diff options
Diffstat (limited to '25482.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 25482.txt | 10382 |
1 files changed, 10382 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/25482.txt b/25482.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..82eafa3 --- /dev/null +++ b/25482.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10382 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Armed Forces Officer, by U. S. Department +of Defense + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Armed Forces Officer + Department of the Army Pamphlet 600-2 + + +Author: U. S. Department of Defense + + + +Release Date: May 15, 2008 [eBook #25482] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARMED FORCES OFFICER*** + + +E-text prepared by Audrey Longhurst, Chris Logan, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 25482-h.htm or 25482-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/5/4/8/25482/25482-h/25482-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/5/4/8/25482/25482-h.zip) + + + + + +THE ARMED FORCES OFFICER + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + +Department of Defense + +United States +Government Printing Office +Washington: 1950 + + + + +OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE + +WASHINGTON + + + _November 1950_ + +_This manual on leadership has been prepared for use by the Department +of Army, the Department of Navy, and the Department of Air Force, and +is published for the information and guidance of all concerned._ + + [Illustration: (Signature) G. C. Marshall] + + + + + DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY + WASHINGTON 25, D. C., _20 June 1956_ + +Department of the Army Pamphlet 600-2, The Armed Forces Officer, is +issued for the use of all concerned. + +By Order of _Wilber M. Brucker_, Secretary of the Army: + + MAXWELL D. TAYLOR, + _General, United States Army, + Chief of Staff._ + +Official: + + JOHN A. KLEIN, + _Major General, United States Army, + The Adjutant General._ + + + + +THE +ARMED FORCES +OFFICER + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. THE MEANING OF YOUR COMMISSION 1 + + II. FORMING MILITARY IDEALS 14 + + III. RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIVILEGE 25 + + IV. PLANNING YOUR CAREER 32 + + V. RANK AND PRECEDENCE 41 + + VI. CUSTOMS AND COURTESIES 50 + + VII. KEEPING YOUR HOUSE IN ORDER 63 + + VIII. GETTING ALONG WITH PEOPLE 69 + + IX. LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP 79 + + X. MAINSPRINGS OF LEADERSHIP 93 + + XI. HUMAN NATURE 99 + + XII. GROUP NATURE 110 + + XIII. ENVIRONMENT 121 + + XIV. THE MISSION 131 + + XV. DISCIPLINE 139 + + XVI. MORALE 147 + + XVII. ESPRIT 158 + + XVIII. KNOWING YOUR JOB 166 + + XIX. KNOWLEDGE OF YOUR MEN 176 + + XX. WRITING AND SPEAKING 182 + + XXI. THE ART OF INSTRUCTION 196 + + XXII. YOUR RELATIONSHIPS WITH YOUR MEN 206 + + XXIII. YOUR MEN'S MORAL AND PHYSICAL WELFARE 213 + + XXIV. KEEPING YOUR MEN INFORMED 222 + + XXV. COUNSELING YOUR MEN 228 + + XXVI. USING REWARD AND PUNISHMENT 240 + + XXVII. FITTING MEN TO JOBS 246 + + XXVIII. AMERICANS IN COMBAT 255 + + APPENDIX + + I. RECOMMENDED READING 264 + + + + +CHAPTER ONE + +THE MEANING OF YOUR COMMISSION + + +Upon being commissioned in the Armed Services of the United States, a +man incurs a lasting obligation to cherish and protect his country and +to develop within himself that capacity and reserve strength which +will enable him to serve its arms and the welfare of his fellow +Americans with increasing wisdom, diligence, and patriotic conviction. + +This is the meaning of his commission. It is not modified by any +reason of assignment while in the service, nor is the obligation +lessened on the day an officer puts the uniform aside and returns to +civil life. Having been specially chosen by the United States to +sustain the dignity and integrity of its sovereign power, an officer +is expected so to maintain himself, and so to exert his influence for +so long as he may live, that he will be recognized as a worthy symbol +of all that is best in the national character. + +In this sense the trust imposed in the highest military commander in +the land is not more than what is encharged the newest ensign or +second lieutenant. Nor is it less. It is the fact of commission which +gives special distinction to the man and in turn requires that the +measure of his devotion to the service of his country be distinctive, +as compared with the charge laid upon the average citizen. + +In the beginning, a man takes an oath to uphold his country's +Constitution against all enemies foreign and domestic, to bear true +faith and allegiance, and to discharge well and faithfully the duties +of office. He does this without any mental reservation. + +Thereafter he is given a paper which says that because the President +as a representative of the people of this country reposes "special +trust and confidence" in his "patriotism, valor, fidelity, and +abilities," he is forthwith commissioned. + +By these tokens, the Nation also becomes a party to the contract, and +will faithfully keep its bond with the man. While he continues to +serve honorably, it will sustain him and will clothe him with its +dignity. That it has vouched for him gives him a felicitous status in +our society. The device he wears, his insignia, and even his garments +identify him directly with the power of the United States. The living +standards of himself and of his family are underwritten by Federal +statute. Should he become ill, the Nation will care for him. Should he +be disabled, it will stand as his guardian through life. Should he +seek to advance himself through higher studies, it will open the way. + +Other than the officer corps, there is no group within our society +toward which the obligation of the Nation is more fully expressed. +Even so, other Americans regard this fact with pride, rather than with +envy. They accept the principle that some unusual advantage should +attend exceptional and unremitting responsibility. Whatever path an +American officer may walk, he enjoys prestige. Though little is known +of his intrinsic merit, he will be given the respect of his fellow +citizens, unless he proves himself utterly undeserving. + +This national esteem for the corps is one of the priceless assets of +American security. The services themselves so recognize it. That they +place such strong emphasis upon the importance of personal honor among +officers is because they know that the future of our arms and the +well-being of our people depend upon a constant renewing and +strengthening of public faith in the virtue of the corps. Were this to +languish, the Nation would be loath to commit its sons to any military +endeavor, no matter how grave the emergency. + +The works of goodwill by which those who lead the national military +forces endeavor to win the unreserved trust of the American people is +one of the chief preservatives of the American system of freedoms. The +character of the corps is in a most direct sense a final safeguard of +the character of the Nation. + +To these thoughts any officer who is morally deserving of his +commission would freely subscribe. He will look beyond the letter of +his obligation and will accept in his own heart the total implications +of his new responsibility. + +So doing, he still might see fit to ask: "But to what do I turn my +thoughts? How do I hold myself so that while following the line of +duty, I will also exemplify those ideals which may inspire other men +to make their best effort?" + +It is suggested that there is a one-word key to the answer among the +four lofty qualities which are cited on every man's commission. + +That word is _Fidelity_. + +As for patriotism, either a man loves his country or else he would not +seek commission at its hands, unless he be completely the rascal, +pretending to serve in order to destroy. + +Valor, on the other hand, can not be fully vouchsafed, since it is not +given to any man to know the nature and depth of his personal courage. + +Abilities vary from man to man, and are partly what heredity and +environment have made them. If nature had not imposed a ceiling, mere +striving would make every man a genius. + +But Fidelity is the derivative of personal decision. It is the jewel +within reach of every man who has the will to possess it. + +Given an officer corps composed throughout of men who would make the +eternal try toward bettering their professional capacities and +furthering the working efficiency and harmony within all forces, the +United States would become thrice-armed though not producing one new +weapon in its arsenals. + +Great faith, rightness of mind, influence over other men, and finally, +personal success and satisfaction come of service to the ideals of the +profession. Were these strengths reflected throughout the officer +body, it could well happen that because of the shining example, the +American people would become more deeply conscious of the need to keep +their own fibers strong than has been their disposition throughout +history. + +Accepting these truths as valid, a man still must know where he stands +before making a true reckoning of his line of advance. This entails +some consideration of himself (_a_) as to the personal standard which +is required of him because of his position in relation to all others +(_b_) as to the reasons in common sense which make this requirement, +and (_c_) as to the principles and philosophy which will enable him to +play his part well. + +The military officer is considered a gentleman, not because Congress +wills it, nor because it has been the custom of people in all times to +afford him that courtesy, but specifically because nothing less than a +gentleman is truly suited for his particular set of responsibilities. + +This is not simply a bit of self-adulation; it is distinctly the +American tradition in the matter. The Nation has never attempted to +draw its officers from a particular class. During World War II, +thousands of men were commissioned in our forces who had enjoyed +little opportunity in their earlier environments. They were sound men +by nature. They had courage. They could set a good example. They could +rally other men around them. In the eyes of the services, these things +count more than any man's blood lines. We say with Voltaire, "Whoever +serves his country well has no need of ancestors." + +On the other hand, from the time of the Colonies, this country has +despised press gangs, floggings, martinetism, and all of the other Old +World military practices which demeaned the rank and file. Its +military system was founded on the dignity of man, just as was its +Constitution. The system has sought ever since to advance itself by +appealing to the higher nature of the individual. That is why its +officers need to be gentlemen. To call forth great loyalty in other +people and to harness it to any noble undertaking, one must first be +sensible of their finer instincts and feelings. Certainly these things +at least are among the gentle qualities which are desired in every +military officer of the United States: + + 1. Strong belief in human rights. + + 2. Respect for the dignity of every other person. + + 3. The Golden Rule attitude toward one's daily associates. + + 4. An abiding interest in all aspects of human welfare. + + 5. A willingness to deal with every man as considerately as if he + were a blood relative. + +These qualities are the epitome of strength, not of softness. They +mark the man who is capable of pursuing a great purpose consistently +in spite of temptations. He who possesses them will all the more +surely be regarded as a "man among men." Take any crowd of new +recruits! The greater number of them during their first few days in +service will use more profanity and obscenity, talk more about women +and boast more about drinking than they have ever done in their lives, +because of the mistaken idea that this is the quick way to get a +reputation for being hard-boiled. But at the same time, the one or two +men among them who stay decent, talk moderately and walk the line of +duty will uniquely receive the infinite respect of the others. It +never fails to happen! + +There is the other matter about how a man should feel toward his own +profession. Simply to accept the fact that the bearing of arms is a +highly honorable calling because the book says so should not suffice +one's own interest in the matter, when a little personal reflection +will reveal wherein the honor resides. + +To every officer who has thought earnestly about the business, it is +at once apparent that civilization, as men have known it since the +time of the Greek City States, has rested as a pyramid upon a base of +organized military power. Moreover, the general possibility of world +cultural progress in the foreseeable future has no other conceivable +foundation. For any military man to deny, on any ground whatever, the +role which his profession has played in the establishment of +everything which is well-ordered in our society, shows only a faulty +understanding of history. It made possible the birth of the American +system of freedoms. Later, it gave the nation a new birth and +vouchsafed a more perfect union. + +Likewise, we need to see the case in its present terms. One may abhor +war fully, despise militarism absolutely, deplore all of the impulses +in human nature which make armed force necessary, and still agree that +for the world as we know it, the main hope is that "peace-loving +nations can be made obviously capable of defeating nations which are +willing to wage aggressive war." Those words, by the way, were not +said by a warrior, but by the eminent pacifist, Bertrand Russell. It +does not make the military man any less the humanitarian that he +accepts this reality, that he faces toward the chance forthrightly, +and that he believes that if all military power were stricken +tomorrow, men would revert to a state of anarchy and there would ensue +the total defeat of the forces which are trying to establish peace and +brotherly love in our lives. + +The complete identity of American military forces with the character +of the people comes of this indivisibility of interest. To think of +the military as a guardian class apart, like Lynkeus "born for vision, +ordained for watching," rather than as a strong right arm, corporately +joined to the body and sharing its every function, is historically +false and politically inaccurate. It is not unusual, however, for +those whose task it is to interpret the trend of opinion to take the +line that "the military" are thinking one way and "the people" quite +another on some particular issue, as if to imply that the two are +quite separate and of different nature. This is usually false in +detail, and always false in general. It not only discounts the objects +of their unity but overlooks the truth of its origins. + +Maybe they should be invited to go to the root of the word. The true +meaning of "populus," from which we get the word "people," was in the +time of ancient Rome the "armed body." The pure-blooded Roman in the +days of the Republic could not conceive of a citizen who was not a +warrior. It was the arms which a Roman's possession of land enabled +him to get that qualified him to participate in the affairs of state. +He had no political rights until he had fought. _He was not of the +people; they were of him!_ Nor is this concept alien to the ideals on +which the Founding Fathers built the American system, since they +stated it as the right and duty of every able-bodied citizen to bear +arms. + +These propositions should mean much to every American who has chosen +the military profession. A main point is that on becoming an officer a +man does not renounce any part of his fundamental character as an +American citizen. He has simply signed on for the post graduate course +where one learns how to exercise authority in accordance with the +spirit of liberty. The nature of his trusteeship has been subtly +expressed by an Admiral in our service: "The American philosophy +places the individual above the state. It distrusts personal power and +coercion. It denies the existence of indispensable men. It asserts the +supremacy of principle." + +An understanding of American principles of life and growth, and +personal zeal in upholding them, is the bedrock of sound leading in +our services. Moral and emotional stability are expected of an +American officer; he can usually satisfy his superiors if he attains +to this equilibrium. But he is not likely to satisfy himself unless he +can also achieve that maturity of character which expresses itself in +the ability to make decisions in detachment of spirit from that which +is pleasant or unpleasant to him personally, in the desire to hold +onto things not by grasping them but by understanding them and +remembering them, and in learning to covet only that which may be +rightfully possessed. + +An occasional man has become wealthy while in the services by making +wise investments, through writings, by skill at invention, or through +some other means. But he is the exception. The majority have no such +prospect. Indeed, if love of money were the mainspring of all American +action, the officer corps long since would have disintegrated. But it +is well said that the only truly happy people on earth are those who +are indifferent to money because they have some positive purpose which +forecloses it. Than the service, there is no other environment which +is more conducive to the leading of the full life by the individual +who is ready to accept the word of the philosopher that the only +security on earth is the willingness to accept insecurity as an +inevitable part of living. Once an officer has made this passage into +maturity, and is at peace with himself because the service means more +to him than all else, he will find kinship with the great body of his +brothers-in-arms. The highest possible consequence can develop from +the feelings of men mutually inspired by some great endeavor and +moving forward together according to the principle that only those who +are willing to serve are fit to lead. Completely immersed in action, +they have no time for smallness in speech, thought or deed. It is for +these reasons that those who in times past have excelled in the +leadership of American forces have invariably been great Americans +first and superior officers second. The rule applies at all levels. +The lieutenant who is not moved at the thought that he is serving his +country is unlikely to do an intelligent job of directing other men. +He will come apart at the seams whenever the going grows tough. Until +men accept this thought freely, and apply it to their personal action, +it is not possible for them to go forward together strongly. In the +words of Lionel Curtis: "The only force that unites men is conscience, +a varying capacity in most of them to put the interests of other +people before their own." + +The services are accustomed to being hammered. Like other human +institutions, they are imperfect. Therefore the criticisms are not +always unjust. Further, there is no more reason why the services +should be immune to attack than any other organic part of our society +and government. + +The service officer is charged only to take a lively interest in all +such discussions. He has no more right to condemn the service unfairly +than has any other American. On the other hand he is not expected to +be an intellectual eunuch, oblivious to all of the faults in the +institution to which he gives his loyalty. To the contrary, the nature +of that loyalty requires that he will use his force toward the +righting of those things which reason convinces him are going wrong, +though making certain that his action will not do more damage than +repair. + +His ultimate commanding loyalty at all times is to his country, and +not to his service or his superior. He owes it to his country to speak +the truth as he sees it. This implies a steadying judgment as to when +it should be spoken, and to whom it should be addressed. A truth need +not only be well-rounded, but the utterance of it should be cognizant +of the stresses and objectives of the hour. Truth becomes falsehood +unless it has the strength of perspective. The presentation of facts +is self-justifying only when the facts are developed in their true +proportion. + +Where there is public criticism of the services, in matters both large +and small, the service officer has the right and the duty of +intervention only toward the end of making possible that all criticism +will be well-informed. That right can not be properly exercised when +there is nothing behind it but a defense of professional pride. The +duty can be well performed when the officer knows not only his +subject--the mechanism itself--but the history and philosophy of the +armed services in their relation to the development of the American +system. Criticism from the outside is essential to service well-being, +for as Confucius said, oftentimes men in the game are blind to what +the lookers on see clearly. + +The value of any officer's opinion of any military question can never +be any greater than the extent and accuracy of his information. His +ability to dispose public thought favorably toward the service will +depend upon the wisdom of his words rather than upon his military rank +and other credentials. A false idea will come upon a bad fate even +though it has the backing of the highest authority. + +Only men of informed mind and unprejudiced expression can strengthen +the claim of the services on the affections of the American people. + +This is, of itself, a major objective for the officer corps, since our +public has little studious interest in military affairs, tends ever to +discount the vitality of the military role in the progress and +prosperity of the nation and regards the security problem as one of +the less pleasant and abnormal burdens on an otherwise orderly +existence. + +It is an explicable contradiction of the American birthright that to +some of our people the military establishment is at best a necessary +evil, and military service is an extraordinary hardship rather than an +inherent obligation. Yet these illusions are rooted deep in the +American tradition, though it is a fact to be noted not without hope +that we are growing wiser as we move along. In the years which +followed the American Revolution, the new union of States tried to +eliminate military forces altogether. There was vast confusion of +thought as to what freedom required for its own survival. Thomas +Jefferson, one of the great architects of democracy, and still +renowned for his "isolationist" sentiments, wrote the warning: "We +must train and classify the whole of our male citizens, and make +military instruction a regular part of collegiate education. We can +never be safe until this is done." + +None the less, the hour came when the standing Army was reduced to 80 +men. None the less, the quaint notion has survived that an enlightened +interest in military affairs is somehow undemocratic. And none the +less, recurring war has invariably found the United States +inadequately prepared for the defense of its own territory. + +Because there has been a holdover of these mistaken sentiments right +down to the present, there persists in many military officers a +defensive attitude toward their own profession which has no practical +relation to the strength of the ground on which they are enabled to +stand. Toward any unfair and flippant criticism of the "military mind" +they react with resentment, instead of with buoyant proof that their +own minds are more plastic and more receptive to national ideals than +those of any other profession. Where they should approach all problems +of the national security with the zeal of the missionary, seeking and +giving light, they treat this subject as if it were a private game +preserve. + +It suffices to say of this minority that they are a barnacle on the +hull of an otherwise staunch vessel. From such limited concepts of +personal responsibility, there can not fail to develop a foreshortened +view of the dignity of the task at hand. The note of apology is +injected at the wrong time; the tone of belligerency is used when it +serves no purpose. When someone arises within the halls of government +to say that the military establishment is "uneconomic" because it cuts +no bricks, bales no hay and produces nothing which can be vended in +the market places, it is not unusual to hear some military men concur +in this strange notion. That acquiescence is wholly unbecoming. + +The physician is not slurred as belonging to a nonproductive +profession because he contributes only to the care and healing of the +body, and through these things to the general well-being of society. +Respect for formal education, organized religion and all of the +enterprises built up around the dissemination of ideas is not the less +because the resultant benefit to society is not always tangible and +saleable. Hence to say that that without which society could not +endure in its present form is "uneconomic" is to make the word itself +altogether meaningless. + +In that inner power of courage and conviction which stems from the +spiritual integrity of the individual, lies the strength of democracy. +As to their ability to produce toward these ends, the military +services can stand on the record. When shortly after World War II, a +census was taken among the returned men, 60 percent said that they had +been _morally strengthened_ by their military service in the American +uniform. About 30 percent had no opinion or felt that military life +had not changed them one way or the other. An insignificant minority +considered themselves damaged. This is an amazing testimony in light +of the fact that only a small fraction of American youth is schooled +to believe that any spiritual good can come of military service. As to +what it signifies, those who take a wholly materialistic view of the +objects of the Republic are entitled to call the military +establishment "uneconomic." The services will continue to hold with +the idea that strong nationhood comes not of the making of gadgets but +of the building of character. + +Men beget goodwill in other men by giving it. They develop courage in +their following mainly as a reflection of the courage which they show +in their own action. These two qualities of mind and heart are of the +essence of sound officership. One is of little avail without the +other, and either helps to sustain the other. As to which is the +stronger force in its impact upon the masses of men, no truth is more +certain than the words once written by William James: "Evident though +the shortcomings of a man may be, if he is ready to give up his life +for a cause, we forgive him everything. However inferior he may be to +ourselves in other respects, if we cling to life while he throws it +away like a flower, we bow to his superiority." + +Theodore Roosevelt once said that if he had a son who refrained from +any worthwhile action because of the fear of hurt to himself, he would +disown him. Soon after his return to civilian life, Gen. Dwight D. +Eisenhower spoke of the worthwhileness of "living dangerously." An +officer of the United States armed forces can not go far wrong if he +holds with these ideas. It is not the suitable profession for those +who believe only in digging-in and nursing a soft snap until death +comes at a ripe old age. Who risks nothing gains nothing. + +Nor should there be any room in it for professional smugness, small +jealousies, and undue concern about privilege. + +The regular recognizes as his peer and comrade the officer from any of +the civilian components. That he is a professional does not give him +an especial eminence, but simply a greater measure of responsibility +for the success of the total establishment. Moreover, he can not +afford to be patronizing, without risking self-embarrassment, such is +the vast experience which many reservists have had on the active field +of war. + +Toward services other than his own, any officer is expected to have +both a comradely feeling and an imaginative interest. Any Army officer +is a better man for having studied the works of Admiral Mahan and +familiarized himself with the modern Navy from first-hand experience. +Those who lead sea-going forces can enlarge their own capacities by +knowing more, rather than less, about the nature of the air and ground +establishments. The submariner can always learn something useful to +his own work by mingling with airmen; the airman becomes a better +officer as he grows in qualified knowledge of ground and sea fighting. + +But the fact remains that the services are not alike, that no wit of +man can make them alike, and that the retention by each of its +separate character, customs and confidence is essential to the +conserving of our national military power. Unification has not altered +this basic proposition. The first requirement of a unified +establishment is moral soundness in each of the integral parts, +without which there can be no soundness at all. And on the question of +fundamental loyalty, the officer who loves every other service just as +much as his own will have just as much active virtue as the man who +loves other women as much as his own wife. + + + + +CHAPTER TWO + +FORMING MILITARY IDEALS + + +Any stranger making a survey of what Americans are and how they get +that way would probably see it as a paradox that within the armed +establishment the inculcation of ideals is considered the most vital +of all teaching, while in our gentler and less rigid institutions, +there is steadily less emphasis on this subject. + +He would be entitled to the explanation that it is not so done because +this has always been the way of Armies, Navies, and other fighting +forces, or because it is universal in the military establishments of +the twentieth century, but because nothing else would better suffice +the American military system under present conditions. + +There are two main reasons why. + +The first is that we are an altogether unregimented people, with a +strong belief in the virtues of rugged individualism and in the right +of the average man to go along about as he pleases, so long as he does +not do actual injury to society. Voluntary group cooperation rather +than absolute group loyalty, developing from a strong spiritual bond, +is the basic technic of Americans in their average rounds. It is +enough to satisfy the social, political and economic needs of a +democracy, but in its military parts, it would be fatally weak. There +would be no possibility of achieving an all-compelling unity under +conditions of utmost pressure if no man felt any higher call to action +than what was put upon him by purely material considerations. + +Military ideals are therefore, as related to this purpose, mainly an +instrument of national survival. But not altogether so, since in the +measure that they influence the personal life and conduct of millions +of men who move in and out of the services, they have a regenerative +effect upon the spiritual fiber of the Nation as a whole. + +There is the second and equally important reason that, whereas wars +have sometimes been fought for ideal causes, as witness the American +Revolution and Civil War, war itself is never ideal, and the character +of our people is such as to insist that from our side, its brutalities +be minimized. The barbarian who kills for killing's sake and who +scorns the laws of war at any point is repugnant to the instincts of +our people, under whatever flag he fights. If we did not have some men +of this type among us, our penitentiaries would not be filled. The +ravages which they might commit when all of the barriers are down on +the battlefield can be prevented only when forces as a whole believe +that armed power, while not ideal in itself, must be made to serve +ideal ends. + +To speak of ethics in the same breath with war may seem like sheer +cant and hypocrisy. But in the possibility that those who best +understand the use and nature of armed power may excel all others in +stimulating that higher morality which may some day restrain war lies +a main chance for the future. The Armed Services of the United States +do not simply do lip service to such institutions as United Nations. +They encourage their people to take a deep personal interest in every +legitimate activity aimed to bulwark world peace. But while doing +this, they keep their powder dry. + +Military ideals are not different than the ideals which make any man +sound in himself, and in his relation to others. They are called +military ideals only because the proving ground is a little more +rugged in the service than elsewhere. But they are all founded in hard +military experience; they did not find expression because some Admiral +got it in his head one day to set an unattainable goal for his men, or +because some General wished to turn a pious face toward the public, +professing that his men were aspiring to greater virtue than anything +the public knew. + +The military way is a long, hard road, and it makes extraordinary +requirements of every individual. In war, particularly, it puts +stresses upon men such as they have not known elsewhere, and the +temptation to "get out from under" would be irresistible if their +spirits had not been tempered to the ordeal. If nothing but fear of +punishments were depended upon to hold men to the line during extreme +trial, the result would be wholesale mutiny and a situation altogether +beyond the control of leadership. So it must be true that _it is out +of the impact of ideals mainly that men develop the strength to face +situations from which it would be normal to run away_. + +Also, during the normal routine of peace, members of the Armed +Services are expected to respond to situations that are more +extensive, more complex, and take longer to reach fulfillment than the +situations to which the majority of men instinctively respond. Even +the length of the enlistment period looks like a slow march up a +60-mile grade. Promotion is slow, duty frequently monotonous. It is +all too easy for the individual to worry about his own insignificance +and to feel that he has become lost in the crowd. Under these +conditions a man may go altogether bad, or simply get lazy and rock +with the grain. But nothing except a strong belief in the ideals he is +serving will make him respond to the larger situation and give it his +best effort. Ideals have the intensely practical end of strengthening +men for the better discharge of duties which devolve upon them in +their day-to-day affairs. + +What is the main test of human character? Probably it is this: that a +man will know how to be patient in the midst of hard circumstance, and +can continue to be personally effective while living through whatever +discouragements beset him and his companions. Moreover, that is what +every truly civilized man would want in himself during the calmer +moments when he compares critically what he is inside with what he +would like to be. That is specifically the reason why the promulgation +of military ideals is initially a problem in the first person, +singular. The Armed Services have in one sense a narrow motive in +turning the thoughts of younger leaders toward a belief in ideals. +They know that this is a lubricant in the machinery of organization +and the best way to sweeten the lives of men working together in a +group toward some worthwhile purpose. But there is also a higher +object. All experience has taught that it is likewise the best way to +give the individual man a solid foundation for living successfully +amid the facts of existence, irrespective of his situation. The +military system of the United States is not committed to grinding out +warriors _per se_, but to the training of men in such manner that they +will be able to play a better part anywhere, and will find greater +satisfactions in what they do. All the time, when the service seeks to +emphasize to its ranks what is the "right thing to do," it is speaking +of that course of conduct which in the long run is most necessary and +useful to the individual. + +As to what one man should seek in himself, in order to be four-square +with his own life and all others who are related to his personal +situation, it is simple enough to formulate it, and to describe what +constitutes maturity of character. In fact, that can be done without +mentioning the words "patriotism" and "courage", which traditionally +and rightly are viewed as the very highest of the military virtues. + +No man is truly fit for officership unless in the inner recess of his +being he can go along with the toast known to every American +schoolboy: "My country, in her intercourse with other nations may she +always be in the right! But right or wrong, my country!" And he will +never do a really good job of supporting her standards if, when the +clutch comes, he is lacking in intestinal fortitude. + +But there is this to be said about the nature of courage and +patriotism, in the same breath that we agree they are essential in an +officer of the fighting establishment--neither of these qualities of +itself carries sufficient conviction, except as it is the product of +those homelier attributes which give dignity to all action, in things +both large and small, during the course of any average work day. + +When Dr. Johnson remarked that patriotism is the last refuge of a +scoundrel he was not belittling the value of love of country as a +force in the lives of men, but to the contrary, was pointing out that +a profession of patriotism, unaccompanied by good works, was the mark +of a man not to be trusted. In no other institution in the land will +flag-waving fall as flat as in the Armed Services when the ranks know +that it is just an act, with no sincere commitment to service backing +it up. But the uniformed forces will still respond to the real +article with the same emotion that they felt at Bunker Hill and Manila +Bay. + +There is a Civil War story from one of the campaigns against Stonewall +Jackson in the Valley. A Confederate who had had his leg shot away +turned on his pallet to regard a Union private who had just lost an +arm, and said to him, "For what reason did you invade us and make all +this trouble?" The boy replied simply: "For the old flag." That may +sound like sentiment from a distant past. But turn to the story of +Major Devereux and the Marine defense of Wake Island. He wrote that +the "music" had always gone sour, and had invariably broken down when +he tried to play "The Colors." But on the morning of Pearl Harbor, +when the flag was raised, the garrison already knew that the war was +on. And for some reason which no man could account for, the bugler +rose to the occasion, and for the first time, every note came straight +and true. Devereux said that every throat tightened and every head +went higher. Yet Devereux was a remarkably unmelodramatic fighting +man. + +But to get back to those simpler virtues which provide a firm +foundation for patriotism and may become the fount of courage, at +least these few things would have to be put among the fundamentals: + + 1. A man has honor if he holds himself to a course of conduct, + because of a conviction that it is in the general interest, even + though he is well aware that it may lead to inconvenience, + personal loss, humiliation or grave physical risk. + + 2. He has veracity if, having studied a question to the limit of + his ability, he says and believes what he thinks to be true, even + though it would be the path of least resistance to deceive others + and himself. + + 3. He has justice if he acknowledges the interests of all + concerned in any particular transaction rather than serving his + own apparent interest. + + 4. He has graciousness if he acts and speaks forthrightly, agrees + warmly, disagrees fairly and respectfully, participates + enthusiastically, refrains from harboring grudges, takes his + reverses in stride, and does not complain or ask for help in the + face of trifling calamities. + + 5. He has integrity if his interest in the good of the service is + at all times greater than his personal pride, and when he holds + himself to the same line of duty when unobserved as he would + follow if all of his superiors were present. + +The list could be longer, but for the moment, we can let it go at +that. These standards are not counsels of perfection; thousands of +officers have adhered to them. But it should be said as well that if +all leaders at the lower levels in all of the services were to conform +in the same way, the task of higher command would be simplicity +itself. The cause of much of the friction in the administrative +machinery is that at all levels there are individuals who insist on +standing in their own light. They believe that there is some special +magic, some quick springboard to success; they mistakenly think that +it can be won by bootlicking, apple-polishing, yessing higher +authority, playing office politics, throwing weight around, ducking +the issues, striving for cheap popularity, courting publicity or +seeking any and all means of grabbing the spotlight. + +Any one of this set of tricks may enable a man to carry the ball +forward a yard or two in some special situation. But at least this +comment can be made without qualification: Of the men who have risen +to supreme heights in the fighting establishment of the United States, +and have had their greatness proclaimed by their fellow countrymen, +there is not one career which provides any warrant for the conclusion +that there is a special shortcut known only to the smart operators. +True enough, a few men have gained fairly high rank by dint of what +the late Mr. Justice Holmes called "the instinct for the jugular"--a +feeling for when to jump, where to press and how to slash in order to +achieve somewhat predatory personal ends. That will occasionally +happen in any walk of life. But from Washington, Wayne, and Jones down +to Eisenhower, Vandegrift, and Nimitz, the men best loved by the +American people for their military successes were also men with +greatness of soul. In short, they were idealists, though they likely +would have disclaimed that label, since it somehow connotes the +visionary rather than the intensely practical man. + +But it isn't necessary to look at the upper brackets of history to +find the object lesson. The things that any man remembers about his +own father with love and reverence have to do with his forbearance, +his charity toward other men, his strength and rightness of will and +his readiness to contribute of his force to the good of other people. +Or if not his father, then it may be an uncle, a neighbor or one of +his schoolmasters. + +In one way, however, it illuminates but half the subject to reflect +that a man has to find purpose in himself before he can seek purpose +in any of the undertakings of which he is a part or in the society of +which he is a member. No man is wholly sufficient unto himself even +though he has been schooled from infancy to live according to +principles. His character and the moral strength from which he gains +peace of mind need constantly to be replenished by the force of other +individuals who think and act more or less in tune with him. His +ability to remain whole, and to bound back from any depression of the +spirit, depends in some measure on the chance that they will be +upgrading when he is on the downswing. To read what the wisest of the +philosophers have written about the formation of human character is +always a stimulating experience; but it is better yet to live next to +the man who already possesses what the philosophers are talking about. +During World War II, there were quite a few higher commanders relieved +in our forces because it was judged, for one reason or another, that +they had failed in battle. Of the total number, there were a few who +took a reduction in rank, went willingly to a lower post in a fighting +command, uttered no complaint, kept their chins up, worked +courageously and sympathetically with their commands, and provided an +example of manhood that all who saw them will never forget. Though +their names need not be mentioned, they were imprinted with the real +virtue of the services even more deeply than many of their colleagues +who had no blemishes on their records. Their character had met the +ultimate test. The men who had the privilege of working close to them +realized this and the sublime effect of this personal influence helped +strengthen the resolve of many others. + +Because there is so much at stake in the matter, the services cannot +depend solely upon such influence as would be exerted on their affairs +by the occasional idealist, but must work for that chain reaction +which comes of making the inculcation of military ideals one of the +cardinal points of a strong, uniting inner doctrine. It is altogether +necessary that as a body, the power of their thought be shaped along +ideal lines. The ideal object must be held high at all times, even +though it is recognized that men are not perfect, and that no matter +how greatly they may aspire, they will occasionally fail. Nor is the +effort to lead other men to believe in the transcendent importance of +goodwill made less effective because the leader has a conscience about +his own weakness, _provided he has the good sense not to flaunt it_. +He need not be a paragon of all the virtues to set an example which +will convince other men that his ideas are worth following. No man +alive possesses perfect virtue, which fact is generally understood. +Many an otherwise ideal commander is ruthless in his exactions upon +his staff; many a petty officer, who has won the absolute love of all +men with whom he served, has found himself in the middle because he +couldn't think straight about his debts. But these things do not +lessen the impact upon men of thinking together about common ideals +and working together toward the fulfillment of some high obligation. +The pursuit of ideals culminates in the experience of mutual growth. +If that were not so, men who have served the arms of the United States +would not continue to have a special respect for the uniform, and an +extra reverence for the flag, for years after they have passed from +the service. These emotions are not the consequence of habit, but come +of having known the comradeship of other men whom they loved and +respected, who shared these same thoughts, and believed in the same +body of ideals. + +Any normal man loves his country and it is natural in him to regard +highly the symbols through which this affection is expressed. An +American child of kindergarten age already feels an emotional +attachment for the national emblem. The recruit who has just entered +upon service can begin to understand that his regard for his uniform +must be a far different thing than what he felt about his civilian +dress, since it is identified with the dignity of the Nation. His +training in military ideals starts at this point, and for the main +part is carried forward subtly, by transfer of this same feeling to +all other objects associated with his military life. His perseverance +in the care of weapons, in keeping his living quarters orderly and in +doing his full share of work is best insured, not through fear of +punishments, but by stimulating his belief that any other way of going +is unworthy of a member of a fighting service. + +Precision in personal habits, precision in drill and precision in +daily living are the high road to that kind of discipline which best +insures cool and collected thought and unity of action on the field of +battle. When men, working together, successfully attain to a high +standard of orderliness, deportment and response, each to the other, +they develop the cohesive strength which will carry them through any +great crisis. For this reason mainly, military life is far more +exacting than civil life. But the services hold that what is best for +the many can be achieved without cramping the personal life or +blighting individuality and initiative. Within the frame of our +system, we can achieve obedience and discipline without destroying +independence and impulse. + +This is idealism, though we seldom think about it in that light. +Further, it is all the better that in the beginning these impressions +are developed obliquely, rather than through the direct approach of +reading a lecture on ideals and ethics, since it means that the man is +assisted to reach certain conclusions by himself, and as Kant has +said, those things which a man learns pretty much on his own become +the ideas that he is least likely to forget. + +Looking at this subject in its largest aspect, it should be perfectly +clear that any institution must know what its ideals are before it can +become coherent and confident, and that there must be present in the +form of clearly available ideas an imaginative conception of the good +at which the institution aims. + +This is fully recognized in the American armed establishment. For many +years, the program of indoctrinating military ideals has been +inseparably linked with instruction in democratic ideals, teaching as +to the American way of life and clear statement of the policies and +purposes of the Government of the United States in its relations with +all others powers and peoples. + +Moreover, it is an accepted principle in all services that this +mission can not be carried forward competently except by those +officers who are directly in charge of forces. It is not a job for +chaplains or orientation specialists, because it cannot flourish +unless it is in the hands of those leaders whom men know well and in +whom they place their confidence. When men are well led, they become +fully receptive to the whole body of ideas which their leaders see fit +to put before them. + +There are two points which follow, as a matter of course. + +An officer's ability to talk effectively on these or other subjects to +his men can be no better than his information, irrespective of his +zeal or of his own firm belief in the ideals of his country and +service. + +All other things being equal, his effectiveness will depend on the +extent to which he participates in all of the other affairs of +organization. If he is remote from the spirit of his own unit, and +indifferent to the varying activities which enter into the building of +that spirit, he will not have a sympathetic audience when he talks to +men about the grand objectives of organization. There is something +terribly incongruous about a man talking to troops on the ideal +purposes of the military service if all they see of him convinces them +that he is loyal only to his own rank and his pay check. It can be +said without any qualification that when an officer's interest in the +unit is limited strictly to those things which _have to be done_ in +line of duty, even though he attends to them truly and well, he will +never have a strong hold on the sympathy and imagination of his men. +When he takes an enthusiastic part in the sports program of the ship, +the company, the squadron or the battalion, even though he has no +natural talent for sport, when he voluntarily helps in furthering all +activities within the unit which are designed to make leisure more +enjoyable, and when he is seen by his men attending religious +exercises, his magnetism is increased. It was noteworthy during World +War II that church attendance among enlisted personnel took a +tremendous bound forward when it was seen that their officers were +present at church services. This provided tremendous support to those +chaplains who were intent not only on praising the Lord but on passing +moral ammunition to all ranks so that they would be better prepared +for the ordeal ahead. + +Recognizing that instruction in the duties of citizenship, and +providing information which will enable Americans to have a better +understanding of their national affairs, is part of the arch of morale +and of a strong uniting comradeship, the Armed Services nevertheless +hold that _the keystone of the arch, among fighting forces, is the +inculcation of military ideals and the stimulation of principles of +military action_. Unless orientation within the services is balanced +in this direction, the military spirit of all ranks will suffer, and +the forces will deteriorate into an assembly of Americans who, +whatever their enthusiasms for the nation, will lack an organized +capacity to serve it efficiently along the main line of resistance. + +To round out any discussion of how military ideals are formed, much +more needs to be said about the nature of courage on the battlefield +and, in preparation for it, about the winning and meaning of loyalty +within the Armed Services and how instruction on these points and all +related matters is best advanced within the organization. + +But the object of this chapter is to define certain governing +principles. The substantive parts of the subject can be more clearly +presented further along in the book. + + + + +CHAPTER THREE + +RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIVILEGE + + +There is a common saying in the services, and elsewhere, that greater +privileges grow out of larger responsibilities, and that the latter +justifies the former. This is part truth and part fable. + +In military organization, as in industry, business, and political +life, the more important a man's position, the more lavish he is +likely to be in his office appointments and living arrangements, and +the greater the care that is apt to be taken in freeing him of +trifling annoyances. + +But that is only partly because of the need for him to conserve his +time and energy. When men are successful, they like the good things of +life. Why deny it? Not one individual in 10,000 would aspire to power +and authority if it meant living like a hermit. + +There is no way that the military establishment can denature human +nature, and change this determining condition. Nor is there any reason +why it should wish to do so. Its men, like all others, develop a sense +of well-being from those advantages, many of them minor, which attend, +and build prestige, both in private and in official life. The +incentive system by which our country has prospered has always +recognized that privilege is a reward for effort and enterprise. The +American people have always accepted that reasonable, harmless +privileges should attend merit. It is by enhancing the prestige of +leaders and by making their positions attractive that the Armed Forces +get better officers and men. + +One of the keenest-minded Americans of our time has said: +"Responsibilities are what devolve upon a person, and privileges are +what he ought not to have, but takes." In a perfect universe, that +would be a perfect truth. But men being as they are, prideful and +desirous of any mark of recognition, privileges are the natural +accompaniment of rank and station, and when not wilfully misused, may +contribute to the general welfare. At all levels, men will aspire +more, and their ambition will be firmer, if getting ahead will mean +for them an increase in the visible tokens of deference from the +majority, rather than simply a boost in the paycheck. To complain +about this quality in human nature is as futile as regretting that the +sun goes down. + +However, since it is out of the abuse of privilege that much of the +friction between authority and the rank-and-file arises, the subject +can't be dropped at that point. What puts most of the grit into the +machinery isn't that privileges exist, but that they are exercised too +often by persons who are not motivated by a passionate sense of duty. +For it is an almost inviolable rule of human behavior that the man who +is concerned most of all with his responsibilities will be fretted +least about the matter of his privileges, and that his exercise of any +rightful privilege will not be resented by his subordinates, because +they are conscious of his merit. + +We can take two officers. Lieutenant "A" enters the service with one +main question in mind: "Where does my duty lie?" So long as he remains +on that beam, he will never injure the morale of the service by using +such privileges as are rightfully his as an officer. But in the mind +of Lieutenant "B" the other idea is uppermost: "What kudos do I get +out of my position?" Unless that man changes his ways, he will be a +troublemaker while he remains in the service, a headache to his fellow +officers and a despoiler of those who are under him. + +In recent years, we have learned a lot about American manpower. We +have seen enough of the raw material under testing conditions to know +that, with the exception of the occasional malcontent who was +irreparably spoiled before he left home, American young men when +brought into military organization do not resent rank, and are +amenable to authority. Indeed, they expect that higher authority will +have certain advantages not common to the rank-and-file, because that +is normal in our society in all of its workday relationships. + +But they do not like to have their noses rubbed in it by officers who, +having no real moral claim on authority, try to exhibit it by pushing +other people around. And when that happens, our men get their backs +up. And they wouldn't be worth a hoot in hades if they didn't. + +Even as privilege attends rank and station, it is confirmed by custom, +and modified by time and environment. What was all right yesterday may +be all wrong tomorrow, and what is proper in one set of circumstances +may be wholly wrong in another. + +Take one example. In Washington's Continental Army, a first lieutenant +was court-martialed and jailed because he demeaned himself by doing +manual labor with a working detail of his men. Yet in that same +season, Major General von Steuben, then trainer and inspector of all +the forces, created a great scandal and almost terminated his +usefulness by trying to rank a relatively junior officer out of his +quarters. Today both of these usages seem out of joint. Any officer +has the _privilege_ of working with his men, if he needs exercise, +wishes to see for himself how the thing is done, or feels that an +extra hand is needed on the job at a critical moment. As for any +notion that his quarters are his permanent castle no matter who comes, +he had best not make an issue of the point! + +But to emphasize it once again, duty is the great regulator of the +proper exercise of one's rights. Here we speak of duty as it was meant +by Giuseppe Mazzini, Italy's great patriot of the early Nineteenth +Century, when he said: "Every mission constitutes a pledge of duty. +Every man is bound to consecrate his every effort to its fulfillment. +He will derive his rule of action from the profound conviction of that +duty." For finally the key lies in this, that out of high regard for +duty comes as a natural flow that sense of proportion which we call +common sense. + +Adjustment and dignity in any situation are impossible when minds are +bent only on a code of conduct rather than on action which is +consistent with the far objectives. In the early stages of World War +II, it was not unusual to see a junior officer walking on the public +sidewalk, hands free, and looking important, while his wife tagged +along, trying to keep step, though laden like a pack mule. This was +because someone had told him that it was not in keeping with an +officer's dignity to be seen heavily burdened. In the nature of +things, anyone so lacking in gallantry as that would stimulate very +little respect for the officer corps. + +Actually, in these times, there are relatively few special privileges +which attend officership, and though the war brought perhaps a few +excesses, the post war trend has been in the other direction. + +Normally, an officer is not expected to buck a chow line, or any other +queue in line of duty, if he is sensibly in a rush. The presumption is +that his time is more valuable to the service than that of an enlisted +man. Normally, an officer is not expected to pitch a tent or spend his +energy on any hand labor incidental to housekeeping. Normally, he has +greater freedom of action and is less bound by minor restrictions than +the ranks. + +But the accent in these things is decidedly on the word _normally_. If +a mess line were in an area under general fire, so that added waiting +meant extra danger, then only a poltroon would insist on being fed +first. And while an officer wouldn't be expected to pitch a tent, he +would dig his own foxhole, unless he was well up in grade. At that, +there were a few high commanders in World War II who made it a point +of pride to do their own digging from first to last. Greater "freedom +of action," too, can go out the window, for conditions arise, +particularly in war, when freedom of action can not be permitted +anyone except the very top authority. When a general restriction is +clamped down, the officer caught violating it is in more serious +jeopardy than the enlisted offender. + +As the entire body of this book is directed toward the consideration +of the fundamental responsibilities in officership, the special +comments in this chapter will relate mainly to propositions not stated +elsewhere. + +Though it has been said before, even so, it can be said again: It is a +paramount and overriding responsibility of every officer to take care +of his men before caring for himself. From the frequent and gross +violation of this principle by badly informed or meanly selfish +individuals comes more embarrassment to officer-man relationships than +perhaps from all other causes put together. _It is a cardinal +principle!