life indeed, has
+outwardly maintained this position, has in science become an
+instrument of the most perilous reaction?"</p>
+
+<p>A verbal answer, which I incidentally gave in March of last year at
+the Concordia Banquet at Vienna, was reported in the daily papers in
+such a different sense, and was in part so misunderstood or so
+intentionally misrepresented, that I am forced at last, on that
+account, to publish a clear and unambiguous reply. The "Augsburger
+Allgemeine Zeitung," which eagerly seizes every opportunity of
+expressing its unconquerable aversion to the evolution theory, accused
+me, in one of its hostile articles, of a virulent and undignified
+attack on Virchow. In contradiction of this misrepresentation in the
+Augsburg paper&mdash;which was copied by other journals&mdash;I must expressly
+assert that not Virchow but I myself am the person attacked, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span>
+that, therefore, the matter in question is not an unjustifiable attack
+by me on a formerly revered friend, but a defence to which I am
+compelled by repeated and sharp attacks on his part.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason which urges me at last to break silence consists in the
+continual and ample advantage that all the clerical and reactionary
+organs have been taking of Virchow's address, during the last
+three-quarters of a year, in favour of mental retrogression. The
+shouts of triumph with which they at once hailed Virchow's "grand
+moral action," that is to say, his perversion from a Free-thinker to
+the side of mental darkness, was the first signal for that persistent
+utilisation of his authority of which the pernicious consequences can
+by no means be escaped. Friedrich von Hellwald, in his discussion on
+the speeches made at Munich, has already strikingly pointed out<a name="FNanchor_1_6" id="FNanchor_1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> the
+grave danger that exists when just such an one as Virchow, standing
+under the banner of political liberalism and wrapped in the mantle of
+severe science, decisively combats against the freedom of science and
+of its doctrines. This serious danger has never shown so threatening
+an aspect as at the present moment, when our political and religious
+life appears to be encountering such a reaction as has not occurred
+for a long time. The two insane attempts which, within a few <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</a></span>weeks,
+have been made by Social-democracy against the revered and reverend
+person of the German Emperor have raised a storm of righteous
+indignation of such violence that calm judgment is entirely
+overthrown, and that many even of the most liberal of liberal
+politicians not only impetuously urge us to the severest measures
+against the Utopian doctrines of social democracy but, far
+over-shooting the mark, demand that free-doctrine and free-thought,
+that freedom of the press and even freedom of conscience shall be
+thrown into the narrowest fetters. Can this reaction, lurking in the
+background, find any more welcome support than is afforded by the mere
+demand of such a man as Virchow for restriction of liberty in
+teaching? And if he makes our present doctrines of evolution in
+general and the theory of descent in particular responsible for the
+mad doctrines of social-democracy, it is but a natural and just
+consequence when the famous New-Prussian "Kreuz-Zeitung" throws all
+the blame of these treasonable attempts of the democrats H&ouml;del and
+Nobiling&mdash;as in fact it quite lately did&mdash;directly on the theory of
+descent, and especially on the hated doctrine of the "descent of man
+from apes." And the danger which threatens us shows a still graver
+aspect when we consider how great an influence Virchow has at the
+present day as an advanced liberal, and how he is regarded in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi</a></span>
+Prussian diet as the highest practical authority, and at the same time
+as the most liberal critic when educational questions are under
+consideration. Now it is well known that one of the most important
+problems lying before the Prussian parliament is the consideration of
+a new education-law, which will probably exercise its restricting
+influence for a long time to come, not in Prussia only, but throughout
+Germany; what can we expect of such an education-law if in the course
+of the deliberations, among the small number of those specialists who
+are generally listened to, Virchow raises his voice as a leading
+authority, and brings forward the principles that he proclaimed in his
+speech at Munich as the surest guarantees for the freedom of science
+in the modern polity? Article XX. of the Prussian Charter, and &sect; 152
+of the Code of the German Empire, say, "Science and its doctrines are
+free." And Virchow's first step, according to the principles he now
+declares, must be a motion to abrogate this paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>In the face of this imminent danger, I dare no longer hesitate about
+my answer. <i>Amicus Socrates, amicus Plato, magis amica Veritas.</i> An
+unreserved and public opposition can be no longer postponed. As a
+matter of fact, at the Munich meeting, neither did Virchow hear my
+speech nor I his. I read my paper, as it is printed, on the 18th
+September 1877, and left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[xxvii]</a></span> on the 19th. Virchow came to Munich only on
+the 20th, and delivered his speech on the 22d.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing in mind the gratitude which I owe to Virchow as my former
+master and friend at W&uuml;rzburg&mdash;a gratitude which I have at all times
+striven to prove by the further development of his mechanical
+theory&mdash;I shall confine myself, as far as possible, to an objective
+and special confutation of his assertions. Certainly the temptation on
+this occasion was a strong one to pay the debt in like kind. In my
+Munich lecture, among the few names to which I alluded, I particularly
+mentioned that of Virchow as the distinguished founder of
+cellular-pathology (p. 12).<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Virchow's return for this
+was to heap scorn and ridicule on the doctrine of evolution in his
+usual manner. The critic in the "National-Zeitung," Herr Isidor
+Kastan, says of this with particular satisfaction, "The ridicule with
+which Herr Virchow treated this side of Haeckel's visions was indeed
+caustic enough, but this is ever Virchow's way; only in this case, if
+in any, he was fully justified."</p>
+
+<p>I could less easily ignore Virchow's denunciation of me than his
+satire&mdash;a denunciation which gibbeted me as a confederate in the
+social-democratic cause, and which made the theory of descent
+answerable for the horrors of the Paris Commune. The opinion is now
+widely spread that by this intentional connection of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[xxviii]</a></span>the theory of
+descent with Social Democracy he has hit the hardest blow at that
+theory, and that he aimed at nothing less than the removal of all
+"Darwinists" from their academic chairs and professorships. This is
+the inevitable consequence of his demands; for if Virchow insists with
+the utmost determination that the theory of descent must not be taught
+(because he does not regard it as true), what is to become of the
+supporters of that theory who, like myself, regard it as
+incontrovertibly true, and teach it as a perfectly sound theory? And
+at least nine-tenths of all the teachers of zoology and botany in
+Europe are among its supporters from immutable conviction of its
+truth, as well as all morphologists without exception. Virchow cannot
+expect that these teachers should collectively renounce that which
+they believe to be immutable truth, and in its place set up the dogma
+of the Church as the basis of their teaching, in accordance with his
+wish! Nothing remains for them but to vacate their professors' chairs,
+and&mdash;according to Virchow and the "Germania"&mdash;the "Modern Polity"
+would be in duty bound to deprive them of their liberty of teaching if
+they did not voluntarily renounce it.</p>
+
+<p>If this be indeed Virchow's purpose, as it is generally supposed to
+be, with regard to me, at least, he may spare himself the trouble.
+Amongst us in Jena quite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">[xxix]</a></span> other ideas prevail as to the "Freedom of
+science in the modern Polity" than those which obtain in the capital,
+Berlin. And among us the Berlin students' rhyme has no meaning,</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Who knows the truth and freely speaks,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">On him the law its vengeance wreaks."<a name="FNanchor_1_8" id="FNanchor_1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>The Jena students, on the contrary, sing the rhyme in its original
+form&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Who knows the truth and speaks it not,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A feeble wretch is he, God wot."<a name="FNanchor_2_9" id="FNanchor_2_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The Rector Magnificentissimus of the University of Jena, the Grand
+Duke of Saxony, who has proved himself the protector of the arts and
+sciences, has besides far more liberal views as to the liberty of
+scientific investigation and teaching than the illustrious head of the
+party of progress at Berlin. The enlightened and liberal Prince at
+Weimar, under whose particular protection we in Jena find ourselves,
+has never conceived it necessary to limit in any way the unbounded
+freedom of my teaching and my writing; not even when in 1866 my
+"General Morphology," and 1868 my "History of Creation" first
+appeared, and when many people attempted to make the youthful
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">[xxx]</a></span>extravagances which were to be found in those works the ground of a
+serious accusation. And what farther mischief have these extravagances
+done, though I now sincerely lament them?</p>
+
+<p>Faithful to the glorious traditions of a past extending over three
+centuries, the little Thuringian university of Jena will find a way to
+preserve her perfect and unlimited freedom. She will ever bear in mind
+that she is the first Protestant university of Germany, protesting
+against every strait-waistcoat which hierarchical obstinacy would
+force upon human reason, against every dogma by which the arrogance of
+the learned may try to suppress all freedom of teaching. She will
+freely seek and freely teach in accordance with her highest
+convictions, untroubled by the fact that in the "great" university of
+Berlin nothing may be taught, as Virchow insists, but what is
+objectively ascertained, absolutely sure; that is to say, nothing that
+rises above individual, indubitable, and intelligible facts; not an
+idea, not a conception, not a theory, in fact not any real science;
+mathematics, at most, excepted. It is our conviction that Jena will
+continue to be an independent city of refuge for free science and free
+teaching as long as it remains under the faithful nurture and liberal
+protection of the princely house of Sax Weimar, that enlightened race
+which is linked with the history of German intellect through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">[xxxi]</a></span>
+matchless traditions of its glorious past. What the Wartburg was to
+Martin Luther, what Weimar has been to the foremost heroes of German
+literature, what Jena herself has been during three hundred years to a
+vast number of illustrious investigators, that will the tried and
+tested Jena of to-day undoubtedly continue to be to the modern
+doctrine of evolution, as to every other doctrine which asks free
+development; a strong-hold of free thought, free investigation, and
+free doctrine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="center" style="padding-left: 25em;">ERNST HAECKEL.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Jena</span>, <i>June 24th</i>, 1878.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_6" id="Footnote_1_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Kosmos, Vol. II. p. 172.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_7" id="Footnote_1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Of the German.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_8" id="Footnote_1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+"Wer die Wahrheit kennet und saget sie frei,<br />
+Der kommt in Berlin auf die Stadt-Vogtei."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_9" id="Footnote_2_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+"Wer die Wahrheit kennet und saget sie nicht<br />
+Der ist f&uuml;r wahr ein erb&auml;rmlicher Wicht."</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2 class='toc'><a name='Contents' id='Contents'></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<table summary='Contents'>
+<col style='width:10%;' />
+<col style='width:85%;' />
+<col style='width:5%;' />
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span style='font-size:small'>PAGE</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'></td>
+  <td class='tdb'>PREFATORY NOTE</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#PREFATORY_NOTE'><span style='font-size:small'>v</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'></td>
+  <td class='tdb'>PREFACE</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#PREFACE'><span style='font-size:small'>xxi</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class='tda'><span style='font-size:small'>CHAP.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>I.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>DEVELOPMENT AND CREATION</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_I'>1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>II.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>CERTAIN PROOFS OF THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_II'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>III.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>THE SKULL THEORY AND THE APE THEORY</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_III'>29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>IV.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>THE CELL-SOUL AND CELLULAR PSYCHOLOGY</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_IV'>46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>V.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>THE GENETIC AND DOGMATIC METHODS OF TEACHING</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_V'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>VI.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_VI'>88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class='tda'>VII.</td>
+  <td class='tdb'>IGNORABIMUS ET RESTRINGAMUR</td>
+  <td class='tdc'><a href='#CHAPTER_VII'>99</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="FREEDOM_IN_SCIENCE_AND_TEACHING" id="FREEDOM_IN_SCIENCE_AND_TEACHING"></a>FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>DEVELOPMENT AND CREATION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Nothing is more helpful for the understanding of scientific
+controversies, or for the clearing of confused conceptions, than a
+contrasted statement, as defined and clear as possible, of the
+simplest leading propositions of the contending doctrines. Hence it is
+highly favourable to the victory of our modern doctrine of evolution
+that its chief problem, the question as to the origin of species, is
+being more and more pressed by these opposite alternatives: Either all
+organisms are naturally evolved, and must in that case be all
+descended from the simplest common parent-forms&mdash;or: That is not the
+case, and the distinct species of organisms have originated
+independently of each other, and in that case can only have been
+created in a supernatural way, by a miracle. Natural evolution, or
+supernatural creation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> of species&mdash;we must choose one of these two
+possibilities, for a third there is not.</p>
+
+<p>But as Virchow, like many other opponents of the doctrine of
+evolution, constantly confounds this latter proposition with the
+doctrine of descent, and that again with Darwinism, it will not be
+superfluous to indicate here, in a few words, the limitation and
+subordination of these three great theories.</p>
+
+<p>I. The general doctrine of development, the progenesis-theory or
+evolution-hypothesis (in the widest sense), as a comprehensive
+philosophical view of the universe, assumes that a vast, uniform,
+uninterrupted and eternal process of development obtains throughout
+all nature; and that all natural phenomena without exception, from the
+motions of the heavenly bodies and the fall of a rolling stone to the
+growth of plants and the consciousness of men, obey one and the same
+great law of causation; that all may be ultimately referred to the
+mechanics of atoms&mdash;the mechanical or mechanistic, homogeneous or
+monistic view of the universe; in one word, Monism.</p>
+
+<p>II. The doctrine of derivation, or theory of descent, as a
+comprehensive theory of the natural origin of all organisms, assumes
+that all compound organisms are derived from simple ones, all
+many-celled animals and plants from single-celled ones, and these last
+from quite simple primary organisms&mdash;from monads. As<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> we see the
+organic species, the multiform varieties of animals and plants, vary
+under our eyes through adaptation, while the similarity of their
+internal structure is reasonably explicable only by inheritance from
+common parent-forms, we are forced to assume common parent-forms for
+at least the great main divisions of the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms, and for the classes, orders, and so forth. Thus the number
+of these will be very limited, and the primitive archigonian
+parent-forms can be nothing else than monads. Whether we finally
+assume a single common parent-form (the monophyletic hypothesis), or
+several (the polyphyletic hypothesis), is wholly immaterial to the
+essence of the theory of descent; and it is equally immaterial to its
+fundamental idea what mechanical causes are assumed for the
+transformation of the varieties. This assumption of a transformation
+or metamorphosis of species is, however, indispensable, and the theory
+of descent is very properly called also the "metamorphosis
+hypothesis," or "doctrine of transmutation;" as well as Lamarckism,
+after Jean Lamarck, who first founded it in 1809.</p>
+
+<p>III. The doctrine of elimination, or the selection theory, as the
+doctrine especially of "choice of breed or selection," assumes that
+almost all, or at any rate most, organic species have originated by a
+process of selection; the artificial varieties under conditions of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+domestication&mdash;as the races of domestic animals and cultivated
+plants&mdash;through artificial choice of breeds; and the natural varieties
+of animals and plants in their wild state by natural choice of breeds:
+in the first case, the will of man effects the selection to suit a
+purpose; in the second, it is effected in a purposeless way by the
+"struggle for existence." In both cases the transformation of the
+organic forms takes place through the reciprocal action of the laws of
+inheritance and of adaptation; in both cases it depends on the
+survival or selection of the better-qualified minority. This theory of
+elimination was first clearly recognised and appreciated in its full
+significance by Charles Darwin in 1859, and the selection-hypothesis
+which he founded on it is Darwinism properly so called.</p>
+
+<p>The relation that these three great theories, which are frequently
+confounded, bear to one another may, according to the present position
+of science, be simply defined as follows:&mdash;I. Monism, the universal
+theory of development, or the monistic progenesis-hypothesis, is the
+one only scientific theory which affords a rational interpretation of
+the whole universe and satisfies the craving of our human reason for
+causality, by bringing all natural phenomena into a mechanical
+causal-connection as parts of a great uniform process of evolution.
+II. The theory of transmutation, or descent, is an essential and
+indispensable element in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> the monistic development hypothesis, because
+it is the one only scientific theory which rationally explains the
+origin of organic species&mdash;that is to say, by transformation&mdash;and
+reduces it to mechanical principles. III. The theory of Selection or
+Darwinism is, up to the present time, the most important of the
+various theories which seek to explain the transformation of species
+by mechanical principles, but it is by no means the only one. If we
+assume that most species have originated through natural elimination,
+we also now know, on the other hand, that many forms distinguished as
+varieties are hybrids between two different varieties, and can be
+propagated as such; and it is equally well worthy of consideration
+that other causes are in activity in the formation of species of
+which, up to the present time, we have no conception. Thus it is left
+to the judgment of individual naturalists to decide what share is to
+be attributed to natural selection in the origin of species, and even
+at the present day authorities differ widely on the subject. Some give
+it a large share, and some a very small one in the result. Moritz
+Wagner, for instance, would substitute his own migration-hypothesis
+for Darwin's theory of selection; while I regard the action of
+migration, which acts as isolation or separation, as merely a special
+mode of selection. But these differing estimates of Darwinism are
+quite independent of the absolute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> import of the doctrine of descent
+or of transformation, for the latter is as yet the only theory which
+rationally explains the origin of species. If we discard it, nothing
+remains but the irrational assumption of a miracle, a supernatural
+creation.</p>
+
+<p>In this crucial and unavoidable dilemma, Virchow has declared himself
+publicly in favour of the latter, and against the former hypothesis.
+Every one who has attentively followed his occasional utterances on
+the theory of descent during the last decade with an unprejudiced eye
+and an unbiassed judgment, must be convinced that he fundamentally
+rejects it. Still, his dissent has always been so obscured, and his
+judgment on Darwinism in particular so wrapped in ambiguities, that an
+opportune conversion to the opposite side seemed not impossible; and
+many, even among those who stood near to Virchow&mdash;his friends and
+disciples&mdash;did not know to what point he was in fact an opponent of
+the evolution hypothesis in general. Virchow took the last step
+towards clearing up this matter at Munich; for after his Munich
+address there can be no farther doubt that he belongs to the most
+decided opponents of the whole theory of evolution, including those of
+inheritance and selection.</p>
+
+<p>If any one still has doubts on the matter, let him read the jubilant
+hymns of triumph with which Virchow's friend and collaborator, Adolf
+Bastian,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> greeted his Munich discourse. This "enfant terrible" of the
+school&mdash;this well-nicknamed "Acting privy counsellor of the board of
+confusion"<a name="FNanchor_1_10" id="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>&mdash;whose merits in involuntarily advancing the cause of
+metamorphism I have already done justice to in the preface to the
+third edition of my "Natural History of Creation"<a name="FNanchor_2_11" id="FNanchor_2_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>&mdash;expresses
+himself in the "Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie," which is edited by him
+and Virchow (tenth yearly part, X. 1878, p. 66) as follows:&mdash;"At the
+Munich meeting of naturalists, Virchow by a few weighty words cleared
+the atmosphere, which was heavy and stifling under the pressure of the
+incubus called Descent, and once more freed science from that
+nightmare which it has so long&mdash;in many opinions so much too
+long&mdash;allowed to weigh upon it; freed it, let us hope, once and for
+ever. The forecasts of this storm were discernible many years since,
+and its whole course has been a strictly normal one. When the germs
+planted by Darwin, and that promised so much, were forced into growth
+by a feverish, hot-house heat, and began to sprout into sterile weeds,
+their small vitality was plain to our eyes. So long as the waves run
+too high under the pressure of a psychical storm, it is almost useless
+to protest against it, for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>every ear is too much deafened by the
+noise all round to hear the voice of individuals. It is best to leave
+things to go their own way, deeper and deeper into the mire, till they
+come to a stand-still there of their own accord; for 'Quos deus vult
+perdere prius dementat.' Thus it is in this case. When the
+extravagances of the descent hypothesis, encouraged as they were by
+mutual incitement, had reached their highest pitch in the ravings that
+were uttered at Munich, the too pointed point broke in this
+superabundance of absurdity almost by its own pointedness, and so we
+were quit of it with one blow. Now, happily, all is over with the
+theory of descent, or ascent, but natural science will not on that
+account fare any the worse, for many of its adherents belong to her
+ablest youth, and as they now need no longer waste their best time on
+romantic schemes, they will have it to use at the orders and for the
+advancement of science, so as to enrich her through real and solid
+contributions."</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, Bastian quotes Virchow's maxim:&mdash;"The plan of
+organisation is immutable within the limits of the species; species is
+not produced from species." The fundamental teleological idea of that
+school, that each species has its constant and specific plan of
+structure, certainly cannot be more emphatically expressed. Thus it is
+undoubtedly certain that Virchow has become a Dualist, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> is as
+thoroughly penetrated by the truth of his principles as I, as a
+Monist, am of mine. This is undoubtedly the upshot of his Munich
+address, though he is throughout careful to avoid acknowledging his
+chief standpoint in all its nakedness. On the contrary, even now he
+still veils his antagonism under the phrase, which is also a favourite
+with the clerical papers, that the theory of descent is an "unproved
+hypothesis." Now it is clear that this theory never will be "proved"
+if the proofs that already lie before us are not sufficient. How often
+has it been repeated that the scientific certainty of the hypothesis
+of descent is not grounded in this or that isolated experiment, but in
+the collective sum of biological phenomena; in the causal nexus of
+evolution. Then what are the new proofs of the theory of descent which
+Virchow demands of us?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_10" id="Footnote_1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> "Wirkliche Geheime Ober-Confusionsrath."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_11" id="Footnote_2_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Translated under the supervision of E. Ray Lankester.
+London: C. Kegan Paul &amp; Co.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>CERTAIN PROOFS OF THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT.</h3>
+
+
+<p>All the common phenomena of Morphology and Physiology, of Chorology
+and &OElig;kology, of Ontology and Paleontology, can be explained by the
+theory of descent, and referred to simple mechanical causes. It is
+precisely in this, viz., that the primary simple causes of all these
+complex aggregates of phenomena are common to them all, and that other
+mechanical causes for them are unthinkable&mdash;it is in this that, to us,
+the guarantee of their certainty consists. For this reason all these
+vast and manifold aggregates of facts are so many evidences of the
+doctrine of descent. This fundamental relation of facts has been so
+often expounded that I need dwell no farther on it in this place;
+those who wish for any closer discussion of it are referred to my
+"General Morphology" (vol. ii. chap. xix.), or "The History of
+Creation,"<a name="FNanchor_1_12" id="FNanchor_1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> or "The Evolution of Man" (vol. i. p. 93).<a name="FNanchor_2_13" id="FNanchor_2_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>And where is yet farther proof of the truth of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+theory of descent
+to be found? Neither Virchow, nor any one of the clerical opponents
+and the dualistic philosophers who are perpetually reiterating this
+cry for more certain evidence, anywhere indicate where possibly such
+evidence is to be sought. Where in all the world can we discover
+"facts" which will speak more plainly or significantly for the truth
+of transmutation than the facts of comparative morphology and
+physiology; than the facts of the rudimentary organs and of embryonic
+development; than the facts revealed by fossils and the geographical
+distribution of organisms&mdash;in short, than the collective recognised
+facts of the most diverse provinces of biological science?</p>
+
+<p>But I am in error&mdash;the certain proof that Virchow demands in order to
+be perfectly satisfied with the evidence, is to be supplied by
+"experiment, the test as well as the highest means of evidence." This
+demand, that the doctrine of descent should be grounded on experiment,
+is so perverse and shows such ignorance of the very essence of our
+theory, that though we have never been surprised at hearing it
+continually repeated by ignorant laymen, from the lips of a Virchow it
+has positively astounded us. What can in this case be proved by
+experiment, and what can experiment prove?</p>
+
+<p>"The variability of species, the transformation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> species, the
+transition of a species into one or more new varieties," is the
+answer. Now, so far as these facts can be proved by experiment, they
+actually have long since been experimentally proved in the completest
+manner. For what are the numberless trials of artificial selection for
+breeding purposes which men have practised for thousand of years in
+breeding domestic animals and cultivated plants, but physiological
+experiments which prove the transformation of species? As an example
+we may refer to the different races of horses and pigeons. The swift
+race-horse and the heavy pack-horse, the graceful carriage-horse and
+the sturdy cart-horse, the huge dray-horse and the dwarfed pony&mdash;these
+and many other "races" are so different from each other, that if we
+had found them wild we should certainly have described them as quite
+different varieties of one species, or even representatives of
+different species. Undoubtedly, these so-called "races" and "sports"
+of the horse tribe differ from each other in a much greater degree
+than do the zebra, the quagga, the mountain horse, and the other wild
+varieties of the horse, which every zoologist distinguishes as "bon&aelig;
+species." And yet all these artificial varieties, which man has
+designedly produced by selection, are descended from a single common
+parent-form, from one wild "true variety." The same is the case with
+the numerous and highly differing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> varieties of pigeons. Domestic
+pigeons and carrier-pigeons, turbits and cropper-pigeons, fantail
+pigeons and owls, tumblers and pouters, trumpeters and laughing
+pigeons (or Indian doves), and the rest, are all, as Darwin has
+convincingly proved, descendants of a single wild variety, the
+rock-pigeon (<i>Columba livia</i>). And how wonderfully various they are,
+not only in general form, size, and colouring, but in the particular
+form of the skull, the beak, the feet, and so forth! They differ much
+more in every respect each from the others than the numerous wild
+varieties which, in systems of ornithology, are recognised as true
+varieties, and even as true species. It is the same with the different
+artificial varieties of apples, pears, pansies, dahlias, and so on; in
+short, of almost all the domestic varieties of animals and plants. We
+would lay particular stress on the fact that these artificial species
+which man has produced or created by artificial breeding and through
+experimental transformation out of one original species, differ far
+more one from another in physiological as well as in morphological
+conditions than the natural species in a wild state. With these it is
+self-evident that any proof by experiment of a common origin is wholly
+impossible. For, so soon as we subject any wild variety of animal or
+plant to such an experiment, we bring it under the conditions of
+artificial breeding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That the morphological conception of a Species is not a positive but
+only a relative conception, and that it has no other absolute or
+positive value than those other similar system-categories&mdash;sports,
+varieties, races, tribes, families, classes&mdash;is now acknowledged by
+every systematiser who forms an honest and unprejudiced judgment of
+the practical systematic distinction of species. From the very nature
+of the case there are no limits to arbitrary discretion in this
+department, and there are no two systematists who are at one in every
+instance; this one separating forms as true varieties which that one
+does not. (Compare on this point "History of Creation," vol. i., p.
+273.) The conception of variety or species has a different value in
+every small or large department of systematic Zoology and Botany.</p>
+
+<p>But the conception of species has just as little any fixed
+physiological value. In respect to this we must especially insist that
+the question of hybrid offspring, the last corner of refuge of all the
+defenders of the constancy of species, has at present lost all
+significance as bearing on the conception of species. For we know now,
+through numerous and reliable experiences and experiments, that two
+different true varieties can frequently unite and produce fertile
+hybrids (as the hare and rabbit, lion and tiger, many different kinds
+of the carp and trout tribes, of willows, brambles,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> and others); and
+in the second place, the fact is equally certain that descendants of
+one and the same species which, according to the dogma of the old
+schools, could always effect a fertile union under certain
+circumstances, either cannot effect such a union or produce only
+barren hybrids (the Porto-Santo rabbit, the different races of horses,
+dogs, roses, hyacinths, &amp;c.; see "History of Creation," vol. i., p.
+146).</p>
+
+<p>For a certain proof that the conception of species rests on a
+subjective abstraction and has a merely relative value&mdash;like the
+conception of genus, family, order, class, &amp;c.&mdash;no class of animals is
+of so much importance as that of the Sponges. In it the fluctuating
+forms vary with such unexampled indefiniteness and variability as to
+make all distinction of species quite illusory. Oscar Schmidt has
+already pointed this out in the siliceous sponges and keratose
+sponges; and I, in my monograph, in three volumes, on the Calcareous
+Sponges (the result of five years of most accurate investigations of
+this small animal group), have pointed out that we may at pleasure
+distinguish 3, or 21, or 111, or 289, or 591 different species. I also
+believe that I have thus convincingly demonstrated how all these
+different forms of the calcareous sponges may quite naturally, and
+without any forcing, be traced to a single common parent-form, the
+simple&mdash;and not hypothetical, but existing at this present day&mdash;the
+simple Olynthus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> Hence I think I have here produced the most positive
+analytical evidence of the transformation of species, and of the unity
+of the derivation of all the species of a given group of animals, that
+is generally possible.</p>
+
+<p>Properly, I might spare myself these disquisitions on the question of
+species, for Virchow does not go into this main question of the theory
+of descent&mdash;but this is very characteristic of his attitude. And just
+as he nowhere thoroughly discusses the doctrine of transformation,
+neither does he enter generally on the refutation of any of the other
+certain proofs of the doctrine of descent which we in fact possess at
+the present day. Neither the morphological nor the physiological
+arguments for the theory of descent, neither the rudimentary organs
+nor the embryonic forms, neither the paleontological nor the
+chronological argument are anywhere closely examined and tested as to
+their worth or their worthlessness as "certain proofs." On the
+contrary, Virchow takes them quite easily, sets them aside, and
+declares that "certain proofs" of the doctrine of descent do not
+exist, but remain to be discovered. To be sure, he does not indicate
+where they are to be sought, nor can he indicate it. How is this
+strange conduct to be explained? How is it possible that a
+distinguished naturalist should resist the most important step forward
+of modern natural science without in any way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> specially investigating
+it, without even practically testing and refuting the most weighty
+arguments in its favour? To this question there is but one answer.
+Virchow is not generally intimate with the modern doctrine of
+evolution, and does not possess that knowledge of natural science
+which is indispensable for any well-grounded judgment on it.</p>
+
+<p>After collecting and carefully reading all that Virchow, during many
+years, had written against evolution, I arrived at the conviction that
+he had not thoroughly read either Darwin's great work on the Origin of
+Species, nor any other work on the theory of descent, nor had he
+thought the matter out with such attention as so serious and intricate
+a subject absolutely demands. Virchow did with these works as it has
+been his well-known custom to do with many others&mdash;he hastily turned
+over the pages, caught at a few leading words, and without any farther
+trouble he has discoursed upon them, and, which is worst of all, has
+perpetuated these discourses through the press.</p>
+
+<p>To excuse this conduct, and to account for Virchow's enigmatical
+position in the battle of evolution, we must consider what changes
+this highly-gifted and meritorious man has gone through in the course
+of the last thirty years. The most important and fruitful part of his
+life and labours was indisputably during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> the eight years when he
+resided in W&uuml;rzburg, from 1848 to 1856. There Virchow, with all the
+keenness of his youthful intellect, with a sacred enthusiasm for
+scientific truth, with indefatigable powers of work and the rarest
+insight, worked out that glorious reform of scientific medicine which
+will shine through all time as a star of the first magnitude in the
+history of medical science. In W&uuml;rzburg, Virchow elaborated that
+comprehensive application of the cellular theory to pathology which
+culminates in the conception that the cell is an independent living
+elementary organism, and that our human organism, like that of all the
+higher animals, is merely a congeries of cells&mdash;a highly fertile
+conception, which Virchow now denies as resolutely as he then
+supported it. In W&uuml;rzburg, twenty-five years since, I sat devoutly at
+his feet, and received from him with enthusiasm that clear and simple
+doctrine of the mechanics of all vital activity&mdash;a truly monistic
+doctrine, which Virchow now undoubtedly opposes where formerly he
+defended it. In W&uuml;rzburg, finally, he wrote those incomparable
+critical and historical leading articles which are the ornament of the
+first ten yearly series of his "Archives" of pathological anatomy. All
+that Virchow effected as the great pioneer of reform in medicine, and
+by which he won imperishable honour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> in the scientific treatment of
+disease,&mdash;all this was either carried out or preconceived in W&uuml;rzburg;
+and even the celebrated "Cellular Pathology," a course of lectures
+which he delivered during the first year and a half after quitting
+W&uuml;rzburg for Berlin, consists only of the collected and matured fruits
+of which the blossoms are due to W&uuml;rzburg.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1856 Virchow left W&uuml;rzburg to settle in Berlin. The
+exchange of a narrow sphere of labours for a wider one, of small means
+and appliances for greater ones, proved unfavourable in this case, as
+in many similar cases. Since he has been in Berlin, in a "great
+Institution," and with luxurious appliances, all the scientific
+results which Virchow has as yet brought to light are not to be
+compared, either as to quality or quantity, to the grand and immortal
+achievements which he himself effected in the little institute of
+W&uuml;rzburg with the scantiest means&mdash;a new proof of the maxim enunciated
+by me, and hitherto never confuted, that "the scientific results of an
+institute are in inverse proportion to its size." (See "The Aim and
+Methods of Modern Evolution."<a name="FNanchor_1_14" id="FNanchor_1_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>)</p>
+
+<p>Still more grave is the circumstance that, since settling in Berlin,
+Virchow has more and more exchanged his theoretical scientific
+activity for practical <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>political life. It is well known how prominent
+a part he plays there in the Prussian Chamber of Representatives, how
+he raised himself to be the leader of the party of progress, and, to
+give this political position a broader basis, took part in the
+representation of the citizens of the capital; how he has taken a most
+active interest, as city commissioner, in all the petty anxieties and
+concerns which the charge of such a city as Berlin entails. I am far
+from blaming, as many have blamed, the political and civic activity to
+which Virchow has indefatigably devoted his best powers. If a man
+feels in himself the inclination and vocation with strength and talent
+enough, to play a conspicuous political part, by all means let him do
+so; but verily I do not envy him; for the satisfaction which is
+derived from the most successful and fruitful political activity is
+not, to my taste, to be compared with that pure and disinterested
+satisfaction of the mind which results from absorption in serious and
+difficult scientific labours. In the turmoil of the political and
+social struggle, even the most splendid civic crown will be dulled by
+the stifling dust of practical life, which never reaches the ethereal
+heights of pure science and never rests on the laurels of the
+thoughtful investigator. However, as I have said, that is a matter of
+taste. If Virchow really believes that he is doing a greater service
+to humanity by his practical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> political life in Berlin than he
+formerly did by his theoretical scientific work in W&uuml;rzburg, that is
+his affair; but for all that, in his former sphere he was
+incomparable, and cannot be replaced; in the latter this is not the
+case.</p>
+
+<p>If a distinguished man, be he never so remarkable for uncommon power
+of work and universal gifts, passes the whole day in the friction of
+political party-struggles, and throws himself as well into all the
+petty and wearisome details of daily civic life, it is impossible for
+him to maintain the requisite feeling for the progress of
+science&mdash;particularly when it advances so rapidly and incessantly as
+is the case in our day. It is therefore quite intelligible that
+Virchow should soon have lost this feeling, and in the course of the
+last two decades have become more and more estranged from science. And
+this estrangement has at last led to so complete a change in his
+fundamental views, to such a metapsychosis, that the present Virchow
+of 1878 is hardly in a position to understand the youthful Virchow of
+1848.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen a similar mental change occur contemporaneously in our
+greatest naturalist, Carl Ernst von Baer. This gifted and profound
+thinker and biologist, whose name marks a new epoch in the history of
+evolution, had in his later years become wholly incompetent even to
+understand those most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> important problems of his youthful labours
+which opened up new paths of inquiry. While in his early years he laid
+down principles of the greatest value to our modern doctrine of
+evolution, and even went very near to adopting this hypothesis into
+his system, at a later period he utterly denied it, and by his
+writings on Darwinism proved that he was no longer generally capable
+of mastering this difficult problem. As I am one of Von Baer's warmest
+admirers, and in my "Evolution of Man," as well as in the "History of
+Creation," and in other places, have most emphatically expressed that
+sincere esteem, I thought I might venture to forbear from calling
+attention to the discrepancy between the lucid, monistic principles of
+Von Baer in his youth, and the confused dualistic views of his old
+age. But as many opponents of Darwinism&mdash;and among them particularly
+the Old Catholic philosopher of Munich, Huber, who has written a
+series of articles in the "Augsburger Zeitung"&mdash;have made constant
+capital out of the harmless talk of the feeble old Von Baer, I must in
+this place explicitly declare that this dualistic prating of the old
+man is quite incapable of shaking the monistic principles of the young
+and enterprising pioneers of science, or of giving them the lie.</p>
+
+<p>In his autobiography Von Baer gives us the explanation of this
+striking contradiction. In 1834 he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> entirely and for ever abandoned
+the province of the history of development, at which for twenty years
+he had laboured incessantly, and where he had earned splendid laurels.
+To escape from the haunting and importunate ideas of the science which
+had so wholly absorbed him, he fled from K&ouml;nigsberg to Petersburg, and
+subsequently busied himself in scientific inquiries of a quite
+different character. Twenty-five long years passed by, and when
+Darwin's work appeared in 1859, Von Baer had too long undergone a
+metapsychosis to be able to understand it. In Von Baer, as in Virchow,
+the course of this remarkable metapsychosis is highly instructive, and
+will itself afford to the thoughtful psychologist an interesting
+evidence of the doctrine of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>However, the lack of comprehension of our modern evolution-hypothesis
+is easier to explain in Virchow's case than in Von Baer's, for this
+reason: morphological knowledge was greatly lacking to Virchow, while
+Von Baer possessed it in the highest degree. Now morphology is
+precisely that very department of inquiry in which our theory of
+descent has its deepest and strongest roots, and has matured the most
+glorious fruits of knowledge. The study of organic forms, or
+morphology, is thus, more than any other science, interested in the
+doctrine of descent, because through this doctrine it first obtained a
+practical knowledge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> of effective causes, and was able to raise itself
+from the humble rank of a descriptive study of <i>forms</i> to the high
+position of an analytical science of <i>form</i>. It is true that by the
+beginning of this century the most comprehensive branch of
+morphology&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, comparative anatomy&mdash;which was founded by Cuvier
+and splendidly developed by Johannes M&uuml;ller, had laid the foundations
+on which to build a truly philosophical science of form. The enormous
+mass of various empirical material, which had been accumulated by
+descriptive systematists and by the dissections of zootomists since
+the time of Linn&aelig;us and Pallas, had already been abundantly matured
+and utilised in many ways for philosophic purposes by the synthetic
+principles of comparative anatomy. But even the most important
+universal laws of organisation&mdash;of which the old system of comparative
+anatomy was one&mdash;had to take refuge in mystical ideas of a plan of
+structure and of creative final causes (<i>caus&aelig; finales</i>); they were
+incapable of arriving at a true and clear perception of effective
+mechanical causes (<i>caus&aelig; efficientes</i>). This last, most difficult,
+and grandest problem, Charles Darwin was the first to solve in 1859,
+by setting Lamarck's theory of descent, which was already fifty years
+old, on a firm footing by his own theory of selection. By this
+hypothesis it was first made possible to fit together the rich
+materials which had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> been previously amassed, into the splendid
+edifice of the mechanical science of form. (See my "General
+Morphology," vol. i. chap. iv.)</p>
+
+<p>The immeasurable step which Darwin thus made in organic morphology can
+be adequately appreciated only by those who, like myself, were brought
+up in the school of the old teleological morphology, and whose eyes
+were suddenly opened by the theory of selection to a comprehension of
+that greatest of all biological riddles, the creation of specific
+forms. The dogma of creation, the mystic and dualistic doctrine of the
+isolated creation of each separate variety, was annihilated at one
+blow; the belief in transmutation has now for ever taken its
+place&mdash;the mechanistic and monistic doctrine of the metamorphosis of
+organic forms, of the descent of all the species of one natural class
+from a common parent-form. How complete a change the science of
+mechanical morphology has by this means been compelled to undergo, I
+have endeavoured to point out in my "General Morphology;" and any one
+who wishes to convince himself clearly of what an enormous revolution
+has been brought about, particularly in comparative anatomy, may
+compare the "Outlines of Comparative Anatomy" (Grundz&uuml;ge der
+vergleichenden Anatomie), by Carl Gegenbaur, 1870, and the latest
+edition of his "Elements" (Grundrisses), with the old text-books of
+that science.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Virchow has no suspicion even of all these immeasurable strides in
+morphology, for this department always lay out of his ken. His great
+reforms in pathology were founded in the province of physiology, and
+more especially in cellular physiology. But within the last twenty
+years these two main branches of biological inquiry have grown more
+and more apart. The great Johannes M&uuml;ller was the last biologist who
+was able to keep these departments of organic inquiry together, and
+who won equally immortal honours in both divisions of the subject.
+After M&uuml;ller's death in 1858 they fell asunder. Physiology, as the
+science especially of the functions or living activity of the
+organism, addressed itself more and more to exact and experimental
+methods: morphology, on the contrary, as the science of the forms and
+structure of animals and plants, could naturally make but very small
+use of this method; it must take refuge more and more in the history
+of evolution, and so constitute an historical natural science. It was
+on this very historical and genetic method of morphology, in
+contradistinction to the exact and experimental method of physiology,
+that I based my Munich address; and if Virchow in his answer had
+really and thoroughly refuted this position, instead of fighting with
+mere phrases and denunciations, this radical opposition would have
+been well worthy of the fullest discussion. At the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> I have
+no wish to reproach Virchow for being wholly fettered by the one-sided
+views of the modern school-physiology, nor because morphology lies so
+far out of his ken that he has not been able to form an independent
+judgment of its aims and methods; but when, in spite of all this, he
+on every occasion lets fall a disparaging judgment of it, we must
+dispute his competence. It is true that in his Munich address he
+emphasises the statement, "That which graces me best is that I know my
+ignorance," by printing it in italics. I only regret that I am forced
+to deny his possession of this very grace. Virchow does not know how
+ignorant he is of morphology, else he would never have uttered his
+annihilating verdict on it, else he would not continually designate
+the study of the theory of descent as dilettanteism and vain dreaming,
+as "a fanciful private speculation which is now making its way in
+several departments of natural science." In truth, Virchow does me
+greatly too much honour when he designates as my "personal crotchet"
+an idea which for the last ten years has been the most precious common
+possession of all morphological science. If Virchow were not so
+unfamiliar with the literature of morphology, he must have known that
+it is penetrated throughout by this principle of descent, that every
+morphological inquiry which conscientiously pursues a well-considered
+problem now assumes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> doctrine of descent as granted and
+indisputable. Of all this he is ignorant, and so it is intelligible
+that he should continue to demand "certain proofs" of this hypothesis,
+although those proofs have long since been produced.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_12" id="Footnote_1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Vol. ii., p. 334 of translation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_13" id="Footnote_2_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> London: C. Kegan Paul &amp; Co. 1879.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_14" id="Footnote_1_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Jena, Zeitschriften f&uuml;r Naturwissenschaft, 1875. Vol. x.