_ Yet many junior officers do not seem to understand that +steadfast fidelity to it is required, not lip service. "And of this," +as Admiral Mahan would say, "comes much evil." The loyalty of men +simply cannot be commanded when they become embittered by selfish +action. + +Then how deeply does this rule cut? In line of duty, it applies right +down to the hilt! When a command is worn, bruised, and hungry, +officers attend to their men's creature comforts and make sure that +all is going well, before looking to their own needs. If an officer is +on a tour with an enlisted man, he takes care that the man is +accommodated as to food, shelter, medical treatment or other prime +needs, before satisfying his own wants; if that means that the last +meal or the last bed is gone, his duty is to get along the hard way. +If a command is so located that recreational facilities are extremely +limited, and there are not enough to go around, the welfare of the +ranks takes priority over the interests of their commissioned leaders; +in fact, it would be more correct to say that the welfare of men _is_ +the prior interest of the officer. + +These few concrete illustrations show, in general, what is expected. +Once the main idea is grasped, the way of its total application +becomes clear. Officers do not go around playing pigtail to enlisted +men. But they build loyalty by serving the men first, when all +concerned are following a general line of duty together. + +It is an incumbent responsibility on all officers to maintain the +dignity of the uniform and prevent anyone from sullying it. This means +not only the dress of person, but the uniform wherever it is worn +publicly by any man of the United States forces. Where the offense is +committed by a member of some other service and the disgrace to the +uniform is obvious, it is the duty of the officer to intervene, or to +bring about intervention, rather than to walk out on the situation. +This calls for judgment, tact, nerve. The offense must be real, and +not simply an offense against one's private sensibilities. But +indecencies, exhibitionism and bawdiness of such a nature that if done +on a reservation would warrant trial of the individual for unbecoming +conduct will justify intervention by the officer under public +circumstances. + +Similarly, any officer has a responsibility to any enlisted man who is +in personal distress, with no other means of ready help. Suppose they +just happen to meet in a strange community. The enlisted man's +credentials are shown to be _bona fide_. But he has had his pocket +picked, or has lost his wallet, or has just missed the train that +would have carried him back from his leave on time, and he doesn't +know what to do. For any officer to brush-off a forthright request for +aid or advice under such circumstances is an unofficerly act. +Likewise, if one suspects, just from appearances, that the man is in +trouble and somewhat beyond his depths, it will be found that, far +from resenting a kindly inquiry, he will mark it to the credit of the +whole fighting system. + +To say that an officer owes a fellow officer no less consideration +than this is to state the obvious. Officers meeting in transit usually +get into conversation; it is a habit that adds much to one's +professional education. When an officer is getting into a strange +town, or arriving at a new post, anything done by a fellow officer to +help him get oriented, or to make things friendly and easy for him, +furthers the comity of the corps. Between officers of differing +services these small courtesies are particularly appreciated. Nor does +the matter end there. Within Unit A, the officers have the +responsibility of continuing support to the officers of Unit C, Unit +B, and so on. Though they are in a sense competing, each trying to +build higher than the other, they must never forget that the basic +technique of organization is cooperation. What "A" knows that has +helped his unit, or whatever he can do to assist "B" and "C" without +materially depriving himself, it becomes his official and moral +obligation to transmit. An officer can never understand his own +command problem very well unless he knows, at least a little, of how +things are going in other units. And the statement can be reversed. He +cannot judge the problems of other people unless he tries passionately +to understand his own people. + +There are many other minor articles within what is sometimes called +the "unwritten code" which help to regulate life in the services, and +to sweeten it. + +But what counts most is not the knowing of the rule but the sharing of +the spirit which gives it meaning and makes its proper administration +possible. + + + + +CHAPTER FOUR + +PLANNING YOUR CAREER + + +The main purpose of this book is to stimulate thought and to encourage +the average young officer to seek truth for, and in, himself. It is +never a good idea to attempt a precise formula about matters which are +by nature indefinite and subject to all number of variable factors. + +Thus with respect to career planning, despite all of the emphasis put +upon that subject in modern America, it would be plain error to infer +that any man can become all-wise, as to the direction which he should +take with his own life, simply by steeping himself in all of the +information which is to be had on this subject. + +That might qualify him to give top-lofty advice to all others on how +to make the start up the right ladder, and he would win a reputation +as a personnel expert, which in itself is no mean assignment. But in +all probability, he would still be doing better by himself than by any +other individual. + +American library shelves are stacked with such books as "Planning Your +Future," "New Careers for Youth," and "The Problem of Vocational +Guidance." The pages are laden with sage counsel and bromidic +expressions. But their chief public value is that they enabled a +writer, his publisher and the bookseller to get a little further ahead +in life. + +Reflecting the trend elsewhere in the national life, the Armed +Services are equipped to give their forces the advantage of career +management principles, and to assist their men to plan their +professional careers. The opportunities and the job qualifications can +be described. Also, somewhat more thoroughly than is done in civil +life, the establishment's system of record-keeping throws a partial +light on the aptitudes of the individual. The qualified man is soon +known by his "spec number" or maybe two numbers. It might seem +therefore that things are so well-regulated that the prospect of +every man finding his niche is better than even. + +The fact remains that the majority of individuals spend the greater +part of their lives doing something other than that which would bring +out their best quality and give them the greatest satisfaction, mainly +because accident, in one form or another, put them into a particular +channel, and inertia kept them there. + +A boy builds model airplanes. His hobby being a force in his youthful +years, he becomes a pilot, and then discovers to his shocked amazement +that he does not have his heart in machines but in the management of +men. A man who has lived his life among guns, and who enjoys the feel +and the working of them, enters the service and permits himself to be +made a food procurement specialist, having run that kind of business +in civil life only because he had inherited it from his father. An +officer assigned to a weapons detail finds it hard going. And the fact +that he takes a delight in writing a good paper still does not signal +to him that this is his main field and he should exploit it to the +fullest! + +To what do these things point? In particular, to this, that despite +all of the help which may be provided by outside agencies, finding the +straight thoroughfare in work is mainly a problem of searching +self-examination and personal decision. The impression which any other +person may have of our talents and possibilities is largely formed by +what we say, think and feel about ourselves. + +This does not require that constant introspection which is found in +Cecil Forester's nervous hero, "Captain Horatio Hornblower." That man +doubtless would have died of stomach ulcers before winning his second +stripe. It is not a matter of, "How do I look to someone else?" but +of, "What do I know about myself?" The kind of work which one likes +best and does with the greatest facility, the avocational study which +is pursued because it provides greater delight than an encharged +responsibility, the talent which one had as a youth but was dropped +because of the press of making a living, the task which looks alluring +though one has lacked either the chance, or the courage, to try a +hand at it--these are among the more fertile points of inquiry. + +Weighing it out, the service officer has an unrivaled opportunity for +fruitful experiment. + +In the first place, he has made the fundamental decision to serve his +country in the profession of arms. The meaning of that decision should +not be lost on him. It is by nature patriotic. But if he regards his +inheritance simply as a snug berth and the best way to provide "three +squares" to himself and family throughout a lifetime, he is neither +soundly patriotic nor intelligently selfish. + +After signing on the line for his country, the individual's duty to +himself is to strive by every honorable means to move ahead of his +competition by growing more knowledgeable and better qualified. _It is +the inherent right of every officer to request such service as he +believes will further his advancement_, and far from discouraging the +ambitious man, higher authority will invariably try to favor him. In +no other mode of life are older men so ready to encourage the willing +junior. + +Gen. H. H. Arnold, the great air leader of World War II, is an +inspiring case study with respect to several of these points. He wrote +in "Global Mission" how he considered quitting the Army in disgust +upon being commissioned in infantry, following graduation, so deeply +was his heart set upon service in cavalry. But something held him to +the assignment. Some years later he tried to transfer to ordnance +because the prospect for advancement looked better. While still +ruminating on this change, he was offered a detail to the newly +forming aviation section of the signal corps, and took it, not because +he had a clear vision of the future, but because it looked like a +chance to get ahead. Thus, almost inadvertently, he met the +opportunity of which came his world fame. + +This emphasizes another peculiar advantage belonging to the young +officer who is trying to orient himself toward the line of greatest +opportunity. In civil life, the man who flits from job to job is soon +regarded as a drifter and unstable. In the military establishment an +ability to adjust from job to job and to achieve greater all-around +qualification by making a successful record in a diversified +experience becomes a major asset in a career. Generalship, in its real +sense, requires a wider knowledge of human affairs, supported by +specialized knowledge of professional techniques, than any other great +responsibility. Those who get to the top have to be many-sided men, +with skill in the control and guidance of a multifarious variety of +activities. Therefore even the young specialist, who has his eyes on a +narrow track because his talents seem to lie in that direction, is +well advised to raise his sights and extend his interest to the far +horizons of the profession, even while directing the greater part of +his force to a particular field. + +After all, variety is the spice of life, as well as a high road toward +perfection. Of Princeton's 1932 class, 161, or 59 percent, were in the +armed services during World War II. Questioned after the war 70 +percent of the total number replied that military service was +interesting, broadening, and profitable. But the main point was that +they said in overwhelming number that its great lure was that _they +were doing something new_. They liked it because it gave them a +legitimate excuse to quit their jobs and attempt something different. +In the services, a man may give vent to this natural desire without +impairing his record, and if he is young and not at all certain what +is his favorite dish, the more he broadens his experience, the more +likely it becomes that he will sharpen his view of his own +capabilities. + +The possible hard consequence of looking at service opportunity +through any one lens is epitomized in one paragraph of a +reclassification proceedings on an officer relieved during World War +II while serving as assistant division commander: + + "Through no fault of his own, General Blank has never served with + troops since he was a captain during World War I. He has been + unable to keep pace with the problems of a commander on the + battlefield of today. He is unqualified for command of troops due + to lack of practical experience." + +It is hard to imagine a more dismal ending for a career than that of +the man who aspires to rank, without having any honest concept of its +proportionate moral responsibilities, particularly when the lives of +others are at stake. + +So when we say that "career planning" is a springboard to personal +success within the military establishment, it is not with the narrow +meaning that any officer should proceed to limit his field of +interest, decide quickly and arbitrarily where he will put his plow +and run his furrow, and then sit down and plot a schedule of how he +proposes to mount the success ladder rung by rung. That might suit a +plumber, or tickle the fancy of an interior decorator, but it will not +conserve the strength of the officer corps. Its consequence would be +to stereotype the thinking faculties of a professional whose inner +power flows from the questing imagination, eager curiosity and +versatility of its individuals. Intense specialization, to the +exclusion of all peripheral areas of knowledge, warps the mind and +limits the useful action and influence of its owner. Dr. Vannevar Bush +was a greater scientist on the day he made his decision to explore the +sphere of military knowledge, and greater still when he applied +himself to literature. + +There are few men of great talent who initially have an unswerving +inner conviction that they possess the final answer, as to themselves. +They may feel reasonably sure about what they would like to do, though +still reserving an honest doubt about the validity of their instincts +and of their power to compete. Even long and successful experience +does not always allay this doubt. Said Washington, on being appointed +Commander-in-Chief: "I beg it may be remembered by every man in this +room that I this day declare with the utmost sincerity, I do not think +myself equal to the command I am honored with." Assurance, or by its +other name, self-confidence, is only a continuing willingness to keep +coming back and trying, without fear of coming a cropper, but with a +care to the constant strengthening of one's own resources. The motto +of Admiral Robert E. Peary: "I will find a way or make one," is not +over-bold; any officer can afford to paste the words inside his own +hat. But in the hard game with which Peary's fame is forever linked, +there were countless errors, an occasional hit, and at last a run. + +The health and progressive spirit of the services come of the +many-sided officer who can make not one career for himself but three +or four. Had officers from all services been unwilling to go into the +industrial workshops and scientific laboratories of the Nation to try +their hands at wholly new lines of work, had successful cavalrymen +been unable to evolve as leaders of armored forces, had ship captains +and ensigns disdained taking to the air, had foot soldiers refused the +risks of parachuting and naval officers not participated as observers +with the infantry line to further SFC (ship fire control) we would +have run out of wind before winning World War II. + +Some months after the war ended, the Secretary of the Navy, +recognizing the dilemma which confronted thousands of men who were +asking whether the wave of the future would be to the specialist or to +the all-around man, sent a message which applied not less to the +officers of every service: + + It is intended that the highest posts will be filled by officers + of the highest attainments, regardless of specialty. Be assured, + whatever may be your field of endeavor, that your future as an + officer rests, as it always has, in your hands. The outstanding + officer will continue to be he who attacks with all of his energy + and enthusiasm the tasks to which he is assigned and who grows in + stature and understanding with his years and with his experience. + Responsibility comes to him who seeks responsibility. It is this + officer, regardless of his field of effort, who will be called to + high command. + +There is not a chief of service who would shade the general tone of +this paragraph if asked to put before his own officers the one rule +which, most closely followed, would most surely bring success. Nothing +need be added to it and nothing should be taken away; it states the +case. + +At the same time, and as the message itself implies, specialization, +like sex and the automobile, is here to stay. In the service, +perforce, even the balanced, all-around man has his specialty. In the +beginning, true enough, he may aspire only to being a soldier, marine, +sailor or airman. That is good enough in the cocoon stage. But +ultimately he emerges with the definite coloring of a ground fighter, +a gunner, an engineer officer, a signals man, a submariner, a weapons +man, a navigator, an observer, a transport officer or something else. +If his tact, bearing and quick pick-up suggest to his superiors that +he may be good staff material, and he takes that route, there are +again branch lines, leading out in roughly parallel directions, and +embracing activities in the fields of personnel, intelligence, +operations, supply and military government. And each one of these main +stems has smaller branches, greatly diversified. The man with a love +for logistics (and few have it) might some day find himself running +railroads or managing a port. The engineer could become a salvage +officer working a crew of deep sea divers, or as easily a demolitions +expert running a company of dynamiters. The expert in communications? +His next task might be setting up a radio station near the North Pole +or helping perfect radio control of troops over a 50-mile area. + +It is in these things that the privilege of free choice arises, for +despite the popular theory that in the services you take what you are +given and like it, the placement of officers according to their main +aptitudes and desires is a controlling principle of personnel policy. +It is recognized throughout the military establishment that, in +general, men will do their best service in that field where they think +their natural talents are being most usefully employed. + +Among the combat line commanders in World War II there were doctors, +dentists and even a few ministers. They could have had places in their +regular corps, but they were permitted to continue with the duty of +their own choice. + +Concerning the main problem of the officer, in fitting himself for +higher command, the controlling principle is well expressed in the +words of a distinguished educator, Wallace B. Donham: "The hope of the +wisdom essential to the general direction of men's affairs lies not so +much in wealth of specialized knowledge as in the habits and skills +required to handle problems involving very diverse viewpoints which +must be related to new concrete situations. Wisdom is based on broad +understanding in perspective. It is common sense on a large canvas. It +is never the product of scientific, technological, or other +specializations, though men so trained may, of course, acquire it." + +This puts just the right light on the subject. The military officer +specializes strictly to qualify himself more highly in his main +calling--the management of men in the practice of arms. Becoming a +specialist does not _ipso facto_ make him a better officer, or win him +preferment. It is part of the mechanism, though not the main wheel. As +Admiral Forrest P. Sherman has so well said: "We are not pushed +willy-nilly into specialization; there is never an excess of the +all-around, highly competent combat officer." + +Concerning his choice, all general advice is gratuitous. Whatever +might be written here would be worth far less than the counsel or +suggestion of any superior, or for that matter, a colleague, who has +observed his work closely over a long period, who has some critical +faculty, and whose good will is beyond question. + +Particularly, the _voluntary_ advice of such a person is worth notice. +That which is spontaneous usually has shrewd reason behind it. When +counsel is deliberately sought, it may catch the consultant unaware, +and in lieu of saying that which is well-considered, he may offer a +half-baked opinion, rather than be disappointing. But when another +person having one's trust, says: "Your natural line is to do +thus-and-so," it is time to ask him why, and check his reasoning with +one's own. Worth just as much earnest consideration is his negative +opinion, his strong feeling that what one is about to undertake is not +particularly suitable. + +As for the man himself, it remains to survey thoughtfully the whole +range of possibilities, to keep the mind open and receptive to +impressions, to experiment but take firm hold in so doing, to tackle +each new task with as much enthusiasm as if it were to be his life +work, to ask for difficult assignments rather than soft snaps and to +be calmly deliberate, rather than rashly hasteful, in appraising his +own capabilities. + +Self-study is a lifetime job. A great many engineers didn't realize +that they were born to make nuclear fission possible until there was +a three-way wedding between science, industry and the military in +1940. Many officers who have had a late blooming as experts in the +field of electronics and supersonic speeds had lived out successful +careers before these subjects first saw daylight. + +As Elbert Hubbard said of it, the only way to get away from +opportunity is to lie down and die. + + + + +CHAPTER FIVE + +RANK AND PRECEDENCE + + +The regulations that govern precedence among officers of the same +service and among the services in relation to each other have a very +real utility not only in determining succession to command and as +reminders of the authority to which all persons in the Armed Services +are subject but in providing precedent for all official or ceremonial +occasions in which officers or organizations of the several services +may find themselves cooperating. It is easy to imagine the confusion +that would result without such rules, especially if a junior commander +of a senior service had to defend the right of his organization to +occupy the place of honor ahead of a very senior commander with a +detachment from a junior service. These regulations are also the +arbiter in disputes arising between officers of equal rank who aspire +to command of the same unit. + +The legislation which separated the Air Force from the Army again +raised the question of precedence in parades and ceremonies. Since the +Air Force is the junior service, as to date of recognition, the change +indicated the following parade order: (Reference, _Federal Register_, +Volume 14, Number 160, August 19, 1949, page 5203) + + 1. Cadets, United States Military Academy. + + 2. Midshipmen, United States Naval Academy. + + 3. Cadets, United States Coast Guard Academy. + + 4. United States Army. + + 5. United States Marines. + + 6. United States Navy. + + 7. United States Air Force. + + 8. United States Coast Guard. + + 9. National Guard of the United States. + + 10. Organized Reserve Corps of the Army. + + 11. Marine Corps Reserve. + + 12. Naval Reserve. + + 13. Air Force National Guard of the United States. + + 14. United States Air Force Reserve. + + 15. Coast Guard Reserve. + + 16. Other training organizations of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, + Air Force, and Coast Guard, in that order, respectively. + +During any period when the United States Coast Guard shall operate as +a part of the United States Navy, the Cadets, United States Coast +Guard Academy, the United States Coast Guard, and the Coast Guard +Reserve, shall take precedence, respectively, next after the +Midshipmen, United States Naval Academy, the United States Navy, and +the Naval Reserve. + +In any ceremony in which any or all of these components act together, +the table of precedence in appropriate regulations determines their +location in the column. + +The ranks and insignia in the Armed Services have been substantially +the same since 1883. During World War II there were newly established +the five star ranks of general of the army and fleet admiral. After +the first World War the rank of general-of-the-armies was created to +honor General Pershing, who was permitted to choose the number of +stars he would wear. He chose four. After the Spanish-American War the +rank of admiral-of-the-navy was established for Admiral Dewey. No one +has held this rank since. + +On November 15, 1776, Congress established the ranks of admiral, +vice-admiral, rear admiral and commodore corresponding to general, +lieutenant general, major general, and brigadier general. It also +established three grades of naval captains--captain of a 40-gun ship +and upward to rank with colonel, captain of a 20 to 40-gun ship to +rank with lieutenant colonel, captain of a 10 to 20-gun ship to rank +with major, and lieutenant to rank with captain in the Army. + +Although the top naval ranks were provided, the only two officers ever +to attain a higher rank than captain prior to 1862 were Ezekiel +Hopkins, whom Congress on December 22, 1775, commissioned with the +rank of _C-in-C of the Fleet_, and Charles Stewart who was +commissioned _Senior Flag Officer_ by Congress in 1859. Hopkins and +Stewart were called "commodore" as was any other captain who commanded +more than one ship. + +During our War of Independence, the Army had the rank of ensign and +the Navy did not. The several Army ranks were then distinguishable by +the color of the cockade, green for lieutenant, buff for captain, and +pink or red for a field officer. As early as 1780 major generals wore +two stars on their epaulettes and brigadier generals one. During our +quasi-war with France, toward the end of the eighteenth century, +Washington was commissioned lieutenant general, our first, and three +stars were prescribed to be worn by him. + +In the Army Register for 1813 the rank of ensign had disappeared but +there were third lieutenants (as in the Soviet Army today) and +coronets. In 1832 the eagle was adopted as the insignia of colonel in +the Army and in 1857 the lieutenant colonel, captain, and first +lieutenant wore the same insignia as today. These insignia were +adopted some time in the interval between 1847 and 1857. The gold bar, +insigne of the second lieutenant, was authorized just prior to World +War I. + +The Navy has used the same shoulder insignia as the Army since the +Civil War. However, shoulder insignia on blues were discontinued by +the Navy in 1911 but the insignia were still prescribed on epaulettes. +The Navy adopted the eagle for captain in 1852, twenty years after it +had been approved by the Army for colonels. + +In the first half of the last century the Navy List contained officers +of four grades only. A captain wore three stripes, a master +commandant, two (master commandant, established in 1806, was changed +to commander in 1837;) and a lieutenant, one. A master had no stripe +but three buttons instead. There were midshipmen too, but they were +warrant officers and _aspirants_ for commissioned rank as the present +French term designates them. + +Our first full general was U. S. Grant and our first full admiral, +David D. Porter; both won their rank in the Civil War. In that war +there was a large increase in the Navy and more naval ranks were +established. In 1862 ensign was provided in the Navy to correspond to +second lieutenant; and the term lieutenant commanding became +lieutenant commander. An ensign wore one stripe as now; an additional +stripe was added for each rank till the rear admiral had eight. Since +1869 the senior officers have worn the same stripes as now prescribed. +In 1883 the rank "master" was changed to lieutenant, junior grade. + +The rank of commodore, which had been abolished, was temporarily +revived during World War II. The rank of passed-midshipman was +abolished about 1910; thereafter graduates of the Naval Academy were +commissioned ensign. The rank of ensign had previously been attained +by passed-midshipmen after 2 years at sea and a successful examination +at the end of that cruise. The only permanent change in recent years +was the addition of aviation cadet to both the Air Force and Navy +listings. The warrant rank of flight officer in the Air Force, which +was created during the war, has now been abandoned, all the flight +officers then holding warrants either being commissioned second +lieutenants or separated. The naval rank of commodore was likewise +dropped, and brigadier generals of the Army and Air Force now rank +with admirals of the lower half. + +The following are the present corresponding ranks in the Armed +Services: + + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + NAVY | MARINE | ARMY | AIR FORCE | COAST + | CORPS | | | GUARD + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Fleet Admiral| |General of |General of | + | |the Army |the Air | + | | |Force | + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Admiral |General |General |General |Admiral + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Vice Admiral |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |Vice Admiral + |General |General |General | + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Rear Admiral |Major |Major |Major |Rear Admiral + (upper half) |General |General |General |(upper half) + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Rear Admiral |Brigadier |Brigadier |Brigadier |Rear Admiral + (lower half) |General |General |General |(lower half) + and | | | |and + Commodore | | | |Commodore + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Captain |Colonel |Colonel |Colonel |Captain + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Commander |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |Commander + |Colonel |Colonel |Colonel | + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Lieutenant |Major |Major |Major |Lieutenant + Commander | | | |Commander + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Lieutenant |Captain |Captain |Captain |Lieutenant + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Lieutenant |First |First |First |Lieutenant + (Junior |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |(Junior + Grade) | | | |Grade) + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Ensign |Second |Second |Second |Ensign + |Lieutenant |Lieutenant |Lieutenant | + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Commissioned |Commissioned |Chief Warrant|Chief Warrant|Commissioned + Warrant |Warrant |Officer |Officer |Warrant + Officer |Officer | | |Officer + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Midshipman | |Cadet |Cadet |Cadet + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Warrant |Warrant |Warrant |Warrant |Warrant + Officer |Officer |Officer |Officer |Officer + | |Junior Grade |Junior Grade | + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Aviation | | |Aviation | + Cadet | | |Cadet | + -------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + +Officers of all the fighting service, whether regular or reserve, take +precedence among themselves according to their dates of rank. Officers +take command in their respective services in accordance with their +dates of rank in the line, the senior, unless otherwise ordered, +taking command, whether regular or reserve. The command of a task +force or group composed of commands from two or more services devolves +upon the senior commanding officer present in the force or group +unless otherwise designated by the appropriate common senior, acting +for the President. + +The obvious exceptions to this are that officers outside the line +(that is, commissioned in specialized branches or corps) cannot +command line organizations. They may, however, in the Army and Air +Force, command organizations within the structure of their own corps. +Non-rated officers in the Air Force and Navy are not eligible to +command tactical flying units. As a specialized case of command, the +assigned first pilot and airplane commander of any aircraft continues +in command even though a pilot senior in rank may be aboard. + +Retired officers of the Army rank at the foot of active officers of +the same grade; those of the Navy according to date of rank. + +Changing personnel policies have been reflected by frequent revisions +of the scale and grade given noncommissioned leadership. This subject +should therefore be checked against current regulations. But as a +rough guide, the following can be taken as the corresponding +noncommissioned grades and rates in the services: + + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + PAY | NAVY AND | ARMY | AIR | MARINE + GRADE| COAST GUARD | | FORCE | CORPS + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-7 |Chief Petty |Master |Master |Master + |Officer |Sergeant |Sergeant |Sergeant + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-6 |Petty Officer |Sergeant |Technical |Technical + |First Class |First Class |Sergeant |Sergeant + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-5 |Petty Officer |Sergeant |Staff |Staff + |Second Class | |Sergeant |Sergeant + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-4 |Petty Officer |Corporal |Sergeant |Sergeant + |Third Class | | | + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-3 |[A]Airman |Private |Corporal |Corporal + |[A]Constructionman|First Class | | + |[A]Dentalman | | | + |Fireman | | | + |Hospitalman | | | + |Seaman | | | + |Stewardsman | | | + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-2 |Apprentice |Private |Private |Private + | | |First Class |First Class + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + E-1 |Recruit |Recruit |Private |Private + -----+------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + + [A] Does not apply to Coast Guard. + +Enlisted insignia of rank are of cloth, sewn on the sleeve of the +outer garment. Army chevrons are worn on both sleeves with the point +up, and special devices may be incorporated within the chevron to +indicate specialties. Chevrons for combat soldiers are blue on a gold +background, and all others are gold on a blue background. Naval +chevrons are worn point down. Air Force chevrons have no point, but +are a compound reverse curve with the deepest part of the curve worn +down; over this is imposed a star within a circle. Marine Corps +chevrons are worn on both sleeves with the point up and are gold on a +crimson background for the dress blue uniform, green on a red +background for the forest green uniform, green on a khaki background +for the khaki uniform, and for combat uniforms the chevrons are +stenciled on the sleeves in black ink. + +[Illustration: ARMY AND MARINE CORPS] + +[Illustration: NAVY AND COAST GUARD] + +[Illustration: AIR FORCE] + +All military and naval personnel are addressed in official +correspondence by their full titles. Off duty in conversations and in +unofficial correspondence, officers are addressed as follows: + + ARMY, AIR FORCE, MARINE CORPS + + All general officers General + + Colonels and Lt. Colonels Colonel + + Majors Major + + Captains Captain + + Lieutenants Mister or Lieutenant + + Lieutenants in Medical Corps Doctor or Lieutenant + + All Chaplains Chaplain + + Army nurses Nurse + + Cadets + + (Official address) Cadet + + (Unofficial address) Mister + + Warrant Officers Mister + + All sergeants Sergeant + + Corporals Corporal + + Privates and Privates, First Class Private Jones or Jones + When the name is not known, an Army private may be addressed as + "Soldier," and in the Marine Corps the term, "Marine," is proper + in such a case. + + NAVY, COAST GUARD + + All Admirals Admiral + + Commodores Commodore + + Captains Captain + + Commanders Commander + + Lieutenant Commanders, lieutenants, + ensigns and midshipmen Mister + + All Chaplains Chaplain + + All medical officers (to commander) Doctor + +Except when in the presence of troops, senior officers frequently +address juniors as "Smith" or "Jones" but this does not give the +junior the privilege of addressing the senior in any other way than +his proper title. By the same token, officers of the same grade +generally address one another by their first or last names depending +on the degree of intimacy. The courtesy and respect for others which +govern the conduct of gentlemen are expected to prevail at all times. + +Enlisted men are commonly addressed by their last names. Except in +cases where the officer has a blood relationship or a preservice +friendship with an enlisted man, the occasions on which an enlisted +man can properly be called by his first name are extremely rare. +Speaking face to face, it is proper to use either the last name, +alone, or the title of rank, or the last name and any accepted +abbreviation of the title. In calling First Sergeant Brown from among +a group, it would be acceptable to call for "Brown" but better still +"Sergeant Brown." In the Navy, the common practice in addressing Chief +Pharmacists Mate Gale, for instance, would be either "Gale" or +"Chief." On formal occasions, as in calling a senior enlisted man +front and center at a formation, the full military title would be +used: "Chief Bo's'ns Mate Gale and Master Sergeant Brown, front and +center." The longer form of address would also be proper in directing +a third party to report to Master Sergeant White. + +A painstaking observation of the courtesies due to ranks of other +services is more than a sign of good manners; it indicates a +recognition of the interdependence of the services upon one another. +Failure to observe or to recognize the tables of precedence officially +agreed upon among the services is both stupid and rude. Any future war +will see joint operations on a scale never before achieved, and its +success will be dependent in large part upon the cooperation of all +ranks in all services. Likewise, in combined operations, the alert +officer will take it upon himself to learn and respect the insignia, +relative ranks, and customs of his Allies. By exerting himself in the +recognition of other ranks, by exacting adherence to the official +tables of precedence, he contributes not only to his own stature as a +professional soldier, sailor, marine or airman, but adds to the +reputation of his service. + +In the main requirements, military courtesy varies but little from +nation to nation. During service abroad, an American officer will +salute the commissioned officers and pay respects to the anthems and +colors of friendly nations just as to those of his own country. + + + + +CHAPTER SIX + +CUSTOMS AND COURTESIES + + +Mutual respect and courtesy are indispensable elements in military +organization. The junior shows deference to the senior; the senior +shows consideration for him. The salute is the ancient and universal +privilege of fighting men. It is a recognition of a common fellowship +in a proud profession. Saluting is an expression of courtesy, +alertness, and discipline. The senior is as obliged to return it as +the junior is to initiate it. In fact, in the Army particularly, it is +not unusual to see the senior salute first. Interservice salutes +should be exchanged as punctiliously as between members of a single +service, for both services stand to gain or lose by the manner in +which this act is performed. + +The general rules governing saluting are based on common sense, good +manners, and the customs of the times. For instance, soldiers actively +engaged in sports are not required to salute, nor is any man leading a +horse, since the sudden motion so near the horse's head might make it +restive. There will always be occasions when it is inconvenient, +impractical, or illogical to render or require the return of a salute. +The intent of the regulation is not that it embarrass or demean the +individual, but that it serve as a signal of recognition and greeting +between members of the military brotherhood. According to regulations, +in all services, the salute is initiated by the junior, and at any +convenient distance that insures recognition, the least being about +six paces. The form of the salute is the same in the Army, Navy and +Air Force, and it is given either from the position of attention or at +a walk. It is not given indoors except when reporting to another +officer in an official capacity. In the Navy, it is customary for the +junior initiating a salute to combine it with "Good morning, Sir," as +a means of reinforcing its meaning as a greeting. Where this is done +in the other two services, it is usually the result of a local +directive expressing the wish of a particular commander. While it is +expected that the junior will initiate such a greeting, there is no +obligation upon him to do so, nor is there any reason that the senior +may not say it first. + +The Navy and Air Force require that the junior, when engaged in work +that brings him in reasonably frequent contact with the same seniors +during the course of the working day, salute each senior officer the +first time that he is passed during the day, but not subsequently +unless a change in circumstances requires it. In the Air Force an +enlisted mechanic working on the line would salute the engineering +officer and his assistants the first time he recognized them during +the day. If he passed one of the same officers later in the day, for +example in front of the post exchange, he would salute again. The Army +requires that a salute be given and returned each time the junior +passes the senior, unless circumstances dictate that it be temporarily +suspended by common agreement. The Commanding Officer of a naval +vessel is saluted whenever met. + +Salutes are not mandatory on the driver of a vehicle, whether moving +or idling at the curb, for the reason that the operator is presumed to +need both hands for driving. Salutes are not exchanged between moving +vehicles, between moving and halted vehicles, or between persons +walking and persons riding in official cars except when it is obvious +that the passenger is a senior, or when it is required as part of a +ceremony. Official vehicles carrying general officers or flag officers +will be clearly marked outside, and will be saluted. A salute is +exchanged between persons in a parked vehicle and persons walking, +unless the car is a bus or taxi. When two boats pass each other, the +senior officer in each boat salutes without rising. + +Aside from saluting, there are certain other customs that govern +conduct around official vehicles. Since the place of honor is on the +right, the junior not only walks on the left, but rides there as well. +In entering a car, the junior enters first, followed by other members +of the party in inverse order of rank, each seating himself so that +the senior may take position on the right side. In leaving the car, +the senior debarks first. However, if following this general procedure +would necessitate any member of the party climbing over another, or +in any other way cause an awkward situation, the senior may enter +first and alight last. + +The same rules govern for boarding and leaving small boats, except +that the junior rides forward and the senior aft. + +In boarding aircraft with a single hatch, the pilot enters first, +followed by the copilot and other members of the crew. With the crew +in place, other passengers enter according to rank, the senior first; +he takes the seat of his choice if the aircraft is equipped with +seats. In either transport or tactical aircraft, the senior officers +generally ride as far forward as possible. In leaving the aircraft, +the aircrew who handle deplaning normally leave first, followed by +passengers in order of seniority. + +The long association of the Air Force with the Army precludes any +large body of custom and tradition that can be called peculiarly Air +Force in origin or usage. In time undoubtedly a considerable body of +distinctive official and social courtesies will grow, but at present +most of the official and unofficial usages given here for the Army are +understood to be applicable to the Air Force as well, and will be so +treated. + +The hand salute is required on all military installations and in +occupied territories, whether on or off duty; in all official greeting +in the line of duty both on and off the base; for ceremonial +occasions; and in honoring the National Anthem, or color, or +distinguished persons. + +Since most military posts or bases are guarded on a twenty-four hour +basis, the first official contact will be with the guard on the main +gate. He may be a soldier or airman selected by roster and under the +temporary control of the Officer of the Day, a Military Policeman +wearing an MP brassard and under the command of the Provost Marshal, +or a civilian guard either under the Provost or some other special +staff agency of the Post or Base Commander. On the ordinary post or +base, officers of other services will be admitted if wearing uniform, +even when accompanied by civilian dependents. If the stay is of short +duration, a "visitors" tag on the car may be sufficient; in other +cases it may be necessary to secure a temporary pass from the Provost. + +Except for civilian guards, who do not salute, and who will be +readily identified in their police uniforms, the guard, if armed with +a pistol or carbine will give a hand salute. During the hours for +challenging (usually extending from a short time before darkness until +after reveille the next morning) sentries on an Army post may require +any officer to halt, give his rank and name, and advance for +recognition. The challenging sentry stands at "raise pistol" or "port +arms" until the challenged party has been recognized, after which he +simply returns his weapon to the normal carrying position; if armed +with a rifle, he executes "present arms" and holds it until the salute +is returned. + +On any post or base, the adjutant usually acts for the commanding +officer in greeting the visitor and directing him to the various +facilities of the base, although if the visit is to be of short +duration--say, just for the purpose of seeing a friend--it would be +impertinent to bother him. But if the visiting officer is reporting +for temporary duty, or if he will be living in the immediate vicinity +for some time on special detail and desires the use of post +facilities, he is required to report to the adjutant. + +Most posts and bases have not only a bachelor officers quarters, more +popularly known by the abbreviation BOQ, where the visitor may obtain +lodging, but also a Hostess House where the officer may stay with his +dependents. These accommodations are usually under the supervision of +the Billeting Officer, who makes the assignments and charges a nominal +fee for the services provided. Other facilities that the visitor may +use include the Officer's Club and dining room, the Post Exchange +(corresponding to Navy Exchanges), and the post theater. Under certain +conditions the visitor may secure permission from the adjutant or +executive to make purchases at the Commissary, which deals in +foodstuffs and other perishables. + +Special dinners are served to the enlisted men on Christmas, +Thanksgiving, July 4, New Year's Day and sometimes on February 22. The +company commander and lieutenants of the company accompanied by their +wives and families and other guests visit the dining room and kitchen +just before Christmas dinner is served, often remaining for dinner as +guests of the organization. In some companies the soldiers are +permitted to invite their wives and other ladies to dinner. In some +commands, the post commander accompanied by his staff and some of the +ladies of the garrison visit all the dining rooms and kitchens just +previous to dinner hour. + +A newly arrived officer on a post and the adult members of his family +are usually invited to be in the receiving line at the first +regimental function after their arrival. + +If you arrive at a post at which you expect to remain longer than 24 +hours you should check with the post adjutant for rules on calling. +The adjutant will also give the normal calling hours in effect at the +post or station. You are usually expected to call on the post +commander. If assigned to duty there, you would normally call on all +of your intermediate commanders at their offices. These calls should +be made immediately after the call on the post commander. If unable to +wear uniform, an explanation should be made for appearing in civilian +clothes. + +When it is in keeping with local rules, as verified by the adjutant, +you should follow the official visit by a social call on the post and +intermediate commanders at their residence within 72 hours after your +arrival. If the commander is married and his wife is present on the +post, it is customary for you to make the visit accompanied by your +wife. These calls should be formal and ordinarily last no longer than +fifteen minutes. + +You need not make other calls until the officers of the battalion, +regiment or garrison have called on you except that as junior officer +you should make the first call on field officers of your organization. + +It is customary for all officers of a unit or garrison to call upon +the commanding officer on New Year's Day. (Again the commanding +officer's desire in this matter can be asked of his aide or adjutant.) + +The visitor at the average Army and Air Force post will probably see +few ceremonies other than retreat. This ceremony, which closes the +official day, may be accompanied either by appropriate bugle calls, or +by a parade with a military band. In the former case, the music will +sound _To the Color_, and in the latter, the _National Anthem_, while +the flag is being lowered. Retreat is held daily at a fixed time, +usually about 1700 hours. Posts with saluting cannon fire one round at +the designated hour. At the first note of either the _National Anthem_ +or _To the Color_, all dismounted persons face toward the color or +flag and render the prescribed salute from attention; the salute is +held until the last note of the music has been played. In the event +the flag cannot be seen and the location of the flag staff is unknown +to the person saluting, he faces toward the sound of the music. + +At parades and reviews and on other occasions when uncased colors are +carried, all military personnel salute at six paces distance and hold +the salute until the color or standard is the same distance past. When +personal honors are being rendered to general or flag officers at a +review, all military personnel present and not in formation salute +during the ruffles, flourishes, and march. When a cannon salute is +given, personnel in the immediate vicinity conform to the actions of +the person being saluted. No salute is required during the 48 gun +salute to the Nation on the Fourth of July. + +Military personnel also salute during the passing of a caisson or +hearse in a military funeral. If attending the services at the grave +side either as mourners or as honorary pallbearers, they stand at +attention with the head-dress over the left breast at any time the +casket is being moved, and during the service at the grave, including +the firing of the volleys and the sounding of _Taps_. In cold or +inclement weather, the head-dress is left on and the hand salute is +rendered during the movement of the casket, the firing of the volleys, +and the sound of _Taps_. + +On ships having 180 or more men of the seaman branch, the side is +attended by side boys for visiting officers of our Armed Services, +except in civilian clothes, and for officers of the Foreign Service +when they come on board and depart. This courtesy is also extended to +commissioned officers of the armed services of foreign nations. +Officers of the rank of lieutenant to major inclusive are given two +side boys, from lieutenant colonel to colonel four side boys, from +brigadier to major general six side boys, and lieutenant general and +above eight side boys. Full guard and band are given to general +officers, and for a colonel the guard of the day but no music. + +During the hours of darkness or low visibility an approaching boat is +usually hailed "Boat ahoy?" which corresponds to the sentry's +challenge, "Who goes there?" Some of the answers are as follows: + + ANSWER MEANING: Senior in boat is: + + "Aye aye" Commissioned officer + + "No no" Warrant officer + + "Hello" Enlisted man + + "Enterprise" CO of U.S.S. Enterprise + + "Third Fleet" Admiral commanding Third Fleet + +Similarly if the CO of the 13th Infantry is embarked or the CO of +Fortress Monroe, the answers would be "13th Infantry" or "Fort +Monroe." + +On arrival, at the order, "Tend the side" the side boys fall in fore +and aft of the approach to the gangway, facing each other. The +boatswain's mate-of-the-watch takes station forward of them and faces +aft. When the boat comes alongside the boatswain's mate pipes, and +again when the visiting officer's head reaches the level of the deck. +At this moment the side boys salute. + +On departure, the ceremony is repeated in reverse, the bo's'ns mate +begins to pipe and the side boys salute as soon as the departing +officer steps toward the gangway between the side boys. As the boat +casts off the bo's'ns mate pipes again. (Shore boats and automobiles +are not piped.) + +You uncover when entering a space where men are at mess and in Sick +Bay (Quarters) if sick men are present. You uncover in the wardroom at +all times if you are junior. All hands except when under arms uncover +in the captain's cabin and country. + +You should not overtake a senior except in emergency. In the latter +case slow, salute, and say, "By your leave, sir." + +Admirals and captains when in uniform fly colors astern when embarked +in boats. When on official visits they also display their personal +flags (pennants for commanding officers) in the bow. Flag officers' +barges are distinguished by the appropriate number of stars on each +side of the barge's hull. Captains' gigs are distinguished by the name +or abbreviation of their ships surcharged by an arrow. + +Where gangways are rigged on both sides, the starboard gangway is +reserved for officers and the port for enlisted men. Stress of weather +or expedience (in the discretion of the officer of the deck or OOD) +may make either gangway available to both officers and men. + +Seniors come on board ship first. When reaching the deck you face +toward the colors (or aft if no colors are hoisted) and salute the +colors (quarterdeck). Immediately thereafter you salute the OOD and +request permission to come on board. The usual form is, "Request +permission to come aboard, sir." The OOD is required to return both +salutes. + +On leaving the ship the inverse order is observed. You salute the OOD +and request permission to leave the ship. The OOD will indicate when +the boat is ready (if a boat is used). Each person, juniors first, +salutes the OOD; then faces toward the colors, salutes and embarks. + +The OOD on board ship represents the captain and as such has +unquestioned authority. Only the executive and commanding officer may +order him relieved. The authority of the OOD extends to the +accommodation ladders or gangways. He is perfectly within his rights +to order any approaching boat to "lay off" and keep clear until in his +judgment he can receive her alongside. + +The OOD normally conveys orders to the embarked troops via the Troop +Commander but in emergencies he may issue orders direct to you or any +person on board. + +The _bridge_ is the "Command Post" of the ship when underway, as the +quarterdeck is at anchor. The officer-of-the-deck is in charge of the +ship as the representative of the captain. Admittance to the bridge +when underway should be at the captain's invitation or with his +permission. You may usually obtain permission through the executive +officer. + +The _quarterdeck_ is the seat of authority; as such it is respected. +The starboard side of the quarterdeck is reserved for the captain (and +admiral, if a flagship). No person trespasses upon it except when +necessary in the course of work or official business. All persons +salute the quarterdeck when entering upon it. When pacing the deck +with another officer the place of honor is outboard, and when +reversing direction each turns towards the other. The port side of the +quarterdeck is reserved for commissioned officers, and the crew has +all the rest of the weather decks of the ship. However, every part of +the deck (and the ship) is assigned to a particular division so that +the crew has ample space. Not unnaturally every division considers it +has a prior though unwritten right to its own part of the ship. For +gatherings such as smokers and movies, all divisions have equal +privileges at the scene of assemblage. Space and chairs are reserved +for officers and for CPO's, where available, and mess benches are +brought up for the men. The seniors have the place of honor. When the +captain (and admiral) arrive those present are called to attention. +The captain customarily gives "carry on" at once through the executive +officer or master-at-arms who accompanies him to his seat. + +If you take passage on board a naval vessel you will be assigned to +one of several messes on board ship, the wardroom or junior officer's +mess. In off-hours, particularly in the evenings, you can foregather +there for cards, yarns or reading. Generally a percolator is available +with hot coffee. + +The Executive Officer is ex officio the president of the wardroom +mess. The wardroom officers are the division officers and the heads of +departments. All officers await the arrival of the Executive Officer +before being seated at lunch and dinner. If it is necessary for you to +leave early, ask the head at your table for permission to be excused +as you would at home. The seating arrangement in the messes is by +order of seniority. + +Naval Officers are required to pay their mess bills in advance. The +mess treasurer takes care of the receipts and expenditures and the +management of the mess. The mess chooses him by election every month. +When assigned to a mess you are an honorary member. Consult the mess +treasurer as to when he will receive payment for mess bills. Your +meals are served by stewards who in addition, clean your room, make up +your bunk, shine your shoes. This is their regular work for which they +draw the pay of their rating. They are not tipped. + +The Cigar Mess is the successor of the old Wine Mess. You may make +purchases from this mess, for example, of cigarettes, cigars, pipe +tobacco and candies. The cigar mess treasurer will make out your bill +at the end of the month or before your detachment. Before you are +detached be sure that the mess treasurer and the cigar mess treasurer +have sufficient warning to make out your bills before you leave. Once +a ship has sailed, long delays usually occur before your remittances +can overtake it. The unpaid mess bill on board is a more serious +breach of propriety than the unpaid club bill ashore because of the +greater inconvenience and delay in settlement. + +Passenger officers should call on the captain of the ship. If there +are many, they should choose a calling committee and consult the +executive officer as to a convenient time to call. The latter will +make arrangements with the captain. + +Gun salutes in the Navy are the same as in the Army, except that flag +officers below the rank of fleet admiral or general of the Army are, +by Navy regulations, given a gun salute upon departure only. By Army +regulations gun salutes for the same officers are fired only on +arrival. + +The rules governing saluting, whether saluting other individuals or +paying honor to the color or National Anthem, are the same for the Air +Force as in the Army, with the minor exceptions already noted. Because +a most frequent contact between the Air Force and the other services +comes of the operations of air transport, an officer should know what +is expected of him when he travels as a passenger in military +aircraft. + +It is assumed that the majority of officers visiting an Air Force base +will arrive by air at the local military airfield. In addition to the +Base Operations Officer, who is the commander's staff officer with +jurisdiction over air traffic arriving and departing, the Airdrome +Officer is charged with meeting all transient aircraft, determining +their transportation requirements, and directing them to the various +base facilities. General officers and admirals will usually be met by +the Base Commander if practicable. RON (Remaining Over Night) messages +may be transmitted through Base Operations at the same time the +arrival notice is filed. + +Pilots of transient aircraft carrying classified equipment are +responsible for the safeguarding of that equipment unless it can be +removed from the aircraft and stored in an adequately guarded area. +Under unusual circumstances, it may be possible to arrange for a +special airplane guard with the base commander. + +Passengers from other services, who desire to remain overnight at an +air force station should make the necessary arrangements with the +Airdrome Officer, and not attach themselves to the pilot who will be +busy with his own responsibilities. By the same token, passengers of +other services who have had a special flight arranged for them should +make every effort to see that the pilot and crew are offered the same +accommodations that they themselves are using, unless the particular +base has adequate transient accommodations. + +Passenger vehicles are never allowed on the ramp or flight line unless +special arrangements have been made with the Base Operations Officer; +this permission will be granted only under the most unusual +circumstances. + +The assigned first pilot, or the airplane commander, is the final +authority on the operation of any military aircraft. Passengers, +regardless of rank, seniority, or service, are subject to the orders +of the airplane commander, who is held responsible for their adherence +to regulations governing conduct in and around the aircraft. In the +event it is impractical for the airplane commander to leave his +position, orders may be transmitted through the copilot, engineer, or +flight clerk, and have the same authority as if given by the pilot +himself. + +The order of boarding and alighting from military aircraft--excluding +the crew--will vary somewhat with the nature of the mission. If a +special flight is arranged for the transportation of Very Important +Persons, official inspecting parties, or other high ranking officers +of any service, the senior member will enter first and take the seat +of his choice, unless the aircraft is compartmented otherwise. Other +members of the party will enter in order of rank, and precedence among +officers of the same rank will be determined among the officers +themselves. In alighting from the aircraft, the senior member will +exit first, and the other members of the party will follow either in +order of rank, or in order of seating, those nearest the hatch +alighting first. The duties of the crew preclude their acting as +arbiters in matters of precedence, and order of boarding and alighting +will be decided among the members of the party. + +In routine flights, officers will normally be loaded in order of rank +without regard for precedence, except that any VIP will be on- and +off-loaded first; in alighting, officers will leave as they are seated +from the exit forward--officers seated near the hatch will debark +first, and so on to those who are seated farthest forward. In the +event civilian dependents are being carried, or an enlisted man +accompanied by dependents, they will be loaded after any VIP and +before the officers, and leave in the same sequence. + +Aircraft carrying general or flag officers will usually be marked with +a detachable metal plate carrying stars appropriate to the highest +rank aboard, and will be greeted on arrival by the Air Force Base +Commander, if the destination is an Air Force base. Other aircraft are +usually met by the Airdrome Officer, who is appointed for one day +only, and acts as the Base Commander's representative. + +Other personnel on active duty, seeking transportation on navigation +or training missions, should realize that the flight is at the pilot's +convenience. While the pilot will usually agree to any reasonable +request, he can not deviate from his approved flight plan simply to +accommodate a passenger. By the same token, passengers should be +prompt, observe all pertinent safety regulations, and remain in the +passengers compartment of the aircraft unless specifically invited to +the flight deck or pilot's compartment. Under instrument +conditions--so-called "blind" flying--continuous movement of the +passengers of the aircraft makes unnecessary work for the pilot in +maintaining balance, trim, and his assigned altitude. Passengers who +are abnormally active while in the air are sometimes called--with +exasperation--"waltzing mice." + +Since flights are somewhat dependent on weather, especially when +carrying passengers, the decision of the pilot to fly or not to fly, +or to alter his flight plan enroute will not be questioned by the +passengers of whatever rank or service. Regulations governing the use +of safety belts; wearing of parachutes; smoking during take-off, +landing, fuel transfer, or in the vicinity of the aircraft on the +ground are binding on all classes of passengers. + +When airplanes participate in the funeral of an aviator, it is +customary to fly in a normal tactical formation, less one aircraft, to +indicate the vacancy formerly occupied by the deceased. The flight +should be so timed that it appears over the procession while the +remains are being carried to the grave. Care should be exercised that +the noise of the flight does not drown out the service at the edge of +the grave. + +Other ceremonies, including Retreat and reviews, are the same for the +Air Force as for the Army. + +By custom; and because it is the natural way of an American, the +officers of the host service accord more than their average +hospitality to the individual from any other service who may be +visiting or doing duty among them. Even the young officer, having this +experience for the first time, and in consequence feeling a little +strange about it, is not permitted to feel that way long. He quickly +finds a second home, provided there is that in his nature which +responds to friendship. + +These amenities, carefully observed at all levels, contribute more +directly to a spiritual uniting of American fighting forces than all +of the policies which have been promulgated toward the serving of that +object. + + + + +CHAPTER SEVEN + +KEEPING YOUR HOUSE IN ORDER + + +In one of Lord Chesterfield's letters to his son there is to be found +this bit of wisdom: "Dispatch is the soul of business and nothing +contributes more to dispatch than method. Fix one certain hour and day +in the week for your accounts, keep them together in their proper +order, and you can never be much cheated." + +Although that is good advice in any man's league, there is just a +little more reason why the military officer should adopt a system of +accounting whereby he can keep his record straight, his affairs +solvent and his situation mobile than if he had remained in civil +life. + +He rarely, if ever, becomes permanently fixed in one location or +remains tied to one group of individuals who know his credit, his +ability, his past accomplishments and his general reputation. In the +nature of his work, these things have to be reestablished from point +to point, and if he personally does not take pains to conserve them, +he can be certain only that no one else ever will. + +On the whole, the attitude of the services toward the private affairs +and nonduty conduct of their officers can be best set forth by once +again employing Chesterfield's phrases: "If you have the knowledge, +the honor, and probity which you may have, the marks and warmth of my +affection will amply reward you; but if you have them not, my aversion +and indignation will rise in the same proportion." + +Reassignment to a distant station is of course a day-to-day +possibility in the life of any military officer. Far from this being a +general hardship, it is because the pattern of work and environment +changes frequently, and the opportunity to build new friendships is +almost endless, that the best men are attracted to the services. To +vegetate in one spot is killing to the spirit of the individual who is +truly fitted to play a lead part in bold enterprises, and for that +reason there is something very unseemly and unmilitary about the +officer who resists movement. + +On the other hand, a move order is like a club over the head to the +officer who hasn't kept his own deck clean, has made no clear +accounting of himself and is out of funds and harassed by his +creditors. + +Concerning the evils of running into debt, there is hardly need for a +sermon to any American male who has brains enough to memorize his +general orders. As Mr. Micawber put it to David Copperfield, "The +blossom is blighted, the leaf is withered, the god of days goes down +upon the dreary scene, and--and in short, you are forever floored." +The over-extension of credit is a not unknown American failing. It is +now the nigh universal custom to overload the home with every kind of +gadget, usually bought on time, and nearly all intended to provide the +householder with every possible excuse for resisting human toil or for +declining to use any personal ingenuity in making life interesting for +his family. It is all good enough for those who must have it, but it +is well for an officer to remember that the greater the accumulation, +the less his chance of accommodating his personal establishment to the +requirements of the service. All moves are costly, even though the +government pays most of the freight. + +For these and many other reasons, the habit of systematic saving is an +essential form of career insurance. The officer who will not deprive +himself of a few luxuries to build up a financial reserve is as +reckless of his professional future as the one who in battle commits +his manpower reserve to front-line action without first weighing his +situation. + +In the old days, keeping up with the Joneses was almost a part of +service tradition. If the colonel's lady owned a bob-tailed nag, the +major's wife could be satisfied with nothing less than a bay. And so +on and on. Things are no longer that way. They have become much more +sensible. + +There is one other kind of credit--the professional credit which an +officer is entitled to keep with his own establishment. Junior +officers are entitled to know that which their superiors are often +too forgetful to tell them--that if they have made some especially +distinct and worthy contribution to the service, it belongs in the +permanent record. If, for example, an officer has written part of a +manual, or sat on a major board or committee or provided the idea +which has resulted in an improvement of materiel, the fact should be +noted in the 201 file, or its equivalent. Such things are not done +automatically, as many an officer has learned too late and to his +sorrow. But any officer is within propriety in asking this +acknowledgment from his responsible superior. + +The legal assistance office in an officer's immediate organization +will usually suffice his needs in the drawing of all papers essential +to his personal housekeeping. + +To make a will is merely good business practice, and to neglect it +simply because one's holdings are small is to postpone forming the +habits which mark a responsible person. Because of superstition and a +reluctance to think about death, about three out of every four +Americans die intestate. That is about as foolish as leading men into +battle without designating a second in command. The Armed Services +counsel all officers to take the more responsible view, and make it +easy for their officers to do this duty without cost. + +A power of attorney enables one person to take certain legal steps for +another in his absence, and execute papers which would usually require +his signature. When an officer is going on an extended tour overseas, +his interests are apt to be left dangling unless he leaves such a +power with his wife, mother, best friend or some other person, thereby +avoiding loss of money and excess worry. + +Any citizen may draw up a will in his own handwriting, and if it is +properly attested, it will have some standing in court. Likewise, a +power of attorney can be executed on a blank form. But it is foolish +for a military officer to do these things halfway when the legal +offices of the service are available to him, not only for performing +the work, but for counseling him as to its effect. + +There is one other step that the responsible man takes on his own. It +is not likely that his wife or any other person knows at any one time +the whole story of his interests, obligations and holdings, as to +where goods may be stored, savings kept, insurance policies filed, +what debts are owed and what accounts are receivable. In the event of +his sudden death, next of kin would be at a loss to know whom and +where to call to get the estate settled smoothly, and with all things +accurately inventoried. So it is a practical idea to keep an +up-to-date check list in ledger form, but containing all pertinent +information whereby things may be made readily accessible. If for some +private reason, it is preferred not to leave this with next of kin, it +can be kept in a top drawer at the office, where it could scarcely +escape attention. + +A current inventory of household goods is also a safety and +time-saving precaution. As changes occur, the list can be corrected +and kept fresh. Then in case of a sudden move, there is almost nothing +to be done in preparation for the movers, and in the event of loss +anywhere along the line, one's own tables will provide a basis for +recovery. Goods are not infrequently mislaid, lost, or damaged when +shipped or warehoused, and the more authentic the description of the +goods in question, the better the chances for the claim. + +For any officer with dependents, insurance is of course a necessity. +How much it should be, and what its form, are matters for his judgment +and conscience, and according to his circumstances. The services do +not try to tell a man how he should provide for his family. Men of +honor need no such reminder, though they may be bothered by the +question: "How much can I afford?" On that point, sufficient to say +that it is _not_ more blessed to be insolvent and worried about debts +from being overloaded with insurance than for any other reason. Many +retired officers supplement their pay by selling insurance. When a +young service officer wants insurance counsel, he will find that they +are disposed to deal sympathetically with his problem. + +A few recurrent expenses, such as insurance premiums and bond +purchases, can be met with allotments through the Finance or +Disbursing Officer. The forms for the starting of an allotment are +quite simple. When an officer is going overseas, if his dependents are +not to follow immediately, an allotment is the best way to insure +that they will get their income regularly. Overseas expenses are +usually quite light, which means that the allotment may safely be made +in larger amount than half the monthly pay. Under certain +circumstances, it may also be arranged for allotments to be made to +banks, as a form of steady saving. + +Adverting for a moment to the question of what happens to a service +officer when he becomes ridden by debt and plagued by his creditors, +it is a fair statement that the generality of higher commanders are +not unsympathetic, that they know that shrewdness and thrift are quite +often the product of a broadened experience, and that their natural +disposition is to temper the wind to the shorn lamb, if there are +signs that he is making a reasonable effort to recover. When it +becomes clear that he is taking the service for a ride and cares +nothing for the good name of the officer corps, they'll send him +packing. A man harassed by debt, and not knowing how to meet his +situation, is always well-advised to go to his commander, make a clean +statement of the case, and ask for his counsel. + +Every officer should be absolutely scrupulous about keeping a +complete, chronologically arranged file of all official papers having +anything to do with his status, movements, duties, or possessions. +That may seem burdensome, but it is well worth doing, since one never +knows when an old paper will become germane to a current question or +undertaking. + +Likewise, receipts are necessary whenever one spends money on anything +(for instance, travel) on which reimbursement is expected from the +Government. Regulations are clear on this point--the Government simply +will not give the individual the benefit of the doubt. No receipt; no +check from the Treasury. + +The military society is a little more tightly closed than a civilian +society, particularly in posts, camps and stations. For that reason +the pressure from the distaff side is usually a little heavier. Wives +get together more frequently, know one another better, and take a more +direct interest in their husbands' careers than is common elsewhere. +That has its advantages, but also its headaches. There is an +occasional officer who is so immature in his judgments as to permit +his wife's feelings about a colleague or a colleague's wife to +supervene in the affairs of organization. This is one way to ask for +trouble. + +Gossip is to be avoided because it is vicious, self-destructive, +unmanly, unmilitary and, most of the time, untrue. The obligation of +each officer toward his fellow officer is to build him up, which +implies the use of moral pressure against whatsoever influence would +pull him down. While the love of scandal is universal, and the +services can not hope to rid themselves altogether of the average +human failings, it is possible for any man to guard his own tongue +and, by the example of moderation, serve to keep all such discussion +temperate. Were all officers to make a conscious striving in this +direction, the credit of the corps as a whole, and the satisfactions +of each of its members in his service, would be tremendously +increased. Besides, there is another point: gossip is the mark of the +man insufficiently occupied with serious thought about his personal +responsibilities. His carelessness about the destruction of the +character of others is incidental to his indifference to those things +which make for character in self. + +As for the rest of it, we can turn back to Chesterfield, with whom we +started. For how might any man state it more neatly than with these +words: + +"Were I to begin the world again with the experience which I now have +of it, I would lead a life of real, not of imaginary pleasure. I would +enjoy the pleasures of the table and of wine, but stop short of the +pains inseparably annexed to an excess of either. + +"I should let other people do as they would without formally and +sententiously rebuking them for it. But I would be most firmly +resolved not to destroy my own faculties and constitution in +complaisance to those who have no regard for their own. + +"I would play to give me pleasure, but not to give me pain. That is, I +would play for trifles in mixed companies, to amuse myself and conform +to custom. But I would take care not to venture for sums which if I +won I would not be the better for, but if I lost, should be under a +difficulty to pay." + + + + +CHAPTER EIGHT + +GETTING ALONG WITH PEOPLE + + +The main answer can be stated almost as simply as doing right-face. +Hear this: + +If you like people, if you seek contact with them rather than hiding +yourself in a corner, if you study your fellow men sympathetically, if +you try consistently to contribute something to their success and +happiness, if you are reasonably generous with your thoughts and your +time, if you have a partial reserve with everyone but a seeming +reserve with no one, if you work to be interesting rather than spend +to be a good fellow, you will get along with your superiors, your +subordinates, your orderly, your roommate and the human race. + +It is easy enough to chart a course for the individual who is wise +enough to make human relationships his main concern. But getting the +knack of it is sufficiently more difficult that it is safe to say more +talk has been devoted to this subject than to any other topic of +conversation since Noah quit the Ark. From Confucius down to Emily +Post, greater and lesser minds have worked at gentling the human race. +By the scores of thousands, precepts and platitudes have been written +for the guidance of personal conduct. The odd part of it is that +despite all of this labor, most of the frictions in modern society +arise from the individual's feeling of inferiority, his false pride, +his vanity, his unwillingness to yield space to any other man, and his +consequent urge to throw his own weight around. Goethe said that the +quality which best enables a man to renew his own life, in his +relation to others, is that he will become capable of renouncing +particular things at the right moment in order warmly to embrace +something new in the next. + +That is earthy advice for any member of the officer corps. For who is +regarded as the strong man in the service--the individual who fights +with tooth and nail to hold to a particular post or privilege? Not at +all! Full respect is given only to him who at all times is willing to +yield his space to a worthy successor, because of an ingrained +confidence that he can succeed as greatly in some other sphere. + +For a fresh start in this study of getting along with people, we could +not do better than quote what was published some time ago in the +United States Coast Guard Magazine. Under the title "_Thirteen +Mistakes_," the coast guardsmen raised their warning flares above the +13 pitfalls. It is a mistake: + + 1. To attempt to set up your own standard of right and wrong. + + 2. To try to measure the enjoyment of others by your own. + + 3. To expect uniformity of opinions in the world. + + 4. To fail to make allowance for inexperience. + + 5. To endeavor to mold all dispositions alike. + + 6. Not to yield on unimportant trifles. + + 7. To look for perfection in our own actions. + + 8. To worry ourselves and others about what can't be remedied. + + 9. Not to help everybody wherever, however, whenever we can. + + 10. To consider impossible what we cannot ourselves perform. + + 11. To believe only what our finite minds can grasp. + + 12. Not to make allowances for the weakness of others. + + 13. To estimate by some outside quality, when it is that within + which makes the man. + +The unobserving officer will no doubt dismiss this list as just so +many cliches. The reflective man will accept it as a negative guide to +positive conduct, for it engages practically every principle which is +vital to the growth of a strong spiritual life in relation to one's +fellow men. + +Certain of these points stand out as prominently as pips on a radar +screen to the military officer bent on keeping his own ship out of +trouble. The morals contained in 4, 5, 12, and 13 all come to bear in +the story told by Sgt. Fred Miller about Pvt. Fred Lang of Hospital +No. 1 on Bataan. Miller had tried to do what he could for Lang, but no +one else in the detachment was willing to give him a break. He was an +unlettered hillbilly and, being ashamed of his own ignorance, he was +shy toward other men. The rest of the story is best told in Miller's +words. + +"When the Japs made their first bombing run on Marivales, most of us, +being new at war, huddled together under such cover as we could find. +Some people were hit outside. We stayed where we were. But we looked +out and saw Lang. He was trying to handle a stretcher by himself, +dragging one end along the ground in an effort to bring in the +wounded. I remember one member of our group remarking, 'Look at old +Lang trying to do litter drill right in the middle of a war.' Lang was +killed by an enemy bomb that night. I guess he had to die to make us +understand that he was the best man." + +There is hardly an American who has been in combat but can tell some +other version of this same story, changing only the names and the +surroundings. All too frequently it happens in the services--we look +at a man, and because at a casual inspection we do not like the cut of +his jib, or the manner of his response, or are over-persuaded by what +someone else has said about him, we reach a permanent conclusion about +his possibilities, and either mentally write him off, or impair our +own capacity for giving him help. + +It suffices to say that when any officer has the inexcusable fault +that he takes snap judgment on his _own_ men, he will not be any +different in his relations with all other people, and will stand in +his own light for the duration of his career. Which leads to one other +observation. When any man, bearing a bad efficiency report, comes to a +new organization, it is a fact to be noted with mild interest, but +_without any prejudice whatever_. Every new assignment means a clean +slate, and there should be no hangover from what has happened, +including the possible mistaken judgments of others. The system was +never intended to give a dog a bad name. To be perpetually supervised, +questioned and shadowed is to be doubted, and doubt destroys +confidence and creates fear, slyness and discontent in the other +individual. Every man is entitled to a fresh hold on security with his +new superior. Any wise and experienced senior commander will tell you +this, and will cite examples of men who came to him with a spotty +record, who started nervously, began to pick up after realizing that +they were not going to get another kick, and went on to become +altogether superior. For any right-minded commander, it is far more +gratifying to be able to salvage human material than to take over an +organization that is sound from bottom to top. + +However, the truth in point 9 applies universally. The studied effort +to be helpful in all of our relations with our fellow men, and to give +help not grudgingly, but cheerfully, courteously and in greater +measure than is expected, is the high road to wide influence and +personal strength of character. More than all else, it is the little +kindnesses in life which bind men together and help each wayfarer to +start the day right. These tokens are like bread cast upon the water; +they ultimately nourish the giver more than the direct beneficiary. +One of our best-known corps commanders in the Pacific War made it a +rule that if any man serving under him, or any man he knew in the +service, however unimportant, was promoted or given any other +recognition, he would write a letter to the man's wife or mother, +saying how proud he felt. He was not a great tactician or strategist +but, because of the little things he did, men loved him and would ride +to hell for him, and their collective moral strength became the +bastion of his professional success. + +Of Maj. Gen. Henry T. Allen, who commanded our first Army of +Occupation in Germany, a distinguished contemporary once said: "It +surprised us that Allen did so well; in the old Army we regarded him +as a swashbuckler." Maybe that was because he was a cavalryman and +liked to strut, and he liked to see chestiness in his own people, +right down to the last file. But General Allen was infinitely +considerate of the dignity of all other men, and he disciplined +himself to further their growth and give them some mark of his +thoughtful regard so far as lay within his power. It was because of +his rich understanding humanity, and not through any genial slackness, +that he kept a tight hold on discipline. To the units he commanded he +gave his own tone. He warmed men instead of chilling them with fear. +Thousands returned to civil life better equipped for the passage +because of what they had seen him do and heard him say. + +So we can link points 1, 6, 7, and 8 from the Coast Guard's list into +one binding truth not less essential to sound officership than to +action anywhere which seeks the cooperation and goodwill of men: _It +is not more blessed to be right than to be loved_, Henry Clay's remark +that he would rather be right than president notwithstanding. The +absolute perfectionist is the most tiresome of men, and a waster of +time and of nerves. The stickler, the fly-speckler, the bully and the +sadist serve only to encumber those parts of the establishment which +they touch; their subordinates spend part of their own strength +clearing away the wreckage which these misfits make. + +Other than these comments, it is not necessary to say a great deal +about the _inner qualities_ which give an officer a free-wheeling +adjustment with other persons in all walks of life. Once again, +however, it might be well to speak of the importance of enthusiasm, +kindness, courtesy, and justice, which are the safeguards of honor and +the tokens of mutual respect between man and man. This last there must +be if men are to go forward together, prosper in one another's +company, find strength in the bonds of mutual service, and experience +a common felicity in the relationship between the leader and the led. + +But it is sadly the case that the reputation of any man, as to what he +is inside, forms in large measure from what others see of him from the +outside. That is what makes poignant the story of Pvt. Fred Lang; like +a singed cat, he was better than he looked. In the military service, +more than elsewhere in life, manner weighs heavily in the balance, if +only for the reason that from the public point of view, the military +officer is supposed to look the part. He is expected to be the +embodiment of character, given to forthright but amiable speech, +capable of expressing his ideas and purpose clearly, careful of +customs and good usage, and carrying himself with poise and assurance. +For if he does not have the aura of vitality, confidence and +reflection which is expected in a leader of men, it will be suspected +that he is incapable of playing the part. However unfairly +discriminating that judgment may seem to be, in comparison with the +attitude toward other professions, it has a perfectly logical basis. +The people are willing to forgive preoccupation in all others, since +how an engineer dresses has no relation to his skill as a +mathematician, and when a doctor mumbles it doesn't suggest that he +would be clumsy with a scalpel. But when they meet an uncivil or +unkempt officer, or see an untidy soldier or bluejacket on the street, +they worry that the national defense is going to pot. One reason for +the great prestige of the Marine Corps is that the public seldom, if +ever, sees a sloppy marine, though its members do sometimes look a +little gruesome on the field of battle. + +The officer corps does have its share of "characters." Some are men +born in an uncommon mold, with a great deal of natural phlegm in their +systems, a gift for salty speech and a tendency to drawl their words +as if their thoughts were being raised from a deep well. Usually, they +are men of extraordinary power, and are worth any dozen of that +individual who scuttles about like a water bug, making an exhibition +of great energy but, like the whirling dervish, keeping in such +constant motion that he has no chance to observe what goes on under +his nose. Here, as in all things, it is steadiness that does it. The +blunt soldier, the old sea-dog type of naval officer, is endurable and +even lovable in the eyes of most other people, when he has done his +scrapping with fire rather than firewater, when his personal +credentials are sound, and when his outward manner is bluff in both +meanings of the word. But the fakers who affect the crusty manner, the +glaring eye and the jutting jaw, simply because they are wearing +military suits and think mistakenly that these things are in the +tradition, will be recognized as counterfeit as quickly as a lead +quarter. + +There is nothing else that serves as well as the natural manner, with +some polishing of the surfaces here and there, and a general +tightening at the corners. + +While a partial check list is not likely to reform the establishment +overnight, if kept simple enough, it may afford help to an occasional +individual, instead of giving him the fear that he is falling apart at +the seams. + +The smartest physical culturists are swinging around to the idea that +correct posture alone is the great secret of physical fitness, that if +a man sits well, stands erect and walks correctly all the time, he is +doing more for his health and longevity than all of the setting-up +exercises and sweat baths yet devised. At the same time he is making a +favorable impression on all who see him. Clumsy one-sided postures, +fidgeting on a chair, slouching while sitting or standing, moving +along at a shambling gait and speaking with the chin down on the chest +produce quite the opposite effect. Right or wrong, they are taken as a +sign of indolence, fatigue, or inattention. There is always an hour +for complete physical relaxation, for stretching and letting the +muscles melt; Winston Churchill attributed a large part of his vigor +and recuperative powers to the habit of taking a 30-minute cat nap in +midday. That is a smart trick if one can master it. But trying most of +all for _physical ease_ when in conversation, or at conference, or in +attending to any matter wherein one comes under the surveillance of +those whose good opinion is worth cultivating is as certain a handicap +as putting excess weight on an otherwise good horse. + +In the services, as in any situation in life in which deference to +higher opinion is compelled by the nature of an undertaking, the young +will do well to consider the wisdom of the precept, "Be patient with +your betters." + +It is lamentably bad judgment to act by any other rules. Where +differences of opinion exist, time and forbearance not infrequently +will work the desired change, where stubbornness or rudeness would +utterly fail. More than that, a junior owes this much consideration to +any senior whose heart is in the right place. It is bad manners, but +even worse from the standpoint of tactics, to attempt publicly to +score a victory over a senior in any dispute, or to attempt by wit to +gain the upperhand of him in the presence of others. Though the point +may be gained for the moment, it is usually at the cost of one's +personal hold on the confidence of the senior. + +But there is also the other side of the case, that the superior should +deal considerately with any earnest proposal from his subordinate, +rather than dashing cold water in his face, just because he has not +thought his proposition through. One of the best-loved editors of the +United States, Grove Patterson, of Toledo, Ohio, was remembered by +every young journalist who ever came under him because of the care +with which he supported every man's pride. A youngster would go in to +him, filled with enthusiasm for some idea, which he himself had not +bothered to view in the round. Patterson would listen carefully, and +would then say: "That's a corking idea. Take it and work it out +carefully, going over every aspect of it. Then bring it back to me." +On second thought, the youngster would begin having his own doubts, +and would shortly begin hoping that the chief would forget all about +the subject, which he invariably did. Many celebrated commanders in +our military services have won the lasting affection of their +subordinates by employing exactly this method. + +Men like the direct glance. They feel flattered by it, particularly +when they are talking, and in conversation they like to be heard +through, not interrupted in mid-passage. That is true whatever their +station. Nobody likes to be bored, but fully half of boredom comes +from lack of the habit of careful listening. The man who will not +listen never develops wits enough to distinguish between a bore and a +sage and therefore cannot pick the best company. The vacant stare, the +drifting of eyes from the speaker to a window, or a picture or a +passing blonde, though greatly tempting in the midst of long +discourse, are taken only as signs of inattention. Many a young +officer called to the carpet for some trivial business has managed to +square himself with his commander just by looking straight and talking +straight in the few moments that decided his future. + +Elsewhere in the book, a great deal has been said about the importance +of the voice and of developing one's powers of conversation. Not a +great deal more needs to be added here. But there is no excuse for the +officer who talks so that others must strain to hear what he is +saying--unless he is suffering from laryngitis. It is simple enough +to keep the chin up and let the words roll out. Many persons have the +bad habit of letting the voice drop at the end of a sentence; the +effect on the other party is like watching a man run away from a +fight. For clear understanding, and to create a good impression, there +should be a cheerful lift upward at the end of a sentence. + +Also, officers who look at lecturing simply as part of the routine +tend to fall into either the singsong rhythm which one frequently +hears in college professors and certain radio announcers, or go all +out for the sonorous intonations which are beloved by many of the +clergy. Many young officers get into these same cadences whenever they +talk to men, and before they know it, they are trying the same thing +in the family circle. They sound like alarm clocks running down, but +instead of arousing the house, they are an invitation to slumber. +Either on the lecture platform, or in man-to-man conversation, there +is no valid reason why it is ever necessary to take the tone which +suggests that the talk is one-sided. Words can be crisply uttered and +still be personally directed, but not if the speaker is looking at the +floor, the moon or the rafters. To discuss a question amicably is the +best way to gain clear insight into it; when a man argues violently, +his purpose usually is not to serve wisdom but to prevail despite his +lack of it, thus stultifying both himself and his adversary. + +Clothes are important. They have to be. One can't go very far without +them, north of the Equator. But a fresh press counts more than a new +suit by a Fifth Avenue tailor left unpressed, and neatness beats +lavishness any day in the week. + +Carefulness in the little things counts much. Men develop an aversion +to the individual who cannot remember their names, their titles or +their stations, but they will warm to the person who remembers, and +they will overlook most of his other shortcomings. Likewise, they are +won by any words of appreciation or of interest in what they are +doing. Get a man talking about his business, his golf game or his +family, and you are on the inside track toward his friendship. As for +senior commanders, when the hours comes for them to bat the ball back +and forth in friendly conversation, there is nothing they enjoy more +than reminiscing about experiences on the battlefield. Other than +inveterate surgical patients, no one can outdo them in talking about +their operations. + +It isn't lengthy advice which is needed on this subject, since a man +commissioned is considered to have graduated from at least the +kindergarten of good manners. What counts is simply caring about it, +not to be ingratiating to other people, but for the sake of one's own +dignity and self-respect. + +None of the oracles on winning friends and influencing people have +said it in those few words, and if they had, there would have been no +books to sell. + + + + +CHAPTER NINE + +LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP + + +In that gallery of Great Americans whose names are conspicuously +identified with the prospering of the national arms in peace and war, +there are almost as many types as there are men. + +There were a certain few qualities that they had to possess in common +or their names would never have become known beyond the county line. + +But these were inner qualities, often deep buried, rather than outward +marks of greatness which men recognized immediately upon beholding +them. + +Some almost missed the roll call, either because in early life their +weaknesses were more apparent than their strengths, or because of an +outward seeming of insignificance which at first fooled their +contemporaries. + +In the minority are the few who seemed marked for greatness almost +from the cradle, and were acclaimed for leadership while still of +tender years. + +Winfield Scott, a Brigadier in the War of 1812 when Brigadiers were +few, and Chief of Staff when the Civil War began, is a unique figure +in the national history. + +George Washington, Adjutant of the State of Virginia at 21, is one +other military infant prodigy who never later belied his early fame. + +The majority in the gallery are not like these. No two of them are +strikingly alike in mien and manner. Their personalities are as +different, for most part, as their names. Their characters also ran +the range of the spectrum, or nearly, if we are talking of moral +habit, rather than of conscientious performance of military duty. Some +drank their whiskey neat and frequently; others loathed it and took a +harsh line with any subordinate who used it. + +One of the greatest generals in American history, celebrated for his +fighting hardly more than for his tippling, would walk from the room +if any man tried to tell an off-color story in his presence. + +One of the most celebrated and successful of our Admirals endeared +himself to millions of men in all ranks and services by his trick of +gathering his chief subordinates together just prior to battle, +issuing his orders sternly and surely, and then relaxing long enough +to tell them his latest parlor story, knowing that finally it would +trickle down through the whole command. + +Among the warriors in this gallery are men who would bet a month's pay +on a horse race. There are duellists and brawlers, athletes and +aesthetes, men who lived almost sainted lives and scholars who lived +more for learning than for fame. + +Some tended to be so over-reclusive that they almost missed +recognition; others were hail-fellow-well-met in any company. + +Their methods of work reflected these extreme variations in personal +type, as did the means they used to draw other men to them, thereby +setting a foundation for real success. + +Part of their number commanded mainly through the sheer force of +ideas; others owed their fortune more to the magnetism of dynamic +personality. + +In a few there was the spark of genius. All things seemed to come +right with them at all times. Fate was kind, the openings occurred, +and they were prepared to take advantage of them. + +But the greater number moved up the hill one slow step at a time, not +always sure of their footing, buffeted by mischance, owning no exalted +opinion of their own merits, reacting to discouragement much as other +men would do, but finally accumulating power as they learned how to +organize the work of other men. + +While a young lieutenant, Admiral Sims became so incensed, when the +United States would not take his word on a voucher, that he offered to +resign. + +General Grant signally failed to organize his life as an individual +prior to the time when a turn of the wheel gave him his chance to +organize the military power of the United States in war. + +General Sherman, who commanded the Army for almost 15 years, was +considered by many of his close friends to be a fit subject for +confinement as a mental case just prior to the Civil War. + +General Meade, one of the sweetest and most serene of men in his +family relationships, lacked confidence in his own merits and was very +abusive of his associates during battle. + +Admiral Farragut, whose tenderness as an individual are marked by the +16 years in which he personally nursed an invalid wife, was so +independent in his professional thought and action that both in and +out of the Navy he was disqualified as a "climber." He got into +wretched quarrels with his superiors mainly because he felt his +assignments afforded him no distinction. The Civil War gave him his +opportunity. + +Admiral John Paul Jones, though an unusually modest man, was as +redoubtable in the boudoir as at sea, and it would be hard to say +which type of engagement most caught his fancy. + +General Winfield Scott, as firm a commander as ever drew on a glove, +plagued the service with his petty bickering over rank, seniority, and +precedent. + +They were all mortal. Being human, they had their points of personal +weakness, just as any newly appointed ensign or second lieutenant also +has weak spots in his armor, and sometimes views them in such false +proportion that he doubts his own potential for high responsibility. + +There is not one perfect life in the gallery of the great. All were +moulded by the human influences which surrounded them. They reacted in +their own feelings, and toward other men, according as their personal +fortunes rose and fell. They sought help where it could be found. When +disappointed, they chilled like anyone else. But along with their +professional talents, they possessed, in common, a desire for +substantial recognition, accompanied by the will to earn it fairly, or +else the nation would never have heard their names. + +All in all it is a multifarious gallery. If we were to pass it in +review, and then inspect it carefully, it would still be impossible to +say: "This is the composite of character. This is the prototype of +military success. Model upon it and you have the pinnacle within +reach." + +The same thing would no doubt hold true of a majority of the better +men who commanded ships, squadrons, regiments, and companies under +these commanders, and at their own level were as superior in +leadership as the relatively few who rose to national stature because +of the achievements of the general body. + +The same rule will apply tomorrow. Those who come forward to fill +these same places, and to command them with equal or greater authority +and competence, will not be plaster saints, laden with all human +virtue, spotless in character and fit to be anointed with a superman +legend by some future Parson Weems. They will be men with a human +quality, and a strong belief in the United States and the goodness of +a free society. They will have some of the average man's faults, and +maybe a few of his vices. But certainly they will possess the +qualities of courage, creative intelligence and physical fitness in +more than average measure. + +What we know of our great leaders in the current age should disparage +the idea that only a superman may scale the heights. Trained observers +have noted in their personalities and careers many of the plain +characteristics which each man feels in himself and mistakenly +believes is a bar to preferment. + +Drew Middleton, the British correspondent, wrote of Gen. Carl "Tooey" +Spaatz: "This man, who may be a heroic figure to our grandchildren, is +essentially an unheroic figure to his contemporaries. He is in fact +such a friendly, human person that observers tend to minimize his +stature as a war leader. He is not temperamental. He makes no rousing +speeches, writes no inspirational orders. Spaatz, in issuing orders +for a major operation involving 1,500 airplanes, is about as inspiring +as a groceryman ordering another five cases of canned peas." + +In the files of the Navy Department there is a picture of Admiral Marc +A. Mitscher, the famed commander of Task Force 58, coming on board a +flagship to take command of a force of carriers. Officers and men are +lined up at spick-and-span attention. The Admiral himself appears as a +little man in a rumpled khaki uniform, tieless and wearing an +informal garrison cap. Under his arm is a book, and in the photograph +the title can be read as "Send Another Coffin." Mitscher liked +detective stories; he didn't like ceremonial pomp. + +An interviewer who called on Gen. Ira C. Eaker when he was leading 8th +Air Force against Germany found "a strikingly soft-spoken, sober, +compact man who has the mild manner of a conservative minister and the +judicial outlook of a member of the Supreme Court. But he is always +about two steps ahead of everybody on the score, and there is a quiet, +inexorable logic about everything he does." Of his own choice, Eaker +would have separated from military service after World War I. He +wanted to be a lawyer and he also toyed with the idea of running a +country newspaper. In his off hours, he wrote books on aviation for +junior readers. On the side, he studied civil law and found it +"valuable mental training." + +On the eve of the Guadalcanal landing, Gen. A. A. Vandegrift's final +order to his command ended with the stirring and now celebrated +phrase: "God favors the bold and strong of heart." Yet in the +afterglow of later years, the Nation read a character sketch of him +which included this: "He is so polite and so soft spoken that he is +continually disappointing the people whom he meets. They find him +lacking in the fire-eating traits they like to expect of all marines, +and they find it difficult to believe that such a mild-mannered man +could really have led and won the bloody fight." When another officer +spoke warmly of Vandegrift's coolness under fire, his "grace under +pressure," to quote Hemingway's phrase, he replied: "I shouldn't be +given any credit. I'm built that way." + +The point is beautifully taken. Too often the man with great inner +strength holds in contempt those less well endowed by nature than +himself. + +While there are no perfect men, there are those who become relatively +perfect leaders of men because something in their makeup brings out in +strength the highest virtues of all who follow them. That is the way +of human nature. Minor shortcomings do not impair the working loyalty, +or growth, of the follower who has found someone whose strengths he +deems worth emulating. On the other hand, to recognize merit, you must +yourself have it. _The act of recognizing the worthwhile traits in +another person is both the test and the making of character._ The man +who scorns all others, and thinks no one else worth following, parades +his own inferiority before the world. He puts his own character into +bankruptcy just as surely as does that other sad camp follower of whom +Thomas Carlyle wrote: "To recognize false merit, and crown it as true, +because a long tail runs after it, is the saddest operation under the +sun." + +Sherman, Logan, Rawlins and the many others hitched their wagons to +Grant's star because they saw in him a man who had a way with other +men, and who commanded them not less by personal courage than by +patient work in their interest. Had Grant spent time brooding over his +civilian failures, he would have been stuck with a disorderly camp and +would never have gotten out of Illinois. + +The nobility of the private life and influence of Gen. Robert E. Lee +and the grandeur of his military character are known to every American +school boy. His peerless gifts as a battle leader have won the tribute +of celebrated soldiers and historians throughout the English-speaking +world. Likewise, the deep religiosity of his great lieutenant, +Stonewall Jackson, the latter's fiery zeal and the almost evangelical +power with which he lifted the hearts of all men who followed him, are +hallmarks of character that are vividly remembered in whatever context +his name happens to be mentioned. + +If we turn for a somewhat closer look at Grant it is because he, more +than any other American soldier, left us a full, clear narrative of +his own growth, and of the inner thoughts and doubts pertaining to +himself which attended his life experience. There was a great deal of +the average man in Grant. He was beset by human failings. He could not +look impressive. He had no sense of destiny. In his great hours, it +was sweat, rather than inspiration, dogged perseverance, rather than +the aura of power, which made the hour great. + +Average though he was in many things, there was nothing average about +the strong way in which he took hold, applying massive common sense to +the complex problems of the field. That is why he is worth close +regard. His virtues as a military leader were of the simpler sort +which plain men may understand and hope to emulate. He was direct in +manner. He never intrigued. His speech was homely. He was +approachable. His mind never deviated from the object. Though a +stubborn man, he was always willing to listen to his subordinates. He +never adhered to a plan obstinately, but nothing could induce him to +forsake the idea behind the plan. + +History has left us a clear view of how he attained to greatness in +leadership by holding steadfastly to a few main principles. + +At Belmont, his first small action, he showed nothing to indicate that +he was competent as a tactician and strategist. But the closing scene +reveals him as the last man to leave the field of action, risking his +life to see that none of his men had been left behind. + +At Fort Donelson, where he had initiated an amphibious campaign of +highly original daring, he was not on the battlefield when his army +was suddenly attacked. He arrived to find his right wing crushed and +his whole force on the verge of defeat. He blamed no one. Without more +than a passing second's hesitation, he said quietly to his chief +subordinates: "Gentlemen, the position on the right must be retaken." +Then he mounted his horse, and galloped along the line shouting to his +men: "Fill your cartridge cases quick; the enemy is trying to escape +and he must not be permitted to do so." Control and order were +immediately reestablished by his presence. + +At Shiloh, the same thing happened, only this time it was worse; the +whole Union Army was on the verge of rout. Grant, hobbling on crutches +from a recent leg injury, met the mob of panic-stricken stragglers as +he left the boat at Pittsburgh Landing. Calling on them to turn back, +he mounted and rode toward the battle, shouting encouragement and +giving orders to all he met. Confidence flowed from him back into an +already beaten Army and in this way a field near lost was soon +regained. + +The last and best picture of Grant is on the evening after he had +taken his first beating from General Lee in the campaign against +Richmond. He was newly with the Army of the Potomac. His predecessors, +after being whipped by Lee, had invariably retreated to safe distance. +But this time as the defeated army took the road of retreat out of the +Wilderness, its columns got only as far as the Chancellorsville House +crossroad. There the soldiers saw a squat, bearded man, sitting +horseback, and drawing on a cigar. As the head of each regiment came +abreast him, he silently motioned it to take the right-hand fork--back +toward Lee's flank and deeper than ever into the Wilderness. That +night for the first time the Army sensed an electric change in the air +over Virginia. It had a man. + +"I intend to fight it out on this line" is more revealing of the one +supreme quality which put the seal on all other of U. S. Grant's great +gifts for military leading than everything else that the historians +have written of him. He was the epitome of that spirit which moderns +call "seeing the show through." He was sensitive to a fault in his +early years, and carried to his tomb a dislike for military uniform, +caused by his being made the butt of ridicule the first time he ever +donned a soldier suit. As a junior lieutenant in the Mexican War, he +sensed no particular aptitude in himself. But he had participated in +every engagement possible to a member of his regiment, and had +executed every small duty to the hilt, with particular attention to +conserving the lives of his men. This was the school and the course +which later enabled him to march to Richmond, when men's lives had to +be spent for the good of the Nation. In more recent times, one of the +great statesmen and soldiers of the United States, Henry L. Stimson, +has added his witness to the value of this force in all enterprise: "I +know the withering effect of limited commitments and I know the +regenerative effect of full action." Though he was speaking +particularly of the larger affairs of war and nation policy, his words +apply with full weight to the personal life. The truth seen only +halfway is missed wholly; the thing done only halfway had best not be +attempted at all. Men can be fooled but they can't be fooled on this +score. They will know every time when the bolt falls short for lack of +a worthwhile effort. And when that happens, confidence in the leader +is corroded, even among those who themselves were unwilling to try. + +There have been great and distinguished leaders in our military +services at all levels, who had no particular gifts for +administration, and little for organizing the detail of decisive +action either within battle or without. They excelled because of a +superior ability to utilize the brains and command the loyalty of +well-chosen subordinates. Their particular function was to judge the +mark according to their resources and audacity, and then to hold the +team steady until the mark was gained. So doing, they complemented the +power of the faithful lieutenants who might have put them in the shade +in any I. Q. test. Wrote Grant: "I never knew what to do with a paper +except put it in a side pocket or pass it to a clerk who understood it +better than I did." There was nothing unfair or irregular about this; +it was as it should be. All military achievement develops out of unity +of action. The laurel goes to the man whose powers can most surely be +directed toward the end purposes of organization. _The winning of +battles is the product of the winning of men._ That aptitude is not an +endowment of formal education, though the man who has led a football +team, a class, a fraternity or a debating society is the stronger for +the experience which he has gained. It is not uncustomary in those who +have excelled in scholarship to despise those who have excelled merely +in sympathetic understanding of the human race. But in the military +services, though there are niches for the pedant, character is at all +times at least as vital as intellect, and the main rewards go to him +who can make other men feel toughened as well as elevated. + + _Quiet resolution._ + + _The hardihood to take risks._ + + _The will to take full responsibility for decision._ + + _The readiness to share its rewards with subordinates._ + + _An equal readiness to take the blame when things go adversely._ + + _The nerve to survive storm and disappointment and to face toward + each new day with the scoresheet wiped clean, neither dwelling on + one's successes nor accepting discouragement from one's failures._ + +In these things lie a great part of the essence of leadership, for +they are the constituents of that kind of moral courage which has +enabled one man to draw many others to him in any age. + +It is good, also, to look the part, not only because of its effect on +others, but because from out of the effort made to _look it_, one may +in time come _to be it_. One of the kindliest and most penetrating +philosophers of our age, Abbe Ernest Dimnet, has assured us that this +is true. He says that by trying to look and act like a socially +distinguished person, one may in fact attain to the inner disposition +of a gentleman. That, almost needless to say, is the _real_ mark of +the officer who takes great pains about the manner of his dress and +address, for as Walt Whitman has said: "All changes of appearances +without a change in that which underlies appearance, are without +avail." All depends upon the spirit in which one makes the effort. By +his own account, U. S. Grant, as a West Point cadet, was more stirred +by the commanding appearance of General Winfield Scott than by any man +he had ever seen, including the President. He wrote that at that +moment there flashed across his mind the thought that some day he +would stand in Scott's place. Grant was unkempt of dress. His physical +endowments were such that he could never achieve the commanding air of +Scott, but he left us his witness that Scott's military bearing helped +kindle his own desire for command, even though he knew that he could +not be like Scott. + +Much is said in favor of modesty as an asset in leadership. It is +remarked that the man who wishes to hold the respect of others will +mention himself not more frequently than a born aristocrat mentions +his ancestor. However, the point can be labored too hard. Some of the +ablest of the Nation's battlefield commanders have been anything but +shrinking violets; we have had now and then a hero who could boast +with such gusto that this very characteristic somehow endeared him to +his men. But that would be a dangerous tack for all save the most +exceptional individual. Instead of speaking of modesty as a charm that +will win all hearts, thereby risking that through excessive modesty a +man will become tiresome to others and rated as too timid for high +responsibility, it would be better to dwell upon the importance of +being natural, which means neither concealing nor making a vulgar +display of one's ideals and motives, but acting directly according to +their dictations. + +This leads to another point. In several of the most celebrated +commentaries written by higher commanders on the nature of +generalship, the statement is made rather carelessly that to be +capable of great military leadership a man must be something of an +actor. If that were unqualifiedly true, then it would be a desirable +technique likewise in any junior officer that he too should learn how +to wear a false face, and play a part which cloaks his real self. The +hollowness of the idea is proved by the lives of such men as Robert E. +Lee, W. T. Sherman, George C. Marshall, Omar N. Bradley, Carl A. +Spaatz, William H. Simpson, Chester A. Nimitz, and W. S. Sims. As +commanders, they were all as natural as children, though some had +great natural reserve, and others were warmer and more outgiving. They +expressed themselves straightforwardly rather than by artful striving +for effect. There was no studied attempt to appear only in a certain +light. To use the common word for it, their people did not regard them +as "characters." This naturalness had much to do with their hold on +other men. + +Such a result will always come. He who concentrates on the object at +hand has little need to worry about the impression he is making on +others. Even though they detect the chinks in the armor, they will +know that the armor will hold. + +On the other hand, a sense of the dramatic values, coupled with the +intelligence to play upon them skillfully, is an invaluable quality in +any military leader. Though there was nothing of the "actor" in Grant, +he understood the value of pointing things up. _To put a bold or +inspiring emphasis where it belongs is not stagecraft, but an integral +part of the military fine art of communications._ System which is only +system is injurious to the mind and spirit of any normal person. One +can play a superior part well, and maintain prestige and dignity, +without being under the compulsion to think, speak and act in a +monotone. In fact, when any military commander becomes over-inhibited +along these lines because of the illusion that this is the way to +build a reputation for strength, he but doubles the necessity that his +subordinates will act at all times like human beings rather than +robots. + +Coupled with self-control, recollection and thoughtfulness will carry +a man far. Men will warm toward a leader when they come to believe +that all the energy he stores up by living somewhat within himself is +at their service. But when they feel that this is not the case, and +that his reserve is simply the outward sign of a spiritual miserliness +and concentration on purely personal goals, no amount of restraint +will ever win their favor. This is as true of him who commands a whole +service as of the leader of a picket squad. + +To speak of the importance of a sense of humor would be unavailing if +it were not that what cramps so many men isn't that they are by nature +humorless but that they are hesitant to exercise what humor they +possess. Within the military profession, it is as unwise as to let the +muscles go soft and to spare the mind the strain of original thinking. +Great humor has always been in the military tradition. The need of it +is nowhere more delicately expressed than in Kipling's lines: + + My son was killed while laughing at some jest, + I would I knew + What it was, and it might serve me in a time + When jests are few. + +Marcus Aurelius, Rome's soldier philosopher, spoke of his love for the +man who "could be humorous in an agreeable way." No reader of Grant's +_Memoirs_ (one of the few truly great autobiographies ever written by +a soldier) could fail to be impressed by his light touch. A delicate +sense of the incongruous seems to have pervaded him; he is at his +whimsical best when he sees himself in a ridiculous light. Lord +Kitchener, one of the grimmest warriors ever to serve the British +Empire, warmed to the man who made him the butt of a practical joke. +There is the unforgettable picture of Admiral Beatty at Jutland. The +_Indefatigable_ has disappeared beneath the waves. The _Queen Mary_ +had exploded. The _Lion_ was in flames. Then word came that the +_Princess Royal_ was blown up. Said Beatty to his Flag Captain +"Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our ... ships +today. Turn two points nearer the enemy." Admiral Nimitz, surveying +the terrible landscape of the Kwajalein battlefield for the first +time, said gravely to his Staff: "It's the worst devastation I've ever +seen except for that last Texas picnic in Honolulu." There is a +characteristic anecdote of General Patton. He had just been worsted by +higher headquarters in an argument over strategy. So he sat talking to +his own Staff about it, his dog curled up beside him. Suddenly he said +to the animal: "The trouble with you, too, Willy, is that you don't +understand the big picture." General Eisenhower, probably more than +any other American commander, had the art of winning with his humor. +He would have qualified under Sydney Smith's definition: "The meaning +of an extraordinary man is that he is eight men in one man; that he +has as much wit as if he had no sense, and as much sense as if he had +no wit; that his conduct is as judicious as if he were the dullest of +human beings, and his imagination as brilliant as if he were +irretrievably ruined." + +There is hardly a soldier, marine, or bluejacket who has been long in +battle but can tell some tale of an experience under fire when the +pressure became almost unbearable, and then was suddenly relieved +because somebody made a wisecrack or pulled something that was good +for a laugh. At Bastogne the American headquarters was being shelled +out of its position in the Belgian Barracks. The Commanding General +called in his Chief Signal Officer and asked when it would be +convenient to move. Said Lt. Col. Sid Davis, "Right now, while I've +got one line left and you can still give the order." When the garrison +was surrounded, and higher headquarters requested a description of the +situation, the young G-3 of the operation, Col. H. W. O. Kinnard, +radioed: "Think of a doughnut: we're the hole." + +Who hasn't heard of the top kick who got his men forward by yelling: +"Come on you ----! Do you want to live forever?" Both the Army and the +Marine Corps claim him for their own, and it is possible that he was +twins. + +If the American fighting man did not have an instinctive feeling for +the moral value of that kind of thing, the story would be long since +buried, for it is as ancient as the other tale which ends: "That was +no lady; that was my wife." + + + + +CHAPTER TEN + +MAINSPRINGS OF LEADERSHIP + + +To what has been said, just a few things should be added so that the +problem of generating greater powers of leadership within the officer +corps may be seen in its true light. + +The counselor says: "Be forthright! Be articulate! Be confident! Be +positive! Possess a commanding appearance!" The young man replies: +"All very good, so far as it goes. I will, if I can. But tell me, how +do I get that way?" He sees rightly enough the main point, that these +things are but derivatives of other inner qualities which must be +possessed, if the leader is to travel the decisive mile between +wavering capacity and resolute performance. + +So the need is to get down to a few governing principles. Finding +them, we may be able to resolve finally any argument as to whether +leadership is a God-given power, or may be bestowed through earnest +military teaching. + +Two great American commanders have spoken their thoughts on this +subject. The weight of their comment is enhanced by the conspicuous +success of both men in the field of moral leading. + +Said Admiral Forrest P. Sherman, Chief of Naval Operations: "I concur +that we _can_ take average good men and, by proper training, develop +in them the essential initiative, confidence, and magnetism which are +necessary in leadership. I believe that these qualities are present in +the average man to a degree that he can be made a good leader if his +native qualities are properly developed; whether or not he becomes a +_great_ leader depends upon whether or not he possesses that _extra_ +initiative, magnetism, moral courage, and force which makes the +difference between the average man and the above-average man." + +Said Gen. C. B. Cates, Commandant of the Marine Corps: "Leadership is +intangible, hard to measure and difficult to describe. Its qualities +would seem to stem from many factors. But certainly they must include +a measure of inherent ability to control and direct, _self-confidence +based on expert knowledge_, initiative, loyalty, pride, _and a sense +of responsibility_. Inherent ability obviously cannot be instilled, +but that which is latent or dormant can be developed. Other +ingredients can be acquired. They are not easily taught or easily +learned. _But leaders can be and are made._ The average good man in +our service is and must be considered a potential leader." + +There are common denominators in these two quotations which clearly +point in one main direction. When we accent the importance of extra +initiative, expert knowledge and a sense of responsibility, we are +saying in other words that out of unusual application to duty comes +the power to lead others in the doing of it. + +The matter is as simple and as profound as that, and if we will +consider for but a moment, we will see why it could hardly be +otherwise. + +No normal young man is likely to recognize in himself the qualities +which will persuade others to follow him. On the other hand, any man +who can carry out orders in a cheerful spirit, complete this work step +by step, use imagination in improving it, and then when the job is +done, can face toward his next duty with anticipation, need have no +reason to doubt his own capacity for leadership. + +The psychologists assure us that there is a sound scientific basis for +what enlightened military trainers have long held to be true--that the +first-class follower and the leader are one and the same. They say +that this is literally true, and that their tests prove it so. + +But it does not follow that every man can be taught to lead. In the +majority of men, success or failure is caused more by mental attitude +than by mental capacity. Many are unwilling to face the ordeal of +thinking for themselves and of accepting responsibility for others. +But the man determined to excel at his own work has already climbed +the first rung of the ladder; in that process he perforce learns to +think for himself while setting an example to those who are around +him. Out of application to work comes capacity for original and +creative progress. The personality characteristics, emotional balance, +etc., which give him excellence in those things which he does with his +own brain and hand will enable him to command the respect, and in +turn, the service of other men. + +To this extent, certainly leadership can be learned! It is a matter of +mastering simple techniques which will give more effective expression +to the character and natural talents of the individual. + +Said one of this Nation's great political leaders: "There is no more +valuable subordinate than the man to whom you can give a piece of work +and then forget it, in the confident expectation that the next time it +is brought to your attention it will come in the form of a report that +the thing has been done. When this self-reliant quality is joined to +executive power, loyalty and common sense, the result is a man whom +you can trust." + +Yes, indeed, and that is as it should be. For while no man can be sure +of the possibilities of his influence over other men, every man knows +by his own conscience when he is putting forth his best effort, and +when he is slacking. + +It is therefore not an arbitrary standard for measuring leadership +capacity in men which puts the ability to excel in assigned work above +everything else. The willingness and ability to strive, and to do, are +best judged by what we see of men in action. If they are indifferent +to assigned responsibilities, they are bad risks for larger ones, no +matter how charming their personalities or what the record says about +their prior experience and educational advantages. Either that +proposition is both reasonable and sound, or Arnold Bennett was +singing off key when he said: "I think fine this necessity for the +tense bracing of the will before anything worth doing can be done. It +is the chief thing that distinguishes me from the cat by the fire." + +Love of work is the sheet-anchor of the man who truly aspires to +command responsibilities; that means love of it, not for the reward, +or for the skill exercised, but for the final and successful +accomplishment of the work itself. For out of interest in the job +comes thoroughness, and it is this quality above all which +distinguishes the willing spirit. The willingness to learn, to study +and to try harder are requisite to individual progress and the +improvement of opportunity--the process that Thomas Carlyle described +as the "unfolding of one's self." Thus it can be taken as an axiom +that any man can lead who is determined to become master of that +knowledge which an increased responsibility would require of him; and +by the same token, that to achieve maximum efficiency at one's own +working level, it is necessary to see it as if from the perspective of +the next level up. To excel in the management of a squad, the leader +must be knowledgeable of all that bears upon the command of a platoon. +Otherwise the mechanism lacks something of unity. + +Mark Twain said at one point that we should be thankful for the +indolent, since but for them the rest of us could not get ahead. +That's on the target, and it emphasizes that how fast and far each of +us travels is largely a matter of free choice. + +Personal advancement, within any worthwhile system, requires some +sacrifice of leisure, and more careful attention to the better +organization of one's working routine. But that does not entail heroic +self-sacrifice or the forfeiting of any of life's truly enduring +rewards. It means putting the completion of work ahead of golf and +bridge. It means rejecting the convenient excuse for postponing +solution of the problem until the next time. It means cultivating the +mind during hours that would otherwise be spent in idleness. It means +concentrating for longer periods on the work at hand without getting +up from one's chair. But after all, these things do not require an +extraordinary faculty. The ability of the normal man to concentrate +his thought and effort are mainly the product of a personal conviction +that concentration is necessary and desirable. Abbe Dimnet said: +"Concentration is supposed to be exceptional only because people do +not try and, in this, as in so many things, starve within an inch of +plenty." And as to the mien and manner which will develop from firm +commitments, another wise Frenchman, Honore Balzac, added this: +"Conviction brings a silent, indefinable beauty into faces made of the +commonest human clay." Here is a great part of the secret. It is in +the exercise of the will that the men are separated from the boys, and +that the officer who is merely anxious for advancement is put apart +from the one who is truly ambitious to succeed in his life calling. +Even a lazy-minded superior, in judging of his subordinates, will +rarely mistake the one condition for the other. + +When within the services we hear the highest praise reserved for the +man "with character," that is what the term means--application to duty +and thoroughness in all undertakings, along with that maturity of +spirit and judgment which comes by precept, by kindness, by study, by +watching, and above all, by example. The numerous American commanders +from all services who have been accorded special honor because they +rose from the ranks have invariably made their careers by the extra +work, self-denial and rigor which the truly good man does not hesitate +to endure. The question facing every young officer is whether he, too, +is willing to walk that road for the rewards, material and spiritual, +which will surely attend it. + +There is of course that commonest of excuses for rejecting the +difficult and taking life easy. "I haven't time!" But for the man who +keeps his mind on the object, there is always time. Figure it out! +About us in the services daily we see busy men who somehow manage to +find time for whatever is worth doing, while at the adjoining desks +are others with abundant leisure who can't find time for anything. +When something important requires doing, it is usually the busy man +who gets the call. + +Of the many personal decisions which life puts upon a service officer, +the main one is whether he chooses to swim upstream. If he says yes to +that, and means it, all things then begin to fit into place. Then will +develop gradually but surely that well-placed inner confidence which +is the foundation of military character. From the knowing of _what to +do_ comes the knowing of _how to do_, which is likewise important. +Much is conveyed in few words in Army Field Forces' "Brief on +Practical Concepts of Leadership." It is stressed therein that the +preeminent quality which all great commanders have owned in common is +a _positiveness_ of manner and of viewpoint, the power to concentrate +on means to a given end to the exclusion of exaggerated fears of the +obstacles which lie athwart the course. Every word of that should be +underscored, and above all, what it says about the need for +affirmative thinking, and concentrating on how the thing can be done. +The service is no place for those who hang back and view through a +glass darkly. The man who falls into the vice of thinking negatively +must perforce in time become fearful of all action; he lacks the power +of decision, because it has been destroyed by his habit of thought, +and even when circumstances compel him to say yes he remains +uncommitted in spirit. + +But the shadow should not be mistaken for the substance. Positiveness +of manner, and redoubtable inner conviction stem only from the mastery +of superior knowledge, and this last is the fruit of application, +preparation, thoroughness and the willingness to struggle to gain the +desired end. + + + + +CHAPTER ELEVEN + +HUMAN NATURE + + +In the history of American arms, the most revealing chapter as to the +nature of the human animal does not come from any story of the +battlefield but from the record of 23 white men and two Eskimos who, +on August 26, 1881, set up in isolation a camp on the edge of Lady +Franklin Bay to attempt a Farthest North record for the United States. + +The Expedition under command of First Lt. A. W. Greeley, USA, expected +to be picked up by a relief ship after 1 year, or 2 years at most. Its +supply could be stretched to cover the maximum period. But the winters +were so unduly harsh that the rescue mission could not break through +the ice to keep the rendezvous. During the first year, two members of +the party had set a new Far North mark. The party as a whole--3 +officers, 19 enlisted men, 1 civilian surgeon and the 2 natives--had +survived a winter closer to the Pole than civilized men had ever lived +before. So doing, they had remained in reasonably good personal +adjustment to each other, despite the Arctic monotony. The discipline +of the camp had been strict. Rules of subordination, sanitation, +work-sharing and religious observance had been maintained, without +major friction occurring in the life of the group. Lectures were given +regularly, and schools were organized. Though it is recorded that the +men became melancholy, sleepless, and irritable because of the long +Arctic night, temper was still in so good a state that an honor system +within the camp meted out extra duty to any man using an oath. + +The comradely feeling remained alive within the party throughout the +first winter, though morale had its first blow when Greeley issued an +unwise order forbidding enlisted men to go more than 500 yards from +the base without permission. The strain was beginning to tell, but +there was no fatal rift in the working harmony of the group while +supply and hope remained reasonably full. + +But June of the second year came and passed, and no relief ship +arrived. In August, Greeley decided on a retreat, intending to fall +back on bases which were supposed to hold food stores. Thereafter +disaster was piled upon disaster, most of it having to do with the +lack of food, and the varying animal and spiritual reactions of men to +a situation of utmost desperation. When the Greeley Expedition was at +last rescued at Cape Sabine on June 22, 1884, by the third +expedition--the _Revenue Cutter Bear_ and the _Thetis_ under Commander +Winfield S. Schley, USN--only seven men remained alive. Even in these, +the spark of life was so feeble that their tent was down over them and +they had resigned themselves to death. Two died soon after the rescue, +leaving five. Most of the other 20 had perished of slow starvation, +but not all. Some had been shot. Others had met death with utmost +bravery trying to save their failing comrades. + +All that happened to Greeley's party during the months of its terrible +ordeal is known because of a diary which records the main things--the +fight of discipline against the primal instincts in men, the reversion +of the so-called civilized man to his real type when he knows that +death is at his elbow, the strength of unity which comes of +comradeship, and also the weakness in some individuals which makes it +impossible for them to measure up to honor's requirements. + +Men are of all kinds. Some remain base, though given every opportunity +to develop compassion. Others who may appear plodding and dull, and +have been denied opportunity, still have in them an immortal spark of +love for humanity which gives them an unbreakable bond with their +fellows in the hours of crisis. + +What the case history of the Greeley Expedition proves is that _in the +determining number of men, the potential is sound_. Given a wise, +understanding leadership, they will stand together, and they will +either persuade the others to go along, or they will help break them +if they resist. If that were not the truth of the matter, no military +commander in our time would be able to make his forces keep going into +battle. + +Until the end, discipline was kept in Greeley's force. But this was +not primarily due to Lieutenant Greeley, the aloof, strict +disciplinarian who commanded by giving orders, instead of by trying to +command the spirits and loyalties of men. That any survived was due to +the personal force and example of Sgt. (later Brig. Gen.) David L. +Brainard, who believed in discipline as did Greeley, and supported his +chief steadfastly, but also supplied the human warmth and helping hand +which rallied other men, where Greeley's strictures only made them +want to fight back. Brainard was not physically the strongest man in +the Expedition, nor necessarily the most self-sacrificing and +courageous. But he had what counted most--mental and moral balance. + +Among the most fractious and self-centered of the individuals was the +camp surgeon, highly trained and educated, and chosen because he +seemed to have a way among men. Greeley was several times at the point +of having him shot; the surgeon's death by starvation saved Greeley +that necessity. + +Among the most decent, trustworthy, and helpful was Jens, the simple +Eskimo, who died trying to carry out a rescue mission. He had never +been to school a day in his life. + +There were soldiers in the party whom no threat of punishment, or +sense of pity, could deter from taking advantage of their comrades, +rifling stores, cheating on duty and even stealing arms in the hope of +doing away with other survivors. When repeated offense showed that +they were unreformable, they were shot. + +But in the greater number, the sense of pride and of honor was +stronger even than the instinct for self-preservation, though these +were _average_ enlisted men, not especially chosen because their +records proved they had unusual fortitude. + +Private Schneider, a youngster who loved dogs and played the violin, +succumbed to starvation after penning one of the most revealing +deathbed statements ever written: "Although I stand accused of doing +dishonest things here lately, I herewith, as a dying man, can say that +the only dishonest thing I ever did was to eat my own sealskin boots +and the part of my pants." + +Private Fredericks, accused in the early and less-trying period of +meanness and injustice to his comrades, became a rock of strength in +the weeks when all of the others were in physical collapse or coma, +and was made a sergeant because of the nobility of his conduct. Yet +this man's ambition was to be a saloonkeeper in Minneapolis. + +There is still an official report on file in the Department of the +Army which describes Sergeant Rice as the "bravest and noblest" of the +Expedition. He is identified with most of its greatest heroisms. The +man was apparently absolutely indomitable and incorruptible. He died +from freezing on a last forlorn mission into the Arctic storm to +retrieve a cache of seal meat for his friends. Fredericks, who had +accompanied him, was so grief-stricken at the tragedy that he +contemplated dying at his side, then reacted in a way which signifies +much in a few words, "Out of the sense of duty I owed my dead comrade, +I stooped and kissed the remains and left them there for the wild +winds of the Arctic to sweep over." + +Such briefly were the extremes and the middle ground in this body of +human material. At one end were the amoral characters whose excesses +became steadily worse as the situation blackened. At the other were +Brainard and Rice--good all the way through, absolute in integrity and +adjusted perfectly to other men. In between these wholly contrasting +elements was the group majority, trying to do duty, with varying +degrees of success. That would include Greeley, strong in +self-discipline but likewise brittle. It would include Lieutenant +Lockwood, a lion among men for most of the distance, but totally +downcast and beaten in the last dreadful stretch, Israel, the youngest +of the party who won the love of other men by his frankness and +generosity, Sergeant Gardiner who was always ready to share his scraps +of food with whoever he thought needed them more, Private Whisler who +died begging his comrades to forgive him for having stolen a few +slices of bacon, and Private Bender who alternated between feats of +heroism and acts of miscreancy. + +Other than their common experience, there was probably nothing unusual +about this group of men. They were an average slice of American +manpower as found in the services of that day, and in the +fundamentals, men have changed but little since. Those who had the +chance to study American men under the terrible rigor of Japanese +imprisonment during World War II give an analysis not unlike the +chronicles of the Greeley party. In certain of the prisoners, +character, and sanity with it, held fast against every circumstance. +In others, some of whom had been well educated and came from gentle +homes, the brute instinct was as uppermost as in an East African +cannibal. + +From such crucibles as these, even more than from the remittent +stresses of combat in war, comes the clearest light on the inner +nature of man, insofar as it needs to be understood by the officer who +may some day lead a force into battle. + +Snap judgment on the data might lead to the conclusion that every +individual is exactly according to his own mould, that influence from +without can not catalyze character, and that hence training has little +to do with winning loyalty and instilling dutifulness. That would be +as radically false as to believe that training, when properly +conducted, can make all men alike and can infuse all ranks with the +desire for a high standard. The vanity of that hope can be read out of +what happened to the force at Cape Sabine. But the positive lesson +glows even more strongly. The good Sergeant, Brainard, wrote of his +Lieutenant, Lockwood, that he "loved him more than a brother." It was +the service which taught him the worth of that attachment; Brainard's +superb courage developed initially out of his unbounded admiration for +Lockwood's dauntlessness, and in time the copyist outdistanced the +model. Emotionally, Greeley and Brainard were quite unlike. One was a +New England Puritan, the other a hard-boiled sergeant. But they became +as one in the interests of the force; service training had made that +possible. + +Psychologists tell us that every sense impression leaves a trace or +imprint of itself on the mind, or in other words, what we are, and +what we may become, is influenced in some measure by everything +touching the circumference of our daily lives. The imprints become +memories and ideas, and in their turn build up the consciousness, the +reason and finally the will, which translates into physical action +the psychological purpose. In the process, moral character may be +shaped and strengthened; but it will not be transformed if it is dross +in the first place. That is something which every combat leader has +learned in his tour under fire; the man of whom nobody speaks good, +who is regarded as a social misfit, unliked and unliking, of his +comrades, will usually desert them under pressure. There are others +who have the right look but will be just as quick to quit, and look to +themselves, in a crisis; underneath, they are made of the same shoddy +stuff as the derelict, but have learned a little more of the modern +art of getting by. Leadership, be it ever so inspired, can not make a +silk purse from a sow's ear. But as shines forth in the record of +Greeley and his men, it can reckon with the fact that the majority is +more good than mean, and that from this may be developed the strength +of the whole. In the clutch, the men at Cape Sabine who believed in +the word "duty," and who understood spiritually that its first meaning +was mutual responsibility, remained joined in an insoluble union. That +was the inevitable outcome, leadership doing its part. The minority +had no basis for organic solidarity, as each of its number was +motivated only by self-interest. Goodwill and weakness may be combined +in one man; bad will and strength in another. High moral leading can +lift the first man to excel himself; it will not reform the other. But +there is no other sensible rule than that all men will be approached +with trust, and treated as trustworthy until proved otherwise beyond +reasonable doubt. + +To transfer this thought to even the largest element in war, it will +be seen that _it is not primarily a cause which makes men loyal to +each other, but the loyalty of men to each other which makes a cause_. +The unity which develops from man's recognition of his dependence upon +his fellows is the mainspring of every movement by which society, or +any autonomy within it, moves forward. + +It is a common practice to say "Men are thus-and-so." Nothing is more +attractive than to make some glittering generalization about the human +race, and from it draw a moral for the instruction of those who work +with human material. But from all that we have learned from the +experience of men under inordinate pressure, either in war or wherever +else military forces have been sorely tested, it would be false to say +either that the desire for economic security or the instinct for +self-preservation is the driving force in every man's action. To those +who possess the strength of the strong, honor is the main shaft; and +they can carry a sufficient number of the company along with them to +stamp their mark upon whatever is done by the group. No matter what +their personal strength, however, they too are dependent on the +others. There is no possibility of growth for any man except through +the force, and by the works of those about him, though the manner of +his growth is partly a matter of free choice. To most men, the setting +of the good example is a challenge to pride and a stimulus to action. +To nearly every member of the race, confidence and inspiration come +mainly from the influence which living associates have upon them. That +training is most perfect which takes greatest advantage of this truth, +employing it in balance toward the development of a spirit of +comradeship and the doing of work with a manifestly military purpose. +Peace training is war training and nothing less. There is no other +basis for the efficient operation of military forces even when the +skies are clear. _But no commander or instructor can convince men of +the decisive importance of the object if he himself regards it as only +an intellectual exercise._ + +The Army's "Brief on Practical Concepts of Leaderships," published 1 +January 1950, well points out the desirability of leaders realizing it +is vain to expect that training can bring men forward uniformly. The +better men advance rapidly; the men of average attainments remain +average; the below-average lose additional ground to the competition. +In consequence, the chance for balance in the organizational structure +depends upon the leader progressing in such close knowledge of his men +that those who are strong in various aspects of the team's general +requirements compensate for the weaknesses of others, irrespective of +MOS numbers. It is not less essential that the followers know each +other and prepare themselves to complement each other. Obviously, +this cannot be done when personnel changes are so frequent that those +concerned have no chance to see deeper than the surface. + +Even when to do any labor meant sapping the small store of energy +deriving from a few ounces of food each day, Greeley's men kept alive +the spark of morale and mutual support by maintaining a work schedule, +until the day came when there was no longer a man who could stand. To +fight off despondency, they held to a nightly schedule of lectures and +discussions in their rude shelters, until speech became an agony +because of throats poisoned by eating of caterpillars, lichens and +saxifrage blossoms. In their worst extremity, Private Fredericks, +unlettered but a man of great common sense and moral power, became the +doctor, cook and forager for the party. + +Men do not achieve a great solidarity, or preserve it, simply by +_being_ together. Their mutual bonds are forged only by _doing_ +together that which they have been made convinced is constructive. +Their view of its importance is usually contingent upon what others +tell them, and upon a continuing emphasis thereof. _Unity is all at +one time a consequence of, and a cause and condition for great +accomplishment._ Toward that end, it is neither vital nor desirable +that all members of the group coincide in their motives, ideas and +methods of expression. What is important is that each man should know, +and to a reasonable extent incorporate into his own life the thoughts, +desires and interests of the others. Such sentiments, fixed by +repetition, remain as a habit during the life of the group, and +provide the base for disciplined action. But when men are not thus +drawn together and the cord of sympathy remains unstrung, there is no +basis for control, nor any element of contact by which the group may +identify itself with some larger entity and profit by transfusion of +its moral strength. + +_The absence of a common purpose is the chief source of unhappiness in +any collection of individuals._ Lacking it, and the common standard of +justice which is one of its chief agents, men become more and more +separate units, each fighting for his own rights. Yet paradoxically, +if an organic unity is to develop within any body of free men, drawn +from a free society to serve its military institutions, and if the +fairest use is to be made of their possibilities, the processes of the +institution must embody respect for the dignity of the individual, for +his rights, and not less, for his desire for worthwhile recognition. +The profile of every man depends upon the space which others leave +him. "Of himself," said Napoleon, "a man is nothing." But every man +also contributes with his every act to the level of what his group may +attain. One of the foremost leaders in the United States Navy in World +War II said this about the integrity of personality: "Every person is +unique. Human talents were never before assembled in exactly the same +way that they have been put together in yourself. Nothing like you +ever happened before. No one can predict with accuracy how you will +grow in your particular combination of skills if allowed complete +freedom of movement." If there is one word out of place in that +statement, it is "complete;" no one has complete freedom but a +buccaneer, and it is for the exercise of it that organized society +swings him from a gibbet. It is only when personal freedom of action +operates within an area limited by the rights and welfare of others +that subordination, in its best sense, takes place. To direct a body +of men toward the acceptance of this principle, so that thereby they +may attain social coherence as a group and greater strength of +personal character, is the most solid contribution that an officer can +make to the arms of his country. + +He can succeed in this without being godlike in wisdom or pluperfect +in temper. But it is necessary at least that he be interesting, and +that he know how to get out of his own tracks, lest he be over-run by +his own organization. Whatever his rank, _it is impossible for any man +to lead if he is himself running behind_. This bespeaks the need of +constant study, the constant use of one's personal powers and the +exercise of the imagination. As men advance, that which was good soon +ceases to be good simply because something better is possible. Once +men begin to acquire a sense of organization, they also come to take +the measure of those who are over them. They will then move +instinctively toward the one man who possesses the greatest measure +of social energy. The accolade of leadership is not inherent in the +individual but is conferred on him by the group. It does not always +follow that a man can develop an influence with others which is +proportionate to his talents and capacity for work. Leadership in work +is a main requirement, but if the group does not warm toward the +appointed leader, if its members can not feel any enthusiasm about +him, they will be hypercritical of whatever he does. + +History confirms, and a study of the workings of the human mind +supports one proposition which many of the great captains of war have +accepted as a truism. "There are no bad troops: there are only bad +leaders." Taking on percentage what we already know of our average +American raw material, as it had proved itself in every war, and as it +has been studied in such a laboratory as the camp at Cape Sabine, no +exception can be taken to that statement. On the other hand, we know +equally well that leadership can be taught and it can be acquired. +Much of our best material lies fallow, awaiting a hand on the +shoulder, and the touch of other men's confidence, before it can step +forward. This is not because men with a sound potential for leading +must necessarily have an outward air of modesty among their major +virtues, but because a man--particularly a young man--cannot gain a +sense of his power among his fellows except as they give him their +confidence, and vivify his natural desire to be something better than +the average. There is no indication that at any stage of his career +Gen. George S. Patton was an outwardly modest man. But in reviewing +the milestones in his own making, he underscored the occasion when +General Pershing, then commanding the Punitive Expedition into Mexico, +supported Lieutenant Patton's judgment against that of a major. These +are his words: "My act took high moral courage and built up my +self-confidence." It would seem altogether clear, however, that +Pershing had more than a little to do with it. Col. W. T. Sherman had +to be kindled by the warm touch of Mr. Lincoln and steeled by the +example and strong faith of Gen. U. S. Grant before he could believe +in his own capacity for generalship. We all live by information and +not by sight. We exist by faith in others, which is the source toward +knowing greater faith in ourselves. + +About the elements of human nature, it is good that an officer should +know enough that he will be able to win friends and influence people. +But it is folly to believe that he should pursue his studies in this +subject until he habitually looks at men as would a scientist putting +some specimen under a powerful microscope. + +Self-consciousness is by no means a serious fault in anyone confronted +by a new set of responsibilities, and working among new companions. +There is scarcely an officer who has not felt it, particularly in the +beginning, before he is assured in his own presence. But if the +greater part of the officer corps were ever to become absorbed in the +business of taking men apart to see what makes them tick, thereby +superinducing self-consciousness all down the line, an irremediable +blight would come upon the services. There is no need to look that +deeply. What matters mainly is that an officer will know how men are +won to accept authority, how they can be made to unify their own +strength, how they can be helped to find satisfaction and success in +their employment, how the stronger men can be chosen for preferment +from among them, and finally, how they can be conditioned to face the +realities of combat. + +The chronicles of effective military leadership date back to Gideon +and his Band. Therefore any notion that it is impossible for an +officer to make the best use of his men unless he is armed with all +available research data and can talk the language of the philosopher +and modern social scientist is little more than a twentieth century +conceit. To seek and use all pertinent information is commendable, but +truth comes of seeing all things in their natural proportion. To know +more than is necessary blunts one's own weapons. The application of +common sense to the problem is more vital than the possession of an +inexhaustible store of data which has no practical bearing upon the +matter at hand. As was said by a philosopher three centuries ago: "It +is remarkable in some that they could be so much better if they could +but be better in some thing." + + + + +CHAPTER TWELVE + +GROUP NATURE + + +In the same way that knowledge of individual nature becomes the key to +building strength within the group, an understanding of crowd nature +is essential to the preservation of the unique power within the group, +particularly under conditions of extreme pressure. + +Whereas the central object of a training discipline is to raise a +safeguard against any military body reverting to crowd form under +trial by fire, history shows that paralysis both of leadership and of +the ranks, obliviousness to orders, forgetfulness of means of +communication, disintegration and even panic are the not uncommon +reactions of military forces when first entering into battle. + +From Bunker Hill and Brandywine down to Pearl Harbor and the fight at +Kasserine Pass, the American battle record shows that our own troops +are by no means immune to these ill effects, and that our peace time +training needs, therefore, always to be reappraised with a critical +eye to the main issue. + +Any of these unsteadying reactions can be prevented, or at least +minimized, by training which anticipates the inevitable disorders of +battle--including those who are of material sort as well as the +disorders of the mind--and acclimates men to the realities of the +field in war. All may be averted if leadership is braced to the shock +and prepared to exercise strong control. Indeed, it is a truth worthy +of the closest regard that the greater number of the disarrangements +which take place during combat are due to leadership feeling a +tightening of the throat, and a sticking of the palate, and failing to +do that which the intellect says should be done. + +To take any action, when even to think of action is itself difficult, +is the essential step toward recovery and the surmounting of all +difficulty. It is not because of a babel of mixed voices and commands +that military bodies not infrequently relapse into helplessness and +stagnation in the face of the enemy. From that cause there may occur +an occasional minor dislocation. Their total effect is trivial +compared to the failures which come of leadership, at varying levels, +failing promptly to exercise authority when nothing else can resolve +the situation. Among the commonest of experiences in war is to witness +troops doing nothing, or worse, doing the wrong thing, without one +commanding voice being raised to give them direction. In such +circumstance, any man who has the nerve and presence to step forward +and give them an intelligent order in a manner indicating that he +expects to be obeyed, will be accepted as a leader and will be given +their support. + +For this reason, under the conditions of modern battle, the coherence +of any military body comes not only of men being articulate all down +the line but of building up the dynamic power in each individual. It +is a thoroughly sound exercise in any unit to give every man a chance +to take charge, and give orders in drill, or other limited exercises, +once he had learned what the orders mean. By the same token, it is +good practice for the junior leader to displace a file in a training +exercise, and become commanded for a time, to sharpen his own +perspective. + +Progress comes of making the most of our strengths rather than looking +for ways to repair weaknesses. This is true in things both large and +small. The platoon leader who permits himself to be bedeviled by the +file who won't or can't keep step cannot do justice to the ambitions +of the 10 strongest men beneath him, upon whom the life of the +formation would depend, come an emergency. To nourish and encourage +the top rather than to concentrate effort and exhaust nerves in trying +to correct the few least likely prospects is the healthy way of growth +within military organization. + +Not all men are fitted by nature for the precisions of life in a +barracks. They may accept its discipline while not being able to +adjust to its rhythm. The normal temptation to despair of them needs +to be resisted if only for the reason experience has proved they +sometimes make the best men in combat. There are many types which fit +into this category--the foreigner but recently arrived in America, +the miner who has spent most of his years underground, the boy from +the sticks who has known only the plough and furrow, the woodsman, the +reservation Indian, and the men of all races who have had hard +taskmasters or other misfortune in their civilian sphere, and expect +to be hurt again. It is not unusual for this kind of material to show +badly in training because of an ingrained fear of other men. At the +same time, they can face mortal danger. _To harass the man who is +trying, but can't quite do it, therefore cuts double against the +strength of organization. It may ruin the man; it may also give his +comrades the feeling that he isn't getting a decent break._ + +The military crowd requires, above all, maturity of judgment in its +leaders. It cannot be patronized safely. Nor can it be treated in the +classroom manner, as if wisdom were being dispensed to schoolboys. +When it has been remiss, it expects to catch unshirted hell for its +failings, and though it may smart under a just bawling out, it will +feel let down if the commander quibbles. But any officer puts himself +on a skid, and impairs the strength of his unit, if he takes to task +all hands because of the wilful failings of a minority. Strength comes +to men when they feel that they are grown up and as a body are in +control and under control, since it amounts to the same thing; it is +only when men unite toward a common purpose that control becomes +possible. In this respect, the servant is in fact the master of the +situation, fully realizes it, and is not unprepared to accept +proportionate responsibility. + +It is a sign of a good level of discipline in a command when orders +are given and faithfully carried out. But it is a sign of a vastly +superior condition when men are prepared to demand those orders which +they know the situation requires, if it is to be helped. No competent +subordinate sits around waiting for someone else to give impulse to +movement if his senses tell him that things are going to pot. He +either suggests a course of action to his superior, or asks authority +to execute it on his own, or in the more desperate circumstances of +the battlefield, gives orders on his own initiative. To counsel any +lesser theory of individual responsibility than this would leave +every chain of command at the complete mercy of its weakest link, and +throughout the general establishment, would choke the fount of +inspiration which comes of the upward thrust of energy and of ideas. + +This latter characteristic in the masses of men composing any +organization is the final statement of moral responsibility for +success. Within military forces, an element of command is owned by +every man who is doing his duty with intelligence and imagination. +That puts him on the side of the angels, and the pressure which he +exerts is felt not only by his subordinates but by those topside who +are doing less. Many a lazy skipper has snapped out of it and at last +begun to level with his organization because he felt the hot breath of +a few earnest subordinates on his neck. Many a battle unit has held to +ground which it had been ready to forsake because of the example of an +aid man who stayed at his work and refused to forsake the wounded. +Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower was thinking on these things when he said +during World War II: "There is among the mass of individuals who carry +rifles in war a great amount of ingenuity and efficiency. If men can +talk naturally to their officers, the product of their resourcefulness +becomes available to all." But the art of open communication requires +both receiving and sending, and the besetting problem is to get +officers to talk naturally to men. + +In the seventeenth century Marshal Maurice de Saxe rediscovered +cadenced marching which, along with the hard-surfaced roads of France, +had remained buried since the time of the Romans. He reinstituted +precision marching and drill within military bodies, and by that +action changed European armies from straggling mobs into disciplined +troops. The effects of that reform have been felt right down to the +present. Baron von Steuben, the great reorganizer of the forces in +George Washington's Army, simply built upon the principles which de +Saxe had set forth one century earlier. These two great architects of +military organization founded their separate systems upon one +controlling idea--that _if men can be trained to think about moving +together, they can then be led to move toward thinking together_. De +Saxe wanted keen men, not automatons; in that, he was singular among +the captains of his day. He started the numbering of regiments so that +they would have a continuing history and thereby benefit from _esprit +de corps_. He was the first to see the great importance of battle +colors and to standardize their use. Of his own military opinions he +wrote: "Experts should not be offended by the assurance with which I +deliver my opinions. They should correct them; that is the fruit I +expect from my work." + +Now to take a look at von Steuben. He was the drillmaster of the +American Revolution, but he was also its greatest student of the human +mind and heart. He wrote the drill regulations of the Army, and as he +wrote, committed them to memory. Of his labors he said: "I dictated my +dispositions in the night; in the day I had them performed." But he +learned the nature of the human material for which he thought these +exercises were suited by visiting the huts of the half-clad soldiers +of Valley Forge, personally inspecting their neglected weapons and +hearing from their own lips of their sufferings. His main technic in +installing his system was to depend upon the appeal of a powerful +example; to allay all doubt of exactly what was wanted, he formed a +model company and drilled it himself. He was a natural man; troops +warmed to him because of an unabashed use of broken English and his +violently explosive use, under stress, of "gottam!" which was his only +quasi-English oath. In countenance he was strikingly like Gen. George +S. Patton and there were other points of resemblance. A private +soldier at Valley Forge was impressed with "the trappings of his +pistols, the enormous holsters of his pistols, his large size, his +strikingly martial aspect." But while he liked to dine with great men +at his table, he chose to complete his list with officers of inferior +rank. Once at Valley Forge he permitted his aides to give a dinner for +junior officers on condition that none should be admitted that had on +a whole pair of breeches. This was making the most of adversity. While +wearing two stars and serving as Inspector General of the Army, he +would still devote his whole day to the drilling of a squad of 10 or +12 men to get his system going. To a former Prussian associate he +wrote this of Americans: "You say to your soldier, 'Do this!' and he +doeth it; but I am obliged to say, 'This is the reason that you ought +to do that,' and then he does it." + +This was the key to the phenomenal success of his system. Within 6 +weeks after he began work at Valley Forge, the Continental Army was on +a new footing of self-confidence. His personal diligence in inquiring +into the conduct of all officers toward their men, and his zeal in +checking the accoutrement and carriage of every soldier established +within the Army its first standard of inspection. Officers began to +divide their scant rations with their men so that they would look +better. But though he drilled the men of Valley Forge in marching and +maneuver, Steuben paid no attention to the manual of arms, and let +that wait until after he had gone into battle with these same forces. +He explained why in these words: "Every colonel had introduced a +system of his own and those who had taken the greatest pains were +naturally the most attached to their work. Had I destroyed their +productions, they would have detested me. I therefore preferred to pay +no special attention to this subject until I had won their +confidence." To take hold at the essential point and postpone action +on the relatively unimportant, to respect a worthy pride and natural +dignity in other men, and finally, to demonstrate that there is a +better way in order to win men's loyalty and to use loyalty as the +portal to more constructive collective thought--all of these morals +shine in this one object lesson. The most revealing light upon the +character of Steuben comes of the episode in which he had one +Lieutenant Gibbons arrested for an offense, which he later learned +another had committed. He then went before the Regiment. It was +raining hard, but he bared his head and asked Gibbons to come forward. +"Sir," he said, "the fault which was committed might, in the presence +of an enemy, have been fatal. Your Colonel tells me you are blameless. +I ask your pardon. Return to your command." + +Mistakes will occur. Tempers will go off half-cocked even among men +of good habit. Action will be taken on impulse rather than full +information, despite every warning as to its danger. But no officer +who has ever done serious injustice to a subordinate can do less than +Steuben did, if he wants to keep respect. Admiral Halsey wrote about +how he had once relieved one of his Captains in battle, found months +later that he had misjudged him, and then tried by every means within +his power to make redress. + +The main connecting link between the perfecting of group action in +training and the end product of unity and economy of operations in +battle has never been better than imperfectly expressed even by such +masters as de Saxe and von Steuben, who felt it by profound instinct. +The time-honored explanation is that when men accustom themselves to +obeying orders, the time ultimately arrives when they will obey by +habit, and that the habit will carry over into any set of +circumstances requiring response to orders. This has the quality of +relative truth; it is true so far as it goes, but it undersells the +major values. + +The heterogeneous crowd is swayed by the voices of instinct. Properly +trained, any military unit, being a homogeneous body, should be swayed +by the voice of training. Out of uniformity of environment comes +uniformity of character and spirit. From moving and acting together +men grow to depend upon, and to support, each other, and to +subordinate their individual wills to the will of the leader. And if +that were all that training profited them, they would rarely win a +battle or a skirmish under modern conditions! + +Today the supreme value of any training at arms which fixes habit is +that, under conditions of absolute pressure, it enables men to take +the primary steps essential to basic security without too great taxing +of their mental faculties and moral powers; this leaves their senses +relatively free to cope with the unexpected. The unforeseen +contingency invariably happens in battle, and its incidence supplies +the supreme test of the efficacy of any training method. Surprise has +no regard for the importance of rank; in combat any unit's fortune may +pivot on the judgment and initiative of the file who has last joined +it. Therefore the moral object in training is stated without any +qualification in words once used by a wise Frenchman, Dr. Maurice +Campeaux: "_It should be the subordination of the individual's will to +the leader's, and not its surrender or destruction._" All training at +all levels has a dual object--to develop us all as leaders of men and +followers of leaders. Its technics are most perfect when they serve +evenly these parallel purposes. In consequence, when any officer +thinks only on: "What is policy?" rather than: "What should policy be +for the good of the service?" he has trained his sights too low. + +Even in modern warfare, however, there are exceptional circumstances +in which success is altogether dependent upon the will and judgment of +the leader, and undeviating response to his orders. The commander of a +buttoned-up tank is the master of its fortunes, and what happens for +better or worse is according to the strength of his personal control. +Within a submerged submarine during action, the situation is still +more remarkable. Only one man, the commander of the ship, can see what +is occurring, and he only with one eye; the resolving of every +situation depends on his judgment as to what should be done. Yet those +who have the surest knowledge of this service have said that the main +problem in submarine warfare is to find a sufficient body of officers +who will rise superior to the intricacies of their complicated +machines, and will make their own opportunities and take advantage of +them. That is hardly unique. The same quality is the hallmark of +greatness in any individual serving with a combat arm. The military +crowd will double its effort for a leader when success rides on his +coattails; but he needs first to capture their loyalty by keeping his +contracts with them, sweetening the ties of organization, and +convincing them that he is a man to be followed. His luck (which +despite all platitudes to the contrary is an element in success) +begins when his men start to believe that he was born under a lucky +star. But they are not apt to be so persuaded unless he can make his +outfit shine in comparison with all others. The best argument for +establishing a low VD score and a high disciplinary and deportment +record within any unit is that it convinces higher authority that the +unit is well run and is trying, and is therefore entitled to any extra +consideration that may be requested. All who have been closely +identified with the inner working of any higher headquarters in the +American establishment know that it works this way. On the other hand, +the fundamental idea is almost as old as the hills. Turning back to +Cicero, we will find these words: "Neither the physician nor the +general can ever, however praiseworthy he may be in the theory of his +art, perform anything highly worthwhile without experience in the +rules laid down for the observation of all small duties." The Old +Roman added that between men nothing is so binding as a similarity of +good dispositions. + +Within the military crowd, and granting to each the same quality of +human material, the problem of achieving organic unity in the face of +the enemy is one thing on a ship, and quite another among +land-fighting forces. Loyalty to the ship itself provides an extra and +incisive bond among naval forces. Given steadiness in the command, men +will fight the ship to the limit, if only for the reason that if they +fail to do so, there is no place to go but down. The physical setting +of duty is defined by material objects close at hand. The individual +has only to fit himself into an already predetermined frame. He knows +when he is derelict, and he knows further that his dereliction can +hardly escape the eye of his comrades. The words: "Now Hear This!" +have the particular significance that they bespeak the collected +nature of naval forces, and the essential unifying force of complete +communications. + +If the situation were as concrete, and the integrating influences as +pervading among field forces as in the Navy, land warfare would be +relieved of a great part of its frictions. Except among troops +defending a major fortress with all-around protection, there is no +such possibility. Field movement is always diffusing. As fire builds +up against the line, its members have less and less a sense of each +other, and a feeling that as individuals they are getting support. +Each man is at the mercy of the contact with some other file, and when +the contact breaks, he sees only blackness in the enveloping +situation. Men then have to turn physically back toward each other to +regain the feeling of strength which comes of organization. That, in +brief, is the mathematical and psychological reason why salients into +an enemy line invariably take the form of a wedge; it comes of the +movements of unnerved and aimless men huddling toward each other like +sheep awaiting the voice of the shepherd. The natural instincts +intervene ever in the absence of strong leadership. Said the French +General de Maud'huy: "However perfectly trained a company may be it +always tends to become once again the crowd when suddenly shocked." + +But the priceless advantage which may be instilled in the military +crowd by a proper training is that it also possesses the means of +recovery. That possibility--the resolution of order out of +chaos--reposes within every file who has gained within the service a +confidence that he has some measure of influence among his fellows. +The welfare of the unit machinery depends upon having the greatest +possible number of human shock absorbers--men who in the worst hour +are capable of stepping forward and saying: "This calls for something +extra and that means me." The restoration of control upon the +battlefield, and the process of checking fright and paralysis and +turning men back to essential tactical duties, does not come simply of +constituted authority again finding its voice and articulating its +strength to the extremities of the unit boundary. Control is a +man-to-man force under fire. No matter how lowly his rank, any man who +controls himself contributes to the control of others. A private can +steady a general as surely as a cat can look at a king. There is no +better ramrod for the back of a senior, who is beginning to buckle, +than the sight of a junior who has kept his nerve. Land battles, as to +the fighting part, are won by the intrepidity of men in grade from +private to captains mainly. Fear is contagious but courage is not less +so. The courage of any one man reflects in some degree the courage of +all those who are within his vision. To the man who is in terror and +bordering on panic, no influence can be more steadying than that of +seeing some other man near him who is retaining self-control and doing +his duty. + +The paralysis which comes of fear can be lifted only through the +resumption of action which will again give individuals the feeling of +organization. This does not mean ordering a bayonet charge, or the +firing of a volley at such-and-such o'clock. It may mean only patting +one man on the back, "talking it up" to a couple of others, sending +someone out to find a flank, or turning one's self to dig-in, while +passing the word to others to do likewise. This is action in the +realest sense of the term. _Out of reinvigorating men toward the +taking of many small actions develops the possibility of large and +decisive action._ The unit must first find itself before doing an +effective job of finding the enemy. Out of those acts which are +incidental to the establishing of order, a leader reaffirms his own +power of decision. + +Such things are elementary, and of the very nature of the fire fight. +While there is much more to be said about the play of moral forces in +the trial and success of the group under combat conditions, most of it +is to be learned from other sources, and it is the duty of every +officer to study all that he can of this subject, and apply it to what +he does in his daily rounds. + +_There is no rule pertaining to the moral unifying of military forces +under the pressures of the battlefield which is not equally good in +the training which conditions troops for this eventuality._ For the +group to feel a great spiritual solidarity, and for its members to be +bound together by mutual confidence and the satisfactions of a +rewarding comradeship, is the foundation of great enterprise. But it +is not more than that. Unaccompanied by a strengthening of the +military virtues and a rise in the martial spirit, a friendly unity +will not of itself point men directly toward the main object in +training, nor enable them to dispose themselves efficiently toward +each other on entering battle. + +It does not make the military man less an agent of peace and more a +militarist that he relishes his membership within a fighting +establishment and thinks those thoughts which would best put his arms +to efficient use. The military establishment neither declares nor +makes war; these are acts by the nation. But it is the duty of the +military establishment primarily to succor the nation from any great +jeopardy. + + + + +CHAPTER THIRTEEN + +ENVIRONMENT + + +The saying of the Old Sergeant that, "It takes a war to knock the hell +out of the Regular Army," applies as broadly to war's effects upon the +general peacetime establishment. + +In the rapid expansion of the armed service which comes of a national +emergency, nothing seems to remain the same. Old units fill up, and +change their character. By the time they have sent out three or four +cadres of commissioned and enlisted leaders to form the base for +entirely new organizations, little remains of the moral foundation of +the parent unit except an honored name. + +Promotion is rapid and moves are frequent among the higher commanders. +No sooner does a man feel fairly settled under a new commander, and +confident that he will get along, than he looks up to see someone else +filling the space. + +Installations grow like mushrooms. Schools multiply at a phenomenal +rate. The best qualified men are taken away so that they will become +better qualified, either by taking an officers' course or through +specialist training. Their places are taken by men who may have an +equal native ability, but haven't yet mastered the tricks of the +trade. This piles high the load of work on those who command. + +The intake and the pipelines in all services fill with men of a quite +different fiber and outlook than those which commonly pass through the +peacetime training establishment. + +Particularly in the drafts which flow to the army there is a curious +mixture of the good with the bad. The illiterates, the low IQs and the +men who are physically a few notches below par are passed for service, +though under normal conditions the recruiting standards shut them out. +At the other end of the scale are the highly educated men from the +colleges, and the robust individuals from the factory and farm. In +natural quality they are as well suited to the service as any who seek +it out in peacetime, but in disposition they are likely to be a +little less tractable. On the whole, however, there is no radical +difference between them, if we look at both groups simply as training +problems for the study of the officer. + +In the midst of war, when all else is in flux, at least one thing +stands fast. The methods, the self-discipline, and the personality +which will best enable the officer to command efficiently during peace +are identical with the requirements which fit him to shape new +material most perfectly under the conditions of war. + +This is only another way of saying that for his own success, in +addition to the solid qualities which win him the respect of other +men, when war comes, he needs a vast adaptability and a confidence +which will carry over from one situation to another, or he will have +no peace of mind. + +It is only to the man who is burdened with unnecessary and exaggerated +fears, and who mistakes for a fancied security the privilege of +sitting quietly in one place, that the uprooting which comes with war +is demoralizing. The natural officer sees it as an hour of +opportunity, and though he may not like anything else about war, he at +least relishes the strong feeling of personal contention which always +develops when there are many openings inviting many men. As one World +War II commander expressed it: "During war the ball is always kicking +around loose in the middle of the field and any man who has the will +may pick it up and run with it." + +Promotion, however, and the invitation to try one's hand at some +greater venture, do not come automatically to an officer because of +the onset of war. The man who had marked time on his job becomes +relatively worse off, not only because the competition is keener, but +because in lieu of anything which marks him for preferment, there is +no good reason why he should get it. Years of service are not to a +man's credit short of some positive proof that the years have been +well used. The following are among the reasons why certain officers +are marked for high places and find the door wide open, come an +emergency: + + A consistently superior showing in the efficiency reports. + + A record showing that they have done well in service schools. + + The ability to attract the eye of some high-placed superior by + exceptional performance on maneuvers, in committee work or any + other testing problem. + + In addition to general dutifulness, the development to a + conspicuous degree of the special talents such as writing, + instructing, lecturing and staff administration. + + Fluency in other languages. + + Wide and resourceful study in the fields of military history, + military geography, national military policy and logistics. + + The advancement of an original idea which has led to a general + improvement in any one service. + +Any and all of these are extra strings to one's bow. They are the +means to greater satisfaction during peacetime employment and the +source of great personal advantage during the shooting season. But +they should not be mistaken for the main thing. _To excell in command, +and to be recognized as deserving of it, is the rightful ambition of +every service officer and his main hold on the probabilities of +getting wider recognition._ + +This holds true of the man who is so patently a specialist that it +would be wrong to waste him in a command responsibility. If he +understands the art of command, and his personality and moral +fortitude fit him for the leading of men, he will be in better +adjustment with his circumstances anywhere in the services, and will +be given greater respect by his superiors. This rule is so absolute in +its workings as to warrant saying that _every man who wears the +insignia of an officer in the armed forces of the United States should +aspire to the same bearing and the same inner confidence as to his +power to meet other men and move them in the direction he desires that +is to be marked in a superior company commander_. + +The natural leader is the real specialist of the armed services. He is +as prodigious, and as much a man apart, as the wizard who has mastered +supersonic speeds. Here we speak not alone of the ability of an +officer fully to control and develop his element under training +conditions, but to take the same element into battle and conserve the +total of its powers with complete efficiency. The man who resolves to +develop within himself the prerequisite qualities which serve such an +object is moved by the worthiest of all ambitions, for he has +submitted himself to the most complex task within human reach. + +The self-assurance that one has promise in the field of command is in +part a derivative of growth and in part a matter of instinct. But to +the normal young officer, it comes as something of a delightful +surprise to learn that when he speaks other men will listen, when he +reasons they will become convinced, and when he gives an order his +authority is accepted. Far from being a bad quality, this +ingenuousness is wholesome because it reflects warm appreciation of +what has been given him. It does not lessen confidence if a commander +feels this way about those who are within his charge throughout his +service. The best results flow when the working loyalty of other men +is accepted like manna from heaven, with gratitude rather than with +gratification. _Simply to feel that it is one's rightful portion is +the best proof that it is not, and leads to cockiness, windiness, and +self-adulation, with attendant loss of the sympathy of other men._ The +consequence to the individual whose dream of success is only that he +will take on more and more authority is that he will suffer from a +more and more one-sided development. The great philosopher, Albert +Schweitzer, holds up to other self-reliant men the example of Defoe's +hero, Robinson Crusoe, because he is continually reflecting on the +subject of human conduct and he feels himself so responsible for this +duty that when he gets in a fight he thinks about how he can win it +with the smallest loss of human life. _The conservation of men's +powers, not the spending thereof, is the object of main concern to the +truly qualified military commander._ + +At the same time, there should be no mistake about the manner in which +command is exercised. To command is not simply to compel or to +convince but a subtle mixture of both. Moral suasion and material +compulsion are linked in its every act. _It involves not only saying +that this is the best thing to do but inferring that the thing had +best be done._ Force and reason are inseparably linked in its nature, +and the force of reason is not more important than the reason of +force, if the matter is to be brought to a successful issue. _The +very touchstone of loyalty is that just demands will be put upon it._ +It cannot endure and strengthen except through finding material means +of expression. When men are given absolute freedom, with no compulsion +upon them but to eat and sleep, as with a group of South Sea savages, +there can be no strong, uniting bond between them. As for absolute +security, outside of the walls of a penitentiary it is virtually +nonexistent, though one would scarcely look inside the walls expecting +to find loyalty. In brief, being an active force in the lives of +humankind, _loyalty is developed through the unifying of action_. _The +more decisive the action becomes, the greater becomes the vitality of +the bond._ Service men look back with an esteem, amounting almost to +the love that a son feels for his father, toward the captains who led +them well on the battlefield. But the best skipper they ever had on a +training detail gets hardly more than a kind word. + +It has already been said that the man with a preeminent ability to +organize and direct the action of the military group has an +outstanding and greatly prized talent. The assumption that the holder +of a commission in an armed service of the United States is possessed +of this quality to a degree goes with the commission; lacking it, the +warrant would have been withheld. But all men vary in their capacities +to respond confidently to any particular situation. Some, no matter +how hard they try, lack the keen edge. + +To the officer who discovers that he is especially suited, by +temperament and liking, to the leading of combat forces, it comes, +therefore, almost as a personal charge that he will let nothing +dissuade him from the conviction that his post of duty is with the +line. Though he may seek other temporary duty to advance his own +knowledge and interests, he should remain mentally wedded to that +which he does best, and which most other men find difficult. + +If it is a good rule for him, it applies just as well to all others +within his charge. This means close attention to the careers of all +junior leaders from the enlisted ranks, toward the end that the +fighting strength of the establishment will be conserved. The +personnel people will sometimes scuttle a fine natural leader of a +tactical platoon, simply because they have discovered that in civilian +life he ran a garage and there is a vacancy for a motor pool operator, +or switch a gunner who is zealous for his new work back to a place in +the rear, because the record book says that he is an erstwhile, though +reluctant, keeper of books. From their point of view, this makes +sense. But they are not always aware of how difficult and essential it +is to find men who can lead at fighting. It is a point which all +officers need ponder, for in our modern enthusiasm over the marvels +that can be worked by a classification system, we tend to overlook +that fighting power is the main thing, and that the best hands are not +to be found behind every bush. + +When war comes, there are vast changes in the tempo and pressure of +life within the armed establishment. Faced with new and unmeasured +responsibility, almost every man would be depressed by the feeling +that he is out far beyond his depth, if he were not buoyed by the +knowledge that every other man is in like case, and that all things +are relative. Once these points are recognized, the experience becomes +exalting. A relatively junior officer finds himself able confidently +to administer a policy applying to an entire service; a bureau, which +might have been laboring to save money in the purchase of carpet tacks +and pins, becomes suddenly confronted with the task of spending +billions, and of getting action whatever the cost. + +But despite the radical change in the scale of operations, the lines +laid down for the conduct of business remain the same. The regulations +under which the armed services proceed are written for peace and war, +and cover all contingencies in either situation. The course of conduct +which is set forth for an officer under training conditions is the +standard he is expected to follow when war comes. Administration is +carried out according to the same rules, though it is probably true +that there is less "paper doll cutting"--meaning that the tide of +paper work, though larger in volume, is more to the point. To the +young officer, it must oftentime seem that, under peacetime training +conditions, he is being called on constantly to read reports which +should never have been written in the first place and is required to +write memoranda which no one should be forced to read in the second +place. For that matter, the same thought occurs not infrequently to +many of his seniors. But there is this main point in rebuttal--it is +all a part of the practice and conditioning for a game which is in +deadly earnest when war comes. If the armed services in peace were to +limit correspondence up and down the line to those things which were +either routine or altogether vital, few men would develop a facility +at staff procedures. + +In one sense, the same generalization applies to the workings of the +security system. There is the common criticism that the services +always tend to over-classify papers, and make work for themselves by +their careful safeguarding of "secrets" in which no one is interested. +The idea is not without warrant; part of the trouble stems from the +fact that the line between what can safely be made of public knowledge +and what can not is impossible of clear definition. Hence the only +safe rule-of-thumb is, "When in doubt, classify." There is, however, +the other point that it is only through officers learning how to +safeguard security, handle papers according to the regulations, and +keep a tightly buttoned lip on all things which are essentially the +business of the service during peacetime that they acquire the +disciplined habit of which matures not only their personal success but +the national safety when war comes. + +Oftentimes the rules seem superfluous. A man scans a paper and sees +that the contents are innocuous, and ignoring the stamp, he leaves the +document on his desk, because he is too lazy to unlock the file. _But +the rules mean exactly what they say, and because their purpose is of +final importance to the nation, they will be enforced._ There is no +surer way for an officer to blight an otherwise promising career than +to become careless about security matters. The superior who looks +lightly on such an offense is but seeking trouble for himself. + +Even so, it is to be observed that regulations are a general guide to +conduct, and though they mean what they say they are not utterly +inflexible. One must not be like the half-wit described by Col. +George F. Baltzell to his trainees during World War I. Joe had +attached himself to the Confederate command of the Colonel's father, +whose last chore before turning in was to post the boy. One night in a +Virginia Tidewater operation, Joe was told to stay by a stump until +morning. At dawn the unit was moving out in a fog when the elder +Baltzell bethought himself of Joe. Down by the riverside his cries +finally brought a faint answer through the mist, "Here I is." "What +are you doing there, boy?" barked the officer, "I told you not to +move." "I hain't moved, sir," replied the invisible Joe, up to his +neck in water, "the river done riz." An occasional unforeseen +circumstance arises in which it is nonsensical, or even impossible, to +adhere to the letter of regulations, as of orders. It is then +essential that an officer use plain common sense, acting according to +the spirit of the regulation, so that it is clearly manifest he did +the best possible thing within the determining set of conditions. For +example, in the European Theater, the Historian had charge of 32 tons +of documents, all classified "Confidential," "Secret" or "Top Secret." +There were not enough safes or secured files in the whole of France to +hold this material, which meant that established procedures could not +be followed. A permanent guard and watch was put on the archive. +Wooden cases were made from scrap lumber. Ample fire-fighting +equipment was brought in. Personnel was drilled in evacuating the +material in its order of importance, should fire occur. The setup was +inspected twice daily by the commander or his executive. Though these +arrangements still fell short of the letter of regulations, they +perforce had to satisfy any inspector because there was no sounder +alternative. + +When circumstances require any officer to take a course which, while +appearing in his view to be in the best interests of the service, runs +counter to the lines of action laid down by constituted authority, he +has the protection that he may always ask for a court to pass judgment +on what he had done. We are all prone to associate the court martial +process only with the fact of punishment, but it is also a shield +covering official integrity. The privilege of appealing to the +judgment and sense of fair play in a group of one's fellow officers +is a very comforting thing in any emergency situation, requiring a +desperate decision, and engaging conflicting interests. It gives one a +feeling of backing even when circumstances are such that one is making +a lonely decision. Almost needless to say, cases of this sort are far +more likely to occur in war than during peace. + +Inspection takes on a somewhat different hue during war. It becomes +more frequent but, on the whole, less zealous with respect to +spit-and-polish and less captious about the many little things which +promote good order and appearance throughout the general +establishment. This condition is accentuated as organizations move +closer to the zone of fire. Higher authority becomes more engrossed in +the larger affairs of operation. At all levels more and more time is +taken in dealing with the next level above, which means that less and +less can be given to looking at the structure down below. + +What then is the key to over-all soundness in the services in any hour +of great national peril? This, that in all services, at all times and +at all levels, each officer is vigilant to see that his own unit, +section or office is inspection-proof by every test which higher +authority might apply. + +It should not require the visit of an inspector to any installation to +apprise those who are in charge as to what is being badly done. + +The standards are neither complex nor arbitrary. They can be easily +learned. Thereafter, all that is needed are the eyes to see and the +will to insist firmly that correction be made. + +In officership, there is simply no substitute for personal +reconnaissance, nor any other technique that in the long run will have +half its value. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, the first leader of our +independent Air Force, was so renowned for this disciplined habit of +getting everywhere and seeing everything that, even when he was a +relatively young major, a story about his ubiquitousness gained +service-wide fame. An ailing recruit was being examined by a doctor at +March Field. "Do you see spots before your eyes?" the doctor asked. +"Heavens," groaned the recruit. "Do I have to see him in here, too?" + +Once formed, the habit of getting down to the roots of organization, +of seeing with one's own eyes what is taking place, of measuring it +against one's own scale of values, of ordering such changes as are +needed, and of following-through to make certain that the changes are +made, becomes the mainspring of all efficient command action. + +In battle, there is no other way to be sure. In training, there is no +better way to move toward self-assurance. + + + + +CHAPTER FOURTEEN + +THE MISSION + + +There is a main reason why the word "mission" has an especial +appropriateness to the military services and implies something beyond +the call of duty. The arms of the United States do not advance simply +through the process of correct orders being given and then executed +with promptness, vigor, and intelligence. + +That is the greater part of the task, but it is by no means all. +Military systems reflect the limitations and imperfections of their +human material. Whatever his station, and experience, no man is wise +enough and all-seeing enough that he can encompass every factor in a +given problem, take correct judgment on every area of weakness, +foresee all of that which has not yet happened, and then write the +perfect analysis and solution for the guidance of his subordinates. + +The perfecting of operations, and the elimination of grit from the +machinery, therefore become the concern of _all_, directing their +thought and purpose to the doing of whatever needs to be done to +further the harmony and efficiency of the establishment, taking +personal action where it is within their province, or calling the +matter to the attention of higher authority when it is not. In this +direct sense, every ensign and second lieutenant has a personal +responsibility for the general well-being of the security structure of +the United States. This is fact, and not theory. In World War II, many +of the practical ideas which were made of universal application in the +services were initiated by men of very junior rank. But the extent to +which any man's influence may be felt beyond his immediate circle +depends first of all upon the thoroughness with which he executes his +assigned duties, since nothing else will give his superiors confidence +in his judgments. It is only when he is exacting in small things, and +is careful to "close the circuit" on every minor assignment, that he +qualifies himself to think and act constructively in larger matters, +through book study and imaginative observation of the situation which +surrounds him. At this stage, an officer is well on the road to the +accomplishment of his general mission. + +When an order is given, what are the responsibilities of the man who +receives it? In sequence, these: + + To be certain that he understands what is required. + + To examine and organize his resources as promptly as possible. + + Fully to inform his subordinates on these points. + + To execute the order without waste of time or means. + + To call for support if events prove that his means are inadequate. + + To fill up the spaces in the orders if there are developments + which had not been anticipated. + + When the detail is complete, to prepare to go on to something + else. + +Lt. Gen. Sir Frederick Morgan, who planned the invasion of Normandy, +put the matter this way: "When setting out on any enterprise, it is as +well to ask oneself three questions. To whom is one responsible? For +precisely what is one responsible? What are the means at one's +disposal for discharging this responsibility?" + +Nothing so warms the heart of a superior as that, on giving an order, +he sees his subordinate salute, say "Yes sir," then about face and +proceed to carry it out to the hilt, without faltering or looking +back. This is the kind of man that a commander will choose to have +with him every time, and that he will recommend first for advancement. + +On the other hand, clarification of the object is not only a right but +a duty, and it cuts both ways. Orders are not always clear, and no +superior is on firm ground when he is impatient of questions which are +to the point, or resentful of the man who asks them. But it is natural +that he will be doubtful of the man whose words show either that he +hasn't heard or is concerned mainly with irrelevencies. The +cultivation of the habit of careful, concentrated listening, and of +collected thought in reading into any problem, is a principal portal +to successful officership. + +To say that promptness and positiveness in the execution of a mission +are at all times major virtues does not imply that the good man, like +an old fire horse, moves out instantly at the clang of a bell. +Soundness of action involves a sense of timing. Thoroughness is the +way of duty, rather than a speed which goes off half-cocked. There is +frequently a time for waiting; there is always time for acute +reflection. The brain which works "like a steel trap" exists only in +fiction. Even such men as General Eisenhower, or Admiral Nimitz, or +for that matter, Gen. U. S. Grant, have at times deferred decision +temporarily while waiting for a change in tide or circumstance to help +them make up their minds. This is normal in the rational individual; +it is not a sign of weakness. Rather than to cultivate a belief in +one's own infallibility, the mature outlook for the military man is +best expressed in the injunction of the Apostle Paul: "_Let all things +be done decently and in order._" Grant, wrote of the early stage of +his advance on Richmond: "At this time I was not entirely decided as +to how I should move my Army." From the pen of General Eisenhower come +these words: "The commander's success will be measured more by his +ability to lead than by his adherence to fixed notions." Thus, in the +conduct of operations not less than in the execution of orders, it is +necessary that the mind remain plastic and impressionable. + +Within military organization, to refuse an order is unthinkable, +though to muster a case showing why some other order would serve in +its place is not undutiful in an individual subordinate, any more than +in a staff. By the same rule, insistence that an order be carried out +undeviatingly, simply because it has been given, does not of itself +win respect for the authority uttering it. Its modification, however, +should never be in consequence of untempered pressure from below. To +change or rescind is justified only when reestimate of all of the +available facts indicates that some other order will serve the general +purpose more efficiently. + +Taking counsel of subordinates in any enterprise or situation is +therefore a matter of giving them full advantage of one's own +information and reasoning, weighing with the intellect whatever +thought or argument they may contribute to the sum of considerations, +and then making, without compromise, a clean decision as to the line +of greatest advantage. To know how to command obedience is a very +different thing from making men obey. Obedience is not the product of +fear, but of understanding, and understanding is based on knowledge. + +On D-day in Normandy, Lt. Turner B. Turnbull undertook to do with his +platoon of 42 men a task which had been intended for a battalion; he +was to block the main road to enemy forces pressing south from the +Cherbourg area against the American right flank. In early morning he +engaged a counterattacking enemy battalion, supported by mortars and a +self-propelled gun at the village of Neuville au Plain. The platoon +held its ground throughout the day. By dusk the enemy had closed wide +around both its flanks and was about to cut the escape route. Turnbull +had 23 men left. He said to the others, "There's one thing left to do; +we can charge them." Pfc. Joseph Sebastian, who had just returned from +reconnoitering to the rear, said, "I think there's a chance we can +still get out; that's what we ought to do." Turnbull asked of his men, +"What's your judgment?" They supported Sebastian as having the sounder +idea. In a twinkling Turnbull made his decision. He told the others to +get set for the run; he was losing men even while he talked; he +ordered that the 12 wounded were to be left behind. Corp. James Kelly, +first aid man, said he would stay with the wounded. Pfc Sebastian, who +had argued Turnbull into a withdrawal, volunteered to stand his ground +and cover the others with a BAR. Corp. Raymond Smitson said he would +stay by Sebastian and support him with hand grenades. Sgt. Robert +Niland started for one of the machine guns, to help Smitson and +Sebastian in covering the withdrawal, but was shot dead by a German +closing in with a machine pistol before he could reach it. The 16 +remaining survivors took off like so many shots fired from a pistol, +at full speed but at intervals, to minimize the target. All got back +to their Battalion, though Turnbull was killed in action a few days +later. Their 1-day fight had preserved the flank of an Army. For +economy of effort, and power of decision, there is not a brighter +example in the whole book of war. + +To encourage subordinates to present their views, and to weigh them in +the light of reason, is at the same time the surest way to win their +confidence and to refine one's own information and judgments. However, +to leave final decision to them in matters which are clearly in the +area of one's own responsibility, is fatal to the character of self +and to the integrity of the force. + +Any officer is one among many. Behind the smallest unit is the total +power of the combined services. In the main, effectiveness develops +out of unity of effort. To commit one's force to desperate, unhelped +enterprises, when there is support at hand which may be had for the +asking, may be one road to glory, but it is certainly not the path to +success in War. The Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava was made +immortal by Tennyson's poem, but it was as foolhardy as asking a troop +of Boy Scouts to capture Gibraltar. In battle, a main obligation of +those who lead is to make constant resurvey of the full horizon of +their resources and means of possible support. This entails in time of +peace the acquisition of a great body of knowledge seemingly unrelated +to the administration of one's immediate affairs. It entails, also, +facing forthrightly toward every task, or assignment, giving it a full +try, sweating out every obstacle, but not being ashamed to ask for +help or counsel if it proves to be beyond one's powers. _To give it +everything, though not quite making the grade personally, is merely an +exercise in character building. But to have the mission fail because +of false pride is inexcusable._ + +The prayer that Sir Francis Drake wrote down for his men as he led +them forth to a great adventure might well be repeated by any leader +in the hour when he begins to despair because in spite of his striving +he has not gained all he sought: "O Lord God, when Thou givest to thy +servants to endeavour any great matter, grant us also to know that it +is not the beginning, but the continuing of the same until it is +thoroughly finished, which yieldeth the true glory." + +The courage to start will carry a man far. Under the conditions of +either war or peace, it is astonishing how many times all things come +in balance for the man who is less fearful of rebuff than of being +counted a cypher. One of Britain's great armored leaders, Lt. Gen. Sir +Giffard Martel, digested the lesson of his whole life experience into +this sentence: "If you take a chance, it usually succeeds, +presupposing good judgment." Finally, it comes to that, for the +willingness to accept calculated risks is of the essence of effective +personal performance within the military profession. There must be +careful collection of data. There must be weighty consideration of all +known and knowable factors in the given situation. But beyond these +things, what? + +To convey the idea that an officer must by ingrained habit dispose +himself to take action only after he has arrived at an exact formula, +pointing exclusively in one direction, would mean only that under the +conditions of war he could never get off his trousers-seat. For such +fullness of information and confidence of situation are not given to +combat commanders once in a lifetime. + +It is customary to treat "estimate of situation" as if it were pure +mathematical process, pointing almost infallibly to a definite result. +But this is contrary to nature. The mind of man does not work that +way, nor is it consistent with operational realities. Senior +commanders are as prone as even the newest junior lieutenant to labor +in perplexity between two opposing courses of action during times of +crisis, and then make their decisions almost with the abruptness of an +explosion. _It is post-decision steadiness more than pre-decision +certitude which carries the day._ A large part of decision is +intuitive; it is the byproduct of the subconscious. In war, much of +what is most pertinent lies behind a drawn curtain. The officer is +therefore badly advised who would believe that a hunch is without +value, or that there is something unmilitary about the simple decision +to take some positive action, even though he is working in the dark. + +The youthful Col. Julian Ewell of the 501st Parachute Infantry +Regiment, reaching Bastogne, Belgium, on the night of December 18, +1944, with only his lead battalion at hand, insisted that he be given +orders, even though higher headquarters could tell him almost nothing +about the friendly or enemy situations. He got his orders, and with +the one battalion moved out through the dark to counter-attack. So +doing, he stopped cold the German XXXXVII Panzer Corps, and compelled +Hitler to alter his Ardennes plan. + +To grasp the spirit of orders is not less important than to accept +them cheerfully and keep faith with the contract. But the letter of an +instruction does not relieve him who receives it from the obligation +to exercise common sense. In the Carolina maneuvers of 1941, a soldier +stood at a road intersection for 3 days and nights directing civilian +traffic, simply because the man who put him there had forgotten all +about it. Though he was praised at the time, he was hardly a shining +example to hold up to troops. Diligence and dullness are mutually +exclusive traits. The model who is well worth pondering by all +services is Chief Boatswain L. M. Jahnsen who on the morning of Pearl +Harbor was in command of the yard garbage scow YG-17. She was +collecting refuse from the fleet when the first Japanese planes came +over. As the West Virginia began to burn, Jahnsen headed his scow into +the heat and smoke and ordered his men to man their single fire hose. +The old assignment forgotten, with overheated ammunition exploding all +around him, he stood there directing his men in all that could be done +to lessen the ruin of the fleet. + +Within the services, a special glory attends those whose heroism or +service is "above and beyond the call of duty." But they owe their +fundamental character to the millions of men who have followed the +path of duty above and beyond the call of orders. + +Whatever the nature of an officer's assignment, there are +compensations. The conventional attitude is to speak disparagingly of +staff duty, sniff at service with a higher administrative headquarters +as if it were somehow lacking in true masculine appeal, and express a +preference for duty "at sea," "with troops" or "in the field." +Although most of this is flapdoodle, it probably does no more harm +than Admiral William F. Halsey's grimace over the fact that he once +"commanded an LSD--Large Steel Desk." He is a poor stick of a military +man who has no natural desire to try his hand at the direct management +of men, if for no better reason than to test his own mettle. Even the +avowed specialist is better equipped for his own groove if he has +proved himself at the other game. + +Staff work, however, has its own peculiar rewards. Chief among them +are the broadening of perspective, a more intimate contact with the +views, working methods and personality characteristics of higher +commanders and the chance to become acquainted with administrative +responsibility from the viewpoint of policy. Although it sounds +mysterious and even forbidding, until one has done it, the procedures +are not more complex nor less instructive than in any other type of +assignment. + +There are no inside secrets about what goes here that is different, or +will not work equally well elsewhere. The staff is simply the servant +of the general force; it exists but to further the welfare of the +fighting establishment. Those within it are remiss if they fail to +keep this rule uppermost. Consequently, no special attitude is called +for, other than an acute receptiveness. The same military bearing, the +same naturalness of manner which enable an officer to win the +confidence and working loyalty of his men will serve just as well when +he is dealing with higher authority. + + + + +CHAPTER FIFTEEN + +DISCIPLINE + + +Though many of the aspects of discipline can be discussed more +appropriately in other sections of this book, an officer must +understand its particular nature within American military forces if he +is to win from his men obedience coupled with activity at will. + +It frequently happens that the root meaning of a word more nearly +explains the whole context of ideas with which it is legitimately +associated than the public's mistaken use of the same word. Coming +from the Latin, "to discipline" means "to teach." Insofar as the +military establishment of the United States is concerned, nothing need +be added to that definition. Its discipline is that standard of +personal deportment, work requirement, courtesy, appearance and +ethical conduct which, inculcated in men, will enable them singly or +collectively to perform their mission with an optimum efficiency. + +Military discipline, in this respect, is no different than the +discipline of the university, a baseball league or a labor union. It +makes specific requirements of the individual; so do they. It has a +system of punishments; so do they. These things are but incidental to +the end result. Their main object is to preserve the interests and +further the opportunity of the cooperative majority. But the essential +difference between discipline in the military establishment and in any +other free institution is this, that if the man objects, he still does +not have the privilege of quitting tomorrow, and if he resists or +becomes indifferent and is not corrected, his bad example will be felt +to the far end of the line. + +Though the failure to stop looting by our forces during World War II, +and the redeployment riots which followed it, are both unpleasant +memories, they underscored a lesson already affirmed by every American +experience at arms. The most contagious of all moral diseases is +insubordination, and it has no more respect for rank than the plague. +When higher authority winks at its existence among the rank and file, +it will contaminate upward as well as down. Once a man condones +remissness, his own belief in discipline begins to wither. The officer +who tolerates slackness in the dress of his men soon ceases to tend +his own appearance, and if he is not called to account, his sloppy +habits will shortly begin to infect his superior. There is only one +correct way to wear the uniform. When any deviations in dress are +condoned within the services, the way is open to the destruction of +all uniformity and unity. This continuing problem of stimulating all +ranks to toe-up to that straight line of bearing and deportment which +will build inner confidence and win public respect is the main reason +why, as George Washington put it: "To bring men to a proper degree of +subordination is not the work of a day, a month, or a year." It calls +not simply for a high-minded attitude toward the profession of arms +but for infinitely patient attention to a great variety of detail. An +officer has a disciplined hold upon his own job only when, like the +air pilot preparing to take off, he makes personal check of every +point where the machinery might fail. The stronger his example of +diligence, the more earnestly will it be followed by the ablest of his +subordinates, and they in turn will carry other men along. No leader +ever fails his men--nor will they fail him--who leads them in respect +for the disciplined life. Between these two things--discipline in +itself and a personal faith in the military value of discipline--lies +all the difference between military maturity and mediocrity. A salute +from an unwilling man is as meaningless as the moving of a leaf on a +tree; it is a sign only that the subject has been caught by a gust of +wind. But a salute from the man who takes pride in the gesture because +he feels privileged to wear the uniform of the United States, having +found the service good, is the epitome of military virtue. Of those +units which were most effective, and were capable of the greatest +measure of self-help during World War II combat, it was invariably +remarked that they observed the salute and the other rules of courtesy +better than the others, even when engaged. + +The level of discipline is in large part what the officers in any unit +choose to make it. The general aim of regulations is to set an +over-all standard of conduct and work requirement for all concerned. +Training schedules, operational directives and other work programs +serve the same end. _But there is still a broad area in which the +influence of every officer is brought to bear. To state what is +required is only the beginning; to require what has been stated is the +positive end._ The rule of courtesy may be laid down by the book; it +remains for the officer to rule by work rather than working by rules, +and by setting the good example for his men, stimulate their +acceptance of orderly military habits. A training schedule may +stipulate that certain tasks be carried out but only the officer in +charge can assure that the work will be accomplished with fidelity. + +The level of discipline should at all times be according to what is +needed to get the best results from the majority of dutiful +individuals. There is no practical reason for any sterner requirement +than that. There is no moral justification for countenancing anything +less. _Discipline destroys the spirit and working loyalty of the +general force when it is pitched to the minority of malcontented, +undutiful men within the organization, whether to punish or to appease +them._ When this common sense precept is ignored, the results +invariably are unhappy. + +However, it is not here inferred that what has to be done to build +strong discipline in forces will at all times be welcomed by the +first-class men within a unit, or that their reaction will always be +approval. Rather, it is to say that they will accept what is ordered, +even though they may gripe about it, and that ultimately their own +reason will convince them of the value of what is being done. + +Until men are severely tried, there is no conclusive test of their +discipline, nor proof that their training at arms is satisfying a +legitimate military end. The old game of follow-the-leader has no +point if the leader himself, like the little girl in a Thomas Hardy +novel, is balked by insuperable obstacles one-quarter inch high. _All +military forces remain relatively undisciplined until physically +toughened and mentally conditioned to unusual exertion._ Consider the +road march! No body of men could possibly enjoy the dust, the heat, +the blistered foot and the aching back. But hard road marching is +necessary if a sound foundation is to be built under the discipline of +fighting forces, particularly those whose labors are in the field. And +the gain comes quickly. The rise in spirits within any organization +which is always to be observed after they rebound from a hard march +does not come essentially from the feeling of relief that the strain +is past, but rather from satisfaction that a goal has been crossed. +_Every normal man needs to have some sense of a contest, some feeling +of resistance overcome, before he can make the best use of his +faculties. Whatever experience serves to give him confidence that he +can compete with other men helps to increase his solidarity with other +men._ + +It must be accepted that discipline does not break down under the +strain of placing a testing demand upon the individual. It is sloth +and not activity that destroys discipline. Troops can endure hard +going when it serves an understandable end. This is what they will +boast about mainly when the fatigue is ended. A large part of training +is necessarily directed toward conditioning them for unusual hardship +and privation. They can take this in stride. But no power on earth can +reconcile them to what common sense tells them is unnecessary hardship +which might have been avoided by greater intelligence in their +superiors. When they are overloaded, they know it. When they are +required to form for a parade two hours ahead of time because their +commander got over-anxious, or didn't know how to write an order, +again they know it! _And they are perfectly right if they go sour +because this kind of thing happens a little too often within the +command._ + +Within our system, that discipline is nearest perfect which assures to +the individual the greatest freedom of thought and action while at all +times promoting his feeling of responsibility toward the group. _These +twin ends are convergent and interdependent for the exact converse of +the reason that it is impossible for any man to feel happy and +successful if he is in the middle of a failing institution._ War, and +all training operations in preparation for it, have become more than +ever a problem of creating diversity of action out of unity of +thought. Its modern technological aspects not only require a much +keener intelligence in the average file but a higher degree of +initiative and courageous confidence in his own judgments. If the man +is cramped by monotonous routine, or made to feel that he cannot move +unless an order is barked, he cannot develop these qualities, and he +will never come forward as a junior leader. _On the other hand, the +increased utilization of the machine in military operations, far from +lessening the need of mutual support and unified action, has increased +it._ One of the hazards of high velocity warfare is that reverse and +disaster can occur much more swiftly than under former systems. Thus +the need for greater spiritual integration within forces, and +increased emphasis upon the values of more perfect communication in +all forms, at the same time that each individual is trained to +initiate action for the common good. Only so can the new discipline +promote a higher efficiency based on a more steadfast loyalty of man +to man. In the words of Du Picq, who saw so deeply into the hearts of +fighting men: "If one does not wish bonds broken, one should make them +elastic and thereby strengthen them." + +The separate nature of military service is the key to the character of +the discipline of its several forces. In the United States, we have +fallen into the sloppy habit of saying that a soldier, bluejacket, +airman, coast guardsman or marine is only an American civilian in +uniform. The corollary of this quaint notion is that all military +organization is best run according to the principles of business +management. The truth of either of these ideas is to be disputed on +two grounds: both are contrary to truth and contrary to human nature. +An officer is not only an administrator but a magistrate, and it is +this dual role which makes his function so radically different than +anything encountered in civil life--to say nothing of the singleness +of purpose by which the service moves forward. Moreover, the armed +service officer deals with the most plastic human material within the +society--men who, in the majority, the moment they step into uniform, +are ready to seek his guidance toward a new way of life. + +However, these fancies are but tangential aspects of a much larger +illusion--that the Armed Services of the United States, since they +serve a democracy, can better perfect themselves according to the +measure that they become more and more democratic. Authority is +questioned in democratic countries today, not only in government, but +in industry, the school, the church and the home. But to the extent +that military men lose their faith in its virtue and become amenable +to ill-considered reforms simply to appease the public, they +relinquish the power to protect and nurture that growth of free men, +free thought and free institutions which began among a handful of +soldiers in Cromwell's Army and was carried by them after the +Restoration to the North American mainland. The relation of the +military establishment to American democracy is as a shield covering +the body. But no wit of man can make it a wholly "democratic" +institution as to its own processes without vitiating its strength, +since it progresses through the exercise of unquestioned authority at +various levels. + +One of these levels is the plane on which an ensign or second +lieutenant conducts his daily dealings with his men. George Washington +left behind these words, which are as good today as when he uttered +them from his command post: "Whilst men treat an officer as an equal, +regard him no more than a broomstick, being mixed together as one +common herd, no order nor discipline can prevail." Out of his +experience in the handling of deck divisions during World War II, +Edmund A. Gibson, Boatswain's Mate, First Class, also said something +which, put alongside Washington's words, brings the whole subject of +officer-man relationships into clear focus: "Speaking for Navy men, I +am certain that they are entirely without any feeling of inferiority, +social or otherwise, to their officers. If superiority or inferiority +of any kind enters into their contemplation at all, it is in the shape +of a conviction, doubtless a wrong one, that every serviceman, as a +professional warrior, is above the narrow interests which obsess the +civilian." + +Those who have served both as officer and under-officer well +understand the appropriateness of these two ideas, each to the other, +that the superior position of the officer must be preserved for the +good of the service, but that this engages recognition of the +individual equality of the enlisted man. They know, if they have +observed well and truly during their service in the ranks, that the +highest type enlisted man wants his officer to act the part, maintain +dignity and support the ideals which are consonant with the authority +vested in him by the Nation. But this same man at the same time +expects his officers to concede him his right to a separate position +and to respect his privacy. It is a pitiable eminence that is not well +founded upon sure feeling for the value of its own prestige and the +importance of this factor at all levels. + +In the military service of the United States, there is always room for +firm and forthright friendship between officer and man. There is room +for a close, uniting comradeship. There is room for frank intellectual +discussion and the exchange of warm humor; no man goes far if he is +all salt and no savor. There is room for that kind of intimacy which +enables each to see the other as a human being, know something of the +other's emotions and help clear the atmosphere for honest counsel on +personal and organizational problems. + +But there is no room for familiarity, since as in any other sphere, it +breeds contempt. When it occurs, respect flies out the window, the +officer loses part of his command authority and discipline breaks +down. Familiarity cannot obtain between the superior and the +subordinate without the vice of favoritism entering into the conduct +of organizational matters, even though the former is guilty only of an +over-zealous goodwill and the latter is otherwise sensible to the +interests of the unit. The chief damage comes from the effect upon all +others. It is when all the bars are let down that men communicate +those inner failings which a greater reserve would keep under cover. +Familiarity toward a superior is a positive danger; toward a +subordinate, it is unbecoming and does not increase his trust. In +excess, it can have no other effect than a breach of confidence on +both sides. + +Changes in the environmental situation do not alter the natural +proprieties of this relationship between any two men, the one having +higher authority and the other having the obligation of obedience. +Under the conditions of modern war, the two not infrequently may be +required to work together as a unit, almost apart from the influence +of organizational discipline. Hardship and necessity may compel them +to extend the limit of personal accommodation to each other. They may +go into battle together. They may sleep in the same bed or foxhole. +They may drink from a common bottle and draw upon each other for the +means to keep going. But in adapting one's course according to the +rigors of any unconventional situation, authority is maintained only +through the exercise of a higher sense of responsibility. However, the +rule is applied according to the circumstance, the rule itself remains +inflexible. + +Officers and men working together as a compact team, in any type of +military operation where success, and coordinated action in the face +of danger, depend mainly upon the moral resources within one small +group, develop a closer camaraderie and become less formal than is +normal elsewhere throughout the services. The close confinement in +which tank forces, airplane crews and submarine crews must operate +would stifle morale and torture nerves otherwise. Whatever the +patience of men under such conditions, sooner or later they get on +each other's nerves. Therefore that system of relationships is best +which is least artificial and most relaxing to the spirit of the +natural man. But to construe this as a deviation from the standards of +discipline is to mistake the shadow for the substance. + + + + +CHAPTER SIXTEEN + +MORALE + + +To grow in knowledge of how to win a loyal and willing response from +military forces, there must first be understanding of the springs of +human action, what they are, and how they may be directed toward +constructive ends. This done, the course which makes for the +perfecting of forces during peacetime training need only be extended +to harden them for the risk and stress of war. + +The mainspring is morale. The meaning of the word is already known in +a general way to every man who has qualified for officership, so it is +hardly necessary to redefine it. A World War II bluejacket said it +this way: "Morale is when your hands and feet keep working when your +head says it can't be done." That says it just as well as anything +written by du Picq or Baron von Steuben. Nothing new need be added. + +The handiest beginning is to consider morale in conjunction with +discipline, since in military service they are opposite sides of the +same coin. When one is present, the other will be also. But the +instilling of these things in military forces depends upon leadership +understanding the nature of the relationship. + +As to discipline, until recent years, military forces tended to stress +the pattern rather than the ideal. The elder Moltke, one of the great +masters of the military art, taught his troops that it was of supreme +importance that they form accurately in training, since the perfection +of their formations would determine their efficiency in battle. Yet in +the Franco-Prussian War, these formations proved utterly unsuited to +the heavily wooded terrain of the theater, and new ones had to be +devised on the spur of the moment. + +This is the familiar story. It was repeated by United States forces in +World War II during the Normandy hedgerow fighting and the invasions +of the Central Pacific atolls. Troops had to learn the hard way how to +hit, and how to survive, in moving through jungle or across the +mountains and desert. When that happened, the only disciplinary +residue which mattered was obedience to orders. The movements they had +learned by rote were of less value than the spiritual bond between one +man and another. The most valuable lesson was that of mutual support. +And unless this lesson was supported by confidence in the judgment of +those in authority, it is to be doubted that they were helped at all. + +Finally, that confidence is the _sine qua non_ of all useful military +power. The moral strength of an organic unity comes from the faith in +ranks that they are being wisely directed and from faith up top that +orders will be obeyed. When forces are tempered by this spirit, there +is no limit to their enterprise. They become invincible. Lacking it, +however, any military body, even though it has been compelled to toe +the mark in training, will deteriorate into a rabble under conditions +of extraordinary stress in the field, as McDowell's Army did at Bull +Run in the American Civil War, and as Hitler's Armies did in 1945 +after the Rhine had been crossed at Remagen. + +In its essentials, discipline is not measured according to how a man +keeps step in a drill yard, or whether he salutes at just the right +angle. The test is how well and willingly he responds to his superiors +in all _vital_ matters, and finally, whether he stands or runs when +his life is at stake. History makes this clear. There are countless +examples of successful military forces which had almost no discipline +when measured by the usual yardsticks, yet had a high battle morale +productive of the kind of discipline which beats the enemy in battle. +The French at Valmy, the Boers in the South African War, and even the +men of Capt. John Parker, responding to his order on the Lexington +Common, "Don't fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, +let it begin here," instance that men who lack training and have not +been regimented still may express themselves as a cohesive force on +the field of fire, provided that they are well led. + +If we will accept the basic premise that discipline, even within the +military establishment of the United States, is not a ritual or a +form, but is simply that course of conduct which is most likely to +lead to the efficient performance of an assigned responsibility, it +will be seen that morale does not come of discipline, but discipline +of morale. + +True enough, our recruits are given a discipline almost from the +moment that they take the oath. Their first lesson is the necessity +for obedience. They are required immediately to conform to a new +pattern of conduct. They respond to disciplinary treatment even before +they learn to think as a group and before the attitude of the group +has any influence upon them. Discipline bears down before morale can +lift up. Momentarily, they become timid before they have felt any +pain. These first reactions help condition the man to his new +environment. They are in part demoralizing, but on the upswing he +begins to realize that half the fun in life comes of seeing what one +can do in a new situation. The foundation of his morale is laid when +he begins to think of himself as a member of the fighting +establishment, rather than as a civilian. Thereafter all that is done +to nourish his military spirit and to arouse his thirst for +professional knowledge helps to build his moral power. + +But follow the man a little longer. The time quickly comes when he +knows his way around in the service. His earlier fears and hesitations +are largely gone. He acquires strength and wisdom from the group. He +becomes able to judge his own situation against an attainable standard +within the service. He is critically conscious of the merits of his +superiors from what he has himself experienced and what others tell +him. He knows what is boondoggling and what is not. + +From that point on, discipline has little part in alerting the man or +in furthering the building of his moral power. That which moves him +mainly is the knowledge that he is a personal success, and that he +belongs to an efficient unit which is in capable hands. Certain of the +outer signs of discipline, such as the cadence of the march or snap in +the execution of the manual, he may subconsciously reenforce his +impression of these things. But if he feels either that he is an +outsider or that the club isn't worth joining, no amount of spit and +polish will alter his opinion. + +He is able to recognize a right and reasonable discipline as such, +even though it causes him personal inconvenience, because he has +acquired a sense of military values. But if it is either unduly harsh +or unnecessarily lax, he likewise knows it and wears it as a +hairshirt, to the undoing of his morale. Though the man, like the +group, can be hurt by being pushed beyond sensible limits, his spirit +will suffer even more sorely if no real test is put upon his abilities +and moral powers. The greater his intelligence, the stronger will be +his resentment. That is a law of nature. The enlightened mind has +always the greatest measure of self-discipline but it also has a +higher sense of what constitutes justice, fairplay and a reasonable +requirement in the performance of duty. If denied these things, he +will come to hold his chief, his job, and himself in contempt. The +greater part of man's satisfactions comes of activity and only a very +small remnant comes of passive enjoyment. Forgetting this rather +obvious fact in human nature, social reformers aim at securing more +leisure, rather than at making work itself more satisfactory. But it +need not be forgotten in the military service. + +Even to those who best understand the reasons for the regimenting of +military forces, a discipline wrongfully applied is seen only as +indiscipline. Invariably it will be countered in its own terms. No +average rank-and-file will become insubordinate as quickly, or react +as violently, as a group of senior noncommissioned officers, brought +together in a body, and then mishandled by officers who are ignorant +of the customs of the service and the limits of their own authority. +Not only are they conscious of their rights, but they have greater +respect for the state of decency and order which is the mark of a +proper military establishment than for the insignia of rank. It is +this firm feeling of the fitness of things, and his unbounded +allegiance to an authority when it is based on character which makes +the NCO and the petty officer the backbone of discipline within the +United States fighting establishment. Sergeant Evans of "Command +Decision" was an archtype of the best ball carriers among them. In a +sense, they remain independent workmen, rather than a tool of +authority, until the hour comes when they fall in completely with +someone their own nature tells them is good. In the past, we have not +always made the wisest use of this latent strength. The normal desire +of the veteran who has won his stripes by hard service is to support +his officers and reduce the friction down below. Whatever is done to +lessen his dignity and prestige damages morale and creates new +stresses in the relations between the officer corps and the ranks. +When he is rebuffed, either because those above him are indifferent to +his pride or are unaware that he is their chief advocate among the +men, the military machinery loses its cushion and becomes subject to +increasing shock. Said a newly arrived lieutenant to an old sergeant +of the 12th Cavalry: "You've been here a long time, haven't you?" "Yes +sir," replied the sergeant. "The troop commanders, they come and they +go, but it don't hurt the troop." + +To comment on these things, however, is to emphasize once again the +supreme importance of the judgment of the officer in dealing with all +of his military associates in such way that he will support that +native pride, without which a man cannot remain whole, and at the same +time direct it toward the betterment of the organization. To lecture +troops about the importance of morale and discipline serves no earthly +purpose, if the words are at odds with the general conditions which +have been imposed on the command. They impose their values only as +reflection of the leader's entire thought concerning his men. At the +same time, there is this to be remembered, that even when things are +going wrong at every other level, men will remain loyal and dutiful if +they see in the one junior officer who is nearest them the embodiment +of the ideals which they believe should apply throughout the service. +That is the main object lesson in that remarkable novel written around +a World War II Navy auxiliary, "Mister Roberts." But it holds just as +true in our ground and air forces as for those afloat. + +Morale comes of the mind and of the spirit. The question is how it is +to be developed. Admiral Ben Moreell has stated a formula in +understanding terms by his explanation of what made the Seabees +notable for competence and devotion to duty during World War II. This +is what he said: "We used artisans to do the work for which they had +been trained in civil life. They were well led by officers who 'spoke +their language.' We made them feel that they were playing an important +part in the great adventure. And thus they achieved a high standard of +morale." The elements underscored by Admiral Moreell deserve special +note. + + Satisfaction in a work program. + + Mutual confidence between leaders and ranks. + + Conviction that all together were striving for something more + important than themselves. + +True, that was wartime, and the challenge was apparent to all +concerned. But the principles hold good under any and all conditions, +and can be applied to any organization by the officer who approaches +his task with enthusiasm and imagination. The mission of keeping the +world at peace, through a moral strengthening of the security +structure of the United States, is a more difficult objective than +that which confronted fighting forces after Pearl Harbor. In his book, +"World War: Its Cause and Cure," Lionel Curtis stated our problem in +its broadest and most challenging terms: "Civilization began with a +war between freedom and despotism: we are now fighting its latest +campaign, and our task is to make it the last." + +Under training conditions or in combat, the mental ills and the +resulting moral and physical deterioration which sometimes beset +military forces cannot be cured simply by the intensification of +disciplinary methods. It is true that the signs of a recovery will +sometimes attend the installation of a more rigid, or less rigid, +discipline. This onset is in fact usually due to the collateral +influence of an increased confidence in the command, whereby men are +made to feel that their own fortunes are on the mend. Then discipline +and morale are together revitalized almost as if by the throwing of an +electric switch. + +In Army history, there is no better example of the working of this +principle than the work of Brig. Gen. Paul B. Malone of St. +Aignan-sur-Cher, France, in 1919. He took over a command where +slackness and indiscipline were general. The men were suffering +terrible privation and too many of their officers were indifferent to +their needs. Many of the men had been battle casualties. Some had been +discharged from hospitals before their wounds were healed. The mess +was abominable. The camp was short of firewood and other supply. In +freezing weather, men were sleeping on the ground with only a pair of +blankets apiece. The death toll from influenza, pneumonia, and the +aggravation of battle wounds rose daily. Despair and resentment over +these conditions began to express itself in semiviolent form. Every +fresh breach of discipline was countered with harassing punishments +until an air of wretched stagnation hung over the whole camp. General +Pershing visited the base. The men refused to form for him. When he +tried to address them at a mass meeting, they wouldn't hear him out. +Instead of taking any action against the men, he sent for General +Malone. + +The new commander arrived without any instructions except to determine +what was wrong and correct it. With soldierly instinct, he recognized +that the indiscipline of the camp was an effect and not a cause. But +even as he gave orders for relieving the physical distress of the men, +he demanded that they return to orderly habits. + +He walked around the areas. Already, on his order, duck-boards were +being laid through the mud, and the whole physical setup was in +process of reorganization. The men, grown listless from weeks of +mistreatment, paid no heed. "Get on your feet! I'm your general. I +respect you but I want your respect," were his words. They restored +the situation. The first impact of this one man on that camp was never +forgotten by anyone who saw it. It is a point to remember: _A firm +hold at the beginning pays tenfold the dividend of a timid approach, +followed by a show of firmness later on._ Within 48 hours the physical +condition of the camp was showing improvement and 60,000 men were +again doing their duty and bearing themselves in a military manner. +The lessons from this one incident stand out like beams from a +searchlight battery. + +_One man is able to accomplish a miracle by an act of will accompanied +by good works._ + +_The morale of the force flows from the self-discipline of the +commander, and in turn, the discipline of the force is reestablished +by the upsurge of its moral power._ + +_The inculcation of military habits and thoughts is the only means by +which these forces may be made to work together toward more perfect +ends, so that control can be exercised promptly._ + +When the redeployment period which followed World War II threatened a +complete collapse to the morale of the general military establishment, +the remedy attempted by some unit leaders was to relax discipline and +the work requirement all around. Other officers met this crisis by +improving the conditions of work, setting an example which proved to +the men that they believed in its importance and paying sedulous +attention to the personal problems of those within the unit. They +found that they could still get superior performance in the midst of +chaos. Organic strength materializes in the same way on the field of +war. _However adverse the general situation, men will stick to the one +man who knows what he wants to do and welcomes them to a full share in +the enterprise._ + +The rule applies in matters great and small. No man who leads a squad +or a squadron, a group of men or a group of armies, can develop within +his force a well-placed confidence in its own powers, if he is +uncertain of himself or doubtful of his object. The moral level of his +men is mainly according to the manner in which he expresses his +personal force working with, and for, them. If he is timid or aloof, +uncommunicative and unenthusiastic, prone to stand on his dignity and +devoid of interest in the human stuff of those who are within his +charge, they will not respond to him, and he will have raised a main +barrier to his own success. If, given a course or taking one of his +own choice, he worries so greatly about the obstacles in his way that +he cannot make penetrating search for the clear channel, he will +waste the powers of his men even though he may have won their +sympathy. + +It would be futile to make these comments on the nature of moral +leading if it were not fully within the power of the average young +officer to cut his cloth according to the suggested pattern. The +commonplace that human nature cannot be changed is untrue. The +characters of each of us, and of all of our acquaintances, are greatly +affected by circumstances. No man's impulses are fixed from the +beginning by his native disposition; they remain plastic until the +hour of his death, and whatever touches his circumference, influences +them for better or worse. _The power of decision develops only out of +practice. There is nothing mystic about it. It comes of a clear-eyed +willingness to accept life's risks, recognizing that only the +enfeebled are comforted by thoughts of an existence devoid of +struggle._ + +Nothing more radical is being suggested here than that the officer who +would make certain that the morale of his men will prove equal to +every change cannot do better than concentrate his best efforts upon +his primary military obligation--his duty to them. They dupe only +themselves who believe that there is a brand of military efficiency +which consists in moving smartly, expediting papers and achieving +perfection in formations, while at the same time slighting or ignoring +the human nature of those whom they command. The art of leadership, +the art of command, whether the forces be large or small, is the art +of dealing with humanity. Only the officer who dedicates his thought +and energy to his men can convert into coherent military force their +desire to be of service to the country. Such were the fundamental +values which Napoleon had in mind when he said that those who would +learn the art of war should study the Great Captains. He was not +speaking of tactics and strategy. He was pointing to the success of +Alexander, Caesar, and Hannibal in moulding raw human nature, and to +their understanding of the thinking of their men and of how to direct +it toward military advantage. These are the grand objects. + +Diligence in the care of men, administration of all organizational +affairs according to a standard of resolute justice, military bearing +in one's self, and finally, an understanding of the simple facts that +men in a fighting establishment wish to think of themselves in that +light and that all military information is nourishing to their spirits +and their lives, are the four fundamentals by which the commander +builds an all-sufficing morale in those within his charge. + +There are other motor forces and mechanisms, most of which come under +the heading of management principles, and are therefore discussed in +other portions of this volume. The exception is the greatest force of +all--patriotism. It may be deemed beyond argument that belief in the +social order and political doctrine of their country is the foundation +of a loyal, willing spirit in military forces. Yet this alone cannot +assure efficiency in training or a battle _elan_ which is the result +of proper training methods. There is nothing more soulless than a +religion without good works unless it be a patriotism which does not +concern itself with the welfare and dignity of the individual. This is +a simple idea though wise men in all ages have recognized it as one of +the most profound truths. From Aristotle on down the philosophers have +said that the main force in shaping the characters of men is not +teaching and preaching, though these too are important, but the social +framework in which a man lives. In an age when there is widespread +presumption that practical problems can be solved by phrases, the +military body needs more than ever to hold steadfastly to first +principles. It does no good for an officer to talk patriotism to his +men unless he stands four-square with them, and they see in him a +symbol of what is right with the country. Under those circumstances, +he can always talk to them about the cause, and what he says will be a +tonic to morale. + +In the Normandy invasion, a young commander of paratroops, Lt. Col. +Edward C. Krause, was given the task of capturing a main enemy +communications center. Three hours before the take-off he assembled +his Battalion, held a small American flag in front of them and said +these words; "This is the first flag raised over the city of Naples. +You put it there. I want it to be the first flag raised over a +liberated town in France. The mission is that we will put it up in +Ste. Mere Eglise before dawn. You have only one order--to come and +fight with me wherever you land. When you get to Ste. Mere Eglise, I +will be there." + +The assignment was kept. Next morning, Krause and his men raised the +flag together, even before they had completed capture of the town. As +Americans go, they were extremely rugged individualists. But they were +proud of every line of that story. + + + + +CHAPTER SEVENTEEN + +ESPRIT + + +To proceed toward a better understanding of _esprit_ and its part in +the building of military forces, it is necessary to look beyond the +organization and consider the man. + +The life of any socially upright individual is organized around only a +few basic loyalties and the degree of satisfaction which he derives +from existence can usually be measured in terms of his service to +them. He is loyal first to himself, for failing that, he fails in +loyalty to all else. If he cannot acquit himself ably for his own +sake, he cannot do honor to anything less personal. Along with loyalty +to self come loyalty to our beliefs, loyalty to family, loyalty to +country, loyalty to friends, and loyalty to humanity in general. + +Stated as a factual and not as an ideal matter, the interesting and +important thing that happens to a man when he enters military service +is that, the moment he takes the oath, loyalty to the arms he bears +ranks first on the list, above all other loyalties. To get ahead, to +serve himself well, he must persevere in ways that are most useful to +the organization. If the circumstances of his family are reduced +because of this new loyalty, his means of compensating them is to +strive for such honor as may come to him through service to the United +States. In his life, service to country is no longer a beautiful +abstraction; it is the sternly concrete and unremitting obligation of +service to the regiment, the group or the ship's company. He parts +with old friends and finds new ones. + +In this radical reorientation of the individual life and the arbitrary +imposition of a commanding loyalty is to be found the key to the +esprit of any military organization. Too long esprit has been regarded +as something bequeathed to the unit by the dead hand of tradition. +There is nothing moribund about it. It is a dynamic and vital +substance conducted to the living by the living. We can banish from +our minds the idea that esprit is what the regiment, the ship or the +company gives the man because of some spark which its past deeds and +the legends thereof have lighted in him. Esprit, at all times, is what +the unit gives the man, in terms of spiritual force translated into +constructive good. Considering what the unit has taken from him +initially, its obligation is great indeed. + +To see this clearly, we need to look once again at what happens to the +individual when he puts on the uniform. The basis of his life changes +in broad and fundamental ways. His legal status is changed; the extent +and intensity of his obligations are magnified. He puts aside the +banner of individualism for that of obedience. Yet in the words of +Chester Barnard: "Scarcely a man, I think, who has felt the +annihilation of his personality in some organized system, has not also +felt that the same system belonged to him because of his own free will +he chose to make it so." + +To that must be added the further thought that while the military +service is antecedent to the individual who enters it, that individual +is also in a sense antecedent to the service. He becomes a factor in +the equation which expresses the achievement or the failure of the +service in its particular mission. The thoughtful commander will give +careful regard to that relationship. One man cannot make or break an +Army or a Navy, but he can help break it, since each service at all +times derives its nature from the quality and wills of its men. +General Harbord, in _The American Army in France_, expressed it this +way: "Discipline and morale influence the inarticulate vote that is +constantly taken by masses of men when the order comes to move +forward--a variant of the crowd psychology that inclines it to follow +a leader. But the Army does not move forward until the motion has +carried. 