+Supplement.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SKULL THEORY AND THE APE THEORY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Inasmuch as Virchow persists in treating the theory of descent as an
+"unproved hypothesis," inasmuch as he ignores all the forcible
+evidences of that hypothesis, he deprives himself of the right of
+speaking a decisive word in this, the most important scientific
+dispute of the present day. Virchow is, in fact, simply incompetent in
+the great question of evolution, as he is deficient in the greater
+part of that knowledge&mdash;more especially morphological knowledge&mdash;which
+is indispensable to forming a judgment upon it. Hence on the
+turning-point of the whole matter&mdash;viz., the problem as to the origin
+of species&mdash;he can have no opinion, as he has never turned his
+attention to the systematic treatment of species: those transitions of
+one species into another, which he asks to see, abound on all sides,
+as is well known to every systematic naturalist. Only consider, for
+example, the genera of Rubus and Salix among the living plants of the
+present period, and the Ammonites and Brachiopoda among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> extinct
+animals. Hence, too, Virchow can have no independent views as to the
+historical development of the higher from the lower animals, because
+the abundant living forms of the lower animals are almost unknown to
+him, and because he has hardly any conception of the marvellous
+strides which hundreds of industrious workers have made in this very
+department within the last twenty years. But there can be no doubt,
+indeed it is already universally acknowledged, that it is precisely
+the comparative anatomy of the lower&mdash;nay, of the very lowest
+animals&mdash;that has solved the greatest riddles of life, and removed the
+greatest obstacles from the path of the doctrine of descent. He simply
+ignores the fact that true Monads actually exist, and have been
+positively identified by many different observers as structureless
+"organisms without organs," and he turns out the poor Bathybius with a
+kick. And yet I believe that in "Kosmos"<a name="FNanchor_1_15" id="FNanchor_1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> I have conclusively proved
+that Monads must retain their vast elementary importance whether the
+Bathybius actually exists or not.</p>
+
+<p>But even as regards the higher animals&mdash;nay, even as to the
+comparative anatomy of the highest next to man, the apes&mdash;Virchow
+stands apart, not understanding the views of modern morphology.</p>
+
+<p>We must here examine more closely into this, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>because it is precisely
+in this department that Virchow's only morphological experiments have
+been made; viz., his investigations as to the skulls of apes and of
+men. This is precisely the one only point on which he has sought a
+closer acquaintance with morphology, and precisely here it is most
+clearly to be seen how little he is acquainted with the recent
+advances our science has made, and that he has hardly any conception
+of the extraordinary importance to that science of the theory of
+descent.</p>
+
+<p>The skull theory, as is well known, has for a long time been a very
+favourite theme, not only with prominent naturalists, but also with
+talented amateurs. Undoubtedly the skull, viewed as the bony capsule
+which encloses our most important organ of sense, our brain, has a
+special claim to morphological importance; for the general
+conformation of the skull corresponds on the whole to the development
+of the brain, and its inner surface gives an approximate idea of the
+outer surface of the brain. In this correspondence lies the only sound
+kernel of the sickly, overgrown fancies of phrenology. The various
+development of the skull allows of an approximate inference as to the
+various degrees of development of the brain and of the mental
+faculties. The comparative study of the skulls of the vertebrate
+animals had excited the lively interest of morphologists by the end of
+the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> century, when comparative anatomy was beginning to
+constitute a special science; and the genetic inquiry as to the
+morphological significance and development of the skull soon grew out
+of it. It was no less a man than our greatest German poet who first
+answered this question, and propounded the theory that the skull was
+neither more nor less than the modified foremost end of the vertebral
+column, and that the separate groups of bones which lie behind one
+another in the human skull, as in that of all the higher vertebrata,
+answer to the separate modified vertebr&aelig;. This "vertebral theory" of
+the skull, which Von Goethe and Oken simultaneously and independently
+attempted to prove, aroused universal interest and maintained its
+ground for seventy years, while many attempts were made to improve and
+enlarge upon it in detail.</p>
+
+<p>A quite new light was thrown on this, as on every other morphological
+question, as soon as Darwin in 1859 had once more put into our hands
+the torch of the doctrine of descent. The inquiry as to the origin of
+the skull now assumed a real and tangible form. Since all vertebrate
+animals, from fishes up to man, agree so completely as to their
+essential internal structure that they can be rationally conceived of
+no otherwise than as branches of one stock and as descendants of one
+parent-form, the distinctly formulated question as to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> the skull
+theory which now started into prominence was this: "How, historically,
+has the skull of man and of the higher animals originated from that of
+the lower animals? How is the development of the bones of the skull
+from the vertebr&aelig; to be proved?" The answer to these difficult
+questions was supplied by the first comparative anatomist of the
+present day, by Carl Gegenbaur. After Huxley had pointed out that the
+ontogenesis or individual development of the skull by no means
+favoured the older hypothesis of Goethe and Oken, Gegenbaur brought
+forward evidence that the fundamental idea of that theory was correct;
+that the skull does in fact correspond to a series of coalescent
+vertebr&aelig;, but that the separate bones of the skull are not to be
+regarded as representing parts of such modified vertebr&aelig;. The
+skull-bones of all recent vertebrate animals are rather, for the most
+part, dermal bones, which have come into closer connection as
+supplementary to the cartilaginous primitive skull. We can even now
+trace the number and position of the original vertebr&aelig;, from which
+this primitive skull originated, by the number of the vertebral arches
+(gill-arches) which are attached to it, as well as by the number and
+position of those vertebr&aelig;, from nine to ten. Of all the recent
+vertebrata, the cartilaginous fishes, or Selachians, have most nearly
+preserved the form and structure of this primordial skull. These
+Selachians, the Rays and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> Sharks, are on the whole the creatures which
+throw the clearest light on the history of the lineage of the
+vertebrata and on the organisation of our primeval fish-natured
+ancestors. It is one of the particular merits of Gegenbaur that he
+clearly and firmly established the place in nature of the Selachians
+as the common ancestors of all vertebrate animals from fish up to man.</p>
+
+<p>None but those who have thoroughly studied the comparative morphology
+of the vertebrata, who have sought the genetic issue from that
+labyrinth of intricate morphological problems at the hands of the
+theory of descent, can duly value the immeasurable service which
+Gegenbaur has done by this and other "Investigations into the
+Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrata." These investigations are as
+much distinguished by a profound knowledge and careful working out of
+the wonderfully-extensive empirical materials for the subject, as by
+their critical acumen and philosophic grasp. At the same time they set
+in the clearest light the immeasurable value of the theory of descent
+in the causal explanation of the most difficult morphological
+problems. Gegenbaur might, therefore, with perfect right, enunciate
+this axiom in the Introduction to his "Comparative Anatomy." "The
+theory of descent will at once find a touchstone of proof in
+comparative anatomy. Up to this time no experience in comparative
+anatomy has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> transpired which contradicts that theory; on the
+contrary, they all lead up to it. Thus it will receive back from
+science that which it has given to scientific method: clearness and
+certainty." In point of fact we can adduce no morphological
+investigations which better support this declaration than those very
+phylogenetic researches "as to the cranium of the Selachians, as a
+basis for the critical examination of the genesis of the cranium of
+the vertebrata," 1872. As Virchow had formerly thoroughly studied the
+old skull-hypothesis, and in his admirable discourse on "Goethe as a
+Naturalist," 1861, had given an excellent exposition of it; as
+moreover he had produced most valuable contributions to the normal and
+pathological anatomy of the human skull, we might have expected that
+he would have received Gegenbaur's grand reform of the theory of the
+skull, and historical solution of the skull-problem, with the greatest
+interest, and have made it the clue to his own further researches. But
+we seek in vain through Virchow's latest contributions to the study of
+the human skull, for any indication of his knowing or appreciating
+Gegenbaur's investigations. On the contrary, we see him persistently
+moving, without any clear goal in view, on that trodden and devious
+path of investigation which finds the highest aim of craniological
+science in the measuring of skulls, or craniometry.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We are far from undervaluing the full significance of the results of
+exact and careful descriptions and measurements of various
+conformations of the skull as an empirical basis for a true and
+scientific study of the skull&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, for comparative and genetic
+craniology. But still we must say that the way and method by which
+this skull measurement has, for ten years now, been pursued by
+numerous craniologists can never yield corresponding scientific
+results; on the contrary, though it is cried up as the "exact
+morphology" of the skull, it simply loses itself in the domains of
+harmless trifling. A large amount of time has in the last ten years
+been squandered in disputes as to the best method of measuring skulls,
+while the craniologists concerned have not, in the first place,
+answered the obviously most important question: What end they propose
+to gain by this specialist measuring, what proposition they mean to
+prove by it? Most of those numerous skull measurers know nothing
+beyond the perfect human skull, or at most the skulls of a few other
+mammalia, while the comparative morphology and historical development
+of the crania of the lower vertebrata are wholly unknown to them; and
+yet these last contain the true key to the comprehension of the
+others. One single month devoted by these "exact skull measurers" to
+the study of Gegenbaur's theory of the skull, and to testing the
+hypothesis by the skulls of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> Selachians, would have yielded them more
+fruit and have given them more light than long years of describing and
+measuring human skulls, however various.</p>
+
+<p>Virchow himself affords the most striking example of the usual results
+of this so-called "exact method" of studying skulls. In his popular
+essay on "The Skulls of Men and Apes," 1870, he concludes with this
+notable proposition:&mdash;"It is therefore self-evident that Man can never
+by any progressive development have originated from the Apes." Every
+evolutionist who is familiar with the surprising facts of comparative
+morphology will draw from them the opposite conclusion: "It is
+self-evident that Man could only have originated from the progressive
+development of the Ape (organism)."</p>
+
+<p>This brings us to that question which, in the popular treatment of the
+theory of descent, is justly considered as its most important outcome
+and as the keystone of the evolutionist edifice&mdash;to the well-known
+proposition, "Man is descended from the Ape." While we simply ignore
+all the misrepresentation, distortion, and misinterpretation which
+this ape, or pithecoid hypothesis, has met with on all sides, we will
+only remark that this fundamental proposition, in the sense of our
+modern doctrine of evolution, can rationally have only this plain
+meaning: that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> human species as a whole was long since developed
+from the order of apes, indeed actually from one (or perhaps more)
+long since extinct form of ape; the immediate progenitors of man in
+the long series of his vertebrate ancestry were apes or ape-like
+animals. Of course none of the now surviving species of apes is to be
+regarded as the unaltered posterity of that primeval parent-form.
+Virchow, however, understanding the "ape question" in this sense,
+answers it, as Bastian also does, with the most positive
+contradiction. "We cannot teach the doctrine that man is descended
+from apes or from any other animal, for we cannot regard it as a real
+acquisition of science" (p. 31). Although I myself, in direct
+opposition to this view, and in agreement with almost all my
+professional colleagues, look upon the descent of man from apes as one
+of the surest of phylogenetic hypotheses, I will here expressly admit
+that the <i>relative</i> certainty of this, as of all other historical
+hypotheses of descent, is not comparable with the <i>absolute</i> certainty
+of the general theory of descent. It is now ten years since I first
+explicitly stated (in my "Natural History of Creation," vol. ii. p.
+358): "The pedigree of the human race, like that of every animal or
+plant, remains in detail a more or less approximate general
+hypothesis. This, however, in no way affects the application of the
+theory of descent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> to man. In this, as in all researches into the
+derivation of our organism, we must distinguish between the <i>general
+theory</i> of descent and the <i>specific hypothesis</i> of descent. The
+general theory of descent claims full and permanent value, because it
+is inductively based on the whole range of common biological phenomena
+and on their internal causal connection. Each special hypothesis of
+descent, on the other hand, is conditional as to its specific value on
+the existing state of our biological information, and on the extent of
+those objective empirical grounds on which we deductively found the
+hypothesis, by our subjective inferences." And I must here
+emphatically add that I have on every opportunity repeated that
+reservation, and have always insisted on the difference which exists
+between the absolute certainty of transmutation in general and the
+relative certainty of each individual specific pedigree. So that when
+Semper and others of my opponents assert that I teach my specific
+genealogies as "infallible dogmas," it is simply false. I have, on the
+contrary, pointed out on all occasions that I regard them only as
+<i>heuristic or provisional hypotheses</i>, and as a means of investigating
+the actual relations of cognate races of organic forms more and more
+approximately.</p>
+
+<p>Since the conception of the natural animal system as a hypothetical
+genealogical tree, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> phylogenetic interpretation of
+morphological affinity which that conception involves, afford in fact
+the only rational interpretation of that affinity in general, my first
+genealogical attempts soon found many imitators, and at the present
+time numerous industrious labourers in the different departments of
+systematic zoology are endeavouring to find in the construction of
+such hypothetical genealogies the shortest and completest expression
+of the modern conception of structural affinity. If Virchow had not
+been as ignorant of the true significance and method of systematic
+morphology as he is of its progress and scientific contents, he must
+certainly have known this, and then he would surely have withheld his
+mockery of all these grave phylogenetic studies as "personal
+crotchets" and worthless dreams.</p>
+
+<p>What mighty strides towards a mechanical morphology we have made by
+this phylogenetic working out of the system, and how much light and
+life it has at once thrown into the system that before was dead and
+cold, can only be known to those who have long and deeply studied
+specific systematisation and the grouping of species; Virchow has not
+the remotest suspicion of it. Moreover, these attempts have now
+proceeded so far, that a large proportion of the phylogenetic
+hypotheses are regarded as very nearly certain, and can hardly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+undergo any further essential modifications; while the greater number
+of them are still in an unfixed state, and one systematist tries to
+improve them in this direction, and another in that.</p>
+
+<p>The following phylogenetic hypotheses are held to be almost certain
+:&mdash;&mdash;The descent of many-celled animals from single-celled, of the
+Medus&aelig; from the hydroid Polyps, of the jointed from the unjointed
+worms, of the sucking from the gnawing insects, of amphibious animals
+from fishes, of birds from reptiles, of the placental mammalia from
+the marsupials, and so forth. I personally consider the descent of man
+from the apes as equally certain; nay, I regard this most important
+and pregnant genealogical hypothesis as one of those which, up to the
+present time, rest on the best empirical basis.</p>
+
+<p>Huxley, in particular, fifteen years ago, in his celebrated "Man's
+Place in Nature," 1863, so admirably proved the undoubted "descent of
+man from apes," and so clearly discussed all the relations that had to
+be taken into consideration, that very little was left to others to
+do. The result of his comparative morphological investigations is
+contained in this proposition&mdash;&mdash;" If we take up a system of organs,
+be it which we will, the comparison of its modifications throughout
+the series of apes leads us to the same conclusion: that in every
+single visible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> character man differs less from the higher apes than
+these do from the lower members of the same order." It is therefore
+impossible for any objective zoologist, according to the principles of
+comparative systematisation, to ascribe to man any other place in the
+animal world than in the order of apes; and it is quite immaterial
+whether we designate this individual group as the Order of Apes, or,
+with Linn&aelig;us, as the Primates. For the phylogenetic construction of
+the system, the common descent of man and of apes from one common
+parent-form, necessarily follows from this inevitable grouping, and on
+this proposition only all the general inferences of the
+"ape-hypothesis" depend. As to what that common parent-form of men and
+apes may have been, very different views might probably be brought on
+opposite sides; but any one who knows the collected facts that bear
+upon the matter, and estimates them impartially, must, in conclusion,
+arrive at the certain conviction that that hypothetical and long-since
+extinct parent-form can only have been genuine apes; that is to say,
+of the placental mammalian type, such as when we see them now living
+before our eyes we unhesitatingly class, on the ground of their
+zoological characters, as true apes, in the order of Apes or Primates.</p>
+
+<p>In this, and all other sound phylogenetic hypotheses, we may most
+easily attain to a conviction of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> truth by taking into
+consideration and comparison the other possible hypotheses. But in
+fact no single opponent of the ape-hypothesis has been able to combat
+it with any other phylogenetic hypothesis that has the faintest
+glimmer of probability. Not one opponent has suggested, or can
+suggest, any other animal form that can serve as our nearest ancestor
+than the ape. No one has ever reproached me by saying that Mother
+Nature has endowed me with too little imagination; on the contrary, I
+am often accused of having a superfluity of that gift of the gods; but
+I have often and repeatedly exerted my imagination to picture to
+myself any known or unknown animal-form as the nearest parent-form to
+man in the place of the apes, and have always found myself under the
+necessity of falling back upon the stock of apes. Let me conceive of
+the outward conformation and the internal structure of the nearest
+mammalian ancestors of men as I will, I am always forced to
+acknowledge that this hypothetical parent-form ranges under the
+zoologically-conceived order of apes, and cannot possibly be separated
+from the Simiad&oelig; or Primates. If, in spite of this, any one
+chooses, out of a "personal crotchet," to accept some other series of
+unknown animal ancestors of man that have nothing to do with apes,
+that is but a mere empty hypothesis floating in the air. Our
+ape-hypothesis, on the other hand, is objectively and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> thoroughly
+proved by the essential agreement of the internal bodily structure of
+man and of apes, and by the identity of their embryonic development,
+as I have fully shown in my "Evolution of Man" (chaps. xix. and xxvi.)
+The mode and manner in which he here puts pal&aelig;ontology in the
+foreground, and throws on the theory of descent the task of producing
+an unbroken gradation of fossil transitional forms between the apes
+and man, is very indicative of Virchow's ignorance of this zoological
+question&mdash;in which I, as a professional zoologist, must decisively
+declare his incompetence. The reasons why such a solution of the
+problem is not to be expected, the extraordinary imperfection of the
+pal&aelig;ontological record, the natural impediments to the pal&aelig;ontological
+evidence of the genealogical table, have been so lucidly unfolded by
+Darwin himself (chaps. ix. and x. of the "Origin of Species") that I
+am obliged once more to come to the conclusion that Virchow has never
+read it with any attention.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, long before Darwin, the gifted Lyell, the great originator of
+modern geology, showed clearly and convincingly how, for many reasons,
+the greater part of the fossil series must remain most imperfect, and
+these reasons were at a later period so often and so fully discussed
+(by myself among others, in chap. xv.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> of the "History of Creation,"
+vol. ii. pp. 24-32) that it is wholly superfluous once more and in
+this place to state these well-known and time-worn questions. It only
+shows how little Virchow was acquainted with geology and pal&aelig;ontology,
+and what a limited judgment he can form of these historical causal
+relations.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_15" id="Footnote_1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Vol. i. p. 293.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CELL-SOUL AND CELLULAR PSYCHOLOGY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>No attack in Virchow's Munich address surprised me so much, and none
+so plainly betrayed the subversion of his most important scientific
+views, as that which he directed against my observations on psychology
+and cellular physiology. A mystic dualism in his fundamental views is
+here revealed, which stands in the sharpest contrast to the mechanical
+monism formerly upheld by the famous pathologist of W&uuml;rzburg.</p>
+
+<p>In my Munich discourse (p. 12), I had alluded to the "grand and
+fruitful application which Virchow had made, in his system of cellular
+pathology, of the cell-theory to the general province of theoretic
+medicine;" and as a logical amplification of that idea, I asserted
+emphatically that we must ascribe an independent soul-life to every
+individual organic cell. "This conception is validly proved by the
+study of infusoria, am&oelig;b&aelig;, and other one-celled organisms; for, in
+these individual, isolated, living cells we find the same
+manifestations of soul-life&mdash;feelings, and ideas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> (mental images),
+will and motion, as is in the higher animals compounded of many cells"
+(p. 13). Virchow now rises up in the strongest protest against this
+theory of a cellular sensibility, which I regard as the inevitable
+consequence of his early views of cellular physiology; it is to him
+"mere trifling with words." He combats with equal decisiveness "the
+scientific necessity of extending the province of psychical processes
+beyond the circle of those bodies in and by which we actually see them
+exhibited." He further says, "If I explain attraction and repulsion as
+psychical phenomena, I simply throw the psyche out of the window; the
+psyche ceases to be a psyche." Finally he says, "I assert without any
+hesitation that for us the sum total of psychical phenomena is
+connected with certain animals only, and not with the collective mass
+of all organic beings; nay, not even with all animals in general. We
+have no ground as yet for speaking of the lowest animals as possessing
+psychical properties; we find such properties only in the higher
+grades, and with perfect certainty only in the very highest."</p>
+
+<p>When I first read this and other astounding statements in Virchow's
+paper, I involuntarily asked myself, "Can this be the same Virchow
+from whom, twenty-five years ago, I learnt in W&uuml;rzburg that the
+soul-functions of man and animals depend on mechanical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> processes in
+the soul-organs; that these organs are, like all other organs,
+composed of cells, and that the functional activity of an organ is
+nothing more than the sum of the activity of all the cells which
+compose it? Is this the same Virchow whose most vital doctrine it was
+that all the physical and psychical processes of the human organism
+were to be referred to the mechanics of cell life; who supported the
+view of the unity of all the phenomena of life with the same emphasis
+with which we are now obliged to defend it against his attacks?"</p>
+
+<p>In fact, and beyond a doubt, we have here a new proof of Virchow's
+complete change in all fundamental scientific principles. For the
+cellular psychology which I advance is only a necessary consequence of
+the cellular physiology promulgated by Virchow. His present opposition
+to the former is either a renunciation of the latter or an untenable
+and inconsequent position. To explain this astonishing metapsychosis,
+we shall do well first to glance at the soul in general, and then give
+particular consideration to the cell-soul.</p>
+
+<p>What is the Soul or Psyche? The innumerable different answers which
+have been given to this crowning question of psychology, may
+collectively, when freed from all extraneous matter, be brought under
+two groups which we may shortly designate as the dualistic and the
+monistic soul-hypothesis. According<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+to the monistic (or realistic) soul-hypothesis, the "soul" is nothing
+more than the sum or aggregate of a multitude of special
+cell-activities, among which sensation and volition&mdash;sensual
+perception and voluntary movement&mdash;are the most important, the most
+common, and the most widely diffused; associated with these in the
+higher animals and in man, we find the more developed activities of
+the ganglionic cells which are included under the conceptions of
+Thought, Consciousness, Intellect, and Reason. Like all the other
+functional-activities of the organic cells, these soul-functions
+depend ultimately on material phenomena of motion, and more
+particularly on the motions of the plasson-molecules or plastidules,
+the ultimate atoms of the protoplasma, and perhaps of the nucleus
+also; therefore we should be able actually to grasp and explain them,
+as well as every other cognisable natural process, if we were in a
+position to refer them to the mechanics of atoms. This monistic
+soul-hypothesis, then, is at bottom mechanistic. If psychical
+mechanics&mdash;psychophysics&mdash;were not so infinitely complex and involved,
+if we were in a position to take a complete view of the historical
+evolution of the psychic functions, we could reduce the whole of them
+(including consciousness) to a mathematical "soul-formula."</p>
+
+<p>According to the opposite, or dualistic (or spiritualistic)
+soul-hypothesis, the soul is, on the contrary, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> peculiar substance,
+which most people somewhat grossly conceive of as a gaseous body,
+while others picture it with more subtlety, as an immaterial essence.
+This "soul-substance" subsists independently of the animal-body, and
+stands in only a temporary connection with certain organs of that
+body&mdash;the soul-, or mental-organs. It has been imagined that this
+soul-matter, which resembles that imponderable ether which is the
+medium of light, is diffused between the ponderable molecules of the
+soul-organs and especially of the nerve-cells, and that this
+connection of the imponderable "soul" with the ponderable body
+subsists only so long as the individual life lasts. At the instant of
+the first beginning of the individual organism, at the moment of
+generation, this imponderable "soul" passes into the body, and at the
+instant of death, at the annihilation of the living individual, it
+again quits the body. This mystical or dualistic soul-hypothesis,
+which, as is well known, is to this day universally accepted, is
+fundamentally vitalistic, inasmuch as it regards the force which is
+bound up with the soul-substance, like the "vital force" of a past
+time, as a peculiar force quite independent of mechanical forces. This
+force does not depend on the material phenomena of motion, and is
+quite independent of the mechanics of atoms. The highest law of modern
+natural science, the law of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> the conservation of force, has,
+therefore, no application in the region of soul-life, and that
+mechanical causality which prevails throughout all the processes of
+nature does not exist for the soul. The Psyche, in a word, is a
+supernatural phenomenon, and the supernatural department of the
+spiritual world stands free and independent of the natural department
+of the material world.</p>
+
+<p>If we now compare the psychological views of the youthful and
+unprejudiced Virchow of W&uuml;rzburg with those of the older and mystical
+Virchow of Berlin, there can be no doubt in the minds of the impartial
+that the former, a quarter of a century ago, was as decided and
+logical a monist as the latter is at present a confessed and convicted
+dualist. The distinguished position which Virchow, twenty-five years
+since, won by his natural conception of the nature of man, and the
+great fame which he then earned in the fight for the truth, rest
+precisely on this, that on every occasion he maintained with his
+utmost vigour the unity of all vital phenomena, and asserted their
+mechanical character. All organic life, even the soul-life, rests on
+mechanical principles, on that causal mechanism of which Kant said
+that "it alone contained a practical interpretation of nature," and
+that "without it no natural science can exist." On this point Virchow
+says well in his discourse on "Efforts at Unity in Scientific
+Medicine,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> 1849:&mdash;"Life is only a peculiar sort of mechanics, though
+it is indeed the most complex form of mechanics; that in which the
+usual mechanical laws fall under the most unusual and manifold
+conditions. Thus life, compared with the universal processes of motion
+in nature, is a thing peculiar in itself; but it does not constitute a
+diametrical, dualistic opposition to those laws; it is only a peculiar
+species of motion. The motion itself is a mechanical one, for how
+should we become cognisant of it if it were not based on the sensible
+properties of bodies? The media of the motion are certain chemical
+matters, for we recognise none but chemical matter in bodies. The
+individual acts of motion reduce themselves to mechanical, or
+physico-chemical, modifications of the constituent elements of the
+organic unities, the cells and their equivalents." These and many
+similar utterances in Virchow's earlier writings, and especially in
+the essay I have mentioned, "On the Mechanical Conception of Life,"
+leave no doubt that he formerly supported, with a clear conscience and
+his utmost energy, in psychology as in the other collected departments
+of physiology, that very mechanical standpoint which we to-day accept
+as the essential basis of our monism, and which stands in
+irreconcilable antagonism to the dualism of the vitalistic doctrine.
+To none of my teachers am I so deeply indebted for my emancipation
+from all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> prejudices of the dualistic doctrine, and for my
+conversion to the monistic, as to Rudolf Virchow; for it was his
+superior guidance which most firmly convinced me, and many others, of
+the exclusive importance of the mechanical view of nature. He led me
+to a clear recognition of the fact that the nature of man, like every
+other organism, can only be rightly understood as a united whole, that
+this spiritual and corporeal being are inseparable, and that the
+phenomena of the soul-life depend, like all other vital phenomena, on
+material motion only&mdash;on mechanical (or physico-chemical)
+modifications of cells. And it was in perfect agreement with my most
+honoured master that I subscribed then, and at this day still
+subscribe, to the proposition with which he, in September 1849, closed
+the preface to the above-mentioned "Efforts at Unity." "It is possible
+that I may have erred in details; in the future I shall be ready and
+willing to acknowledge my mistakes and to rectify them, but I enjoy
+this conviction, that I shall never find myself in the position of
+denying the principle of the unity of the human nature with all its
+consequences!"</p>
+
+<p>To err is human! Who can say to what diametrical contradiction to his
+firmest convictions man may not in the future be driven by his
+adaptation to new relations in life? If we compare these stout
+monistic declarations of 1849 and 1858 with the equally decided
+dualistic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> utterances in Virchow's Munich address of 1877, we perceive
+that he could not give the lie more fiercely to his former fundamental
+opinions than he has there done. Not quite twenty years have passed
+by, and yet, in the course of that time, in Virchow's views of the
+universe, in his conception of human nature, and of the soul-life, a
+change has been effected than which we can conceive of no greater. We
+learn to our surprise that psychical and corporeal processes are
+wholly different phenomena; that no scientific necessity whatever
+exists for extending the province of psychical processes beyond the
+circle of those bodies in which, and by which, we see them actually
+exhibited. "We may ultimately explain the processes of the human mind
+as chemical, but at any rate, it is not yet our business to amalgamate
+these two subjects!"</p>
+
+<p>From the whole psychological discussion which is involved in Virchow's
+Munich address, it is made clear that at the present time he regards
+the "soul" in a purely dualistic sense as a substance, an immaterial
+essence which only temporarily takes up its abode in the body. Highly
+characteristic of this is the remarkable sentence, "If I explain
+attraction and repulsion as psychical phenomena, I simply throw the
+psyche out of the window; the psyche ceases to be a psyche." If we
+substitute for the word "psyche" the word which corresponds to
+Virchow's earlier mechanistic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> view&mdash;the word "motion" (or peculiar
+mode of motion)&mdash;the sentence runs thus: "If I explain attraction and
+repulsion as phenomena of motion, I simply throw motion out of the
+window."</p>
+
+<p>Almost more remarkable is Virchow's assertion that the lowest animals
+have no psychic properties; that, on the contrary, "these are only to
+be found in the higher, and, with perfect certainty, only in the
+highest animals." It is only to be regretted that Virchow has not here
+stated what he understands by the higher and the highest animals;
+where that remarkable dividing line is, beyond which the soul suddenly
+appears in the hitherto soulless body. Every zoologist who is in some
+degree familiar with the results of comparative morphology and
+physiology will here clasp his hands in astonishment, for by this
+proposition Virchow seems to mean that we must ascribe a soul-life
+only to those animals in which special soul-organs, in the form of a
+central and peripheral nerve-system, are developed from sense-organs
+and muscles. But it is admitted that all these different soul-organs
+with their characteristic properties have originated from single cells
+through the division of labour (differentiation); and the nerves and
+muscles especially have been developed by differentiation from the
+neuro-muscular cells. The cells from which all these different
+nerve-cells, muscle-cells, mind-cells, and so forth, are derived, are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+originally the simple neutral cells of the epithelium of the ectoderm
+or exterior germ-layer, and these cells, again, like all the cells of
+many-celled animal bodies, originated in the repeated division of one
+single original cell, the ovum-cell.</p>
+
+<p>The individual development or ontogenesis of each of these many-celled
+animal-forms, brings this histological process of development so
+clearly and evidently before our eyes that we can but directly infer
+from it the truth of the phylogenesis, or gradual historical evolution
+of the soul-organs. The association of cells and the division of
+labour among them are the modes by which, in the first instance, the
+compound many-celled organism has originated, historically, from the
+simple one-celled organism. And an impartial comparative consideration
+teaches us in the clearest way that a functional-activity of the
+soul-cells exists in the lowest one-celled animals as well as in the
+highest and many-celled; in the infusoria as well as in man. Volition
+and sensation, the universal and unmistakable signs of soul-life, may
+be observed among the former as well as in the latter. Voluntary
+motion and conscious sensation (of pressure, light, warmth, &amp;c.) come
+under our observation so undoubtedly in the commonest forms of
+infusorial animals&mdash;for instance the Ciliata, that one of their most
+persevering observers, Ehrenberg, asserted undeviatingly to the day of
+his death that all Infusoria<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> must possess nerves and muscles, organs
+of sense and of soul, as well as the higher animals.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that the enormous advance which our science has
+lately made in the natural history of these lowest organisms
+culminates in the statement&mdash;clearly made by Siebold thirty years
+since, but only recently "ascertained as proved"&mdash;that these minute
+creatures are <i>one-celled</i>, and that in the case of these infusoria
+one single cell is capable of all the various vital
+functions&mdash;including soul-functions&mdash;which in the zoophytes
+(plant-animals), as the hydra and the sponges, are distributed among
+the cells of the two germ-layers, and in all the higher animals among
+the different tissues, organs, and apparatus of a highly developed and
+constructed organism. The psychic functions of sensation and voluntary
+motion, which are here distributed to such very various organs and
+tissues, are in the infusoria fulfilled by the neutral plasson
+material of the cell, by the protoplasma, and possibly also by the
+nucleus (compare my treatise "The Morphology of the Infusoria." Jena,
+Zeitschriften, 1873, vol. vii. p. 516). And just as we must attribute
+to these primary animal forms an independent "soul," just as we must
+plainly be convinced that the single independent cell has a "psyche,"
+we must as decidedly attribute a soul to every other cell; for the
+most important active constituent of the cell, the protoplasm,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+everywhere exhibits the same psychic properties of sensibility or
+irritability, and motive power or will. The only difference is this,
+that in the organism of the higher animals and plants the numerous
+collected cells, to a great extent, give up their individual
+independence, and are subject, like good citizens, to the soul-polity
+which represents the unity of the will and sensations in the cell
+community. We here also must distinguish clearly between the central
+soul of the whole many-celled organism or the personal psyche (the
+person-soul), and the particular individual soul or elementary soul of
+the individual cells constituting that organism (the cell-soul). Their
+relations are strikingly illustrated in the instructive group of
+Siphonophora, as I have briefly shown in my article on "The Cell-soul
+and Soul-cells" (Deutsche Rundschau, July 1878). Beyond a doubt the
+whole stock or polity of Siphonophora has a very definite united will
+and a united sensibility, and yet each of the individual persons of
+which this stock (or Cormus) is composed has its own personal will and
+its own particular sensations. Each of these persons indeed was
+originally a separate Medusa, and the individual Siphonophora stock
+originated, by association and division of labour, out of these united
+Medusa communities.</p>
+
+<p>When I developed this theory of the cell-soul and designated it in my
+Munich address as the "surest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> foundation of empirical psychology," I
+believed I was drawing an inference quite to Virchow's mind, from his
+own views of mechanical and cellular-physiology; and for that reason I
+took the same occasion specially to celebrate his very great services
+to the cell theory. How astonished then was I when in his reply this
+very theory was violently attacked and satirised as "mere trifling
+with words." It never could have occurred to me that Virchow had long
+since become unfaithful to his most important biological principles,
+and had deserted his own mechanical "theory of cells;" it never had
+occurred to me that Virchow could be in great measure wanting in that
+zoological knowledge which is requisite for a practical comprehension
+of the cell-soul theory. He has never thoroughly studied either the
+one-celled Protozoa, the Infusoria and Lobosa, nor the Coelenterata,
+the highly instructive Sponges, Hydroids, Medus&aelig;, or Siphonophora; and
+thus he is wanting in those genetic principles of comparative zoology
+on which our theory rests. It is in no other way conceivable that
+Virchow should contemn the most important consequences of the cell
+theory as "mere trifling with words."</p>
+
+<p>Next to the one-celled infusoria no phenomenon throws such direct
+light on our cellular psychology as the fact that the human ovum, like
+the ova of all other animals, is a single, simple cell. In accordance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+with our monistic conception of the cell-soul, we must conclude that
+the fertilised ovum-cell already virtually possesses those psychical
+properties which, by the special combination of the peculiarities
+inherited from both parents, characterise the individual soul of the
+new person; in the course of the development of the germ, the
+cell-soul of the fertilised ovum naturally is developed simultaneously
+with its material substratum, and subsequently, after birth, it
+appears in full activity.</p>
+
+<p>According to Virchow's dualistic conception of the psyche, we must, on
+the contrary, assume that this immaterial essence at some period of
+its embryonic development (apparently when the spine separates itself
+from the external germ-layer) informs the soulless germ. Of course,
+the bare miracle is thus complete, and the natural and unbroken
+continuity of development is superfluous.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GENETIC AND DOGMATIC METHODS OF TEACHING.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The very justifiable surprise which Virchow's Munich address has
+excited in many circles is due only in part to his opposition to the
+theory of descent; for the rest, and in much greater part, it is due
+to the astounding arguments which he has connected with it,
+particularly as to freedom for instruction. These arguments so closely
+resemble those of the Jesuits that they might have been inspired
+direct from the Vatican, or, which is the same thing, the notorious
+"court-chaplain party" in Berlin. No wonder, then, that these
+propositions, which would undermine the whole liberty of science, have
+met with the loudest approbation from the "Germania," the "New
+Evangelical Church Times" ("Neue Evangelischen Kirchenzeitung"), and
+other leading, equivocating organs of the Church militant. On the
+other hand, these odious principles are already so extensively
+discussed, and have been so clearly laid down in all their
+indefensibility, that I may here deal with them briefly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Virchow's politics as a pedagogue reach their highest pitch in this
+demand: "that in all schools, from the poor schools to the
+universities, nothing shall be taught that is not absolutely certain.
+None but objective and absolutely ascertained knowledge is to be
+imparted by the teacher to the learner; nothing subjective, no
+knowledge that is open to correction, only facts, no hypotheses." The
+investigation of such problems as the whole nation may be interested
+in must not be restricted; that is liberty of inquiry; but the problem
+ought not, without anything farther, to be the subject of <i>teaching</i>.
+"When we teach we must restrict ourselves to the smaller, and yet how
+great, departments which we are actually masters of."</p>
+
+<p>Rarely indeed has such a treasonable attempt on liberty of doctrine
+been made by a prominent representative of science, and a leader of
+the intellectual movement too, as this by Virchow. Only inquiry is to
+be free and not teaching! And where in the whole history of science is
+there one single scientific inquirer to be found who would not have
+felt himself quite justified in teaching his own subjective
+convictions with as much right as he had to construct them from
+inquiry into objective facts. And where, generally speaking, is the
+limit to be found between objective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> and subjective knowledge? Is
+there, in fact, any objective science?</p>
+
+<p>This question Virchow answers in the affirmative, for he goes on to
+say: "We must not forget that there is a boundary line between the
+speculative departments of natural science and those that are actually
+conquered and firmly established" (p. 8). In my opinion, there is no
+such boundary line; on the contrary, all human knowledge as such is
+subjective. An objective science which consists merely of facts
+without any subjective theories is inconceivable. For evidence in
+favour of this view we must take a rapid survey of the whole domain of
+human science, and test the chief departments of it to see how far
+they contain, on the one hand, objective knowledge and facts, and on
+the other, subjective knowledge and hypotheses. We may begin directly
+with Kant's assertion that in every science only so much true&mdash;that is
+objective&mdash;knowledge is to be found as it contains of mathematics.
+Unquestionably mathematics stand at the head of all the sciences as
+regards the certainty of its teaching. But how as to those deepest and
+simplest fundamental axioms which constitute the firm basis on which
+the proud edifice of mathematical teaching rests? Are these certain
+and proved? Certainly not. The bases of its teaching are simply
+"axioms" which are incapable of proof. To give only one example of how
+the very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> first principles of mathematics might be attacked by
+scepticism and shaken by philosophical speculation, we may remember
+the recent discussions as to the three dimensions of space and the
+possibility of a fourth dimension; disputes which are carried on even
+at the present day by the most eminent mathematicians, physicists, and
+philosophers. So much as this is certain, that mathematics as little
+constitute an absolutely objective science as any other, but by the
+very nature of man are subjectively conditioned. A man's subjective
+power of knowing can only discern the objective facts of the outer
+world in general so far as his organs of sense and his brain admit in
+his own individual degree of cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>However, granting that mathematics practically constitute an
+absolutely certain and objective science, how is it with the rest of
+the sciences? Undoubtedly the most certain among them are those "exact
+sciences" whose principles are to be directly proved by mathematics;
+thus, in the first place, a great part of physics. We say, "a great
+part," for another large part&mdash;to speak accurately, by far the
+greatest&mdash;is incapable of any exact mathematical proof. For what do we
+know for certain of the essential nature of matter, or the essential
+nature of force? What do we know for certain of gravitation, of the
+attraction of mass, of its effects at great distances, and so on?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+Newton's theory of gravitation is regarded as the most important and
+certain theory of physics, and yet gravitation itself is a hypothesis.
+Then, as to the other branches of physics&mdash;electricity and magnetism.
+The whole scheme of these important sciences rests on the hypothesis
+of "electric fluidity," or of imponderable matter of which the
+existence is nothing less than proved. Or optics? Optics certainly
+appertain to the most important and completest branch of physics, and
+yet the undulatory theory of light, which we accept now as the
+indispensable basis of optics, rests on an unproved hypothesis, on the
+subjective assumption of an ethereal medium, whose existence no one is
+in a position to prove objectively in any way. Nay, further, before
+Young set up the undulatory theory of light, for a hundred years the
+emanation theory as taught by Newton obtained exclusively in physics;
+a theory which at the present day is universally regarded as
+untenable. In our opinion the mighty Newton won the greatest honours
+in the development of the science of optics, inasmuch as he was the
+first to connect and explain the vast mass of objective optical facts
+by a subjective and pregnant hypothesis. But, according to Virchow's
+view, Newton on the contrary transgressed greatly by teaching this
+erroneous hypothesis; for even in "exact" physics none but
+"independent and certain facts" are to be taught and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> established by
+"experiment as the highest means of proof." Physics as a whole, as
+resting on mere unproved hypotheses, may be indeed an object of
+inquiry but not of teaching.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the same is true of chemistry; nay, this stands on much
+weaker feet, and is even less proved than physics. The whole
+theoretical side of chemistry is an airy structure of hypotheses such
+as does not exist in any other science. In the last three decades we
+have seen a whole series of the most different theories rapidly
+succeed each other, none of which can be positively proved, though at
+least one of them is taught by every professor of chemistry. But what
+is worst of all, the common basis of all the most dissimilar chemical
+theories, viz., the atomic theory, is as unproved and unprovable as
+any hypothesis can be. No chemist has ever seen an atom, but he
+nevertheless considers the mechanism of atoms as the highest term of
+his science, he nevertheless describes and constructs the connection
+of atoms in their various combinations as though he had them before
+him on the dissecting-table! All the conceptions which we possess as
+to chemical structure and the affinities of matter, are subjective
+hypotheses, mere conceptions as to the position and changes of
+position of the various atoms, whose very existence is incapable of
+proof. Away,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> then, with chemistry from our schools! The chemist must
+only describe the properties of the different elements and those
+combinations which can be put before the pupil as ascertained facts
+founded in experiment, "the highest means of proof." Everything that
+goes beyond this is mischievous, particularly every suggestion as to
+the essence and chemical constituents of bodies; matters as to which,
+in the nature of things, we can only form uncertain hypotheses. For as
+all chemistry, viewed as a system of doctrine, rests solely on such
+hypotheses, it may be indeed a subject of investigation but not of
+teaching.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus convinced ourselves that chemistry as well as physics,
+those "exact sciences," those "mechanical" bases of all other
+sciences, rest on mere unproved hypotheses, and so must not be taught,
+we may make short work of the other faculties. For they collectively
+are more or less historical sciences and dispense wholly or in part
+with even those half-exact, fundamental principles on which physics
+and chemistry are based. In the first place, there is that grand,
+historical, natural science, geology; the great doctrine of the
+structure and composition, the origin and development of our globe.
+According to Virchow this too must be limited to the description of
+ascertained facts, such as the structure of mountain masses, the
+character of the fossils<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> they contain, the formation of crystals, and
+so forth. But not for the world must anything be taught as to the
+evolution of this globe; for this rests from beginning to end on
+unproved hypotheses. For even to the present day the Plutonic and
+Neptunic theories are disputing the field, and to this day we know not
+as to many of the most important rocks, whether they originated by the
+agency of fire or of water. The new and remarkable discoveries of the
+great Challenger-expedition threaten to subvert a great many
+geological notions which had long been regarded as certain. Then
+again, as to fossils. Who can prove with any certainty that these
+petrifactions are in truth the fossilised remains of extinct
+organisms? They may be&mdash;as many distinguished naturalists of even the
+last century maintained&mdash;marvellous sports of nature, mysterious
+"Lusus natur&aelig;," or mere rough, inorganic models of the labouring
+Creator into which He subsequently "breathed the breath of life;" or
+perhaps "stone-flesh" (caro fossilis) brought into existence, on the
+dead rocks by the "fertilising air" (aura seminalis), and so forth.</p>
+
+<p>But I am wrong! for with regard to petrifactions, Virchow is in the
+highest degree speculative, and accepts without any hesitation the
+rash hypothesis that fossils are actually the remains of extinct
+organisms,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> although no "certain proof" whatever can be offered in its
+favour, and although experiment, the "highest means of proof," has
+never yet produced a single fossil. According to him these are actual
+"objective, material evidences," only here we must go no further than
+certain experience teaches us, and base no subjective conclusions on
+these objective facts. Thus, for instance, in the long series of the
+mesozoic formations, in the different strata of the Trias, Jurassic,
+and Chalk formations, for the deposition of which a lapse of many
+millions of years has been required, we find absolutely no remains of
+fossil mammalia beyond lower jaws; seek where we will, nothing is
+anywhere to be found but lower jaws, and no other bones whatever. The
+simple reasons of this striking imperfection of the pal&aelig;ontological
+record have been clearly expounded by Lyell, Huxley, and others.
+(Comp. my "History of Creation," vol. ii. p. 32.) These great
+investigators, in accordance with all other pal&aelig;ontologists, have
+demonstrated that these jaw-bones of the mesozoic period are the
+remains of mammalia, accurately speaking of marsupials, on the simple
+ground that the nether jaws of the extant recent marsupials show a
+similar characteristic form with the fossil ones. They therefore
+unhesitatingly assume that the rest of the bones in the bodies of
+these extinct animals corresponded to those of living mammals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> But
+this is a quite inadmissible hypothesis devoid of any "certain proof!"
+Where, then, are the other bones? Let us see them! till then we
+decline to believe in them. According to Virchow, we ought rather to
+assume that the lower jaw was the only bone in the body of these
+extraordinary beasts. Are there not, in fact, snails, in which an
+upper jaw is the only representation of a skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot omit taking this opportunity of casting a side glance at the
+very hazardous position which Virchow, in total opposition to his
+boasted cool scepticism, has taken up in anthropology as it is called,
+now his favourite branch of science. In his Munich address he tells us
+that he is pursuing the study of anthropology with delight, and then
+asserts that "the quarternary man" is an universally-accepted fact.
+Quite apart from this statement, we have seen that Virchow can never
+attain to a profound and really scientific study of anthropology
+simply for this reason, that he is lacking in that comprehensive
+knowledge of comparative morphology which is indispensable to it; nay,
+comparative anatomy and ontogenesis must be, according to him,
+unpermitted speculations and the phylogenesis of man, the key to all
+the most important questions of anthropology, being based upon these,
+is devoid of all certain proof. All the more must we wonder at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+speculative levity with which even the sceptic Virchow in the
+"Primeval History of Man" and "Fossil Anthropology," embarks in the
+most hazardous conjectures, and gives out uncertain, subjective
+hypotheses as certain, objective facts.</p>
+
+<p>There is, in fact, at the present day no department of science in
+which the wildest and most untenable hypotheses have blossomed out so
+freely as in anthropology and ethnology, so-called. All the
+phylogenetic hypotheses which I myself have put forward in my
+"Evolution of Man" as to the animal ancestry of man, or in my "Natural
+History of Creation" as to the affinities of animal races&mdash;all the
+other genealogical hypotheses which are now advanced by numerous
+zoologists and botanists as to the phylogenetic evolution of the
+animal and plant worlds&mdash;all these hypotheses together, which Virchow
+rejects in a lump, are, critically considered as hypotheses, far
+better grounded in facts, far better supported by facts, than the
+majority of those innumerable airy and fanciful hypotheses with which,
+for the last twelve years, the "Archiv f&uuml;r Anthropologie" and
+"Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie," edited by Virchow and Bastian, have
+filled their columns. This last periodical has at least the merit of
+being a tolerably consistent opponent of the doctrine of evolution,
+while in the former, during twelve years, essays on both sides have
+been mixed up in cheerful confusion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> And how fanciful are the
+short-sighted hypotheses which there blossom forth from the mixed mass
+of facts, chaotically flung together. Only think of the disputes over
+the stone age, bronze age, and iron age; think of the motley
+discussions as to the varieties of skull-conformation and their
+significance; on the races of man, the migrations of peoples and the
+like. Most of these very intricate historical problems are far more
+buried in obscurity, and the hypotheses to explain them dispense far
+more largely with any basis of facts, than is the case with our
+phylogenetic hypotheses; for these are more or less "objectively"
+based on the facts of comparative anatomy and ontogenesis.</p>
+
+<p>But no one of these historical hypotheses is so daring, so little
+"certainly proved," as the group of very various and contradictory
+hypotheses which have been put forward as to the antiquity and first
+appearance of the human species; and Virchow asserts positively "The
+pleistocene man is an universally accepted fact. The tertiary man is,
+on the other hand, a problem, though indeed a problem which is already
+under substantial discussion!" As if the distinction between the
+tertiary and quarternary periods were not itself a geological
+hypothesis, and as if the significance of the fossil animal-remains,
+which play the largest part in it, did not also rest on mere
+hypotheses which escape all certain proof! Where, then, is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> actual
+experiment "as the highest means of proof," which gives evidence for
+these "certain facts"? The whole discussion in general about
+pre-historic man, which Virchow has mixed up with his Munich address
+(pp. 30, 31), is the clearest evidence of the uncritical spirit in
+which he deals with these historical problems as "exact natural
+sciences." He assures us that "not one single ape's skull, nor skull
+of an anthropoid ape, has ever been found which could actually have
+belonged to a human owner! and he adds this sentence, in italics, "We
+cannot teach, for we cannot regard it as a real acquisition of
+science, that man is descended from the ape or from any other animal!"
+Then evidently no alternative remains but that he is descended from a
+god, or from a clod!</p>
+
+<p>But let us go over the rest of the sciences to see what, according to
+Virchow, may be taught in each without endangering the safety of
+science. In the whole department of biology, as well as in
+zoology&mdash;including anthropology&mdash;and in botany, instruction must be
+limited to imparting those trifling fragments of knowledge which
+either consist of mere descriptions of dry facts, or which supply an
+explanation of them by mathematical formulas. Morphology must be
+taught as mere descriptive anatomy and systematising, the history of
+development as mere descriptive ontogenesis. Comparative anatomy and
+phylogenesis, which by their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> explanatory hypotheses raise those dead
+masses of facts to the place of true and living sciences&mdash;these must
+not be taught at all. And how then do matters stand with regard to the
+cell-theory, that fundamental theory on which every element of our
+morphology and physiology depends, and by applying which Virchow
+himself reached his grandest results?</p>
+
+<p>Since Schleiden in Jena, forty years ago, first put forward the
+cell-theory, and Schwann immediately after applied it to the animal
+kingdom and so to the whole organic world, this fundamental doctrine
+has undergone very important modifications, for it is indeed a
+biological theory, but not a fact. We may recollect under what
+different aspects its main principles have appeared in the course of
+these four decades: what changes have taken place in the conception of
+the cell itself. After the organic cell had originally been conceived
+of as a vesicle, consisting of a firm capsule and a fluid content, we
+subsequently discerned it to be composed of a glutinous semi-fluid
+cell-substance, the protoplasm, and convinced ourselves that this
+protoplasm and the cell-core or nucleus enclosed in it are the most
+important and indispensable constituent parts of the cell, while the
+external firm capsule, the cell-membrane, is not essential and very
+frequently wanting. But even now opinions widely differ as to how the
+conception of a cell should be precisely defined,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> and what
+consequences must be inferred from the cell-theory, and attempts have
+not been wanting to upset it altogether and to treat it as worthless.
+The anatomist Henle, of G&ouml;ttingen, in particular, has repeatedly made
+such an attempt, that "gifted" anatomist who, in the preface to his
+bulky text-book of human anatomy, declared that scientific ideas are
+mere worthless paper money, and that the noble metal of facts, on the
+contrary, is the only genuine article. Not long since a bulky volume
+in quarto appeared, by one Herr Nathusius-K&ouml;nigsborn, in which the
+cell is explained to be a subordinate plastic element, and the
+cell-theory is eliminated as superfluous; and this monstrous volume,
+full of the most amusing nonsense, is dedicated to Herr Henle. Virchow
+formerly was one of the victorious opponents of the G&ouml;ttingen
+physician, and wrote brilliant articles against the "rational
+pathology" of "irrational Herr Henle;" now apparently he agrees with
+him that the paper money of ideas is worthless as compared with the
+noble metal of facts. Of course the cell-theory then loses all its
+value, and cannot be a subject of instruction; for the cell itself is
+not a certain and undoubted fact, but only an abstraction, a
+philosophical idea.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing more clearly shows what a complete change Virchow has
+undergone in his most important principles, and what an utter
+metapsychosis in this special province,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> than his famous axiom,
+uttered in 1855&mdash;"Omnis cellula e cellula." That is unquestionably the
+boldest generalisation to which the youthful, independent Virchow ever
+attained, and one on which he justly prided himself not a little. He
+himself repeatedly compared it with Harvey's saying, which marked an
+epoch&mdash;"Omne vivum ex ovo." But neither of these axioms is universally
+correct. On the contrary, we now know that every cell does not
+necessarily originate from a cell, any more than that every organic
+individual originates from an ovum. In many cases true nucleated cells
+proceed from un-nucleated cytods, as in the Gregarin&aelig;, Myxomycet&aelig; and
+others. Nay more, the primordial organic cells could only have
+originated in the first instance from non-cellular plastides or monads
+by their homogeneous plasson resolving itself into an internal nucleus
+and an external protoplasm. Thus, as we subsequently learnt to know
+most of the exceptions to this generalisation of Virchow, it appeared
+all the bolder; the more so as we were at that time far from being
+able to refer all the different tissues of the higher animals with any
+certainty to cells, and as not a few experiments seemed to point to
+the hypothesis of free cell-formation. That guiding axiom, which so
+powerfully furthered the cell-theory, Virchow, from his present
+standpoint, must wholly condemn as a crime against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> exact science, and
+he surely can never forgive himself for having propounded this
+hypothesis&mdash;which was afterwards found to be not universally true&mdash;as
+an important doctrinal axiom.</p>
+
+<p>We shall indeed find much worse sins against his own principles of
+to-day if we turn to Virchow's own special department of science,
+namely, pathological anatomy and physiology, the most important
+division of theoretic medicine. The great and incomparable services
+which Virchow here effected do not depend on the numerous independent
+new facts which he discovered, but on the theories and hypotheses by
+which, like an inspired pioneer, he sought to open a way through the
+dead waste of pathological knowledge and to form it into a living
+science. These new theories and the hypotheses on which they were
+founded, Virchow then propounded to us, his disciples, with such
+incisive assurance that every one of us was convinced of their truth;
+and yet later experience has shown that they were in part
+insufficiently proved and in part wholly false. For example, I will
+only here recall his famous theory of the connective-tissue, for which
+I myself in several of my early works (1856 to 1858) broke a lance.
+His theory seemed to explain a host of the most important
+physiological and pathological phenomena in the simplest manner, and
+yet it was afterwards proved to be false. In spite of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> this, I declare
+to this day that it was of the greatest service for the development of
+our acquaintance with the formation of the connective-tissue; as a
+guiding hypothesis and as a provisional clue to our investigations.
+Virchow, on the contrary, if he impartially reflects on the part he
+took in the diffusion of this misleading doctrine, must reproach
+himself severely for it. For "we must draw a hard and fast line
+between what we are to teach and what we are to investigate. What we
+investigate are problems," but "the problem ought not to be the
+subject of teaching." That Virchow, in his course of instruction,
+every day belied this, his present view of teaching, that he every
+hour taught his disciples some unproved theory and problematical
+hypothesis, every one knows who, like myself, for years and with the
+deepest interest, enjoyed his distinguished instruction. Still the
+captivating charm of this instruction&mdash;in spite of the defective
+method of unprepared lectures&mdash;lay precisely in this, that Virchow as
+a teacher constantly let us, his pupils, enter into those problems
+with which he himself at the moment was occupied; that he propounded
+to us his personal hypothesis for the elucidation of the given facts.
+And what really gifted teacher who lives in his science would not do
+the same? Where is there, or where has there ever been, a great master
+who in his teaching has confined himself to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> only imparting certain
+and undoubtedly ascertained facts? Who has not, on the contrary, found
+that the charm and value of his instruction lay precisely in
+propounding the problems which link themselves with those facts, and
+in teaching the uncertain theories and fluctuating hypotheses which
+may serve to solve these problems? Or is there for the young and
+struggling mind anything better, or more conducive to culture, than to
+exercise the intelligence in problems of investigation?</p>
+
+<p>How unpractical and how absurd is Virchow's demand&mdash;that only
+ascertained facts and no problematic theories shall be admitted in
+teaching&mdash;will be still more strikingly shown by a glance over the
+remaining provinces of human knowledge. What, indeed, will be left of
+history, of philology, of political science, of jurisprudence, if we
+restrict the teaching of them to absolutely-ascertained and
+established facts. What of "science" will remain to them if the idea
+which endeavours to discern the causes of the facts is banished? if
+the problems, the theories, the hypotheses, which seek these causes
+may not be generally taught? And that philosophy&mdash;the science of
+knowing&mdash;by which all the common results of human knowledge are to be
+bound up into one grand and harmonious whole&mdash;that philosophy, I say,
+must not be generally taught, is, according to Virchow, quite
+self-evident.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Finally, there remains nothing but theology. Theology alone is the one
+true science, and its dogmas alone may be taught as certain. Of
+course! for it proceeds directly from revelation, and only divine
+revelation can be "quite certain;" it alone can never err. Yes,
+incredible as it sounds, Virchow, the sceptical opponent of dogma, the
+leader of the fight for "liberty of science," Virchow now finds the
+only sure basis for instruction in the dogmas of the Church. After all
+that has gone before, the following memorable sentence leaves no doubt
+on this score:&mdash;"Every attempt to transform our problems into dogmas,
+to introduce our conjectures as a basis of instruction, particularly
+any attempt simply to dispossess the Church and to supplant her dogma
+by a creed of descent&mdash;ay, gentlemen&mdash;this attempt must fail, and in
+its ruin will entail the greatest peril on the position of science in
+general."</p>
+
+<p>The shouts of triumph of the whole clerical press over Virchow's
+Munich address is thus rendered perfectly intelligible, for it is well
+known that "there is more joy in heaven over one sinner that repenteth
+than over ten just men." When Rudolf Virchow, the "notorious
+materialist," the "advanced radical," the "great supporter of the
+atheism of science," is so suddenly converted, when he proclaims
+loudly and publicly that the dogmas of the Church are the only sure
+basis of instruction, then the Church militant may well sing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> "Hosanna
+in the highest!" Only one thing is to be regretted, that Virchow has
+not more clearly defined which of the many different church-religions
+is the only true one, and which of the innumerable and contradictory
+dogmas are to form the sure basis of instruction. We all know that
+each Church regards itself as the only truly saving one, and her own
+dogma as the only true one. But as to whether it is to be
+Protestantism or Catholicism, the Reformed or the Lutheran confession,
+whether the Anglican or the Presbyterian dogma, whether the Roman or
+the Greek Church, the Mosaic or the Mohammedan dispensation, whether
+Buddhism or Brahmanism, whether, finally, it is to be one of the many
+fetish-religions of the Indians and Negroes that is to form the
+permanent and sure basis of instruction, let us hope that Virchow will
+at the next meeting of German naturalists and physicians divulge his
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p>At any rate, the "instruction of the future, according to Virchow,"
+will be greatly simplified if he will do this. For the dogma of the
+Trinity in Unity as a basis of mathematics, the dogma of the
+resurrection of the body as a basis of medicine, the dogma of
+infallibility as a basis of psychology, the dogma of the immaculate
+conception as a basis of genetic science, the dogma of the staying of
+the sun as a basis of astronomy, the dogma of the creation of the
+earth, animals, and plants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> as a basis of geology and
+phylogenesis&mdash;these or any other dogma, at pleasure, from any other
+church will make all other doctrine quite superfluous. Virchow, "that
+critical spirit," knows as well as I, and as every other naturalist,
+that these dogmas are not true, and nevertheless, in his opinion, they
+are not to be supplanted as the "basis of instruction" by those
+theories and hypotheses of modern natural science of which Virchow
+himself says that they may be true, that in a great measure they
+probably are true, but are not yet "quite certainly proved."</p>
+
+<p>At pages 15, 24, 26, 28, and elsewhere in his Munich address, Virchow
+strongly insists that only that objective knowledge may be taught
+which we possess as absolutely certain fact! and then at page 29 he
+requires us to conclude that the basis of instruction shall continue
+to be the purely subjective dogmas of the Church; revelations and
+dogmas which not only are not proved by any facts whatever, but on the
+contrary, stand in the most trenchant contradiction to the most
+obvious facts of natural experience and fly in the face of all human
+reason. These contradictions, to be sure, are no greater than some
+others which stand out conspicuous and incomprehensible in Virchow's
+discourse. Thus at the beginning of his address he glorifies Lorenz
+Oken and deeply laments "that he, that highly-valued and honoured
+master, that ornament<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> of the high school of Munich, had been forced
+to die in exile! That cruel exile which oppressed Oken's latter years,
+which left him to perish far from those cities to which he had
+sacrificed the best powers of his life, that exile will be remembered
+as the note of the time which we have passed through. And so long as
+there continue to be meetings of German naturalists, so long may we
+gratefully remember that this man to his death bore upon him all the
+signs of a martyr, so long shall we point to him as one of the
+witnesses who have fought for us and for the liberty of science."
+Verily these words from Virchow's lips sound like the bitterest irony;
+for was not Lorenz Oken one of the foremost and most zealous champions
+of that monistic doctrine of development against which Rudolf Virchow
+at this day is most violently striving? Did not Oken himself proceed
+farther in the construction of bold hypotheses and comprehensive
+theories than any supporter of the doctrine of evolution at the
+present time? Is not Oken justly considered as the one typical
+representative of that older period of natural philosophy who rose to
+much higher and bolder flights of fancy, and left the solid ground of
+facts much farther behind him than any tyro of the new philosophy? And
+this makes the irony seem all the greater with which Virchow at the
+beginning of his address<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> glorifies Oken the free teacher, as a martyr
+to the freedom of science, and at the end of it insists that this
+freedom applies only to inquiry and not to teaching, and that the
+master must teach no problem, no theory, no hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>While this unheard-of demand sets Virchow's views of teaching in the
+most extraordinary light, and while every unprejudiced and experienced
+teacher must most emphatically protest against this strait-waistcoat
+for instruction, he will feel no less bound to resist Virchow's other
+strange demand, that every ascertained truth shall forthwith be taught
+in all schools, down to the elementary schools. I myself, in my Munich
+address, sought the instructional value of our monistic evolution
+theory above all in the genetic method, in the inquiry, that is to
+say, for the effective causes of the facts taught; and I added these
+words&mdash;"How far the principles of the doctrine of universal evolution
+ought to be at once introduced into our schools, and in what
+succession its most important branches ought to be taught in the
+different classes&mdash;cosmogony, geology, the phylogenesis of animals and
+plants, and anthropology&mdash;this we must leave to practical teachers to
+settle. But we believe that an extensive reform of instruction in this
+direction is inevitable, and will be crowned by the fairest results."
+I purposely avoided<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> any closer discussion of this specialist
+question, as I felt not even approximately capable of solving it, and
+I believe, in fact, that none but skilled and experienced practical
+teachers can undertake the solution of it with any success.</p>
+
+<p>For Virchow these specialist difficulties seem not to exist; he
+regards my reticence as a mere "postponement of the task," and he
+answers in the following astonishing sentences:&mdash;"If the theory of
+descent is as certain as Herr Haeckel assumes, then we must
+demand&mdash;for it is a necessary consequence&mdash;that it shall be taught in
+schools. How is it conceivable that a doctrine of such importance,
+which must effect such a total revolution in all our mental
+consciousness, which directly tends to create a new kind of religion,
+should not be included in the school scheme of instruction? How is it
+possible that such a&mdash;revelation, shall I say&mdash;should be in any
+measure suppressed, or that the promulgation of the greatest and most
+important advance which has been made in our views during the present
+century should be left to the discretion of schoolmasters? Ay,
+gentlemen, that would indeed be a renunciation of the hardest kind,
+and practically it could never be carried out! Every schoolmaster who
+assumes this doctrine for himself will involuntarily teach it, how can
+it be otherwise?"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I must here be permitted to take Virchow exactly at his word. I
+endorse almost all that he has said in these and the following
+sentences. The only difference in our views is this, that Virchow
+regards the theory of descent as an unproved and unproveable
+hypothesis; I, on the contrary, as a fully established and
+indispensable theory. How then will it be if the teachers of whom
+Virchow speaks agree with my views, if&mdash;apart, of course, from all
+special theories of descent&mdash;they, like me, consider the general
+theory of descent as the indispensable basis of all biological
+teaching? And that that is actually the case Virchow may easily
+convince himself if he looks over the recent literature of zoology and
+botany! Our whole morphological literature in particular is already so
+deeply and completely penetrated by the doctrine of descent,
+phylogenetic principles already prevail so universally as a certain
+and indispensable instrument of inquiry, that no man for the future
+would deprive himself of their help. As Oscar Schmidt justly
+observes&mdash;"Perhaps ninety-nine per cent. of all living, or rather of
+all working zoologists, are convinced by inductive methods of the
+truth of the doctrine of descent." And Virchow with his magisterial
+requirements will attain only the very reverse of what he aims at. How
+often has it not been said already that science must either have
+perfect freedom or else none at all? This is as true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> of teaching as
+it is of inquiry, for the two are intrinsically and inseparably
+connected. And so it is not in vain that it is written in section 152
+of the German Code, and in section 20 of the Prussian Charter,
+"Science and her teaching shall be free!"</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Every great and comprehensive theory which affects the foundations of
+human science, and which, consequently, influences the systems of
+philosophy, will, in the first place, not only further our theoretical
+views of the universe, but will also react on practical philosophy,
+ethics, and the correlated provinces of religion and politics. In my
+paper read at Munich I only briefly pointed out the happy results
+which, in my opinion, the modern doctrine of evolution will entail
+when the true, natural religion, founded on reason, takes the place of
+the dogmatic religion of the Church, and its leading principle derives
+the human sense of duty from the social instincts of animals.</p>
+
+<p>The references to the social instincts which I, in common with Darwin
+and many others, regard as the proper source and origin of all moral
+development, appear to have afforded Virchow an opportunity in his
+reply for designating the doctrine of inheritance as a "socialist
+theory," and for attributing to it the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> dangerous and
+objectionable character which, at the present time, any political
+theory can have; and these startling denunciations so soon as they
+were known called forth such just indignation and such comprehensive
+refutation that I might very properly pass them over here. Still we
+must at least shortly examine them, in so far as they supply a further
+proof that Virchow is unacquainted with the most important principles
+of the development-theory of the day, and therefore is incompetent to
+judge it. Moreover, Virchow, as a politician, manifestly attributed
+special importance to this political application of his paper, for he
+gave it the title, which otherwise would have been hardly suitable, of
+"The Freedom of Science in the Modern Polity." Unfortunately he forgot
+to add to this title the two words in which the special tendency of
+his discourse culminates; the two pregnant words, "must cease!"</p>
+
+<p>The surprising disclosures in which Virchow denounces the doctrine of
+evolution, and particularly the doctrine of descent, as socialist
+theories and dangerous to the community, run as follows:&mdash;"Now,
+picture to yourself the theory of descent as it already exists in the
+brain of a socialist. Ay, gentlemen, it may seem laughable to many,
+but it is in truth very serious, and I only hope that the theory of
+descent may not entail on us all the horrors which similar theories
+have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> actually brought upon neighbouring countries. At all times this
+theory, if it is logically carried out to the end, has an uncommonly
+suspicious aspect, and the fact that it has gained the sympathy of
+socialism has not, it is to be hoped, escaped your notice. We must
+make that quite clear to ourselves."</p>
+
+<p>On reading this statement, which seems extracted from the Berlin
+"Kreuz-Zeitung," or the Vienna "Vaterland," I ask myself in surprise,
+"What in the world has the doctrine of descent to do with socialism?"
+It has already been abundantly proved on many sides, and long since,
+that these two theories are about as compatible as fire and water.
+Oscar Schmidt might with justice retort, "If the socialists would
+think clearly they would feel that they must do all they can to choke
+the doctrine of descent, for it declares with express distinctness
+that socialist ideas are impracticable." And he proceeds to add, "And
+why has not Virchow made the gentle doctrines of Christianity
+responsible for the excesses of socialism? That would have had some
+sense. His denunciation flung so mysteriously and so confidently
+before the great public, as though it concerned 'a sure and attested
+scientific truth,' is, at the same time, so hollow that it cannot be
+brought into harmony with the dignity of science."</p>
+
+<p>With all these empty accusations, as with all the empty reproaches and
+groundless objections which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> Virchow brings against the doctrine of
+evolution, he takes good care in no way to touch the kernel of the
+matter. How, indeed, would it have been possible without arriving at
+conclusions wholly opposed to those which he has declared? For the
+theory of descent proclaims more clearly than any other scientific
+theory, that that equality of individuals which socialism strives
+after is an impossibility, that it stands, in fact, in irreconcilable
+contradiction to the inevitable inequality of individuals which
+actually and everywhere subsists. Socialism demands equal rights,
+equal duties, equal possessions, equal enjoyments for every citizen
+alike; the theory of descent proves, in exact opposition to this, that
+the realisation of this demand is a pure impossibility, and that in
+the constitutionally organised communities of men, as of the lower
+animals, neither rights nor duties, neither possessions nor enjoyments
+have ever been equal for all the members alike nor ever can be.
+Throughout the evolutionist theory, as in its biological branch, the
+theory of descent&mdash;the great law of specialisation or
+differentiation&mdash;teaches us that a multiplicity of phenomena is
+developed from original unity, heterogeneity from original similarity,
+and the composite organism from original simplicity. The conditions of
+existence are dissimilar for each individual from the beginning of its
+existence; even the inherited qualities, the natural "disposition,"
+are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> more or less unlike; how, then, can the problems of life and
+their solution be alike for all? The more highly political life is
+organised, the more prominent is the great principle of the division
+of labour, and the more requisite it becomes for the lasting security
+of the whole state that its members should be variously distributed in
+the manifold tasks of life; and as the work to be performed by
+different individuals is of the most various kind, as well as the
+corresponding outlay of strength, skill, property, &amp;c., the reward of
+the work must naturally be also extremely various. These are such
+simple and tangible facts that one would suppose that every reasonable
+and unprejudiced politician would recommend the theory of descent, and
+the evolution hypothesis in general, as the best antidote to the
+fathomless absurdity of extravagant socialist levelling.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, Darwinism, the theory of natural selection&mdash;which Virchow
+aimed at in his denunciation, much more especially than at
+transformation, the theory of descent&mdash;which is often confounded with
+it&mdash;Darwinism, I say, is anything rather than socialist! If this
+English hypothesis is to be compared to any definite political
+tendency&mdash;as is, no doubt, possible&mdash;that tendency can only be
+aristocratic, certainly not democratic, and least of all socialist.
+The theory of selection teaches that in human life, as in animal and
+plant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> life everywhere, and at all times, only a small and chosen
+minority can exist and flourish, while the enormous majority starve
+and perish miserably and more or less prematurely. The germs of every
+species of animal and plant and the young individuals which spring
+from them are innumerable, while the number of those fortunate
+individuals which develop to maturity and actually reach their
+hardly-won life's goal is out of all proportion trifling. The cruel
+and merciless struggle for existence which rages throughout all living
+nature, and in the course of nature <i>must</i> rage, this unceasing and
+inexorable competition of all living creatures, is an incontestable
+fact; only the picked minority of the qualified "fittest" is in a
+position to resist it successfully, while the great majority of the
+competitors must necessarily perish miserably. We may profoundly
+lament this tragical state of things, but we can neither controvert it
+nor alter it. "Many are called but few are chosen." The selection, the
+picking out of these "chosen ones," is inevitably connected with the
+arrest and destruction of the remaining majority. Another English
+naturalist, therefore, designates the kernel of Darwinism very frankly
+as the "survival of the fittest," as the "victory of the best." At any
+rate, this principle of selection is nothing less than democratic, on
+the contrary, it is aristocratic in the strictest sense of the word.
+If, therefore,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> Darwinism, logically carried out, has, according to
+Virchow, "an uncommonly suspicious aspect," this can only be found in
+the idea that it offers a helping hand to the efforts of the
+aristocrats. But how the socialism of the day can find any
+encouragement in these efforts, and how the horrors of the Paris
+Commune can be traced to them, is to me, I must frankly confess,
+absolutely incomprehensible.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, we must not omit this opportunity of pointing out how
+dangerous such a direct and unqualified transfer of the theories of
+natural science to the domain of practical politics must be. The
+highly elaborate conditions of our modern civilised life require from
+the practical politician such circumspect and impartial consideration,
+such thorough historical training and powers of critical comparison,
+that he will not venture to make such an application of a "natural
+law" to the practice of civilised life, but with the greatest caution
+and reserve. How, then, is it possible that Virchow, the experienced
+and skilled politician, who, above all things, preaches caution and
+reserve in theory, suddenly makes just such an application of
+transformation and Darwinism&mdash;an application so radically perverse
+that it actually flies in the face of the fundamental ideas of these
+doctrines? I myself am nothing less than a politician. In direct
+contrast with Virchow, I lack alike the gift and the training for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> it,
+as well as taste and vocation. Hence I neither shall play any
+political part in the future, nor have I hitherto made any attempt of
+the kind. Though here and there I have occasionally uttered a
+political opinion, or have made a political application of some theory
+of natural science, these subjective opinions have no objective value.
+In point of fact I have by so doing overstepped the limits of my
+competence, just as Virchow has by going into questions of zoology and
+particularly that of the transformation of apes: I am a layman in
+political practice, as Virchow is in the province of zoological
+hypothesis. Moreover, such success as Virchow has attained during the
+twenty years of his painful, wearisome, and exhausting activity as a
+politician does not, in truth, make me pine for such laurels.</p>
+
+<p>But this at least I, as a theoretical naturalist, may demand of
+practical politicians, that in utilising our theories for political
+ends they should first make themselves exactly acquainted with them;
+they then, for the future, would forbear drawing conclusions from
+them, the very opposite to those which ought reasonably to be
+inferred. Misunderstandings would never thus be wholly avoided, it is
+true, but what doctrine is universally secure against
+misunderstanding? And from what theory, however sound and true, may
+not the most unsound and frantic inferences be drawn?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nothing, perhaps, shows so plainly as the history of Christianity how
+little theory and practice harmonise in human life; how little pains
+are taken, even by those whose calling it is to uphold established
+doctrines, to apply their natural consequences to practical life. The
+Christian religion, no doubt, as well as the Buddhist, when stripped
+of all dogmatic and fabulous nonsense, contains an admirable human
+kernel, and precisely that human portion of Christian teaching&mdash;in the
+best sense social-democratic&mdash;which preaches the equality of all men
+before God, the loving of your neighbour as yourself, love in general
+in the noblest sense, a fellow-feeling with the poor and wretched, and
+so forth&mdash;precisely, those truly human sides of the Christian doctrine
+are so natural, so noble, so pure, that we unhesitatingly adopt them
+into the moral doctrine of our monistic natural religion. Nay, the
+social instincts of the higher animals on which we found this religion
+(for instance the marvellous sense of duty of ants, &amp;c.) are in this
+best sense strictly Christian.</p>
+
+<p>And what&mdash;we may ask&mdash;what have the professed supporters, the "learned
+divines" of this religion of love done? Their deeds are written in
+letters of blood in the history of the civilisation of mankind during
+the last 1800 years. All else that differing church-religions have
+accomplished for the forcible extension of their doctrines and for the
+extirpation of heretics of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> other creeds, all that the Jews have been
+guilty of towards the heathen, the Roman emperors towards the
+Christians, the Mohammedans towards Christians and Jews alike&mdash;all
+this is outdone by the hecatombs of human victims which Christianity
+has demanded for the spread of her doctrines. And these were
+Christians against Christians&mdash;orthodox Christians against heterodox
+Christians! think only of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, of the
+inconceivable and inhuman barbarities committed by the "most Christian
+kings" of Spain, by their worthy colleagues in Frankfort, in Italy,
+and elsewhere. Hundreds of thousands then died that most horrible
+death by fire, simply because they would not bend their reason to pass
+under the yoke of the grossest superstition, and because their loyalty
+to their convictions forbade them to deny the natural truth that they
+clearly discerned. There are no deeds more hideous, base, and inhuman
+than those that at that time were committed&mdash;nay, are still
+committed&mdash;in the name and on account of "true Christianity."</p>
+
+<p>And finally, how do matters stand with regard to the morality of the
+priests who announce themselves as the ministers of God's Word, and
+whose duty is therefore above all others to carry out the saving
+doctrines of Christianity in their own lives? The long, unbroken, and
+horrible series of crimes of every kind which is offered by the
+history of the Roman Popes is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> the best answer to this question. And
+just as these "Vicars of God on earth" did, so did their subordinates
+and accomplices, so, too, have the orthodox priests of other sects
+done; never failing to set the practice of their own course of life in
+the strongest possible contrast to those noble doctrines of Christian
+love which were constantly on their lips.</p>
+
+<p>And as with Christianity so it is with every other religious and moral
+doctrine which ought to have proved its power in the wide domain of
+practical philosophy, in the education of youth, in the civilisation
+of nations. The theoretic kernel of this doctrine may always and
+everywhere stand in the most glaring contradiction to its practical
+working-out, testifying to the endless inconsistency of human nature:
+but what can all this matter to the scientific inquirer? His sole and
+only task is to seek for truth and to teach what he has discerned to
+be the truth, indifferent as to what consequences the various parties
+of state or church may happen to draw from it.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>IGNORABIMUS ET RESTRINGAMUR.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The dangerous attempt which Virchow made in Munich against the freedom
+of science is not the first of its kind. On the contrary, five years
+before, it experienced a similar attack which is most intimately
+connected with this later one, so that, in conclusion, we must here
+add a few words on the subject. Undoubtedly the famous
+"Ignorabimus-speech" of Du Bois-Reymond, which he delivered in 1872 at
+the forty-fifth meeting of German naturalists and physicians in
+Leipzig, forms only the first portion of that same crusade against the
+freedom of science of which Virchow's "Restringamur speech" of 1877,
+at the fiftieth meeting of the same society, forms the second part.</p>
+
+<p>That brilliant and powerful essay by Du Bois-Reymond "on the
+Limitation of Natural Knowledge" has already been discussed so often,
+and from such different sides, that it might seem superfluous to say
+another word about it. It seems to me, nevertheless, that by most
+people the centre-of-gravity of its contents was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> overlooked in
+admiration of the brilliant accessories of the essay. Indeed this
+frequently happens with Du Bois-Reymond's articles, for he knows too
+well how to conceal the weakness of his argument and evidence, and the
+shallowness of his thought, by striking images and flowery metaphors,
+and by all the phraseology of rhetoric in which the versatile French
+nature is so superior to our sober German one. It is all the more
+important that we should not let ourselves be dazzled by these
+seductive tricks, and particularly by adduced facts which bear upon
+the most important and fundamental questions of human science, but
+that we should extract the hard kernel from the savoury and fragrant
+fruit. In the preface to my "Evolution of Man," and in the notes 22
+and 23 of my Munich address, I have already incidentally alluded to
+the chief weaknesses of the "Ignorabimus-speech;" but I must here
+return somewhat more fully to the subject.</p>
+
+<p>There are, as is well known, two problems which Du Bois-Reymond
+propounds as the impassable boundary of human knowledge of nature;
+limits which indeed the human mind is not only incapable of passing at
+the present stage of its development, but which it never can be
+capable of passing in any more advanced stage. The first problem is
+the nature and connection of matter and force; the second is human
+consciousness. Now, first of all, as has already been said in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> the
+preface to the "Evolution of Man," we must raise a decided protest
+against the air of infallibility with which Du Bois-Reymond pronounces
+that these two problems are insoluble, not only at the present time
+but to all futurity. The power of development inherent in science and
+knowledge is hereby simply swept away with a word. Almost every great
+and difficult problem of knowledge seems to most or all contemporary
+thinkers insoluble, and every path to the solution of it seems closed,
+till at last the bold genius appears whose clear sight detects the
+right path which till then was hidden, and which leads to the required
+knowledge. We need only call to mind our present doctrine of
+evolution. The problem of creation&mdash;the question as to the origin of
+animal and vegetable species&mdash;was universally looked upon as
+transcendental and perfectly insoluble, till the genius of Lamarck
+established the principles of the theory of descent in his admirable
+"Philosophie Zoologique" in 1809. Nay, even then most&mdash;and among them
+the most distinguished&mdash;biologists thought the problem of creation a
+quite insoluble mystery, and Darwin was the first to solve it, fifty
+years later, by his theory of selection in 1859. Hence we venture to
+assert that there is no scientific problem of which we may dare to say
+that the mind of man will never solve it even in the remotest future.
+Well does Darwin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> say, in the introduction to his "Descent of Man,"
+"Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it
+is those who know little and not those who know much who so positively
+assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science." As
+far as concerns the two separate limits which Du Bois-Reymond fixes
+for human knowledge, in my opinion they are undoubtedly identical. The
+problem of the origin and nature of consciousness is only a special
+case of the general problem of the connection of matter and force. Du
+Bois-Reymond himself indicates that this is possible at the close of
+his paper; for he says, "Finally, the question arises whether the two
+limitations to our natural knowledge may not perhaps be identical;
+that is to say, whether if we could conceive of the true essence of
+matter and force, we should not also understand how the substance
+which lies at their root can, under certain given conditions, feel,
+desire, and think. This conception is, no doubt, the simplest, and
+according to admitted principles of inquiry it is to be preferred to
+that other which it confutes, and according to which, as has been
+said, the world appears doubly incomprehensible. But it is in the very
+nature of things that we cannot on this point come to any clear
+conclusion, and all further words on the subject are idle&mdash;and so,
+"Ignorabimus."</p>
+
+<p>The light way in which Du Bois-Reymond here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> passes over the most
+important part of his subject is truly surprising; as if it were
+ultimately indifferent whether we have before us one single insoluble
+fundamental problem or two quite different ones; and as if mature
+reflection did not lead to the conviction that, in fact, the second
+problem is only a special case of the first general problem. I, for my
+part, cannot conceive of them in any other relation; I think, too,
+that all further words are by no means superfluous, but on the
+contrary conduce to a very strong conviction of the unity of the
+problem. That Du Bois-Reymond also has not come to any clear
+conclusion on this point lies, not alone in the "nature of things,"
+but, as in Virchow's case, in the nature of the investigator himself;
+in his lack of knowledge of the history of evolution, and in his
+neglect of those comparative and genetic methods of study, without
+which, in my opinion, not even an approximate solution of this highest
+and most difficult question is to be looked for.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing appears to me to be of more importance for the mechanical
+explanation of consciousness than the comparative consideration of its
+development. We know that a new-born child has no consciousness, but
+that it is slowly and gradually acquired and developed. We perceive
+for ourselves how unconscious actions become conscious, and <i>vice
+versa</i>. Innumerable actions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> which at first are troublesome and have
+to be learnt with consciousness and reflection&mdash;as for instance
+walking, swimming, singing, and so forth&mdash;become unconscious only by
+repetition, practice, and the habit of using the organs. On the
+contrary, unconscious actions become conscious as soon as we direct
+our attention to them or our self-observation is attracted to them; as
+for instance when we miss a step in going up stairs or touch a wrong
+note on the piano; and beyond a doubt, conscious and unconscious
+actions pass into each other without any distinct line of demarcation.
+Finally, we see no less plainly by a comparative consideration of the
+soul-life of animals, that their consciousness is slowly, gradually,
+and serially developed, and that a long unbroken series of steps leads
+from unconscious to conscious existence. From these comparative and
+genetic experiences we may draw the conclusion that consciousness,
+like sensation and volition, like all the other soul-activities, is a
+function of the organism, a mechanical activity of the cells; and, as
+such, is referable to chemical and physical processes. Hence, if we
+were in a position to understand force as a necessary function of
+matter, we could explain consciousness, as well as the soul in
+general, as a necessary function of certain cells.</p>
+
+<p>How little Du Bois-Reymond is acquainted with the facts of comparative
+and genetic psychology, nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> shows more strikingly than the
+following astounding proposition in the "Ignorabimus-speech:"&mdash;"Where
+the material conditions for psychical activity, in the form of a
+nervous system, are wanting, as in plants, the naturalist cannot
+recognise a soul-life, and, on this point, he but seldom meets with
+contradiction." Begging your pardon! Every naturalist who is familiar
+with the comparative morphology and physiology of the lower animals
+will here put in a decided contradiction, for he can no more refuse to
+admit the undoubted sensation and voluntary motion of the one-celled
+Infusoria than of the many-celled hydroid polyps. The body of the true
+Infusoria (Ciliata, Acineta, &amp;c.), and many other Protista, remain
+throughout life one single cell, and, nevertheless, this cell is as
+fully furnished with all the most important attributes of the soul,
+with sensation and volition, as any one of the higher animals with a
+nervous system. The same obtains of the Hydra and the related hydroid
+polyps, in which the neuro-muscular cells, or other distributed cells
+of the outer germ-layer, fulfil the soul-functions. But as these
+cells, besides this, exercise motor and other functions as well, we
+cannot as yet designate them as nerve-cells, at any rate there can be
+no idea of a special nervous-system. The characteristic soul-organs of
+the higher animals, which we include under the conception of a
+nervous-system, in fact originated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> by the division of labour of the
+cells out of those neutral cell-groups in their lower-typed ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>In the great Soul-question Du Bois-Reymond, like Virchow, still keeps
+his position on the standpoint of neural-psychology, according to
+which no personal soul-life is conceivable without a nervous system.
+We look upon this standpoint as left far behind, and set up in
+opposition to it Cellular-psychology, the doctrine that every animal
+cell has a soul; that is to say, that its protoplasm is endowed with
+sensation and motion. In the one-celled Infusoria, which are so highly
+sensitive and have such an energetic will, this conception will be
+clear without any farther explanation. But we cannot refuse to allow
+that plant-cells as well as animal-cells have psychic functions, since
+we know that the phenomena of irritability, and of "automatic motion,"
+are the universal attributes of all protoplasm. No doubt the specific
+mechanism, the cause of motion, in the irritable Mimosa and other
+"sensitive" plants, is quite different from the muscular motions of
+animals; but these, like those, are only specifically different forms
+of development of the "cell-soul," and both proceed from the
+"mechanical energy of the protoplasm." The sensibility of the
+irritable protoplasm is the same in the vegetable-cell of the Mimosa
+as in the animal-cell of the Hydra. How far Du Bois-Reymond is from
+discerning this, and how deeply he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> is still entangled in
+neuro-psychological views is shown most clearly in the astonishing
+sentence which he has thought good to append to his above-quoted,
+erroneous assertion. "And what could we reply to the naturalist if,
+before he could agree to the assumption of a World-soul he required
+that we should show him&mdash;bedded in neuroglia and nourished by warm
+arterial blood&mdash;anywhere in the world a convolution of ganglionic
+centres co-extensive with the psychic capacity of such a Soul" (!)</p>
+
+<p>In other respects we will not deny that Du Bois-Reymond stands far
+nearer to our recent evolution-theory than Virchow; nay, that from
+year to year he has always pronounced more and more emphatically in
+favour of the theory of descent as the one possible explanation of
+morphological phenomena; indeed, Du Bois-Reymond has lately counted
+himself as one of those naturalists who were convinced of the truth of
+evolution even before Darwin! Then it is only to be wondered why so
+acute and gifted an inquirer, who is certainly not lacking in
+scientific ambition, left it to Charles Darwin to place the egg of
+Columbus on the ring and to point out to biological science a new
+method of unlimited capacity by giving the theory of descent a
+definite and reliable basis!</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from some remarks in his discourse bearing the title
+"Darwin versus Galiani" (1876), that Du<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> Bois-Reymond is still far
+from understanding the full significance of transmutation as affording
+a mechanical explanation of morphological problems. In this paper the
+"History of Creation" is treated simply as a romance, and the
+genealogies of phylogenesis are in his eyes "of about as much value as
+the pedigrees of the Homeric heroes are in the eyes of historical
+critics." Geologists may be extremely grateful for this estimate of
+their science, for undoubtedly geology, as a structure of hypotheses,
+is neither more nor less justifiable than phylogenesis, as I have
+already pointed out in my Munich address: "Our phylogenetic hypotheses
+may claim to have equal value with the universally-admitted hypotheses
+of geology; the only difference is this, that the mighty structure of
+hypotheses called geology is incomparably more complete, simpler, and
+easier to grasp than that more youthful one called phylogenesis." But
+as to the much-talked-of "genealogies," though they are nothing more
+than the simplest, barest, and most superficial expression of the
+hypotheses of phylogenesis, as provisional hypotheses they are just as
+indispensable to specific phylogenesis as the theoretical
+section-tables of the strata of the earth's crust are to geology.</p>
+
+<p>If Du Bois-Reymond is so convinced of the truth of transmutation as he
+has lately given himself out to be, why does not he make at least one
+earnest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> attempt to test the interpreting power of the theory of
+descent in physiology&mdash;his own most special province of inquiry? Why
+does he not labour at that hitherto quite unworked-out branch,
+physiogenesis, at the history of the evolution of functions, at the
+ontogenesis and phylogenesis of vital processes? The one idea which
+has lately been often spoken of as an important discovery of Du
+Bois-Reymond's&mdash;[the idea which had already been anticipated by
+Leibnitz, that the "innate ideas,"&mdash;intuitions <i>&agrave; priori</i>&mdash;have
+originated by transmission from primordial experience, <i>i.e.</i>,
+empirical, <i>&agrave; posteriori</i> convictions], was distinctly enunciated by
+me long before Du Bois-Reymond (as he omits to mention), in 1866, in
+my "General Morphology" (vol. ii. p. 446), and in 1868 in the "History
+of Creation" (vol. i. p. 31, vol. ii. p. 344). If Du Bois-Reymond had
+practically busied himself with these problems he would certainly have
+thought a little about the development of consciousness, and not have
+set down as an eternally insoluble problem, "How is it possible that
+matter can think?"&mdash;a form of words, be it observed, which has about
+as much sense as "how matter runs," or "how matter strikes the hours."
+Surely he would have guarded himself in that case from uttering the
+ponderous "Ignorabimus."</p>
+
+<p>The question has been repeatedly asked why two such prominent Berlin
+biologists as Virchow and Du<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> Bois-Reymond availed themselves of the
+particularly solemn occasions of the fiftieth anniversary and of the
+fiftieth meeting of the German naturalists and physicians to lay lance
+in rest against the progress and freedom of science. The eager
+approbation which they both promptly met with from the party of the
+clergy and of all other enemies of free thought&mdash;Virchow, indeed, in
+much greater measure than Du Bois-Reymond&mdash;appears to justify this
+inquiry. I believe I can contribute something towards answering it,
+and as I am not fettered by any reverence for the Berlin tribunal of
+science or by any anxiety as to vexing influential Berlin connections,
+as most of my colleagues are who think as I do, I do not hesitate,
+here as elsewhere, to express my honest conviction in the freest and
+frankest manner, not troubling myself about the wrath which may be
+roused in many actual&mdash;and not actual&mdash;officials in Berlin at this
+exposition of the unvarnished truth.</p>
+
+<p>The primary cause of their "misunderstanding," and the best excuse
+that can be offered for it, in Virchow and Du Bois-Reymond alike, lies
+in their unacquaintance with the advance of modern morphology. As has
+been repeatedly stated, no natural science is so directly to be
+referred to the doctrine of evolution&mdash;and more particularly to the
+theory of descent&mdash;as morphology. It is because we morphologists can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+neither explain nor comprehend all the manifold and infinitely complex
+form-phenomena of the animal and plant worlds without this theory,
+because to us transmutation contains the only possible, rational
+explanation of organic types, that we all regard it as the
+indispensable basis of the scientific doctrine of form, and as
+demanding no further proofs of its certainty than those which now lie
+in abundance before us.</p>
+
+<p>Du Bois-Reymond, and still more Virchow, ignore these proofs, because
+they are to a great extent ignorant alike of the inquiries and
+results, of the methods and the aims of our modern morphology, and
+this ignorance may be accounted for partly by the one-sided direction
+which their biological studies have taken, partly by the fact that
+there are few universities where the study of morphology is so
+behindhand as at the University of Berlin. Fully twenty years have now
+elapsed since the great Johannes M&uuml;ller died, the last naturalist who
+could command all the departments of biology. The three great
+provinces of science which had been reunited into a triune kingdom
+under his powerful sceptre, were then divided among three professors'
+chairs: Du Bois-Reymond took that of physiology, Virchow, theoretical
+pathology (pathological anatomy and physiology), and the third, and
+most important chair, that of morphology (human and comparative
+anatomy, including the history of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> evolution) fell to Boguslaus
+Reichert. This choice was, as is now universally admitted, an
+incomprehensible mistake. Instead of calling Carl Gegenbaur, or Max
+Schultze, or some one else of youthful capacity and vigour to the
+chair of morphology&mdash;a science which is the first foundation of
+zoology as well as of medicine&mdash;in Reichert they selected an elderly
+school anatomist cramped by strong old-fashioned notions, who had done
+some good and useful specialist work, but whose general views had
+developed all awry, and who for the unexampled obscurity of his
+conceptions and the confusion of his ideas, was outdone by none save
+only Adolf Bastian. For twenty years this man has represented animal
+morphology in the second university of Germany, and in these twenty
+years hardly any work worth mentioning has been done there in the
+whole of this vast department&mdash;neither by the master nor by his
+pupils. We have only to compare the many worthless anatomical
+productions of Berlin during these two decades (for instance, the
+recent confused work by Fritsch on the brain of fishes) with the rich
+mine of invaluable work produced during the preceding twenty years by
+Johannes M&uuml;ller and his crowd of disciples.</p>
+
+<p>But, as if this were not enough, Reichert took advantage of his
+influential position to hinder as far as possible all scientific study
+of morphology. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> example, he, with the co-operation of his
+colleagues, carried through that pretended "reform" of medical
+examination which puts the so-called <i>Tentamen physicum</i> in the place
+of the <i>philosophicum</i>; philosophy was entirely eliminated. Zoology
+and botany, which for centuries have been very justly regarded as the
+indispensable foundation of all instruction in natural science for the
+young medical student, disappeared from the curriculum. Only, as if in
+scorn of these sciences, in each examination a small place was
+reserved for comparative anatomy&mdash;for that most difficult and
+philosophical part of animal morphology which cannot be at all
+understood without some previous knowledge of the other branches of
+zoology. And yet comparative anatomy and the history of development
+are the indispensable preliminary steps to a true scientific
+comprehension of human anatomy, that most essential foundation of all
+medical knowledge. Without the vivifying idea of development, mere
+anatomical knowledge is an empty and lifeless cramming of the memory.</p>
+
+<p>In the place of morphology, thus degraded from its office, a detailed
+study of physiology was introduced, but always in a one-sided
+direction. Now these two great branches of biology, which are equally
+important and have an equal claim on our attention, are so dependent
+the one on the other, that a real scientific<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> understanding of organic
+life can never be obtained without due relative study of both. The
+masterly and incomparable teaching of Johannes M&uuml;ller owed a great
+part of its captivating charm to his equitable regard for morphology
+and physiology, as well as to his comprehensive treatment, from the
+broadest point of view, of the enormous mass of details to be dealt
+with. I therefore have not the smallest doubt that the morphological
+training of medical students, as at present conducted at Berlin under
+the influence of Reichert and his colleagues, is as far behind that of
+M&uuml;ller's day, twenty or thirty years ago, in all general comprehension
+of the typical organism, as it is in advance of it in specialist
+acquirements.</p>
+
+<p>In medical, as in all other scientific learning, the highest aim does
+not consist in seeking to accumulate a vast chaotic mass of isolated
+items of knowledge, but in a general comprehension of the science, its
+aims and problems. The teacher should, above everything, guide the
+pupil to this general knowledge, and then it will be easy to him, by
+the aid of proper methods, to acquire mastery in each individual and
+special branch. Thus in medicine, as in every other science, he is not
+the best qualified who, on Bastian's method, has loaded his memory
+with a confused mass of undigested facts, and has flung them all
+together into his brain without any order; but, on the contrary, he
+who has practically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> digested a considerable number of the most
+important facts, and has critically co-ordinated them to a harmonious
+whole. It is precisely under this aspect that transmutation is of such
+inestimable value to morphology; it enables us to rise from the bare
+empirical knowledge of numberless isolated facts to a philosophical
+conception of their efficient causes.</p>
+
+<p>The aversion and contempt which the theories of descent and selection
+have met with at Berlin, more than in any other place, is in great
+measure to be explained by the circumstance that, during the last two
+decades, morphological studies have been more neglected in that
+university than any others. In no other city of Germany has evolution
+in general, as well as Darwinism in particular, been so little valued,
+so utterly misunderstood, and treated with such sovereign disdain as
+in Berlin. Nay, Adolf Bastian, the most zealous of all the Berlin
+opponents of our doctrines, has insisted on these facts with peculiar
+satisfaction. Of all the conspicuous naturalists of Berlin only one
+accepted the doctrine of transmutation from the beginning with sincere
+warmth and full conviction, being, indeed, persuaded of its truth even
+before Darwin himself. This was the gifted botanist Alexander Braun,
+who is lately dead&mdash;a morphologist who was equally distinguished by
+the extent of his comprehensive knowledge of details, as by his
+philosophical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> mastery over them. His firm conviction of the truth of
+the theory of descent is all the more remarkable because he was at the
+same time a spotless character, a pious Christian in the best sense of
+the word, and an extremely conservative politician; a striking example
+that these convictions can dwell side by side with the principles of
+the recent doctrines of evolution in one and the same person. But in
+comparison with the powerful influence of the rest of the Berlin
+naturalists who, for the most part, are decided opponents of
+transmutation, and who have only lately&mdash;a few of them, to follow the
+fashion&mdash;become converts to it, a man like Alexander Braun could have
+no effect in procuring that it should be taught.</p>
+
+<p>However, this is not the first time that this very Berlin society of
+learned men has set itself with remarkable firmness against the most
+important advances of science. Virchow's former colleague, the
+deceased Stahl, with a similar purpose and with great success,
+preached this principle: "Science must turn back again." Just as at
+the present day the Berlin biologists have opposed the most obstinate
+and pertinacious resistance to the greatest scientific stride of this
+century, so did it happen in former times with regard to other
+doctrines of progress. We have only to recall Caspar Friedrich Wolff,
+the great inquirer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> who in 1759 first detected the nature of the
+individual processes of development in the animal ovum, and founded on
+it his observations in his "Theoria Generationes," which marked an
+epoch in biological science. The Berlin savants, full of the
+prevailing prejudices, so contrived at that time that Wolff never once
+could obtain the permission which he craved, to lecture publicly, and
+in consequence found himself compelled to retire to St. Petersburg for
+the sake of peace. And yet in that instance there was no question
+of a "theory" properly so-called. For the fundamental theory of
+generation&mdash;the "theory of epigenesis"&mdash;as propounded by Wolff was
+nothing more than a simple, general exposition of embryological facts
+which he had been the first to recognise, and of whose truth every one
+might convince himself by direct observation. In spite of this, for
+another half century, the predominant error of the "Preformation-theory"
+continued to be universally accepted&mdash;the ludicrous and nonsensical
+doctrine, supported by the authority of Haller, that all the successive
+generations of animals exist preconceived and enclosed one within the
+other, and that no individual development ever takes place! <i>Nulla est
+epigenesis!</i> (Compare my "Evolution of Man," vol. i. p. 31.)</p>
+
+<p>But it would appear that it is the fate of that most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> interesting of
+all sciences, the history of evolution, to find its most important
+steps and its greatest discoveries met by the firmest and most
+persistent opposition. For while Wolff's fundamental theory of
+epigenesis, which was promulgated in 1759, was not recognised until
+1812, Lamarck's theory of descent, founded in 1809, had to wait fully
+fifty years before Darwin, in 1859, showed it to be the greatest
+acquisition of modern science; and during that period, in spite of all
+the progress made in empirical science, how persistently this most
+comprehensive of all biological theories was combated. We need only
+recollect how, in 1830, the celebrated George Cuvier silenced its most
+eloquent supporter, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in the midst of the Paris
+Academy, and how almost at the same time its founder, the great
+Lamarck, ended his life in blindness, misery and want, while his
+opponent Cuvier was enjoying the highest honours and the greatest
+splendour. And yet we know now that the despised and contemned Lamarck
+and Geoffroy had already grasped truths of the highest significance,
+while Cuvier's much-admired and universally-accepted theory of
+creation is now on all hands neglected as an absurd and untenable
+delusion. But as neither Haller as against Wolff, nor Cuvier as
+against Lamarck, could permanently hinder the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> progress of free
+inquiry, neither will Virchow succeed in turning back the course of
+Darwin's admirable achievement; no, not even when he is supported by
+the discourses of his friend Bastian.</p>
+
+<p>While we cannot but earnestly lament Virchow's inimical attitude in
+this great struggle for truth, we must not overlook the effects of his
+well-founded authority in a yet wider sphere. For instance, the
+hostile attitude which the greater part of the Berlin press
+persistently maintains towards the doctrine of development
+(particularly the Liberal "National-Zeitung") is to be referred to the
+influence of his authority. But much as this reactionary vein, in this
+and in other intelligent circles at Berlin, must be regretted on the
+one hand, on the other we must observe that by this evil we have been
+preserved from a far greater one. This greater evil&mdash;the greatest, in
+fact, which German science could have to encounter&mdash;would be the
+monopoly of knowledge at Berlin; a Centralisation of Science. The
+injurious fruits of this system of centralisation in France, for
+instance, the continual deterioration of French science through the
+Parisian "Monopoly of Knowledge," and its steady decline during half a
+century from the sublimest heights&mdash;these are all well known. From
+such a centralisation of German science&mdash;which would be especially
+dangerous if it occurred in the capital,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> Berlin&mdash;we may hope to be
+preserved; in the first place by the manifold differences and the
+many-sided individuality of the German national spirit, the
+much-abused German provincialism (Particularismus). While these
+provincial modes of thought can never have any permanent political
+value, nor be productive of a desirable form of government, it is
+beyond a doubt that their outcome has been fruitful and happy for
+German science. For it owes its splendid pre-eminence over that of
+other countries precisely to the many centres of culture which were
+offered by those numerous petty capitals of the minor German States
+which strove to outdo each other in eager emulation. It is to be hoped
+that this happy decentralisation of science in our politically united
+fatherland may continue to subsist!</p>
+
+<p>And next to this centrifugal tendency of our German national mind
+nothing will so greatly contribute to it as a vigorous opposition to
+the free advance of science, such as is just now declaring itself in
+the metropolis. For by just so much as Berlin is dragged back by it in
+the mighty onward stream of free intellectual movement, by so much
+will it see itself outstripped by the other seats of culture in
+Germany, which follow the stream with enthusiasm, or at least without
+resistance. If Emil du Bois-Reymond raises<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> the cry of "Ignorabimus,"
+and Rudolf Virchow his still more audacious one of "Restringamur," as
+the watchwords of science, then, from Jena, let the shout be raised
+and echoed from a hundred other universities&mdash;"Impavidi progrediamur!"</p>
+
+<h3>THE END.</h3>
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="WORKS_OF_PROFESSOR_ERNST_HAECKEL" id="WORKS_OF_PROFESSOR_ERNST_HAECKEL"></a>WORKS OF PROFESSOR ERNST HAECKEL.</h2>
+
+<p><b>FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING.</b> From the German of <span class="smcap">Ernst Haeckel</span>.
+With a Prefatory Note by T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. 1 vol., 12mo.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE EVOLUTION OF MAN.</b> A Popular Exposition of the Principal Points of
+Human Ontogeny and Phylogeny. From the German of <span class="smcap">Ernst Haeckel</span>,
+Professor in the University of Jena, author of "The History of
+Creation," etc. With numerous Illustrations. In two vols., 12mo.
+Cloth. Price, $5.00.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><i>From the London Saturday Review.</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"In this excellent translation of Professor Haeckel's
+work, the English reader has access to the latest
+doctrines of the Continental school of evolution, in its
+application to the history of man. It is in Germany,
+beyond any other European country, that the impulse given
+by Darwin twenty years ago to the theory of evolution has
+influenced the whole tenor of philosophical opinion. There
+may be, and are, differences in the degree to which the
+doctrine may be held capable of extension into the domain
+of mind and morals; but there is no denying, in scientific
+circles at least, that as regards the physical history of
+organic nature much has been done toward making good a
+continuous scheme of being."</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE HISTORY OF CREATION;</b> or, the Development of the Earth and its
+Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes. A Popular Exposition of
+the Doctrine of Evolution in general, and of that of Darwin, Goethe,
+and Lamarck in particular. From the German of <span class="smcap">Ernst Haeckel</span>, Professor
+in the University of Jena. The translation revised by Professor E. Ray
+Lankester, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Illustrated
+with Lithographic Plates. In 2 vols., 12mo. Cloth, $5.00.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>WORKS OF THOMAS H. HUXLEY, LL. D., F.R.S.</h3>
+
+<table summary="Huxley works">
+<col style='width:50%;' />
+<col style='width:50%;' />
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE.
+1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.25.</td>
+<td class="topjb">LAY SERMONS, ADDRESSES, AND REVIEWS.
+1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.75.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES.
+1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.</td>
+<td class="topjb">CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.
+12mo. Cloth, $1.50.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">MORE CRITICISMS ON DARWIN, AND ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM.
+1 vol., 12mo. Limp cloth, 50 cents.</td>
+<td class="topjb">AMERICAN ADDRESSES; with a Lecture on the Study of Biology.
+12mo. Cloth, $1.25.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS.
+Illustrated. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $2.50.</td>
+<td class="topjb">PHYSIOGRAPHY: an Introduction to the Study of Nature. With
+Illustrations and Colored Plates. 12mo. Cloth, $2.50.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS.
+Illustrations and Colored Plates. 12mo. Cloth, $2.50.</td>
+<td class="topjb">ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. By <span class="smcap">T. H. Huxley</span> and <span class="smcap">W. J. Youmans.</span>
+1 vol., 12mo. $1.50.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h3>RECENT EDUCATIONAL WORKS.</h3>
+
+<h2>Principles and Practice of Teaching.</h2>
+
+<h3>By JAMES JOHONNOT.</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>1 volume, 12mo. Cloth. 396 pages. Price, $1.50.</div>
+
+<h4>CONTENTS.</h4>
+<table summary="James Johonnot titles">
+<col style='width:5%;' />
+<col style='width:45%;' />
+<col style='width:6%;' />
+<col style='width:44%;' />
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">I.</td>
+<td class="topj"><span class="smcap">What is Education?</span></td>
+<td class="tdab">IX.</td>
+<td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Agassiz; and Science in its Relation to Teaching</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">II.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">The Mental Powers</span>: their Order of Development, and the
+Methods most conducive to Normal Growth.</td>
+  <td class="tdab">X.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Contrasted Systems of Education.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">III.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Objective Teaching</span>: its Methods, Aims, and Principles.</td>
+  <td class="tdab">XI.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Physical Culture.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">IV.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Subjective Teaching</span>: its Aims and Place in the Course of Instruction.</td>
+  <td class="tdab">XII.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">&AElig;sthetic Culture.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">V.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Object-Lessons</span>: their Value and Limitations.</td>
+  <td class="tdab">XIII.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Moral Culture.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">VI.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Relative Value of the Different Studies</span> in a Course of Instruction.</td>
+  <td class="tdab">XIV.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">A Course of Study.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">VII.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Pestalozzi</span>, and his Contributions to Educational Science.</td>
+  <td class="tdab">XV.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Country Schools.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tda">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Froebel and the Kindergarten.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdab">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="topj"></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<div class='center'><i>Extract from Preface.</i></div>
+
+<p>"Experience is beginning to show that teaching, like every
+other department of human thought and activity, must
+change with the changing conditions of society, or it will
+fall in the rear of civilization, and become an obstacle
+to improvement.... In this volume an endeavor has been
+made to examine education from the standpoint of modern
+thought, and to contribute something to the solution of
+the problems that are forcing themselves upon the
+attention of educators. To these ends, a concise statement
+of the well-settled principles of psychology has been
+made, and a connected view of the interdependence of the
+sciences given, to serve as a guide to methods of
+instruction, and to determine the subject-matter best
+adapted to each stage of development. The systems of
+several of the great educational reformers have been
+analyzed, with a view to ascertain precisely what each has
+contributed to the science of teaching, and how far their
+ideas conform to psychological laws; and an endeavor has
+been made to combine the principles derived from both
+experience and philosophy into one coherent system."</p>
+
+<p><b>ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR</b>, containing Accidence
+and Word-Formation. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">Richard Morris</span>, LL. D., President of
+the Philological Society, London. 18mo. Cloth, 254 pages. Price,
+$1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>WORDS</b>, and how to put them together. By <span class="smcap">Harlan H. Ballard</span>, Principal
+of Lenox High-School, Lenox, Mass. 18mo. Cloth. Price, 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>GENERAL HISTORY</b>, from <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> 800 to <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 1876. Outlined in Diagrams
+and Tables; with Index and Genealogies. For General Reference, and for
+Schools and Colleges. By <span class="smcap">Samuel Willard</span>, A. M., M. D., Professor of
+History in Chicago High-School. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>HARKNESS'S PREPARATORY COURSE IN LATIN PROSE AUTHOR</b>S, comprising four
+books of C&aelig;sar's Gallic War, Sallust's Catiline, and eight Orations of
+Cicero. With Notes, Illustrations, a Map of Gaul, and a Special
+Dictionary. 12mo. Cloth. Price, $1.75.</p>
+
+<p><b>HARKNESS'S SALLUST'S CATILINE</b>, with Notes and a Special Vocabulary.
+12mo. Cloth. Price, $1.15.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE LATIN SPEAKER</b>. Easy Dialogues, and other Selections for Memorizing
+and Declaiming in the Latin Language. By <span class="smcap">Frank Sewall</span>, A. M. 12mo.
+Cloth. Price, $1.00.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h3>New Volume of "The International Scientific Series."</h3>
+
+<h2>EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE.</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>BY</div>
+
+<h3>ALEXANDER BAIN, LL. D.,</h3>
+
+<h4>PROFESSOR OF LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>1 <i>vol.</i>, 12<i>mo. Cloth, price</i>, $1.75.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"In the present work I have surveyed the Teaching Art, as
+far as possible, from a scientific point of view; which
+means, among other things, that the maxims of ordinary
+experience are tested and amended by bringing them under
+the best ascertained laws of the mind."&mdash;<i>From Preface.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Dr. Bain's <i>renovated curriculum</i> is certainly extensive
+enough, even if it omits Greek and Latin. According to
+this, higher education should embrace&mdash;first, science;
+second, the humanities, including history and the social
+science, and some portions of the universal literature;
+and, third, English composition and literature."&mdash;<i>New
+York Evening Express.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The work should become a text-book for teachers, not to
+be followed servilely or thoughtlessly, but used for its
+suggestiveness."&mdash;<i>Boston Gazette.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Professor Bain is not a novice in this field. His work is
+admirable in many respects for teacher, parent, and
+pupil."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia North American.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A work of great value to all teachers who study it
+intelligently."&mdash;<i>Boston Advertiser.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"At once speculative and practical, entering largely into
+the philosophy of teaching, and manfully handling
+facts."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia Press.</i></p></div>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h1>PRIMERS</h1>
+
+<h3>IN SCIENCE, HISTORY and LITERATURE.</h3>
+
+<div class='center'><i>18mo. Flexible cloth, 45 cents each.</i></div>
+
+<h4>I.&mdash;Edited by Professors Huxley, Roscoe, and Balfour Stewart.</h4>
+
+
+<h3><i>SCIENCE PRIMERS</i>.</h3>
+
+<table summary="Science Primers" cellpadding='2'>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Chemistry &hellip; <span class="smcap">H. E. Roscoe.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Botany &hellip; <span class="smcap">J. D. Hooker.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Physics &hellip; <span class="smcap">Balfour Stewart.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Logic &hellip; <span class="smcap">W. S. Jevons.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Physical Geograph &hellip;y <span class="smcap">A. Geikie.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Inventional Geology &hellip; <span class="smcap">A. Geikie.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Geometry &hellip; <span class="smcap">W. G. Spencer.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Physiology &hellip; <span class="smcap">M. Foster.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Pianoforte &hellip; <span class="smcap">Franklin Taylor.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Astronomy &hellip; <span class="smcap">J. N. Lockyer.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Political Economy &hellip; <span class="smcap">W. S. Jevons.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;Edited by <span class="smcap">J. R. Green</span>, M.A., <i>Examiner in the School of Modern
+History at Oxford</i>.</h4>
+
+<h3><i>HISTORY PRIMERS</i>.</h3>
+
+<table summary="History Primers" cellpadding='2'>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Greece &hellip; <span class="smcap">C. A. Fyffe.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Old Greek Life &hellip; <span class="smcap">J. P. Mahaffy.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Rome &hellip; <span class="smcap">M. Creighton.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Roman Antiquities &hellip; <span class="smcap">A. S. Wilkins.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Europe &hellip; <span class="smcap">E. A. Freeman.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Geography &hellip; <span class="smcap">George Grove</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4>III.&mdash;Edited by <span class="smcap">J. R. Green</span>, M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><i>LITERATURE PRIMERS</i>.</h3>
+
+<table summary="Literature Primers" cellpadding='2'>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">English Grammar &hellip; <span class="smcap">R. Morris.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Shakespeare &hellip; <span class="smcap">E. Dowden.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">English Literature &hellip; <span class="smcap">Stopford Brooke.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Studies in Bryant &hellip; <span class="smcap">J. Alden.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Philology &hellip; <span class="smcap">J. Peile.</span></td>
+<td class="topj">Greek Literature &hellip; <span class="smcap">R. C. Jebb.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Classical Geography &hellip; <span class="smcap">M. F. Tozer</span></td>
+<td class="topj">English Grammar Exercises &hellip; <span class="smcap">R. Morris.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Homer &hellip; <span class="smcap"> W. E. Gladstone.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='center'><i>(Others in preparation.)</i></div>
+
+<p>The object of these primers is to convey information in such a manner
+as to make it both intelligible and interesting to very young pupils,
+and so to discipline their minds as to incline them to more systematic
+after-studies. They are not only an aid to the pupil, but to the
+teacher, lightening the task of each by an agreeable, easy, and
+natural method of instruction. In the Science Series some simple
+experiments have been devised, leading up to the chief truths of each
+science. By this means the pupil's interest is excited, and the memory
+is impressed so as to retain without difficulty the facts brought
+under observation. The woodcuts which illustrate these primers serve
+the same purpose, embellishing and explaining the text at the same
+time.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Appletons' School Readers,</span></h2>
+
+<h3>CONSISTING OF FIVE BOOKS.</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>BY</div>
+
+<table summary="Authors" cellpadding='2'>
+<tr>
+<td class="center">W. T. HARRIS, LL. D.,<br />
+    <i>Superintendent of Schools,<br />
+    St. Louis, Mo.</i></td>
+<td class="center">A. J. RICKOFF, A. M.,<br />
+    <i>Superintendent of Instruction,<br />
+    Cleveland, O.</i></td>
+<td class="center">MARK BAILEY, A. M.,<br />
+    <i>Instructor in Elocution,<br />
+    Yale College.</i></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table summary="Appleton's Readers">
+<col style='width:85%;' />
+<col style='width:15%;' />
+<tr>
+<td class="tda" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Retail Prices.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="top">APPLETONS' FIRST READER</td>
+<td class="tda">$0.25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="top">APPLETONS' SECOND READER</td>
+<td class="tda">.40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="top">APPLETONS' THIRD READER</td>
+<td class="tda">.52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="top">APPLETONS' FOURTH READER</td>
+<td class="tda">.70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="top">APPLETONS' FIFTH READER</td>
+<td class="tda">1.25</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4>CHIEF MERITS.</h4>
+
+<p>These Readers, while avoiding extremes and one-sided tendencies,
+combine into one harmonious whole the several results desirable to be
+attained in a series of school reading-books. These include good
+pictorial illustrations, a combination of the word and phonic methods,
+careful grading, drill on the peculiar combinations of letters that
+represent vowel-sounds, correct spelling, exercises well arranged for
+the pupil's preparation by himself (so that he shall learn the great
+lessons of self-help, self-dependence, the habit of application),
+exercises that develop a practical command of correct forms of
+expression, good literary taste, close critical power of thought, and
+ability to interpret the entire meaning of the language of others.</p>
+
+<h4>THE AUTHORS.</h4>
+
+<p>The high rank which the authors have attained in the educational field
+and their long and successful experience in practical school-work
+especially fit them for the preparation of text-books that will embody
+all the best elements of modern educative ideas. In the schools of St.
+Louis and Cleveland, over which two of them have long presided, the
+subject of reading has received more than usual attention, and with
+results that have established for them a wide reputation for superior
+elocutionary discipline and accomplishments. Feeling the need of a
+series of reading-books harmonizing in all respects with the modes of
+instruction growing out of their long tentative work, they have
+carefully prepared these volumes in the belief that the special
+features enumerated will commend them to practical teachers
+everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>Of Professor Bailey, Instructor of Elocution in Yale College, it is
+needless to speak, for he is known throughout the Union as being
+without a peer in his profession. <i>His methods make natural, not
+mechanical readers.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h3>A SHORT HISTORY</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>OF</div>
+
+<h2>Natural Science and the Progress of Discovery,</h2>
+
+<h4><i>FROM THE TIME OF THE GREEKS TO THE<br />PRESENT DAY.</i></h4>
+
+<h4>FOR SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS.</h4>
+
+<h4>By ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>With Illustrations. 12mo.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cloth, $2.00.</div>
+
+<p>"During many years the author acted as secretary to Sir Charles Lyell,
+and was brought in contact with many of the leading scientific men of
+the day, and felt very forcibly how many important facts and
+generalizations of science, which are of great value both in the
+formation of character and in giving a true estimate of life and its
+conditions, are totally unknown to the majority of otherwise
+well-educated persons. This work has been written for this purpose,
+and it is not too much to say that it will effect its
+purpose."&mdash;<i>European Mail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"The volume is attractive as a book of anecdotes of men of science and
+their discoveries. Its remarkable features are the sound judgment with
+which the true landmarks of scientific history are selected, the
+conciseness of the information conveyed, and the interest with which
+the whole subject is nevertheless invested. Its style is strictly
+adapted to its avowed purpose of furnishing a text-book for the use of
+schools and young persons."&mdash;<i>London Daily News</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"Before we had read half-a-dozen pages of this book we laid it down
+with an expression of admiration of the wonderful powers of the
+writer. And our opinion has increased in intensity as we have gone on,
+till we have come to the conclusion that it is a book worthy of being
+ranked with Whewell's 'History of the Inductive Sciences'; it is one
+which should be first placed in the hands of every one who proposes to
+become a student of natural science, and it would be well if it were
+adopted as a standard volume in all our schools."&mdash;<i>Popular Science
+Review</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"A most admirable little volume. It is a classified r&eacute;sum&eacute; of the
+chief discoveries in physical science. To the young student it is a
+book to open up new worlds with every chapter."&mdash;<i>Graphic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"We have nothing but praise for this interesting book. Miss Buckley
+has the rare faculty of being able to write for young
+people."&mdash;<i>London Spectator</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"The book will be a valuable aid in the study of the elements of
+natural science."&mdash;<i>Journal of Education</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h2>FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.</h2>
+
+<h4>BY ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY,</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>Author of "A Short History of Natural Science," etc.<br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.<br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>12mo&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cloth, price, $1.50.<br /></div>
+
+<p>"A child's reading-book admirably adapted to the purpose intended. The
+young reader is referred to nature itself rather than to books, and is
+taught to observe and investigate, and not to rest satisfied with a
+collection of dull definitions learned by rote and worthless to the
+possessor. The present work will be found a valuable and interesting
+addition to the somewhat overcrowded child's library."&mdash;<i>Boston
+Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Written in a style so simple and lucid as to be within the
+comprehension of an intelligent child, and yet it will be found
+entertaining to maturer minds."&mdash;<i>Baltimore Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>"It deserves to take a permanent place in the literature of
+youth."&mdash;<i>London Times.</i></p>
+
+<p>"The ease of her style, the charm of her illustrations, and the
+clearness with which she explains what is abstruse, are no doubt the
+result of much labor; but there is nothing labored in her pages, and
+the reader must be dull indeed who takes up this volume without
+finding much to attract attention and to stimulate inquiry."&mdash;<i>Pall
+Mall Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>"So interesting that having once opened it we do not know how to leave
+off reading."&mdash;<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>
+
+<p>"We are compelled to admit that there is indeed a fairy-land of
+science. This is the fairy-land upon which Miss Arabella Buckley
+lectured last year, and upon which she has now produced a child's
+reading-book, which is most charmingly illustrated, and which is in
+every way rendered especially interesting to the juvenile
+reader."&mdash;<i>London Athen&aelig;um.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h5>THE</h5>
+<h2><span class="smcap">Experimental Science Series.</span></h2>
+
+<div class='center'>In neat 12mo volumes, bound in cloth, fully illustrated. Price per
+volume, $1.00.</div>
+
+<p>This series of scientific books for boys, girls, and students of every
+age, was designed by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer, Ph. D., at the Stevens
+Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. Every book is addressed
+directly to the young student, and he is taught to construct his own
+apparatus out of the cheapest and most common materials to be found.
+Should the reader make all the apparatus described in the first book
+of this series, he will spend only $12.40.</p>
+
+<h4>NOW READY:</h4>
+
+<h3>I.&mdash;LIGHT.</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Light, for Students of every Age.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>By ALFRED M. MAYER and CHARLES BARNARD.</i></p>
+
+<h3>II.&mdash;SOUND.</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Sound, for the Use of Students of every Age.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>By ALFRED MARSHALL MAYER</i>,</p>
+
+<p class='center'>Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology; Member of
+the National Academy of Sciences; of the American Philosophical
+Society, Philadelphia; of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
+Boston; of the New York Academy of Sciences; of the German
+Astronomical Society; of the American Otological Society; and Honorary
+Member of the New York Ophthalmological Society.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">In Active Preparation:</span></p>
+<table summary="Active Preparation">
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">III.</td>
+<td class="top">Vision and the Nature of Light.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">IV.</td>
+<td class="top">Electricity and Magnetism.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">V.</td>
+<td class="top">Heat.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">VI.</td>
+<td class="top">Mechanics.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">VII.</td>
+<td class="top">Chemistry.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda">VIII.</td>
+<td class="top">The Art of experimenting with Cheap and Simple Instruments.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h1>LIGHT:</h1>
+
+<p><i>A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Light, for the Use of Students of Every Age.</i></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">BY ALFRED M. MAYER and CHARLES BARNARD.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Neat 12mo volume, fully illustrated.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Cloth, price, $1.00.</span></div>
+
+<p>"Professor Mayer has invented a series of experiments in Light which
+are described by Mr. Barnard. Nothing is more necessary for
+sound-teaching than experiments made by the pupil, and this book, by
+considering the difficulty of costly apparatus, has rendered an
+important service to teacher and student alike. It deals with the
+sources of light, reflection, refraction, and decomposition of light.
+The experiments are extremely simple and well suited to young
+people."&mdash;<i>Westminster Review.</i></p>
+
+<p>"This work describes, in simple language, a number of experiments
+illustrating the principal properties of light, by means of a beam of
+sunlight admitted into a dark room, and various contrivances. The
+experiments are highly ingenious, and the young student can not fail
+to learn a great deal from the book. As an example of the effective
+experimental method employed, we may specially mention the device for
+illustrating the refraction of light. This book is specially designed
+'to give to every teacher and scholar the knowledge of the art of
+experimenting.'"&mdash;<i>The Quarterly Journal of Science</i> (London).</p>
+
+<p>"A singularly excellent little hand-book for the use of teachers,
+parents, and children. The book is admirable both in design and
+execution. The experiments for which it provides are so simple that an
+intelligent boy or girl can easily make them, and so beautiful and
+interesting that even the youngest children must enjoy the exhibition.
+The experiments here described are abundantly worth all that they cost
+in money and time in any family where there are boys and girls to be
+entertained."&mdash;<i>New York Evening Post.</i></p>
+
+<p>"The experiments are capitally selected, and equally as well
+described. The book is conspicuously free from the multiplicity of
+confusing directions with which works of the kind too often abound.
+There is an abundance of excellent illustrations."&mdash;<i>New York
+Scientific American.</i></p>
+
+<p>"The experiments are for the most part new, and have the merit of
+combining precision in the methods with extreme simplicity and
+elegance of design. The value of the book is further enhanced by the
+numerous carefully-drawn cuts, which add greatly to its
+beauty."&mdash;<i>American Journal of Science and Arts.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+<h1>SOUND:</h1>
+
+<p><i>A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Sound, for the Use of Students of Every Age.</i></p>
+
+<h4>By ALFRED MARSHALL MAYER,</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology; Member of
+the National Academy of Sciences, etc.</div>
+
+<h4>Uniform with "LIGHT," first volume of the Series.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Neat 12mo volume, fully illustrated.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Cloth, price, $1.00.</span></div>
+
+<p>"It would be difficult to find a better example of a series which is
+excellent throughout. This little work is accurate in detail, popular
+in style, and lucid in arrangement. Every statement is accompanied
+with ample illustrations. We can heartily recommend it, either as an
+introduction to the subject or as a satisfactory manual for those who
+have no time for perusing a larger work. It contains an excellent
+description, with diagrams, of Faber's Talking Machine and of Edison's
+Talking Phonograph, which can not fail to be interesting to any reader
+who takes an interest in the marvelous progress of natural
+science."&mdash;<i>British Quarterly.</i></p>
+
+<p>"The style of the book is very clear, and the experiments interesting.
+It can not fail to have an important educational
+influence."&mdash;<i>Westminster Review.</i></p>
+
+<p>"It would really be difficult to exaggerate the merit, in the sense of
+consummate adaptation to its modest end, of this little treatise on
+'Sound.' It teaches the youthful student how to make experiments for
+himself, without the help of a trained operator, and at very little
+expense. These hand-books of Professor Mayer should be in the hands of
+every teacher of the young."&mdash;<i>New York Sun.</i></p>
+
+<p>"An admirably clear and interesting collection of experiments,
+described with just the right amount of abstract information and no
+more, and placed in progressive order. The recent inventions of the
+phonograph and microphone lend an extraordinary interest to this whole
+field of experiment, which makes Professor Mayer's manual especially
+opportune."&mdash;<i>Boston Courier.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<h2>The Works of Professor E. L. YOUMANS, M. D.</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Class-book of Chemistry.</i></p>
+
+<p>New edition. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hand-book of Household Science.</i></p>
+
+<p>A Popular Account of Heat, Light, Air, Aliment, and Cleansing, in
+their Scientific Principles and Domestic Applications. 12mo.
+Illustrated. Cloth, $1.75.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Culture demanded by Modern Life.</i></p>
+
+<p>A Series of Addresses and Arguments on the Claims of Scientific
+Education. Edited, with an Introduction on Mental Discipline in
+Education. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><i>Correlation and Conservation of Forces.</i></p>
+
+<p>A Series of Expositions by Professor Grove, Professor Helmholtz, Dr.
+Mayer, Dr. Faraday, Professor Liebig, and Dr. Carpenter. Edited, with
+an Introduction and Brief Biographical Notices of the Chief Promoters
+of the New Views, by <span class="smcap">Edward L. Youmans</span>, M. D. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth,
+$2.00.</p>
+<hr class="hr35" />
+<p><i>The Popular Science Monthly.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Conducted by <span class="smcap">E. L.</span> and <span class="smcap">W. J. Youmans</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Containing instructive and interesting articles and abstracts of
+articles, original, selected, and illustrated, from the pens of the
+leading scientific men of different countries;</p>
+
+<p>Accounts of important scientific discoveries;</p>
+
+<p>The application of science to the practical arts;</p>
+
+<p>The latest views put forth concerning natural phenomena, by savants of
+the highest authority.</p>
+
+<p>TERMS: Five dollars per annum; or fifty cents per number. A Club of
+five will be sent to any address for $20.00 per annum.</p>
+
+<p>The volumes begin May and November of each year. Subscriptions may
+begin at any time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY</span> and <span class="smcap">APPLETONS' JOURNAL</span>, together, for
+$7.00 per annum, postage prepaid.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+
+<div class='center'><i>A New and Valuable Work for the Practical Mechanic and Engineer.</i></div>
+
+<h3>APPLETONS'</h3>
+
+<h2>CYCLOP&AElig;DIA OF APPLIED MECHANICS.</h2>
+
+<h4>A DICTIONARY OF</h4>
+
+<h4>MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND THE MECHANICAL ARTS.</h4>
+
+<h4>ILLUSTRATED BY 5,000 ENGRAVINGS.</h4>
+
+<h4>Edited by PARK BENJAMIN, Ph. D.</h4>
+
+<h5>CONTRIBUTORS.</h5>
+<table summary="Contributors">
+<col style='width:50%;' />
+<col style='width:50%;' />
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">T. A. EDISON, Ph. D.</td>
+<td class="topjb">ABRAM L. HOLLEY, C. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">RICHARD H. BULL, C. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb">COLEMAN SELLERS, M. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">SAMUEL WEBBER, C. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb"><span class="smcap">Prof. C. W. McCord.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">CHARLES E. EMERY, C. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb">IRVING M. SCOTT, <span class="smcap">Esq.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Prof.</span> DE VOLSON WOOD.</td>
+<td class="topjb">F. A. <span class="smcap">McDowell</span>, C. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">JOSHUA ROSE, M. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb">H. A. MOTT, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span>, Ph. D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">PIERRE <span class="smcap">de</span> P. RICKETTS, Ph. D.</td>
+<td class="topjb">W. H. PAYNE, C. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">Hon. ORESTES CLEVELAND.</td>
+<td class="topjb">GEORGE H. BENJAMIN, M. D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">W. T. J. KRAJEWSKI, C. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb">THERON SKELL, C. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">S. W. GREEN, <span class="smcap">Esq.</span></td>
+<td class="topjb">WILLIAM KENT, C. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">JOHN BIRKINBINE, C. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb">W. E. KELLY, <span class="smcap">Esq.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj">HENRY L. BREVOORT, C. E.</td>
+<td class="topjb">F. T. THURSTON, C. E.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="topj"><span class="smcap">Lieut.</span> A. A. BOYD, U. S. N.</td>
+<td class="topjb">JOHN HOLLINGSWORTH, <span class="smcap">Esq.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Appletons' Cyclop&aelig;dia of Applied Mechanics</span> of 1879 is a new work, and
+not a revision of the former Dictionary of Mechanics of 1850. It aims
+to present the best and latest American practice in the mechanical
+arts, and to compare the same with that of other nations. It also
+exhibits the extent to which American invention and discovery have
+contributed to the world's progress during the last quarter century.
+Its production is deemed timely in view of the existing popular
+interest in the labors of the mechanic and inventor which has been
+awakened by the great International Expositions of the last decade,
+and by the wonderful discoveries made by American inventors during the
+past three years.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Contributors</span> whose names are given above number many of the most
+eminent American mechanical experts and engineers. Several of their
+contributions contain the results of original research and thought,
+never before published. Their efforts have in all cases tended to
+simplify the subjects treated, to avoid technicalities, and so to
+render all that is presented easily understood by the general reader
+as well as by the mechanical student. Examples are appended to all
+rules, explanations to all tables, and in such matters as the uses of
+tools and management of machines the instructions are unusually minute
+and accurate.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>In semi-monthly Parts, 50 cents each.</b></div>
+
+<p>Subscriptions received only for the entire work of Twenty-four Parts.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<hr class="hr45" />
+<p class='center'>D. APPLETON &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Publishers</span>, 549 &amp; 551 <span class="smcap">Broadway, New York</span>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,4413 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Freedom in Science and Teaching., by
+Ernst Haeckel and T. H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Freedom in Science and Teaching.
+       from the German of Ernst Haeckel
+
+Author: Ernst Haeckel
+        T. H. Huxley
+
+Release Date: June 6, 2008 [EBook #25711]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING. ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Roberta Staehlin, Joseph Cooper
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  FREEDOM
+  IN
+  SCIENCE AND TEACHING.
+
+
+  FROM THE GERMAN OF
+  ERNST HAECKEL.
+
+
+  _WITH A PREFATORY NOTE_
+  By T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S.
+
+  DER TELEOLOG
+  "Welche Verehrung verdient der Weltenschoepfer der gnaedig.
+  Als er den Korkbaum schuf, gleich auch die Stoepfel erfand."
+      XENIEN.
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
+  549 AND 551 BROADWAY.
+  1879.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE.
+
+
+In complying with the wish of the publishers of Professor Haeckel's
+reply to Professor Virchow, that I should furnish a prefatory note
+expressing my own opinion in respect of the subject-matter of the
+controversy, Gay's homely lines, prophetic of the fate of those "who
+in quarrels interpose," emerge from some brain-cupboard in which they
+have been hidden since my childish days. In fact, the hard-hitting
+with which both the attack and the defence abound, makes me think with
+a shudder upon the probable sufferings of the unhappy man whose
+intervention should lead two such gladiators to turn their weapons
+from one another upon him. In my youth, I once attempted to stop a
+street fight, and I have never forgotten the brief but impressive
+lesson on the value of the policy of non-intervention which I then
+received.
+
+But there is, happily, no need for me to place myself in a position
+which, besides being fraught with danger, would savour of presumption:
+Careful study of both the attack and the reply leaves me without the
+inclination to become either a partisan or a peacemaker: not a
+partisan, for there is a great deal with which I fully agree said on
+both sides; not a peacemaker, because I think it is highly desirable
+that the important questions which underlie the discussion, apart from
+the more personal phases of the dispute, should be thoroughly
+discussed. And if it were possible to have controversy without
+bitterness in human affairs, I should be disposed, for the general
+good, to use to both of the eminent antagonists the famous phrase of a
+late President of the French Chamber--"_Tape dessus._"
+
+No profound acquaintance with the history of science is needed to
+produce the conviction, that the advancement of natural knowledge has
+been effected by the successive or concurrent efforts of men, whose
+minds are characterised by tendencies so opposite that they are forced
+into conflict with one another. The one intellect is imaginative and
+synthetic; its chief aim is to arrive at a broad and coherent
+conception of the relations of phenomena; the other is positive,
+critical, analytic, and sets the highest value upon the exact
+determination and statement of the phenomena themselves.
+
+If the man of the critical school takes the pithy aphorism "Melius
+autem est naturam secare quam abstrahere"[1] for his motto, the
+champion of free speculation may retort with another from the same
+hand, "Citius enim emergit veritas e falsitate quam e confusione;"[2]
+and each may adduce abundant historical proof that his method has
+contributed as much to the progress of knowledge as that of his rival.
+Every science has been largely indebted to bold, nay, even to wild
+hypotheses, for the power of ordering and grasping the endless details
+of natural fact which they confer; for the moral stimulus which arises
+out of the desire to confirm or to confute them; and last, but not
+least, for the suggestion of paths of fruitful inquiry, which, without
+them, would never have been followed. From the days of Columbus and
+Kepler to those of Oken, Lamarck, and Boucher de Perthes, Saul, who,
+seeking his father's asses, found a kingdom, is the prototype of many
+a renowned discoverer who has lighted upon verities while following
+illusions, which, had they deluded lesser men, might possibly have
+been considered more or less asinine.
+
+On the other hand, there is no branch of science which does not owe at
+least an equal obligation to those cool heads, which are not to be
+seduced into the acceptance of symmetrical formulae and bold
+generalisations for solid truths because of their brilliancy and
+grandeur; to the men who cannot overlook those small exceptions and
+insignificant residual phenomena which, when tracked to their causes,
+are so often the death of brilliant hypotheses; to the men, finally,
+who, by demonstrating the limits to human knowledge which are set by
+the very conditions of thought, have warned mankind against fruitless
+efforts to overstep those limits.
+
+Neither of the eminent men of science, whose opinions are at present
+under consideration, can be said to be a one-sided representative
+either of the synthetic or of the analytic school. Haeckel, no less
+than Virchow, is distinguished by the number, variety, and laborious
+accuracy of his contributions to positive knowledge; while Virchow, no
+less than Haeckel, has dealt in wide generalisations, and, until the
+obscurantists thought they could turn his recent utterances to
+account, no one was better abused by them as a typical free-thinker
+and materialist. But, as happened to the two women grinding at the
+same mill, one has been taken and the other left. Since the
+publication of his famous oration, Virchow has been received into the
+bosom of orthodoxy and respectability, while Haeckel remains an
+outcast!
+
+To those who pay attention to the actual facts of the case, this is a
+very surprising event; and I confess that nothing has ever perplexed
+me more than the reception which Professor Virchow's oration has met
+with, in his own and in this country; for it owes that reception, not
+to the undoubted literary and scientific merits which it possesses,
+but to an imputed righteousness for which, so far as I can discern, it
+offers no foundation. It is supposed to be a recantation; I can find
+no word in it which, if strictly construed, is inconsistent with the
+most extreme of those opinions which are commonly attributed to its
+author. It is supposed to be a deadly blow to the doctrine of
+evolution; but, though I certainly hold by that doctrine with some
+tenacity, I am able, _ex animo_, to subscribe to every important
+general proposition which its author lays down.
+
+In commencing his address, Virchow adverts to the complete freedom of
+investigation and publication in regard to scientific questions which
+obtains in Germany; he points out the obligation which lies upon men
+of science, even if for no better reason than the maintenance of this
+state of things, to exhibit a due sense of the responsibility which
+attaches to their speaking and writing, and he dwells on the necessity
+of drawing a clear line of demarcation between those propositions
+which they have a fair right to regard as established truths, and
+those which they know to be only more or less well-founded
+speculations. Is any one prepared to deny that this is the first great
+commandment of the ethics of teaching? Would any responsible
+scientific teacher like to admit that he had not done his best to
+separate facts from hypotheses in the minds of his hearers; and that
+he had not made it his chief business to enable those whom he
+instructs to judge the latter by their knowledge of the former?
+
+More particularly does this obligation weigh upon those who address
+the general public. It is indubitable, as Professor Virchow observes,
+that "he who speaks to, or writes for, the public is doubly bound to
+test the objective truth of that which he says." There is a sect of
+scientific pharisees who thank God that they are not as those
+publicans who address the public. If this sect includes anybody who
+has attempted the business without failing in it, I suspect that he
+must have given up keeping a conscience. For assuredly if a man of
+science, addressing the public, bethinks him, as he ought to do, that
+the obligation to be accurate--to say no more than he has warranty
+for, without clearly marking off so much as is hypothetical--is far
+heavier than if he were dealing with experts, he will find his task a
+very admirable mental exercise. For my own part, I am inclined to
+doubt whether there is any method of self-discipline better calculated
+to clear up one's own ideas about a difficult subject, than that which
+arises out of the effort to put them forth, with fulness and
+precision, in language which all the world can understand. Sheridan
+is said to have replied to some one who remarked on the easy flow of
+his style, "Easy reading, sir, is--hard writing;" and any one who is
+above the level of a scientific charlatan will know that easy speaking
+is "----hard thinking."
+
+Again, when Professor Virchow enlarges on the extreme incompleteness
+of every man's knowledge beyond those provinces which he has made
+his own (and he might well have added within these also), and when
+he dilates on the inexpediency, in the interests of science, of
+putting forth as ascertained truths propositions which the progress
+of knowledge soon upsets--who will be disposed to gainsay him? Nor
+have I, for one, anything but cordial assent to give to his
+declaration, that the modern development of science is essentially
+due to the constant encroachment of experiment and observation on
+the domain of hypothetical dogma; and that the most difficult, as
+well as the most important, object of every honest worker is "_sich
+ent-subjectiviren_"--to get rid of his preconceived notions, and to
+keep his hypotheses well in hand, as the good servants and bad masters
+that they are.
+
+I do not think I have omitted any one of Professor Virchow's main
+theses in this brief enumeration. I do not find that they are disputed
+by Haeckel, and I should be profoundly astonished if they were. What,
+then, is all the coil about, if we leave aside various irritating
+sarcasms, which need not concern peaceable Englishmen? Certainly about
+nothing that touches the present main issues of scientific thought.
+The "plastidule-soul" and the potentialities of carbon may be sound
+scientific conceptions, or they may be the reverse, but they are no
+necessary part of the doctrine of evolution, and I leave their defence
+to Professor Haeckel.
+
+On the question of equivocal generation, I have been compelled, more
+conspicuously and frequently than I could wish, during the last ten
+years, to enunciate exactly the same views as those put forward by
+Professor Virchow; so that, to my mind, at any rate, the denial that
+any such process has as yet been proved to take place in the existing
+state of nature, as little affects the general doctrine.[3]
+
+With respect to another side issue, raised by Professor Virchow, he
+appears to me to be entirely in the wrong. He is careful to say that
+he has no unwillingness to accept the descent of man from some lower
+form of vertebrate life; but, reminding us of the special attention
+which, of late years, he has given to anthropology, he affirms that
+such evidence as exists is not only insufficient to support that
+hypothesis, but is contrary to it. "Every positive progress which we
+have made in the region of prehistoric anthropology has removed us
+further from the demonstration of this relation."
+
+Well, I also have studied anthropological questions in my time; and I
+feel bound to remark, that this assertion of Professor Virchow's
+appears to me to be a typical example of the kind of incautious
+over-statement which he so justly reprehends.
+
+For, unless I greatly err, all the real knowledge which we possess of
+the fossil remains of man goes no farther back than the Quaternary
+epoch; and the most that can be asserted on Professor Virchow's side
+respecting these remains is, that none of them present us with more
+marked pithecoid characters than such as are to be found among the
+existing races of mankind.[4] But, if this be so, then the only just
+conclusion to be drawn from the evidence as it stands is, that the men
+of the Quaternary epoch may have proceeded from a lower type of
+humanity, though their remains hitherto discovered show no definite
+approach towards that type. The evidence is not inconsistent with the
+doctrine of evolution, though it does not help it. If Professor
+Virchow had paid as much attention to comparative anatomy and
+palaeontology as he has to anthropology, he would, I doubt not, be
+aware that the equine quadrupeds of the Quaternary period do not
+differ from existing _Equidae_ in any more important respect than these
+last differ from one another; and he would know that it is,
+nevertheless, a well-established fact that, in the course of the
+Tertiary period, the equine quadrupeds have undergone a series of
+changes exactly such as the doctrine of evolution requires. Hence
+sound analogical reasoning justifies the expectation that, when we
+obtain the remains of Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene _Anthropidae_, they
+will present us with the like series of gradations, notwithstanding
+the fact, if it be a fact, that the Quaternary men, like the
+Quaternary horses, differ in no essential respect from those which now
+live.
+
+I believe that the state of our knowledge on this question is still
+justly summed up in words written some seventeen years ago:--
+
+"In conclusion, I may say, that the fossil remains of man hitherto
+discovered do not seem to me to take us appreciably nearer to that
+lower pithecoid form by the modification of which he has probably
+become what he is. And considering what is now known of the most
+ancient races of men; seeing that they fashioned flint axes, and flint
+knives, and bone skewers of much the same pattern as those fabricated
+by the lowest savages at the present day, and that we have every
+reason to believe the habits and modes of living of such people to
+have remained the same from the time of the mammoth and the tichorhine
+rhinoceros till now, I do not know that the result is other than might
+be expected."[5]
+
+I have seen no reason to change the opinion here expressed, and so far
+from the fact being in the slightest degree opposed to a belief in the
+evolution of man, all that has been learned of late years respecting
+the relation of the Recent and Quaternary to the Tertiary mammalia
+appears to me to be in striking harmony with what we know respecting
+Quaternary man, supposing man to have followed the general law of
+evolution.
+
+The only other collateral question of importance raised by Professor
+Virchow is, whether the doctrine of evolution should be generally
+taught in schools or not. Now I cannot find that Professor Virchow
+anywhere distinctly repudiates the doctrine; all that he distinctly
+says is that it is not proven, and that things which are not proven
+should not be authoritatively instilled into the minds of young
+people.
+
+If Professor Virchow will agree to make this excellent rule absolute,
+and applicable to all subjects that are taught in schools, I should be
+disposed heartily to concur with him.
+
+But what will his orthodox allies say to this? If "not provenness" is
+susceptible of the comparative degree, by what factor must we multiply
+the imperfection of the evidence for evolution in order to express
+that of the evidence for special creation; or to what fraction must
+the value of the evidence in favour of the uninterrupted succession of
+life be reduced in order to express that in support of the deluge?
+Nay, surely even Professor Virchow's "dearest foes," the "plastidule
+soul" and "Carbon & Co.," have more to say for themselves, than the
+linguistic accomplishments of Balaam's ass and the obedience of the
+sun and moon to the commander of a horde of bloodthirsty Hebrews! But
+the high principles of which Professor Virchow is so admirable an
+exponent do not admit of the application of two weights and two
+measures in education; and it is surely to be regretted that a man of
+science of great eminence should advocate the stern bridling of that
+teaching which, at any rate, never outrages common sense, nor refuses
+to submit to criticism, while he has no whisper of remonstrance to
+offer to the authoritative propagation of the preposterous fables by
+which the minds of children are dazed and their sense of truth and
+falsehood perverted. Professor Virchow solemnly warns us against the
+danger of attempting to displace the Church by the religion of
+evolution. What this last confession of faith may be I do not know,
+but it must be bad indeed if it inculcates more falsities than are at
+present foisted upon the young in the name of the Church.
+
+I make these remarks simply in the interests of fair play. Far be it
+from me to suggest that it is desirable that the inculcation of the
+doctrine of evolution should be made a prominent feature of general
+education. I agree with Professor Virchow so far, but for very
+different reasons. It is not that I think the evidence of that
+doctrine insufficient, but that I doubt whether it is the business of
+a teacher to plunge the young mind into difficult problems concerning
+the origin of the existing condition of things. I am disposed to think
+that the brief period of school-life would be better spent in
+obtaining an acquaintance with nature, as it is; in fact, in laying a
+firm foundation for the further knowledge Which is needed for the
+critical examination of the dogmas, whether scientific or
+anti-scientific, which are presented to the adult mind. At present,
+education proceeds in the reverse way; the teacher makes the most
+confident assertions on precisely those subjects of which he knows
+least; while the habit of weighing evidence is discouraged, and the
+means of forming a sound judgment are carefully withheld from the
+pupil.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Professor Virchow is known to me only as he is known to the world in
+general--by his high and well-earned scientific reputation. With
+Professor Haeckel, on the other hand, I have the good fortune to be on
+terms of personal friendship. But in making the preceding
+observations, I should be sorry to have it supposed that I am holding
+a brief for my friend, or that I am disposed to adopt all the opinions
+which he has expressed in his reply. Nevertheless, I do desire to
+express my hearty sympathy with his vigorous defence of the freedom of
+learning and teaching; and I think I shall have all fair-minded men
+with me when I also give vent to my reprobation of the introduction of
+the sinister arts of unscrupulous political warfare into scientific
+controversy, manifested in the attempt to connect the doctrines he
+advocates with those of a political party which is, at present, the
+object of hatred and persecution in his native land. The one blot, so
+far as I know, on the fair fame of Edmund Burke is his attempt to
+involve Price and Priestley in the furious hatred of the English
+masses against the authors and favourers of the revolution of 1789.
+Burke, however, was too great a man to be absurd, even in his errors;
+and it is not upon record that he asked uninformed persons to consider
+what might be the effect of such an innovation as the discovery of
+oxygen on the minds of members of the Jacobin Club.
+
+Professor Virchow is a politician--maybe a German Burke, for anything
+that I know to the contrary; at any rate, he knows the political value
+of words; and, as a man of science, he is devoid of the excuses that
+might be made for Burke. Nevertheless, he gravely charges his hearers
+to "imagine what shape the theory of descent takes in the head of a
+Socialist."
+
+I have tried to comply with this request, but I have utterly failed to
+call up the dread image; I suppose because I do not sufficiently
+sympathise with Socialists. All the greater is my regret that
+Professor Virchow did not himself unfold the links of the hidden bonds
+which unite evolution with revolution, and bind together the community
+of descent with the community of goods.
+
+Professor Virchow is, I doubt not, an accomplished English scholar.
+Let me commend the "Rejected Addresses" to his attention. For since
+the brothers Smith sang--
+
+  "Who makes the quartern loaf and Luddites rise,"--
+  Who fills the butchers' shops with large blue flies,
+
+there has been nothing in literature at all comparable to the attempt
+to frighten sober people by the suggestion that evolutionary
+speculations generate revolutionary schemes in Socialist brains. But
+then the authors of the "Rejected Addresses" were joking, while
+Professor Virchow is in grim earnest; and that makes a great
+difference in the moral aspect of the two achievements.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Novum Organon, li.
+
+[2] Partis instaurationis secundae delineatio.
+
+[3] I may remark parenthetically that Professor Virchow's statement of
+the attitude of Harvey towards equivocal generation is strangely
+misleading. For Harvey, as every student of his works knows, believed in
+equivocal generation; and, in the sense in which he uses the word ovum,
+"nempe substantiam quandam corpoream vitam habentem potentia," the truth
+of the axiom "omne vivum ex ovo," popularly ascribed to him, has in no
+wise been affected by the discoveries of later days in the manner
+asserted by Professor Virchow.
+
+[4] I do not admit that so much can be said; for the like of the
+Neanderthal skull has yet to be produced from among the crania of
+existing men.
+
+[5] Man's Place in Nature, p. 159.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+When the address delivered by Rudolph Virchow on the 22d of September
+last year, at the fiftieth meeting of German Naturalists and
+Physicians at Munich, on "Freedom of Science in the Modern State,"
+appeared in print in the following October, I was called upon, on many
+sides, to prepare a reply. And such a reply on my part seemed, in
+fact, justified by the severe strictures which Virchow in his
+discourse had directed against one delivered by me only four days
+previously, before the same meeting, on "The Modern Doctrine of
+Evolution in its Relation to General Science." The general views which
+Virchow then unfolded proved such a fundamental opposition in our
+principles, and touched our dearest moral convictions so nearly, that
+any reconciliation of such antagonistic views was no longer to be
+thought of. Nevertheless I forbore publishing the ready reply for two
+reasons: one relating to the matter itself, the other a personal one.
+
+With regard to the matter itself, I believed I might confidently leave
+it to futurity to decide in the contention that has declared itself
+between us. For on one hand the doctrine of evolution which Virchow
+attacks has already so far become a sure basis of biological science
+and part of the most precious mental-stock of cultivated humanity,
+that neither the anathemas of the Church nor the contradiction of the
+greatest scientific authority--and such an one is Virchow--can prevail
+against it; and on the other hand most of the arguments which he
+specially adduces against the theory of descent have been so often
+discussed and so thoroughly refuted that any renewed discussion seems
+in fact superfluous.
+
+Personally, it was in the highest degree repugnant to me to come
+forward as the opponent of a man whom I learned, a quarter of a
+century ago, to acknowledge and to honour as the reformer of medical
+science; a man whose most ardent disciple and most enthusiastic
+follower I at that time was, with whom I subsequently stood in the
+closest relation as his assistant, and with whom I long after
+continued in the most friendly intercourse. The more keenly I lamented
+Virchow's position, for some years past, as the antagonist of our
+modern doctrine of evolution, and the more I felt myself challenged to
+a reply by his repeated attacks upon it, the less inclination I felt,
+nevertheless, to come forward publicly as the opponent of this
+distinguished and highly-honoured man.
+
+And if I find myself, after all, forced to reply, it is in the
+persuasion that a longer silence will add to the erroneous conclusions
+which my hitherto resigned attitude has already given rise to; at the
+same time I believe that, precisely by reason of the peculiar interest
+with which I have throughout followed Virchow's scientific
+achievements, I am specially qualified to answer the question, a
+hundred times repeated by letter or by word of mouth--"How is it
+possible that a man who so long stood at the head of a party of
+progress in science as in politics, who in political life indeed, has
+outwardly maintained this position, has in science become an
+instrument of the most perilous reaction?"
+
+A verbal answer, which I incidentally gave in March of last year at
+the Concordia Banquet at Vienna, was reported in the daily papers in
+such a different sense, and was in part so misunderstood or so
+intentionally misrepresented, that I am forced at last, on that
+account, to publish a clear and unambiguous reply. The "Augsburger
+Allgemeine Zeitung," which eagerly seizes every opportunity of
+expressing its unconquerable aversion to the evolution theory, accused
+me, in one of its hostile articles, of a virulent and undignified
+attack on Virchow. In contradiction of this misrepresentation in the
+Augsburg paper--which was copied by other journals--I must expressly
+assert that not Virchow but I myself am the person attacked, and
+that, therefore, the matter in question is not an unjustifiable attack
+by me on a formerly revered friend, but a defence to which I am
+compelled by repeated and sharp attacks on his part.
+
+Another reason which urges me at last to break silence consists in the
+continual and ample advantage that all the clerical and reactionary
+organs have been taking of Virchow's address, during the last
+three-quarters of a year, in favour of mental retrogression. The
+shouts of triumph with which they at once hailed Virchow's "grand
+moral action," that is to say, his perversion from a Free-thinker to
+the side of mental darkness, was the first signal for that persistent
+utilisation of his authority of which the pernicious consequences can
+by no means be escaped. Friedrich von Hellwald, in his discussion on
+the speeches made at Munich, has already strikingly pointed out[6] the
+grave danger that exists when just such an one as Virchow, standing
+under the banner of political liberalism and wrapped in the mantle of
+severe science, decisively combats against the freedom of science and
+of its doctrines. This serious danger has never shown so threatening
+an aspect as at the present moment, when our political and religious
+life appears to be encountering such a reaction as has not occurred
+for a long time. The two insane attempts which, within a few weeks,
+have been made by Social-democracy against the revered and reverend
+person of the German Emperor have raised a storm of righteous
+indignation of such violence that calm judgment is entirely
+overthrown, and that many even of the most liberal of liberal
+politicians not only impetuously urge us to the severest measures
+against the Utopian doctrines of social democracy but, far
+over-shooting the mark, demand that free-doctrine and free-thought,
+that freedom of the press and even freedom of conscience shall be
+thrown into the narrowest fetters. Can this reaction, lurking in the
+background, find any more welcome support than is afforded by the mere
+demand of such a man as Virchow for restriction of liberty in
+teaching? And if he makes our present doctrines of evolution in
+general and the theory of descent in particular responsible for the
+mad doctrines of social-democracy, it is but a natural and just
+consequence when the famous New-Prussian "Kreuz-Zeitung" throws all
+the blame of these treasonable attempts of the democrats Hoedel and
+Nobiling--as in fact it quite lately did--directly on the theory of
+descent, and especially on the hated doctrine of the "descent of man
+from apes." And the danger which threatens us shows a still graver
+aspect when we consider how great an influence Virchow has at the
+present day as an advanced liberal, and how he is regarded in the
+Prussian diet as the highest practical authority, and at the same time
+as the most liberal critic when educational questions are under
+consideration. Now it is well known that one of the most important
+problems lying before the Prussian parliament is the consideration of
+a new education-law, which will probably exercise its restricting
+influence for a long time to come, not in Prussia only, but throughout
+Germany; what can we expect of such an education-law if in the course
+of the deliberations, among the small number of those specialists who
+are generally listened to, Virchow raises his voice as a leading
+authority, and brings forward the principles that he proclaimed in his
+speech at Munich as the surest guarantees for the freedom of science
+in the modern polity? Article XX. of the Prussian Charter, and Sec. 152
+of the Code of the German Empire, say, "Science and its doctrines are
+free." And Virchow's first step, according to the principles he now
+declares, must be a motion to abrogate this paragraph.
+
+In the face of this imminent danger, I dare no longer hesitate about
+my answer. _Amicus Socrates, amicus Plato, magis amica Veritas._ An
+unreserved and public opposition can be no longer postponed. As a
+matter of fact, at the Munich meeting, neither did Virchow hear my
+speech nor I his. I read my paper, as it is printed, on the 18th
+September 1877, and left on the 19th. Virchow came to Munich only on
+the 20th, and delivered his speech on the 22d.
+
+Bearing in mind the gratitude which I owe to Virchow as my former
+master and friend at Wuerzburg--a gratitude which I have at all times
+striven to prove by the further development of his mechanical
+theory--I shall confine myself, as far as possible, to an objective
+and special confutation of his assertions. Certainly the temptation on
+this occasion was a strong one to pay the debt in like kind. In my
+Munich lecture, among the few names to which I alluded, I particularly
+mentioned that of Virchow as the distinguished founder of
+cellular-pathology (p. 12).[7] Virchow's return for this was to heap
+scorn and ridicule on the doctrine of evolution in his usual manner.
+The critic in the "National-Zeitung," Herr Isidor Kastan, says of this
+with particular satisfaction, "The ridicule with which Herr Virchow
+treated this side of Haeckel's visions was indeed caustic enough, but
+this is ever Virchow's way; only in this case, if in any, he was fully
+justified."
+
+I could less easily ignore Virchow's denunciation of me than his
+satire--a denunciation which gibbeted me as a confederate in the
+social-democratic cause, and which made the theory of descent
+answerable for the horrors of the Paris Commune. The opinion is now
+widely spread that by this intentional connection of the theory of
+descent with Social Democracy he has hit the hardest blow at that
+theory, and that he aimed at nothing less than the removal of all
+"Darwinists" from their academic chairs and professorships. This is
+the inevitable consequence of his demands; for if Virchow insists with
+the utmost determination that the theory of descent must not be taught
+(because he does not regard it as true), what is to become of the
+supporters of that theory who, like myself, regard it as
+incontrovertibly true, and teach it as a perfectly sound theory? And
+at least nine-tenths of all the teachers of zoology and botany in
+Europe are among its supporters from immutable conviction of its
+truth, as well as all morphologists without exception. Virchow cannot
+expect that these teachers should collectively renounce that which
+they believe to be immutable truth, and in its place set up the dogma
+of the Church as the basis of their teaching, in accordance with his
+wish! Nothing remains for them but to vacate their professors' chairs,
+and--according to Virchow and the "Germania"--the "Modern Polity"
+would be in duty bound to deprive them of their liberty of teaching if
+they did not voluntarily renounce it.
+
+If this be indeed Virchow's purpose, as it is generally supposed to
+be, with regard to me, at least, he may spare himself the trouble.
+Amongst us in Jena quite other ideas prevail as to the "Freedom of
+science in the modern Polity" than those which obtain in the capital,
+Berlin. And among us the Berlin students' rhyme has no meaning,
+
+  "Who knows the truth and freely speaks,
+  On him the law its vengeance wreaks."[8]
+
+The Jena students, on the contrary, sing the rhyme in its original
+form--
+
+  "Who knows the truth and speaks it not,
+  A feeble wretch is he, God wot."[9]
+
+The Rector Magnificentissimus of the University of Jena, the Grand
+Duke of Saxony, who has proved himself the protector of the arts and
+sciences, has besides far more liberal views as to the liberty of
+scientific investigation and teaching than the illustrious head of the
+party of progress at Berlin. The enlightened and liberal Prince at
+Weimar, under whose particular protection we in Jena find ourselves,
+has never conceived it necessary to limit in any way the unbounded
+freedom of my teaching and my writing; not even when in 1866 my
+"General Morphology," and 1868 my "History of Creation" first
+appeared, and when many people attempted to make the youthful
+extravagances which were to be found in those works the ground of a
+serious accusation. And what farther mischief have these extravagances
+done, though I now sincerely lament them?
+
+Faithful to the glorious traditions of a past extending over three
+centuries, the little Thuringian university of Jena will find a way to
+preserve her perfect and unlimited freedom. She will ever bear in mind
+that she is the first Protestant university of Germany, protesting
+against every strait-waistcoat which hierarchical obstinacy would
+force upon human reason, against every dogma by which the arrogance of
+the learned may try to suppress all freedom of teaching. She will
+freely seek and freely teach in accordance with her highest
+convictions, untroubled by the fact that in the "great" university of
+Berlin nothing may be taught, as Virchow insists, but what is
+objectively ascertained, absolutely sure; that is to say, nothing that
+rises above individual, indubitable, and intelligible facts; not an
+idea, not a conception, not a theory, in fact not any real science;
+mathematics, at most, excepted. It is our conviction that Jena will
+continue to be an independent city of refuge for free science and free
+teaching as long as it remains under the faithful nurture and liberal
+protection of the princely house of Sax Weimar, that enlightened race
+which is linked with the history of German intellect through the
+matchless traditions of its glorious past. What the Wartburg was to
+Martin Luther, what Weimar has been to the foremost heroes of German
+literature, what Jena herself has been during three hundred years to a
+vast number of illustrious investigators, that will the tried and
+tested Jena of to-day undoubtedly continue to be to the modern
+doctrine of evolution, as to every other doctrine which asks free
+development; a strong-hold of free thought, free investigation, and
+free doctrine.
+
+    ERNST HAECKEL.
+
+JENA, _June 24th_, 1878.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] Kosmos, Vol. II. p. 172.
+
+[7] Of the German.
+
+[8]
+
+  "Wer die Wahrheit kennet und saget sie frei,
+   Der kommt in Berlin auf die Stadt-Vogtei."
+
+[9]
+
+  "Wer die Wahrheit kennet und saget sie nicht
+  Der ist fuer wahr ein erbaermlicher Wicht."
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                                         PAGE
+
+       PREFATORY NOTE                                            v
+
+       PREFACE                                                 xxi
+
+  CHAP.
+
+    I. DEVELOPMENT AND CREATION                             1
+
+   II. CERTAIN PROOFS OF THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT           10
+
+  III. THE SKULL THEORY AND THE APE THEORY                 29
+
+   IV. THE CELL-SOUL AND CELLULAR PSYCHOLOGY               46
+
+    V. THE GENETIC AND DOGMATIC METHODS OF TEACHING        61
+
+   VI. THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY        88
+
+  VII. IGNORABIMUS ET RESTRINGAMUR                         99
+
+
+
+
+FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEVELOPMENT AND CREATION.
+
+
+Nothing is more helpful for the understanding of scientific
+controversies, or for the clearing of confused conceptions, than a
+contrasted statement, as defined and clear as possible, of the
+simplest leading propositions of the contending doctrines. Hence it is
+highly favourable to the victory of our modern doctrine of evolution
+that its chief problem, the question as to the origin of species, is
+being more and more pressed by these opposite alternatives: Either all
+organisms are naturally evolved, and must in that case be all
+descended from the simplest common parent-forms--or: That is not the
+case, and the distinct species of organisms have originated
+independently of each other, and in that case can only have been
+created in a supernatural way, by a miracle. Natural evolution, or
+supernatural creation of species--we must choose one of these two
+possibilities, for a third there is not.
+
+But as Virchow, like many other opponents of the doctrine of
+evolution, constantly confounds this latter proposition with the
+doctrine of descent, and that again with Darwinism, it will not be
+superfluous to indicate here, in a few words, the limitation and
+subordination of these three great theories.
+
+I. The general doctrine of development, the progenesis-theory or
+evolution-hypothesis (in the widest sense), as a comprehensive
+philosophical view of the universe, assumes that a vast, uniform,
+uninterrupted and eternal process of development obtains throughout
+all nature; and that all natural phenomena without exception, from the
+motions of the heavenly bodies and the fall of a rolling stone to the
+growth of plants and the consciousness of men, obey one and the same
+great law of causation; that all may be ultimately referred to the
+mechanics of atoms--the mechanical or mechanistic, homogeneous or
+monistic view of the universe; in one word, Monism.
+
+II. The doctrine of derivation, or theory of descent, as a
+comprehensive theory of the natural origin of all organisms, assumes
+that all compound organisms are derived from simple ones, all
+many-celled animals and plants from single-celled ones, and these last
+from quite simple primary organisms--from monads. As we see the
+organic species, the multiform varieties of animals and plants, vary
+under our eyes through adaptation, while the similarity of their
+internal structure is reasonably explicable only by inheritance from
+common parent-forms, we are forced to assume common parent-forms for
+at least the great main divisions of the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms, and for the classes, orders, and so forth. Thus the number
+of these will be very limited, and the primitive archigonian
+parent-forms can be nothing else than monads. Whether we finally
+assume a single common parent-form (the monophyletic hypothesis), or
+several (the polyphyletic hypothesis), is wholly immaterial to the
+essence of the theory of descent; and it is equally immaterial to its
+fundamental idea what mechanical causes are assumed for the
+transformation of the varieties. This assumption of a transformation
+or metamorphosis of species is, however, indispensable, and the theory
+of descent is very properly called also the "metamorphosis
+hypothesis," or "doctrine of transmutation;" as well as Lamarckism,
+after Jean Lamarck, who first founded it in 1809.
+
+III. The doctrine of elimination, or the selection theory, as the
+doctrine especially of "choice of breed or selection," assumes that
+almost all, or at any rate most, organic species have originated by a
+process of selection; the artificial varieties under conditions of
+domestication--as the races of domestic animals and cultivated
+plants--through artificial choice of breeds; and the natural varieties
+of animals and plants in their wild state by natural choice of breeds:
+in the first case, the will of man effects the selection to suit a
+purpose; in the second, it is effected in a purposeless way by the
+"struggle for existence." In both cases the transformation of the
+organic forms takes place through the reciprocal action of the laws of
+inheritance and of adaptation; in both cases it depends on the
+survival or selection of the better-qualified minority. This theory of
+elimination was first clearly recognised and appreciated in its full
+significance by Charles Darwin in 1859, and the selection-hypothesis
+which he founded on it is Darwinism properly so called.
+
+The relation that these three great theories, which are frequently
+confounded, bear to one another may, according to the present position
+of science, be simply defined as follows:--I. Monism, the universal
+theory of development, or the monistic progenesis-hypothesis, is the
+one only scientific theory which affords a rational interpretation of
+the whole universe and satisfies the craving of our human reason for
+causality, by bringing all natural phenomena into a mechanical
+causal-connection as parts of a great uniform process of evolution.
+II. The theory of transmutation, or descent, is an essential and
+indispensable element in the monistic development hypothesis, because
+it is the one only scientific theory which rationally explains the
+origin of organic species--that is to say, by transformation--and
+reduces it to mechanical principles. III. The theory of Selection or
+Darwinism is, up to the present time, the most important of the
+various theories which seek to explain the transformation of species
+by mechanical principles, but it is by no means the only one. If we
+assume that most species have originated through natural elimination,
+we also now know, on the other hand, that many forms distinguished as
+varieties are hybrids between two different varieties, and can be
+propagated as such; and it is equally well worthy of consideration
+that other causes are in activity in the formation of species of
+which, up to the present time, we have no conception. Thus it is left
+to the judgment of individual naturalists to decide what share is to
+be attributed to natural selection in the origin of species, and even
+at the present day authorities differ widely on the subject. Some give
+it a large share, and some a very small one in the result. Moritz
+Wagner, for instance, would substitute his own migration-hypothesis
+for Darwin's theory of selection; while I regard the action of
+migration, which acts as isolation or separation, as merely a special
+mode of selection. But these differing estimates of Darwinism are
+quite independent of the absolute import of the doctrine of descent
+or of transformation, for the latter is as yet the only theory which
+rationally explains the origin of species. If we discard it, nothing
+remains but the irrational assumption of a miracle, a supernatural
+creation.
+
+In this crucial and unavoidable dilemma, Virchow has declared himself
+publicly in favour of the latter, and against the former hypothesis.
+Every one who has attentively followed his occasional utterances on
+the theory of descent during the last decade with an unprejudiced eye
+and an unbiassed judgment, must be convinced that he fundamentally
+rejects it. Still, his dissent has always been so obscured, and his
+judgment on Darwinism in particular so wrapped in ambiguities, that an
+opportune conversion to the opposite side seemed not impossible; and
+many, even among those who stood near to Virchow--his friends and
+disciples--did not know to what point he was in fact an opponent of
+the evolution hypothesis in general. Virchow took the last step
+towards clearing up this matter at Munich; for after his Munich
+address there can be no farther doubt that he belongs to the most
+decided opponents of the whole theory of evolution, including those of
+inheritance and selection.
+
+If any one still has doubts on the matter, let him read the jubilant
+hymns of triumph with which Virchow's friend and collaborator, Adolf
+Bastian, greeted his Munich discourse. This "enfant terrible" of the
+school--this well-nicknamed "Acting privy counsellor of the board of
+confusion"[10]--whose merits in involuntarily advancing the cause of
+metamorphism I have already done justice to in the preface to the
+third edition of my "Natural History of Creation"[11]--expresses
+himself in the "Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie," which is edited by him
+and Virchow (tenth yearly part, X. 1878, p. 66) as follows:--"At the
+Munich meeting of naturalists, Virchow by a few weighty words cleared
+the atmosphere, which was heavy and stifling under the pressure of the
+incubus called Descent, and once more freed science from that
+nightmare which it has so long--in many opinions so much too
+long--allowed to weigh upon it; freed it, let us hope, once and for
+ever. The forecasts of this storm were discernible many years since,
+and its whole course has been a strictly normal one. When the germs
+planted by Darwin, and that promised so much, were forced into growth
+by a feverish, hot-house heat, and began to sprout into sterile weeds,
+their small vitality was plain to our eyes. So long as the waves run
+too high under the pressure of a psychical storm, it is almost useless
+to protest against it, for every ear is too much deafened by the
+noise all round to hear the voice of individuals. It is best to leave
+things to go their own way, deeper and deeper into the mire, till they
+come to a stand-still there of their own accord; for 'Quos deus vult
+perdere prius dementat.' Thus it is in this case. When the
+extravagances of the descent hypothesis, encouraged as they were by
+mutual incitement, had reached their highest pitch in the ravings that
+were uttered at Munich, the too pointed point broke in this
+superabundance of absurdity almost by its own pointedness, and so we
+were quit of it with one blow. Now, happily, all is over with the
+theory of descent, or ascent, but natural science will not on that
+account fare any the worse, for many of its adherents belong to her
+ablest youth, and as they now need no longer waste their best time on
+romantic schemes, they will have it to use at the orders and for the
+advancement of science, so as to enrich her through real and solid
+contributions."
+
+Furthermore, Bastian quotes Virchow's maxim:--"The plan of
+organisation is immutable within the limits of the species; species is
+not produced from species." The fundamental teleological idea of that
+school, that each species has its constant and specific plan of
+structure, certainly cannot be more emphatically expressed. Thus it is
+undoubtedly certain that Virchow has become a Dualist, and is as
+thoroughly penetrated by the truth of his principles as I, as a
+Monist, am of mine. This is undoubtedly the upshot of his Munich
+address, though he is throughout careful to avoid acknowledging his
+chief standpoint in all its nakedness. On the contrary, even now he
+still veils his antagonism under the phrase, which is also a favourite
+with the clerical papers, that the theory of descent is an "unproved
+hypothesis." Now it is clear that this theory never will be "proved"
+if the proofs that already lie before us are not sufficient. How often
+has it been repeated that the scientific certainty of the hypothesis
+of descent is not grounded in this or that isolated experiment, but in
+the collective sum of biological phenomena; in the causal nexus of
+evolution. Then what are the new proofs of the theory of descent which
+Virchow demands of us?
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] "Wirkliche Geheime Ober-Confusionsrath."
+
+[11] Translated under the supervision of E. Ray Lankester. London: C.
+Kegan Paul & Co.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CERTAIN PROOFS OF THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT.
+
+
+All the common phenomena of Morphology and Physiology, of Chorology
+and Oekology, of Ontology and Paleontology, can be explained by the
+theory of descent, and referred to simple mechanical causes. It is
+precisely in this, viz., that the primary simple causes of all these
+complex aggregates of phenomena are common to them all, and that other
+mechanical causes for them are unthinkable--it is in this that, to us,
+the guarantee of their certainty consists. For this reason all these
+vast and manifold aggregates of facts are so many evidences of the
+doctrine of descent. This fundamental relation of facts has been so
+often expounded that I need dwell no farther on it in this place;
+those who wish for any closer discussion of it are referred to my
+"General Morphology" (vol. ii. chap. xix.), or "The History of
+Creation,"[12] or "The Evolution of Man" (vol. i. p. 93).[13]
+
+And where is yet farther proof of the truth of the theory of descent
+to be found? Neither Virchow, nor any one of the clerical opponents
+and the dualistic philosophers who are perpetually reiterating this
+cry for more certain evidence, anywhere indicate where possibly such
+evidence is to be sought. Where in all the world can we discover
+"facts" which will speak more plainly or significantly for the truth
+of transmutation than the facts of comparative morphology and
+physiology; than the facts of the rudimentary organs and of embryonic
+development; than the facts revealed by fossils and the geographical
+distribution of organisms--in short, than the collective recognised
+facts of the most diverse provinces of biological science?
+
+But I am in error--the certain proof that Virchow demands in order to
+be perfectly satisfied with the evidence, is to be supplied by
+"experiment, the test as well as the highest means of evidence." This
+demand, that the doctrine of descent should be grounded on experiment,
+is so perverse and shows such ignorance of the very essence of our
+theory, that though we have never been surprised at hearing it
+continually repeated by ignorant laymen, from the lips of a Virchow it
+has positively astounded us. What can in this case be proved by
+experiment, and what can experiment prove?
+
+"The variability of species, the transformation of species, the
+transition of a species into one or more new varieties," is the
+answer. Now, so far as these facts can be proved by experiment, they
+actually have long since been experimentally proved in the completest
+manner. For what are the numberless trials of artificial selection for
+breeding purposes which men have practised for thousand of years in
+breeding domestic animals and cultivated plants, but physiological
+experiments which prove the transformation of species? As an example
+we may refer to the different races of horses and pigeons. The swift
+race-horse and the heavy pack-horse, the graceful carriage-horse and
+the sturdy cart-horse, the huge dray-horse and the dwarfed pony--these
+and many other "races" are so different from each other, that if we
+had found them wild we should certainly have described them as quite
+different varieties of one species, or even representatives of
+different species. Undoubtedly, these so-called "races" and "sports"
+of the horse tribe differ from each other in a much greater degree
+than do the zebra, the quagga, the mountain horse, and the other wild
+varieties of the horse, which every zoologist distinguishes as "bonae
+species." And yet all these artificial varieties, which man has
+designedly produced by selection, are descended from a single common
+parent-form, from one wild "true variety." The same is the case with
+the numerous and highly differing varieties of pigeons. Domestic
+pigeons and carrier-pigeons, turbits and cropper-pigeons, fantail
+pigeons and owls, tumblers and pouters, trumpeters and laughing
+pigeons (or Indian doves), and the rest, are all, as Darwin has
+convincingly proved, descendants of a single wild variety, the
+rock-pigeon (_Columba livia_). And how wonderfully various they are,
+not only in general form, size, and colouring, but in the particular
+form of the skull, the beak, the feet, and so forth! They differ much
+more in every respect each from the others than the numerous wild
+varieties which, in systems of ornithology, are recognised as true
+varieties, and even as true species. It is the same with the different
+artificial varieties of apples, pears, pansies, dahlias, and so on; in
+short, of almost all the domestic varieties of animals and plants. We
+would lay particular stress on the fact that these artificial species
+which man has produced or created by artificial breeding and through
+experimental transformation out of one original species, differ far
+more one from another in physiological as well as in morphological
+conditions than the natural species in a wild state. With these it is
+self-evident that any proof by experiment of a common origin is wholly
+impossible. For, so soon as we subject any wild variety of animal or
+plant to such an experiment, we bring it under the conditions of
+artificial breeding.
+
+That the morphological conception of a Species is not a positive but
+only a relative conception, and that it has no other absolute or
+positive value than those other similar system-categories--sports,
+varieties, races, tribes, families, classes--is now acknowledged by
+every systematiser who forms an honest and unprejudiced judgment of
+the practical systematic distinction of species. From the very nature
+of the case there are no limits to arbitrary discretion in this
+department, and there are no two systematists who are at one in every
+instance; this one separating forms as true varieties which that one
+does not. (Compare on this point "History of Creation," vol. i., p.
+273.) The conception of variety or species has a different value in
+every small or large department of systematic Zoology and Botany.
+
+But the conception of species has just as little any fixed
+physiological value. In respect to this we must especially insist that
+the question of hybrid offspring, the last corner of refuge of all the
+defenders of the constancy of species, has at present lost all
+significance as bearing on the conception of species. For we know now,
+through numerous and reliable experiences and experiments, that two
+different true varieties can frequently unite and produce fertile
+hybrids (as the hare and rabbit, lion and tiger, many different kinds
+of the carp and trout tribes, of willows, brambles, and others); and
+in the second place, the fact is equally certain that descendants of
+one and the same species which, according to the dogma of the old
+schools, could always effect a fertile union under certain
+circumstances, either cannot effect such a union or produce only
+barren hybrids (the Porto-Santo rabbit, the different races of horses,
+dogs, roses, hyacinths, &c.; see "History of Creation," vol. i., p.
+146).
+
+For a certain proof that the conception of species rests on a
+subjective abstraction and has a merely relative value--like the
+conception of genus, family, order, class, &c.--no class of animals is
+of so much importance as that of the Sponges. In it the fluctuating
+forms vary with such unexampled indefiniteness and variability as to
+make all distinction of species quite illusory. Oscar Schmidt has
+already pointed this out in the siliceous sponges and keratose
+sponges; and I, in my monograph, in three volumes, on the Calcareous
+Sponges (the result of five years of most accurate investigations of
+this small animal group), have pointed out that we may at pleasure
+distinguish 3, or 21, or 111, or 289, or 591 different species. I also
+believe that I have thus convincingly demonstrated how all these
+different forms of the calcareous sponges may quite naturally, and
+without any forcing, be traced to a single common parent-form, the
+simple--and not hypothetical, but existing at this present day--the
+simple Olynthus. Hence I think I have here produced the most positive
+analytical evidence of the transformation of species, and of the unity
+of the derivation of all the species of a given group of animals, that
+is generally possible.
+
+Properly, I might spare myself these disquisitions on the question of
+species, for Virchow does not go into this main question of the theory
+of descent--but this is very characteristic of his attitude. And just
+as he nowhere thoroughly discusses the doctrine of transformation,
+neither does he enter generally on the refutation of any of the other
+certain proofs of the doctrine of descent which we in fact possess at
+the present day. Neither the morphological nor the physiological
+arguments for the theory of descent, neither the rudimentary organs
+nor the embryonic forms, neither the paleontological nor the
+chronological argument are anywhere closely examined and tested as to
+their worth or their worthlessness as "certain proofs." On the
+contrary, Virchow takes them quite easily, sets them aside, and
+declares that "certain proofs" of the doctrine of descent do not
+exist, but remain to be discovered. To be sure, he does not indicate
+where they are to be sought, nor can he indicate it. How is this
+strange conduct to be explained? How is it possible that a
+distinguished naturalist should resist the most important step forward
+of modern natural science without in any way specially investigating
+it, without even practically testing and refuting the most weighty
+arguments in its favour? To this question there is but one answer.
+Virchow is not generally intimate with the modern doctrine of
+evolution, and does not possess that knowledge of natural science
+which is indispensable for any well-grounded judgment on it.
+
+After collecting and carefully reading all that Virchow, during many
+years, had written against evolution, I arrived at the conviction that
+he had not thoroughly read either Darwin's great work on the Origin of
+Species, nor any other work on the theory of descent, nor had he
+thought the matter out with such attention as so serious and intricate
+a subject absolutely demands. Virchow did with these works as it has
+been his well-known custom to do with many others--he hastily turned
+over the pages, caught at a few leading words, and without any farther
+trouble he has discoursed upon them, and, which is worst of all, has
+perpetuated these discourses through the press.
+
+To excuse this conduct, and to account for Virchow's enigmatical
+position in the battle of evolution, we must consider what changes
+this highly-gifted and meritorious man has gone through in the course
+of the last thirty years. The most important and fruitful part of his
+life and labours was indisputably during the eight years when he
+resided in Wuerzburg, from 1848 to 1856. There Virchow, with all the
+keenness of his youthful intellect, with a sacred enthusiasm for
+scientific truth, with indefatigable powers of work and the rarest
+insight, worked out that glorious reform of scientific medicine which
+will shine through all time as a star of the first magnitude in the
+history of medical science. In Wuerzburg, Virchow elaborated that
+comprehensive application of the cellular theory to pathology which
+culminates in the conception that the cell is an independent living
+elementary organism, and that our human organism, like that of all the
+higher animals, is merely a congeries of cells--a highly fertile
+conception, which Virchow now denies as resolutely as he then
+supported it. In Wuerzburg, twenty-five years since, I sat devoutly at
+his feet, and received from him with enthusiasm that clear and simple
+doctrine of the mechanics of all vital activity--a truly monistic
+doctrine, which Virchow now undoubtedly opposes where formerly he
+defended it. In Wuerzburg, finally, he wrote those incomparable
+critical and historical leading articles which are the ornament of the
+first ten yearly series of his "Archives" of pathological anatomy. All
+that Virchow effected as the great pioneer of reform in medicine, and
+by which he won imperishable honour in the scientific treatment of
+disease,--all this was either carried out or preconceived in Wuerzburg;
+and even the celebrated "Cellular Pathology," a course of lectures
+which he delivered during the first year and a half after quitting
+Wuerzburg for Berlin, consists only of the collected and matured fruits
+of which the blossoms are due to Wuerzburg.
+
+In the autumn of 1856 Virchow left Wuerzburg to settle in Berlin. The
+exchange of a narrow sphere of labours for a wider one, of small means
+and appliances for greater ones, proved unfavourable in this case, as
+in many similar cases. Since he has been in Berlin, in a "great
+Institution," and with luxurious appliances, all the scientific
+results which Virchow has as yet brought to light are not to be
+compared, either as to quality or quantity, to the grand and immortal
+achievements which he himself effected in the little institute of
+Wuerzburg with the scantiest means--a new proof of the maxim enunciated
+by me, and hitherto never confuted, that "the scientific results of an
+institute are in inverse proportion to its size." (See "The Aim and
+Methods of Modern Evolution."[14])
+
+Still more grave is the circumstance that, since settling in Berlin,
+Virchow has more and more exchanged his theoretical scientific
+activity for practical political life. It is well known how prominent
+a part he plays there in the Prussian Chamber of Representatives, how
+he raised himself to be the leader of the party of progress, and, to
+give this political position a broader basis, took part in the
+representation of the citizens of the capital; how he has taken a most
+active interest, as city commissioner, in all the petty anxieties and
+concerns which the charge of such a city as Berlin entails. I am far
+from blaming, as many have blamed, the political and civic activity to
+which Virchow has indefatigably devoted his best powers. If a man
+feels in himself the inclination and vocation with strength and talent
+enough, to play a conspicuous political part, by all means let him do
+so; but verily I do not envy him; for the satisfaction which is
+derived from the most successful and fruitful political activity is
+not, to my taste, to be compared with that pure and disinterested
+satisfaction of the mind which results from absorption in serious and
+difficult scientific labours. In the turmoil of the political and
+social struggle, even the most splendid civic crown will be dulled by
+the stifling dust of practical life, which never reaches the ethereal
+heights of pure science and never rests on the laurels of the
+thoughtful investigator. However, as I have said, that is a matter of
+taste. If Virchow really believes that he is doing a greater service
+to humanity by his practical political life in Berlin than he
+formerly did by his theoretical scientific work in Wuerzburg, that is
+his affair; but for all that, in his former sphere he was
+incomparable, and cannot be replaced; in the latter this is not the
+case.
+
+If a distinguished man, be he never so remarkable for uncommon power
+of work and universal gifts, passes the whole day in the friction of
+political party-struggles, and throws himself as well into all the
+petty and wearisome details of daily civic life, it is impossible for
+him to maintain the requisite feeling for the progress of
+science--particularly when it advances so rapidly and incessantly as
+is the case in our day. It is therefore quite intelligible that
+Virchow should soon have lost this feeling, and in the course of the
+last two decades have become more and more estranged from science. And
+this estrangement has at last led to so complete a change in his
+fundamental views, to such a metapsychosis, that the present Virchow
+of 1878 is hardly in a position to understand the youthful Virchow of
+1848.
+
+We have seen a similar mental change occur contemporaneously in our
+greatest naturalist, Carl Ernst von Baer. This gifted and profound
+thinker and biologist, whose name marks a new epoch in the history of
+evolution, had in his later years become wholly incompetent even to
+understand those most important problems of his youthful labours
+which opened up new paths of inquiry. While in his early years he laid
+down principles of the greatest value to our modern doctrine of
+evolution, and even went very near to adopting this hypothesis into
+his system, at a later period he utterly denied it, and by his
+writings on Darwinism proved that he was no longer generally capable
+of mastering this difficult problem. As I am one of Von Baer's warmest
+admirers, and in my "Evolution of Man," as well as in the "History of
+Creation," and in other places, have most emphatically expressed that
+sincere esteem, I thought I might venture to forbear from calling
+attention to the discrepancy between the lucid, monistic principles of
+Von Baer in his youth, and the confused dualistic views of his old
+age. But as many opponents of Darwinism--and among them particularly
+the Old Catholic philosopher of Munich, Huber, who has written a
+series of articles in the "Augsburger Zeitung"--have made constant
+capital out of the harmless talk of the feeble old Von Baer, I must in
+this place explicitly declare that this dualistic prating of the old
+man is quite incapable of shaking the monistic principles of the young
+and enterprising pioneers of science, or of giving them the lie.
+
+In his autobiography Von Baer gives us the explanation of this
+striking contradiction. In 1834 he entirely and for ever abandoned
+the province of the history of development, at which for twenty years
+he had laboured incessantly, and where he had earned splendid laurels.
+To escape from the haunting and importunate ideas of the science which
+had so wholly absorbed him, he fled from Koenigsberg to Petersburg, and
+subsequently busied himself in scientific inquiries of a quite
+different character. Twenty-five long years passed by, and when
+Darwin's work appeared in 1859, Von Baer had too long undergone a
+metapsychosis to be able to understand it. In Von Baer, as in Virchow,
+the course of this remarkable metapsychosis is highly instructive, and
+will itself afford to the thoughtful psychologist an interesting
+evidence of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+However, the lack of comprehension of our modern evolution-hypothesis
+is easier to explain in Virchow's case than in Von Baer's, for this
+reason: morphological knowledge was greatly lacking to Virchow, while
+Von Baer possessed it in the highest degree. Now morphology is
+precisely that very department of inquiry in which our theory of
+descent has its deepest and strongest roots, and has matured the most
+glorious fruits of knowledge. The study of organic forms, or
+morphology, is thus, more than any other science, interested in the
+doctrine of descent, because through this doctrine it first obtained a
+practical knowledge of effective causes, and was able to raise itself
+from the humble rank of a descriptive study of _forms_ to the high
+position of an analytical science of _form_. It is true that by the
+beginning of this century the most comprehensive branch of
+morphology--_i.e._, comparative anatomy--which was founded by Cuvier
+and splendidly developed by Johannes Mueller, had laid the foundations
+on which to build a truly philosophical science of form. The enormous
+mass of various empirical material, which had been accumulated by
+descriptive systematists and by the dissections of zootomists since
+the time of Linnaeus and Pallas, had already been abundantly matured
+and utilised in many ways for philosophic purposes by the synthetic
+principles of comparative anatomy. But even the most important
+universal laws of organisation--of which the old system of comparative
+anatomy was one--had to take refuge in mystical ideas of a plan of
+structure and of creative final causes (_causae finales_); they were
+incapable of arriving at a true and clear perception of effective
+mechanical causes (_causae efficientes_). This last, most difficult,
+and grandest problem, Charles Darwin was the first to solve in 1859,
+by setting Lamarck's theory of descent, which was already fifty years
+old, on a firm footing by his own theory of selection. By this
+hypothesis it was first made possible to fit together the rich
+materials which had been previously amassed, into the splendid
+edifice of the mechanical science of form. (See my "General
+Morphology," vol. i. chap. iv.)
+
+The immeasurable step which Darwin thus made in organic morphology can
+be adequately appreciated only by those who, like myself, were brought
+up in the school of the old teleological morphology, and whose eyes
+were suddenly opened by the theory of selection to a comprehension of
+that greatest of all biological riddles, the creation of specific
+forms. The dogma of creation, the mystic and dualistic doctrine of the
+isolated creation of each separate variety, was annihilated at one
+blow; the belief in transmutation has now for ever taken its
+place--the mechanistic and monistic doctrine of the metamorphosis of
+organic forms, of the descent of all the species of one natural class
+from a common parent-form. How complete a change the science of
+mechanical morphology has by this means been compelled to undergo, I
+have endeavoured to point out in my "General Morphology;" and any one
+who wishes to convince himself clearly of what an enormous revolution
+has been brought about, particularly in comparative anatomy, may
+compare the "Outlines of Comparative Anatomy" (Grundzuege der
+vergleichenden Anatomie), by Carl Gegenbaur, 1870, and the latest
+edition of his "Elements" (Grundrisses), with the old text-books of
+that science.
+
+Virchow has no suspicion even of all these immeasurable strides in
+morphology, for this department always lay out of his ken. His great
+reforms in pathology were founded in the province of physiology, and
+more especially in cellular physiology. But within the last twenty
+years these two main branches of biological inquiry have grown more
+and more apart. The great Johannes Mueller was the last biologist who
+was able to keep these departments of organic inquiry together, and
+who won equally immortal honours in both divisions of the subject.
+After Mueller's death in 1858 they fell asunder. Physiology, as the
+science especially of the functions or living activity of the
+organism, addressed itself more and more to exact and experimental
+methods: morphology, on the contrary, as the science of the forms and
+structure of animals and plants, could naturally make but very small
+use of this method; it must take refuge more and more in the history
+of evolution, and so constitute an historical natural science. It was
+on this very historical and genetic method of morphology, in
+contradistinction to the exact and experimental method of physiology,
+that I based my Munich address; and if Virchow in his answer had
+really and thoroughly refuted this position, instead of fighting with
+mere phrases and denunciations, this radical opposition would have
+been well worthy of the fullest discussion. At the same time I have
+no wish to reproach Virchow for being wholly fettered by the one-sided
+views of the modern school-physiology, nor because morphology lies so
+far out of his ken that he has not been able to form an independent
+judgment of its aims and methods; but when, in spite of all this, he
+on every occasion lets fall a disparaging judgment of it, we must
+dispute his competence. It is true that in his Munich address he
+emphasises the statement, "That which graces me best is that I know my
+ignorance," by printing it in italics. I only regret that I am forced
+to deny his possession of this very grace. Virchow does not know how
+ignorant he is of morphology, else he would never have uttered his
+annihilating verdict on it, else he would not continually designate
+the study of the theory of descent as dilettanteism and vain dreaming,
+as "a fanciful private speculation which is now making its way in
+several departments of natural science." In truth, Virchow does me
+greatly too much honour when he designates as my "personal crotchet"
+an idea which for the last ten years has been the most precious common
+possession of all morphological science. If Virchow were not so
+unfamiliar with the literature of morphology, he must have known that
+it is penetrated throughout by this principle of descent, that every
+morphological inquiry which conscientiously pursues a well-considered
+problem now assumes the doctrine of descent as granted and
+indisputable. Of all this he is ignorant, and so it is intelligible
+that he should continue to demand "certain proofs" of this hypothesis,
+although those proofs have long since been produced.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] Vol. ii., p. 334 of translation.
+
+[13] London: C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1879.
+
+[14] Jena, Zeitschriften fuer Naturwissenschaft, 1875. Vol. x.
+Supplement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SKULL THEORY AND THE APE THEORY.
+
+
+Inasmuch as Virchow persists in treating the theory of descent as an
+"unproved hypothesis," inasmuch as he ignores all the forcible
+evidences of that hypothesis, he deprives himself of the right of
+speaking a decisive word in this, the most important scientific
+dispute of the present day. Virchow is, in fact, simply incompetent in
+the great question of evolution, as he is deficient in the greater
+part of that knowledge--more especially morphological knowledge--which
+is indispensable to forming a judgment upon it. Hence on the
+turning-point of the whole matter--viz., the problem as to the origin
+of species--he can have no opinion, as he has never turned his
+attention to the systematic treatment of species: those transitions of
+one species into another, which he asks to see, abound on all sides,
+as is well known to every systematic naturalist. Only consider, for
+example, the genera of Rubus and Salix among the living plants of the
+present period, and the Ammonites and Brachiopoda among extinct
+animals. Hence, too, Virchow can have no independent views as to the
+historical development of the higher from the lower animals, because
+the abundant living forms of the lower animals are almost unknown to
+him, and because he has hardly any conception of the marvellous
+strides which hundreds of industrious workers have made in this very
+department within the last twenty years. But there can be no doubt,
+indeed it is already universally acknowledged, that it is precisely
+the comparative anatomy of the lower--nay, of the very lowest
+animals--that has solved the greatest riddles of life, and removed the
+greatest obstacles from the path of the doctrine of descent. He simply
+ignores the fact that true Monads actually exist, and have been
+positively identified by many different observers as structureless
+"organisms without organs," and he turns out the poor Bathybius with a
+kick. And yet I believe that in "Kosmos"[15] I have conclusively proved
+that Monads must retain their vast elementary importance whether the
+Bathybius actually exists or not.
+
+But even as regards the higher animals--nay, even as to the
+comparative anatomy of the highest next to man, the apes--Virchow
+stands apart, not understanding the views of modern morphology.
+
+We must here examine more closely into this, because it is precisely
+in this department that Virchow's only morphological experiments have
+been made; viz., his investigations as to the skulls of apes and of
+men. This is precisely the one only point on which he has sought a
+closer acquaintance with morphology, and precisely here it is most
+clearly to be seen how little he is acquainted with the recent
+advances our science has made, and that he has hardly any conception
+of the extraordinary importance to that science of the theory of
+descent.
+
+The skull theory, as is well known, has for a long time been a very
+favourite theme, not only with prominent naturalists, but also with
+talented amateurs. Undoubtedly the skull, viewed as the bony capsule
+which encloses our most important organ of sense, our brain, has a
+special claim to morphological importance; for the general
+conformation of the skull corresponds on the whole to the development
+of the brain, and its inner surface gives an approximate idea of the
+outer surface of the brain. In this correspondence lies the only sound
+kernel of the sickly, overgrown fancies of phrenology. The various
+development of the skull allows of an approximate inference as to the
+various degrees of development of the brain and of the mental
+faculties. The comparative study of the skulls of the vertebrate
+animals had excited the lively interest of morphologists by the end of
+the last century, when comparative anatomy was beginning to
+constitute a special science; and the genetic inquiry as to the
+morphological significance and development of the skull soon grew out
+of it. It was no less a man than our greatest German poet who first
+answered this question, and propounded the theory that the skull was
+neither more nor less than the modified foremost end of the vertebral
+column, and that the separate groups of bones which lie behind one
+another in the human skull, as in that of all the higher vertebrata,
+answer to the separate modified vertebrae. This "vertebral theory" of
+the skull, which Von Goethe and Oken simultaneously and independently
+attempted to prove, aroused universal interest and maintained its
+ground for seventy years, while many attempts were made to improve and
+enlarge upon it in detail.
+
+A quite new light was thrown on this, as on every other morphological
+question, as soon as Darwin in 1859 had once more put into our hands
+the torch of the doctrine of descent. The inquiry as to the origin of
+the skull now assumed a real and tangible form. Since all vertebrate
+animals, from fishes up to man, agree so completely as to their
+essential internal structure that they can be rationally conceived of
+no otherwise than as branches of one stock and as descendants of one
+parent-form, the distinctly formulated question as to the skull
+theory which now started into prominence was this: "How, historically,
+has the skull of man and of the higher animals originated from that of
+the lower animals? How is the development of the bones of the skull
+from the vertebrae to be proved?" The answer to these difficult
+questions was supplied by the first comparative anatomist of the
+present day, by Carl Gegenbaur. After Huxley had pointed out that the
+ontogenesis or individual development of the skull by no means
+favoured the older hypothesis of Goethe and Oken, Gegenbaur brought
+forward evidence that the fundamental idea of that theory was correct;
+that the skull does in fact correspond to a series of coalescent
+vertebrae, but that the separate bones of the skull are not to be
+regarded as representing parts of such modified vertebrae. The
+skull-bones of all recent vertebrate animals are rather, for the most
+part, dermal bones, which have come into closer connection as
+supplementary to the cartilaginous primitive skull. We can even now
+trace the number and position of the original vertebrae, from which
+this primitive skull originated, by the number of the vertebral arches
+(gill-arches) which are attached to it, as well as by the number and
+position of those vertebrae, from nine to ten. Of all the recent
+vertebrata, the cartilaginous fishes, or Selachians, have most nearly
+preserved the form and structure of this primordial skull. These
+Selachians, the Rays and Sharks, are on the whole the creatures which
+throw the clearest light on the history of the lineage of the
+vertebrata and on the organisation of our primeval fish-natured
+ancestors. It is one of the particular merits of Gegenbaur that he
+clearly and firmly established the place in nature of the Selachians
+as the common ancestors of all vertebrate animals from fish up to man.
+
+None but those who have thoroughly studied the comparative morphology
+of the vertebrata, who have sought the genetic issue from that
+labyrinth of intricate morphological problems at the hands of the
+theory of descent, can duly value the immeasurable service which
+Gegenbaur has done by this and other "Investigations into the
+Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrata." These investigations are as
+much distinguished by a profound knowledge and careful working out of
+the wonderfully-extensive empirical materials for the subject, as by
+their critical acumen and philosophic grasp. At the same time they set
+in the clearest light the immeasurable value of the theory of descent
+in the causal explanation of the most difficult morphological
+problems. Gegenbaur might, therefore, with perfect right, enunciate
+this axiom in the Introduction to his "Comparative Anatomy." "The
+theory of descent will at once find a touchstone of proof in
+comparative anatomy. Up to this time no experience in comparative
+anatomy has transpired which contradicts that theory; on the
+contrary, they all lead up to it. Thus it will receive back from
+science that which it has given to scientific method: clearness and
+certainty." In point of fact we can adduce no morphological
+investigations which better support this declaration than those very
+phylogenetic researches "as to the cranium of the Selachians, as a
+basis for the critical examination of the genesis of the cranium of
+the vertebrata," 1872. As Virchow had formerly thoroughly studied the
+old skull-hypothesis, and in his admirable discourse on "Goethe as a
+Naturalist," 1861, had given an excellent exposition of it; as
+moreover he had produced most valuable contributions to the normal and
+pathological anatomy of the human skull, we might have expected that
+he would have received Gegenbaur's grand reform of the theory of the
+skull, and historical solution of the skull-problem, with the greatest
+interest, and have made it the clue to his own further researches. But
+we seek in vain through Virchow's latest contributions to the study of
+the human skull, for any indication of his knowing or appreciating
+Gegenbaur's investigations. On the contrary, we see him persistently
+moving, without any clear goal in view, on that trodden and devious
+path of investigation which finds the highest aim of craniological
+science in the measuring of skulls, or craniometry.
+
+We are far from undervaluing the full significance of the results of
+exact and careful descriptions and measurements of various
+conformations of the skull as an empirical basis for a true and
+scientific study of the skull--_i.e._, for comparative and genetic
+craniology. But still we must say that the way and method by which
+this skull measurement has, for ten years now, been pursued by
+numerous craniologists can never yield corresponding scientific
+results; on the contrary, though it is cried up as the "exact
+morphology" of the skull, it simply loses itself in the domains of
+harmless trifling. A large amount of time has in the last ten years
+been squandered in disputes as to the best method of measuring skulls,
+while the craniologists concerned have not, in the first place,
+answered the obviously most important question: What end they propose
+to gain by this specialist measuring, what proposition they mean to
+prove by it? Most of those numerous skull measurers know nothing
+beyond the perfect human skull, or at most the skulls of a few other
+mammalia, while the comparative morphology and historical development
+of the crania of the lower vertebrata are wholly unknown to them; and
+yet these last contain the true key to the comprehension of the
+others. One single month devoted by these "exact skull measurers" to
+the study of Gegenbaur's theory of the skull, and to testing the
+hypothesis by the skulls of Selachians, would have yielded them more
+fruit and have given them more light than long years of describing and
+measuring human skulls, however various.
+
+Virchow himself affords the most striking example of the usual results
+of this so-called "exact method" of studying skulls. In his popular
+essay on "The Skulls of Men and Apes," 1870, he concludes with this
+notable proposition:--"It is therefore self-evident that Man can never
+by any progressive development have originated from the Apes." Every
+evolutionist who is familiar with the surprising facts of comparative
+morphology will draw from them the opposite conclusion: "It is
+self-evident that Man could only have originated from the progressive
+development of the Ape (organism)."
+
+This brings us to that question which, in the popular treatment of the
+theory of descent, is justly considered as its most important outcome
+and as the keystone of the evolutionist edifice--to the well-known
+proposition, "Man is descended from the Ape." While we simply ignore
+all the misrepresentation, distortion, and misinterpretation which
+this ape, or pithecoid hypothesis, has met with on all sides, we will
+only remark that this fundamental proposition, in the sense of our
+modern doctrine of evolution, can rationally have only this plain
+meaning: that the human species as a whole was long since developed
+from the order of apes, indeed actually from one (or perhaps more)
+long since extinct form of ape; the immediate progenitors of man in
+the long series of his vertebrate ancestry were apes or ape-like
+animals. Of course none of the now surviving species of apes is to be
+regarded as the unaltered posterity of that primeval parent-form.
+Virchow, however, understanding the "ape question" in this sense,
+answers it, as Bastian also does, with the most positive
+contradiction. "We cannot teach the doctrine that man is descended
+from apes or from any other animal, for we cannot regard it as a real
+acquisition of science" (p. 31). Although I myself, in direct
+opposition to this view, and in agreement with almost all my
+professional colleagues, look upon the descent of man from apes as one
+of the surest of phylogenetic hypotheses, I will here expressly admit
+that the _relative_ certainty of this, as of all other historical
+hypotheses of descent, is not comparable with the _absolute_ certainty
+of the general theory of descent. It is now ten years since I first
+explicitly stated (in my "Natural History of Creation," vol. ii. p.
+358): "The pedigree of the human race, like that of every animal or
+plant, remains in detail a more or less approximate general
+hypothesis. This, however, in no way affects the application of the
+theory of descent to man. In this, as in all researches into the
+derivation of our organism, we must distinguish between the _general
+theory_ of descent and the _specific hypothesis_ of descent. The
+general theory of descent claims full and permanent value, because it
+is inductively based on the whole range of common biological phenomena
+and on their internal causal connection. Each special hypothesis of
+descent, on the other hand, is conditional as to its specific value on
+the existing state of our biological information, and on the extent of
+those objective empirical grounds on which we deductively found the
+hypothesis, by our subjective inferences." And I must here
+emphatically add that I have on every opportunity repeated that
+reservation, and have always insisted on the difference which exists
+between the absolute certainty of transmutation in general and the
+relative certainty of each individual specific pedigree. So that when
+Semper and others of my opponents assert that I teach my specific
+genealogies as "infallible dogmas," it is simply false. I have, on the
+contrary, pointed out on all occasions that I regard them only as
+_heuristic or provisional hypotheses_, and as a means of investigating
+the actual relations of cognate races of organic forms more and more
+approximately.
+
+Since the conception of the natural animal system as a hypothetical
+genealogical tree, and the phylogenetic interpretation of
+morphological affinity which that conception involves, afford in fact
+the only rational interpretation of that affinity in general, my first
+genealogical attempts soon found many imitators, and at the present
+time numerous industrious labourers in the different departments of
+systematic zoology are endeavouring to find in the construction of
+such hypothetical genealogies the shortest and completest expression
+of the modern conception of structural affinity. If Virchow had not
+been as ignorant of the true significance and method of systematic
+morphology as he is of its progress and scientific contents, he must
+certainly have known this, and then he would surely have withheld his
+mockery of all these grave phylogenetic studies as "personal
+crotchets" and worthless dreams.
+
+What mighty strides towards a mechanical morphology we have made by
+this phylogenetic working out of the system, and how much light and
+life it has at once thrown into the system that before was dead and
+cold, can only be known to those who have long and deeply studied
+specific systematisation and the grouping of species; Virchow has not
+the remotest suspicion of it. Moreover, these attempts have now
+proceeded so far, that a large proportion of the phylogenetic
+hypotheses are regarded as very nearly certain, and can hardly
+undergo any further essential modifications; while the greater number
+of them are still in an unfixed state, and one systematist tries to
+improve them in this direction, and another in that.
+
+The following phylogenetic hypotheses are held to be almost
+certain:----The descent of many-celled animals from single-celled, of
+the Medusae from the hydroid Polyps, of the jointed from the unjointed
+worms, of the sucking from the gnawing insects, of amphibious animals
+from fishes, of birds from reptiles, of the placental mammalia from
+the marsupials, and so forth. I personally consider the descent of man
+from the apes as equally certain; nay, I regard this most important
+and pregnant genealogical hypothesis as one of those which, up to the
+present time, rest on the best empirical basis.
+
+Huxley, in particular, fifteen years ago, in his celebrated "Man's
+Place in Nature," 1863, so admirably proved the undoubted "descent of
+man from apes," and so clearly discussed all the relations that had to
+be taken into consideration, that very little was left to others to
+do. The result of his comparative morphological investigations is
+contained in this proposition----" If we take up a system of organs,
+be it which we will, the comparison of its modifications throughout
+the series of apes leads us to the same conclusion: that in every
+single visible character man differs less from the higher apes than
+these do from the lower members of the same order." It is therefore
+impossible for any objective zoologist, according to the principles of
+comparative systematisation, to ascribe to man any other place in the
+animal world than in the order of apes; and it is quite immaterial
+whether we designate this individual group as the Order of Apes, or,
+with Linnaeus, as the Primates. For the phylogenetic construction of
+the system, the common descent of man and of apes from one common
+parent-form, necessarily follows from this inevitable grouping,
+and on this proposition only all the general inferences of the
+"ape-hypothesis" depend. As to what that common parent-form of men and
+apes may have been, very different views might probably be brought on
+opposite sides; but any one who knows the collected facts that bear
+upon the matter, and estimates them impartially, must, in conclusion,
+arrive at the certain conviction that that hypothetical and long-since
+extinct parent-form can only have been genuine apes; that is to say,
+of the placental mammalian type, such as when we see them now living
+before our eyes we unhesitatingly class, on the ground of their
+zoological characters, as true apes, in the order of Apes or Primates.
+
+In this, and all other sound phylogenetic hypotheses, we may most
+easily attain to a conviction of their truth by taking into
+consideration and comparison the other possible hypotheses. But in
+fact no single opponent of the ape-hypothesis has been able to combat
+it with any other phylogenetic hypothesis that has the faintest
+glimmer of probability. Not one opponent has suggested, or can
+suggest, any other animal form that can serve as our nearest ancestor
+than the ape. No one has ever reproached me by saying that Mother
+Nature has endowed me with too little imagination; on the contrary, I
+am often accused of having a superfluity of that gift of the gods; but
+I have often and repeatedly exerted my imagination to picture to
+myself any known or unknown animal-form as the nearest parent-form to
+man in the place of the apes, and have always found myself under the
+necessity of falling back upon the stock of apes. Let me conceive of
+the outward conformation and the internal structure of the nearest
+mammalian ancestors of men as I will, I am always forced to
+acknowledge that this hypothetical parent-form ranges under the
+zoologically-conceived order of apes, and cannot possibly be separated
+from the Simiadoe or Primates. If, in spite of this, any one chooses,
+out of a "personal crotchet," to accept some other series of unknown
+animal ancestors of man that have nothing to do with apes, that is but
+a mere empty hypothesis floating in the air. Our ape-hypothesis, on
+the other hand, is objectively and thoroughly proved by the essential
+agreement of the internal bodily structure of man and of apes, and by
+the identity of their embryonic development, as I have fully shown in
+my "Evolution of Man" (chaps. xix. and xxvi.) The mode and manner in
+which he here puts palaeontology in the foreground, and throws on the
+theory of descent the task of producing an unbroken gradation of
+fossil transitional forms between the apes and man, is very indicative
+of Virchow's ignorance of this zoological question--in which I, as a
+professional zoologist, must decisively declare his incompetence. The
+reasons why such a solution of the problem is not to be expected, the
+extraordinary imperfection of the palaeontological record, the natural
+impediments to the palaeontological evidence of the genealogical table,
+have been so lucidly unfolded by Darwin himself (chaps. ix. and x. of
+the "Origin of Species") that I am obliged once more to come to the
+conclusion that Virchow has never read it with any attention.
+
+Besides, long before Darwin, the gifted Lyell, the great originator of
+modern geology, showed clearly and convincingly how, for many reasons,
+the greater part of the fossil series must remain most imperfect, and
+these reasons were at a later period so often and so fully discussed
+(by myself among others, in chap. xv. of the "History of Creation,"
+vol. ii. pp. 24-32) that it is wholly superfluous once more and in
+this place to state these well-known and time-worn questions. It only
+shows how little Virchow was acquainted with geology and palaeontology,
+and what a limited judgment he can form of these historical causal
+relations.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[15] Vol. i. p. 293.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE CELL-SOUL AND CELLULAR PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+No attack in Virchow's Munich address surprised me so much, and none
+so plainly betrayed the subversion of his most important scientific
+views, as that which he directed against my observations on psychology
+and cellular physiology. A mystic dualism in his fundamental views is
+here revealed, which stands in the sharpest contrast to the mechanical
+monism formerly upheld by the famous pathologist of Wuerzburg.
+
+In my Munich discourse (p. 12), I had alluded to the "grand and
+fruitful application which Virchow had made, in his system of cellular
+pathology, of the cell-theory to the general province of theoretic
+medicine;" and as a logical amplification of that idea, I asserted
+emphatically that we must ascribe an independent soul-life to every
+individual organic cell. "This conception is validly proved by the
+study of infusoria, amoebae, and other one-celled organisms; for, in
+these individual, isolated, living cells we find the same
+manifestations of soul-life--feelings, and ideas (mental images),
+will and motion, as is in the higher animals compounded of many cells"
+(p. 13). Virchow now rises up in the strongest protest against this
+theory of a cellular sensibility, which I regard as the inevitable
+consequence of his early views of cellular physiology; it is to him
+"mere trifling with words." He combats with equal decisiveness "the
+scientific necessity of extending the province of psychical processes
+beyond the circle of those bodies in and by which we actually see them
+exhibited." He further says, "If I explain attraction and repulsion as
+psychical phenomena, I simply throw the psyche out of the window; the
+psyche ceases to be a psyche." Finally he says, "I assert without any
+hesitation that for us the sum total of psychical phenomena is
+connected with certain animals only, and not with the collective mass
+of all organic beings; nay, not even with all animals in general. We
+have no ground as yet for speaking of the lowest animals as possessing
+psychical properties; we find such properties only in the higher
+grades, and with perfect certainty only in the very highest."
+
+When I first read this and other astounding statements in Virchow's
+paper, I involuntarily asked myself, "Can this be the same Virchow
+from whom, twenty-five years ago, I learnt in Wuerzburg that the
+soul-functions of man and animals depend on mechanical processes in
+the soul-organs; that these organs are, like all other organs,
+composed of cells, and that the functional activity of an organ is
+nothing more than the sum of the activity of all the cells which
+compose it? Is this the same Virchow whose most vital doctrine it was
+that all the physical and psychical processes of the human organism
+were to be referred to the mechanics of cell life; who supported the
+view of the unity of all the phenomena of life with the same emphasis
+with which we are now obliged to defend it against his attacks?"
+
+In fact, and beyond a doubt, we have here a new proof of Virchow's
+complete change in all fundamental scientific principles. For the
+cellular psychology which I advance is only a necessary consequence of
+the cellular physiology promulgated by Virchow. His present opposition
+to the former is either a renunciation of the latter or an untenable
+and inconsequent position. To explain this astonishing metapsychosis,
+we shall do well first to glance at the soul in general, and then give
+particular consideration to the cell-soul.
+
+What is the Soul or Psyche? The innumerable different answers which
+have been given to this crowning question of psychology, may
+collectively, when freed from all extraneous matter, be brought
+under two groups which we may shortly designate as the dualistic and
+the monistic soul-hypothesis. According to the monistic (or
+realistic) soul-hypothesis, the "soul" is nothing more than the sum
+or aggregate of a multitude of special cell-activities, among which
+sensation and volition--sensual perception and voluntary
+movement--are the most important, the most common, and the most
+widely diffused; associated with these in the higher animals and in
+man, we find the more developed activities of the ganglionic cells
+which are included under the conceptions of Thought, Consciousness,
+Intellect, and Reason. Like all the other functional-activities of
+the organic cells, these soul-functions depend ultimately on
+material phenomena of motion, and more particularly on the motions
+of the plasson-molecules or plastidules, the ultimate atoms of the
+protoplasma, and perhaps of the nucleus also; therefore we should be
+able actually to grasp and explain them, as well as every other
+cognisable natural process, if we were in a position to refer them
+to the mechanics of atoms. This monistic soul-hypothesis, then, is
+at bottom mechanistic. If psychical mechanics--psychophysics--were
+not so infinitely complex and involved, if we were in a position to
+take a complete view of the historical evolution of the psychic
+functions, we could reduce the whole of them (including
+consciousness) to a mathematical "soul-formula."
+
+According to the opposite, or dualistic (or spiritualistic)
+soul-hypothesis, the soul is, on the contrary, a peculiar substance,
+which most people somewhat grossly conceive of as a gaseous body,
+while others picture it with more subtlety, as an immaterial essence.
+This "soul-substance" subsists independently of the animal-body, and
+stands in only a temporary connection with certain organs of that
+body--the soul-, or mental-organs. It has been imagined that this
+soul-matter, which resembles that imponderable ether which is the
+medium of light, is diffused between the ponderable molecules of the
+soul-organs and especially of the nerve-cells, and that this
+connection of the imponderable "soul" with the ponderable body
+subsists only so long as the individual life lasts. At the instant of
+the first beginning of the individual organism, at the moment of
+generation, this imponderable "soul" passes into the body, and at the
+instant of death, at the annihilation of the living individual, it
+again quits the body. This mystical or dualistic soul-hypothesis,
+which, as is well known, is to this day universally accepted, is
+fundamentally vitalistic, inasmuch as it regards the force which is
+bound up with the soul-substance, like the "vital force" of a past
+time, as a peculiar force quite independent of mechanical forces. This
+force does not depend on the material phenomena of motion, and is
+quite independent of the mechanics of atoms. The highest law of modern
+natural science, the law of the conservation of force, has,
+therefore, no application in the region of soul-life, and that
+mechanical causality which prevails throughout all the processes of
+nature does not exist for the soul. The Psyche, in a word, is a
+supernatural phenomenon, and the supernatural department of the
+spiritual world stands free and independent of the natural department
+of the material world.
+
+If we now compare the psychological views of the youthful and
+unprejudiced Virchow of Wuerzburg with those of the older and mystical
+Virchow of Berlin, there can be no doubt in the minds of the impartial
+that the former, a quarter of a century ago, was as decided and
+logical a monist as the latter is at present a confessed and convicted
+dualist. The distinguished position which Virchow, twenty-five years
+since, won by his natural conception of the nature of man, and the
+great fame which he then earned in the fight for the truth, rest
+precisely on this, that on every occasion he maintained with his
+utmost vigour the unity of all vital phenomena, and asserted their
+mechanical character. All organic life, even the soul-life, rests on
+mechanical principles, on that causal mechanism of which Kant said
+that "it alone contained a practical interpretation of nature," and
+that "without it no natural science can exist." On this point Virchow
+says well in his discourse on "Efforts at Unity in Scientific
+Medicine," 1849:--"Life is only a peculiar sort of mechanics, though
+it is indeed the most complex form of mechanics; that in which the
+usual mechanical laws fall under the most unusual and manifold
+conditions. Thus life, compared with the universal processes of motion
+in nature, is a thing peculiar in itself; but it does not constitute a
+diametrical, dualistic opposition to those laws; it is only a peculiar
+species of motion. The motion itself is a mechanical one, for how
+should we become cognisant of it if it were not based on the sensible
+properties of bodies? The media of the motion are certain chemical
+matters, for we recognise none but chemical matter in bodies. The
+individual acts of motion reduce themselves to mechanical, or
+physico-chemical, modifications of the constituent elements of the
+organic unities, the cells and their equivalents." These and many
+similar utterances in Virchow's earlier writings, and especially in
+the essay I have mentioned, "On the Mechanical Conception of Life,"
+leave no doubt that he formerly supported, with a clear conscience and
+his utmost energy, in psychology as in the other collected departments
+of physiology, that very mechanical standpoint which we to-day accept
+as the essential basis of our monism, and which stands in
+irreconcilable antagonism to the dualism of the vitalistic doctrine.
+To none of my teachers am I so deeply indebted for my emancipation
+from all the prejudices of the dualistic doctrine, and for my
+conversion to the monistic, as to Rudolf Virchow; for it was his
+superior guidance which most firmly convinced me, and many others, of
+the exclusive importance of the mechanical view of nature. He led me
+to a clear recognition of the fact that the nature of man, like every
+other organism, can only be rightly understood as a united whole, that
+this spiritual and corporeal being are inseparable, and that the
+phenomena of the soul-life depend, like all other vital phenomena, on
+material motion only--on mechanical (or physico-chemical)
+modifications of cells. And it was in perfect agreement with my most
+honoured master that I subscribed then, and at this day still
+subscribe, to the proposition with which he, in September 1849, closed
+the preface to the above-mentioned "Efforts at Unity." "It is possible
+that I may have erred in details; in the future I shall be ready and
+willing to acknowledge my mistakes and to rectify them, but I enjoy
+this conviction, that I shall never find myself in the position of
+denying the principle of the unity of the human nature with all its
+consequences!"
+
+To err is human! Who can say to what diametrical contradiction to his
+firmest convictions man may not in the future be driven by his
+adaptation to new relations in life? If we compare these stout
+monistic declarations of 1849 and 1858 with the equally decided
+dualistic utterances in Virchow's Munich address of 1877, we perceive
+that he could not give the lie more fiercely to his former fundamental
+opinions than he has there done. Not quite twenty years have passed
+by, and yet, in the course of that time, in Virchow's views of the
+universe, in his conception of human nature, and of the soul-life, a
+change has been effected than which we can conceive of no greater. We
+learn to our surprise that psychical and corporeal processes are
+wholly different phenomena; that no scientific necessity whatever
+exists for extending the province of psychical processes beyond the
+circle of those bodies in which, and by which, we see them actually
+exhibited. "We may ultimately explain the processes of the human mind
+as chemical, but at any rate, it is not yet our business to amalgamate
+these two subjects!"
+
+From the whole psychological discussion which is involved in Virchow's
+Munich address, it is made clear that at the present time he regards
+the "soul" in a purely dualistic sense as a substance, an immaterial
+essence which only temporarily takes up its abode in the body. Highly
+characteristic of this is the remarkable sentence, "If I explain
+attraction and repulsion as psychical phenomena, I simply throw the
+psyche out of the window; the psyche ceases to be a psyche." If we
+substitute for the word "psyche" the word which corresponds to
+Virchow's earlier mechanistic view--the word "motion" (or peculiar
+mode of motion)--the sentence runs thus: "If I explain attraction and
+repulsion as phenomena of motion, I simply throw motion out of the
+window."
+
+Almost more remarkable is Virchow's assertion that the lowest animals
+have no psychic properties; that, on the contrary, "these are only to
+be found in the higher, and, with perfect certainty, only in the
+highest animals." It is only to be regretted that Virchow has not here
+stated what he understands by the higher and the highest animals;
+where that remarkable dividing line is, beyond which the soul suddenly
+appears in the hitherto soulless body. Every zoologist who is in some
+degree familiar with the results of comparative morphology and
+physiology will here clasp his hands in astonishment, for by this
+proposition Virchow seems to mean that we must ascribe a soul-life
+only to those animals in which special soul-organs, in the form of a
+central and peripheral nerve-system, are developed from sense-organs
+and muscles. But it is admitted that all these different soul-organs
+with their characteristic properties have originated from single cells
+through the division of labour (differentiation); and the nerves and
+muscles especially have been developed by differentiation from the
+neuro-muscular cells. The cells from which all these different
+nerve-cells, muscle-cells, mind-cells, and so forth, are derived, are
+originally the simple neutral cells of the epithelium of the ectoderm
+or exterior germ-layer, and these cells, again, like all the cells of
+many-celled animal bodies, originated in the repeated division of one
+single original cell, the ovum-cell.
+
+The individual development or ontogenesis of each of these many-celled
+animal-forms, brings this histological process of development so
+clearly and evidently before our eyes that we can but directly infer
+from it the truth of the phylogenesis, or gradual historical evolution
+of the soul-organs. The association of cells and the division of
+labour among them are the modes by which, in the first instance, the
+compound many-celled organism has originated, historically, from the
+simple one-celled organism. And an impartial comparative consideration
+teaches us in the clearest way that a functional-activity of the
+soul-cells exists in the lowest one-celled animals as well as in the
+highest and many-celled; in the infusoria as well as in man. Volition
+and sensation, the universal and unmistakable signs of soul-life, may
+be observed among the former as well as in the latter. Voluntary
+motion and conscious sensation (of pressure, light, warmth, &c.) come
+under our observation so undoubtedly in the commonest forms of
+infusorial animals--for instance the Ciliata, that one of their most
+persevering observers, Ehrenberg, asserted undeviatingly to the day of
+his death that all Infusoria must possess nerves and muscles, organs
+of sense and of soul, as well as the higher animals.
+
+It is well known that the enormous advance which our science has lately
+made in the natural history of these lowest organisms culminates in the
+statement--clearly made by Siebold thirty years since, but only recently
+"ascertained as proved"--that these minute creatures are _one-celled_,
+and that in the case of these infusoria one single cell is capable of
+all the various vital functions--including soul-functions--which in the
+zoophytes (plant-animals), as the hydra and the sponges, are distributed
+among the cells of the two germ-layers, and in all the higher animals
+among the different tissues, organs, and apparatus of a highly developed
+and constructed organism. The psychic functions of sensation and
+voluntary motion, which are here distributed to such very various organs
+and tissues, are in the infusoria fulfilled by the neutral plasson
+material of the cell, by the protoplasma, and possibly also by the
+nucleus (compare my treatise "The Morphology of the Infusoria." Jena,
+Zeitschriften, 1873, vol. vii. p. 516). And just as we must attribute to
+these primary animal forms an independent "soul," just as we must
+plainly be convinced that the single independent cell has a "psyche," we
+must as decidedly attribute a soul to every other cell; for the most
+important active constituent of the cell, the protoplasm, everywhere
+exhibits the same psychic properties of sensibility or irritability, and
+motive power or will. The only difference is this, that in the organism
+of the higher animals and plants the numerous collected cells, to a
+great extent, give up their individual independence, and are subject,
+like good citizens, to the soul-polity which represents the unity of the
+will and sensations in the cell community. We here also must distinguish
+clearly between the central soul of the whole many-celled organism or
+the personal psyche (the person-soul), and the particular individual
+soul or elementary soul of the individual cells constituting that
+organism (the cell-soul). Their relations are strikingly illustrated in
+the instructive group of Siphonophora, as I have briefly shown in my
+article on "The Cell-soul and Soul-cells" (Deutsche Rundschau, July
+1878). Beyond a doubt the whole stock or polity of Siphonophora has a
+very definite united will and a united sensibility, and yet each of the
+individual persons of which this stock (or Cormus) is composed has its
+own personal will and its own particular sensations. Each of these
+persons indeed was originally a separate Medusa, and the individual
+Siphonophora stock originated, by association and division of labour,
+out of these united Medusa communities.
+
+When I developed this theory of the cell-soul and designated it in my
+Munich address as the "surest foundation of empirical psychology," I
+believed I was drawing an inference quite to Virchow's mind, from his
+own views of mechanical and cellular-physiology; and for that reason I
+took the same occasion specially to celebrate his very great services
+to the cell theory. How astonished then was I when in his reply this
+very theory was violently attacked and satirised as "mere trifling
+with words." It never could have occurred to me that Virchow had long
+since become unfaithful to his most important biological principles,
+and had deserted his own mechanical "theory of cells;" it never had
+occurred to me that Virchow could be in great measure wanting in that
+zoological knowledge which is requisite for a practical comprehension
+of the cell-soul theory. He has never thoroughly studied either the
+one-celled Protozoa, the Infusoria and Lobosa, nor the Coelenterata,
+the highly instructive Sponges, Hydroids, Medusae, or Siphonophora; and
+thus he is wanting in those genetic principles of comparative zoology
+on which our theory rests. It is in no other way conceivable that
+Virchow should contemn the most important consequences of the cell
+theory as "mere trifling with words."
+
+Next to the one-celled infusoria no phenomenon throws such direct
+light on our cellular psychology as the fact that the human ovum, like
+the ova of all other animals, is a single, simple cell. In accordance
+with our monistic conception of the cell-soul, we must conclude that
+the fertilised ovum-cell already virtually possesses those psychical
+properties which, by the special combination of the peculiarities
+inherited from both parents, characterise the individual soul of the
+new person; in the course of the development of the germ, the
+cell-soul of the fertilised ovum naturally is developed simultaneously
+with its material substratum, and subsequently, after birth, it
+appears in full activity.
+
+According to Virchow's dualistic conception of the psyche, we must, on
+the contrary, assume that this immaterial essence at some period of
+its embryonic development (apparently when the spine separates itself
+from the external germ-layer) informs the soulless germ. Of course,
+the bare miracle is thus complete, and the natural and unbroken
+continuity of development is superfluous.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE GENETIC AND DOGMATIC METHODS OF TEACHING.
+
+
+The very justifiable surprise which Virchow's Munich address has
+excited in many circles is due only in part to his opposition to the
+theory of descent; for the rest, and in much greater part, it is due
+to the astounding arguments which he has connected with it,
+particularly as to freedom for instruction. These arguments so closely
+resemble those of the Jesuits that they might have been inspired
+direct from the Vatican, or, which is the same thing, the notorious
+"court-chaplain party" in Berlin. No wonder, then, that these
+propositions, which would undermine the whole liberty of science, have
+met with the loudest approbation from the "Germania," the "New
+Evangelical Church Times" ("Neue Evangelischen Kirchenzeitung"), and
+other leading, equivocating organs of the Church militant. On the
+other hand, these odious principles are already so extensively
+discussed, and have been so clearly laid down in all their
+indefensibility, that I may here deal with them briefly.
+
+Virchow's politics as a pedagogue reach their highest pitch in this
+demand: "that in all schools, from the poor schools to the
+universities, nothing shall be taught that is not absolutely certain.
+None but objective and absolutely ascertained knowledge is to be
+imparted by the teacher to the learner; nothing subjective, no
+knowledge that is open to correction, only facts, no hypotheses." The
+investigation of such problems as the whole nation may be interested
+in must not be restricted; that is liberty of inquiry; but the problem
+ought not, without anything farther, to be the subject of _teaching_.
+"When we teach we must restrict ourselves to the smaller, and yet how
+great, departments which we are actually masters of."
+
+Rarely indeed has such a treasonable attempt on liberty of doctrine
+been made by a prominent representative of science, and a leader of
+the intellectual movement too, as this by Virchow. Only inquiry is to
+be free and not teaching! And where in the whole history of science is
+there one single scientific inquirer to be found who would not have
+felt himself quite justified in teaching his own subjective
+convictions with as much right as he had to construct them from
+inquiry into objective facts. And where, generally speaking, is the
+limit to be found between objective and subjective knowledge? Is
+there, in fact, any objective science?
+
+This question Virchow answers in the affirmative, for he goes on to
+say: "We must not forget that there is a boundary line between the
+speculative departments of natural science and those that are actually
+conquered and firmly established" (p. 8). In my opinion, there is no
+such boundary line; on the contrary, all human knowledge as such is
+subjective. An objective science which consists merely of facts
+without any subjective theories is inconceivable. For evidence in
+favour of this view we must take a rapid survey of the whole domain of
+human science, and test the chief departments of it to see how far
+they contain, on the one hand, objective knowledge and facts, and on
+the other, subjective knowledge and hypotheses. We may begin directly
+with Kant's assertion that in every science only so much true--that is
+objective--knowledge is to be found as it contains of mathematics.
+Unquestionably mathematics stand at the head of all the sciences as
+regards the certainty of its teaching. But how as to those deepest and
+simplest fundamental axioms which constitute the firm basis on which
+the proud edifice of mathematical teaching rests? Are these certain
+and proved? Certainly not. The bases of its teaching are simply
+"axioms" which are incapable of proof. To give only one example of how
+the very first principles of mathematics might be attacked by
+scepticism and shaken by philosophical speculation, we may remember
+the recent discussions as to the three dimensions of space and the
+possibility of a fourth dimension; disputes which are carried on even
+at the present day by the most eminent mathematicians, physicists, and
+philosophers. So much as this is certain, that mathematics as little
+constitute an absolutely objective science as any other, but by the
+very nature of man are subjectively conditioned. A man's subjective
+power of knowing can only discern the objective facts of the outer
+world in general so far as his organs of sense and his brain admit in
+his own individual degree of cultivation.
+
+However, granting that mathematics practically constitute an
+absolutely certain and objective science, how is it with the rest of
+the sciences? Undoubtedly the most certain among them are those "exact
+sciences" whose principles are to be directly proved by mathematics;
+thus, in the first place, a great part of physics. We say, "a great
+part," for another large part--to speak accurately, by far the
+greatest--is incapable of any exact mathematical proof. For what do we
+know for certain of the essential nature of matter, or the essential
+nature of force? What do we know for certain of gravitation, of the
+attraction of mass, of its effects at great distances, and so on?
+Newton's theory of gravitation is regarded as the most important and
+certain theory of physics, and yet gravitation itself is a hypothesis.
+Then, as to the other branches of physics--electricity and magnetism.
+The whole scheme of these important sciences rests on the hypothesis
+of "electric fluidity," or of imponderable matter of which the
+existence is nothing less than proved. Or optics? Optics certainly
+appertain to the most important and completest branch of physics, and
+yet the undulatory theory of light, which we accept now as the
+indispensable basis of optics, rests on an unproved hypothesis, on the
+subjective assumption of an ethereal medium, whose existence no one is
+in a position to prove objectively in any way. Nay, further, before
+Young set up the undulatory theory of light, for a hundred years the
+emanation theory as taught by Newton obtained exclusively in physics;
+a theory which at the present day is universally regarded as
+untenable. In our opinion the mighty Newton won the greatest honours
+in the development of the science of optics, inasmuch as he was the
+first to connect and explain the vast mass of objective optical facts
+by a subjective and pregnant hypothesis. But, according to Virchow's
+view, Newton on the contrary transgressed greatly by teaching this
+erroneous hypothesis; for even in "exact" physics none but
+"independent and certain facts" are to be taught and established by
+"experiment as the highest means of proof." Physics as a whole, as
+resting on mere unproved hypotheses, may be indeed an object of
+inquiry but not of teaching.
+
+Of course the same is true of chemistry; nay, this stands on much
+weaker feet, and is even less proved than physics. The whole
+theoretical side of chemistry is an airy structure of hypotheses such
+as does not exist in any other science. In the last three decades we
+have seen a whole series of the most different theories rapidly
+succeed each other, none of which can be positively proved, though at
+least one of them is taught by every professor of chemistry. But what
+is worst of all, the common basis of all the most dissimilar chemical
+theories, viz., the atomic theory, is as unproved and unprovable as
+any hypothesis can be. No chemist has ever seen an atom, but he
+nevertheless considers the mechanism of atoms as the highest term of
+his science, he nevertheless describes and constructs the connection
+of atoms in their various combinations as though he had them before
+him on the dissecting-table! All the conceptions which we possess as
+to chemical structure and the affinities of matter, are subjective
+hypotheses, mere conceptions as to the position and changes of
+position of the various atoms, whose very existence is incapable of
+proof. Away, then, with chemistry from our schools! The chemist must
+only describe the properties of the different elements and those
+combinations which can be put before the pupil as ascertained facts
+founded in experiment, "the highest means of proof." Everything that
+goes beyond this is mischievous, particularly every suggestion as to
+the essence and chemical constituents of bodies; matters as to which,
+in the nature of things, we can only form uncertain hypotheses. For as
+all chemistry, viewed as a system of doctrine, rests solely on such
+hypotheses, it may be indeed a subject of investigation but not of
+teaching.
+
+Having thus convinced ourselves that chemistry as well as physics,
+those "exact sciences," those "mechanical" bases of all other
+sciences, rest on mere unproved hypotheses, and so must not be taught,
+we may make short work of the other faculties. For they collectively
+are more or less historical sciences and dispense wholly or in part
+with even those half-exact, fundamental principles on which physics
+and chemistry are based. In the first place, there is that grand,
+historical, natural science, geology; the great doctrine of the
+structure and composition, the origin and development of our globe.
+According to Virchow this too must be limited to the description of
+ascertained facts, such as the structure of mountain masses, the
+character of the fossils they contain, the formation of crystals, and
+so forth. But not for the world must anything be taught as to the
+evolution of this globe; for this rests from beginning to end on
+unproved hypotheses. For even to the present day the Plutonic and
+Neptunic theories are disputing the field, and to this day we know not
+as to many of the most important rocks, whether they originated by the
+agency of fire or of water. The new and remarkable discoveries of the
+great Challenger-expedition threaten to subvert a great many
+geological notions which had long been regarded as certain. Then
+again, as to fossils. Who can prove with any certainty that these
+petrifactions are in truth the fossilised remains of extinct
+organisms? They may be--as many distinguished naturalists of even the
+last century maintained--marvellous sports of nature, mysterious
+"Lusus naturae," or mere rough, inorganic models of the labouring
+Creator into which He subsequently "breathed the breath of life;" or
+perhaps "stone-flesh" (caro fossilis) brought into existence, on the
+dead rocks by the "fertilising air" (aura seminalis), and so forth.
+
+But I am wrong! for with regard to petrifactions, Virchow is in the
+highest degree speculative, and accepts without any hesitation the
+rash hypothesis that fossils are actually the remains of extinct
+organisms, although no "certain proof" whatever can be offered in its
+favour, and although experiment, the "highest means of proof," has
+never yet produced a single fossil. According to him these are actual
+"objective, material evidences," only here we must go no further than
+certain experience teaches us, and base no subjective conclusions on
+these objective facts. Thus, for instance, in the long series of the
+mesozoic formations, in the different strata of the Trias, Jurassic,
+and Chalk formations, for the deposition of which a lapse of many
+millions of years has been required, we find absolutely no remains of
+fossil mammalia beyond lower jaws; seek where we will, nothing is
+anywhere to be found but lower jaws, and no other bones whatever. The
+simple reasons of this striking imperfection of the palaeontological
+record have been clearly expounded by Lyell, Huxley, and others.
+(Comp. my "History of Creation," vol. ii. p. 32.) These great
+investigators, in accordance with all other palaeontologists, have
+demonstrated that these jaw-bones of the mesozoic period are the
+remains of mammalia, accurately speaking of marsupials, on the simple
+ground that the nether jaws of the extant recent marsupials show a
+similar characteristic form with the fossil ones. They therefore
+unhesitatingly assume that the rest of the bones in the bodies of
+these extinct animals corresponded to those of living mammals. But
+this is a quite inadmissible hypothesis devoid of any "certain proof!"
+Where, then, are the other bones? Let us see them! till then we
+decline to believe in them. According to Virchow, we ought rather to
+assume that the lower jaw was the only bone in the body of these
+extraordinary beasts. Are there not, in fact, snails, in which an
+upper jaw is the only representation of a skeleton.
+
+We cannot omit taking this opportunity of casting a side glance at the
+very hazardous position which Virchow, in total opposition to his
+boasted cool scepticism, has taken up in anthropology as it is called,
+now his favourite branch of science. In his Munich address he tells us
+that he is pursuing the study of anthropology with delight, and then
+asserts that "the quarternary man" is an universally-accepted fact.
+Quite apart from this statement, we have seen that Virchow can never
+attain to a profound and really scientific study of anthropology
+simply for this reason, that he is lacking in that comprehensive
+knowledge of comparative morphology which is indispensable to it; nay,
+comparative anatomy and ontogenesis must be, according to him,
+unpermitted speculations and the phylogenesis of man, the key to all
+the most important questions of anthropology, being based upon these,
+is devoid of all certain proof. All the more must we wonder at the
+speculative levity with which even the sceptic Virchow in the
+"Primeval History of Man" and "Fossil Anthropology," embarks in the
+most hazardous conjectures, and gives out uncertain, subjective
+hypotheses as certain, objective facts.
+
+There is, in fact, at the present day no department of science in
+which the wildest and most untenable hypotheses have blossomed out so
+freely as in anthropology and ethnology, so-called. All the
+phylogenetic hypotheses which I myself have put forward in my
+"Evolution of Man" as to the animal ancestry of man, or in my "Natural
+History of Creation" as to the affinities of animal races--all the
+other genealogical hypotheses which are now advanced by numerous
+zoologists and botanists as to the phylogenetic evolution of the
+animal and plant worlds--all these hypotheses together, which Virchow
+rejects in a lump, are, critically considered as hypotheses, far
+better grounded in facts, far better supported by facts, than the
+majority of those innumerable airy and fanciful hypotheses with which,
+for the last twelve years, the "Archiv fuer Anthropologie" and
+"Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie," edited by Virchow and Bastian, have
+filled their columns. This last periodical has at least the merit of
+being a tolerably consistent opponent of the doctrine of evolution,
+while in the former, during twelve years, essays on both sides have
+been mixed up in cheerful confusion. And how fanciful are the
+short-sighted hypotheses which there blossom forth from the mixed mass
+of facts, chaotically flung together. Only think of the disputes over
+the stone age, bronze age, and iron age; think of the motley
+discussions as to the varieties of skull-conformation and their
+significance; on the races of man, the migrations of peoples and the
+like. Most of these very intricate historical problems are far more
+buried in obscurity, and the hypotheses to explain them dispense far
+more largely with any basis of facts, than is the case with our
+phylogenetic hypotheses; for these are more or less "objectively"
+based on the facts of comparative anatomy and ontogenesis.
+
+But no one of these historical hypotheses is so daring, so little
+"certainly proved," as the group of very various and contradictory
+hypotheses which have been put forward as to the antiquity and first
+appearance of the human species; and Virchow asserts positively "The
+pleistocene man is an universally accepted fact. The tertiary man is,
+on the other hand, a problem, though indeed a problem which is already
+under substantial discussion!" As if the distinction between the
+tertiary and quarternary periods were not itself a geological
+hypothesis, and as if the significance of the fossil animal-remains,
+which play the largest part in it, did not also rest on mere
+hypotheses which escape all certain proof! Where, then, is the actual
+experiment "as the highest means of proof," which gives evidence for
+these "certain facts"? The whole discussion in general about
+prehistoric man, which Virchow has mixed up with his Munich address
+(pp. 30, 31), is the clearest evidence of the uncritical spirit in
+which he deals with these historical problems as "exact natural
+sciences." He assures us that "not one single ape's skull, nor skull
+of an anthropoid ape, has ever been found which could actually have
+belonged to a human owner!" and he adds this sentence, in italics, "We
+cannot teach, for we cannot regard it as a real acquisition of
+science, that man is descended from the ape or from any other animal!"
+Then evidently no alternative remains but that he is descended from a
+god, or from a clod!
+
+But let us go over the rest of the sciences to see what, according to
+Virchow, may be taught in each without endangering the safety of
+science. In the whole department of biology, as well as in
+zoology--including anthropology--and in botany, instruction must be
+limited to imparting those trifling fragments of knowledge which
+either consist of mere descriptions of dry facts, or which supply an
+explanation of them by mathematical formulas. Morphology must be
+taught as mere descriptive anatomy and systematising, the history of
+development as mere descriptive ontogenesis. Comparative anatomy and
+phylogenesis, which by their explanatory hypotheses raise those dead
+masses of facts to the place of true and living sciences--these must
+not be taught at all. And how then do matters stand with regard to the
+cell-theory, that fundamental theory on which every element of our
+morphology and physiology depends, and by applying which Virchow
+himself reached his grandest results?
+
+Since Schleiden in Jena, forty years ago, first put forward the
+cell-theory, and Schwann immediately after applied it to the animal
+kingdom and so to the whole organic world, this fundamental doctrine
+has undergone very important modifications, for it is indeed a
+biological theory, but not a fact. We may recollect under what
+different aspects its main principles have appeared in the course of
+these four decades: what changes have taken place in the conception of
+the cell itself. After the organic cell had originally been conceived
+of as a vesicle, consisting of a firm capsule and a fluid content, we
+subsequently discerned it to be composed of a glutinous semi-fluid
+cell-substance, the protoplasm, and convinced ourselves that this
+protoplasm and the cell-core or nucleus enclosed in it are the most
+important and indispensable constituent parts of the cell, while the
+external firm capsule, the cell-membrane, is not essential and very
+frequently wanting. But even now opinions widely differ as to how the
+conception of a cell should be precisely defined, and what
+consequences must be inferred from the cell-theory, and attempts have
+not been wanting to upset it altogether and to treat it as worthless.
+The anatomist Henle, of Goettingen, in particular, has repeatedly made
+such an attempt, that "gifted" anatomist who, in the preface to his
+bulky text-book of human anatomy, declared that scientific ideas are
+mere worthless paper money, and that the noble metal of facts, on the
+contrary, is the only genuine article. Not long since a bulky volume
+in quarto appeared, by one Herr Nathusius-Koenigsborn, in which the
+cell is explained to be a subordinate plastic element, and the
+cell-theory is eliminated as superfluous; and this monstrous volume,
+full of the most amusing nonsense, is dedicated to Herr Henle. Virchow
+formerly was one of the victorious opponents of the Goettingen
+physician, and wrote brilliant articles against the "rational
+pathology" of "irrational Herr Henle;" now apparently he agrees with
+him that the paper money of ideas is worthless as compared with the
+noble metal of facts. Of course the cell-theory then loses all its
+value, and cannot be a subject of instruction; for the cell itself is
+not a certain and undoubted fact, but only an abstraction, a
+philosophical idea.
+
+Nothing more clearly shows what a complete change Virchow has
+undergone in his most important principles, and what an utter
+metapsychosis in this special province, than his famous axiom,
+uttered in 1855--"Omnis cellula e cellula." That is unquestionably the
+boldest generalisation to which the youthful, independent Virchow ever
+attained, and one on which he justly prided himself not a little. He
+himself repeatedly compared it with Harvey's saying, which marked an
+epoch--"Omne vivum ex ovo." But neither of these axioms is universally
+correct. On the contrary, we now know that every cell does not
+necessarily originate from a cell, any more than that every organic
+individual originates from an ovum. In many cases true nucleated cells
+proceed from un-nucleated cytods, as in the Gregarinae, Myxomycetae and
+others. Nay more, the primordial organic cells could only have
+originated in the first instance from non-cellular plastides or monads
+by their homogeneous plasson resolving itself into an internal nucleus
+and an external protoplasm. Thus, as we subsequently learnt to know
+most of the exceptions to this generalisation of Virchow, it appeared
+all the bolder; the more so as we were at that time far from being
+able to refer all the different tissues of the higher animals with any
+certainty to cells, and as not a few experiments seemed to point to
+the hypothesis of free cell-formation. That guiding axiom, which so
+powerfully furthered the cell-theory, Virchow, from his present
+standpoint, must wholly condemn as a crime against exact science, and
+he surely can never forgive himself for having propounded this
+hypothesis--which was afterwards found to be not universally true--as
+an important doctrinal axiom.
+
+We shall indeed find much worse sins against his own principles of
+to-day if we turn to Virchow's own special department of science,
+namely, pathological anatomy and physiology, the most important
+division of theoretic medicine. The great and incomparable services
+which Virchow here effected do not depend on the numerous independent
+new facts which he discovered, but on the theories and hypotheses by
+which, like an inspired pioneer, he sought to open a way through the
+dead waste of pathological knowledge and to form it into a living
+science. These new theories and the hypotheses on which they were
+founded, Virchow then propounded to us, his disciples, with such
+incisive assurance that every one of us was convinced of their truth;
+and yet later experience has shown that they were in part
+insufficiently proved and in part wholly false. For example, I will
+only here recall his famous theory of the connective-tissue, for which
+I myself in several of my early works (1856 to 1858) broke a lance.
+His theory seemed to explain a host of the most important
+physiological and pathological phenomena in the simplest manner, and
+yet it was afterwards proved to be false. In spite of this, I declare
+to this day that it was of the greatest service for the development of
+our acquaintance with the formation of the connective-tissue; as a
+guiding hypothesis and as a provisional clue to our investigations.
+Virchow, on the contrary, if he impartially reflects on the part he
+took in the diffusion of this misleading doctrine, must reproach
+himself severely for it. For "we must draw a hard and fast line
+between what we are to teach and what we are to investigate. What we
+investigate are problems," but "the problem ought not to be the
+subject of teaching." That Virchow, in his course of instruction,
+every day belied this, his present view of teaching, that he every
+hour taught his disciples some unproved theory and problematical
+hypothesis, every one knows who, like myself, for years and with the
+deepest interest, enjoyed his distinguished instruction. Still the
+captivating charm of this instruction--in spite of the defective
+method of unprepared lectures--lay precisely in this, that Virchow as
+a teacher constantly let us, his pupils, enter into those problems
+with which he himself at the moment was occupied; that he propounded
+to us his personal hypothesis for the elucidation of the given facts.
+And what really gifted teacher who lives in his science would not do
+the same? Where is there, or where has there ever been, a great master
+who in his teaching has confined himself to only imparting certain
+and undoubtedly ascertained facts? Who has not, on the contrary, found
+that the charm and value of his instruction lay precisely in
+propounding the problems which link themselves with those facts, and
+in teaching the uncertain theories and fluctuating hypotheses which
+may serve to solve these problems? Or is there for the young and
+struggling mind anything better, or more conducive to culture, than to
+exercise the intelligence in problems of investigation?
+
+How unpractical and how absurd is Virchow's demand--that only
+ascertained facts and no problematic theories shall be admitted in
+teaching--will be still more strikingly shown by a glance over the
+remaining provinces of human knowledge. What, indeed, will be left of
+history, of philology, of political science, of jurisprudence, if we
+restrict the teaching of them to absolutely-ascertained and
+established facts. What of "science" will remain to them if the idea
+which endeavours to discern the causes of the facts is banished? if
+the problems, the theories, the hypotheses, which seek these causes
+may not be generally taught? And that philosophy--the science of
+knowing--by which all the common results of human knowledge are to be
+bound up into one grand and harmonious whole--that philosophy, I say,
+must not be generally taught, is, according to Virchow, quite
+self-evident.
+
+Finally, there remains nothing but theology. Theology alone is the one
+true science, and its dogmas alone may be taught as certain. Of
+course! for it proceeds directly from revelation, and only divine
+revelation can be "quite certain;" it alone can never err. Yes,
+incredible as it sounds, Virchow, the sceptical opponent of dogma, the
+leader of the fight for "liberty of science," Virchow now finds the
+only sure basis for instruction in the dogmas of the Church. After all
+that has gone before, the following memorable sentence leaves no doubt
+on this score:--"Every attempt to transform our problems into dogmas,
+to introduce our conjectures as a basis of instruction, particularly
+any attempt simply to dispossess the Church and to supplant her dogma
+by a creed of descent--ay, gentlemen--this attempt must fail, and in
+its ruin will entail the greatest peril on the position of science in
+general."
+
+The shouts of triumph of the whole clerical press over Virchow's
+Munich address is thus rendered perfectly intelligible, for it is well
+known that "there is more joy in heaven over one sinner that repenteth
+than over ten just men." When Rudolf Virchow, the "notorious
+materialist," the "advanced radical," the "great supporter of the
+atheism of science," is so suddenly converted, when he proclaims
+loudly and publicly that the dogmas of the Church are the only sure
+basis of instruction, then the Church militant may well sing "Hosanna
+in the highest!" Only one thing is to be regretted, that Virchow has
+not more clearly defined which of the many different church-religions
+is the only true one, and which of the innumerable and contradictory
+dogmas are to form the sure basis of instruction. We all know that
+each Church regards itself as the only truly saving one, and her own
+dogma as the only true one. But as to whether it is to be
+Protestantism or Catholicism, the Reformed or the Lutheran confession,
+whether the Anglican or the Presbyterian dogma, whether the Roman or
+the Greek Church, the Mosaic or the Mohammedan dispensation, whether
+Buddhism or Brahmanism, whether, finally, it is to be one of the many
+fetish-religions of the Indians and Negroes that is to form the
+permanent and sure basis of instruction, let us hope that Virchow will
+at the next meeting of German naturalists and physicians divulge his
+opinion.
+
+At any rate, the "instruction of the future, according to Virchow," will
+be greatly simplified if he will do this. For the dogma of the Trinity
+in Unity as a basis of mathematics, the dogma of the resurrection of the
+body as a basis of medicine, the dogma of infallibility as a basis of
+psychology, the dogma of the immaculate conception as a basis of genetic
+science, the dogma of the staying of the sun as a basis of astronomy, the
+dogma of the creation of the earth, animals, and plants as a basis of
+geology and phylogenesis--these or any other dogma, at pleasure, from any
+other church will make all other doctrine quite superfluous. Virchow,
+"that critical spirit," knows as well as I, and as every other naturalist,
+that these dogmas are not true, and nevertheless, in his opinion, they
+are not to be supplanted as the "basis of instruction" by those theories
+and hypotheses of modern natural science of which Virchow himself says
+that they may be true, that in a great measure they probably are true,
+but are not yet "quite certainly proved."
+
+At pages 15, 24, 26, 28, and elsewhere in his Munich address, Virchow
+strongly insists that only that objective knowledge may be taught
+which we possess as absolutely certain fact! and then at page 29 he
+requires us to conclude that the basis of instruction shall continue
+to be the purely subjective dogmas of the Church; revelations and
+dogmas which not only are not proved by any facts whatever, but on the
+contrary, stand in the most trenchant contradiction to the most
+obvious facts of natural experience and fly in the face of all human
+reason. These contradictions, to be sure, are no greater than some
+others which stand out conspicuous and incomprehensible in Virchow's
+discourse. Thus at the beginning of his address he glorifies Lorenz
+Oken and deeply laments "that he, that highly-valued and honoured
+master, that ornament of the high school of Munich, had been forced
+to die in exile! That cruel exile which oppressed Oken's latter years,
+which left him to perish far from those cities to which he had
+sacrificed the best powers of his life, that exile will be remembered
+as the note of the time which we have passed through. And so long as
+there continue to be meetings of German naturalists, so long may we
+gratefully remember that this man to his death bore upon him all the
+signs of a martyr, so long shall we point to him as one of the
+witnesses who have fought for us and for the liberty of science."
+Verily these words from Virchow's lips sound like the bitterest irony;
+for was not Lorenz Oken one of the foremost and most zealous champions
+of that monistic doctrine of development against which Rudolf Virchow
+at this day is most violently striving? Did not Oken himself proceed
+farther in the construction of bold hypotheses and comprehensive
+theories than any supporter of the doctrine of evolution at the
+present time? Is not Oken justly considered as the one typical
+representative of that older period of natural philosophy who rose to
+much higher and bolder flights of fancy, and left the solid ground of
+facts much farther behind him than any tyro of the new philosophy? And
+this makes the irony seem all the greater with which Virchow at the
+beginning of his address glorifies Oken the free teacher, as a martyr
+to the freedom of science, and at the end of it insists that this
+freedom applies only to inquiry and not to teaching, and that the
+master must teach no problem, no theory, no hypothesis.
+
+While this unheard-of demand sets Virchow's views of teaching in the
+most extraordinary light, and while every unprejudiced and experienced
+teacher must most emphatically protest against this strait-waistcoat
+for instruction, he will feel no less bound to resist Virchow's other
+strange demand, that every ascertained truth shall forthwith be taught
+in all schools, down to the elementary schools. I myself, in my Munich
+address, sought the instructional value of our monistic evolution
+theory above all in the genetic method, in the inquiry, that is to
+say, for the effective causes of the facts taught; and I added these
+words--"How far the principles of the doctrine of universal evolution
+ought to be at once introduced into our schools, and in what
+succession its most important branches ought to be taught in the
+different classes--cosmogony, geology, the phylogenesis of animals and
+plants, and anthropology--this we must leave to practical teachers to
+settle. But we believe that an extensive reform of instruction in this
+direction is inevitable, and will be crowned by the fairest results."
+I purposely avoided any closer discussion of this specialist
+question, as I felt not even approximately capable of solving it, and
+I believe, in fact, that none but skilled and experienced practical
+teachers can undertake the solution of it with any success.
+
+For Virchow these specialist difficulties seem not to exist; he
+regards my reticence as a mere "postponement of the task," and he
+answers in the following astonishing sentences:--"If the theory of
+descent is as certain as Herr Haeckel assumes, then we must
+demand--for it is a necessary consequence--that it shall be taught in
+schools. How is it conceivable that a doctrine of such importance,
+which must effect such a total revolution in all our mental
+consciousness, which directly tends to create a new kind of religion,
+should not be included in the school scheme of instruction? How is it
+possible that such a--revelation, shall I say--should be in any
+measure suppressed, or that the promulgation of the greatest and most
+important advance which has been made in our views during the present
+century should be left to the discretion of schoolmasters? Ay,
+gentlemen, that would indeed be a renunciation of the hardest kind,
+and practically it could never be carried out! Every schoolmaster who
+assumes this doctrine for himself will involuntarily teach it, how can
+it be otherwise?"
+
+I must here be permitted to take Virchow exactly at his word. I
+endorse almost all that he has said in these and the following
+sentences. The only difference in our views is this, that Virchow
+regards the theory of descent as an unproved and unproveable
+hypothesis; I, on the contrary, as a fully established and
+indispensable theory. How then will it be if the teachers of whom
+Virchow speaks agree with my views, if--apart, of course, from all
+special theories of descent--they, like me, consider the general
+theory of descent as the indispensable basis of all biological
+teaching? And that that is actually the case Virchow may easily
+convince himself if he looks over the recent literature of zoology and
+botany! Our whole morphological literature in particular is already so
+deeply and completely penetrated by the doctrine of descent,
+phylogenetic principles already prevail so universally as a certain
+and indispensable instrument of inquiry, that no man for the future
+would deprive himself of their help. As Oscar Schmidt justly
+observes--"Perhaps ninety-nine per cent. of all living, or rather of
+all working zoologists, are convinced by inductive methods of the
+truth of the doctrine of descent." And Virchow with his magisterial
+requirements will attain only the very reverse of what he aims at. How
+often has it not been said already that science must either have
+perfect freedom or else none at all? This is as true of teaching as
+it is of inquiry, for the two are intrinsically and inseparably
+connected. And so it is not in vain that it is written in section 152
+of the German Code, and in section 20 of the Prussian Charter,
+"Science and her teaching shall be free!"
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY.
+
+
+Every great and comprehensive theory which affects the foundations of
+human science, and which, consequently, influences the systems of
+philosophy, will, in the first place, not only further our theoretical
+views of the universe, but will also react on practical philosophy,
+ethics, and the correlated provinces of religion and politics. In my
+paper read at Munich I only briefly pointed out the happy results
+which, in my opinion, the modern doctrine of evolution will entail
+when the true, natural religion, founded on reason, takes the place of
+the dogmatic religion of the Church, and its leading principle derives
+the human sense of duty from the social instincts of animals.
+
+The references to the social instincts which I, in common with Darwin
+and many others, regard as the proper source and origin of all moral
+development, appear to have afforded Virchow an opportunity in his
+reply for designating the doctrine of inheritance as a "socialist
+theory," and for attributing to it the most dangerous and
+objectionable character which, at the present time, any political
+theory can have; and these startling denunciations so soon as they
+were known called forth such just indignation and such comprehensive
+refutation that I might very properly pass them over here. Still we
+must at least shortly examine them, in so far as they supply a further
+proof that Virchow is unacquainted with the most important principles
+of the development-theory of the day, and therefore is incompetent to
+judge it. Moreover, Virchow, as a politician, manifestly attributed
+special importance to this political application of his paper, for he
+gave it the title, which otherwise would have been hardly suitable, of
+"The Freedom of Science in the Modern Polity." Unfortunately he forgot
+to add to this title the two words in which the special tendency of
+his discourse culminates; the two pregnant words, "must cease!"
+
+The surprising disclosures in which Virchow denounces the doctrine of
+evolution, and particularly the doctrine of descent, as socialist
+theories and dangerous to the community, run as follows:--"Now,
+picture to yourself the theory of descent as it already exists in the
+brain of a socialist. Ay, gentlemen, it may seem laughable to many,
+but it is in truth very serious, and I only hope that the theory of
+descent may not entail on us all the horrors which similar theories
+have actually brought upon neighbouring countries. At all times this
+theory, if it is logically carried out to the end, has an uncommonly
+suspicious aspect, and the fact that it has gained the sympathy of
+socialism has not, it is to be hoped, escaped your notice. We must
+make that quite clear to ourselves."
+
+On reading this statement, which seems extracted from the Berlin
+"Kreuz-Zeitung," or the Vienna "Vaterland," I ask myself in surprise,
+"What in the world has the doctrine of descent to do with socialism?"
+It has already been abundantly proved on many sides, and long since,
+that these two theories are about as compatible as fire and water.
+Oscar Schmidt might with justice retort, "If the socialists would
+think clearly they would feel that they must do all they can to choke
+the doctrine of descent, for it declares with express distinctness
+that socialist ideas are impracticable." And he proceeds to add, "And
+why has not Virchow made the gentle doctrines of Christianity
+responsible for the excesses of socialism? That would have had some
+sense. His denunciation flung so mysteriously and so confidently
+before the great public, as though it concerned 'a sure and attested
+scientific truth,' is, at the same time, so hollow that it cannot be
+brought into harmony with the dignity of science."
+
+With all these empty accusations, as with all the empty reproaches and
+groundless objections which Virchow brings against the doctrine of
+evolution, he takes good care in no way to touch the kernel of the
+matter. How, indeed, would it have been possible without arriving at
+conclusions wholly opposed to those which he has declared? For the
+theory of descent proclaims more clearly than any other scientific
+theory, that that equality of individuals which socialism strives
+after is an impossibility, that it stands, in fact, in irreconcilable
+contradiction to the inevitable inequality of individuals which
+actually and everywhere subsists. Socialism demands equal rights,
+equal duties, equal possessions, equal enjoyments for every citizen
+alike; the theory of descent proves, in exact opposition to this,
+that the realisation of this demand is a pure impossibility, and
+that in the constitutionally organised communities of men, as of
+the lower animals, neither rights nor duties, neither possessions
+nor enjoyments have ever been equal for all the members alike nor
+ever can be. Throughout the evolutionist theory, as in its biological
+branch, the theory of descent--the great law of specialisation or
+differentiation--teaches us that a multiplicity of phenomena is
+developed from original unity, heterogeneity from original similarity,
+and the composite organism from original simplicity. The conditions of
+existence are dissimilar for each individual from the beginning of its
+existence; even the inherited qualities, the natural "disposition,"
+are more or less unlike; how, then, can the problems of life and
+their solution be alike for all? The more highly political life is
+organised, the more prominent is the great principle of the division
+of labour, and the more requisite it becomes for the lasting security
+of the whole state that its members should be variously distributed in
+the manifold tasks of life; and as the work to be performed by
+different individuals is of the most various kind, as well as the
+corresponding outlay of strength, skill, property, &c., the reward of
+the work must naturally be also extremely various. These are such
+simple and tangible facts that one would suppose that every reasonable
+and unprejudiced politician would recommend the theory of descent, and
+the evolution hypothesis in general, as the best antidote to the
+fathomless absurdity of extravagant socialist levelling.
+
+Besides, Darwinism, the theory of natural selection--which Virchow
+aimed at in his denunciation, much more especially than at
+transformation, the theory of descent--which is often confounded with
+it--Darwinism, I say, is anything rather than socialist! If this
+English hypothesis is to be compared to any definite political
+tendency--as is, no doubt, possible--that tendency can only be
+aristocratic, certainly not democratic, and least of all socialist.
+The theory of selection teaches that in human life, as in animal and
+plant life everywhere, and at all times, only a small and chosen
+minority can exist and flourish, while the enormous majority starve
+and perish miserably and more or less prematurely. The germs of every
+species of animal and plant and the young individuals which spring
+from them are innumerable, while the number of those fortunate
+individuals which develop to maturity and actually reach their
+hardly-won life's goal is out of all proportion trifling. The cruel
+and merciless struggle for existence which rages throughout all living
+nature, and in the course of nature _must_ rage, this unceasing and
+inexorable competition of all living creatures, is an incontestable
+fact; only the picked minority of the qualified "fittest" is in a
+position to resist it successfully, while the great majority of the
+competitors must necessarily perish miserably. We may profoundly
+lament this tragical state of things, but we can neither controvert it
+nor alter it. "Many are called but few are chosen." The selection, the
+picking out of these "chosen ones," is inevitably connected with the
+arrest and destruction of the remaining majority. Another English
+naturalist, therefore, designates the kernel of Darwinism very frankly
+as the "survival of the fittest," as the "victory of the best." At any
+rate, this principle of selection is nothing less than democratic, on
+the contrary, it is aristocratic in the strictest sense of the word.
+If, therefore, Darwinism, logically carried out, has, according to
+Virchow, "an uncommonly suspicious aspect," this can only be found in
+the idea that it offers a helping hand to the efforts of the
+aristocrats. But how the socialism of the day can find any
+encouragement in these efforts, and how the horrors of the Paris
+Commune can be traced to them, is to me, I must frankly confess,
+absolutely incomprehensible.
+
+Moreover, we must not omit this opportunity of pointing out how
+dangerous such a direct and unqualified transfer of the theories of
+natural science to the domain of practical politics must be. The
+highly elaborate conditions of our modern civilised life require from
+the practical politician such circumspect and impartial consideration,
+such thorough historical training and powers of critical comparison,
+that he will not venture to make such an application of a "natural
+law" to the practice of civilised life, but with the greatest caution
+and reserve. How, then, is it possible that Virchow, the experienced
+and skilled politician, who, above all things, preaches caution and
+reserve in theory, suddenly makes just such an application of
+transformation and Darwinism--an application so radically perverse
+that it actually flies in the face of the fundamental ideas of these
+doctrines? I myself am nothing less than a politician. In direct
+contrast with Virchow, I lack alike the gift and the training for it,
+as well as taste and vocation. Hence I neither shall play any
+political part in the future, nor have I hitherto made any attempt of
+the kind. Though here and there I have occasionally uttered a
+political opinion, or have made a political application of some theory
+of natural science, these subjective opinions have no objective value.
+In point of fact I have by so doing overstepped the limits of my
+competence, just as Virchow has by going into questions of zoology and
+particularly that of the transformation of apes: I am a layman in
+political practice, as Virchow is in the province of zoological
+hypothesis. Moreover, such success as Virchow has attained during the
+twenty years of his painful, wearisome, and exhausting activity as a
+politician does not, in truth, make me pine for such laurels.
+
+But this at least I, as a theoretical naturalist, may demand of
+practical politicians, that in utilising our theories for political
+ends they should first make themselves exactly acquainted with them;
+they then, for the future, would forbear drawing conclusions from
+them, the very opposite to those which ought reasonably to be
+inferred. Misunderstandings would never thus be wholly avoided,
+it is true, but what doctrine is universally secure against
+misunderstanding? And from what theory, however sound and true, may
+not the most unsound and frantic inferences be drawn?
+
+Nothing, perhaps, shows so plainly as the history of Christianity how
+little theory and practice harmonise in human life; how little pains
+are taken, even by those whose calling it is to uphold established
+doctrines, to apply their natural consequences to practical life. The
+Christian religion, no doubt, as well as the Buddhist, when stripped
+of all dogmatic and fabulous nonsense, contains an admirable human
+kernel, and precisely that human portion of Christian teaching--in the
+best sense social-democratic--which preaches the equality of all men
+before God, the loving of your neighbour as yourself, love in general
+in the noblest sense, a fellow-feeling with the poor and wretched, and
+so forth--precisely, those truly human sides of the Christian doctrine
+are so natural, so noble, so pure, that we unhesitatingly adopt them
+into the moral doctrine of our monistic natural religion. Nay, the
+social instincts of the higher animals on which we found this religion
+(for instance the marvellous sense of duty of ants, &c.) are in this
+best sense strictly Christian.
+
+And what--we may ask--what have the professed supporters, the "learned
+divines" of this religion of love done? Their deeds are written in
+letters of blood in the history of the civilisation of mankind during
+the last 1800 years. All else that differing church-religions have
+accomplished for the forcible extension of their doctrines and for the
+extirpation of heretics of other creeds, all that the Jews have been
+guilty of towards the heathen, the Roman emperors towards the
+Christians, the Mohammedans towards Christians and Jews alike--all
+this is outdone by the hecatombs of human victims which Christianity
+has demanded for the spread of her doctrines. And these were
+Christians against Christians--orthodox Christians against heterodox
+Christians! think only of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, of the
+inconceivable and inhuman barbarities committed by the "most Christian
+kings" of Spain, by their worthy colleagues in Frankfort, in Italy,
+and elsewhere. Hundreds of thousands then died that most horrible
+death by fire, simply because they would not bend their reason to pass
+under the yoke of the grossest superstition, and because their loyalty
+to their convictions forbade them to deny the natural truth that they
+clearly discerned. There are no deeds more hideous, base, and inhuman
+than those that at that time were committed--nay, are still
+committed--in the name and on account of "true Christianity."
+
+And finally, how do matters stand with regard to the morality of the
+priests who announce themselves as the ministers of God's Word, and
+whose duty is therefore above all others to carry out the saving
+doctrines of Christianity in their own lives? The long, unbroken, and
+horrible series of crimes of every kind which is offered by the
+history of the Roman Popes is the best answer to this question. And
+just as these "Vicars of God on earth" did, so did their subordinates
+and accomplices, so, too, have the orthodox priests of other sects
+done; never failing to set the practice of their own course of life in
+the strongest possible contrast to those noble doctrines of Christian
+love which were constantly on their lips.
+
+And as with Christianity so it is with every other religious and moral
+doctrine which ought to have proved its power in the wide domain of
+practical philosophy, in the education of youth, in the civilisation
+of nations. The theoretic kernel of this doctrine may always and
+everywhere stand in the most glaring contradiction to its practical
+working-out, testifying to the endless inconsistency of human nature:
+but what can all this matter to the scientific inquirer? His sole and
+only task is to seek for truth and to teach what he has discerned to
+be the truth, indifferent as to what consequences the various parties
+of state or church may happen to draw from it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+IGNORABIMUS ET RESTRINGAMUR.
+
+
+The dangerous attempt which Virchow made in Munich against the
+freedom of science is not the first of its kind. On the contrary,
+five years before, it experienced a similar attack which is most
+intimately connected with this later one, so that, in conclusion,
+we must here add a few words on the subject. Undoubtedly the famous
+"Ignorabimus-speech" of Du Bois-Reymond, which he delivered in 1872 at
+the forty-fifth meeting of German naturalists and physicians in
+Leipzig, forms only the first portion of that same crusade against the
+freedom of science of which Virchow's "Restringamur speech" of 1877,
+at the fiftieth meeting of the same society, forms the second part.
+
+That brilliant and powerful essay by Du Bois-Reymond "on the
+Limitation of Natural Knowledge" has already been discussed so often,
+and from such different sides, that it might seem superfluous to say
+another word about it. It seems to me, nevertheless, that by most
+people the centre-of-gravity of its contents was overlooked in
+admiration of the brilliant accessories of the essay. Indeed this
+frequently happens with Du Bois-Reymond's articles, for he knows too
+well how to conceal the weakness of his argument and evidence, and the
+shallowness of his thought, by striking images and flowery metaphors,
+and by all the phraseology of rhetoric in which the versatile French
+nature is so superior to our sober German one. It is all the more
+important that we should not let ourselves be dazzled by these
+seductive tricks, and particularly by adduced facts which bear upon
+the most important and fundamental questions of human science, but
+that we should extract the hard kernel from the savoury and fragrant
+fruit. In the preface to my "Evolution of Man," and in the notes 22
+and 23 of my Munich address, I have already incidentally alluded to
+the chief weaknesses of the "Ignorabimus-speech;" but I must here
+return somewhat more fully to the subject.
+
+There are, as is well known, two problems which Du Bois-Reymond
+propounds as the impassable boundary of human knowledge of nature;
+limits which indeed the human mind is not only incapable of passing at
+the present stage of its development, but which it never can be
+capable of passing in any more advanced stage. The first problem is
+the nature and connection of matter and force; the second is human
+consciousness. Now, first of all, as has already been said in the
+preface to the "Evolution of Man," we must raise a decided protest
+against the air of infallibility with which Du Bois-Reymond pronounces
+that these two problems are insoluble, not only at the present time
+but to all futurity. The power of development inherent in science and
+knowledge is hereby simply swept away with a word. Almost every great
+and difficult problem of knowledge seems to most or all contemporary
+thinkers insoluble, and every path to the solution of it seems closed,
+till at last the bold genius appears whose clear sight detects the
+right path which till then was hidden, and which leads to the required
+knowledge. We need only call to mind our present doctrine of
+evolution. The problem of creation--the question as to the origin of
+animal and vegetable species--was universally looked upon as
+transcendental and perfectly insoluble, till the genius of Lamarck
+established the principles of the theory of descent in his admirable
+"Philosophie Zoologique" in 1809. Nay, even then most--and among them
+the most distinguished--biologists thought the problem of creation a
+quite insoluble mystery, and Darwin was the first to solve it, fifty
+years later, by his theory of selection in 1859. Hence we venture to
+assert that there is no scientific problem of which we may dare to say
+that the mind of man will never solve it even in the remotest future.
+Well does Darwin say, in the introduction to his "Descent of Man,"
+"Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it
+is those who know little and not those who know much who so positively
+assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science." As
+far as concerns the two separate limits which Du Bois-Reymond fixes
+for human knowledge, in my opinion they are undoubtedly identical. The
+problem of the origin and nature of consciousness is only a special
+case of the general problem of the connection of matter and force. Du
+Bois-Reymond himself indicates that this is possible at the close of
+his paper; for he says, "Finally, the question arises whether the two
+limitations to our natural knowledge may not perhaps be identical;
+that is to say, whether if we could conceive of the true essence of
+matter and force, we should not also understand how the substance
+which lies at their root can, under certain given conditions, feel,
+desire, and think. This conception is, no doubt, the simplest, and
+according to admitted principles of inquiry it is to be preferred to
+that other which it confutes, and according to which, as has been
+said, the world appears doubly incomprehensible. But it is in the very
+nature of things that we cannot on this point come to any clear
+conclusion, and all further words on the subject are idle--and so,
+'Ignorabimus.'"
+
+The light way in which Du Bois-Reymond here passes over the most
+important part of his subject is truly surprising; as if it were
+ultimately indifferent whether we have before us one single insoluble
+fundamental problem or two quite different ones; and as if mature
+reflection did not lead to the conviction that, in fact, the second
+problem is only a special case of the first general problem. I, for my
+part, cannot conceive of them in any other relation; I think, too,
+that all further words are by no means superfluous, but on the
+contrary conduce to a very strong conviction of the unity of the
+problem. That Du Bois-Reymond also has not come to any clear
+conclusion on this point lies, not alone in the "nature of things,"
+but, as in Virchow's case, in the nature of the investigator himself;
+in his lack of knowledge of the history of evolution, and in his
+neglect of those comparative and genetic methods of study, without
+which, in my opinion, not even an approximate solution of this highest
+and most difficult question is to be looked for.
+
+Nothing appears to me to be of more importance for the mechanical
+explanation of consciousness than the comparative consideration of its
+development. We know that a new-born child has no consciousness, but
+that it is slowly and gradually acquired and developed. We perceive
+for ourselves how unconscious actions become conscious, and _vice
+versa_. Innumerable actions which at first are troublesome and have
+to be learnt with consciousness and reflection--as for instance
+walking, swimming, singing, and so forth--become unconscious only by
+repetition, practice, and the habit of using the organs. On the
+contrary, unconscious actions become conscious as soon as we direct
+our attention to them or our self-observation is attracted to them; as
+for instance when we miss a step in going up stairs or touch a wrong
+note on the piano; and beyond a doubt, conscious and unconscious
+actions pass into each other without any distinct line of demarcation.
+Finally, we see no less plainly by a comparative consideration of the
+soul-life of animals, that their consciousness is slowly, gradually,
+and serially developed, and that a long unbroken series of steps leads
+from unconscious to conscious existence. From these comparative and
+genetic experiences we may draw the conclusion that consciousness,
+like sensation and volition, like all the other soul-activities, is a
+function of the organism, a mechanical activity of the cells; and, as
+such, is referable to chemical and physical processes. Hence, if we
+were in a position to understand force as a necessary function of
+matter, we could explain consciousness, as well as the soul in
+general, as a necessary function of certain cells.
+
+How little Du Bois-Reymond is acquainted with the facts of comparative
+and genetic psychology, nothing shows more strikingly than the
+following astounding proposition in the "Ignorabimus-speech:"--"Where
+the material conditions for psychical activity, in the form of a
+nervous system, are wanting, as in plants, the naturalist cannot
+recognise a soul-life, and, on this point, he but seldom meets with
+contradiction." Begging your pardon! Every naturalist who is familiar
+with the comparative morphology and physiology of the lower animals
+will here put in a decided contradiction, for he can no more refuse to
+admit the undoubted sensation and voluntary motion of the one-celled
+Infusoria than of the many-celled hydroid polyps. The body of the true
+Infusoria (Ciliata, Acineta, &c.), and many other Protista, remain
+throughout life one single cell, and, nevertheless, this cell is as
+fully furnished with all the most important attributes of the soul,
+with sensation and volition, as any one of the higher animals with a
+nervous system. The same obtains of the Hydra and the related hydroid
+polyps, in which the neuro-muscular cells, or other distributed cells
+of the outer germ-layer, fulfil the soul-functions. But as these
+cells, besides this, exercise motor and other functions as well, we
+cannot as yet designate them as nerve-cells, at any rate there can be
+no idea of a special nervous-system. The characteristic soul-organs of
+the higher animals, which we include under the conception of a
+nervous-system, in fact originated by the division of labour of the
+cells out of those neutral cell-groups in their lower-typed ancestors.
+
+In the great Soul-question Du Bois-Reymond, like Virchow, still keeps
+his position on the standpoint of neural-psychology, according to
+which no personal soul-life is conceivable without a nervous system.
+We look upon this standpoint as left far behind, and set up in
+opposition to it Cellular-psychology, the doctrine that every animal
+cell has a soul; that is to say, that its protoplasm is endowed with
+sensation and motion. In the one-celled Infusoria, which are so highly
+sensitive and have such an energetic will, this conception will be
+clear without any farther explanation. But we cannot refuse to allow
+that plant-cells as well as animal-cells have psychic functions, since
+we know that the phenomena of irritability, and of "automatic motion,"
+are the universal attributes of all protoplasm. No doubt the specific
+mechanism, the cause of motion, in the irritable Mimosa and other
+"sensitive" plants, is quite different from the muscular motions of
+animals; but these, like those, are only specifically different forms
+of development of the "cell-soul," and both proceed from the
+"mechanical energy of the protoplasm." The sensibility of the
+irritable protoplasm is the same in the vegetable-cell of the Mimosa
+as in the animal-cell of the Hydra. How far Du Bois-Reymond is from
+discerning this, and how deeply he is still entangled in
+neuro-psychological views is shown most clearly in the astonishing
+sentence which he has thought good to append to his above-quoted,
+erroneous assertion. "And what could we reply to the naturalist if,
+before he could agree to the assumption of a World-soul he required
+that we should show him--bedded in neuroglia and nourished by warm
+arterial blood--anywhere in the world a convolution of ganglionic
+centres co-extensive with the psychic capacity of such a Soul" (!)
+
+In other respects we will not deny that Du Bois-Reymond stands far
+nearer to our recent evolution-theory than Virchow; nay, that from
+year to year he has always pronounced more and more emphatically in
+favour of the theory of descent as the one possible explanation of
+morphological phenomena; indeed, Du Bois-Reymond has lately counted
+himself as one of those naturalists who were convinced of the truth of
+evolution even before Darwin! Then it is only to be wondered why so
+acute and gifted an inquirer, who is certainly not lacking in
+scientific ambition, left it to Charles Darwin to place the egg of
+Columbus on the ring and to point out to biological science a new
+method of unlimited capacity by giving the theory of descent a
+definite and reliable basis!
+
+It is clear from some remarks in his discourse bearing the title
+"Darwin versus Galiani" (1876), that Du Bois-Reymond is still far
+from understanding the full significance of transmutation as affording
+a mechanical explanation of morphological problems. In this paper the
+"History of Creation" is treated simply as a romance, and the
+genealogies of phylogenesis are in his eyes "of about as much value as
+the pedigrees of the Homeric heroes are in the eyes of historical
+critics." Geologists may be extremely grateful for this estimate of
+their science, for undoubtedly geology, as a structure of hypotheses,
+is neither more nor less justifiable than phylogenesis, as I have
+already pointed out in my Munich address: "Our phylogenetic hypotheses
+may claim to have equal value with the universally-admitted hypotheses
+of geology; the only difference is this, that the mighty structure of
+hypotheses called geology is incomparably more complete, simpler, and
+easier to grasp than that more youthful one called phylogenesis." But
+as to the much-talked-of "genealogies," though they are nothing more
+than the simplest, barest, and most superficial expression of the
+hypotheses of phylogenesis, as provisional hypotheses they are just as
+indispensable to specific phylogenesis as the theoretical
+section-tables of the strata of the earth's crust are to geology.
+
+If Du Bois-Reymond is so convinced of the truth of transmutation as he
+has lately given himself out to be, why does not he make at least one
+earnest attempt to test the interpreting power of the theory of
+descent in physiology--his own most special province of inquiry? Why
+does he not labour at that hitherto quite unworked-out branch,
+physiogenesis, at the history of the evolution of functions, at the
+ontogenesis and phylogenesis of vital processes? The one idea which
+has lately been often spoken of as an important discovery of Du
+Bois-Reymond's--[the idea which had already been anticipated by
+Leibnitz, that the "innate ideas,"--intuitions _a priori_--have
+originated by transmission from primordial experience, _i.e._,
+empirical, _a posteriori_ convictions], was distinctly enunciated by
+me long before Du Bois-Reymond (as he omits to mention), in 1866, in
+my "General Morphology" (vol. ii. p. 446), and in 1868 in the "History
+of Creation" (vol. i. p. 31, vol. ii. p. 344). If Du Bois-Reymond had
+practically busied himself with these problems he would certainly have
+thought a little about the development of consciousness, and not have
+set down as an eternally insoluble problem, "How is it possible that
+matter can think?"--a form of words, be it observed, which has about
+as much sense as "how matter runs," or "how matter strikes the hours."
+Surely he would have guarded himself in that case from uttering the
+ponderous "Ignorabimus."
+
+The question has been repeatedly asked why two such prominent Berlin
+biologists as Virchow and Du Bois-Reymond availed themselves of the
+particularly solemn occasions of the fiftieth anniversary and of the
+fiftieth meeting of the German naturalists and physicians to lay lance
+in rest against the progress and freedom of science. The eager
+approbation which they both promptly met with from the party of the
+clergy and of all other enemies of free thought--Virchow, indeed, in
+much greater measure than Du Bois-Reymond--appears to justify this
+inquiry. I believe I can contribute something towards answering it,
+and as I am not fettered by any reverence for the Berlin tribunal of
+science or by any anxiety as to vexing influential Berlin connections,
+as most of my colleagues are who think as I do, I do not hesitate,
+here as elsewhere, to express my honest conviction in the freest and
+frankest manner, not troubling myself about the wrath which may be
+roused in many actual--and not actual--officials in Berlin at this
+exposition of the unvarnished truth.
+
+The primary cause of their "misunderstanding," and the best excuse
+that can be offered for it, in Virchow and Du Bois-Reymond alike, lies
+in their unacquaintance with the advance of modern morphology. As has
+been repeatedly stated, no natural science is so directly to be
+referred to the doctrine of evolution--and more particularly to the
+theory of descent--as morphology. It is because we morphologists can
+neither explain nor comprehend all the manifold and infinitely complex
+form-phenomena of the animal and plant worlds without this theory,
+because to us transmutation contains the only possible, rational
+explanation of organic types, that we all regard it as the
+indispensable basis of the scientific doctrine of form, and as
+demanding no further proofs of its certainty than those which now lie
+in abundance before us.
+
+Du Bois-Reymond, and still more Virchow, ignore these proofs, because
+they are to a great extent ignorant alike of the inquiries and
+results, of the methods and the aims of our modern morphology, and
+this ignorance may be accounted for partly by the one-sided direction
+which their biological studies have taken, partly by the fact that
+there are few universities where the study of morphology is so
+behindhand as at the University of Berlin. Fully twenty years have now
+elapsed since the great Johannes Mueller died, the last naturalist who
+could command all the departments of biology. The three great
+provinces of science which had been reunited into a triune kingdom
+under his powerful sceptre, were then divided among three professors'
+chairs: Du Bois-Reymond took that of physiology, Virchow, theoretical
+pathology (pathological anatomy and physiology), and the third, and
+most important chair, that of morphology (human and comparative
+anatomy, including the history of evolution) fell to Boguslaus
+Reichert. This choice was, as is now universally admitted, an
+incomprehensible mistake. Instead of calling Carl Gegenbaur, or Max
+Schultze, or some one else of youthful capacity and vigour to the
+chair of morphology--a science which is the first foundation of
+zoology as well as of medicine--in Reichert they selected an elderly
+school anatomist cramped by strong old-fashioned notions, who had done
+some good and useful specialist work, but whose general views had
+developed all awry, and who for the unexampled obscurity of his
+conceptions and the confusion of his ideas, was outdone by none save
+only Adolf Bastian. For twenty years this man has represented animal
+morphology in the second university of Germany, and in these twenty
+years hardly any work worth mentioning has been done there in the
+whole of this vast department--neither by the master nor by his
+pupils. We have only to compare the many worthless anatomical
+productions of Berlin during these two decades (for instance, the
+recent confused work by Fritsch on the brain of fishes) with the rich
+mine of invaluable work produced during the preceding twenty years by
+Johannes Mueller and his crowd of disciples.
+
+But, as if this were not enough, Reichert took advantage of his
+influential position to hinder as far as possible all scientific study
+of morphology. For example, he, with the co-operation of his
+colleagues, carried through that pretended "reform" of medical
+examination which puts the so-called _Tentamen physicum_ in the place
+of the _philosophicum_; philosophy was entirely eliminated. Zoology
+and botany, which for centuries have been very justly regarded as the
+indispensable foundation of all instruction in natural science for the
+young medical student, disappeared from the curriculum. Only, as if in
+scorn of these sciences, in each examination a small place was
+reserved for comparative anatomy--for that most difficult and
+philosophical part of animal morphology which cannot be at all
+understood without some previous knowledge of the other branches of
+zoology. And yet comparative anatomy and the history of development
+are the indispensable preliminary steps to a true scientific
+comprehension of human anatomy, that most essential foundation of all
+medical knowledge. Without the vivifying idea of development, mere
+anatomical knowledge is an empty and lifeless cramming of the memory.
+
+In the place of morphology, thus degraded from its office, a detailed
+study of physiology was introduced, but always in a one-sided
+direction. Now these two great branches of biology, which are equally
+important and have an equal claim on our attention, are so dependent
+the one on the other, that a real scientific understanding of organic
+life can never be obtained without due relative study of both. The
+masterly and incomparable teaching of Johannes Mueller owed a great
+part of its captivating charm to his equitable regard for morphology
+and physiology, as well as to his comprehensive treatment, from the
+broadest point of view, of the enormous mass of details to be dealt
+with. I therefore have not the smallest doubt that the morphological
+training of medical students, as at present conducted at Berlin under
+the influence of Reichert and his colleagues, is as far behind that of
+Mueller's day, twenty or thirty years ago, in all general comprehension
+of the typical organism, as it is in advance of it in specialist
+acquirements.
+
+In medical, as in all other scientific learning, the highest aim does
+not consist in seeking to accumulate a vast chaotic mass of isolated
+items of knowledge, but in a general comprehension of the science, its
+aims and problems. The teacher should, above everything, guide the
+pupil to this general knowledge, and then it will be easy to him, by
+the aid of proper methods, to acquire mastery in each individual and
+special branch. Thus in medicine, as in every other science, he is not
+the best qualified who, on Bastian's method, has loaded his memory
+with a confused mass of undigested facts, and has flung them all
+together into his brain without any order; but, on the contrary, he
+who has practically digested a considerable number of the most
+important facts, and has critically co-ordinated them to a harmonious
+whole. It is precisely under this aspect that transmutation is of such
+inestimable value to morphology; it enables us to rise from the bare
+empirical knowledge of numberless isolated facts to a philosophical
+conception of their efficient causes.
+
+The aversion and contempt which the theories of descent and selection
+have met with at Berlin, more than in any other place, is in great
+measure to be explained by the circumstance that, during the last two
+decades, morphological studies have been more neglected in that
+university than any others. In no other city of Germany has evolution
+in general, as well as Darwinism in particular, been so little valued,
+so utterly misunderstood, and treated with such sovereign disdain as
+in Berlin. Nay, Adolf Bastian, the most zealous of all the Berlin
+opponents of our doctrines, has insisted on these facts with peculiar
+satisfaction. Of all the conspicuous naturalists of Berlin only one
+accepted the doctrine of transmutation from the beginning with sincere
+warmth and full conviction, being, indeed, persuaded of its truth even
+before Darwin himself. This was the gifted botanist Alexander Braun,
+who is lately dead--a morphologist who was equally distinguished by
+the extent of his comprehensive knowledge of details, as by his
+philosophical mastery over them. His firm conviction of the truth of
+the theory of descent is all the more remarkable because he was at the
+same time a spotless character, a pious Christian in the best sense of
+the word, and an extremely conservative politician; a striking example
+that these convictions can dwell side by side with the principles of
+the recent doctrines of evolution in one and the same person. But in
+comparison with the powerful influence of the rest of the Berlin
+naturalists who, for the most part, are decided opponents of
+transmutation, and who have only lately--a few of them, to follow the
+fashion--become converts to it, a man like Alexander Braun could have
+no effect in procuring that it should be taught.
+
+However, this is not the first time that this very Berlin society of
+learned men has set itself with remarkable firmness against the most
+important advances of science. Virchow's former colleague, the
+deceased Stahl, with a similar purpose and with great success,
+preached this principle: "Science must turn back again." Just as at
+the present day the Berlin biologists have opposed the most obstinate
+and pertinacious resistance to the greatest scientific stride of this
+century, so did it happen in former times with regard to other
+doctrines of progress. We have only to recall Caspar Friedrich Wolff,
+the great inquirer, who in 1759 first detected the nature of the
+individual processes of development in the animal ovum, and founded
+on it his observations in his "Theoria Generationes," which marked
+an epoch in biological science. The Berlin savants, full of the
+prevailing prejudices, so contrived at that time that Wolff never once
+could obtain the permission which he craved, to lecture publicly, and
+in consequence found himself compelled to retire to St. Petersburg for
+the sake of peace. And yet in that instance there was no question
+of a "theory" properly so-called. For the fundamental theory of
+generation--the "theory of epigenesis"--as propounded by Wolff was
+nothing more than a simple, general exposition of embryological facts
+which he had been the first to recognise, and of whose truth every one
+might convince himself by direct observation. In spite of this, for
+another half century, the predominant error of the "Preformation-theory"
+continued to be universally accepted--the ludicrous and nonsensical
+doctrine, supported by the authority of Haller, that all the successive
+generations of animals exist preconceived and enclosed one within the
+other, and that no individual development ever takes place! _Nulla est
+epigenesis!_ (Compare my "Evolution of Man," vol. i. p. 31.)
+
+But it would appear that it is the fate of that most interesting of
+all sciences, the history of evolution, to find its most important
+steps and its greatest discoveries met by the firmest and most
+persistent opposition. For while Wolff's fundamental theory of
+epigenesis, which was promulgated in 1759, was not recognised until
+1812, Lamarck's theory of descent, founded in 1809, had to wait fully
+fifty years before Darwin, in 1859, showed it to be the greatest
+acquisition of modern science; and during that period, in spite of all
+the progress made in empirical science, how persistently this most
+comprehensive of all biological theories was combated. We need only
+recollect how, in 1830, the celebrated George Cuvier silenced its most
+eloquent supporter, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in the midst of the Paris
+Academy, and how almost at the same time its founder, the great
+Lamarck, ended his life in blindness, misery and want, while his
+opponent Cuvier was enjoying the highest honours and the greatest
+splendour. And yet we know now that the despised and contemned Lamarck
+and Geoffroy had already grasped truths of the highest significance,
+while Cuvier's much-admired and universally-accepted theory of
+creation is now on all hands neglected as an absurd and untenable
+delusion. But as neither Haller as against Wolff, nor Cuvier as
+against Lamarck, could permanently hinder the progress of free
+inquiry, neither will Virchow succeed in turning back the course of
+Darwin's admirable achievement; no, not even when he is supported by
+the discourses of his friend Bastian.
+
+While we cannot but earnestly lament Virchow's inimical attitude in
+this great struggle for truth, we must not overlook the effects of his
+well-founded authority in a yet wider sphere. For instance, the
+hostile attitude which the greater part of the Berlin press
+persistently maintains towards the doctrine of development
+(particularly the Liberal "National-Zeitung") is to be referred to the
+influence of his authority. But much as this reactionary vein, in this
+and in other intelligent circles at Berlin, must be regretted on the
+one hand, on the other we must observe that by this evil we have been
+preserved from a far greater one. This greater evil--the greatest, in
+fact, which German science could have to encounter--would be the
+monopoly of knowledge at Berlin; a Centralisation of Science. The
+injurious fruits of this system of centralisation in France, for
+instance, the continual deterioration of French science through the
+Parisian "Monopoly of Knowledge," and its steady decline during half a
+century from the sublimest heights--these are all well known. From
+such a centralisation of German science--which would be especially
+dangerous if it occurred in the capital, Berlin--we may hope to be
+preserved; in the first place by the manifold differences and the
+many-sided individuality of the German national spirit, the
+much-abused German provincialism (Particularismus). While these
+provincial modes of thought can never have any permanent political
+value, nor be productive of a desirable form of government, it is
+beyond a doubt that their outcome has been fruitful and happy for
+German science. For it owes its splendid pre-eminence over that of
+other countries precisely to the many centres of culture which were
+offered by those numerous petty capitals of the minor German States
+which strove to outdo each other in eager emulation. It is to be hoped
+that this happy decentralisation of science in our politically united
+fatherland may continue to subsist!
+
+And next to this centrifugal tendency of our German national mind
+nothing will so greatly contribute to it as a vigorous opposition to
+the free advance of science, such as is just now declaring itself in
+the metropolis. For by just so much as Berlin is dragged back by it in
+the mighty onward stream of free intellectual movement, by so much
+will it see itself outstripped by the other seats of culture in
+Germany, which follow the stream with enthusiasm, or at least without
+resistance. If Emil du Bois-Reymond raises the cry of "Ignorabimus,"
+and Rudolf Virchow his still more audacious one of "Restringamur," as
+the watchwords of science, then, from Jena, let the shout be raised
+and echoed from a hundred other universities--"Impavidi progrediamur!"
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+WORKS OF PROFESSOR ERNST HAECKEL.
+
+FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING. From the German of ERNST HAECKEL.
+With a Prefatory Note by T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. 1 vol., 12mo.
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MAN. A Popular Exposition of the Principal Points of
+Human Ontogeny and Phylogeny. From the German of ERNST HAECKEL,
+Professor in the University of Jena, author of "The History of
+Creation," etc. With numerous Illustrations. In two vols., 12mo.
+Cloth. Price, $5.00.
+
+_From the London Saturday Review._
+
+  "In this excellent translation of Professor Haeckel's
+  work, the English reader has access to the latest
+  doctrines of the Continental school of evolution, in its
+  application to the history of man. It is in Germany,
+  beyond any other European country, that the impulse given
+  by Darwin twenty years ago to the theory of evolution has
+  influenced the whole tenor of philosophical opinion. There
+  may be, and are, differences in the degree to which the
+  doctrine may be held capable of extension into the domain
+  of mind and morals; but there is no denying, in scientific
+  circles at least, that as regards the physical history of
+  organic nature much has been done toward making good a
+  continuous scheme of being."
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF CREATION; or, the Development of the Earth and its
+Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes. A Popular Exposition of
+the Doctrine of Evolution in general, and of that of Darwin, Goethe,
+and Lamarck in particular. From the German of ERNST HAECKEL, Professor
+in the University of Jena. The translation revised by Professor E. Ray
+Lankester, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Illustrated
+with Lithographic Plates. In 2 vols., 12mo. Cloth, $5.00.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+WORKS OF THOMAS H. HUXLEY, LL. D., F.R.S.
+
+
+MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.25.
+
+ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.
+
+MORE CRITICISMS ON DARWIN, AND ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM. 1 vol., 12mo.
+Limp cloth, 50 cents.
+
+A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Illustrated. 1 vol.,
+12mo. Cloth, $2.50.
+
+A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS. $2.50.
+
+LAY SERMONS, ADDRESSES, AND REVIEWS. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $1.75.
+
+CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.
+
+AMERICAN ADDRESSES; with a Lecture on the Study of Biology. 12mo.
+Cloth, $1.25.
+
+PHYSIOGRAPHY: an Introduction to the Study of Nature. With
+Illustrations and Colored Plates. 12mo. Cloth, $2.50.
+
+ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. By T. H. HUXLEY and W. J. YOUMANS.
+1 vol., 12mo. $1.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+RECENT EDUCATIONAL WORKS.
+
+=Principles and Practice of Teaching.=
+
+By JAMES JOHONNOT.
+
+1 volume, 12mo. Cloth. 396 pages. Price, $1.50.
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+     I. WHAT IS EDUCATION?
+
+    II. THE MENTAL POWERS: their Order of Development, and the
+        Methods most conducive to Normal Growth.
+
+   III. OBJECTIVE TEACHING: its Methods, Aims, and Principles.
+
+    IV. SUBJECTIVE TEACHING: its Aims and Place in the Course of
+        Instruction.
+
+     V. OBJECT-LESSONS: their Value and Limitations.
+
+    VI. RELATIVE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT STUDIES in a Course of
+        Instruction.
+
+   VII. PESTALOZZI, and his Contributions to Educational Science.
+
+  VIII. FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN.
+
+    IX. AGASSIZ; and SCIENCE IN ITS RELATION TO TEACHING.
+
+     X. CONTRASTED SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION.
+
+    XI. PHYSICAL CULTURE.
+
+   XII. AESTHETIC CULTURE.
+
+  XIII. MORAL CULTURE.
+
+   XIV. A COURSE OF STUDY.
+
+    XV. COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
+
+
+_Extract from Preface._
+
+  "Experience is beginning to show that teaching, like every
+  other department of human thought and activity, must
+  change with the changing conditions of society, or it will
+  fall in the rear of civilization, and become an obstacle
+  to improvement.... In this volume an endeavor has been
+  made to examine education from the standpoint of modern
+  thought, and to contribute something to the solution of
+  the problems that are forcing themselves upon the
+  attention of educators. To these ends, a concise statement
+  of the well-settled principles of psychology has been
+  made, and a connected view of the interdependence of the
+  sciences given, to serve as a guide to methods of
+  instruction, and to determine the subject-matter best
+  adapted to each stage of development. The systems of
+  several of the great educational reformers have been
+  analyzed, with a view to ascertain precisely what each has
+  contributed to the science of teaching, and how far their
+  ideas conform to psychological laws; and an endeavor has
+  been made to combine the principles derived from both
+  experience and philosophy into one coherent system."
+
+
+ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, containing Accidence
+and Word-Formation. By the Rev. RICHARD MORRIS, LL. D., President of
+the Philological Society, London. 18mo. Cloth, 254 pages. Price,
+$1.00.
+
+WORDS, and how to put them together. By HARLAN H. BALLARD, Principal
+of Lenox High-School, Lenox, Mass. 18mo. Cloth. Price, 40 cents.
+
+GENERAL HISTORY, from B. C. 800 to A. D. 1876. Outlined in Diagrams
+and Tables; with Index and Genealogies. For General Reference, and for
+Schools and Colleges. By SAMUEL WILLARD, A. M., M. D., Professor of
+History in Chicago High-School. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $2.00.
+
+HARKNESS'S PREPARATORY COURSE IN LATIN PROSE AUTHORS, comprising four
+books of Caesar's Gallic War, Sallust's Catiline, and eight Orations of
+Cicero. With Notes, Illustrations, a Map of Gaul, and a Special
+Dictionary. 12mo. Cloth. Price, $1.75.
+
+HARKNESS'S SALLUST'S CATILINE, with Notes and a Special Vocabulary.
+12mo. Cloth. Price, $1.15.
+
+THE LATIN SPEAKER. Easy Dialogues, and other Selections for Memorizing
+and Declaiming in the Latin Language. By FRANK SEWALL, A. M. 12mo.
+Cloth. Price, $1.00.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+New Volume of "The International Scientific Series."
+
+EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE.
+
+BY
+
+ALEXANDER BAIN, LL. D.,
+
+PROFESSOR OF LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.
+
+1 _vol._, 12_mo. Cloth, price_, $1.75.
+
+"In the present work I have surveyed the Teaching Art, as far as
+possible, from a scientific point of view; which means, among other
+things, that the maxims of ordinary experience are tested and amended by
+bringing them under the best ascertained laws of the mind."--_From
+Preface._
+
+"Dr. Bain's _renovated curriculum_ is certainly extensive enough, even
+if it omits Greek and Latin. According to this, higher education should
+embrace--first, science; second, the humanities, including history and
+the social science, and some portions of the universal literature; and,
+third, English composition and literature."--_New York Evening Express._
+
+"The work should become a text-book for teachers, not to be followed
+servilely or thoughtlessly, but used for its suggestiveness."--_Boston
+Gazette._
+
+"Professor Bain is not a novice in this field. His work is admirable in
+many respects for teacher, parent, and pupil."--_Philadelphia North
+American._
+
+"A work of great value to all teachers who study it
+intelligently."--Boston Advertiser.__
+
+"At once speculative and practical, entering largely into the philosophy
+of teaching, and manfully handling facts."--_Philadelphia Press._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PRIMERS
+
+IN SCIENCE, HISTORY and LITERATURE.
+
+_18mo. Flexible cloth, 45 cents each._
+
+
+I.--Edited by Professors HUXLEY, ROSCOE, and BALFOUR STEWART.
+
+_SCIENCE PRIMERS._
+
+  Chemistry                    H. E. ROSCOE.
+  Physics                      BALFOUR STEWART.
+  Physical Geography           A. GEIKIE.
+  Geology                      A. GEIKIE.
+  Physiology                   M. FOSTER.
+  Astronomy                    J. N. LOCKYER.
+  Botany                       J. D. HOOKER.
+  Logic                        W. S. JEVONS.
+  Inventional Geometry         W. G. SPENCER.
+  Pianoforte                   FRANKLIN TAYLOR.
+  Political Economy            W. S. JEVONS.
+
+
+II.--Edited by J. R. GREEN, M.A., _Examiner in the School of Modern
+History at Oxford_.
+
+_HISTORY PRIMERS._
+
+  Greece                       C. A. FYFFE.
+  Rome                         M. CREIGHTON.
+  Europe                       E. A. FREEMAN.
+  Old Greek Life               J. P. MAHAFFY.
+  Roman Antiquities            A. S. WILKINS.
+  Geography                    GEORGE GROVE.
+
+
+III.--Edited by J. R. GREEN, M.A.
+
+_LITERATURE PRIMERS._
+
+  English Grammar              R. MORRIS.
+  English Literature           STOPFORD BROOKE.
+  Philology                    J. PEILE.
+  Classical Geography          M. F. TOZER
+  Shakespeare                  E. DOWDEN.
+  Studies in Bryant            J. ALDEN.
+  Greek Literature             R. C. JEBB.
+  English Grammar Exercises    R. MORRIS.
+  Homer                        W. E. GLADSTONE.
+
+
+_(Others in preparation.)_
+
+The object of these primers is to convey information in such a manner
+as to make it both intelligible and interesting to very young pupils,
+and so to discipline their minds as to incline them to more systematic
+after-studies. They are not only an aid to the pupil, but to the
+teacher, lightening the task of each by an agreeable, easy, and
+natural method of instruction. In the Science Series some simple
+experiments have been devised, leading up to the chief truths of each
+science. By this means the pupil's interest is excited, and the memory
+is impressed so as to retain without difficulty the facts brought
+under observation. The woodcuts which illustrate these primers serve
+the same purpose, embellishing and explaining the text at the same
+time.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+APPLETONS' SCHOOL READERS,
+
+CONSISTING OF FIVE BOOKS.
+
+BY
+
+    W. T. HARRIS, LL. D.,
+    _Superintendent of Schools,
+    St. Louis, Mo._
+
+    A. J. RICKOFF, A. M.,
+    _Superintendent of Instruction,
+    Cleveland, O._
+
+    MARK BAILEY, A. M.,
+    _Instructor in Elocution,
+    Yale College._
+
+
+                               RETAIL PRICES.
+
+    APPLETONS' FIRST READER        $0.25
+    APPLETONS' SECOND READER         .40
+    APPLETONS' THIRD READER          .52
+    APPLETONS' FOURTH READER         .70
+    APPLETONS' FIFTH READER         1.25
+
+
+CHIEF MERITS.
+
+These Readers, while avoiding extremes and one-sided tendencies,
+combine into one harmonious whole the several results desirable to be
+attained in a series of school reading-books. These include good
+pictorial illustrations, a combination of the word and phonic methods,
+careful grading, drill on the peculiar combinations of letters that
+represent vowel-sounds, correct spelling, exercises well arranged for
+the pupil's preparation by himself (so that he shall learn the great
+lessons of self-help, self-dependence, the habit of application),
+exercises that develop a practical command of correct forms of
+expression, good literary taste, close critical power of thought, and
+ability to interpret the entire meaning of the language of others.
+
+
+THE AUTHORS.
+
+The high rank which the authors have attained in the educational field
+and their long and successful experience in practical school-work
+especially fit them for the preparation of text-books that will embody
+all the best elements of modern educative ideas. In the schools of St.
+Louis and Cleveland, over which two of them have long presided, the
+subject of reading has received more than usual attention, and with
+results that have established for them a wide reputation for superior
+elocutionary discipline and accomplishments. Feeling the need of a
+series of reading-books harmonizing in all respects with the modes of
+instruction growing out of their long tentative work, they have
+carefully prepared these volumes in the belief that the special
+features enumerated will commend them to practical teachers
+everywhere.
+
+Of Professor Bailey, Instructor of Elocution in Yale College, it is
+needless to speak, for he is known throughout the Union as being
+without a peer in his profession. _His methods make natural, not
+mechanical readers._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+Natural Science and the Progress of Discovery,
+
+_FROM THE TIME OF THE GREEKS TO THE PRESENT DAY._
+
+FOR SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS.
+
+By ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY.
+
+With Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.
+
+
+"During many years the author acted as secretary to Sir Charles
+Lyell, and was brought in contact with many of the leading scientific
+men of the day, and felt very forcibly how many important facts and
+generalizations of science, which are of great value both in the
+formation of character and in giving a true estimate of life and
+its conditions, are totally unknown to the majority of otherwise
+well-educated persons. This work has been written for this purpose,
+and it is not too much to say that it will effect its
+purpose."--_European Mail_.
+
+"The volume is attractive as a book of anecdotes of men of science and
+their discoveries. Its remarkable features are the sound judgment with
+which the true landmarks of scientific history are selected, the
+conciseness of the information conveyed, and the interest with which
+the whole subject is nevertheless invested. Its style is strictly
+adapted to its avowed purpose of furnishing a text-book for the use of
+schools and young persons."--_London Daily News_.
+
+"Before we had read half-a-dozen pages of this book we laid it down
+with an expression of admiration of the wonderful powers of the
+writer. And our opinion has increased in intensity as we have gone on,
+till we have come to the conclusion that it is a book worthy of being
+ranked with Whewell's 'History of the Inductive Sciences'; it is one
+which should be first placed in the hands of every one who proposes to
+become a student of natural science, and it would be well if it were
+adopted as a standard volume in all our schools."--_Popular Science
+Review_.
+
+"A most admirable little volume. It is a classified resume of the
+chief discoveries in physical science. To the young student it is a
+book to open up new worlds with every chapter."--_Graphic_.
+
+"We have nothing but praise for this interesting book. Miss Buckley
+has the rare faculty of being able to write for young
+people."--_London Spectator_.
+
+"The book will be a valuable aid in the study of the elements of
+natural science."--_Journal of Education_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE.
+
+BY ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY,
+
+Author of "A Short History of Natural Science," etc.
+
+WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+12mo Cloth, price, $1.50.
+
+
+"A child's reading-book admirably adapted to the purpose intended. The
+young reader is referred to nature itself rather than to books, and is
+taught to observe and investigate, and not to rest satisfied with a
+collection of dull definitions learned by rote and worthless to the
+possessor. The present work will be found a valuable and interesting
+addition to the somewhat overcrowded child's library."--_Boston
+Gazette._
+
+"Written in a style so simple and lucid as to be within the
+comprehension of an intelligent child, and yet it will be found
+entertaining to maturer minds."--_Baltimore Gazette._
+
+"It deserves to take a permanent place in the literature of
+youth."--_London Times._
+
+"The ease of her style, the charm of her illustrations, and the
+clearness with which she explains what is abstruse, are no doubt the
+result of much labor; but there is nothing labored in her pages, and
+the reader must be dull indeed who takes up this volume without
+finding much to attract attention and to stimulate inquiry."--_Pall
+Mall Gazette._
+
+"So interesting that having once opened it we do not know how to leave
+off reading."--_Saturday Review._
+
+"We are compelled to admit that there is indeed a fairy-land of
+science. This is the fairy-land upon which Miss Arabella Buckley
+lectured last year, and upon which she has now produced a child's
+reading-book, which is most charmingly illustrated, and which is in
+every way rendered especially interesting to the juvenile
+reader."--_London Athenaeum._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE SERIES.
+
+In neat 12mo volumes, bound in cloth, fully illustrated. Price per
+volume, $1.00.
+
+This series of scientific books for boys, girls, and students of every
+age, was designed by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer, Ph. D., at the Stevens
+Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. Every book is addressed
+directly to the young student, and he is taught to construct his own
+apparatus out of the cheapest and most common materials to be found.
+Should the reader make all the apparatus described in the first book
+of this series, he will spend only $12.40.
+
+
+NOW READY:
+
+I.--LIGHT.
+
+A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Light, for Students of every Age.
+
+_By ALFRED M. MAYER and CHARLES BARNARD._
+
+
+II.--SOUND:
+
+A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Sound, for the Use of Students of every Age.
+
+_By ALFRED MARSHALL MAYER_,
+
+Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology; Member of
+the National Academy of Sciences; of the American Philosophical
+Society, Philadelphia; of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
+Boston; of the New York Academy of Sciences; of the German
+Astronomical Society; of the American Otological Society; and Honorary
+Member of the New York Ophthalmological Society.
+
+
+IN ACTIVE PREPARATION:
+
+III. Vision and the Nature of Light.
+
+IV. Electricity and Magnetism.
+
+V. Heat.
+
+VI. Mechanics.
+
+VII. Chemistry.
+
+VIII. The Art of experimenting with Cheap and Simple Instruments.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LIGHT:
+
+_A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Light, for the Use of Students of Every Age._
+
+BY ALFRED M. MAYER and CHARLES BARNARD.
+
+NEAT 12MO VOLUME, FULLY ILLUSTRATED. CLOTH, PRICE, $1.00.
+
+"Professor Mayer has invented a series of experiments in Light which
+are described by Mr. Barnard. Nothing is more necessary for
+sound-teaching than experiments made by the pupil, and this book, by
+considering the difficulty of costly apparatus, has rendered an
+important service to teacher and student alike. It deals with the
+sources of light, reflection, refraction, and decomposition of light.
+The experiments are extremely simple and well suited to young
+people."--_Westminster Review._
+
+"This work describes, in simple language, a number of experiments
+illustrating the principal properties of light, by means of a beam of
+sunlight admitted into a dark room, and various contrivances. The
+experiments are highly ingenious, and the young student can not fail
+to learn a great deal from the book. As an example of the effective
+experimental method employed, we may specially mention the device for
+illustrating the refraction of light. This book is specially designed
+'to give to every teacher and scholar the knowledge of the art of
+experimenting.'"--_The Quarterly Journal of Science_ (London).
+
+"A singularly excellent little hand-book for the use of teachers,
+parents, and children. The book is admirable both in design and
+execution. The experiments for which it provides are so simple that an
+intelligent boy or girl can easily make them, and so beautiful and
+interesting that even the youngest children must enjoy the exhibition.
+The experiments here described are abundantly worth all that they cost
+in money and time in any family where there are boys and girls to be
+entertained."--_New York Evening Post._
+
+"The experiments are capitally selected, and equally as well
+described. The book is conspicuously free from the multiplicity of
+confusing directions with which works of the kind too often abound.
+There is an abundance of excellent illustrations."--_New York
+Scientific American._
+
+"The experiments are for the most part new, and have the merit of
+combining precision in the methods with extreme simplicity and
+elegance of design. The value of the book is further enhanced by the
+numerous carefully-drawn cuts, which add greatly to its
+beauty."--_American Journal of Science and Arts._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SOUND:
+
+_A Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Experiments in the
+Phenomena of Sound, for the Use of Students of Every Age._
+
+By ALFRED MARSHALL MAYER,
+
+Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology; Member of
+the National Academy of Sciences, etc.
+
+Uniform with "LIGHT," first volume of the Series.
+
+Neat 12mo volume, fully illustrated. Cloth, price, $1.00.
+
+"It would be difficult to find a better example of a series which is
+excellent throughout. This little work is accurate in detail, popular
+in style, and lucid in arrangement. Every statement is accompanied
+with ample illustrations. We can heartily recommend it, either as an
+introduction to the subject or as a satisfactory manual for those who
+have no time for perusing a larger work. It contains an excellent
+description, with diagrams, of Faber's Talking Machine and of Edison's
+Talking Phonograph, which can not fail to be interesting to any reader
+who takes an interest in the marvelous progress of natural
+science."--_British Quarterly._
+
+"The style of the book is very clear, and the experiments interesting.
+It can not fail to have an important educational influence."--_Westminster
+Review._
+
+"It would really be difficult to exaggerate the merit, in the sense of
+consummate adaptation to its modest end, of this little treatise on
+'Sound.' It teaches the youthful student how to make experiments for
+himself, without the help of a trained operator, and at very little
+expense. These hand-books of Professor Mayer should be in the hands of
+every teacher of the young."--_New York Sun._
+
+"An admirably clear and interesting collection of experiments,
+described with just the right amount of abstract information and no
+more, and placed in progressive order. The recent inventions of the
+phonograph and microphone lend an extraordinary interest to this whole
+field of experiment, which makes Professor Mayer's manual especially
+opportune."--_Boston Courier._
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+The Works of Professor E. L. YOUMANS, M. D.
+
+_Class-book of Chemistry._
+
+New edition. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.
+
+
+_The Hand-book of Household Science._
+
+A Popular Account of Heat, Light, Air, Aliment, and Cleansing, in
+their Scientific Principles and Domestic Applications. 12mo.
+Illustrated. Cloth, $1.75.
+
+
+_The Culture demanded by Modern Life._
+
+A Series of Addresses and Arguments on the Claims of Scientific
+Education. Edited, with an Introduction on Mental Discipline in
+Education. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.
+
+
+_Correlation and Conservation of Forces._
+
+A Series of Expositions by Professor Grove, Professor Helmholtz, Dr.
+Mayer, Dr. Faraday, Professor Liebig, and Dr. Carpenter. Edited, with
+an Introduction and Brief Biographical Notices of the Chief Promoters
+of the New Views, by EDWARD L. YOUMANS, M. D. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth,
+$2.00.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_The Popular Science Monthly._
+
+Conducted by E. L. and W. J. YOUMANS.
+
+Containing instructive and interesting articles and abstracts of
+articles, original, selected, and illustrated, from the pens of the
+leading scientific men of different countries;
+
+Accounts of important scientific discoveries;
+
+The application of science to the practical arts;
+
+The latest views put forth concerning natural phenomena, by savants of
+the highest authority.
+
+TERMS: Five dollars per annum; or fifty cents per number. A Club of
+five will be sent to any address for $20.00 per annum.
+
+The volumes begin May and November of each year. Subscriptions may
+begin at any time.
+
+THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY and APPLETONS' JOURNAL, together, for
+$7.00 per annum, postage prepaid.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_A New and Valuable Work for the Practical Mechanic and Engineer._
+
+APPLETONS' CYCLOPAEDIA OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
+
+A DICTIONARY OF
+
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND THE MECHANICAL ARTS.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY 5,000 ENGRAVINGS.
+
+Edited by PARK BENJAMIN, Ph. D.
+
+
+CONTRIBUTORS.
+
+  T. A. EDISON, PH. D.
+  RICHARD H. BULL, C. E.
+  SAMUEL WEBBER, C. E.
+  PROF. DE VOLSON WOOD.
+  CHARLES E. EMERY, C. E.
+  JOSHUA ROSE, M. E.
+  PIERRE DE P. RICKETTS, PH. D.
+  HON. ORESTES CLEVELAND.
+  W. T. J. KRAJEWSKI, C. E.
+  S. W. GREEN, ESQ.
+  JOHN BIRKINBINE, C. E.
+  HENRY L. BREVOORT, C. E.
+  LIEUT. A. A. BOYD, U. S. N.
+  ABRAM L. HOLLEY, C. E.
+  COLEMAN SELLERS, M. E.
+  PROF. C. W. McCORD.
+  IRVING M. SCOTT, ESQ.
+  F. A. MCDOWELL, C. E.
+  H. A. MOTT, JR., PH. D.
+  W. H. PAYNE, C. E.
+  GEORGE H. BENJAMIN, M. D.
+  THERON SKELL, C. E.
+  WILLIAM KENT, C. E.
+  W. E. KELLY, ESQ.
+  F. T. THURSTON, C. E.
+  JOHN HOLLINGSWORTH, ESQ.
+
+
+APPLETONS' CYCLOPAEDIA OF APPLIED MECHANICS of 1879 is a new work, and
+not a revision of the former Dictionary of Mechanics of 1850. It aims
+to present the best and latest American practice in the mechanical
+arts, and to compare the same with that of other nations. It also
+exhibits the extent to which American invention and discovery have
+contributed to the world's progress during the last quarter century.
+Its production is deemed timely in view of the existing popular
+interest in the labors of the mechanic and inventor which has been
+awakened by the great International Expositions of the last decade,
+and by the wonderful discoveries made by American inventors during the
+past three years.
+
+The CONTRIBUTORS whose names are given above number many of the most
+eminent American mechanical experts and engineers. Several of their
+contributions contain the results of original research and thought,
+never before published. Their efforts have in all cases tended to
+simplify the subjects treated, to avoid technicalities, and so to
+render all that is presented easily understood by the general reader
+as well as by the mechanical student. Examples are appended to all
+rules, explanations to all tables, and in such matters as the uses of
+tools and management of machines the instructions are unusually minute
+and accurate.
+
+In semi-monthly Parts, 50 cents each.
+
+Subscriptions received only for the entire work of Twenty-four Parts.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+D. APPLETON & CO., PUBLISHERS, 549 & 551 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Freedom in Science and Teaching., by
+Ernst Haeckel and T. H. Huxley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREEDOM IN SCIENCE AND TEACHING. ***
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