'Unanimous consent' only follows cooperation between the +individual men in ranks." + +But we can go one step beyond General Harbord's suggestion that the +multiplied individual acceptance of a command alone gives that command +authority. It is not less true that the multiplied rejection of a +command nullifies it. In other words, authority is the creature rather +than the creator of discipline and obedience. In the more recent +experiences of our arms, under the stresses of battle, there are many +instances of troops being given orders, and refusing to obey. In every +case, the root cause was lack of confidence in the wisdom and ability +of those who led. When a determining number of men in ranks have lost +the will to obey, their erstwhile leader has _ipso facto_ lost the +capacity to command. _In the final analysis, authority is contingent +upon respect far more truly than respect is founded upon authority._ +In the words of Col. G. F. R. Henderson: "It is the leader who reckons +with the human nature of his troops, and of the enemy, rather than +with their mere physical attributes, numbers, armament and the like, +who can hope to follow in Napoleon's footsteps." + +_Esprit_ then is the product of a thriving mutual confidence between +the leader and the led, founded on the faith that together they +possess a superior quality and capability. The failure of the spirit +of any military organization is less frequently due to what men have +forgotten than to what they can't forget. No "imperishable record" of +past greatness can make men serve with any greater vigor if they are +being served badly. Nor can it sustain the fighting will of the +organization so much as one mil beyond the radius within which living +associations enable men to think great thoughts and act with nobility +toward their fellows. Unless the organization's past conveys to its +officers a sense of having been especially chosen, and unless they +respond to this trust by developing a complete sense of duty toward +their men, the old battle records might as well be poured down the +drain, since they will not rally a single man in the hour of danger. +Said Col. LeRoy P. Hunt in a mimeographed notice to his troops just +prior to the Guadalcanal landing: "We are meeting a tough and wily +opponent but he is not sufficiently tough and wily to overcome us +because We Are Marines." (The capitals are Hunt's.) + +Personality plays a part in the ability to command, both under +training conditions and under fire. But though a man be a veritable +John Paul Jones or Mad Anthony Wayne in the time of action, his +hardihood will never wholly undo any prior neglect of his men. While +men may be rallied for a short space by someone setting an example of +great courage, they can be kept in line under conditions of increasing +stress and mounting hardship only when loyalty is based upon a respect +which the commander has won by consistently thoughtful regard for the +welfare and rights of his men, and a correct measuring of his +responsibility to them. + +There are a few governing principles, and before considering their +application in detail we should think first about the file. He is a +Man; he expects to be treated as an adult, not as a schoolboy. He has +rights; they must be made known to him and thereafter respected. He +has ambition; it must be stirred. He has a belief in fair play; it +must be honored. He has the need of comradeship; it must be supplied. +He has imagination; it must be stimulated. He has a sense of personal +dignity; it must not be broken down. He has pride; it can be satisfied +and made the bedrock of his character once he gains assurance that he +is playing a useful and respected part in a superior and successful +organization. To give men working as a group the feeling of great +accomplishment together is the acme of inspired leadership. + +In the degree that the disciplinary method and the training procedure +of the military service, and the common sense of his superiors, +combine to nourish these satisfactions in the individual, _esprit de +corps_ comes into being and furthers his advance in the practice of +arms and his potential usefulness as a fighting man. He becomes loyal +because loyalty has been given to him. He learns to serve an ideal +because an ideal has served him. For it is to be remembered that it is +always the Army, the Navy or the nation that disengages the man from +his old moorings, but it is the regiment or the ship's company which +gives him a fresh anchor and enables him to feel secure again. The +service cancels out the man's old life; the unit gives him a fresh +start in a new environment, which may prove salutary or utterly +damnable, as the man and the unit together make it. Where there is +enlightened leading, neither can fail the other. _The majority of men, +so long as they are treated fairly and feel that good use is being +made of their powers, will rejoice in a new sense of unity with new +companions even more than they will mind the increased separation from +their old associations._ The ability to adjust is itself a landmark of +success in the life of a normal individual. + +This is the primary gift of the organization to the man and the +primary advantage of its relationship to him. Once it has given the +file a sense of belonging, it restores his balance. It is this feeling +of possession which is the beginning of true esprit. Without it, the +man becomes a derelict. Indeed, we may go so far as to say that the +man who lacks it, and does not aspire to it, will almost invariably be +unsuited for combat or any military responsibility of consequence, not +because he is disrespectful of tradition, but because he is a social +outcast with no sense of duty to his fellows. + +Referring once again to the list of satisfactions due the man, it will +be noted that they differ little, if at all, from the demands of his +spirit before he has put on the uniform. But there should be marked +also the vital difference that whereas a complex of social and +economic forces and of totally disconnected influences contribute to +his outlook so long as he is a civilian, the measure of his +satisfactions is almost wholly in the hands of the organization once +he has raised his right hand and taken the oath of military service to +country. The condition of his health, the amount of his pay, the +organization of his leisure time, his diet, his sleeping habits, his +sex problems, even the manner in which he shaves and wears his hair, +are matters of organizational concern. Within the new company, he may +either attain greatly, or miserably fail. It should speak to him with +the voice of Stentor, the bronze voice of 10,000 men--meaning the +thousand or so who are still with the ship, the group or the regiment, +and the thousands who are in the shadows but who once served it well, +thereby inspiring those who follow to give an extra portion of service +to their fellows. Unless tradition has that effect upon the living, it +will not produce esprit, but military "mossbackism." + +What does this imply in terms of practical application? Simply that +the custodianship of esprit must ever be in the hands of the officer +corps. When the heart of the organization is sound, officership is +able to see its own reflection in the eyes of the enlisted man. For +this simple reason: insofar as his ability to mould the character of +troops is concerned, the qualifying test of the leader is the judgment +placed upon his military abilities by those who serve under him. If +they do not deem him fit to command, he cannot train them to obey. But +if they see in one man directly over them a steady example, the +strongest of their number will model after him, instead of sagging +because of weakness elsewhere in the command structure. + +This point is irreducible. Though an officer have absolute confidence +in himself, and though he have an instinct amounting to genius for the +material things of war, these otherwise considerable gifts will avail +him little or nothing if his _manner_ is such that his troops remain +unconvinced of his capacity and doubtful of his power to maintain +command in periods of extreme trial. He will fail because he has not +sufficiently regarded the LAW OF PERSONALITY--LOOKS, ACTIONS, WORDS. + +Among military men, there has been much mistaken praise for the virtue +of "mechanical obedience." There is no such thing. Men think in their +smallest actions; if this were not so, it would not be possible to +lead them. What has been blindly termed "mechanical response" requires +perhaps a higher concentration of will than any other type of action, +and hence of thought itself, since the two are inseparable. The forces +in which this characteristic was outstanding have been those which +were led with the highest degree of intelligence and of understanding +of human nature. For unity of spirit and of action, which is the +essence of _esprit de corps_, is of all military miracles the most +difficult to achieve. + +Yet its abiding principle is simple. It comes of integrity and +clarification of purpose. The able officer is not a Saul waiting for +the light to strike him on the Damascus road, but a Paul having a +clear understanding that unless the trumpet give forth a certain sound +at all times, none shall prepare himself for the battle. + +Given such officers, the organization comes to possess a sense of +unity and of fraternity in its routine existence which expresses +itself as the force of cohesion in the hour when all ranks are +confronted by a common danger. It is not because of mutual enthusiasm +for an honored name but because of mutual confidence in one another +that the ranks of old regiments or the bluejackets serving a ship with +a great tradition are able to convert their esprit into battle +discipline. Under stress they move and act together because they have +imbibed the great lesson, and experience has made its application +almost instinctive, that only in unity is there safety. They believe +that they can trust their comrades and commanders as they would trust +their next of kin. They have learned the necessity of mutual support +and a common danger serves but to bind the ranks closer. + +But the race is not always to the swift nor the battle to the strong. +The newest unit--one born only yesterday--is as susceptible to a +vaulting esprit as any which traces its founding to the beginnings of +the Republic. Led by those who themselves are capable of great +endeavour, who are quick to encourage and slow to disparage, and are +ever ready to make due acknowledgment of worthy effort and to let men +know wherein they are forging ahead, any military organization serving +our flag will come to count this among its strengths. + +There are no tricks to the building of esprit. Its techniques are +those which come naturally in the course of stimulating the interest +of ranks in all of the great fundamentals of the military profession, +rather than selling short their intelligence, and taking it for +granted that they want nothing beyond the routine of work, liberty, +mess call, and payday. + +But there is one pitfall. Toward the growth of esprit, the attitude, +"My organization first, and the rest nowhere," never pays off. It +begins with the idea, "_The service first, and my unit the best in the +service._" In all human enterprise, the whole is greater than the sum +of the parts. The citizen who thinks most deeply about his country +will be the first to share the burdens of his community and +neighborhood. The man who feels the greatest affection for the +service in which he bears arms will work most loyally to make his own +unit know a rightful pride in its own worth. Among all of the military +services from out of the present and past, none has been more faithful +to this principle than the United States Marine Corps. Among its +members, being a Marine is the thing that counts mainly; after that +comes service to the Regiment or Battalion. Even the other services +marvel at the result. Though they take due pride in their own virtues +and accomplishments, they still regard the esprit of the Marine with +admiration, and more than a little envy. What is the secret? Perhaps +it is this, that the Corps emphasizes the rugged outlet for men's +energies, and never permits its members to forget that the example of +courage is their most precious heritage. + +Six years after his defeat at Wake Island, the things that remained +uppermost in the mind of Col. James P. S. Devereux, as he put together +the story of the most tragic hours of his life, were the heroisms of +the individuals who had been trained in a tradition to which he had +fully committed his own purpose. One incident of that day, typical of +many, is best related in Devereux's own words. + +"Master Sergeant J. Paszkiewicz, a Marine for 20 years, was caught in +the first blast at the airfield. Bombs shattered his right leg. He +started crawling off, dragging his smashed leg limply behind him. The +second wave of bombers came in. Paszkiewicz reached a little pile of +wreckage and found what he wanted, a piece of wood. With a little +fixing it could serve as a crutch. The bombs were dropping again. +Paszkiewicz started hobbling off. He seemed to be going the wrong way. +Somebody tried to help him, but he wasn't having any. Lieutenant David +D. Kliewer saw him stumbling along on his makeshift crutch, giving +first aid to the wounded or trying to make a dying man a little +easier." + +Could a man give that much, and could his superior, Devereux, have +remembered it so vividly from amid his own personal trials, unless +both had been inspired by the traditions of the Corps? + + + + +CHAPTER EIGHTEEN + +KNOWING YOUR JOB + + +In one of his little-known passages, Robert Louis Stevenson did the +perfect portrait of the man who finally failed at everything, because +he just never learned how to take hold of his work. + +It goes like this: "His career was one of unbroken shame. He did not +drink. He was exactly honest. He was never rude to his employers. Yet +he was everywhere discharged. Bringing no interest to his duties, he +brought no attention. His day was a tissue of things neglected and +things done amiss. And from place to place and from town to town he +carried the character of one thoroughly incompetent." + +No one would say that the picture is overdrawn or that the poor devil +got other than his just deserts. In the summing up, the final judgment +that is put on a man by other men depends on his value as a working +hand. If he has other serious personality faults, they will be +overlooked as somewhat beside the point, provided that he levels with +his job. But if he embodies all of the surface virtues, and is +shiftless, any superior with sense will mark him for the discard, and +his coworkers will breathe a sigh of relief when he has gone on his +way. + +Within the armed services, the tone of grudging admiration is never +missing from such altogether familiar comments as: + +"He's a queer duck but he has what it takes." + +"We can't get along with him but we can't get along without him." + +By such words, we unconsciously yield the palm to the man who, +whatever his other shortcomings, excels us in application to duty. One +of the worst rascals ever raised in Britain said that while he +wouldn't give a farthing for virtue, he would pay 10,000 pounds for +character, because, possessing it, he would be able to sell it for +much more. + +Is it possible then that men of thoroughly good intentions will +neglect the one value which a knave says is worth prizing? Not only is +it possible; it happens every day! We see officers of the armed +establishment who, thinking themselves employed all day, would still, +if they had to make an honest reckoning of the score after tattoo +sounded, be compelled to say that they had done exactly nothing. +Lacking some compelling duty, they may have read several hours +mechanically, neither studying what was said, making notes, nor +reflecting on the value and accuracy of it. Such papers as they +signed, they had glanced over perfunctorily. If any subordinate +approached them with some small matter, they reacted by trying to get +rid of him as quickly as possible. When they entered the company of +their fellow officers, they partook of it as little as they could, not +bothering to enter vigorous conversation, failing to make any note of +the character and manner of their associates, and learning not at all +from the words that were said. + +It is all good enough, and yet strangely it is neither good nor is it +enough. That idea of what life in the officer corps is meant to be +simply cannot stand up under the pressures of modern operations. True +enough, assignments do not all have the same level of work +requirement, and one is sometimes handed a wide open opportunity to +goldbrick. But taking advantage of it is like the dope habit; the more +that it is sniffed, the greater becomes the craving of the nervous +system. It is harder to throw off sloth than to keep it from climbing +onto one's back in the first place. And finally, the truth of the +matter is this, that there is never any assignment given an armed +service officer which entitles him to waste any of the working hours +of his day. Though he be marking time in a casual depot or replacement +center, there still awaits his attention the entire range of military +studies, through which he can advance his own abilities. And if he is +not of a mind for tactics, map-reading, military law, and training +doctrine, it still follows that the study of applied psychology, +English composition, economic geography and foreign languages will +further his career. Just as a rough approximation, any officer's work +week should comprise about 50 percent execution and the other half +study, if he is to make the best use of his force. The woods are +loaded with go-getters who claim they are men of action and therefore +have no need of books; that they are "the flat-bottoms who can ride +over the dew." Though they are a little breezier, they are of the same +bone and marrow as the drone who is always counseling halfspeed. +"Don't sweat; just get by; extra work means short life; you're better +off if they don't notice you." This chant can be heard by anyone who +cares to listen; it's the old American invitation to mediocrity. But +while mediocre, as commonly used, means "indifferent, ordinary," it +also has in old English the odd meaning "a young monk who was excused +from performing part of a monk's duties." And that, too, fits. It is +always worthwhile to ask a few very senior officers what they think of +these jokers who refuse to study. They will say that the higher up you +go, the more study you have to make up, because of what you missed +somewhere along the line. They will say also that when they got to +flag or star rank, things didn't ease off a bit. + +But not all wisdom is to be found in books, and at no time is this +more true than when one is breaking in. What is expected of the novice +in any field is that he will ask questions, _smart ones if possible_, +but if not, then questions of all kinds until he learns that there is +no such item as reveille oil and that skirmish line doesn't come on +spools. For on one point there should be no mistake: the newly +appointed officer is a novice. Though many things go with the +commission, the assumption that he is all wise to all ways of the +service, and will automatically fit into his element as neatly as a +loaded ship settles down to its Plimsoll's mark, just isn't among +them. Within the services, seniors are rarely, if ever, either +patronizing or intolerant of the greenness of a new officer; they just +stand ready to help him. And if he doesn't permit them to have that +chance, because he would rather pretend that he knows it all, they +will gradually become bored with him because of the manifest proof +that he knows so very little. + +_Wisdom begins at the point of understanding that there is nothing +shameful about ignorance; it is shameful only when a man would rather +remain in that state than cultivate other men's knowledge._ There is +never any reason why he should hesitate, for it is better to be +embarrassed from seeking counsel than to be found short for not having +sought it. + +In one of the toughest trades in the world of affairs--that of the +foreign correspondent--initial dependence upon one's professional +colleagues is the only certain stepping stone to success. A man +arrives in strange country feeling very much alone. His credentials +lack the weight they had at home. The prestige of his newspaper counts +for almost nothing. Even the name of his home city stirs little +respect. The people, their ways, their approaches and their taboos are +foreign to him. This sweeping environmental change is crushing to the +spirit; it would impose an almost insuperable moral handicap if the +newcomer could not go to other Americans who have already worked the +ground, ask them how the thing is done, seek their advice about +dealing with the main personalities, learn from them about the +facilities for processing copy, and soak up everything they have to +say about private and professional procedures. Then as the ropes grow +gradually familiar in the grasp, confidence and nervous energy come +flooding back. + +Surely there is a close parallel between this experience and that of +the journeyman moving from the familiar soil of civilianism to the +_terra incognita_ of military life. But there is also the marked +difference that everyone he meets can tell him something that he needs +to know. More particularly, if he has the ambition to excel as a +commander of men, rather than as a technician, then the study of human +nature and of individual characteristics within the military crowd +become a major part of his training. That is the prime reason why the +life of any tactical leader becomes so very interesting, provided he +possesses some imagination. Everything is grist for his mill. +Moreover, despite the wholesale transformation in the scientific and +industrial aspects of war, there has been no revolution in the one +thing that counts most. Ardant du Picq's words, "The heart of man does +not change," are as good now as when he said them in an earlier period +of war. Whatever one learns for certain about the nature of man as a +fighting animal can be filed for ready reference; the hour will come +when it will be useful. + +We have emphasized the value of becoming curious, and of asking +questions about what one doesn't know, and have said that even when +the questions are a little on the dumb side, it does no harm. But the +ice gets very thin at one point. The same question asked over and +again, like the same error made more than once, will grate the nerves +of any superior. It is the mark of inattention, and the beginning of +that "tissue of things neglected and things done amiss" which put +Stevenson's oddball character in the ditch. When an officer lets words +go in one ear and out the other like water off a duck's back, to quote +the Dutch janitor, he is chasing rainbows by rubbing fur in the wrong +direction. + +Ideally, an officer should be able to do the work of any man serving +under him. There are even some command situations in which the ideal +becomes altogether attainable, and a wholly practicable objective. For +it may be said without qualification, that if he not only has this +capability, but demonstrates it, so that his men begin to understand +that he is thoroughly versed in the work problems which concern them, +_he can command them in any situation_. This is the real bedrock of +command capacity, and nothing else so well serves to give an officer +an absolutely firm position with all who serve under him. As said +elsewhere in this book, within the armed establishment, administration +is not of itself a separate art, or a dependable prop to authority. +When administrators talk airily of things that they clearly do not +understand, they are simply using the whip on the team without having +control of the reins. + +However, the greater part of military operation in present days is +noteworthy for the extreme diversity and complexity of its parts, and +instead of becoming more simplified, the trend is toward greater +elaboration. It is obviously absurd to expect that any officer could +know more about radio repair than his repairman, more about mapping +than his cartographical section, more about moving parts than a +gunsmith, more about radar than a specialist in electronics and more +about cypher than a cryptographer. If the services were to set any +such unreasonable standard for the commissioned body, all would +shortly move over into the lunatic fringe. Science has worked a few +wonders for the military establishment but it hasn't told us how to +produce that kind of man. + +Plainly, there must be a somewhat different approach to the question +of what kind of knowledge an officer is expected to possess, or the +requirement would be unreasonable and unworkable. + +_The distinction lies in the difference between the power to do a +thing well and that of being able to judge when it is well done._ A +man can say that a book is bad, though not knowing how to write one +himself, provided he is a student of literature. Though he has never +laid an egg, he can pass fair judgment on an omelette, if he knows a +little about cookery, and has sampled many good eggs, and detected a +few that were overripe. + +"He who lives in a house," said Aristotle, "is a better judge of it +being good or bad than the builder of it. He can say not only these +things, but wherein its defects consist. Yet he might be quite unable +to cure the chimney, or to draw out a plan for his rooms which would +suit him better. Sometimes he can even see where the fault is which +caused the mischief, and yet he may not know practically how to remedy +it." + +Adjustment to a job, and finally, mastery of it, by a service officer, +comes of persistent pursuit of this principle. The main technique is +study and constant reexamination of criteria. To take the correct +measure of standards of performance, as to the value of the work +itself, and as to the abilities of personnel, one must become immersed +in knowledge of the nature, _and purpose_, of all operations. There is +no shortcut to this grasp of affairs. The sack is filled bean by bean. +Patient application to one thing at one time is the first rule of +success; getting on one's horse and riding off in all directions is +the prelude to failure. All specialists like to talk about their work; +the interest of any other man is flattering; all men grow in knowledge +chiefly by picking other men's brains. Book study of the subject, +specialized courses in the service schools, the instructive comments +of one's superiors, the informed criticism of hands further down the +line and the weighing of human experience, at every source and by +every recourse, are the means of an informed judgment. It was the +scientist, Thomas Huxley who reminded us that science is only +"organized common sense." + +Other things being equal, the prospect for any man's progress is +largely determined by his attitude. It is the receptive mind, rather +than the oracle, which inspires confidence. General Eisenhower said at +one point that, after 40 years, he still thought of himself as a +student on all military questions, and that he consciously mistrusted +any man who believed he had the full and final answer to problems +which by their nature were ever-changing. + +But priggishness about knowledge is not more hurtful than is the +arbitrary use of it to limit action. _To rule by work rather than to +work by rules_ must be the abiding principle in military operations, +for finally, when war comes, nothing else will suffice. In peacetime, +absolute accountability is required, because dollar economy in +operations is a main object. This entails adherence to rigid forms, +time-consuming, but still necessary. In many of war's exigencies, +these forms frequently have to be swept aside, to bring victory as +quickly as possible and to save human life. In the book, "General +Kenney Reports," that great air commander spoke at one point of a +difficulty in one of his combat groups. "It was a lot of hard-working +earnest kids, officers and enlisted men, who were doing the best they +could under poor living and eating conditions. But their hands were +tied by the colonel in command whose passion for paper work +effectually stopped the issuing of supplies and the functioning of the +place as an air depot should. He told me that he thought 'it was about +time these combat units learned how to do their paper work properly.' +I decided that it would be a waste of time to fool with him so I told +him to pack up to go home on the next plane." + +Though this is a tragic example of wrong-headedness, it is by no means +unique. The profession moves ahead, and national security advances +with it, because of men who have the confidence and courage to toss +the rule book out the window when it doesn't fit the situation, and +who dare to trust their own decisions and improvise swiftly. + +But in all walks of life, this willingness to take hold of the reins +firmly is by no means common among men in relatively subordinate +positions who can play it safe by falling back on "SOP." + +But there is also a far wider vista than that which is to be viewed +only within the services themselves, and its horizons are almost +infinite. The American way in warfare utilizes everything within the +national system which may be applied to a military purpose toward the +increase of training and fighting efficiency. Much of our potential +strength lies in our industrial structure, our progress in science, +our inventiveness and our educational resources. Toward the end that +all of these assets will be given maximum use, and every good idea +which can be converted to a military purpose will be in readiness to +serve the nation when war comes, there must be a continuing meeting of +minds between military leadership and the leaders and experts in these +various fields during peace. + +That union cannot be perfected, however, unless there is a sufficient +number of men on both sides of the table who can think halfway into +the field of the man opposite. Just as the civilian expert in +electronics, airplane manufacture or motion picture production needs +to know more about the military establishment's problem and +requirements if he is to do his part, the service officer with whom he +is dealing needs to be informed on industry's resources, possibilities +and limitations if he is to enable the civilian side to do its part +well. The same for science. The same for education, and all other +backers of the fighting force. + +An enlightened Englishman, D. W. Brogan, in a book written during +World War II, "The American Character," gave us this thought: "The +American officer must think in terms of material resources, existing +but not organized in peacetime and taking much time and thought and +experiment by trial and error to make available in wartime. He finds +that his best peacetime plans are inadequate for one basic reason: +that any plan which in peacetime really tried to draw adequately on +American resources would cause its author to be written off as a +madman; and in wartime, it would prove to have been inadequate, +pessimistic, not allowing enough for the practically limitless +resources of the American people--limitless once the American people +get ready to let them be used. And only war can get them ready for +that. The American officer can draw then, but not before, on an +experience in economic improvization and in technical adaptation which +no other country can equal." + +This is true to the last syllable, and it means in essence that unless +the American officer can think of the whole nation as his workshop, +and along with his other duties, will apply himself as a student, +seeking to understand more and more about the richness and the +adaptability of our tremendous resources, neither he nor the country +will be relatively ready when war comes. + +There is a last point to be made on the matter of attitude. The most +resolute opposition to changes in any system usually comes from those +who control them. That is universally true, and not peculiar to +military systems; but the services are foremost in recognizing that, +as a consequence, the encouragement of original thought at the lower +levels is essential to over-all progress. + +All depends upon the manner. We can ponder the words of William +Hazlitt, "A man who shrinks from a collision with his equals or +superiors will soon sink below himself; we improve by trying our +strength with others, not by showing it off." They are good so far as +they go, but something new should be added. There is a vast difference +between contending firmly for ideas that seem progressive when one is +reasonably sure of one's data, and the habit of throwing one's weight +around through a mistaken belief that this of itself manifests an +independence of spirit which inspires respect. + +Truculence can never win the day. Restraint, tolerance, a sense of +humor and of proportion and the force of logic are the marks of the +man qualified for intellectual leading. Within the services, even +though he has no great rank, there is practically nothing he cannot +carry through, if his proposals have the color of reason and +propriety, and if he will keep his head, keep his temper, and keep his +word. + + + + +CHAPTER NINETEEN + +KNOWLEDGE OF YOUR MEN + + +An admiring contemporary spoke of Paul G. Hoffman, the director of the +European Recovery Program, as "the kind of man who if tossed through +the air would always pick out the right trapeze." + +Within any military organization, there is always a number of such +men, enlisted and commissioned. They know how and where to take hold, +even in the face of a totally unexpected and unnerving situation, and +they have what amounts to an instinct for doing the right thing in a +decisive moment. + +If it were not so, no captain of the line would ever be able to manage +a company in battle, and no submarine commander would be able to cope +with an otherwise overwhelming danger. These men are the foundation of +unit integrity. The successful life of organization depends upon +husbanding, and helping them to cultivate, their own powers, which +means that their initiative and vigor must never be chilled by +supercilious advice and thoughtless correction. + +They will go ahead and act responsibly on their own when given the +confidence, and if they want it, the friendship, of their commander. +But they cannot be treated like little children. The lash will ruin +them and the curb will merely subdue that which needs to be brought +forward. As in handling a horse with a good temper and a good mouth, +nothing more is needed than that gentle touch of the rein which +signals that things are under control. + +From where the executive sits, the main secret of building strength +within organization comes of identifying such men, and of associating +one's authority with theirs, so it is unmistakable in whose name they +are speaking and acting. One of the acid tests of qualification in +officership is the ability properly to delegate authority, to put it +in the best hands, and thereafter to uphold them. If an officer cannot +do that, and if he is mistrustful of all power save his own, he +cannot command in peace, and when he goes into battle, his unit +strength will fragment like an exploding bomb, and the parts will not +be rewelded until some stronger character takes hold. + +_Command is not a prerogative, but rather a responsibility to be +shared with all who are capable of filling up the spaces in orders and +of carrying out that which is not openly expressed though it may be +understood._ Admittedly, it is not easy for a young officer, who by +reason of his youth is not infrequently lacking in self-assurance and +in the confidence that he can command respect, to understand that as a +commander he can grow in strength in the measure that he succeeds in +developing the latent strength of his subordinates. But if he +stubbornly resists this premise as he goes along in the service, his +personal resources will never become equal to the strain which will be +imposed upon him, come a war emergency. The power to command resides +largely in the ability to see when a proper initiative is being +exercised and in giving it moral encouragement. When an officer feels +that way about his job and his men, he will not be ready to question +any action by a junior which might be narrowly construed as an +encroachment upon his own authority. Of this last evil come the +restraints which reduce men to automatons, giving only that which is +asked, or less, according to the pressing of a button. + +There are other men who have as sound a potential as these +already-made leaders, but lack the initial confidence because they +were not constructively handled in earlier years. They require +somewhat more personal attention, for the simple reason that more +frequent contact with their superiors, words of approval and advice as +needed, will do more than all else to put bottom under them. They must +be encouraged to think for themselves as well as to obey orders, to +organize as well as to respond, if they are to become part of the +solution, rather than remaining part of the problem, of command. If +left wholly to their own devices, or to the ministrations of less +thoughtful subordinates, they will remain in that majority which moves +only when told. It takes no more work, though it does require +imagination, to awaken the energies of such men by appealing to their +intelligence and their self-interest, than to nauseate them with dull +theory, and to cramp them by depriving them of responsibility. + +Careful missionary work among these "sleepers" is as productive as +spading the ground, and sprinkling a garden patch. When an officer +takes hold in a new unit, his main chance of making it better than it +was comes of looking for the overlooked men. He uses his hand to give +them a firm lift upward, but it will not be available for that purpose +if he spends any of his time tugging at men who are already on their +feet and moving in the right general direction. + +In the words of a distinguished armored commander in our forces: "To +the military leader, men are tools. He is successful to the extent +that he can get the men to work for him. Ordinarily, and on their own +initiative, people run on only 35 percent capacity. The success of a +leader comes of tapping the other 65 percent." This is a pretty +seasoned judgment on men in the mass, taking them as they come, the +mobile men, the slow starters, the indifferent and the shiftless. +Almost every man wants to do what is expected of him. When he does not +do so, it is usually because his instructions have been so doubtful as +to befog him or give him a reasonable excuse for noncompliance. This +view of things is the only tenable attitude an officer or enlisted +leader can take toward his subordinates. He will recognize the +exceptions, and if he does not then take appropriate action, it is +only because he is himself shiftless and is compassionate toward +others of his own fraternity. + +It is the military habit to "plow deep in broken drums and shoot crap +for old crowns," as the poet, Carl Sandburg, put it. As much as any +other profession, and even possibly a little more, we take pride in +the pat solution, and in proof that long-applied processes amply meet +the test of newly unfolding experience. But despite all the jests +about the Gettysburg Map, we wouldn't know where we're going if we +couldn't be reasonably sure of where we've been. + +Therefore, it is as well to say now that from all of the careful +searching made by the armed services as to the fighting +characteristics of Americans during World War II, not a great deal was +learned in addition to what was already well known, or surmised. The +criteria that had been used in the prior system of selection proved to +be substantially correct; at least, if it had faults, they were innate +in the complex problem of weighing human material, and were beyond +correction by any rule of thumb or judgment. Men were chosen to lead +because of personality, intelligence at their work, response to +orders, ability to lead in fatigues or in the social affairs of +organization, and disciplinary record. In combat these same men +carried 95 percent of the load of responsibility and provided the +dynamic for the attack. But in every unit, there was almost invariably +a small sprinkling of individuals, who having shown no prior ability +when measured by the customary yardsticks of courtesy, discipline and +work, became strong and vital in any situation calling for heroic +action. They could fight, they could lead, they knew what should be +done, they could persuade other men to rally around, and by these +things, they could command instantly the previously withheld respect +of their superiors. + +Neither the scientific nor the military mind has yet been able to +provide the answer as to how men of this type--so indispensable to the +fighting establishment in the thing that matters most, though lacking +in strong surface characteristics--can be detected beforehand, and +conserved, instead of being wasted possibly in a labor or housekeeping +organization. + +All concerned recognize the extreme importance of the problem, and +would like to do something about it. What is as yet not even vaguely +seen is the large possibility that the problem might be +self-liquidating if all junior officers became more concerned with +learning all they could about the private character and personal +nature of their subordinates. This does not mean invading their +privacy; but it implies giving every man a fair chance to open up and +to talk freely, without fear of contempt. It means studying the +background of a man even more carefully than one would read a map, +looking for the key to command of the terrain. These are usually +repressed men; many of the foreign-born are to be found among them; +they cover up because of pride, but they are not afraid of physical +danger. Once any man, and particularly a superior, gets through the +outer shell, he may have the effect of a catalyst on what is happening +inside. If such men did not have basic loyalty, they would never +fight. When at last they give their loyalty to an individual, they are +usually his to command and will go through hell for him. + +There was an Oklahoma miner named Alvin Wimberley in 90th Division +during World War I. On the drill field, he could do nothing correctly. +He couldn't step off on the left foot; he would frequently drop his +piece while trying to do right shoulder. Solely because his case was +unfathomable, his platoon leader asked that he be taken to France with +the unit instead of separated with the culls. At the front, Wimberley +immediately took the lead in every detail of a dangerous sort, such as +exploding a mine field, or hunting for traps and snares. His nerve was +inexhaustible; his judgment sure. There was, after all, a simple key +to the mystery. Wimberley had led a solitary life as a dynamiter, deep +under ground. He was frightened of men, but danger was his element. +When he saw other men recoil at the thing which bothered him not at +all, he realized that he was the big man, though he only stood 5 feet +3 inches in issue socks. + +To know men, it is not necessary to wet-nurse them, and no officer can +make a sorrier mistake than to take the overly nice, worrying attitude +toward them. This, after all, is simply the rule of the well-bred man, +rather than an item peculiar to the code of the military officer. But +it is a little less becoming in a service officer than in anyone else, +because, when a man puts on fighting clothes in the name of his +country, it is an insult to treat him as if he were a juvenile. + +In any situation where men need to know one another better, someone +has to break the ice. Where does the main responsibility lie within a +military unit? True enough, the junior has to salute first, and in +some services is supposed to say, "Good morning!" first, though +beating a man to the draw with a greeting is one way to win him. + +However, the main point is this: unless an officer has himself been an +enlisted man, it is almost impossible for him to know how formidable, +and even forbidding, rank at first seems to the eyes of the man down +under, even though he would be loath to say so. + +Many recruits have such a mistaken hearsay impression of the United +States military system, that it is for them a cause for astonishment +that any officer enjoys free discussion with them. They feel at first +that there is a barrier there which only the officer is entitled to +cross; it takes them a little while to learn better. + +But in the continuing relationship, it is the habit of the average +well-disciplined enlisted man to remain reticent, and talk only on +official matters, unless the officer takes the lead in such way as to +invite general conversation. For that matter, the burden is the same +anywhere in the service in relations between a senior officer and his +subordinates, and the former must take the lead if he expects to +really know his men. + +Many newly joined officers believe, altogether mistakenly, that there +is some strange taboo against talking to men except in line of duty, +and that if caught at it, it will be considered _infra dig_. There is +always the hope that they will remain around long enough to learn +better. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY + +WRITING AND SPEAKING + + +Other things being equal, a superior rating will invariably be given +to the officer who has persevered in his studies of the art of +self-expression, while his colleague, who attaches little importance +to what may be achieved through working with the language, will be +marked for mediocrity. + +A moment's reflection will show why this has to be the case and why +mastery of the written and spoken word is indispensable to successful +officership. + +As the British statesman, Disraeli, put it, "Men govern with words." +Within the military establishment, command is exercised through what +is said which commands attention and understanding and through what is +written which directs, explains, interprets or informs. + +Battles are won through the ability of men to express concrete ideas +in clear and unmistakable language. All administration is carried +forward along the chain of command by the power of men to make their +thoughts articulate and available to others. + +There is no way under the sun that this basic condition can be +altered. Once the point is granted, any officer should be ready to +accept its corollary--that superior qualification in the use of the +language, both as to the written and the spoken word, is more +essential to military leadership than knowledge of the whole technique +of weapons handling. + +It then becomes strictly a matter of personal decision whether he will +seek to advance himself along the line of main chance or will take +refuge in the excuse offered by the great majority: "I'm just a simple +fighting file with no gift for writing or speaking." + +How often these or similar words are heard in the armed services! And +the pity of it is that they are usually uttered in a tone indicating +that the speaker believes some special virtue attaches to his kind of +ignorance. There is the unmistakable innuendo that the man who pays +serious attention to the fundamentals of the business of communication +is somehow less possessed of sturdy military character than himself. +There could hardly be a more absurd or disadvantageous professional +conceit than this. It is the mark only of an officer who has no +ambition to properly qualify himself, and is seeking to justify his +own laziness. + +Not all American military leaders have been experts at polishing a +phrase or giving clear expression and continuity to the thoughts which +made them useful in command. But of those who have excelled in the +conduct of great operations, at least four out of five made some mark +in the field of letters. A long list would include such names as U. S. +Grant, W. T. Sherman, Robert E. Lee, John J. Pershing, James G. +Harbord, Henry T. Allen, Dwight D. Eisenhower, George S. Patton, Jr., +H. H. Arnold, Douglas MacArthur, William F. Halsey, W. B. Smith, +Joseph W. Stilwell, Holland M. Smith, and Robert L. Eichelberger among +many others. + +Of them all, it can be said without exception that they acquired their +skill at self-expression by sustained practice which was part of a +self-imposed training in the interests of furthering their military +efficiency. No one of them was a born writer. There is no such thing. +Nor did any one of them owe his abilities as a writer to any other +person. Writers are self-made. But it is a reasonable speculation that +history might never have heard of the greater number of these men had +they not worked sedulously to become proficient with the pen as well +as with the sword. Granting that they had other sound military +qualities in the beginning, an acquired ability to express themselves +lucidly and with force became a touchstone to preferment. The same +thing holds true of their celebrated military contemporaries almost +without exception. Even those who had no public reputation for +authorship, and would have been ill at ease if called upon to speak to +an average audience, knew how to use the language in presenting their +thoughts to their staffs and their troops, whether the occasion called +for a succinct operational order, a doctrinal exposition or an +inspirational message on the eve of battle. + +Wherever one looks, the same precept may be noted. It was not +coincidence merely, but related cause and effect, that Ferdinand Foch +was one of the ablest military writers of the twentieth century before +he won immortality on the field of war, that the elder von Moltke was +as skilled with ink as with powder, and that we still marvel at the +picture of the great von Steuben dictating drill manuals far into the +night so that there would be greater perfection in his formations on +the following day. The command of language was one of the main sources +of their power over the multitude. + +As it was with these commanders, so it is with leadership at every +level: _Men who can command words to serve their thoughts and feelings +are well on their way to commanding men to serve their purposes._ + +All senior commanders respect the junior who has a facility for +thinking an idea through and then expressing it comprehensively in +clear, unvarnished phrases. Moreover, even when they are stilted in +their own manner of expression, they will warm to the man whose style +achieves strength through its ease and naturalness. They will quickly +make note of any young officer who is making progress in this +direction and will want to have him around. He is a rare bird in the +services, and for that reason his opportunities are far above the +average. Staff work could not be carried forward at any of its levels +if it were not for this particular talent, and command would lose a +great part of its magnetism. + +Toward the building of a career, the best break that can come to any +young man is to have three or four places bidding simultaneously for +his services. There are possibly better arguments than that as to why +perfection in writing should be a main pursuit of the service officer, +such as the sense of personal attainment which comes of it. + +Any man who has the brain to qualify for commission can make of +himself a competent writer. Because of natural limitations, he may +never come to excel in this art. But if he has had average schooling, +knows how to open a dictionary, can find his way to a library, is +willing to commit himself to long study and practice, particularly in +nonduty hours, and will finally free himself of the superstition that +writing is a game only for specialists, he can acquire all the skill +that is necessary to further his advance within the military +profession. + +That is the great difference between writing ability and specialized +knowledge in such fields as electronics and atomic research. + +But where should work begin? How about a little practical advice? + +The only way to learn to write is to write. That is it--there is no +other secret than hard, unremitting practice. Most writers at the +start are mentally muscle-bound, and poorly coordinated. They have +thoughts in their heads. They think they can develop them clearly. But +when they try to apply a largely dormant vocabulary to the expression +of these thoughts, the result is stiff and selfconscious. + +The only cure for this is constant mental exercise, with one's pen, or +over one's typewriter. After a man has written perhaps a half million +relatively useless words there comes, sometimes almost in a flash, and +at other times gradually, a mastery not only of words, but of phrases, +sentences and the composition of ideas. It is a kind of rhythmic +process, like learning to swim, or to row a boat, or navigate an +airplane. When a writer has at last conquered his element, his +personality and his character can be transmitted to paper. What is +said will reflect the force, adaptability, reason and musing of the +writer. In fact, the discipline through which one learns to write adds +substance to thought, whereby one's ideas are given body and +connection. Such common faults as wordiness, overstatement, faulty +sentence structure and weak use of words are gradually corrected. With +their passing, confidence grows. This does not mean, however, that the +task then becomes easy. Though its rewards will increase, good writing +continues to be a strain even to the man who does it well. Many +celebrated men of letters never get beyond the "sweating" stage, but +have to fight their way through a jungle of words, and rewrite almost +endlessly, before finding satisfaction in their product. + +This description makes it all seem more than a little formidable. But +what was promised in the first place was that any service officer, who +will accept the necessary discipline, can make himself reasonably +proficient as a writer, and thereby further his professional progress. +What he writes about during the conditioning period makes very little +difference. It might be an operational order one night, a treatise on +discipline the next, a lecture to his men on the elements of combat +the third. Fortunately, the list of topics within the services and +directly applicable to their operations, is practically inexhaustible. +That is a main reason why the military establishment is a better +school for writing than perhaps any other place in our society. + +Winston Churchill, whose gift of forceful expression is the envy of +all other writing men, won his literary spurs in his early twenties as +a soldier with the Malakand Field Force. He saw the essential +idea--that to learn English, he had literally to learn, just as though +he had been acquiring Latin or French. As a writer, his main strength +is his employment of Anglo-Saxon, the words of our common speech. + +But simply to take regular exercise in composition is not quite +enough. Of it would come the shadow but not the substance. To progress +as a writer, one must become a student of the best things which have +been written by men who understand their craft. A military officer can +do that without going beyond the field of military studies, if that +should be his disposition, such is the richness and variation of +available works in this realm of literature. The purpose at hand is +not only to seek great ideas for their own sake but to make careful +note of the manner in which they are expressed. So doing, one +unconsciously invigorates his own powers and adopts techniques which +the masters have used to great advantage. + +To paraphrase what a distinguished journalist once said on this +subject in a speech to young writers: "For an officer it is in the +first place a shame to be ignorant--ignorant, as not a few are, of +history and geography: and in the second place, it is a pity that any +officer should lack a vigor in writing which can be produced through +imitation of vigorous writers." + +As to what is best worth seeking, a man can not go wrong by "falling +in love" with the works of a relatively limited number of authors who +kindle him personally. It is all right to widen the field +occasionally, for diversion, for contrast, for sharpening style, and +for balancing of ideas, but strength comes of finding a main line and +holding to it. No man can read a book with sympathetic understanding +without taking from it something that makes him more complex and more +potent. + +The main test is in this: if you read a book and feel stirred by it, +even though alternately you strongly agree with certain of its +passages and warmly contend against others, something new has been +added. The writer is making you see things. Your own powers of +observation are being made more acute. All good writers are in a sense +hitch-hikers. While going along for the ride, and enjoying the essence +of some highly developed mind, they are not loath to study the +technique by which some other man develops his driving power, and to +make note of his strong words and best phrases for possible future +use. + +It is a good habit to underscore passages in books which have +contributed something vital to one's own thought--always provided that +the books have not been borrowed. + +Without mentioning names, we can take a cue from a man who some years +ago entered one of the services while still a youth. He had had little +formal education, but he began an earnest study of military +literature, and the search for knowledge whetted his thirst to join +the company of those who could speak to the world because they had +something to say. He read such books as were at hand, and clipped +pieces from magazines and newspapers which had particularly appealed +to him, for one reason or another. Whenever he saw a new word, he +wrote it down and sought the meaning in the dictionary, considering +whether it had a shade of meaning which added anything important to +his vocabulary. This done, he wrote sentences, many sentences, +employing his new words in various ways, until their use became +instinctive. On this foundation alone, he built his career as a +national writer. There was nothing extraordinary about this start and +the ultimate result. Literally thousands of Americans have qualified +themselves for one branch or another of the writing profession by what +they learned to do in military service. Too, an ability to "organize a +good paper" has been a large element in the success of most of the men +who have moved from the military circle into top posts in the +diplomatic service, in education or in industrial administration. Had +they been capable only of delegating this kind of work, their powers +would never have been recognized. + +As a practical matter, it is better to concentrate on a few elementary +rules-of-thumb, such as are contained in the following list, than to +bog down attempting to heed everything that the pedants have said +about how to become a writer. + + The more simply a thing is said the more powerfully it influences + those who read. Plain words make strong writing. + + There is always one best word to convey a thought or a feeling. To + accept a weaker substitute, rather than to Search for the right + word, will deprive any writing of force. + + Economy of words invigorates composition. + + To quote Carl Sandburg: "Think twice before you use an adjective." + + It is better to use the adverb because an adverb enhances the verb + and is active, whereas the adjective simply loads down the noun. + + On the other hand, it is the verb that makes language live. Nine + times out of ten the verb is the operative word giving motion to + the sentence. Hence, placing the verb is of first importance in + giving strength to sentence structure. + + In all writing, but in military writing particularly, there is no + excuse for vague terminology or phrases which do not convey an + exact impression of what was done or what is intended. The + military vocabulary is laden with words and expressions which + sound professional but do not have definite meaning. They vitiate + speech and the establishment would gladly rid itself of them if a + way could be found. Men fall into the habit of saying + "performed," "functioned" or "executed" and forget that "did" is + in the dictionary. A captain along the MLR (main line of + resistance) notifies his battalion commander that he has "advanced + his left flank" when all that has actually occurred is that six + riflemen from the left have crawled forward to new, and possibly, + untenable ground. + + It is better at all times to _rein in_. The strength of military + writing, like the soundness of military operations, does not gain + through overstatement and artificial coloring. The bigger the + subject, the less it needs embroidery. + + For lucidity and sincerity, the important thing is to say what you + have to say in whatever words most accurately express your own + thoughts. That done, it is pointless to worry about the effect on + the audience. + +The list of suggestions could be extended indefinitely. But enough has +already been said to stake out a main line for those who have already +decided that this subject deserves their interest. + +A majority of the world's most gifted writers would in all probability +be struck dumb if put before an audience; though dealing confidently +with ideas, they lack confidence when dealing with people. The +military officer has need of both talents, and as to where the accent +should be placed, it is probably more important that he should speak +well than that his writing prose should be polished. A unit commander +may permit a clerk or a subordinate to do the greater part of his +paper work, either because his own time is taken with other duties or +because he is awkward at it, but if he permits any other voice to +dominate the councils of the organization, he soon ceases to exercise +moral authority over it. + +Of this there is no question. The judgment men take of their superior +is formed as much by what he says and how he says it as by his action. + +The matter of nerve is a main element in speaking. When an officer is +ill at ease, fidgety and not to the point, the vote of his command for +the time being is "no confidence," and so long as he remains that +way, they will not change, no matter though his good will shines forth +through other acts. + +On the other hand, the military crowd is an extremely sympathetic +audience. It has to be; it is drawing pay for so being. But even if +that were not true, the ranks have a generous spirit and are ever +disposed to give the newcomer an even break. If he meets them +confidently and calmly, measures his words, smiles at his own mistakes +and breaks it off when he has covered his subject, they'll pay no +attention to his little fumbles, and they'll approve him. There is no +better way to pick up prestige than through instruction or discourse +which commands attention, for despite all that is said in favor of the +"strong, silent man," troops like an officer who is outgiving, and who +has an intelligence that they can respect because they have seen it at +work. + +As for _how_ an officer should talk to men, his manner and tone should +be no different than if he were addressing his fellow officers, or for +that matter, a group of his intellectual and political peers from any +walk of life. If he is stuffy, he will not succeed anywhere. If he +affects a superior manner, that is a mark of his inferiority. If he is +patronizing, and talks to grown men as a teacher might talk to a class +of adolescents, the rug, figuratively, will be pulled from under him. +His audience will put him down as a chump. + +It is curiously the case that the junior officer who can't get the +right pitch when he talks to the ranks will also be out of tune when +he talks to his superiors. This failing is a sign mainly that he needs +practice in the school of human nature. By listening a little more +carefully to other men, he may himself in time attain maturity. + +Concerning subject matter, it is better always to aim high than to +take the risk of shooting too low. It is too often the practice to +spell out everything in words of one syllable so that the more witless +files in the organization will be able to understand it. When that is +done, it insults the intelligence of the keenest men, and nothing is +added to their progress. The target should be the intellect of the +upper 25 or 30 percent. When they are stimulated and informed, they +will bring the others along, and even those who do not fully +understand all that was under discussion will have heard something to +which to aspire. _The habit of talking down to troops is one of the +worst vices that can afflict an officer._ + +There are no dull lecture topics; there are only dull lecturers. A +little eager research will enliven any subject under the sun. Good +lecturing causes men's imaginations to be stirred by vivid images. +Real good is accomplished only when they talk to each other of what +they have heard and sharpen their impressions. Schopenauer somewhere +observes that "people in general have eyes and ears, but not much +else--little judgment and even little memory," which isn't far wrong. +Consequently, competent lecturing entails the employment of every +technique which can be used to hammer a point home. In this way, a +truth or a lesson has a better chance of adhering because it is +identified with some definite image. Simply to illuminate this point, +it is noted that the jests which best stick in the memory are those +which are associated with some incongruous situation. To relate a +pertinent anecdote, to provide an apt quotation from some well-known +authority and to draw upon our own rich battle history for +illustrative materials are but a few of the means of freshening any +discussion and sharpening its purpose. Men are always ready to listen +to the story of other men's experience provided that it is told with +vigor. And insofar as combat is concerned, such teaching is in point, +for what has happened once will happen again. + +For his way as an instructor of young infantry officers of the A. E. +F. in 1918, Lt. Col. H. M. Hutchinson of the British Army was awarded +our D. S. M. Officers who sat at his feet at Gondrecourt were unlikely +ever to forget the point of such an anecdote as: + +"There will be no 'Stack arms' in my army. It is a thing one sees on a +brewer's calendar--The Soldier's Dream--showing a brave private +sleeping under a stack of rifles which it will take him a good +half-hour to untangle when the call comes to stand to. No, a soldier +had better carry the rifle with him to his meals, have it beside him +always, lavish his care upon it, and in short treat it more like a +wife than a weapon. + +"I am reminded of the times in South Africa when we would come to a +country inn where a chap could stop for beer. Well, a soldier would +walk into the place, and immediately he would stand his rifle in a +corner--like an umbrella, you know--'We've arrived!'--and he'd get +well into his beer and a song, say, and suddenly firing would break +out on the inn from four sides. + +"It seemed that a Boer had slipped into the entry and picked up all +the rifles and passed them around to his mates in the bushes, +and--well--there you are!" + +As a cadet and later as an instructor at Sandhurst, Colonel Hutchinson +well knew the usefulness of the anecdote in catching and holding the +attention of the young. Who could forget the lesson in this, related +at Gondrecourt: + +"In my youth I was a dashing ignoramus with clearer ideas than I now +have on the line of demarcation between the officer and his men. They +sent me out to South Africa during the trouble and I brought a +detachment into a country village. It seemed quite unpromising but I +was told of a sort of place 3 miles in the country that you would call +a chateau in France. So I cantered out and spent the night, turning my +men over to a sergeant-major. After a refreshing breakfast along in +the middle of the morning--the late middle of the morning--I rode back +into town, but try as I might I could not locate a single one of my +men. + +"Now nothing, you know, is as ineffective in a war as an officer +without his men. Well, I spent the day in agony and it was not until +along at dusk that the first of the blighters straggled in--quite +drunk, all of them, and swearing to a man that they had engaged in +five ferocious battles. It seems that about 2 miles away, in a barn, +they had come on a hogshead of ginger brandy, and had stayed with it +to the bitter end. Need I say that it was a great lesson to me, and +that from then on I was never billeted farther than 15 rods from my +men. + +"As a matter of fact, I love ginger brandy." + +Or this, in which the whole lesson of exactitude in the written +communication is implicit: + +"Now on the subject of messages, it might be well to say immediately +that as far as I know no one ever received a written message during a +battle. They may be written, but that I think is as far as it goes. +However, they are occasionally received before and after battles, and +in this connection let me say that it is no earthly good writing +generalities to signify times and places. + +"I mean to say, suppose you are writing a message and you write +'Report after breakfast.' Well, to Sergeant Ramrod it might mean +stand-to at 3 in the morning; while to Captain Brighteyes it would +mean, say, 8 o'clock. But to Colonel Blue-fish it would signify some +time after 11, depending quite a bit on how the old fellow felt. + +"So it is better to say 7 o'clock in the morning, if that is what you +mean, for after all there is only one 7 o'clock in the morning. And, +by the way, I must warn you chaps against the champagne on sale in the +Cafe de l'Univers down here in the square. It is made in the +basement--of potatoes." + +On as simple and basic a thing as continuing liaison between small +units, the Colonel's listeners never forgot his elementary parable: + +"One rule is about all a chap can handle in a battle, and as good a +one as any to remember is to keep in some sort of touch with the chaps +to your right and left. If you do this--and I dare say you Americans +will have as much trouble as ourselves in remembering to--then a great +deal of distress to yourselves and all hands will be obviated. + +"Now here we have a triangular wood. There is to be an attack, and the +objective is this line beyond the wood. So on this side of the wood at +the hour of attack the Welsh Guards go forward--and on this side, +here, the Inniskilling Fusiliers, and a tremendous battle ensues. +Well, after an hour or two, with not much progress, it is discovered +that the Welsh Guards have been firing into the Inniskilling +Fusiliers, and the Fusiliers have been firing into the Welsh. This is +thought a bit thick, you know, even in the confusion of battle. So +eventually it is stopped." + +Some of the experts warn the lecturer who is only a beginner against +the use of humor, commenting that if a joke is unlaughed at, it is +disconcerting to all concerned. The only intelligent answer to that +is: "Well, what of it?" The speaker who is going to cringe every time +one of his passages falls a little flat had best not start. This +happens at times to every lecturer; there are good days and bad days, +live audiences and sour ones. If a man takes his work seriously, it is +hardly within nature for him to harden his emotions against an +unexpectedly dull reaction. But he can keep from ever showing that he +is upset if as a speaker he consciously forms the habit of rapidly +driving on from one point to another. + +Thus as to the use of humor in public address, it is not only an asset +but almost a necessity. It is better to try with it, and to fall flat +occasionally, thereby sharpening one's own wit through better +understanding of what goes and what does not, than to attempt to go +along humorlessly. Said William Pitt: "Don't tell me of a man's being +able to talk sense. Everyone can talk sense. Can he talk a little +nonsense?" Even more to the point is the remark of Thomas Hardy that +men thin away to insignificance quite as often by not making the most +of good spirits when they have them as by lacking good spirits when +they are indispensable. Fighting is much too serious a trade to have a +large place for men who are dry as dust. + +One of the spellbinders of ancient Greece, we are told, orated on the +sands with his mouth filled with pebbles. In World War I, it was the +custom of many higher commanders to take their officers out for voice +exercises and have them talk through 150 feet of thicket; they were +not satisfied unless the words came through distinctly on the far +side. If, under average acoustical conditions, a military officer +cannot get across to five hundred men, he needs to improve his voice +placement. It is remarkable what miracles can be worked by consistent +exercise of the vocal cords. + +The final thought is that it is all a matter of buildup. An officer +can cut his audience to his own size, and strengthen his powers and +his confidence as he goes along. That is his supreme advantage. He can +start with a short talk to a minor working detail and move from that +to a more formal address before a slightly larger group. By taking it +gradually, and increasing his store of knowledge in the interim +period, he will see the time come when he can hold any audience in the +hollow of his hand. This is precisely the routine which was followed +by most of the military leaders who have been celebrated for their +command of speech. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE + +THE ART OF INSTRUCTION + + + _Keep it simple._ + + _Have but one main object._ + + _Stay on the course._ + + _Remain cheerful._ + + _Be enthusiastic._ + + _Put it out as if the ideas were as interesting and novel to you, + as to your audience._ + +By abiding by these few simple rules you will keep cool, preserve +continuity and hold your audience. + +Instruction is just about the begin-all and end-all of every military +officer's job. He spends the greater part of his professional life +either pitching it or catching it, and the game doesn't stop until he +is at last retired. Should he become a Supreme Commander, even, this +is one thing that does not change; it remains a give-and-take +proposition. Part of his time is taken instructing his staff as to +what he wants done and just as much of it is spent in being instructed +by his staff as to the means available for the doing of it. + +Instruction is the generator of unified action. It is the transmission +belt by which the lessons of experience are passed to untrained men. +Left uninstructed, men may progress only by trial-and-error and the +hard bumps which come of not knowing the way. + +Need more than that be said to suggest that the officer who builds a +competent skill in this field, so that it becomes a part of his +reputation, has at the same time built the most solid kind of a +foundation under his service career? + +The services do not discard that kind of man when the economy pinch +comes and the establishment has to contract. The Reservist, who is +known as a good instructor, is always on the preferred list. In any +period of emergency, such officers move rapidly to the top; there are +always more good jobs than there are good men. Look back over the +lineup of distinguished commanders from World War II! It will be found +that the high percentage of them first attracted notice by _being good +school men_. + +Within the services, in all functions related to the passing on of +information, the accent is on "knowing your stuff." The point is +substantial, but not conclusive. It is upon the way that instruction +is delivered rather than upon its contents as such that its moral +worth rests. The pay-off is not in what is said, but in what sinks in. +_A competent instructor will not only teach his men but will increase +his prestige in the act._ There are many inexpressibly dull bores who +know what they're talking about, but still haven't learned how to say +it, because they are contemptuous of the truth that it is the dynamic +flow of knowledge, rather than the static possession of it, which is +the means to power and influence. As technicians, they have their +place. As instructors, they would be better off if they knew only half +as much about their subject, and twice as much about people. + +To know where truth lies is not more important than knowing how to +pitch it. Take the average American military audience: what can be +said fairly of its main characteristics? Perhaps this--that it is +moderately reflective; that it is ready to give the untried speaker a +break; that it does not like windiness, bombast or prolonged +moralizing; that it refuses to be bullied; and that it can usually be +won by the light touch and a little appeal to its sporting instinct. +It is the little leavening in the bread which makes all the difference +in its savor and digestibility. + +In World War I an American major, name now long forgotten, was given +the task of making the rounds of the cantonments, talking to all +combat formations, and convincing them that the future was bright--no +Boy Scout errand. But wherever he went, morale was lifted by his +words. In substance, what he said was this: + +"None of us cares about living with any individual who wants every +break his own way. But when the odds are even, the gamble is worth +any good man's time. So let's look at the proposition. You now have +one chance in two; you may go overseas, you may not. Suppose you do. +You still have one chance in two. You may go to the front, or you may +not. If you don't, you'll see a foreign country at Uncle Sam's +expense; if you do, you'll find out about war, which is the toughest +chance of them all. But up there, you still have one chance in two: +you may get hit, or you may not. If you breeze through it, you'll be a +better man for all the rest of your life. And if you get hit, you +still have one chance in two. You may get a small wound, and become a +hero to your family and friends. Or there is always the last chance +that it may take you out altogether. And while that is a little +rugged, it is at least worth remembering that very few people seem to +get out of this life alive." + +There was as simple an idea as any military instructor ever unloaded, +and yet troops cheered this man wherever he went. + +Lt. Col. H. M. Hutchinson, of the British Army, already described in +this book as an instructor who made a powerful impression on the +American Army in World War I because of his droll wit, was a master +hand at taking the oblique approach to teach a lesson. Old officers +still remember the manner and the moral of passages such as this one: + +"On the march back from Mons--and I may say that a very good army +sometimes must retreat, though no doubt it wounds the sensibilities to +consider it--we did rather well. But I noticed often the confusion +caused by marching slowly up one side of a hill and dashing down the +other. It is a tendency of all columns on foot. + +"A captain is sitting out in front on a horse, with a hell of a great +pipe in his mouth and thinking of some girl in a cafe, and of course +he moves slowly up the hill. He comes to the top and his pace +quickens. Well, then, what happens? The taller men are at the top of +the column, and they lengthen their stride--but what becomes of Nipper +and Sandy down in the twentieth squad? Half the time, you see, they +are running to catch up. So the effect is to jam the troops together +on an upgrade and to stretch them out going down--you know--like a +concertina." + +Where then is the beginning of efficiency in the art of instruction? +It resides in becoming diligent and disciplined about self-instruction. +No man can develop great power as an instructor, or learn to talk +interestingly and convincingly, until he has begun to think deeply. +And depth of thought does not come of vigorous research on an +assignment immediately at hand, but from intensive collateral study +throughout the course of a career. We are all somewhat familiar with +the type of commander who, when asked: "What are your officers doing +about special studies, so that they may better their reading habits +and further their powers of self-expression?" will puff himself up by +replying, "They are kept so busily employed that they have no time for +any such exercise." This is one way of saying that his subordinates +are kept too busy to get essential work done. + +Research, on the spot and at the time, is vital and necessary so that +the presentation of any subject will be factually freshened and +documented. But its nature and object should not be overrated. The +real values can be compared to what happens to a pitcher when he warms +up before a game. This is merely an act of suppling the muscles; the +real conditioning process has already taken place, and it has been +long and arduous. + +Even so is it with immediate research, in its relation to continuing +military study, in the perfecting of instructorship. That which gives +an officer power, and conviction, on the platform, or before a group, +is not the thing which he learned only yesterday, having been +compelled to read it in a manual or other source, but the whole body +of this thought and philosophy, as it may be directed toward the +invigorating of any presentation of any subject. If he forms the habit +of careful reflection, then almost everything that he reads and hears +other people say that arouses his own interest becomes grist for his +mill. + +Like 10 years in the penitentiary, it's easy to say but hard to do. So +much time, seemingly, has to be wasted in profitless study to find a +few kernels amid much chaff. Napoleon said at one point that the +trouble with books is that one must read so many bad ones to find +something really good. True enough but, even so, there are perfectly +practical ways to advance rapidly without undue waste motion. Consider +this: Among one's superiors there are always discriminating men who +have "adopted" a few good books after reading many bad ones. When they +say that a text is worthwhile, it deserves reading and careful study. + +The junior who starts building a working library for his professional +use cannot do better than to consult those older men who are scholars +as well as leaders, and ask them to name five or six texts which have +most stimulated their thought. It comes as a surprising discovery that +some of the titles which are recommended with the greatest enthusiasm +are not among the so-called classics on war. The well-read man need +not have more than a dozen books in his home, provided that they all +count with him, and he continues to pore over them and to ponder the +weight of what is said. On the other hand, the ignorant man is +frequently marked by his bookshelf stocked with titles, not one of +which suggests that he has any professional discernment. + +The notebook habit is invaluable, nay, indispensable, to any young +officer who is ambitious to perfect himself as an instructor. Most men +who are distinguished for their thinking ability are inveterate +keepers of scrapbooks and of reference files where they have put +clippings and notes which jogged their own thoughts. This is not a +cheap device leading to the parroting of other men; the truth is that +the departure line toward original thinking by any man is established +by the mental energy which he acquires by imaginative observation of +other men's ideas. + +To get back to the notebook, it should be loose-leaf and well-bound, +else it is not likely to be given permanent use. Whether it is kept at +home or the office is immaterial. What matters is that it be made a +receptacle for everything that one hears, reads or sees which may be +of possible future value in the preparation of classroom work. Books +can't be clipped; but short, decisive passages can be copied, and +longer ones can be made the subject of a reference item. Copying is +one way of fixing an idea in the memory. While on the subject of +books, it is all right to quote the classics and to be able to refer +to the great authorities on the science of war. But it is more +effective by far to read deeply into such writers as Clausewitz, Mahan +and Fuller, and to find some of their strongest but least-known +passages for one's self, than to rely on the more popular but +shop-worn quotations which are in general circulation. Such old +chestnuts as, "The moral is to the material as three to one," do not +refresh discourse. + +Even so, the classics are only one small field worth cultivating. +Nearly every major speech by current military leadership contains a +passage or two well worth salting away. The writings of the +philosophers, the publications of the industrial world, the daily +press and the scientific journals are goldmines containing rich +nuggets of information and of choice expression worth study and +preservation. + +In fact, the military instructor has the whole world as his workshop. +His notebook should be as ready to receive some especially apt saying +by a new recruit as the more ponderous words uttered by the sages. And +it should contain, not less, comments on techniques and methods used +by other speakers and instructors, which were visibly unusually +effective. + +Above all, the consistent use of obvious and stereotyped devices and +methods of presentation should be avoided. For the fact is that _no +one has yet discovered the one best way_. In our service thinking, we +tend to get into a rut, and to use none but the well-tried way. For +example, we overwork the twin principles of thought-surprise and +thought-concentration, and in the effort to produce dramatic effect, +we sometimes achieve only an anticlimax. Using the techniques of the +advertising world, the military instructor puts his exhibits behind a +screen, in order to buildup anticipation, and at the appropriate +moment he yanks the cover off. This is perfectly effective, in some +instances. But it becomes a _reductio ad absurdum_ when he is working +with only one chart, or a pair or so of objects. Let's say that he is +talking about one machine gun, and he has one chart highlighting its +characteristics. How much more impressive it would be if they were in +the open at the beginning and he were to start by saying: "Gentlemen, +I am talking about this one gun and what keeps it going. It is more +important that you see and know this gun from this moment than that +you be persuaded by what I am about to say!" + +It is a very simple but inviolable rule that where there is an obvious +straining to produce an effect by the use of any training aid, then +the effect of the training aid is lost and the speaker is +proportionately enfeebled. A famous World War II commander said of all +operations: "It is the chaps, not the charts, that get the job done." + +What needs to be kept in mind is the psychological object in their +use. The scientists tell us, and we can partly take their word for it, +that people learn about 75 percent of what they know through their +sight, 13 percent through their hearing, and 12 percent through their +other senses. But this is a relative and qualitative, rather than an +absolute, truth. It has to be so. Otherwise, book study, which employs +sight exclusively, would be the only efficient method of teaching, and +oral instruction, which depends primarily on sound impact, would be a +wasteful process. + +The more fundamental truth is that when oral instruction is properly +done, the mind becomes peculiarly receptive because it is being +bombarded by both sight and sound impressions. Nor is this small +miracle wrought primarily by what we call training aids. The thoughts +and ideas which remain most vivid in the memory get their adhesive +power because some particular person said them in a graphic way in a +pregnant moment. Our working thoughts are more often the product of an +association with some other individual than not. We remember words +largely because we remember an occasion. We believe in ideas because +first we were impressed by the source whence they came. + +The total impression of a speaker--his sincerity, his knowledge, his +enthusiasm, his mien, and his gestures--is what carries conviction and +puts an indelible imprint on the memory. Man not only thinks, but he +moves, and he is impressed most of all by animate objects. Vigorous +words mean little or nothing to him when they issue from a lack-luster +personality. + +Artificiality is one of the more serious faults, and it is +unfortunately the case that though an instructor may be solid to the +core, he will seem out of his element, unless he is careful to avoid +stilted words and vague or catch-all phrases and connectives. Strength +in discourse comes of simplicity. + +But it has become almost an American disease of late that we painfully +avoid saying it straight. "We made contact, and upon testing my +reaction to him, found it distinctly adverse" is substituted for "I +met him and didn't like him." But what is equally painful is to hear +public remarks interlarded with such phrases as "It would seem," "As I +was saying," "And so, in closing," "Permit me to call your attention +to the fact" and "Let us reflect briefly"--which is often the prelude +to a 2-hour harangue. + +Not less out of place in public address is the apologetic note. The +man who starts by explaining that he's unaccustomed to public +speaking, or badly prepared, is simply asking for the hook. "To +explain what I mean" or "to make myself clear" makes the audience +wonder only why he didn't say it that way in the first place. But the +really low man on this totem pole is the one who says, "Perhaps you're +not getting anything out of this." + +A man does not have to go off like a gatling gun merely because he is +facing the crowd. Mr. Churchill, one of the great orators of the +century, made good use of deliberate and frequent pauses. It is a +trick worth any young speaker's cultivation, enabling the collection +of thought and the avoiding of tiresome "and ah-h-h's." + +Likewise, because a man is in military uniform does not require that +his speech be terse, cold, given to the biting of words and the +overemployment of professional jargon. Training instruction is not +drill. Its efficiency does not come of its incisiveness but of the +bond of sympathy which comes to prevail between the instructor and his +followers. + +Another main point: It is disconcerting to talk about the ABCs, if the +group already knows the alphabet. To devote any great part of a +presentation to matters which the majority present already well +understand is to assure that the main object will receive very little +serious attention. Thus in talking about the school of the rifle, only +a fool would start by explaining what part of it was the trigger and +from which end the bullet emerged, though it might be profitable to +devote a full hour to the discussion of caliber. Likewise, in such a +field as tactical discussion, the minds of men are more likely to be +won, and their imagination stirred, through giving them the reasoning +behind a technique or method than by telling them simply how a thing +is done. + +In talk, as in tactics, at the beginning the policy of the limited +objective is a boon to confidence. It scares any green man to think +about talking for an hour. But if he starts with a subject of his own +choice and to his liking, and works up to 15-minute talk for a group +of platoon size, he will quickly develop his powers over the short +course; the switch from sprinting to distance running can be made +gradually and without strain. But it's easy that does it, and one step +at a time. + +Excessive modesty is unbecoming. No matter how firm his sources, or +complex the subject, any instructor should form the habit of adding a +few thoughts of his own to any presentation. It is not a mark of +precocity but of interest when an instructor knows his material, and +its application to the human element, sufficiently well to express an +occasional personal opinion. Since he is not a phonograph record, he +has a right to say, "I think" or "I believe." Indeed, if he does not +have his subject sufficiently in hand that it has stirred his own +imagination, he is no better than a machine. + +That leads to a discussion of outlines. They are necessary, if any +subject is to be covered comprehensively. But if they are +overelaborated, the whole performance becomes automatic and dull. A +little spontaneity is always needed. Even when working from a +manuscript, a speaker should be ever-ready to depart from his text if +a sudden idea pops into his mind. It is better to try this and to +stumble now and then than to permit the mind to be commanded by words +written on paper. + +Likewise, revision of outline between talks is the way of the alert +mind. A man cannot do this work without seeing, in the midst of +discussion, points which need strengthening, and bets which have been +missed. Notes should be revised as soon as the period is completed. + +There are many methods of instruction, among them being the seminar, +critique, group discussion and conference. They are not described here +for the reason that every young officer quickly learns about them in +the schools, and gets to know the circumstances under which one form +or another can be used to greatest advantage. + +It suffices to say that their common denominator, insofar as personal +success and ease of participation are concerned, is the ability to +think quickly and accurately on one's feet; the one best school for +the sharpening of this faculty is the lecture platform. Keenness is a +derivative of pressure. + +Use of a wire recorder or a platter, so that one can get a playback +after talking, is an aid to self-criticism. But it is not enough. A +man will often miss his own worst faults, because they came of +ignorance in the first place; too, voice reproduction proves nothing +about the effectiveness of one's presence, expression and gesture. It +is common-sense professional procedure to ask the views of one or two +of the more experienced members of the audience as to how the show +went over, and what were its weak points. + +There is one hidden danger in becoming too good at this business. Too +frequently, polished speakers fall in love with the sound of their own +voices, and want to be heard to the exclusion of everyone else. In the +military establishment, where the ideal object is to get 100 percent +participation from all personnel, this is a more serious vice than +snoring in a pup tent. + +When an officer feels any temptation to monopolize the discussion, it +is time to pray for a bad case of bronchitis. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO + +YOUR RELATIONSHIPS WITH YOUR MEN + + +Inasmuch as most of this book has been directed toward covering the +various approaches to this subject, there is need to discuss here only +a relatively few points which could not conveniently be treated +elsewhere. + +This is the touchstone of success. + +To any officer starting on a life career, it is impossible to +overstate its importance. For the moment, we can forget the words duty +and responsibility. The question is: "How do I get ahead?" And for a +junior there is one main road open--he will strive to achieve such a +communion of spirit with his subordinates that he will know the +personality and character of every one of his men, will understand +what moves and what stops them, and will be sympathetic to their every +impulse. + +This is the main course. The great principles of war have evolved from +centuries of observation on how men react in the mass. It could not be +otherwise than that any officer's growth in knowledge of when and how +these principles apply to varying situations, strategical and +tactical, come primarily of the acuteness of his powers of observation +of individual men, and of men working together in groups, and +responding to their leadership, under widely different conditions of +stress, strain and emotion. + +The roots of this kind of wisdom are not to be acquired from book +study; books are a help only as they provide an index to what should +be sought. The sage who defined strategy as "the art of the possible" +(the art of politics has been defined in the same words) wrote better +than he knew. The cornerstone of the science of war is knowledge of +the economy of men's powers, of their physical possibilities and +limitations, of their response to fatigue, hope, fear, success and +discouragement, and of the weight of the moral factor in everything +they do. Man is a beast of burden; he will fail utterly in the crisis +of battle if there is no respect for his aching back. He is also one +of a great brotherhood whose mighty fellowship can make the worst +misery tolerable, and can provide him with undreamed strength and +courage. These are among the things that need to be studied and +understood; they are the main score. It is only when an officer can +stand and say that he is first of all a student of human material that +all of the technical and material aspects of war begin to conform +toward each other and to blend into an orderly pattern. And the +laboratory is right outside the office door. Either an officer grows +up with, and into, this kind of knowledge through reflecting on +everything that he can learn of men wherever he fits himself into a +new environment, or because of having neglected to look at trees, he +will also miss the forest. + +By the numbers, it isn't a difficult assignment. The schools have +found by experiment that the average officer can learn the names of 50 +men in between 7 and 10 days. If he is in daily contact with men, he +should know 125 of them by name and by sight within 1 month. Except +under war conditions, he is not likely to work with larger numbers +than that. + +This is the only way to make an intelligent start. So long as a man is +just a number, or a face, to his officer, there can be no deep trust +between them. Any man loves to hear the sound of his own name, and +when his superior doesn't know it, he feels like a cypher. + +As with any other introduction, an officer meeting an enlisted man for +the first time is not privileged to be inquisitive about his private +affairs. In fact, nosiness and prying are unbecoming at any time, and +in no one more than in a military officer. On the other hand, any man +is flattered if he is asked about his work or his family, and the +average enlisted man will feel complimented if an officer engages him +in small talk of any kind. Greater frankness, covering a wide variety +of subjects, develops out of longer acquaintance. It should develop as +naturally and as easily as in civilian walks of life; rank is no +barrier to it unless the officer is overimpressed with himself and +bent on keeping the upper hand; the ranks are wiser about these +things than most young officers; they do not act forward or +presumptuous simply because they see an officer talking and acting +like a human being. But they aren't Quiz Kids. Informal conversation +between officer and man is a two-way street. The ball has to be batted +back and forth across the net or there isn't any game. An officer has +to extend himself, his thoughts, his experiences and his affairs into +the conversation, or after his first trial or two, there will be +nothing coming back. + +It is unfortunately the case that many young officers assume that +getting acquainted with their men is a kind of interrogation process, +like handling an immigrant knocking for admission to the United +States. They want to know everything, but they stand on what they +think is their right to tell a man nothing. That kind of attitude just +doesn't wash. In fact, the chief value of such conversations is that +it permits the junior to see his superior as a man rather than as a +boss. + +An officer should never speak ironically or sarcastically to an +enlisted man, since the latter doesn't have a fair chance to answer +back. The use of profanity and epithets comes under the same heading. +The best argument for a man keeping his temper is that nobody else +wants it; and when he voluntarily throws it away, he loses a main prop +to his own position. + +Meeting one of his own enlisted men in a public place, the officer who +does not greet him personally and warmly, in addition to observing the +formal courtesies between men in service, has sacrificed a main chance +to win the man's abiding esteem. If the man is with his family, a +little extra graciousness will go a long way, and even if it didn't, +it would be the right thing. + +In any informal dealing with a number of one's own men, it is good +judgment to pay a little additional attention to the youngest or +greenest member of the group, instead of permitting him to be shaded +by older and more experienced men. They will not resent it, and his +confidence will be helped. + +It should go without saying that an officer does not drink with his +men, though if he is a guest of honor at an organizational party where +punch or liquor is being served, it would be a boorish act for him to +decline a glass, simply because of this proscription. Sometimes in a +public cocktail bar an officer will have the puzzling experience of +being approached by a strange but lonely enlisted man who, being a +little high, may have got it into his head that it is very important +to buy an officer a drink. What one does about that depends upon all +of the surrounding circumstances. It is better to go through with it +than create a scene which will give everyone a low opinion of the +service. Irrespective of rules, there are always situations which are +resolved only by good judgment. And, of course, the problem can be +avoided by staying away from cocktail bars. + +Visiting men in hospital is a duty which no officer should neglect. +Not only does it please the man and his family; it is one of the few +wide open portals to a close friendship with him. It is strange but +true that the man never forgets the officer who was thoughtful enough +to call on him when he was down. And the effect of it goes far beyond +the man himself. Other men in the unit are told about it. Other +patients in the ward see it and note with satisfaction that the corps +takes its responsibilities to heart. If the man is in such shape that +he can't write a letter, it is a worthy act to serve him in this +detail. By the same token when a man goes on sick call, the officer's +responsibility does not end at the point where the doctor takes over. +His interest is to see that the man is made well, and if he has reason +to think that the treatment he is receiving falls short of the best +possible, it is within his charge to raise the question. The old saw +about giving the man CC pills and iodine and marking him duty is now +considerably outdated. But it is not assumed that every member of the +medical staff serving the forces will at all times do his duty with +the intelligence and reverence of a saint. + +A birthday is a big day in any man's life. So is his wedding. So is +the birth of a child. By making check of the roster and records, and +by keeping an ear to the ground for news of what is happening in the +unit, an officer can follow these events. Calling the man in and +giving him a handclasp and word of congratulation, or writing a note +to the home, takes very little time and is worth every moment of it. +Likewise, if he has won some distinction, such as earning a +promotion, a letter of appreciation to his parents or his wife will +compound the value of telling the man himself that you are proud of +what he has done. + +Nothing is more pleasing or ingratiating to any junior than to be +asked by his superior for his opinion on any matter--provided that it +is given a respectful hearing. Any man gets a little fagged from being +_told_ all the time. When he is consulted and asked for a judgment, it +builds him up. + +There is absolutely no point in visiting kitchens or quarters and +asking of the atmosphere if everything is all right. Men seldom +complain, and they are loath to stick their necks out when there are +other enlisted men within hearing. It is the task of the officer to +_see_ that all is right, and to take whatever trouble is necessary to +make certain. If he is doubtful about the mess, then a mere pecky +sampling of it will do no good. Either he will live with it for a few +meals, or he won't find the "bugs" in it. + +An officer should not ask a man: "Would you like to do such-and-such a +task?" when he has already made up his mind to assign him to a certain +line of duty. Orders, hesitatingly given, are doubtfully received. But +the right way to do it is to instill the idea of collaboration. There +is something irresistably appealing about such an approach as: "I need +your help. Here's what we have to do." + +An officer is not expected to appear all-wise to those who serve under +him. Bluffing one's way through a question when ignorant of the answer +is foolhardy business. "I'm sorry, but I don't know," is just as +appropriate from an officer's lips as from any other. And it helps +more than a little to be able to add, "But I'll find out." + +Rank should be used to serve one's subordinates. It should never be +flaunted or used to get the upper hand of a subordinate in any +situation save where he had already discredited himself in an +unusually ugly or unseemly manner. + +When suggestions from any subordinate are adopted, the credit should +be passed on to him publicly. + +When a subordinate has made a mistake, but not from any lack of good +will, it is common sense to take the rap for him rather than make him +suffer doubly for his error. + +An officer should not issue orders which he cannot enforce. + +He should be as good as his word, at all times and in any +circumstance. + +He should promise nothing which he cannot make stick. + +An officer should not work, looking over his men's shoulder, checking +on every detail of what they are doing, and calling them to account at +every furlong post. This maidenly attitude corrodes confidence and +destroys initiative. + +On the other hand, contact is necessary at all times. Particularly +when men are doing long-term work, or are operating in detachment at a +remote point, they will become discouraged and will lose their sense +of direction unless their superior looks in on them periodically, asks +whether he can be of any help, and, so doing, gets them to open up and +discuss the problem. + +The Navy says, "It isn't courtesy to change the set of the sail within +30 minutes after relief of the watch." Applied to a command job, this +means that it is a mistake for an officer, on taking a new post, to +order sweeping changes affecting other men, in the belief that this +will give him a reputation for action and firmness. The studying of +the situation is the overture to the steadying of it. The story is +told of Gen. Curtis E. LeMay of the Air Force. Taking over the 21st +Bomber Command in the Marianas, he faced the worried staff officers of +his predecessor and said quietly, "You're all staying put. I assume +you know your jobs or you wouldn't be here." + +The identity of the officer with the gentleman should persist in his +relations with men of all degree. In the routine of daily direction +and disposition, and even in moments of exhortation, he had best bring +courtesy to firmness. The finest officers that one has known are not +occasional gentlemen, but in every circumstance: in commissioned +company and, more importantly, in contact with those who have no +recourse against arrogance. + +The traditional wisdom of addressing Judy O'Grady with the same +politeness as one would the Colonel's Lady applies equally in all +situations in life where one is at arbitrary advantage in dealing +with another. To press this unnecessarily is to sacrifice something of +one's quality in the eyes of the onlooker. Besides, there is always +the better way. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE + +YOUR MEN'S MORAL AND PHYSICAL WELFARE + + +To put it in a nutshell, the moral of this chapter is that when men +are moral, the moral power which binds them together and fits them for +high action is given its main chance for success. + +There should therefore be no confusion about how the word is being +used. We are speaking both of training in morals for every day living, +and of moral training which will harden the will of a fighting body. +One moment's reflection will show why they need not be considered +separately, and why we can leave it to Webster to do the +hairsplitting. + +It is the doctrine of the armed establishment of the United States +that when American men lead a personal life which is based on high +moral standards, and when their aim is equally high as to physical +fitness and toughness, under training conditions they will mature +those qualities which are most likely to produce inspired leading and +stout following within the forces. + +There is nothing panty-waist about this doctrine. It was not +pronounced to gratify the clergy or to reassure parents that their +sons would be in good hands, even though these things, too, are +important. + +The doctrine came of the experience of the Nation in war, and of what +the services learned by measuring their own men. But it happened, +also, that the facts were consistent with a common sense reckoning of +the case. + +Let's figure it out. To be temperate in all things, to be continent, +and to refrain from loose living of any sort, are acts of the will. +They require self-denial, and a foregoing of that which may be more +attractive, in favor of the thing which should be done. Granted that +there are a few individuals who are so thin-blooded that they never +feel tempted to digress morally, men in the majority are not like +that. What they renounce in the name of self-discipline, at the cost +of a considerable inner stress, they endeavour to compensate by their +gains in personal character. Making that grade isn't easy; but no one +who is anyone has yet said that it isn't worthwhile. In the armed +services there is an old saying that an officer without character is +more useless than a ship with no bottom. + +In the summing up, the strength of will which enables a man to lead a +clean life is no different than the strength of purpose which fits him +to follow a hard line of duty. There are exceptions to every rule. +Many a lovable rounder has proved himself to be a first-class fighting +man. But even though he had an unconquerable weakness for drink and +women, his resolution had to become steeled along some other line or +he would have been no good when the pay-off came. + +Putting aside for the moment the question of the vices, and regarding +only the gain to moral power which comes of bodily exercise and +physical conditioning, it should be self-evident that the process +which builds the muscle must also train and alert the mind. How could +it be otherwise? Every physical act must have as its origin a mental +impulse, conscious or unconscious. Thus in training a man to master +his muscles we also help him to master his brain. He comes out of +physical training not only better conditioned to move but better +prepared to think about how and why he is moving, which is true +mobility. + +In military organizations, "setting-up" and other formation exercises +are usually a drag and a bore. Men grumble about them, and even after +they are toughened to them, so that they feel no physical distress, +they rarely relish them. The typical American male would much rather +sit on his pants along the sidelines and watch someone else engage in +contact sports. It's almost the national habit. Despite our athletic +prowess, about 56 percent of American males grow to manhood without +having ever participated in a group game. + +But no matter how great the inertia against it, there must be +unremitting perseverance in the physical conditioning of military +forces. For finally, it is killing men with kindness to relax at this +point. If life is to be conserved, if men are to be given a fair +chance to play their parts effectively, the physical standards during +training cannot be less than will give them a maximum fitness for the +extraordinary stresses of campaigning in war. + +When troops lack the coordinated response which comes of long, varied +and rigorous exercises, their combat losses will be excessive, they +will lack cohesion in their action against the enemy, and they will +uselessly expend much of their initial velocity. In the United States +service, we are tending to forget, because of the effect of +motorization, that the higher value of the discipline of the road +march in other days wasn't that it hardened the muscles, but that, +short of combat, it was the best method of separating the men from the +boys. This is true today, despite all of the new conditions imposed by +technological changes. A hard road march is the most satisfactory +training test of the moral strength of the individual man. + +At the same time, to senselessly overload men for road marching hurts +them two ways. It weakens their faith in the sense of the command, +thereby impairing morale, and it breaks down their muscle and tendon. +Enough is known about the average American male to provide a basic +logistical figure. He stands about 5 feet 8 inches, and weighs about +153 pounds. The optimum load for a man is about one-third of body +weight, the same as for a mule. That means that for a training march, +approximately 50 pounds over-all, including uniform, blankets and +everything, is the most that a man should be required to carry. If he +gets so that he can handle that load easily, over let us say a 10-mile +road march, then the thing to do, further to build up his power, is +not to increase the weight that he carries, but to lengthen the march. +Military men have known that this is the underlying principle for +better than half a century. But the principle has not always been +observed. + +There is another not infrequent cause of breakdown--the leader who +makes the mistake of thinking that every man's limit is the same as +his own. Some come into the officer corps fresh from the stadia and +cinderpaths of the colleges, in the pink of condition. They take +charge of a group of men, some not yet seasoned, and others somewhat +older and more wind-broke than themselves. They shag them all over +the lot at reveille or take them on a cross-country chase like a smart +rabbit trying to outrun hounds. The poor devils ultimately get back, +some with their corks completely pulled, a few feeling too nauseated +to eat their breakfast, and others walking in, feeling whipped because +they couldn't keep up with the group. + +When an officer does this kind of thing thoughtlessly, he shows +himself to be an incompetent observer of men. When he does it to show +off, he deserves to be given 10 days in the electric chair. + +_It is the steadiness and the continuity of exercise, not the working +of men to the point of exhaustion and collapse, which keeps them +upgrading until they are conditioned to the strain of whatever comes._ +To do it the other way around simply makes them hospital patients +before their time, and fills them with resentment against the service. + +In the nature of things, the officer who has been an athlete can fit +himself into this part of the program with little difficulty and with +great credit, provided he acts with the moderation that is here +suggested. The armed services put great store by this. A man with a +strong flair for physical training can usually find a good berth. + +By the same token, the officer who has shunned sports in school, +either because he didn't have the size or the coordination, or was +more interested in something else, will frequently have an +understandable hesitation about trying to play a lead hand in anything +which he thinks will make him look bad. Of this comes much +buck-passing. There is often a singular courtesy between officers +within a unit, and they'll switch details, just to be friendly. So it +frequently happens that the man who has no great knack at leading in +exercise and recreation gets the mouse's share of it. And thereby the +whole point is missed. For it should be perfectly clear that the man +who has had the least active experience in this field is usually the +one in greatest need of its strengthening effects. His case is no +different than that of the enlisted man. If he has not kept himself in +good physical shape, his nerves will not be able to stand the strain +of combat, to say nothing of his legs. + +It can be said again and again: _The highest form of physical training +that an officer can undergo is the physical conditioning of his own +men._ Nothing else can give him more faith in his own ability to stay +the course and nothing else is likely to give him a firmer feeling of +solidarity with his men. Study, and an active thirst for wider +professional knowledge, have their place in an officer's scheme of +things. But there is something about the experience of bodily +competition, of joining with, and leading men in strenuous physical +exercise, which uniquely invigorates one's spirit with the confidence: +"I can do this! I can lead! I can command!" Military men have +recognized this since long before it was said that Waterloo was won on +the playing fields of Eton. Bringing it down to the present, Gen. Sir +Archibald Wavell said: "The civil comparison to war must be that of a +game, a very rough and dirty game, for which a robust body and mind +are essential." Even more emphatic are the words of Coach Frank Leahy +of Notre Dame, an officer of the United States Navy in World War II: +"The ability to rise up and grasp an opportunity is something that a +boy cannot learn in lecture rooms or from textbooks. It is on the +athletic field primarily that Americans acquire the winning ways that +play such an important part in the American way of life. The burning +desire to emerge the victor that we see in our contact sports is the +identical spirit that gave the United States Marines victory at Iwo +Jima. If we again know war, the boys who have received sound training +in competitive athletics will again fight until the enemy has had +enough." + +Men like to see their officers competing and "giving it a good college +try" no matter how inept, or clumsy they may be. But they take a +pretty dim view of the leader who perennially acts as if he were +afraid of a sweat or a broken thumb. In team sports, developing around +interorganized rivalry, the eligibility of an officer to participate +among enlisted men is a matter of local ground rules, or special +regulations. There is nothing in the customs of the services which +prohibit it. To the contrary, it has been done many times, and is +considered to be altogether within an officer's dignity. Where there +is a flat ruling against it, it is usually on the theory that the +officer, by competing, is robbing some enlisted man of his chance. + +Need it be said that in any event, going along with the team, and +taking an active interest in its ups-and-downs, is not only a service +officer's duty, but a rewarding privilege, if he is a real leader? In +this respect, he has a singular relationship to any group that +represents his unit. He becomes part of their force, and his presence +is important not only to the team but to the gallery. It is not +unusual to hear very senior officers excuse themselves from an +important social function by saying, "I'm sorry, but my team is +playing tonight." That is a reason which everybody understands and +accepts. + +As for the ranks, even among those men who have had no prior +acquaintance with organized sports, there is a marked willingness to +participate, if given just a little encouragement. This is one of the +effects of getting into military uniform. As someone said about +gunpowder, "it makes all men alike tall," and provides a welcome +release from former inhibitions. The military company is much more +tightly closed than any other. When men are thinking and working +together in a binding association, they will seek an outlet for their +excess spirits, and will join together in play, even under the most +adverse circumstance. During World War I, it was common to see +American troops playing such games as duck-on-the-rock, tag and touch +football with somebody's helmet in close proximity to the front. +Because no other equipment was available, they improvised. So it is +that in any situation, the acme in leadership consists, not in +screaming one's head off about shortages, but in using a little +imagination about what can be done. + +The really good thing about the gain in moral force deriving from all +forms of physical training is that it is an unconscious gain. Will +power, determination, mental poise and muscle control all march +hand-in-hand with the general health and well-being of the man, with +results not less decisive under training conditions than on the field +of battle. A man who develops correct posture and begins to fill out +his body so that he looks the part of a fighter will take greater +pride in the wearing of the uniform. So doing, he will take greater +care so to conduct himself morally that he will not disgrace it. He +will gain confidence as he acquires a confident and determined +bearing. This same presence, and the physical strength which +contributes to it, will help carry him through the hour of danger. +Strength of will is partly of the mind and partly of the body. In +combat, fatigue will beat men down as quickly as any other condition, +for fatigue inevitably carries fear with it. Tired men are men afraid. +There is no quicker way to lose a battle than to lose it on the road +for lack of preliminary hardening in troops. Such a condition cannot +be redeemed by the resolve of a commander who insists on driving +troops an extra mile beyond their general level of physical endurance. +Extremes of this sort make men rebellious and hateful of the command, +and thus strike at tactical efficiency from two directions at once. +For when men resent a commander, they will not fight as willingly for +him, and when their bodies are spent, their nerves are gone. + +Looking after the welfare of men, however, does not connote simply +getting them into the open air and giving them a chance to kick the +ball around. The services are pretty well organized to provide their +personnel with adequate sport and recreational facilities, and to +insure an active, balanced program, in any save the most exceptional +circumstance. Too, the provisions made for the creature comforts of +men are ample, experience-tested, and well-regulated. + +It is not so much that a young officer needs to have book instruction +about the detail of these things. Such is the system that they can +hardly escape his notice, any more than he can escape knowing where to +get his pay check and by which path he goes to the barbershop. + +What counts mainly is that he should fully understand the prime +importance of a personal caring for his men, so that they cannot fail +of a better life if it is within his power and wisdom to lead them to +it. + +Once the principle is grasped, and accepted without any mental +reservation, time and experience will educate him in the countless +meetings of situations which require its application. + +There are times and situations which require that all men be treated +identically, for the good of organization. There are also occasions +when nothing else suffices but to give the most help, the most +encouragement, the most relief to those who are most greatly in need. +Grown men understand that, and the officer, approaching every +situation with the question in his mind: "What does reason say about +what constitutes fair play in this condition?" cannot go far wrong in +administering to the welfare of those who serve under him. + +_It is moral courage, combined with practice, which builds in one a +delicate sense of the eternal fitness of things._ + +One example: Under normal training conditions, it would be fair play, +and the acceptable thing, to rotate men and their junior leaders to +such an onerous task as guard duty. But if a unit was "dead beat" +after a hard march, and an officer, pursuing his line of duty, walked +among his men, inspecting their blistered feet and doing all he could +to ease each man's physical discomfort, he would then be using +excessively poor judgment if he did not pick out the men most +physically fit to do whatever additional duty was required that night. + +But infinite painstaking in attending to the physical welfare of men +is not more important than thoughtful attention to their spiritual +wants, and their moral needs. In fact, if we would give a little more +priority to the latter, the former would be far more likely to come +along all right. + +The average American enlisted man is quite young when he enters +service, and because he is young, he is impressionable. What his +senior tells him becomes a substitute for the influence and teaching +that he shed when he left his home or school. That need not mean a +senior in age! _He looks to his officer, even though the latter may be +junior in years, because he believes that the man with rank is a +little wiser, and he has faith that he will not be steered wrong._ + +Despite all the publicity given to VD, American kids don't know a +great deal about its reality, and even though the greater number of +them like to talk about women, what they have to say rarely reveals +them as worldly-wise. + +If an officer talks straight on these subjects, and believes in what +he says sufficiently to set the good example, he can convince his +better men that the game isn't worth the candle, and can save even +some of the more reckless spirits from a major derail. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR + +KEEPING YOUR MEN INFORMED + + +Nobody ever told the South Sea savage about the nature of air in +motion. He had never heard of wind and therefore could not imagine its +effects. Thus when he heard strange noises in the treetops and there +was a howling around certain headlands, while other headlands were +silent, he could believe only that the spirits were at work. He would +strain his ear to hear what they had to say to him, and never being +able to understand, he would become all the more fearful. + +It all sounds pretty silly. And yet civilization is a great deal like +that. We pride ourselves today in saying, particularly within the +western nations, that men and women are better informed than ever +before in the history of the world. What we really mean by that is +that they are overburdened with more kinds of fragmentary information +than any people of the past. They know just enough about many major +questions of the day that either they are driven to the making of +fearful guesses about the unknown, or they try to close their minds to +the subject, vainly seeking consolation in the half-truth, "What I +don't know can't hurt me." + +Therein lies a great part of the problem. For it is a fair statement +that if all of the mystery could be stripped from such a complex topic +as the nature of atomic power, so that men everywhere would understand +it, universal fear would be displaced by universal confidence that +something could be done, and society would be well along the road +toward its control. + +In World War I, the men who had the least fear of the effects of gas +warfare were the gas officers who understood their subject right down +to the last detail of the decontamination process and the formula for +dichlorethylsulphide (mustard gas). The man to whom the dangers of +submarine warfare seem least fearsome is the submariner. Of all hands +along the battle line, the first aid man has the greatest calm and +confidence in the face of fire, largely because he has seen the +miracles worked by modern medicine in the restoring of grievously +wounded men. The general or the admiral who is most familiar with the +mettle of his subordinate commands will also have the most relaxed +mind under battle pressure. + +This leads to a point, which it is better to state here than anywhere +else. In all military instruction pertaining to the weapons and +techniques of war, the basis of sound indoctrination is the teaching +that weapons when rightly used will invariably produce victory, and +preventive measures, when promptly and thoroughly taken, will +invariably conserve the operational integrity of the defense. It is +wrong, _dead wrong_, to start, or carry along, on the opposite track, +and try to persuade men to do the right thing, by dwelling on the +awful consequence of doing the wrong thing. Confidence, not fear, is +the keynote of a strong and convictive doctrine. + +In war, in the absence of information, man's natural promptings +alternate between unreasoning fears that the worst is likely to +happen, and the wishful thought that all danger is remote. Either +impulse is a barrier to the growth of that condition of alert +confidence which comes to men when they have a realization of their +own strength and a reasonably clear concept of the general situation. + +Man is a peculiar animal. He is no more prone to think about himself +as the central figure amid general disaster than he is to dwell +morbidly upon thoughts of his own death. Left in the dark, he will get +a certain comfort out of that darkness, at the same time that it +clouds his mind and freezes his action. Disturbed by bad dreams about +what might happen, he nonetheless will not plan an effective use of +his own resources against that which is very likely to happen. Only +when he is given a clear view of the horizon, and is made animated by +the general purpose in all that moves around him, does he understand +the direction in which he should march, and taking hold, begin to do +the required thing. + +It is almost gratuitous that this even needs to be stated. No high +commander would think of moving deliberately into the fog of war if +he was without knowledge of either the enemy or friendly situation. +Even to imagine such a contingency is paralyzing. But in their nervous +and spiritual substance, admirals and generals are no different than +the green men who have come most recently to their forces. Such men +can not stand alone any more than can the recruit. They draw their +moral strength and their ability to contend intelligently against +adverse circumstance largely from what is told them by the men who +surround them. That is why they have their staffs. They could not +command even themselves if they were deprived of all information. + +Toward the assuring of competent, collected action, the first great +step is to remove the mystery. This is a process which must be +mastered in peacetime, if it is to stand the multiplied strains of +war. What mystery? Let it be said that it surrounds the average file +on every hand, even though the average junior officer does not realize +it, while at the same time he himself is completely mystified by much +that transpires above him. For example, we all like to throw big words +about, to air our professional erudition; and we do not understand +that to the man who does not know their meaning, the effect is a +blackout which makes even the simplest object seem formidable. To +illustrate, we can take the word "bivouac," common enough in military +parlance, but rare in civilian speech. When green men are told, "We +are going into bivouac," and they are not sufficiently grounded in the +service to know that this means simply going into camp for the night +without shelter, their instinctive first thought is, "This is another +complex military process that will probably catch me short." Similarly +if told that they are detailed "on a reconnaissance mission along the +line of communications with a liaison function," they could not fail +to be "flummoxed." And if then instructed to take a BAR up to the MLR +and follow SOP in covering a simulated SFC party, they wouldn't be far +from justified if they blew their tops, and ran shrieking from the +place. + +These are horrible examples, put forward only to illuminate a fairly +simple point. Exaggerated though they may be, something of the same +sort happens in almost every installation nearly every day. The +difference is only in degree. _Every man in the service has an +inalienable right to work and to think in the clear._ He is entitled +to the why and the wherefore of whatever he is expected to do, as well +as the what and the how. His efficiency, his confidence and his +enthusiasm will wax strong in almost the precise measure that his +superior imparts to him everything he knows about a duty which can be +of possible benefit to the man. Furthermore, this is a two-way +current. Any officer who believes in the importance of giving full +information in a straight-forward manner, and continues to act on that +principle, will over the long run get back more than he gives. But the +chump who incontinently brushes off his subordinates because he thinks +his time is too valuable to spend any great part of it putting them on +the right track dooms himself to work in a vacuum. He is soon spotted +for what he is, and if his superiors can't set him straight, they will +shrug him aside. + +These are pretty much twentieth century concepts of how force is +articulated from top to bottom of a chain of command. Yet the ideas +are as old as the ages. Ecclesiastes is filled with phrases pointing +up that clarification is the way of strength and of unity. "All go +unto one place." "Two are better than one." "Woe to him that is alone +when he falleth." "A threefold cord is not quickly broken." +"Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might." "Folly is +set in great dignity." "Truly the light is sweet." Great commanders of +the past have reflected that knowledge is the source of the +simplifying and joining of all action and have pondered how better to +resolve the problem. But it is only in our time that this great +principle in military doctrine has become rooted deep enough to stay, +because the technological complexity of modern war is such as to +permit of no other course. + +It is folly to attempt to oversimplify that which is of its nature +complex. War cannot be made less intricate by conjuring everyone to +return to kindergarten and henceforth use only one-syllable words. No +such counsel is here intended. The one thought worth keeping is that +the military system, as we know it, will prove far more workable, and +its members will each become a stronger link in the chain of force, if +all hands work a little more carefully toward the growth of a common +awareness of all terminology, all process and all purpose. + +Once pronounced, the object also requires to be seen in due +proportion. The principle does not entail that a corporal must +perforce know everything about operation of a company which concerns +his captain, to be happy and efficient in his own job. But it does set +forth that he is entitled to have all information which relates to his +personal situation, his prospects and his action which it is within +his captain's power to give him. A coxswain is not interchangeable +with a fleet admiral. To "bigot" him (make available complete detail +of a total plan) on an operation would perhaps produce no better or +worse effect than a slight headache. But if he is at sea--in both +senses of that term--with no knowledge of where he is going or of his +chances of pulling through, and having been told of what will be +expected of him personally at the target, still has no picture of the +support which will be grouped around him, he is apt to be as +thoroughly miserable and demoralized as were the sailors under +Columbus, when sailing on and on, they came to fear that they would +override the horizon and go tumbling into space. + +Lt. Gen. Sir Frederick Morgan wrote of the policy applied at his +COSSAC planning headquarters during World War II: "Right down to the +cook, they were told what had happened, what was happening, along with +their part in it, and what it was proposed to do next." + +Paraphrasing Montaigne, President Roosevelt told the American people +during a great national crisis that the main thing they need fear was +fear itself. In matters great and small, the fears of men arise +chiefly from those matters they have not been given to understand. +Fear can be checked, whipped and driven from the field when men are +kept informed. + +The dynamics of the information principle lies in this simple truth. +We look at the object through the wrong end of the telescope when in +the military service we think of information only as instruction in +the cause of country, the virtues of the free society and the record +of our arms, in the hope that we will make strong converts. These are +among the things that every American needs to know, but of themselves +they will not turn an average American male into an intelligent, +aggressive fighter. Invigorated action is the product of the free and +well-informed mind. The "will to do" comes of the confidence that +one's knowledge of what requires doing is equal to that of any other +man present. + +This is the controlling idea and all constructive planning and work in +the field of information is shaped around it. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE + +COUNSELING YOUR MEN + + +Among the ever-pressing problems of the commander, and equally of the +young officer schooling himself to the ways of the service, is the +seeking of means to break down the natural timidity and reticence of +the great majority of men. + +This he can never do unless he is sufficient master of himself that he +can come out of his own shell and give his men a chance to understand +him as a human being rather than as an autocrat giving orders. Nothing +more unfortunate can happen to an officer than to come to be regarded +by his subordinates as unapproachable, for such a reputation isolates +him from the main problems of command responsibility as well as its +chief rewards. So holding himself, he will never be able to see his +forces in their true light, and will either have to exercise snap +judgment upon the main problems within his own sphere, or take the +word of others as to the factors on which promotions, rewards and +punishments are based within the unit. + +When the block is due to an officer's own reticence, mistaken ideas +about the requirements of his position, or feeling of strangeness +toward his fellows, the only cure for him is to dive head-first into +the cold, clear water, like a boy at the old swimming hole in the +early spring. Thereby he will grow in self-confidence even as he +progresses in knowledge of the character of his men and of human +nature in general. + +If an officer is senior, and is still somewhat on the bashful side, by +watching the manner of his own seniors when he gets counsel, and +thawing toward his immediate juniors, thereby increasing his +receptiveness toward them, there will occur a chain reaction to the +bottom level. + +The block, however, is not always of the mind and heart. No man can +help his own face, but it can sometimes be a barrier to communication. +One commander in European Theater was told by his Executive that his +subordinates were fearful to approach him because of his perpetual +scowl. He assembled his officers and he said to them: "I have been +told that my looks are forbidding. The mirror reminds me of that every +morning. Years ago I was in a grenade explosion, and a consequent eye +injury and strain have done to me what you have to see every time we +get together. But if you cannot look beyond the face, and judge my +disposition by all else that you see of me in our work together, you +do not yet have the full perception that is commensurate with your +responsibility." + +The too-formal manner, the overrigid attitude, the disposition to deal +with any human problem by-the-numbers as if it were only one more act +in organizational routine, can have precisely the same chilling effect +upon men as came of this officer's scowl. Though no man may move +wholly out of his own nature, a cheerfulness of manner in the doing of +work is altogether within any individual's capabilities, and is the +highest-test lubricant of his human relationships. + +As a further safeguard against making himself inaccessible, the +officer needs to make an occasional check on the procedures which have +been established by his immediate subordinates. At all levels of +command it is the pet task of those "nearest the throne" to think up +new ways to keep all hands from "bothering the old man." However +positive an order to the contrary, they will not infrequently contrive +to circumvent it, mistakenly believing that by this act they save him +from himself. Many a compassionate commander leads an unwontedly +lonely life because of the peculiar solicitude of his staff in this +matter and his own failure to discover what is happening to him. In +this way the best of intentions may be thwarted. There is no sure cure +for the evil but personal reconnaissance. + +It is never a waste of time for the commander, or for any officer, to +talk to his people about their personal problems. More times than not, +the problem will seem small to him, but so long as it looms large to +the man, it cannot be dismissed with a wave of the hand. Ridicule, +sarcasm and the brush-off are equally inexcusable in any situation +where one individual takes another into his confidence on any matter +which does not involve bad faith on the part of the petitioner. Even +then, if the man imparts that which shows that his own conduct has +been reprehensible or that he would enlist the support of his superior +in some unworthy act, it is better to hear him through and then skin +him, than to treat what he says in the offhand manner. An officer will +grow in the esteem of his men only as he treats their affairs with +respect. The policy of patience and goodwill pays off tenfold because +what happens to one man is soon known to the others. + +In this particular there has been a radical change within the services +during the current century, simply because of broader understanding of +human relationships. In the Old Army, the man could get through to his +commander only if he could satisfy the First Sergeant as to the nature +of his business; this was a roadblock for the man who either was +afraid of the First Sergeant, or was loath to let the latter know +about his affairs. Custom dies hard and this one has not been entirely +uprooted. But the distance we have traveled toward humanizing all +command principles is best reflected by the words of General +Eisenhower in "Command in Europe": "Hundreds of broken-hearted +fathers, mothers, and sweethearts wrote me personal letters begging +for some hope that a loved one might still be alive, or for additional +detail as to the manner of his death. Every one of these I answered." + +It is not necessary that an officer wet-nurse his men in order to +serve well in the role of counsel. His door should be open, but he +does not play the part either of a father confessor or of a hotel +greeter. Neither great solemnity nor effusiveness are called for, but +mainly serious attention to the problem, and then straight-forward +advice or decision, according to the nature of the case, _and provided +that from his own knowledge and experience he feels qualified to give +it_. If not, it is wiser to defer than to offer a half-baked opinion. +To consider for a time, and to seek light from others, whether higher +authority or one's closer associates, is the sound alternative when +there is a great deal at stake for the man and the problem is too +complex for its solution to be readily apparent. The spirit in which +this work should be undertaken is nowhere more clearly indicated than +in the words of Schuyler D. Hoslett who in his book, "Human Factor in +Management," said this: "Counseling is advising an individual on his +problem to the extent that an attempt is made to help him understand +it so he may carry out a plan for its solution. It is a process which +stimulates the individual's ability for self-direction." + +Family affairs, frictions within the organization, personal +entanglements which prey upon the mind, frustrations and anxieties of +varying kind, the sense of failure and other nameless fears which are +rooted deep in the consciousness of nearly every individual, are the +more general subjects in counseling. + +Whatever impairs the man that he wishes to take up with his officer +becomes ipso facto the officer's rightful business. Equally so, on the +positive side, when his only desire is to bring forward something that +he believes would serve the interests of organization, he should be +heard. + +In either case, the perfecting of counsel develops around two +controlling ideas, stated in the order of their importance: (1) what +is in the best interests of the unit, and (2) what is for the good of +the man. In this particular, the officer as counselor is rarely in the +role of a disinterested party. Unlike the preacher, the lawyer, the +teacher or the best friend, he has to look beyond what is beneficial +simply to the spiritual, mental and moral need of one individual. +There is an abiding necessity to equate the personal problem to the +whole philosophy within which a command operates. _To keep in mind +that every individual has his breaking point is everlastingly +important. But to remember that the unit is also made of brittle stuff +is not less so._ + +When undue personal favors are granted, when precedents are set +without weighing the possible effects upon all concerned, when men are +incontinently urged, or even sympathetically humored by their +superiors toward the taking of a weak personal course, the ties of the +organization are injured, tension within it mounts and the ranks lose +respect for the manhood of their leaders. + +All things are to be viewed in moderation, and with compassion, but +with a fine balance toward the central purpose. Let us take one +example. Within a given command, at a particular time, leaves have +been made so restricted, for command reasons, that there must be a +showing of genuine urgency. One man comes forward and says that he is +so sick for the sight of home that he can no longer take duty. As +certainly as his superior tries to facilitate this man's purpose +because of fear that he will break, the superior will be harassed by +other requests with no better basis, and if they are not granted, +there will be general discontent. On the other hand, suppose another +man comes forward. A wire from home has informed him that his mother +is dying. If the superior will not go to bat on such a case, he will +win the deserved contempt of the same men who were ready to take +advantage of the other opening, but in this instance would seek +nothing for themselves. + +To know the record, the character and the measure of goodwill of the +subject is all-important in counseling. It puts the matter in much too +dim a light to say that after the call comes, the officer should check +up on these points so that he can deal knowledgeably with the man. +That is his first order of business within the unit--to learn all that +he can about the main characteristics of his men. This general duty +precedes the detail work of counseling. Under normal circumstances, no +officer is likely to have more than 250 men in his immediate charge. +There are exceptions, but this is broadly the rule. It is by no means +an excessive task for one individual to learn the names and a great +part of the history of the men he sees daily, when not knowing them +means that he has neglected the heart of operations. + +What the man says of himself, in relation to the problem, deserves +always to be judged according to his own record. If he has proved +himself utterly faithful, action can be taken on the basis of his +word. If he is known to be a corner-cutter and a cheat, his case, +though listened-to with interest and sympathy, needs to be taken with +a grain of salt, pending further investigation. + +World War II officers had to abide by this standard in dealing with +the general malaise which arose out of redeployment. When a man came +forward and said that he couldn't take it any more, and the commander +knew that he had always been a highly dutiful individual, it became +the commander's job to attempt to get the man home. But when a second +man came forward with the same story, and the record showed that he +had always shirked his work, the question was whether he should be +given the final chance to shirk it again. To favor the first man meant +furthering discipline; his comrades recognized it as a fair deal. To +turn back the second man was equally constructive to the same end. In +a general situation of unique pressure, commanders found that these +principles worked. + +Many of the problems on which men seek advice of their officers are of +a legal nature; unless an officer is versed in the law, the inquiry +must be channeled to a qualified source. Other problems are of a kind +that use should be made of the home services of such an organization +as the Red Cross. A knowledge of the limits beyond which the help of a +special office or agency must be sought is therefore as important to +the officer-consultant as an ability to give the man full information +about the whereabouts and use of these facilities. + +The Red Cross is usually an effective agent in checking the facts of a +home situation and returning the data. But at the end of the line +where officer and man sit together, its resources for helping the +individual (when what is needed mainly is advice on a human equation) +are not likely to be any better than what his military superiors can +do for him. In any time of crisis, the normal human being can draw +strength and composure far more surely from a person he well knows +than from a stranger. + +There is this illustration. During World War II, many a man overseas +got word that his home had been broken up. The counselor could talk +the thing out with him, learn whether a reconciliation was the one +most important thing, or whether the man was groping his way, looking +for a friend who could help him see the matter in proportion, and +weigh, among other things, his duty to himself. The Red Cross could +check the facts of the home situation. But the man's readjustment +depended in the main on what was done by those who were closest to +him. + +Sooner or later every commander has to deal with some refraction of +this kind of problem. When it comes, moralizing and generalizing about +the weakness of human nature does no good whatever. To call the man a +fool is as invidious as to waste indignation upon the cause of his +misfortune. Likewise, any frontal approach to the problem, such as +telling the man, "Here's what you should do," should be shunned, or +used most sparingly. The more effective attitude can be expressed in +these words: "If it had happened to me instead of to you, and I were +in your same situation, here are the things I would consider, and here +are the points to which I would give greatest weight." To tell any +subject to brace up and be a man is a plain inference that he is not +one. To reflect with him on the things which manhood requires is the +gentle way toward stirring his self-respect. So doing, a counselor +renews his own character. _Also worth remembering is that in any man's +dark hour, a pat on the back and an earnest handclasp may work a small +miracle._ + +There is much counseling over the subject of transfer. Herein lies an +exception to a general rule, for in this case the good of the man +takes precedence over the good of organization. No conscientious +officer likes to see a good man depart from his organization. +Nevertheless, the service is not in competition with itself, and it +advances as a whole in the measure that all men find the niche where +they can serve most efficiently, and with the greatest satisfaction. +There are officers who hold to every able subordinate like grim death, +seeing no better way to advance their personal fortunes. This is a +sign of moral weakness, not of strength, and its inevitable fruit is +discontent within the organization. _The sign of superiority in any +officer, at whatever level, is his confidence that he can make another +good man to fill any vacancy._ When it is self-evident that a man can +better himself and profit the service through transfer, it is contrary +to all principle to deny him that right. This does not mean that the +unit's exit door should be kept open, but only that it should be ready +to yield upon a showing of competent proof. It is not unusual that +when the pressure mounts and war danger rises, many a man develops a +sudden conviction that he would be more useful in a noncombat arm. The +officer body itself is not unsusceptible to the same temptation. +Unless the great majority are held to that line of duty which they had +accepted in less dangerous circumstance, the service would soon cease +to have fighting integrity. But it makes no point to keep men in a +combat arm or service who are quite obviously morally and physically +unequipped for its rigor, and it is equally wasteful to deny some +other arm or service the use of a specialist whose skills fill it +particularly. Some of the ablest commanders in our service have abided +by this rule: They never denied the man who had a legitimate reason +for transfer, and they never shuffled off their lemons and goldbricks +under a false label. Though seemingly idealistic, the rule is also +practical. The time wasted in excessive worry over a discard is +sometimes better spent by concentrating on the value of trumps. + +Men tend to seek officer counsel when they feel discriminated against +by lesser authority. When that happens, it is the duty of the officer +to get at the facts, and act according to them. Complaints against any +junior are always unpleasant to hear because of their air of intrigue. +Tactlessly handled, without due weighing of the case from both sides, +they turn one blunder into two. But no officer is well-advised if he +believes that his duty automatically is to uphold the arm of a +subordinate when the facts say that the latter is dead wrong. His duty +is to reduce friction wherever it is caused by a misuse of power. This +implies dealing discreetly with the offender instead of directly +discountenancing him. + +There are a few broad, common-sense rules which, when followed, will +enable any officer to play his part more effectively in the counseling +of men. + + Privacy is requisite and the interview should not be held at an + hour when interruptions are likely. + + A listless manner spoils everything, diminishes the force of + reason and discourages confidence. + + To put the man at ease immediately by some personal gesture is + more important than observing forms. + + Thereafter the situation is best served by relaxation of bearing + rather than by tension. + + All excess of expression is a failing, but above all in the man to + whom another looks for guidance. + + To listen well is the prelude toward pondering carefully and + speaking wisely. + + No counsel is worthy that has any lower aim than one's own ideals + of self-respect. + + Early enough is well; quickly done can be quickly undone. + + To refuse with kindness is more winning than to acquiesce + ungraciously. + + To note another man's mood, and to become congenial to it, is the + surest way to engage his confidence. + + Decisions which are wholly of the heart and not of the mind will + ultimately do hurt to both places. + + No man will talk freely if met by silence, but an intelligent + question encourages frankness above all else. + + When one man loses possession of himself it is the more reason + that the other should tighten his reserve. + + Affectation in one's own manner gives the lie to one's own credit + and destroys it with others. + + To express pity for a man does not serve to restore him and put + him above pity. + + When a man is so burdened by a personal problem that it shuts out + all else, he must be led to something else. + + Imprudent tactics can undo the wisest strategy. + +While these dispositions have particular value in relation to the +counseling of one's subordinates, they also have some application to +any situation in which men work and commune together. Men at any level +do not mistake the touch of sincerity, nor fail to mark as unworthy of +trust the man who pays only a superficial regard to a matter which +they deem important. + +For the officer already burdened with other duties, counseling may +seem like a waste of time, and an activity that more properly belongs +to the chaplain. The wise and understanding "padre" may sometimes +counsel men on their material problems and thereby assist the officer +who is over troops. But so doing, he is committing a trespass unless +he acts with the commander's knowledge and consent. The commander is +the foster father of the men in his organization. When he renounces +this role, he neglects a trust. + +That neglect cuts the fighting efficiency of the unit at its root. +Finally, counseling, like all else in military life, has a combat +purpose. Other things being equal, the tactical unity of men working +together in combat will be in ratio to their knowledge and sympathetic +understanding of each other. Whatever the cause, aloofness on the part +of the officer can only produce a further withdrawal on the part of +the man. Finally, the cost comes high. In battle, and out of it, the +failure to act and to communicate is more often due to timidity in the +individual than to fear of physical danger. + +Described in cold type, the counseling process probably appears a +little sticky. Actually, it is nothing of the sort. For it has been +going on ever since man became civilized. It is a force in all +organized human relationships, beginning in infanthood and lasting +through old age. Because of the nature of a military group, and +particularly because of the deriving of united strength from +well-being in each of the component parts, there is much more need to +regularize it and to qualify all men in a knowledge of those things +which will enable them to assist a fellow in need of help. But in the +military society, far more than in civil life, confidence is a two-way +street. It would be almost impossible to express the collective +gratitude of tens of thousands of lieutenants and ensigns who in times +past have learned to rely on the friendly counsel of a veteran +sergeant or petty officer, and have usually gotten it straight from +the shoulder, _but with respect_. The breaking-in of most young +officers, and the acclimating of them to their role in a command +system, is due, in large measure, to support from this source. Nor are +senior commanders reluctant to receive moral comfort of this same kind +in periods of crisis. + +When the planes of the First Tokyo Raid under Col. James H. +Doolittle, crashed among the mountains and along the sea-coast of +Eastern China, after one of the most valiant strokes in our military +annals, their commander was among the few who had the added misfortune +of coming to earth within the Japanese lines. By fate's mercy, he just +happened to escape by walking between the enemy outposts. Farther +along, he saw the wreck of another of his planes. Then he came to a +third; it was smashed beyond hope. But its crew had already heard from +several other parties. They too had lost their B-25's to the fog, the +night and the crags. Doolittle realized then that everything was gone, +lives saved yes, but otherwise the expedition was a total ruin. + +The Commander sat for a long time in the cockpit of the wrecked plane, +terribly depressed, thinking only of how totally he had failed. + +At last one of the younger men, Sgt. Paul Leonard walked up to him and +said: "What's the matter, Colonel?" + +Doolittle said: "It couldn't be worse. We've lost everything. We've +let the country down." + +The kid said: "Why, Colonel, you've got this all wrong. You have no +idea how this looks to the United States. Don't you realize that right +now they're getting ready to make you a general? Why I'll make you a +bet they give you the Congressional Medal." + +Doolittle thanked him. He thought it was a nice thing for the boy to +say. That kind of loyalty was worth having in a bad hour. The boy +started to walk away; he could tell that Doolittle didn't believe a +word of it. Then suddenly he turned and came on back. + +"Colonel," he said, "I'd like to make a deal with you. Suppose I'm +right about it and you're wrong. So they give you a star and the +Congressional Medal. If that happens, will you agree to take me with +you wherever you go?" + +Doolittle made him a solemn promise. Fresh courage came to him out of +the boy's tremendous earnestness. + +And of course the boy was right, and the contract was kept, and all +things went well until, by a savage irony, Sgt. Leonard was killed in +the last German raid against Doolittle's headquarters in Europe +shortly before the war ended. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX + +USING REWARD AND PUNISHMENT + + +One of the illusions having greatest currency among our people is that +any green member of the fighting establishment is merely an American +civilian in a uniform, and that therefore, his spirit is nourished to +the extent that accommodations and usages of the service most nearly +duplicate what he has known elsewhere. + +This belief is especially prevalent during wartime when every mother's +son puts on a new suit; it is natural to think that everything in the +service will better suit the boy if it smells like home. The corollary +of this rather quaint idea is that military organization is therefore +most perfect when it operates in the same way as the civil society. + +Earlier in this book it has been suggested that these ideas need to be +questioned on two broad grounds: Do not both of them run counter to +the facts of encharged responsibility, and to human nature itself? + +To emphasize it once again, the military officer is not alone an +administrator: _he is a magistrate_. There are special powers given +him by the President. It is within these powers that he will sit in +judgment on his men and that he may punish them when they have been +grievously derelict. This dual role makes his function radically +different from anything encountered in civil life--to say nothing of +the singleness of purpose which a fighting service is supposed to move +forward. + +Moreover, the military officer is dealing with men who are submitted +to him in a binding relationship which by its nature is not only more +compelling but more intimate than anything elsewhere in society. As +much as the parent in the home, and far more than the teacher in the +school or the executive in business, he is directed to center his +effort primarily on the building of good character in other +individuals. + +One need only compare a few points of advantage and disadvantage to +see why a better balanced sense of justice and fair play is required +of the military officer than of his brother in civil life, and why the +aim would be far too low if the fighting services did not shoot for +higher standards of personnel direction than are common in the +management of American business. Here are the points: + + If any subordinate in the civilian vineyard feels that he is + getting a bad deal from his boss, and has become the object of + unfair discrimination, it is his royal American privilege to quit + on the spot, be he a policeman, a government factotum or a hod + carrier. He can then maintain himself by carrying his skill into a + new shop. But an enlisted member of the armed establishment cannot + quit summarily, and finally, if his commander is just wrong-headed + and arbitrary, it can be made almost impossible for him to + transfer out. However bad his fortune, he's stuck with it. + + Nepotism is so general in our business and political life that the + people who suffer from its effect accept it more or less as the + working of nature; the results are therefore less destructive of + efficiency than they might be otherwise. It is common to see the + boss's nephew or his son get a good spot in the office and then + rise like a rocket, even though he is a third-rater. And it is not + less common to see a straw boss in a factory favor the man whom he + thinks might grease the wheels for him on the outside. But in the + armed establishment, favoritism on any grounds, and particularly + on such treacherous grounds as these, will destroy the foundations + of work and of control. + + The armed establishment has its own body of law. Therein, too, it + differs from any civilian autonomy except the state itself. The + code is intended to enable a uniform standard of treatment to all + individuals in the regulating of all interior affairs. The code is + not rigid; its provisions are not absolute. It specifies the + general nature of offenses against society, and special offenses + against the good of the service. But, except for the more serious + offenses, particularly those which by their nature also violate + the civil code, it does not flatly prescribe trial and punishment. + Military law, in this respect, has more latitude, and is more + congenial, than civil law covering minor offenders. Rarely + arbitrary in its workings, it premises the use of corrective good + judgment at all times. It regards force as an instrument only to + be used for conserving the general good of the establishment. The + essential power behind the force is something spiritual--the will + and conscience of the great majority, expressing itself through + the action of one or several of their number. Its major object is + not punishment of the wrong-doer but protection of the interests + of the dutiful. This view of military law is four-square with the + basic principle of all action within the armed services--_that in + all cases the best policy is one which depends for its workings on + the sense of duty in men toward each other, and thereby + strengthens that sense through its operations._ + +Put in these terms, the attitude of the service toward the problem of +correction as a means of promoting the welfare of the general +establishment obviously reposes a tremendous burst in the justice and +goodwill of the average officer. It would be useless to blink the +fact. But there is this to be said unalterably in favor of the +military system's way of handling things: If the organization of the +whole human family into an orderly unit is ever to be made possible, +it will be done only because many men, of all ages and working at many +different levels, develop this faculty for passing critical, impartial +judgment on the conduct and deserts of those whom they lead, instead +of regarding it as a special kind of wisdom, given only to the few +anointed. Nor is that all. Not only the knowledge but the sense of +duty in men is imperfect. In every society are men who will not obey +the law of their own accord. Unless the authority which receives and +interprets the law will also impose it, by force if necessary, the +reign of law soon ceases. Whether an ordered society is to exist thus +depends upon whether there are citizens enough, fixed with a sense of +duty, to obey it and to enforce it. + +At first glance, the responsibility seems extraordinarily heavy and +difficult. But with broadening experience, it becomes almost second +nature to an officer quickly to set a course by which to judge +individual men in relation to the affairs of organization, provided +that he has steered all along in the light of a few elementary +principles. + +Concerning reward, and equally with respect to punishments, no more +pertinent words could be said than those uttered long ago by Thomas +Carlyle: "What a reflection it is that we cannot bestow on an unworthy +man any particle of our benevolence, our patronage or whatever +resource is ours--without withdrawing it, and all that will grow out +of it, from one worthy, to whom it of right belongs! We cannot, I say; +impossible; it is the eternal law of things." + +He said a number of important things in this one brief paragraph. +There is first the thought that when any reward, such as a promotion, +a commendation or a particularly choice assignment is given other than +to the man who deserves it on sheer merit, some other man is robbed +and the ties of organization are weakened. + +Next, there is this proposition: if, in the dispensing of punishment, +undue leniency is extended to an individual who has already proved +that he merits no special consideration, in the next round a bum rap +will be given some lesser offender who is morally deserving of a real +chance. The Italians have an epigram: "The first time a dog bites a +man, it's the dog's fault; the second time, it's the man's fault." + +According to Carlyle, these things have the strength of a natural law. +Nor is it necessary to take his word for it. Any wise and experienced +military administrator will say approximately the same thing and will +tell of some of the bad examples he has met along his way.... The +commander who was afraid to punish anybody and by his indecision +punished everybody.... The lieutenant who had such a bad conscience +about his own weak handling of a bad case of indiscipline that he +threw the book at the next offender and thereby spoiled a good man and +gained the ill will of the company.... The old timer who smarted under +excessive punishment for a trivial offense, broke under it, got into +worse trouble, and became a felon.... The officer who promoted his +pets instead of his good men and at last found that there were no good +men left.... The skipper who condoned a small case of insolence until +it swelled into a mutiny.... The fool who handled every case alike, as +if he were an animal trainer instead of a builder of human character +... and so on, ad infinitum. It is a long and sorry list, but the +overwhelming majority of dutiful executives in the armed services +avoid these stupid blunders by following a Golden Rule policy toward +their men. + +If lack of obedience is the most frequent cause of service men being +brought on the carpet, then as obedience is a moral quality, so should +punishment be employed as a moral act, its prime purpose being to +nourish and foster obedience. Before meting punishment, it is +necessary to judge a man, and judgment means to think over, to +compare, to weigh probable effects on the man and on the command, and +to give the offender the benefit of any reasonable doubt. Before any +punishment is given, the questions must be faced: "What good will it +achieve?" If the answer is none, then punishment is not in order. +Punishment of a vindictive nature is a crime; when it is given +uselessly, or handed out in a strictly routine manner, it is an +immoral act. + +But when punishment has to be awarded, the case must be handled +promptly, and its issue must be stated incisively, so that there is no +room for doubt that the officer is certain about his judgments. Men +know when they are in the wrong, and even when it works to their +disadvantage, they will feel increased respect toward the officer who +knows what should be done, and states it without hemming and hawing. +The showing of firmness is the first requirement in this kind of +action. It is as foolish to go back on a punishment as to threaten it +and not follow through. The officer who is always running around +threatening to court martial his subordinates is merely avowing his +own weakness, and crying that he has lost all of his moral means. Even +the dullest men do not mistake vehemence and abuse for signs of +strength. + +To punish a body of men, for offenses committed by two or three of +their number, even though the offense is obnoxious and it is +impossible to put the finger on the culprits, is the act of a sadist, +and is no more excusable within military organization than in civilian +society. Any officer who resorts to this stupid practice will forfeit +the loyalty of the best men in his command. There is no reason why it +should be otherwise. + +As a general rule, it is a serious error to reprimand a subordinate in +the presence of any other person, because of the unnecessary hurt to +his pride. But circumstances moderate the rule. If the offense for +which he is being reprimanded involves injury of any sort to some +other person, or persons, it may be wholly proper to apply the +treatment in their presence. For example, the bully or the smart-aleck +who wantonly humiliates his own subordinates is not entitled to have +his own feelings spared. However, in the presence of his own superior, +an officer is always ill-advised to administer oral punishment to one +of his own juniors, since the effect is to destroy confidence both up +and down the line. + +It is always the duty of an officer to intervene, toward the +protection of his own men against any manifest injustice, whatever its +source. In fact, this trust is so implicit that he should be ready to +risk his professional reputation upon it, when he is convinced beyond +doubt that the man is being unfairly assailed, or that due process is +not being followed. Both higher authority and civil authority +occasionally overreach; an officer stands as a shield protecting his +men against unfair treatment from any quarter. _But it is decidedly +not his duty to attempt to cheat law or thwart justice for the sake of +his men simply because they are his men._ His job, as Shakespeare puts +it, is "to unmask falsehood and bring truth to light, to wrong the +wronger till he render right." + +Finally, the best policy on punishments is to eliminate the frictions +which are the cause of most transgressions. When a ship is happy, men +do their duty. Scarcely anything will cross them up more quickly than +to see rewards given with an uneven hand. Even the stinker who has no +ambition but to duck work can recognize a deserving man, and will burn +if that man is bypassed in favor of a bootlicker or some other +lightweight. + +Nothing is more vain than to give a promotion, or any reward, in the +hope, or on the promise, that the character who receives it will hit +the sawdust trail and suddenly reform. + +Duty is the only sure proving ground. Men, like motors, should be +judged on their all-around performance. There is no other way to +generate the steady pull over the long grind. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN + +FITTING MEN TO JOBS + + +In civilian society, what amounts to a cult has developed around the +idea that the average person has a natural bent for some particular +job or profession, which if thwarted will fill him with those +frustrations which are conceded to be the cause of most of the mental +and moral disorders of mankind. + +Therefore if all men could become rightly placed, we would have Utopia +tomorrow. + +This theory of what humanity mainly cries for is perforce rejected by +the military establishment, for several eminently practical as well as +ideal reasons. + +It discounts man, his plastic and impressionable nature, his response +to all that goes on around him and his marked ability to adjust to any +environment. He is not like a bolt fitted into a hole by a riveter, +nor merely clay in the hands of the potter. What he becomes is mainly +of his own making. + +Further, the theory does not meet the needs of the situation, since in +the services, as elsewhere, there are not enough better holes to go +around, and no man is ready to say that he is good for nothing but +life as a file-closer. + +But the last and main reason why the theory is no good is that it +doesn't square with human experience. A narrow classification system +invites the danger of overspecialization and lessens the team play +which is so indispensable to all military enterprise. It is possible +for the machine to break down totally from lack of interchangeability +in its parts. + +We learn much from war, but some of the most obvious lessons are +disregarded. One of the things that it should teach us is the +tremendous adaptability of the average intelligent man, his ability to +take hold of work altogether remote from any prior experience, master +it, and find satisfaction in it, provided he is given help and +encouragement by those who already know. + +This is the great phenomenon of war--greater than the atomic bomb or +supersonic flight. Former bookkeepers emerge as demolitions men. +Divinity students become pharmacist's mates. School teachers operate +tanks. Writing men turn into navigators. Woodsmen become lecturers. +Longshoremen specialize in tactics. And all goes well. + +Then when it is all over, and everyone gets back in his well-worn +groove, the social scientists explain that these miracles occurred +because under the stimulus of great fear and excitement which attends +a period of national emergency, individuals will sublimate their main +drives, and adjust temporarily to what would be otherwise an onerous +personal difficulty. Sheer poppycock! Normal men do not feel pressed +by fear simply because a state of war exists; their chief emotions +change scarcely at all. These transformations occur only because the +man had the potential all along, and with someone backing him up _and +giving him the feeling of success_, his incentives became equal, at +least, to anything he had known in his peacetime occupation. + +That is the long-and-short of it. If our average man couldn't become a +jack of many trades, and a master of several, the United States would +never be able to meet a major war emergency. + +For these reasons, service concepts of how men should be fitted to +jobs do not develop around the simple notion that it is all a matter +of putting a square peg in a square hole--which is the one best way to +deny the peg any room for expansion. The doctrine is that _men are +many sided, that they learn their own powers and likes through +experiment, that they are entitled to find what is best for them, and +that having found it, their satisfactions will still derive mainly +from intelligent and interested treatment by their superiors_. + +Every officer arrives sooner or later at the point where he has a +direct hand in the placement of men. By way of preparation for that +responsibility he should do two things mainly--learn all that he can +from his superiors about its technical aspects, and in his own +thinking, concentrate on principles to the exclusion of detail. + +The fundamental purpose of all training today is to develop the +natural faculties and stimulate the brain of the individual rather +than to treat him as a cog which has to be fitted into a great +machine. + +The true purpose of _all_ rules covering the conduct of warfare and +all regulations pertaining to the conduct of its individuals is to +bring about order in the fighting machine rather than to strangle the +mind of the man who reads them. + +Thus in the assignment of men to work within any military +organization, no amount of perfection in the analysis of skills and +aptitudes can compensate for carelessness in their subsequent +administration. The uniformed ranks are not mechanics, storekeepers +and clerks primarily, but fighting men. This makes a difference. The +optimum over-all results do not come from the care exercised in seeing +that every man is placed at exactly the right job but from the concern +taken that in whatever job he fills, he will feel that he is supported +and that his efforts are appreciated. There is scarcely a good man who +has served long within the profession without filling a half-dozen +roles requiring vastly different skills. And looking back, what would +the average one say about it? Not that he was happiest where the +nature of the task best suited his hand, but happiest where his +relations with his superiors gave him the greatest sense of +accomplishment. + +That is the human nature of the equation. We can let the economist +argue that what a man puts into a job is largely dependent on what he +takes out of it. And we can let the philosopher answer him that the +fault in his proposition is that he has turned it the wrong way +'round. Regardless of which man has put the cart before the horse, +there are two basic truths which outweigh the merits of the argument. + +First. _All human progress has come of the willingness of a man at a +particular time to undertake a job which no one had ever done before._ + +Second. _The main reward of any job is the knowledge that worthwhile +work has been accomplished._ + +This last may sound like a corny maxim, but it's true. The reason +maxims become corny is because they're true. + +Despite all of the present-day emphasis on paycheck security as the +mainspring of human action, the far stronger force which moves man as +a social being is his desire for a secure place in the respect and +affections of his associates, including his chief or his employer. +Gary Cooper, playing in "The Cowboy and the Lady," used the line, "I +aims, ma'm, to be high-regarded." Except for the few wrong-headed +people, he was speaking for the whole human family. + +The man who can get along without wanting or needing words of approval +from other people is fit for a cell by himself, either padded or +barred. + +Loyalty in the masses of men waxes strong in the degree that they are +made to believe that real importance is attached to their work and to +their ability to think about their work. It weakens at every point +where they consider that there is a negative respect for their +intelligence; the dignity in any work is not inherent in the job +itself but in the attitude of others toward it. Cabinet ministers, +college presidents and industrial magnates will quit their jobs when +they feel they no longer have the confidence of those to whom they are +responsible. That experience is as demoralizing to great men as to the +mine-run. Equally, the feeling of compensation which comes with any +token of recognition is one of those touches of human nature which +make all men akin. If men of genius and good works did not find Nobel +prizes and honorary college degrees highly gratifying, this custom +would have faded long ago. It is as rewarding to them to be called +good at their job as it was to the New Jersey street sweeper who +pushed his broom so diligently that he swept halfway into the next +town before discovering his mistake. + +The far inferences of these things should be reasonably clear to every +officer of the fighting establishment. It makes little difference +whether a man is digging a ditch or is working up a loading table for +an invasion: what he thinks about his work will depend in large +measure upon the attitude of his superiors. He will develop no great +conviction about what he is doing except as it is transmitted to him. +_The fundamental cause of any breakdown of morale and discipline +within the armed service usually comes of this, that a commander or +his subordinates transgress by treating men as if they were children +or serfs instead of showing respect for their adulthood._ + +The requirements of modern war are such that we certainly do not want +to turn out one man exactly like another, or turn the majority into +mechanical men, capable of one set function. But the rule applies to +officers as well as men. The greater freedom which is needed has +nothing to do with social behavior or privilege. It is the freedom to +think boldly and originally for the common good, for, to quote Kant +again: "What one learns the most fixedly and remembers the best is +what one learns more or less by oneself." + +Thus in the matter of sizing up men, judging of their capacities and +trying to get them rightly placed, the need is not a formula, since no +formula will work. It is only by keeping principles uppermost in our +thoughts that the greatest measure of common sense will prevail in our +actions. That is what is needed, rather than clairvoyant powers, or a +master's degree in psychology, if the service officer is to handle +personnel efficiently. There are no great wizards in this field: there +are only men who know more about the human nature of the problem than +others because they have had a zest for meeting humanity and have +built a text out of what others have told them. + +The job begins by the search for data on the individual--all of the +data that may be obtained. It goes on from that to sitting down with +the subject, getting him to open up and talk freely about himself, +what he has done, what he would like to do with his life, and his +reasons for so feeling, et cetera. But the information from all +sources has to be balanced against one's impression of the outer man, +not just what he says but how he talks, the degree of his +attentiveness, his bearing, his eye, his self-control. The decision is +made on the basis of all these reckonings. This is common sense in +action, and the only alternatives to it are to act upon a hunch or +purely emotional grounds; one might, with better reason, determine +another man's fortune by the flip of a coin. + +Let's see briefly how the method works out in practice. + +If the record shows that a man is a bad speller, careless about +punctuation, not interested in writing, non-experienced at clerkship, +and something of a rough diamond in his nature, he would be a bad bet +for the administrative side, or in supply work, or in a communications +role, though with a little polishing, and provided that he seems +self-assured and is what we would call a "likeable" man, he might +become a capital leader of a tactical group. + +On the other hand, the man who says he had tried in vain to develop a +manual skill, but has always been clumsy with his hands, and is +supported in what he says by the records of his service, isn't +necessarily excluded from becoming a good weapons or demolitions man, +if he seems strong in body and nerve, though he would hardly do for a +mechanic's berth, or a carpenter's assistant or as a radio repairman. +Weapons and demolitions require strength, carefulness and good sense +rather than great dexterity. + +Take the man who is uncommunicative, or morose or unusually shy. From +the day that he starts his service, his superiors should do their best +to help him to change his ways; these ingrown men are roadblocks to +group cooperation. But if he does not pick up and become outgiving, he +hasn't the quality of a junior leader and there is no point in wasting +space by sending him to any school or course out of which it would be +expected that duties as an instructor would devolve upon him. + +However, there is one word of extreme caution on this point. For as +long as 6 months after entering service, some men are under abnormal +constraint because they are in a new element, and feel a little +frightened inside. Whether this is the case is to be judged best by +getting full information on the man. If the record shows that he had +led his class in college, managed an athletic team, headed a debating +team in high school, been the main wheel in a boy's club or a Scout +troop, or led any kind of group, this is to be taken as a sign that +the potential is there and that he is a sleeper. The most common error +made in the services is that we are prone to underscore that a man was +a lieutenant in a cadet company while taking no note of the file who +had greater prestige in other activities because of his natural +qualities as a leader. + +These are only a few average samples of personnel handling, and of +elementary reasoning. As Mother Goose might say, if the list had been +longer, the case still wouldn't have been stronger. Far more +profitably, we can dig a little deeper into the subject of principles. + +In two senses, every decision as to the placing of men in the armed +service is a moral decision, and therein it differs from average +civilian responsibility. What is best for the man has always to be +measured against the ultimate security and fighting objects of the +establishment. + +For example, it is dead wrong, even in time of peace, to commit +tactical leadership to the hands of the man whose moral force clearly +falls short of what is required on the field of war, no matter how +congenial he may be. And it is just as wrong to let a blabbermouth +work his way into security channels, even though the hour is such that +he can do no immediate harm. + +What importance should be attached to a man's estimate of his own +capabilities? It is always pertinent, but it is by no means decisive. +This is so for two reasons, the first being that the majority of men +tend to over-sell themselves on the thing they like to do, and the +second, that very few men know their own dimensions. Almost +consciously, men resist the thing that they do not know, because of +premonitory fears of failure. When the Armored Force School was first +organized in 1941, a private from a unit stationed in Georgia was +arbitrarily assigned to take the radio course. He protested, saying +that he did not like anything about the field and therefore had no +talent for it. But his commander sent him along. Within 1 week after +arriving at Fort Knox, he was operating at a faster rate than any man +in the history of the Army. Every service could tell stories of this +kind; they are not miracles; they are regular features of the daily +show. + +At the same time, the man who volunteers for a particular line of +duty--especially if it is a hard duty--already has one mark in his +favor. The fact that he wants to do it is one-half of success. Before +turning him down, there must be a substantially clear showing that he +lacks the main qualifications. It must be a _compelling_ reason, +rather than the overweening excuse that it is more convenient to keep +him where he is. In any case, he should be thanked for coming forward, +and earmarked as a good prospect for the next likely opening. + +There is a slack saying in the services that "the good man never +volunteers." That is an outright canard. The best men still do. + +In job placement, mistakes are inevitable. Any authority in this work +will say so. Every experienced man who has had conspicuous success in +picking the right men, and in getting scores of individuals started up +the right ladder, will also shudder a little as he recalls his +particularly atrocious blunders. Outward appearances are so greatly +deceiving! The prior estimates placed on men are so frequently highly +colored or outright dishonest! + +As to the making of mistakes, it is just not enough to comment that +they have value, provided one has sufficient breadth to learn from +hard experience. What is vastly more important is that the mistake, +once made, will not be needlessly compounded. That is a normal, human +temptation. The attitude, "I don't care if he is a chump; he's my +chump," has nothing in its favor. Yet it becomes a point of pride in +some men that they will not admit their judgments are fallible. +Consequently, having chosen the wrong man for a given responsibility, +they will sustain him there, come hell or high water, rather than make +public acknowledgement of error. + +With what result? Mainly this, that for the sake of the point, they +win, with it, the contempt of their other subordinates. For there is +something very childish about this form of weakness, though it is a +failing not unknown in many men otherwise qualified for high +responsibility. To put it plainly, _no man_ has the moral right to +suffer this upon any organization he is professing to serve. + +The advice of one's subordinates, as to the placement and promotion of +men with whom they are in close contact, is not to be followed +undeviatingly. Men play favorites: they will sometimes back an +individual for no better reason than that they "like the guy." Too, +each small group leader, even the best one, will work to advance the +interests of his own men, because so doing is part of his own buildup. +Unless decisions are made from a central point of view, the +subordinate who talks the most convincingly will get an extra portion +of favor for his men, and jealousies will wrack the organization. + +There is one last point. No officer can progress in fitting men to +jobs except as he becomes better informed about job requirements. This +is an essential part of his education. There is no administrative +technique which is separate and apart from knowledge of how basic work +is performed in the fields which have to be administered. A great many +officers resist this truth, but it is nonetheless valid. + +What is eternally surprising in the fighting services is how the +aggressive questing for knowledge continues to pay large dividends, +and leads, in the average case, to a general forgiveness of one's +little sins and vices. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT + +AMERICANS IN COMBAT + + +The command and control of men in combat _can_ be mastered by the +junior leaders of American forces short of actual experience under +enemy fire. + +It is altogether possible for a young officer his first time in battle +to be in total possession of his faculties and moving by instinct to +do the right thing, provided that he has made the most of his training +opportunities. + +Exercise in the maneuvering of men is only an elementary introduction +to this educational process. The basic requirement is a continuing +study, first of the nature of men, second of the techniques which +produce unified action, and last, of the history of past operations, +which are covered by an abundant literature. + +Provided always that this collateral study is sedulously carried +forward by the individual officer, at least 90 percent of all that is +given him during the training period becomes applicable to his +personal action and his power to lead other men when under fire. + +Each service has its separate character. The fighting problem of each +differs in some measure from those of all others. In the nature of +things, the task of successfully leading men in battle is partly +conditioned by the unique character and mission of each service. + +It would therefore be gratuitous, and indeed impossible, to attempt to +outline a doctrine which would be of general application, stipulating +methods, techniques, etc., which would apply to all Americans in +combat, no matter in what element they engaged. + +There are, however, a few simple and fundamental propositions to which +the Armed Services subscribe in saying to the officer corps what may +be expected of the average man of the United States under the +conditions of battle. Generally speaking, they have held true of +Americans in times past from Lexington to Okinawa. The fighting +establishment builds its discipline, training, code of conduct and +public policy around these ideas, believing that what served yesterday +will also be the one best way tomorrow, and for so long as our +traditions and our system of freedoms survive. These propositions are: + +I + +When led with courage and intelligence, an American will fight as +willingly and as efficiently as any fighter in world history. + +II + +His keenness and endurance in war will be in proportion to the zeal +and inspiration of his leadership. + +III + +He is resourceful and imaginative, and the best results will always +flow from encouraging him to use his brain along with his spirit. + +IV + +Under combat conditions he will reserve his greatest loyalty for the +officer who is most resourceful in the tactical employment of his +forces and most careful to avoid unnecessary losses. + +V + +He is to a certain extent machine-bound because the nature of our +civilization has made him so. In an emergency, he tends to look around +for a motor car, a radio or some other gadget that will facilitate his +purpose, instead of thinking about using his muscle power toward the +given end. In combat, this is a weakness which thwarts contact and +limits communications. Therefore it needs to be anticipated and +guarded against. + +VI + +War does not require that the American be brutalized or bullied in any +measure whatever. His need is an alert mind and a toughened body. Hate +and bloodlust are not the attributes of a sound training under the +American system. To develop clearly a line of duty is sufficient to +point Americans toward the doing of it. + +VII + +Except on a Hollywood lot, there is no such thing as an American +fighter "type." Our best men come in all colors, shapes, and sizes. +They appear from every section of the Nation, including the +territories. + +VIII + +Presupposing soundness in their officer leadership, the majority of +Americans in any group or unit can be depended upon to fight loyally +and obediently, and will give a good account of themselves. + +IX + +In battle, Americans do not tend to fluctuate between emotional +extremes, in complete dejection one day and in exultation the next, +according to changes in the situation. They continue, on the whole, on +a fairly even keel, when the going is tough and when things are +breaking their way. Even when heavily shocked by battle losses, they +tend to bound back quickly. Though their griping is incessant, their +natural outlook is on the optimistic side, and they react unfavorably +to the officer who looks eternally on the dark side. + +X + +During battle, American officers are not expected either to drive +their men or to be forever in the van, as if praying to be shot. So +long as they are with their men, taking the same chances as their men, +and showing a firm grasp of the situation and of the line of action +which should be followed, the men will go forward. + +XI + +In any situation of extreme pressure, or moral exhaustion, where men +cannot otherwise be rallied and led forward, officers are expected to +do the actual physical act of leading, such as performing as first +scout, or point, even though this means taking over what normally +would be an enlisted man's function. + +XII + +The normal, gregarious American is not at his best when playing a +lone-handed or tactically isolated part in battle. He is not a +kamikaze or a one-man torpedo. Consequently, the best tactical +results obtain from those dispositions and methods which link the +power of one man to that of another. Men who feel strange with their +unit, having been carelessly received by it, and indifferently +handled, will rarely, if ever, fight strongly and courageously. But if +treated with common decency and respect, they will perform like men. + +XIII + +Within our school of military thought, higher authority does not +consider itself infallible. Either in combat or out, in any situation +where a majority of militarily-trained Americans become undutiful, +that is sufficient reason for higher authority to resurvey its own +judgments, disciplines and line of action. + +XIV + +To lie to American troops to cover up a blunder in combat rarely +serves any valid purpose. They have a good sense of combat and an +uncanny instinct for ferreting out the truth when anything goes wrong +tactically. They will excuse mistakes but they will not forgive being +treated like children. + +XV + +When spit-and-polish are laid on so heavily that they become onerous, +and the ranks cannot see any legitimate connection between the +requirements and the development of an attitude which will serve a +clear fighting purpose, it is to be questioned that the exactions +serve any good object whatever. + +XVI + +On the other hand, because standards of discipline and courtesy are +designed for the express purpose of furthering control under the +extraordinary frictions and pressures of the battlefield, their +maintenance under combat conditions is as necessary as during +training. Smartness and respect are the marks of military alertness, +no matter how trying the circumstances. But courtesy starts at the +top, in the dealing of any officer with his subordinates, and in his +decent regard for their loyalty, intelligence, and manhood. + +XVII + +Though Americans enjoy relatively a bountiful, and even luxurious +standard of living in their home environment, they do not have to be +pampered, spoon-fed and surfeited with every comfort and convenience +to keep them steadfast and devoted, once war comes. They are by nature +rugged men, and in the field will respond most perfectly when called +on to play a rugged part. Soft handling will soften even the best men. +But even the weak man will develop a new vigor and confidence in the +face of necessary hardship, if moved by a leadership which is +courageously making the best of a bad situation. + +XVIII + +Extravagance and wastefulness is somewhat rooted in the American +character, because of our mode of life. When our men enter military +service, there is a strong holdover of their prodigal civilian habits. +Even under fighting conditions, they tend to be wasteful of drinking +water, food, munitionment and other vital supply. When such things are +made _too_ accessible, they tend to throw them away, rather than to +conserve them in the general interests. This is a distinct weakness +during combat, when conservation of all supply is the touchstone of +success. The regulating of all supply, and the preventing of waste in +any form, is the prime obligation of every officer. + +XIX + +Under the conditions of battle, any extra work, exercise, maneuver or +_marching which does not serve a clear and direct operational purpose_ +is unjustifiable. The supreme object is to keep men as physically +fresh and mentally alert as possible. Tired men take fright and are +half-whipped before the battle opens. Worn-out officers cannot make +clear decisions. The conservation of men's powers, not the exhaustion +thereof, is the way of successful operation. + +XX + +When forces are committed to combat, it is vital that not one +unnecessary pound be put on any man's back. Lightness of foot is the +key to speed of movement and the increase of firepower. In judging of +these things, every officer's thought should be on the optimistic +side. It is better to take the chance that men will manage to get by +on a little less than to overload them, through an over-cautious +reckoning of every possible contingency, thereby destroying their +power to do anything effectively. + +XXI + +Even a thorough training and long practice in weapons handling will +not always insure that a majority of men will use their weapons freely +and consistently when engaging the enemy. This is particularly true of +Americans. In youth they are taught that the taking of human life is +wrong. This feeling is deep-rooted in their emotions. Many of them +cannot shake it off when the hour comes that their own lives are in +danger. They fail to fire, though they do not know exactly why. In +war, firing at an enemy target can be made a habit. Once required to +make the start, because he is given personal and intelligent +direction, any man will find it easier to fire the second and third +time, and soon thereafter his response will become automatic in any +tactical situation. When engaging the enemy, the most decisive task of +all junior leaders is to make certain that _all_ men along the line +are employing their weapons, even if this means spending some time +with each man and directing his fire. Reconnaissance and inspection +toward this end, particularly in the early stages of initial +engagement, are far more important than the employment of weapons by +junior leaders themselves, since this latter tends to distract their +attention from what the men are doing. + +XXII + +Unity of action develops from fullness of information. In combat, all +ranks have to know what is being done, and why it is being done, if +confusion is to be kept to a minimum. This holds true in all types of +operation, whatever the service. However, a surfeit of information +clouds the mind and may sometimes depress the spirit. We can take one +example. A commander might be confronted by a complex situation, and +his solution may comprise a continuing operation in three distinct +phases. It would be advisable that all hands be told the complete +detail of "phase A." But it might be equally sensible that only his +subordinates who are closest to him be made fully informed about +"phase B," and "phase C." All plans in combat are subject to +modification as circumstances dictate; this being the case, it is +better not to muddle men by filling their minds with a seeming +conflict in ideas. More important still, if the grand object seems too +vast and formidable, even the first step toward it may appear doubly +difficult. Fullness of information does not void the other principle +that one thing at a time, carefully organized all down the line, is +the surest way. + +XXIII + +There is no excuse for malingering or cowardice during battle. It is +the task of leadership to stop it, by whatever means would seem to be +the surest cure, always making certain that in so doing it will not +make a bad matter worse. + +XXIV + +The Armed Services recognize that there are occasional individuals +whose nervous and spiritual makeup may be such that, though they erode +rapidly and may suffer complete breakdown under combat conditions, +they still may be wholly loyal and conscientious men, capable of doing +high duty elsewhere. Men are not alike. In some, however willing the +spirit, the flesh may still be weak. To punish, degrade or in any way +humiliate such men is not more cruel than ignorant. When the good +faith of any individual has been repeatedly demonstrated in his +earlier service, he deserves the benefit of the doubt from his +superior, pending study of his case by medical authority. But if the +man has been a bad actor consistently, his officer is warranted in +proceeding on the assumption that his combat failure is just one more +grave moral dereliction. To fail to take proper action against such a +man can only work unusual hardship on the majority trying to do duty. + +XXV + +The United States abides by the laws of war. Its armed forces, in +their dealing with all other peoples, are expected to comply with the +laws of war, in the spirit and to the letter. In waging war, we do not +terrorize helpless non-combatants, if it is within our power to avoid +so doing. Wanton killing, torture, cruelty or the working of unusual +and unnecessary hardship on enemy prisoners or populations is not +justified in any circumstance. Likewise, respect for the reign of law, +_as that term is understood in the United States_, is expected to +follow the flag wherever it goes. Pillaging, looting and other +excesses are as unmoral where Americans are operating under military +law as when they are living together under the civil code. None the +less, some men in the American services will loot and destroy +property, unless they are restrained by fear of punishment. War looses +violence and disorder; it inflames passions and makes it relatively +easy for the individual to get away with unlawful actions. But it does +not lessen the gravity of his offense or make it less necessary that +constituted authority put him down. The main safeguard against +lawlessness and hooliganism in any armed body is the integrity of its +officers. When men know that their commander is absolutely opposed to +such excesses, and will take forceful action to repress any breach of +discipline, they will conform. But when an officer winks at any +depradation by his men, it is no different than if he had committed +the act. + +XXVI + +On the field of sport Americans always "talk it up" to keep nerves +steady and to generate confidence. The need is even greater on the +field of war, and the same treatment will have no less effect. When +men are afraid, they go silent; silence of itself further intensifies +their fear. The resumption of speech is the beginning of thoughtful, +collected action, for self-evidently, two or more men cannot join +strength and work intelligently together until they know one another's +thoughts. _Consequently, all training is an exercise in getting men to +open up and become articulate even as it is a process in conditioning +them physically to move strongly and together._ + +XXVII + +Inspection is more important in the face of the enemy than during +training because a fouled piece may mean a lost battle, an overlooked +sick man may infect a fortress and a mislaid message can cost a war. +In virtue of his position, every junior leader is an inspector, and +the obligation to make certain that his force at all times is +inspection proof is unremitting. + +XXVIII + +In battle crisis, a majority of Americans present will respond to any +man who has the will and the brains to give them a clear, intelligent +order. They will follow the lowest-ranking man present if he obviously +knows what he is doing and is morally the master of the situation, but +they will not obey a chuckle-head if he has nothing in his favor but +his rank. + +XXIX + +In any action in which the several services are joined, any American +officer may expect the same measure of respect from the ranks of any +other service as from his own, provided he conducts himself with a +dignity and manner becoming an American officer. + +For all officers, due reflection on these points, relating to the +character of our men in war, is not more important than a continuing +study of how they may be applied to all aspects of training, toward +the end that we may further strengthen our own system. This is the +grand object in all military studies. That service is most perfect +which best holds itself, at all times and at all levels, in a state of +readiness to move against and destroy any declared enemy of the United +States. + + + + +APPENDIX ONE + +RECOMMENDED READING + + + Army Historical Division--Okinawa: The Last Battle, 1949. + Omaha Beachhead, 1946. + + H. H. Arnold--Global Mission, 1949. + + Basil Bartlett--My First War, 1941. + + William Liscum Borden--There Will Be No Time, 1946. + + David L. Brainard--The Outpost of the Lost, 1929. + + Bernard Brodie--A Guide to Navy Strategy, 1944. + The Absolute Weapon, 1946. + + Vannevar Bush--Modern Arms and Free Men, 1949. + + Winston S. Churchill--The World Crisis, 1931. + The Unknown War, 1931. + The River War, 1933. + Marlborough: His Life and Times, 1933-35. + A Roving Commission, 1939. + The Second World War, 1948--. + + Hugh M. Cole--The Lorraine Campaign, 1950. + + W. F. Craven and J. L. Cate--The Army Air Forces in World War II, + 1948--. + + Edward S. Creasy--Decisive Battles of the World, 1862. + + James P. S. Devereux--The Story of Wake Island, 1947. + + Giulio Douhet--Command of the Air, 1927. + + Clifford Dowdey--Experiment in Rebellion, 1946. + + Theodore Draper--The Six Weeks' War, 1944. + + Dwight D. Eisenhower--Crusade in Europe, 1948. + Report by the Supreme Commander, 1946. + + George Fielding Eliot--The Ramparts We Watch, 1938. + If Russia Strikes, 1949. + + Charles W. Elliott--Winfield Scott, 1937. + + Cyril Falls--The Nature of Modern Warfare, 1941. + + Ferdinand Foch--The Principles of Warfare, 1913. + + J. F. C. Fuller--Decisive Battles, 1940. + The Generalship of Ulysses S. Grant, 1929. + Armament and History, 1946. + The Second World War, 1948. + Armored Warfare, 1943. + + Douglas F. Freeman--R. E. Lee, 1934. + + William A. Ganoe--History of the United States Army, 1942. + + James M. Gavin--Airborne Warfare, 1947. + + Joseph I. Greene--The Living Thoughts of Clausewitz, 1943. + + Russell Grenfell--The Bismarck Episode, 1949. + + U. S. Grant--Personal Memoirs, 1885. + + Augustin Guillaume--Soviet Arms and Soviet Power, 1949. + + Francis de Guingand--Operation Victory, 1947. + + W. F. Halsey--Admiral Halsey's Story, 1947. + + Gordon A. Harrison--The Cross-Channel Attack, 1950. + + B. H. Liddell Hart--Sherman, 1934. + The Future of Infantry, 1934. + The German Generals Talk, 1949. + + G. F. R. Henderson--Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War, + 1898. + The Science of War, 1905. + + Pendleton Herring--The Impact of War, 1941. + + R. D. Heinl, Jr.--The Defense of Wake, 1947. + Marines at Midway, 1948. + + John Hersey--Into the Valley, 1943. + + Russell Hill--Desert War, 1942. + + Max von Hoffmann--The War of Lost Opportunities, 1925. + + Ralph Ingersoll--The Battle Is the Pay-Off, 1943. + + Douglas Wilson Johnson--Topography and Strategy in the War, 1917. + + Melvin M. Johnson and Charles T. Haven--Automatic Arms, 1941. + + Walter Karig, Russell L. Harris and Frank A. Manson--Battle Report, + 1944-1949. + + George C. Kenney--General Kenney Reports, 1949. + + Roger Keyes--Naval Memoirs, 1933. + + Alexiei Kuropatkin--The Russian Army and the Japanese War, 1909. + + Lee J. Levert--Fundamentals of Naval Warfare, 1947. + + Bert Levy--Guerilla Warfare, 1942. + + Charles B. MacDonald--Company Commander, 1947. + + A. T. Mahan--Influence of Seapower Upon History. + + George McMillan--The Old Breed, 1949. + + George C. Marshall--General Marshall's Report, 1946. + + S. L. A. Marshall--Island Victory, 1944. + Bastogne: The First Eight Days, 1946. + Men Against Fire, 1948. + + Giffard Martel--An Outspoken Soldier, 1944. + + Walter Millis--The Last Phase, 1946. + This Is Pearl, 1947. + + John Miller, Jr.--Guadalcanal: The First Offensive, 1949. + + Drew Middleton--Our Share of Night, 1946. + + Samuel Taylor Moore--America and the World War, 1937. + + Samuel Eliot Morison--History of United States Naval Operations in + World War II (14 vols.), 1947--. + + W. F. P. Napier--History of the War in the Peninsula (6 vols.) 1828. + + James R. Newman--The Tools of War, 1942. + + Frederick Palmer--America in France, 1921. + John J. Pershing, 1921. + + George S. Patton, Jr.--War As I Knew It, 1947. + + Thomas R. Phillips--Roots of Strategy, 1940. + + Frederick Pile--Ack-Ack, 1949. + + Fletcher Pratt--Ordeal by Fire, 1935. + Road to Empire, 1939. + The Marine's War, 1948. + Navy: A History. + + Leonard Rapport and Arthur Northwood--Rendezvous With Destiny, 1948. + + Roland Ruppenthal--Utah Beach to Cherbourg, 1947. + + W. T. Sherman--Memoirs, 1886. + + Robert E. Sherwood--Roosevelt and Hopkins, 1948. + + Milton Shulman--Defeat in the West, 1948. + + Holland M. Smith--Coral and Brass, 1949. + + E. L. Spears--Liaison 1914, 1930. + Prelude to Victory, 1939. + + Joseph W. Stilwell--The Stilwell Papers, 1948. + + Alfred Vagts--The History of Militarism, 1937. + + Yorck von Wartenburg--Napoleon as a General. + + Archibald Wavell--Allenby, 1941. + Generals and Generalship, 1941. + + John W. Wheeler Bennett--The Forgotten Peace, 1939. + Munich: Prologue to Tragedy, 1948. + + Kenneth P. Williams--Lincoln Finds a General, 1949. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARMED FORCES OFFICER*** + + +******* This file should be named 25482.txt or 25482.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/5/4/8/25482 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: +https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + |